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diff --git a/old/7bdsm10.txt b/old/7bdsm10.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..5730b77 --- /dev/null +++ b/old/7bdsm10.txt @@ -0,0 +1,3479 @@ +Project Gutenberg's Buddhism and Buddhists in China, by Lewis Hodus + +Copyright laws are changing all over the world. Be sure to check the +copyright laws for your country before downloading or redistributing +this or any other Project Gutenberg eBook. + +This header should be the first thing seen when viewing this Project +Gutenberg file. Please do not remove it. Do not change or edit the +header without written permission. + +Please read the "legal small print," and other information about the +eBook and Project Gutenberg at the bottom of this file. Included is +important information about your specific rights and restrictions in +how the file may be used. You can also find out about how to make a +donation to Project Gutenberg, and how to get involved. + + +**Welcome To The World of Free Plain Vanilla Electronic Texts** + +**eBooks Readable By Both Humans and By Computers, Since 1971** + +*****These eBooks Were Prepared By Thousands of Volunteers!***** + + +Title: Buddhism and Buddhists in China + +Author: Lewis Hodus + +Release Date: June, 2005 [EBook #8390] +[Yes, we are more than one year ahead of schedule] +[This file was first posted on July 6, 2003] + +Edition: 10 + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK BUDDHISM AND BUDDHISTS IN CHINA *** + + + + +Produced by Lee Dawei, V-M Osterman +and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team + + + + +BUDDHISM AND BUDDHISTS IN CHINA + +BY + +LEWIS HODOUS, D.D. + + + + +[Illustration: EX LIBRIS: +CHARLES FRANKLIN THWING +Western Reserve University +Library + +From the Library of +Charles Franklin Thwing +Acquired in 1938] + + + + +PREFACE + +This volume is the third to be published of a series on "The World's +Living Religions," projected in 1920 by the Board of Missionary +Preparation of the Foreign Missions Conference of North America. The +series seeks to introduce Western readers to the real religious life of +each great national area of the non-Christian world. + +Buddhism is a religion which must be viewed from many angles. Its +original form, as preached by Gautama in India and developed in the +early years succeeding, and as embodied in the sacred literature of +early Buddhism, is not representative of the actual Buddhism of any land +today. The faithful student of Buddhist literature would be as far +removed from understanding the working activities of a busy center of +Buddhism in Burmah, Tibet or China today as a student of patristic +literature would be from appreciating the Christian life of London or +New York City. + +Moreover Buddhism, like Christianity, has been affected by national +conditions. It has developed at least three markedly different types, +requiring, therefore, as many distinct volumes of this series for its +fair interpretation and presentation. The volume on the Buddhism of +Southern Asia by Professor Kenneth J. Saunders was published in May, +1923; this volume on the Buddhism of China by Professor Hodous will be +the second to appear; a third on the Buddhism of Japan, to be written by +Dr. R. C. Armstrong, will be published in 1924. Each of these is needed +in order that the would be student of Buddhism as practiced in those +countries should be given a true, impressive and friendly picture of +what he will meet. + +A missionary no less than a professional student of Buddhism needs to +approach that religion with a real appreciation of what it aims to do +for its people and does do. No one can come into contact with the best +that Buddhism offers without being impressed by its serenity, assurance +and power. + +Professor Hodous has written this volume on Buddhism in China out of the +ripe experience and continuing studies of sixteen years of missionary +service in Foochow, the chief city of Fukien Province, China, one of the +important centers of Buddhism. His local studies were supplemented by +the results of broader research and study in northern China. No other +available writer on the subject has gone so far as he in reproducing the +actual thinking of a trained Buddhist mind in regard to the fundamentals +of religion. At the same time he has taken pains to exhibit and to +interpret the religious life of the peasant as affected by Buddhism. He +has sought to be absolutely fair to Buddhism, but still to express his +own conviction that the best that is in Buddhism is given far more +adequate expression in Christianity. + +The purpose of each volume in this series is impressionistic rather than +definitely educational. They are not textbooks for the formal study of +Buddhism, but introductions to its study. They aim to kindle interest +and to direct the activity of the awakened student along sound lines. +For further study each volume amply provides through directions and +literature in the appendices. It seeks to help the student to +discriminate, to think in terms of a devotee of Buddhism when he +compares that religion with Christianity. It assumes, however, that +Christianity is the broader and deeper revelation of God and the world +of today. + +Buddhism in China undoubtedly includes among its adherents many +high-minded, devout, and earnest souls who live an idealistic life. +Christianity ought to make a strong appeal to such minds, taking from +them none of the joy or assurance or devotion which they possess, but +promoting a deeper, better balanced interpretation of the active world, +a nobler conception of God, a stronger sense of sinfulness and need, and +a truer idea of the full meaning of incarnation and revelation. + +It is our hope that this fresh contribution to the understanding of +Buddhism as it is today may be found helpful to readers everywhere. + +The Editors. + +_New York city, +December, 1923._ + +The Committee of Reference and Counsel of the Foreign Missions +Conference of North America has authorized the publication of this +series. The author of each volume is alone responsible for the opinions +expressed, unless otherwise stated. + + + + +CONTENTS + + +CHAPTER + +I. INTRODUCTORY + +II. THE ENTRANCE OF BUDDHISM INTO CHINA + +III. THE ESTABLISHMENT OF BUDDHISM AS THE PREDOMINATING RELIGION OF CHINA + 1. The World of Invisible Spirits + 2. The Universal Sense of Ancestor Control + 3. Degenerate Taoism + 4. The Organizing Value of Confucianism + 5. Buddhism an Inclusive Religion + +IV. BUDDHISM AND THE PEASANT + 1. The Monastery of Kushan + 2. Monasteries Control Feng-shui + 3. Prayer for Rain + (a) The altar + (b) The prayer service + (c) Its Meaning + 4. Monasteries are Supported because They + Control Feng-shui + +V. BUDDHISM AND THE FAMILY + 1. Kuan Yin, the Giver of Children and Protector of Women + 2. Kuan Yin, the Model of Local Mother-Goddesses + 3. Exhortations on Family Virtues + 4. Services for the Dead + +VI. BUDDHISM AND SOCIAL LIFE + 1. How the Laity is Trained in Buddhist Ideas + 2. Effect of Ideals of Mercy and Universal Love + 3. Relation to Confucian Ideal + 4. The Embodiment of Buddhist Ideals in the Vegetarian Sects + 5. Pilgrimages + +VII. BUDDHISM AND THE FUTURE LIFE + 1. The Buddhist Purgatory + 2. Its Social Value + 3. The Buddhist Heaven + 4. The Harmonization of These Ideas with Ancestor Worship + +VIII. THE SPIRITUAL VALUES EMPHASIZED BY BUDDHISM IN CHINA + 1. The Threefold Classification of Men under Buddhism + 2. Salvation for the Common Man + 3. The Place of Faith + 4. Salvation of the Second Class + 5. Salvation for the Highest Class + 6. Heaven and Purgatory + 7. Sin + 8. Nirvana + 9. The Philosophical Background + 10. What Buddhism Has to Give + +IX. PRESENT-DAY BUDDHISM + 1. Periods of Buddhist History + 2. The Progress of the Last Twenty-five Years + 3. Present Activities + (a) The reconstruction of monasteries + (b) Accessions + (c) Publications + (d) Lectures + (e) Buddhist societies + (f) Signs of social ambition + 4. The Attitude of Tibetan Lamas + 5. The Buddhist World Versus the Christian World + +X. THE CHRISTIAN APPROACH TO BUDDHISTS + 1. Questions which Buddhists Ask + 2. Knowledge and Sympathy + 3. Emphasis on the AEsthetic in Christianity + 4. Emphasis on the Mystical in Christianity + 5. Emphasis on the Social Elements in Christianity + 6. Emphasis on the Person of Jesus Christ + (a) As a Historical Character + (b) As the Revealer + (c) As the Saviour + (d) As the Eternal Son of God + 7. How Christianity Expresses Itself in Buddhist Minds + 8. Christianity's Constructive Values + +APPENDIX ONE, Hints for the Preliminary Study of Buddhism in China + +APPENDIX TWO, A Brief Bibliography + + + + +BUDDHISM AND BUDDHISTS IN CHINA + + + + +I + + +INTRODUCTORY + +A well known missionary of Peking, China, was invited one day by a +Buddhist acquaintance to attend the ceremony of initiation for a class +of one hundred and eighty priests and some twenty laity who had been +undergoing preparatory instruction at the stately and important Buddhist +monastery. The beautiful courts of the temple were filled by a throng of +invited guests and spectators, waiting to watch the impressive +procession of candidates, acolytes, attendants and high officials, all +in their appropriate vestments. No outsider was privileged to witness +the solemn taking by each candidate for the priesthood of the vow to +"keep the Ten Laws," followed by the indelible branding of his scalp, +truly a "baptism of fire." Less private was the initiation of the lay +brethren and _sisters,_ more lightly branded on the right wrist, +while all about intoned "Na Mah Pen Shih Shih Chia Mou Ni Fo." (I put my +trust in my original Teacher, Saekyamuni, Buddha.) + +The missionary was deeply impressed by the serenity and devotion of the +worshipers and by the dignity and solemnity of the service. The last +candidate to rise and receive the baptism of branding was a young +married woman of refined appearance, attended by an elderly lady, +evidently her mother, who watched with an expression of mingled +devotion, insight and pride her daughter's initiation and welcomed her +at the end of the process with radiant face, as a daughter, now, in a +spiritual as well as a physical sense. At that moment an attendant, +noting the keen interest of the missionary, said to him rather +flippantly, "Would you not like to have your arm branded, too?" "I +might," he replied, "just out of curiosity, but I could not receive the +branding as a believer in the Buddha. I am a Christian believer. To be +branded without inward faith would be an insult to your religion as well +as treachery to my own, would it not? Is not real religion a matter of +the heart?" + +The old lady, who had overheard with evident disapproval the remark of +the attendant, turned to the missionary at once and said, "Is that the +way you Westerners, you Christians, speak of your faith? Is the reality +of religion for you also an inward experience of the heart?" And with +that began an interesting interchange of conversation, each party +discovering that in the heart of the other was a genuine longing for God +that overwhelmed all the artificial, material distinctions and the human +devices through which men have limited to particular and exclusive paths +their way of search, and drew these two pilgrims on the way toward God +into a common and very real fellowship of the spirit. + +A Buddhist monk was passing by a mission building in another city' of +China when his attention was suddenly drawn to the Svastika and other +Buddhist symbols which the architect had skilfully used in decorating +the building. His face brightened as he said to his companion: "I did +not know that Christians had any appreciation of beauty in their +religion." + +These incidents reveal aspects of the alchemy of the soul by which the +real devotee of one religion perceives values which are dear to him in +another religion. The good which he has attained in his old religion +enables him to appropriate the better in the new religion. A converted +monk, explaining his acceptance of Christianity, said: "I found in Jesus +Christ the great Bodhisattva, my Saviour, who brings to fruition the +aspirations awakened in me by Buddhism." + +Just as it has been said that they do not know England who know England +only, so it may be said with equal truth that they do not know +Christianity who know it and no other faith. There are many in China +like the old lady at the temple, who have found in Buddhism something of +that spiritual satisfaction and stimulus which true Christianity +affords, in fuller measure. The recognition of such religious values by +the student or the missionary furnishes a sound foundation for the +building of a truer spirituality among such devotees. + +As will be seen in what follows, religion in China is at first sight a +mixed affair. From the standpoint of cruder household superstitions an +average Chinese family may be regarded as Taoists; the principles by +which its members seek to guide their lives individually and socially +may be called Confucian; their attitude of worship and their hopes for +the future make them Buddhists. The student would not be far afield when +he credits the religious aspirations of the Chinese today to Buddhism, +regarding Confucianism as furnishing the ethical system to which they +submit and Taoism as responsible for many superstitious practices. But +the Buddhism found in China differs radically from that of Southern +Asia, as will be made clear by the following sketch of its introduction +into the Flowery Kingdom and its subsequent history. + + + + +II + + +THE ENTRANCE OF BUDDHISM INTO CHINA + +Buddhism was not an indigenous religion of China. Its, founder was +Gautama of India in the sixth century B.C. Some centuries later it found +its way into China by way of central Asia. There is a tradition that as +early as 142 B.C. Chang Ch'ien, an ambassador of the Chinese emperor, Wu +Ti, visited the countries of central Asia, where he first learned about +the new religion which was making such headway and reported concerning +it to his master. A few years later the generals of Wu Ti captured a +gold image of the Buddha which the emperor set up in his palace and +worshiped, but he took no further steps. + +According to Chinese historians Buddhism was officially recognized in +China about 67 A.D. A few years before that date, the emperor, Ming-Ti, +saw in a dream a large golden image with a halo hovering above his +palace. His advisers, some of whom were no doubt already favorable to +the new religion, interpreted the image of the dream to be that of +Buddha, the great sage of India, who was inviting his adhesion. +Following their advice the emperor sent an embassy to study into +Buddhism. It brought back two Indian monks and a quantity of Buddhist +classics. These were carried on a white horse and so the monastery which +the emperor built for the monks and those who came after them was called +the White Horse Monastery. Its tablet is said to have survived to this +day. + +This dream story is worth repeating because it goes to show that +Buddhism was not only known at an early date, but was favored at the +court of China. In fact, the same history which relates the dream +contains the biography of an official who became an adherent of Buddhism +a few years before the dream took place. This is not at all surprising, +because an acquaintance with Buddhism was the inevitable concomitant of +the military campaigning, the many embassies and the wide-ranging trade +of those centuries. But the introduction of Buddhism into China was +especially promoted by reason of the current policy of the Chinese +government of moving conquered populations in countries west of China +into China proper, The vanquished peoples brought their own religion +along with them. At one time what is now the province of Shansi was +populated in this way by the Hsiung-nu, many of whom were Buddhists. + +The introduction and spread of Buddhism were hastened by the decline of +Confucianism and Taoism. The Han dynasty (206 B. C.-221 A. D.) +established a government founded on Confucianism. It reproduced the +classics destroyed in the previous dynasty and encouraged their study; +it established the state worship of Confucius; it based its laws and +regulations upon the ideals and principles advocated by Confucius. The +great increase of wealth and power under this dynasty led to a gradual +deterioration in the character of the rulers and officials. The sigid +Confucian regulations became burdensome to the people who ceased to +respect their leaders. Confucianism lost its hold as the complete +solution of the problems of life. At the same time Taoism had become a +veritable jumble of meaningless and superstitious rites which served to +support a horde of ignorant, selfish priests. The high religious ideals +of the earlier Taoist mystics were abandoned for a search after the +elixir of life during fruitless journeys to the isles of the Immortals +which were supposed to be in the Eastern Sea. + +At this juncture there arose in North China a sect of men called the +Purists who advocated a return from the vagaries of Taoism and the +irritating rules of Confucianism to the simple life practised by the +Taoist mystics. When these thoughtful and earnest minded men came into +contact with Buddhism they were captivated by it. It had all they were +claiming for Taoist mysticism and more. They devoted their literary +ability and religious fervor to the spreading of the new religion and +its success was in no small measure due to their efforts. As a result of +this early association the tenets of the two religions seemed so much +alike that various emperors called assemblies of Buddhists and Taoists +with the intention of effecting a union of the two religions into one. +If the emperor was under the influence of Buddhism he tried to force all +Taoists to become Buddhists. If he was favorable to Taoism he tried to +make all Buddhists become Taoists. + +But such mandates were as unsuccessful as other similar schemes have +been. In the third century A. D. after the Han dynasty had ended, China +was broken up into several small kingdoms which contended for supremacy, +so that for about four hundred years the whole country was in a state of +disunion. One of the strong dynasties of this period, the Northern Wei +(386-535 A. D.), was distinctly loyal to Buddhism. During its +continuance Buddhism prospered greatly. Although Chinese were not +permitted to become monks until 335 A. D., still Buddhism made rapid +advances and in the fourth century, when that restriction was removed, +about nine-tenths of the people of northwestern China had become +Buddhists. Since then Buddhism has been an established factor in Chinese +life. + + + + +III + + +THE ESTABLISHMENT OF BUDDHISM AS THE PREDOMINATING RELIGION OF CHINA + +Even the historical influences noted above do not account entirely for +the spread of Buddhism in China. In order to understand this and the +place which Buddhism occupies, we need to review briefly the different +forms which religion takes in China and to note how Buddhism has related +itself to them. + +_1. The World of Invisible Spirits_ + +The Chinese believe _in_ a surrounding-world of spirits, whose +origin is exceedingly various. They touch life at every point. There are +spirits which are guardians of the soil, tree spirits, mountain demons, +fire gods, the spirits of animals, of mountains, of rivers, seas and +stars, of the heavenly bodies and of many forms of active life. These +spirits to the Chinese mind, of today are a projection, a sort of +spiritual counterpart, of the many sided interests, practical or +otherwise, of the groups and communities by whom they are worshipped. +There are other spirits which mirror the ideals of the groups by which +they are worshipped. Some of them may have been incarnated in the lives +of great leaders. There are spirits which are mere animations, +occasional spirits, associated with objects crossing the interests of +men, but not constant enough to attain a definite, independent life as +spiritual beings. Thus surrounding the average Chinese peasant there is +a densely populated spirit world affecting in all kinds of ways his, +daily existence. This other world is the background which must be kept +in mind by one who would understand or attempt to guide Chinese +religious experience. It is the basis on which all organized forms of +religious activity are built. The nearest of these to his heart is the +proper regard for his ancestors. + +_2. The Universal Sense_ of _Ancestor Control_ + +The ancestral control of family life occupies so large and important a +place in Chinese thought and practice that ancestor worship has been +called the original religion of the Chinese. It is certain that the +earliest Confucian records recognize ancestor worship; but doubtless it +antedated them, growing up out of the general religious consciousness of +the people. The discussion of that origin in detail cannot be taken up +here. It may be followed in the literature noted in the appendix or in +the volume of this series entitled "Present-Day Confucianism." Ancestor +worship is active today, however, because the Chinese as a people +believe that these ancestors control in a very real way the good or evil +fortunes of their descendants, because this recognition of ancestors +furnishes a potent means of promoting family unity and social ethics, +and, most of all, because a happy future life is supposed to be +dependent upon descendants who will faithfully minister to the dead. +Since each one desires such a future he is faithful in promoting the +observance of the obligation. Consequently, ancestor worship, like the +previously mentioned belief in the invisible spiritual world, underlies +all other religious developments. No family is so obscure or poor that +it does not submit to the ritual or discipline which is supposed to +ensure the favor of the spirits belonging to the community. Likewise, +every such family is loyal to the supposed needs of its deceased +ancestors. In a very intimate way these beliefs are interwoven with the +private and social morality of every family or group in Chinese society, +and must be taken into account by any one who seeks to bring a religious +message to the Chinese people. + +_3. Degenerate Taoism_ + +Taoism is that system of Chinese religious thought and practice, +beginning about the fifth century B. C., which was originally based on +the teachings of Lao Tzu and developed in the writings of Lieh Tzu and +Chuang Tzu and found in the Tao Te Ching. It is really in this original +form a philosophy of some merit. According to its teaching the Tao is +the great impersonal background of the world from which all things +proceed as beams from the sun, and to which all beings return. In +contrast to the present, transient, changing world the Tao is +unchangeable and quiet. Originally the Taoists emphasized quiescence, a +life in accordance with nature, as a means of assimilating themselves to +the Tao, believing that in this way they would obtain length of days, +eternal life and especially the power to become superior to natural +conditions. + +There is a movement today among Chinese scholars in favor of a return to +this original highest form of Taoism. It appeals to them as a philosophy +of life; an answer to its riddles. Among the masses of the people, +however, Taoism manifests itself in a ritual of extreme superstition. It +recommends magic tricks and curious superstitions as a means of +prolonging life. It expresses itself very largely in these degrading +practices which few Chinese will defend, but which are yet very commonly +practiced. + +_4. The Organizing Value of Confucianism_ + +Confucianism brought organization into these hazy conceptions of life +and duty. It took for granted this spiritual-unspiritual background of +animism, ancestor-worship and Taoism, but reshaped and adapted it as a +whole so that it might fit into that proper organization of the state +and nation which was one of its great objectives. Just as Confucianism +related the family to the village, the village to the district, and the +district to the state, so it organized the spiritual world into a +hierarchy with Shang Ti as its head. This hierarchy was developed along +the lines of the organization mentioned above. Under Shang Ti were the +five cosmic emperors, one for each of the four quarters and one for +heaven above, under whom were the gods of the soil, the mountains, +rivers, seas, stars, the sun and moon, the ancestors and the gods of +special groups. Each of the deities in the various ranks had duties to +those above and rights with reference to those below. These duties and +rights, as they affected the individual, were not only expressed in law +but were embodied in ceremony and music, in daily religious life and +practice in such a way that each individual had reason to feel that he +was a functioning agent in this grand Confucian universe. If any one +failed to do his part, the whole universe would suffer. So thoroughly +has this idea been adopted by the Chinese people that every one joins in +forcing an individual, however reluctant or careless, to perform his +part of each ceremony as it has been ordered from high antiquity. + +The emperor alone worshipped the supreme deity, Shang Ti; the great +officers of state, according to the dignity of their office, were +related to subordinate gods and required to show them adequate respect +and reverence. Confucius and a long line of noted men following him were +semi-deified [Footnote: Confucius was by imperial decree deified in +1908.] and highly reverenced by the literati, the class from which the +officers of state were as a rule obtained, in connection with their +duties, and as an expression of their ideals. To the common people were +left the ordinary local deities, while all classes, of course, each in +its own fashion reverenced, cherished and obeyed their ancestors. It +should be remarked at this point that Confucianism of this official +character has broken down, not only under the impact of modern ideas, +but under the longing of the Chinese for a universal deity. The people +turn to Heaven and to the Pearly Emperor, the popular counterpart of +Shang Ti. + +Viewed from another angle, Confucianism is an elaborate system of +ethics. In writings which are virtually the scriptures of the Chinese +people Confucius and his successors have set forth the principles which +should govern the life of a people who recognize this spiritual universe +and system. These ethics have grown out of a long and, in some respects, +a sound experience. Much can be said in their favor. The essential +weaknesses of the Confucian system of ethics lie in its sectional and +personal loyalties and its monarchical basis. The spirit of democracy is +a deadly foe to Confucianism. Another element of weakness is its +excessive dependence upon the past. Confucius reached ultimate wisdom by +the study of the best that had been attained before his day. He looked +backward rather than forward. Consequently a modern, broadly educated +Confucianist finds himself in an anomalous position. He does not need +absolutely to reject the wisdom which Confucianism embodies, but he can +no longer accept it as a sound, reliable and indisputable scheme of +thought and action. Yet its simple ethical principles and its social +relationships are basal in the lives of the vast masses of the Chinese. + +_5. Buddhism an. Inclusive Religion._ + +Upon this, confused jumble of spiritism, superstition, loyalty to +ancestors and submission to a divine hierarchy Buddhism was +superimposed. It quickly dominated all because of its superior +excellence. The form of Buddhism which became established in China was +not, to be sure, like the Buddhism preached by Gautama and his +disciples, or like that form of Buddhism which had taken root in Burma +or Ceylon. Except in name, the Buddhism of Southern Asia and the +Buddhism which developed in China were virtually two distinct types of +religion. The Buddhism of Burma and Ceylon was of the conservative +Hinayana ("Little Vehicle" of salvation) school, while that of China was +of the progressive Mahayana ("Great Vehicle" of salvation) school. Their +differences are so marked as to be worthy of a careful statement. + +The Hinayana, which is today the type of Buddhism in Ceylon, Burma and +Siam, has always clung closely to tradition as expressed in the original +Buddhist scriptures. Its basic ideas were that life is on the whole a +time of suffering, that the cause of this sorrow is desire or ignorance, +and that there is a possible deliverance from it. This deliverance or +salvation is to be attained by following the eightfold path, namely, +right knowledge, aspiration, speech, conduct, means of livelihood, +endeavor, mindfulness and meditation. To the beatific state to be +ultimately attained Gautama gave the name Nirvana, explained by his +followers variously either as an utter extinction of personality or as a +passionless peace, a general state of well-being free from all evil +desire or clinging to life and released from the chain of +transmigration. Hinayana Buddhism appeals to the individual as affording +a way of escape from evil desire and its consequences by acquiring +knowledge, by constant discipline, and by a devotedness of the life to +religious ends through membership in the monastic order which Buddha +established. It encourages, however, a personal salvation worked out by +the individual alone. + +The Mahayana school of Buddhists accept the general ideas of the +Hinayana regarding life and salvation, but so change the spirit and +objectives as to make Buddhism into what is virtually another religion. +It does not confine salvation to the few who can retire from the world +and give themselves wholly to good works, but opens Buddhahood to all. +The "saint" of Hinayana Buddhism is the _arhat_ who is intent on +saving himself. The saint of Mahayana Buddhism is the candidate for +Buddhahood (Bodhisattva) who defers his entrance into the bliss of +deliverance in order to save others. Mahayana Buddhism is progressive. +It encourages missionary enterprise and was a secret of the remarkable +spread of Buddhism over Asia. Moreover, while the Hinayana school +recognizes no god or being to whom worship is given, the Mahayana came +to regard Gautama himself as a god and salvation as life in a heavenly +world of pure souls. Thus the Mahayana type of thinking constitutes a +bridge between Hinayana Buddhism and Christianity. In fact, a recent +writer has declared that Hinayana Buddhists are verging toward these +more spiritual conceptions. [Footnote: See Saunders, _Buddhism and +Buddhists in Southern Asia,_ pp. 10, 20.] + +After the death of Sakyamuni [Footnote: Sakyamuni is the name by which +Gautama, the Buddha, is familiarly known in China.] Buddhism broke up +into a number of sects usually said to be eighteen in number. When +Buddhism came to China some of these sects were introduced, but they +assumed new forms in their Chinese environment. Besides the sects +brought, from India the Chinese developed several strong sects of their +own. Usually they speak of ten sects although the number is far larger, +if the various subdivisions are included. + +To indicate the manifold differences between these groups in Buddhism +would take us far afield and would not be profitable. It will be of +interest, however, to consider some of the chief sects. One of the sects +introduced from India is the Pure Land or the Ching T'u which holds +before the believer the "Western Paradise" gained through faith in +Amitabha. Any one, no matter what his life may have been, may enter the +Western Paradise by repeating the name of Amitabha. This sect is +widespread in China. In Japan there are two branches of it known as the +Nishi-Hongwanji and the Higashi-Hongwanji with their head monasteries in +Kyoto. They are the most progressive sects in Japan and are carrying on +missionary work in China, the Hawaiian Islands and in the United States. + +Another strong sect is the Meditative sect or the Ch'an Men (Zen in +Japan). This was introduced by Bodhidharma, or Tamo, who arrived in the +capital of China in the year 520 A.D. On his arrival the emperor Wu Ti +tried to impress the sage with his greatness saying: "We have built +temples, multiplied the Scriptures, encouraged many to join the Order: +is not there much merit in all this?" "None," was the blunt reply. "But +what say the holy books? Do they not promise rewards for such deeds?" +"There is nothing holy." "But you, yourself, are you not one of the holy +ones?" "I don't know." "Who are you?" "I don't know." Thus introduced, +the great man proceeded to open his missionary-labors by sitting down +opposite a wall arid gazing at it for the next nine years. From this he +has been called the "wall-gazer." He and his successors promulgated the +doctrine that neither the scriptures, the ritual nor the organization, +in fact nothing outward had any value in the attainment of +enlightenment. They held that the heart of the universe is Buddha and +that apart from the heart or the thought all is unreal. They thought +themselves back into the universal Buddha and then found the Buddha +heart in all nature. Thus they awakened the spirit which permeated +nature, art and literature and made the whole world kin with the spirit +of the Buddha. + + + "The golden light upon the sunkist peaks, + The water murmuring in the pebbly creeks, + Are Buddha. In the stillness, hark, he speaks!" + + +[Footnote: K. J. Saunders in _Epochs of Buddhist History._] + +Such pantheism and quietism often lead to a confusion in moral +relations, but these mystics were quite correct in their morals because +they checked up their mysticism with the moral system of the Buddha. + +Still another important sect originated in the sixth century A. D. on +Chinese soil, namely, the T'ien T'ai (Japanese Tendai), so called +because it started in a monastery situated on the beautiful T'ien T'ai +mountains south of Ningpo. Chih K'ai, the founder, realized that +Buddhism contained a great mass of contradictory teachings and practice, +all attributed to the Buddha. He sought for a harmonizing principle and +found it in the arbitrary theory that these teachings were given to +different people on five different occasions and hence the +discrepancies. The practical message of this sect has been that all +beings have the Buddha heart and that the Buddha loves all beings, so +that all beings may attain salvation, which consists in the full +realization of the Buddha heart latent in them. + +There was a time when these sects were very active and flourishing in +China. At the present time the various tendencies for which they stood +have been adopted by Buddhism as a whole and the various sectaries, +though still keeping the name of the sect, live peacefully in the same +monastery. All the monasteries practice meditation, believe in the +paradise of Amitabha, and are enjoying the ironic calm advocated by the +T'ien T'ai. While the struggle among the sects of China has been +followed by a calm which resembles stagnation, those in Japan are very +active and the reader is referred to the volume of this series on +Japanese Buddhism for further treatment of the subject. + +When Buddhism entered China it brought with it a new world. It was new +_practical_ and new spiritually. It brought a knowledge unknown +before regarding the heavenly bodies, regarding nature and regarding +medicine, and a practice vastly above the realm of magical arts. In +addition to these practical benefits, Buddhism proclaimed a new +spiritual universe far more real and extensive than any of which the +Chinese had dreamed, and peopled with spiritual beings having +characteristics entirely novel. In comparison with this new universe or +series of universes which Indian imagination had created, the Chinese +universe was wooden and geometric. Since it was an organized system and +a greater rather than a different one, the Chinese people readily +accepted it and made it their own. + +Buddhism not only enlarged the universe and gave the individual a range +of opportunity hitherto unsuspected, but it introduced a scheme of +religious practice, or rather several of them, enabling the individual +devotee to attain a place in this spiritual universe through his own +efforts. These "ways" of salvation were quite in harmony with Chinese +ideas. They resembled what had already been a part of the national +practice and so were readily adopted and adapted by the Chinese. + +Buddhism rendered a great service to the Chinese through its new +estimate of the individual. Ancient China scarcely recognized the +individual. He was merged in the family and the clan. Taoists, to be +sure, talked of "immortals" and Confucianism exhibited its typical +personality, or "princely man," but these were thought of as supermen, +as ideals. The classics of China had very little to say about the common +people. The great common crowd was submerged. Buddhism, on the other +hand, gave every individual a distinct place in the great wheel +_dharma,_ the law, and made it possible for him to reach the very +highest goal of salvation. This introduced a genuinely new element into +the social and family life of the Chinese people. + +Buddhism was so markedly superior to any one of the four other methods +of expressing the religious life, that it quickly won practical +recognition as the real religion of China. Confucianism may be called +the doctrine of the learned classes. It formulates their principles of +life, but it is in no strict sense a popular religion. It is rather a +state ritual, or a scheme of personal and social ethics. Taoism +recognizes the immediate influence of the spirit world, but it ministers +only to local ideals and needs. In the usages of family and community +life, ancestor worship has a definite place, but an occasional one. +Buddhism was able to leave untouched each of these expressions of +Chinese personal and social life, and yet it went far beyond them in +ministering to religious development. Its ideas of being, of moral +responsibility and of religious relationships furnished a new psychology +which with all its imperfections far surpassed that of the Chinese. +Buddhism's organization was so satisfying and adaptable that not only +was it taken over readily by the Chinese, but it has also persisted in +China without marked changes since its introduction. Most of all it +stressed personal salvation and promised an escape from the impersonal +world of distress and hunger which surrounds the average Chinese into a +heaven ruled by Amitabha [Footnote: Amitabha, meaning "infinite light," +is the Sanskrit name of one of the Buddhas moat highly revered in China. +The usual Chinese equivalent is Omi-To-Fo.] the Merciful. The +obligations of Buddhism are very definite and universally recognized. It +enforces high standards of living, but has added significance because it +draws each devotee into a sort of fellowship with the divine, and mates +not this life alone, but this life plus a future life, the end of human +activity. Buddhism, therefore, really expresses the deepest religious +life of the people of China. + +It will be worth while to note some illustrations of the conviction of +the Chinese people that there are three religions to which they owe +allegiance and yet that these are essentially one. They often say, "The +three teachings are the whole teaching." An old scholar is reported to +have remarked, "The three roads are different, but they lead to the same +source." A common story reports that Confucius was asked in the other +world about drinking wine, which Buddhists forbid but Taoists permit. +Confucius replied: "If I do not drink I become a Buddha. If I drink I +become an Immortal. Well, if there is wine, I shall drink; if there is +none, I shall abstain." This expresses characteristically the Chinese +habit of adaptation. Such a decision sounds quite up to date. + +The Ethical Culture Society of Peking, recently organized, has upon its +walls pictures of Buddha, Lao Tzu, Confucius and Christ. Its members +claim to worship Shang Ti as the god of all religions. An offshoot of +this society, the T'ung Shan She, associates the three founders very +closely with Christ. It claims to have a deeper revelation of Christ +than the Christians themselves. A new organization, the Tao Yuan, plans +to harmonize the three old religions with Mohammedanism and +Christianity. + +Buddhism has consistently and continually striven to bring about a unity +of religion in China by interpenetrating Confucianism and Taoism. Quite +early the Buddhists invented the story that the Bodhisattva Ju T'ung was +really Confucius incarnate. There was at one time a Buddhist temple to +Confucius in the province of Shantung. The Buddhists also gave out the +story that Bodhisattva Kas'yapa was the incarnation of Lao Tzu, the +founder of Taoism. An artist painted Lao Tzu transformed into a Buddha, +seated in a lotus bud with a halo about his head. In front of the Buddha +was Confucius doing reverence. A Chinese scholar, asked for his opinion +about the picture, said: "Buddha should be seated; Lao Tzu should be +standing at the side looking askance at Buddha; and Confucius should be +grovelling on the floor." + +A monument dating from 543 A. D., illustrates this tendency of Buddhism +to represent its own superiority in Chinese religious life. At the top +of the monument is Brahma, lower down is Sakyamuni with his disciples, +Ananda and Kas'yapa on one face, and on the other Sakyamuni again, +conversing with Buddha Prabhutaratna and worshipped by monks and +Bodhisattvas. On the pedestal are Confucian and Taoist deities, ten in +number. Thus Buddhism sought to rank itself clearly above the other two +religions. From the early days Buddhism regarded itself as their +superior and began the processes of interpenetration and absorption. In +consequence the values originally inherent in Buddhism have come to be +regarded as the natural possession of the Chinese. It does express their +religious life, especially in South China, where outward manifestations +of religion are perhaps more marked than in the north. + + + + +IV + + +BUDDHISM AND THE PEASANT + +In order that, one may realize the place that Buddhism holds in the +religious life of the Chinese people as a whole, he must turn to the +organizations through which it functions. It is sometimes difficult to +estimate the place of Buddhism in China, because it so interpenetrates +the whole cultural and social life of the people. It becomes their +"way." To see how it touches the life of the average man or woman in +various ways will, therefore, be illuminating. The most outstanding +evidence of devotion are the many monasteries which dot the land in all +Buddhist countries. China is less dominated by them than other lands, +yet they form a very important reason for the persistence and strength +of Buddhism there. One of the famous old shrines will represent them as +a class and give evidence of their importance. + +_1. The Monastery of Kushan_ + +Kushan Monastery, located about four hours' ride by sedan-chair from +Foochow, is a famous shrine of South China. It occupies a large +amphitheater about fifteen hundred feet above the plain, part way up +Kushan, the "Drum Mountain," some three thousand feet high. From the top +of the mountain on clear days with the help of a glass the blue shores +of Formosa may be seen on the eastern horizon. The spacious monastery +buildings are surrounded by a grove of noble trees, in which squirrels, +pheasants, chipmunks and snakes enjoy an undisturbed life. + +The ascent to the monastery begins on the bank of the Min River. At the +foot of the mountain in a large temple the traveler may obtain mountain +chairs carried by two or more coolies. The road, paved with granite +slabs cut from the mountain side, consists of a series of stone stairs, +which zig-zag up the mountain under the shadow of ancient pine trees. +Every turn brings to view a bit of landscape carpeted with rice, or a +distant view where mountains and sky meet. A brook rushes by the side of +the road. Here it breaks into a beautiful waterfall. There it gurgles' +in a deep ravine. The sides of the road are covered with large granite +blocks which, loosened from the mountain side by earthquakes, have +disposed themselves promiscuously. Their blackened, weather-beaten sides +are incised with Chinese characters. One of them bears the words: "We +put our trust in Amitabha." Another immortalizes the sentiments of some +great official who has made the pilgrimage to the mountain. Near the +monastery stand the sombre dagobas where repose the ashes of former +abbots and monastery officials. Not far away on the other side of the +road, hidden by trees, is the crematory where the last remains of the +brethren are consumed by the flames. + +As one approaches the monastery he hears the regular sounds of a bell +tolled by a water-wheel, reminding the faithful of Buddha's law. He sees +monks strolling leisurely about and lay brethren carrying wood, +cultivating the gardens, or tending the animals released by pious +devotees to heap up merit for themselves in the next world. Just inside +the main gate is a large fish pond, where goldfish of great size +struggle with one another, and with the lazy turtles, for the round hard +cakes purchased from the monks by the merit-seeking devotee. + +The monastery itself consists of a large group of buildings erected +about stone-paved courts, rising in terraces on the mountain side. The +large court at the entrance leads to the "Hall of the Four Kings." As +one enters the spacious door, he _is_ faced by a jolly, almost +naked image of the "Laughing Buddha." This is Maitreya, the Mea siah of +the Buddhists, who will return to the world five thousand years after +the departure of Sakyamuni. In the northern monasteries Maitreya is +often represented as reaching a height when standing of seventy feet or +more, which indicates the stature to which man will attain when he +returns to earth. On each side of the visitor are two immense images of +the Deva kings. In Brahman cosmogony they were the guardians of the +world. In this entrance hall of the Buddhist monastery they stand as +guardians of the Buddhist faith. In the same hall looking toward the +open court beyond is Wei To, another guardian deity of Buddhism. +Somewhere near by is Kuan Ti, the god worshipped by the soldiers and +merchants. Although a Confucian god, he was early adopted by Buddhist +monks into their pantheon and made the guardian of their Order. + +Beyond this entrance hall is a large stone-paved court. On the right +side is a bell-tower whose bell is tolled by a monk who has kept the vow +of silence for fourteen years. On the left is a drum-tower. On the right +one finds a series of small shrines. A passage way leads to the library +where numerous Buddhist writings repose in lacquered cases, some of them +written in their own blood by devout monks. On the same side are guest +halls, the dining room for three hundred monks, and the spacious, well +equipped kitchen with running water piped from a reservoir in the hills +above. A store where books, images and the simple requirements of the +monks can be obtained is just above the dining room. On the left side of +the court are large buildings used as dormitories far the monks, +storerooms, and for housing the great printing establishment with its +thousands of wooden blocks on which are carved passages from the +Buddhist scriptures. Here also are kept the coffins in which the monks +are to be burned. + +On a terrace above the north side of the court rises the main hall, +called the "Hall of the Triratna," the Buddhist Trinity, where three +gilded images are seated on a lotus flower with halos covering their +backs and heads. The center image is that of Sakyamuni, the Buddha. On +his right is Yao Shih, the Buddha of medicine, and on the left, +Amitabha. Quite often these images are said to represent the Buddha, the +Law and the Community of Monks. On the altar are candlesticks and a fine +incense burner from which curls of smoke arise. An immense lamp hangs +from the ceiling. In the rear are banners with praises to Buddha given +by pious devotees. The floor is tiled and covered with round mats made +of palm fiber on which the monks kneel during worship. Before the mats +are low stands for books. On each side of this main hall are the images +of nine Buddhist saints (_arhats_), eighteen in all. Behind this +large temple opens another court and on a terrace above it stands the +hall of the Law with the images of Kuan Yin, the goddess of Mercy, and +the twenty-four devas. Here also are small images of viceroys and +patrons of the monastery. + +The hillsides are dotted with numerous temples and shrines. There is one +to Chu-Hsi, the great philosopher of the Sung dynasty, who was born in +Fukien. In it are preserved a few characters indited by his hand. On the +west side of the monastery are large buildings for the housing of +animals released by merit-seeking devotees. Here cows, hogs, goats, +chickens, geese and ducks spend their old age without fear of beginning +their transmigration by forming the main portion of a Chinese feast. + +The monastery is governed by an abbot, usually a man of good business +ability, elected by the monks. Under him are the officers of the two +wings or groups of attendants. One set looks after the spiritual +interests, of the monks; the-other takes care of their material needs: +The monks have worship about two o'clock in the morning and again at +about four in the afternoon. The rest of the long day they spend in +meditation, or study, in strolling about the mountain side or in sleep. +Their life is separated from all stirring contact with the life of the +world. + +_2. Monasteries Control Feng-shui_ + +This monastery with its appointments is a good type of the monasteries +all over China. It was founded at the request of the inhabitants of the +neighborhood, because the dragons of the region used to cause much +damage to the crops in the surrounding country. A holy monk came, +founded the monastery, and by his good influence so curbed the dragons +that the country-side has enjoyed peace ever since and the monastery has +prospered. Since the fourth century of our era records show that by the +building of monasteries in strategic place's holy monks brought rains +and prosperity to various regions, or prevented floods and calamities +from damaging the villages. In other words the monasteries are regarded +as the controllers of _feng-shui_ (wind and water). According to +the Chinese philosophy winds and water are spiritual forces and may be +so controlled by other spiritual forces that instead of bringing harm +they will confer benefit upon the people. Floods and dry seasons are so +frequent in China that any institution holding out the promise of +regulating them would become firmly established in the affection of the +people. The monasteries have taken this place. + +One of the picturesque features of a Chinese landscape is the pagoda. +These structures were introduced in the early stages of Buddhism to +enshrine the relics of Buddha. It was said that Buddha's body consisted +of eighty thousand parts, hence numerous pagodas were erected to shelter +these relics. Inasmuch as a pagoda contained the relics of Buddha, it +possessed magic power and so came to play a great part in the control of +the winds and the rains. The pagoda in China has an odd number of +stories varying from three to thirteen. The odd numbers belong to the +positive principle in nature which is superior to the negative +principle. The pagoda plays quite a part in the festivals of the people. +On certain occasions the stories are hung with lanterns and the pagodas +are visited by numerous throngs. + +_3. Prayer for Rain_ + +Prayers for rain afford such a common illustration of the relation of +Buddhism to the life of the peasant that a detailed presentation of such +a service may be of seal value. + +During a prolonged drought in some district of China, when the heat +opens gaping cracks in the fields and the grain is drying up, the +populace may visit their highest official and apprise him of the dire +situation. He often forbids the slaughter of all animals for three days +and, in case rain has not thereby come, he goes in person or sends a +deputy to the nearest monastery to direct the monks to pray for rain. + +_(a) The Altar._--On such an occasion the great hall of the Law may +be used for the ceremony. Quite often a special altar is erected in an +enclosure near the monastery on a platform one foot high and twenty-five +feet on each side, overspread by a tent of green cloth. In the center +seats are arranged for the presiding monk and his assistants. On each of +the four sides of the altar is placed an image of the Dragon King who is +supposed to control the rain. If an image is not obtainable a piece of +paper inscribed with the name of the dragon may be used. Flowers, fruits +and incense are spread before the images. On the doors of the tent are +painted dragons with clouds. The tent and altar are green and the monks +wear green garments, because green belongs to the spring and suggests +rain. For this ceremony the monks prepare themselves by abstinence and +cleansing. The presiding monk is one of high moral character and +religious fervor. While some monks recite appropriate sutras, two others +look after the offerings, the incense, and the sprinkling of water +during the ceremony to suggest the coming of rain. The services continue +day and night, being conducted by groups of monks in succession. + +_(b) The Prayer Service._--The ceremonial is opened by a chant as +follows: + +"Pearly dew of the jade heavens, golden waves of Buddha's ocean, scatter +the lotus flowers on a thousand thousand worlds of suffering, that the +heart of mercy may wash away great calamity, that a drop may become a +flood, that a drop may purify mountains and rivers. + +"We put our trust in the Bodhisattvas and Mahasattvas that purify the +earth." + +The chant ended, a monk takes a bowl of water and repeats thrice: "We +put our trust in the great merciful Kuan Yin Bodhisattva." Then follows +the chant: + +"The Bodhisattva's sweet dew of the willow is able to make one drop +spread over the ten directions. It washes away the rank odors and dirt. +It keeps the altars clean and pure. The mysterious words of the doctrine +will be reverently repeated." + +This chant ended, the monks intone incantations of Kuan Yin, quite +unintelligible even to them, but of magical value. While these are being +uttered, the presiding monk and his attendants walk around the altar, +while one of them with a branch sprinkles water on the floor. This +symbolizes the cleansing of the altar and of the monks from all +impurities which might render the ritual ineffective. When the +perambulating monks have returned to their place, while the sprinkler +continues his duties, the monks repeat the words: "We put our trust in +the sweet dew kings, Bodhisattvas and Mahasattvas." + +The Bodhisattvas have now come to the purified altar and while the abbot +offers incense to them, the monks repeat the words: + +"The fields are destroyed so that they resemble the back of a tortoise. +The demons of drought produce calamity. The dark people [Footnote: A +term denoting the Chinese.] pray earnestly while crops are being +destroyed. We pray that abundant, limpid liquid may descend to purify +and refresh the whole world. The clouds of incense rise." + +This plaint is repeated thrice and is followed by an invocation: + +"Wholeheartedly we cast ourselves to the earth, O Triratna, who dost +exist eternally in the realm of _dharma_ of the ten directions." + +The leader remains quiet a long time with his eyes closed, visualizing +the Buddhas, the Bodhisattvas, the dragon kings, and the saints, all +with their heavenly eyes and ears knowing that this region is afflicted +with drought, that an altar has been constructed and that all have come +to make petition. This meditation is regarded as of chief importance. It +is followed by an announcement to the effect that the sutra praying for +rain was given by the Buddha, that a drought is afflicting the land, +that the altar has been erected in accordance with the regulations and +that prayer is being made for rain. But fearing that something may have +been overlooked, the magic formula of "the king of light who turns the +wheel" is read seven times so as to remedy such oversight. + +The altar having thus been cleansed of all impurities, the rain sutra is +opened and the one hundred and eighty-eight dragon kings are urged by +name in groups of ten to take action. The formula is as follows: + +"We with our whole heart invite such and such dragon kings to come. We +desire that the heart and wisdom which knows others intuitively will +move the spirits above to obey the Buddha, to take pity on the people +below and to come to our province and send down sweet rain." + +When the dragons have all been duly invited, the monks chant suitable +magical formulas, while the leader sits in meditation visualizing these +dragon kings and their tender solicitude for the people in distress. The +monastery bell is sounded and the wooden fish is beaten, while drums and +cymbals add their effect. The whole is intended to draw the attention of +the dragon kings to the drought. Then the fifty-four Buddhas are invited +in a similar manner in groups of ten, the sixth group consisting of +four. A similar form of address is used and similar magical formulas are +recited with the noisy accompaniment. The ceremony concludes by the +expression of the hope that the three jewels (Buddha, the Law and the +Community of Monks) and the dragon kings will grant the rain. + +Upon the altar are four copies of an announcement to the dragon kings +and Buddhas. On the first day three copies are sent to them through the +flames, one to the Buddhas, one to the dragon kings and one to the +devas. One copy is read daily and then sent up at the thanksgiving +ceremony. The announcement is as follows: + +"We put our trust in the limitless, reverent ocean clouds, the dragons +of august virtue and all their host, all dragon kings and holy saints. +Their august virtue is difficult to measure. In accord with the command +of Buddha they send liquid rain. May their quiet mercy descend to the +altar; may they send down purity and freshness, spreading over the ten +directions. We put our trust in the company of dragon kings of the +clouds, the saints and the Bodhisattvas." + +The offerings are made only in the morning inasmuch as the Buddhas, +following ancient custom, are not supposed to eat after the noonday +meal. Great care is taken that the altar shall not be desecrated by any +one who eats meat or drinks wine. The magic formulas of great mercy are +uttered or the name of Kuan Yin is repeated a thousand times. The monks, +take turn in these services which continue day and night until rain +comes. + +_(c) Its Meaning._--In the religious consciousness of the people is +the idea that the drought is a punishment for sin. The altar is made +pure and acceptable and sin is removed in various symbolic ways. This +fits in with the idea that man is an intimate part of the world order. +His sin disturbs the order of nature. Heaven manifests displeasures by +sending down calamities upon men. Men should cease their wrongdoing +which disturbs the natural order and should also wash away the effects +of their sins. The services for rain with their magic formulas help to +clear away the consequences of sin and to predispose Heaven to grant its +blessings again. + +_4. Monasteries Are Supported Because They Control Feng-shui_ + +The prayers for rain are an important part of the Chinese peasant's +world order. Drought is the manifestation of Heaven's displeasure at the +infraction of Heaven's laws. It calls for self-examination and +repentance. Thus the monastery opens up the windows of the universal +order as this touches the humble tiller of the soil. + +The Buddhist monasteries not only hold services in time of drought, but +also in time of flood and at times when plagues of grasshoppers afflict +the land, or when diseases afflict human beings. Their adoption of +Chinese customs led them to have special ceremonies at the eclipse of +the sun and moon, although they knew the cause of the eclipse. Peasants +and officials support the monastery because of these services regulating +the wind and water influences and through them bringing the people into +harmonious relation with the great world of spirits. + + + + + + +BUDDHISM AND THE FAMILY + +One of the criticisms of the Chinese against Buddhism is that it is +opposed to filial piety. According to Mencius the greatest unfilial act +is to leave no progeny. In spite of this charge Buddhism has done much +for the family. It has taken over the ethics of the family, filial +piety, obedience and respect for elders, and has made them a part of its +system. Transgression of these fundamental duties is visited by dire +punishments in the next world. The faithful observance is followed not +only by the rewards of the Confucian system, but results in the greatest +rewards in the future life. + +_1. Kuan Yin, the Giver of Children and Protector of Women_ + +Buddhism has done more. Out of its atmosphere of love and mercy toward +all beings has developed Kuan Yin, the ideal of Chinese womanhood, the +goddess of Mercy, who embodies the Chinese ideal of beauty, filial piety +and compassion toward the weak and suffering. She is especially the +goddess of women, being interested in all their affairs. Her image is +found in almost every household and her temples have a place in every +part of China. + +A brief history of this deity will enable us to understand the +significance of the cult. Kuan Yin started as a male god in India, +called Avalokitesvara, who was worshipped from the third to the seventh +century of our era. He was the protector of sailors and people in +danger. In the course of time, either in China or in India, the god +became a goddess. Some think that this was due to the influence of +Christianity. In China both forms survive, though the goddess is better +known. A Buddhist once said that a Bodhisattva is neither male nor +female and appears in whatever form is convenient. + +Kuan Yin is a very popular goddess. Her experiences in Hades are +dramatically presented by traveling theatrical companies. Her deeds of +mercy are portrayed in art. Her well known story runs as follows: + +Kuan Yin was the daughter of the ruler of a prosperous kingdom located +somewhere near the island of Sumatra. Her birth was announced to the +queen by a dream. The little girl ate no meat nor milk. Her disposition +was very good. Her intelligence was most extraordinary. Once she read +anything she never forgot it. + +At the age of sixteen her father tried to betroth her to a young prince. +She refused and decided to give herself to a life of fasting and +abstinence. Angered b-v her obstinacy the father ordered her to take off +her court dress and jewels, to put on the garb of a servant and to carry +water for the garden. The garden never looked so beautiful. The daughter +also looked well and showed no signs of weariness, because the gods +assisted her in her work. + +Relenting a little the king sent an older sister to urge Kuan Yin to +accept the husband he had found for her. When she refused, he sent her +to a monastery and charged the abbess to treat her harshly, so that she +might be forced to return home. Expecting to win the king's favor, the +abbess put the most unpleasant tasks on the girl. But again the gods +assisted her and made her work light, so that her tasks were always well +done and the young woman was cheerful. + +One day the report came to the king that his daughter was associating +with a young monk discussing heterodox doctrines and that she had given +birth to a child. This news so enraged the king that he burned the +monastery, killing many monks. The princess was captured and brought +before him. Inasmuch as she was obdurate, the king ordered her to be +executed. The executioner's sword, however, broke into a thousand pieces +without doing her any injury. The king then ordered her to be strangled. +A golden image sixteen feet high appeared on the spot. The princess +laughed and cried: "Where there was no image, an image appeared. I see +the real form. When body flesh is strangled, then appear the lights of +ten thousand roads." She went to purgatory and purgatory at once changed +into paradise. Yama, in order to save his purgatory, sent her back to +the world. She appeared at Puto, an island off the coast of Chekiang +near Ningpo. Here she rescued sailors and performed many miracles for +people in distress. + +In the meantime the father, who had committed many sins, became sick. +His allotted time of life had been shortened by twenty years. Moreover, +an ulcer grew on his body for every one of the five hundred monks he had +killed when he burned the monastery. A miserable, loathsome old man, he +came to an old monk, who was really the princess in disguise, and asked +for help. The monk told him that an eye and an arm of a blood relative +made into medicine was the only cure for his trouble. The two living +daughters were willing to make such an offering, but their husbands +would not permit them to do so. The old monk urged the monarch to take +up a life of abstinence, to rebuild the monastery he had burned, and to +provide money for services to take the five hundred monks whom he had +killed through purgatory. He also said that a nun in the convent would +offer an arm and an eye. When the monarch entered the monastery, he +found hanging before the incense burner an arm and an eye. These were +boiled, mixed with medicine and rubbed on the king's body. He soon +became well. Further inquiry revealed that these members belonged to his +daughter. + +This is the story of the most popular goddess in China. She is +worshipped by her devotees on the first and fifteenth of every month, on +the nineteenth of the sixth month, when she became a Bodhisattva, and on +the nineteenth of the ninth month, when she put on the necklace. A month +after marriage every young bride is presented with an image of the +Goddess of Mercy, an incense-burner and candlesticks. + +This goddess is worshipped whenever trouble comes to man or woman. Her +names signify her willingness to listen to all prayers. She is the "one +who regards the voice," i.e., prayer; "one who hears the prayers of the +world;" "one who regards and exists by himself as sovereign;" "the +ancestor of Buddha who regards prayer;" "one who frees from fear;" +"Buddha the august king;" "the great white robed scholar;" "great +compassion and mercy." + +_2. Kuan Yin, the Model of Local Mother-Goddesses_ + +This conception is the creation of the social and religious +consciousness of the women in China. It reveals their aspirations for +mercy, compassion, filial piety and for the beauty that crowns a well +developed character. Such an ideal does not mean that these have been +realized in all the numerous homes of the Chinese, but it manifests +their sense of such an ideal to be realized in life and their ardent +longing for its realization. + +Mother-goddesses are found all over China and they have all of them been +influenced by Kuan Yin. Some of them have originated with actual women +who were deified after death. Here is the story of one of these +goddesses who presides over the censer in a small temple in Formosa. She +was born in the province of Kuangtung. At the age of seven she was +adopted by a family as the future wife of their eighteen-year-old son. +One day while crossing a river he was drowned. This was a great blow to +her. When she was fourteen years old the father of the family died. The +two women, thus left alone, wept bitterly day and night. The comfort of +relatives was of little avail. The mother was becoming emaciated with +grief. The daughter, unable to bear the strain any longer, washed +herself, burned incense before the ancestral tablet of her betrothed, +and then took this vow: + +"I am willing to remain a virgin, to apply myself to carrying water and +working at the mortar and to serve my mother-in-law. If I cherish any +other purpose and change my chastity and obedience, may Heaven slay me +and earth annihilate me." + +When the mother heard this vow she stopped her weeping. Inasmuch as they +had no uncle to look after them, they worked day and night. A relative +of her future husband gave her one of his sons as an adopted son. The +child died after a few months. This was a great grief. Then the mother +died. The daughter sold her possessions to obtain money for a proper +burial. She had only a coarse mourning cloth for her dress. After a +while she adopted a child as her son. When he grew up she found him a +wife who served her as faithfully as she had served her mother-in-law. +When she was eighty years old, she dreamed that the golden maid and jade +messenger of Kuan Yin stood beside her saying: "The court of Heaven has +ordered you to become a god (shen)." She died soon after this. She said +of herself: + +"Shang Ti took compassion upon me during my life, because with a firm +heart I kept my chastity and served my mother-in-law with complete +obedience. Therefore he gave me the office of Kuan Pin. I have performed +my duties in several places. Now I am transferred to Formosa." + +This story and many others like it mirror the moral ideals of the women +of China in the midst of their struggles for help and light and +guidance. + +_3. Exhortations on Family Virtues_ + +The Buddhists issue a large number of tracts. These are very commonly +paid for by devotees who make a vow that, if their parent becomes well, +they will pay for the printing of several hundred or thousand of these +tracts for free distribution. In these tracts are usually many stories +illustrating the rewards of filial piety. The story is told in one of +them about a Mrs. Chin whose father-in-law being ill was unable to +sleep for sixty days. His condition grew worse. Mrs. Chin knelt before +Kuan Yin's altar, cut out a piece of flesh from her arm and cooked it +with the father's food. His health at once improved and he lived to the +age of seventy-seven. Another story is told in the same tract of a woman +who cut out a piece of her liver and gave it as medicine to her +mother-in-law. + +These Buddhist tracts take up all the moral habits which make the family +and clan strong and stable and surround them by the highest sanctions. A +tract picked up in a Buddhist temple at Hangchow purports to be the +revelation of the will of Buddha. It urges sixteen virtues. The first is +filial piety. The tract says: + +"Filial piety is the chief of all virtues. Heaven and Earth honor filial +piety. There is no greater sin than to cherish unfilial thoughts. The +spirits know the beginning of such thoughts. Heaven openly rewards a +heart that is filial." + +The second one mentioned is another important family virtue, namely, +reverence: + +"The saints, sages, immortals and Buddhas are the outgrowth of +reverence. The greatest sin is to lack reverence for father and mother. +When brothers lack reverence for one another, they harm the hands and +feet. When husband and wife lack reverence, the harmony of the household +is ruined. When friends do not have reverence, they bring about +calamity." + +Then follow similar exhortations on sincerity, justice, self-restraint, +forbearance, benevolence, generosity, absence of pride, covetousness, +lying, adultery, mutual love, self-denial, hope for the consolations of +religion and for an undivided heart ruled by peace. These are virtues +quite essential to the integrity of the family. They are taught, not in +the abstract but by the exhibition of shining examples, by vivid +representations of the rewards both here and hereafter, and by pictures +of awful punishments. So by precept and example, by threat of punishment +here and hereafter and by declaration of reward in the future Buddhism +has tried to maintain the family virtues of the Confucian system and has +attempted to permeate them by the spirit of sacrifice. Still it has +always been the sacrifice of the weak for the strong, of the young for +the aged, of the low for the high, of women for men. + +_4. Services for the Dead_ + +Buddhism very early took over the relatively simple services for the +dead and developed them into an elaborate ritual which made very vivid +the spiritual universe which Buddhism introduced. In the sixth century a +service was held in behalf of the father-in-law of Emperor Ning Ti +(516-528 A. D.) for seven times every seven days. He feasted a thousand +monks every day, and caused seven persons to become monks. On the +hundredth day after the death he feasted ten thousand monks and caused +twenty-seven persons to become monks. + +Since that time services on every seventh day after the decease until +the forty-ninth day, when a grand finale ends the ceremonies, have been +very popular. + +The object of such services is to conduct the soul of the dead through +purgatory, in order that it may return to life or enter the Western +Paradise. This is done by making a pleasing offering to the guardians +and officers of purgatory, and to the gods and Bodhisattvas whose mercy +saves people. Numerous missives are consigned to the flames, informing +the rulers of the nether world about the soul of the dead; offerings of +gold and silver, of various articles of apparel, of trunks, houses, and +servants are made, all, however, made out of bamboo frames covered with +paper. Various powerful incantations are recited which force open the +gates of purgatory and let the soul out. + +The services may be crowded into one day or they may be held on every +seventh day until the forty-ninth day, i.e., seven sevens. Various +explanations are given' for these services. + +During the first week the soul of the dead arrives at the "Demon Gate +Barrier." Here money is demanded by the demons on the ground that in his +last transmigration the deceased borrowed money. Accordingly large +quantities of silver shoes [Footnote: The silver used for this purpose +is molded, in accordance with ancient usage, in the shape of shoes and +carried about in that form by merchants.] must be sent to the dead so +that he may settle all claims and avoid beating and inconvenience. +During the second week the soul arrives at a place where he is weighed. +If the evil outweighs the good, the soul is sawn asunder and ground to +powder. In the third week he comes to the "Bad Dog" village. Here good +people pass unharmed, but the evil are torn by the fierce beasts until +the blood flows. In the fourth week the soul is confronted with a large +mirror in which he sees his evil deeds and their consequences, seeing +himself degraded in the next transmigration to a beast. In the fifth +week the soul views the scenes in his own village. + +In the sixth week he reaches the bridge which spans the "Inevitable +River." This bridge is 100,000 feet high and one and three-tenths of an +inch wide. It is crossed by riding astride as on a horse. Beneath rushes +the whirl-pool filled with serpents darting their heads to and fro. At +the foot of the bridge lictors force unwilling travelers to ascend. The +good do not cross this bridge, but are led by "golden youth" to gold and +silver bridges which cross the stream on either side of this "Bridge of +Sighs." + +In the seventh week the soul is taken first to Mrs. Wang who dispenses a +drink which blots out all memories of the earthly life. Then the +individual enters the great wheel of transmigration. This is divided +into eighty-one sections from which one hundred and eight thousand small +and tortuous paths radiate out into the four continents of the world. +The soul is directed along one of these paths and is duly reborn in the +world as an animal or as a human being or passes on into the Western +Paradise. + +In imitation of this bridge a bridge is built of tables in front of the +home of the dead. At the end the tables are placed upside down and a +lantern placed on each table-leg. At night this bridge is illuminated. A +company of monks repeat their prayers and incantations, while others +mount upon the bridge to impersonate devils. The pious son with the +tablet of his deceased parent comes to take his father over the bridge. +When his way is disputed by the demons, he falls on his knees and begs +and gives them money, negotiating the passage at last with the aid of a +large quantity of silver. + +Another ceremony is the breaking through purgatory. Five supplications +duly signed are addressed to the proper authorities, four being +suspended at each of the four sides of the table and one at the center. +Tiles are then placed over the table or on the ground. After +incantations have been repeated to the accompaniment of the sounding of +the bell and the wooden fish, the supplications are burned and the tiles +are broken as a symbol of breaking through purgatory and of releasing +the soul. + +Thus Buddhism has taken over the most important function of ancestor +worship, has extended it and made it more significant to each individual +as well as to the family. + + + + +VI + + +BUDDHISM AND SOCIAL LIFE + +_1. How the Laity is Trained in Buddhist Ideas_ + +A common way of emphasizing moral ideas among the people by Buddhist +teachers is the use of tracts purporting to have a divine origin. The +following gives the substance of such a tract: + +Not long ago in the province of Shantung, there was a sharp and sudden +clap of thunder. After the frightened people had collected their wits, +they discovered a small book written in red in front of the house of a +certain Mr. Li. Mr. Li picked up the book, copied it and read it +reverently. He gave a copy to Mr. Ma, the prefect, but Mr. Ma did not +believe in the book. Thereupon Maitreya, the Messiah of the Buddhists, +spoke from the sky as follows: + + + "These are the years of the final age. The people under + heaven do not reverence Heaven and Earth, they are not + filial to father and mother, they do not respect their + superiors. They cheat the fatherless, impose upon the + widow, oppress the weak; they use large weights for + themselves and small measures for others. They injure the good. + They covet for their own profit. They cheat men of money, + use the five grains carelessly, kill the cow that draws the + plow. This volume is sent for their special benefit. If + they recite it they will avoid trouble. If they disbelieve, + the years with the cyclical character _Ping_ and _Ting_ will + have fields without men to plant them and houses without + men to live in them. In the fifth month of these years + evil serpents will infest the whole country. In the eighth + and ninth months the bodies of evil men will fill the land. + + "Those who believe this book and propagate its teachings + will not encounter the ten sorrows of the age: war, + fire, no peace day and night, separation of man and wife, + the scattering of the sons and daughters, evil men spread + over the country, dead bones unburied, clothing with no + one to wear it, rice with no one to eat it, and the difficulty + of ever seeing a peaceful year. Sakyamuni foreseeing this + final age sent down this volume in Shantung. The Goddess + of Mercy saw the sorrows of all living beings. + Maitreya commanded the two runners of T'ai Shan, the + god of the Eastern Mountain, to investigate the conduct + of men and as a first punishment to increase the price of + rice, and then besides the ten sorrows already mentioned + above, to inflict the punishments of flood, fire, wind, + thunder, tigers, snakes, sword, disease, famine and cold. + The rule of Sakyamuni which has lasted twelve thousand + years is now fulfilled, and Maitreya succeeds to his place." + + +These sorrows may be escaped by reciting this sutra whose substance we +find above. If it is repeated three times the person will escape the +calamity of fire and water. If one man passes it on to ten men and ten +men pass it on to a hundred, they will escape the calamities of sword, +disease and imprisonment, and receive blessings which cannot be +measured. He who in addition to repeating the sutra practices abstinence +will insure peace for himself. He who presents one hundred copies to +others will insure his personal peace. He who presents a thousand copies +will insure the peace of his family. He who is attacked by disease, may +escape it by taking five cash of the reign of Shun Chih (1644-1661 A. +D.), the first emperor of the Ch'ing dynasty, one mace of the seed of +cypress, one mace of the bark of mulberry, boil in one bowl of water +until only eight-tenths of the water remain, drink and he will become +well. + +In this way the five Buddhist commandments for the laity not to kill any +living creature, not to steal, not to commit adultery, not to lie, and +not to use intoxicating liquor are propagated and made real to the +common man. The method is quite efficient. Whole provinces have been put +into a panic by such prophecies. + +_2. Effect of Ideals of Mercy and Universal Love_ + +The command not to kill any living being has had considerable influence +in China. There are volumes of stories telling of the punishments which +will be visited upon those who disobey and of the rewards of those who +release living animals. Every monastery has a special place for animals +thus released by pious devotees. + +There is a popular story about a fishmonger of the T'ang dynasty who was +taken sick and during his illness dreamed that he was taken to +purgatory. His body was aflame with fire and pained him as though he +were being roasted. Flying fiery chariots with darting flames swept +around him and burned his body. Ten thousand fish strove with one +another to get a bite of his flesh. The ruler of the lower regions +accused him of killing many fish and hence his punishment. For a number +of days he was hanging between life and death. His relatives were urged +to perform some works of penance. They had his fishing implements +burned. With reverent hearts they made two images of Kuan Yin, presented +offerings and repented. The whole family performed abstinence, stopped +killing living things, printed and gave away over a hundred copies of +the Diamond Sutra, and ferried over a large number of souls through +purgatory. As a result of their efforts the sick man became well. + +The following comment was made on the above story by a scholar. If its +premises are granted, the conclusion is inevitable: + +"If the fiery chariots are seal, why does not man see them? If they are +false, how is it that man feels the pain? But where do the fiery +chariots come from? They come from the heart and head of the one who +kills fish. The fire in the heart (heart belongs to the element fire) +causes destruction. The chariot fire also causes destruction." + +This attitude of mercy has been extended to human beings. There are +numerous tracts against the drowning of little girls in those regions +where this custom is prevalent. One tells the following story: + +In the province of Kwangtung there lived a Mrs. Chang who daily burned +incense and repeated Buddha's name. One day she and her husband died. +Much to their surprise and consternation Yama (the potentate of hell) +decided that Mr. Chang must become a pig and Mrs. Chang a dog. Mrs. +Chang accordingly went to Yama and said, "During life we honored Buddha +and so why should we become animals after death?" Yama said, "What use +is it to honor Buddha? During life you drowned three girls whom I sent +into life. People with the face of a man and the heart of a beast, +should they not be punished?" The husband accordingly took on a pig's +skin and the wife a dog's. Then by a dream they revealed to their +brother Chang number two that, although they repeated Buddha's name, +they were not permitted to be reborn as men, because they had drowned +little girls. + +Perhaps the extent of this spirit, of mercy and its possibilities may be +illustrated by the reverence for the ox. While there is a great deal of +cruelty in China to animals and men, it is rarely that one sees an ox +abused. Up to the advent of the foreigner an ox was not killed for meat. +In many places in China today the slaughter of an ox would bring the +punishments of the law upon the butcher. No doubt this reverence is due +to the great Indian reverence for the cow. The law of kindness has been +extended to other animals, taking the rather spectacular form of +releasing a few decrepit animals and allowing them to spend their last +days in a monastery compound. There are many kindly things done in +China. The dead are buried, the sick are provided with medicine. Every +year numerous wadded garments are given away to poor people. Various +groups carrying on a humble ministry of helpfulness have found a real +inspiration in the ideals held before them in Buddhism, the rewards +promised and punishments threatened. + +_3. Relation to Confucian Ideals_ + +Why have not these ideals exercised a larger influence in China? The +answer is quite simple. The activities of the monks have been +strenuously opposed by the Confucian state system. The philosopher, +Chang Nan-hsiian, a contemporary of Chu-Hsi, states concisely for us the +differences betwen Confucianism and Buddhism in his comment on a passage +in the _Book of Records._ + +"Strong drink is a thing intended to be-used in offering sacrifices and +entertaining guests,--such employment of it is what Heaven has +prescribed. But men by their abuse of such drink come to lose their +virtue and destroy their persons--such employment of it is what Heaven +has annexed its terrors to. The Buddhists, hating the use of things +where Heaven sends down its terrors, put away as well the use of them +which Heaven has prescribed. + +"For instance, in the use of meats and drinks, there is such a thing as +wildly abusing and destroying the creatures of Heaven. The Buddhists, +disliking this, confine themselves to a vegetable diet, while we only +abjure wild abuse and destruction. In the use of clothes, again, there +is such a thing as wasteful extravagance. The Buddhists, disliking this, +will have no clothes but those of a dark and sad color, while we only +condemn extravagance. They, further, through dislike of criminal +connection between the sexes, would abolish the relation between husband +and wife, while we denounce only the criminal connection. + +"The Buddhists, disliking the excesses to which the evil desires of men +lead, would put away, along with them, the actions which are in +accordance with the justice of heavenly principles, while we, the +orthodox, put away the evil desires of men, whereupon what are called +heavenly principles are the more brightly seen. Suppose the case of a +stream of water. The Buddhists, through dislike of its being foul with +mud, proceed to dam it up with earth. They do not consider that when the +earth has dammed up the stream, the supply of water will be cut off. It +is not so with us, the orthodox. We seek only to cleanse away the mud +and sand, so that the pure water may be available for use. This is the +difference between the Buddhists and the Learned School." [Footnote: +_Shu King,_ Pt. V, Bk. X, p. 122.] + +This statement reveals at once the opposition of the sect of the Learned +and the influence which Buddhism exerted upon its members. + +Buddhism while enjoying occasional favor from the state was often +zealously persecuted. In 819 Han Yii issued his celebrated act of +accusation. In 845 the emperor Wu Tsung issued his decree of +secularization. At that time 4600 monasteries and 40,000 smaller +establishments were pulled down and 265,000 monks and nuns were sent +back to lay life. Their rich lands were confiscated. Under the Ming +dynasty, as well as under the Ch'ing dynasty, Buddhism enjoyed a +precarious existence. Whether Buddhism would have improved the moral +conditions of the Chinese; if it had been given a free hand, is +difficult to affirm. Still its failure is at least partly due to the +opposition of Confucian orthodoxy. + +_4. The Embodiment of Buddhist Ideals in the Vegetarian sects_ + +The state persecutions of Buddhism forced it to leave temporarily its +institutional life and trust itself to the people. These persecutions +were usually followed by a revival of piety and religion among the +people. The Buddhist teachers gathered about themselves a large number +of lay devotees who formed societies which practice religious rites in +secret. These sects have preserved the genuine Buddhist piety, not only +in times of persecution, but at times when the Buddhist organization +under imperial favor was departing from its simplicity. + +A number of these sects have continued under different names for several +centuries. For example, the Tsai Li, a society now enjoying a quiet +existence in North China, is successor to the White Lotus society. The +latter started in the fifth century. Its members sought salvation in the +Pure Land of Amitabha. In the eleventh century it enjoyed imperial +favor. During the Mongol dynasty it fought against the throne with +rebels and placed one of its leaders, Chu Yuean-chang, a monk, on the +throne, who became the founder of the Ming dynasty. The sect was soon +proscribed and its members persecuted by the government. During the +Ch'ing dynasty it took part in a rebellion and was ruthlessly +exterminated. At present it goes under the name of _Tsai Li,_ i.e., +within the Li or principles of the three religions. It is a mediator +among the three religions. + +There are thirty-one organizations of this sect in Peking and branches +throughout North China. The society forbids the use of wine and opium, +though it does not forbid the use of meat. It usually has a Buddhist +image, Kuan Yin or some other. It uses Buddhist prayers and +incantations. The outstanding doctrines held during its long history +have been the hope of salvation in the Western Heaven of Amitabha, the +early coming of Maitreya, the Buddhist Messiah, and the large use of +magic formulas and incantations. + +Another sect which embodies Buddhist ideals is the Chin Tan, the sect of +the philosopher's stone or pill of immortality. Its founder was the +writer of the Nestorian tablet and so the sect is related to +Christianity. It exalts the teaching of universal love. This is one of +several examples of a supposed contact between Buddhism and +Christianity. + +These sects of which the two above are examples are present in all parts +of China. They obey the five Buddhist commandments for laymen. The +members spend much time in fasting and prayer, and in the repetition of +Buddhist books. Their lives as a rule are simple and sincere. They are +preparing for rebirth in the land of Amitabha, or are expecting the +early coming of the Buddhist Messiah to set this world right. In the +meantime, by means of incantations, personal regimen and cooperative +action they are doing all they can to usher in a better state. + +_5. Pilgrimages_ + +Pilgrimages are very popular in China. The famous Buddhist shrines are +Wu T'ai Shan in Shansi, Puto on the coast of Chekiang, Chiu Hua Shan in +Anhwei, and Omei Shan in Szechuan. These, one on each side of China, +represent the four elements of Buddhist science, wind, water, fire and +earth. They are also the centers of the worship of the four great +Bodhisattvas, Wenshu, Kuan Yin, Titsang and Puhsien. Besides these large +centers there are many others to which pilgrims direct their footsteps. + +In the spring of the year, when the god of spring covers the earth with +a green mantle, when the sky and winds call, many start on their +pilgrimage. Many go singly and laboriously, kneeling and bowing every +few steps. Others go in happy companies, chaperoned by a pious, village +dame, who has organized the group. Some go because their turn has come. +They are members of a guild which has a fund devoted to pilgrimages by +its members. Some go for the performance of a vow made to Kuan Yin, when +the father was sick unto death and the goddess prolonged his life. To +others it is the culmination of a pious life. All go for the joy which +travel in the spring gives. + +Puto, an island off the coast of Chekiang, is the goal of many pilgrims +from all parts of China. In, the monasteries on the island are about two +thousand monks. In the pilgrim season this number is increased to ten +thousand monks and thousands of lay pilgrims. + +A group of pilgrims was going along merrily. The sun was bright, +lighting up the white caps on the deep blue sea. Spring was rioting all +about. One member was an abbot from Hangchow. A small, humble-looking +man with a few straggling long hairs where the mustache usually grows, +was a lay Buddhist from Wuchang. One was a bright young monk from +Tientsin. Last, but almost omnipresent and always bubbling over, was a +servant of the abbot from Hangchow. He was in the presence of divinity +and his whole life was heightened for the time being. "Why did you +come!" they were asked. "We came to worship the holy mother, Kuan Yin." +When they entered a shrine each purchased three sticks, of incense and +two candles and reverently placed them before the image of the goddess, +kneeling and bowing. Then they sat and partook of the tea offered by the +attendant. After paying a small gratuity, they went on to the next +shrine. + +On the way a large black snake as thick as an arm lazily crossed over +the road. They stood, reverent and awestruck, until he disappeared in +the grass, remarking that this was a good omen. When crossing a sand +dune piled up by the winds the abbot from Hangchow remarked that this +was called the flying sand, wafted there by the goddess who took pity on +some travelers who had been compelled to cross a narrow strait in order +to come to a cave. This cave, called Fan Yin Tung, is one of the rifts +made by an earthquake and washed out by wind and waves. Below it rushes +the tide; from above the sun sends down a few rays. Each pilgrim after +offering incense looks into the darkness to see whether he can behold in +the dark cavern an image of some Buddha. One sees Kuan Yin and is +acclaimed as having had a good vision. Another sees the Laughing Buddha. +All exclaim that he has been the most fortunate of all, for this Buddha +is the Messiah to come and he who beholds him will be blessed. So from +place to place they wander, chatting and seeing the sights of the +island. Thus thousands are doing in various parts of China, and in this +way strengthening the hold of Buddhism upon themselves and their +communities. + + + + +VII + + +BUDDHISM AND THE FUTURE LIFE + +Before the advent of Buddhism the Chinese had only a vague idea +regarding life after death. The Land and Water Classic mentions the Tu +Shuo mountain in the Eastern Sea, under which spirits of the dead live, +the entrance guarded by two spirits, Shen Tu and Yue Lei, who are in +general control of the demons. In some parts of China the names or +pictures, of these spirits are placed on the doors of a house to guard +it. The Taoists early developed the idea of a western paradise presided +over by the Queen of the West, located at first in the K'un Lun +mountains and later in the islands of the Eastern Sea. This heaven, +however, was limited to Taoist hermits and mystics. Buddhism made a +complete purgatory and heaven known to every one in China. + +_1. The Buddhist Purgatory_ + +This is really Buddhism's most noteworthy addition to China's religious +equipment; Buddhism lays much stress upon the experiences of a soul +immediately after death. Its punishments are well known to every +individual. The temple of the City Guardian found in every walled city +has a replica of the court in purgatory over which he presides. In the +temples of T'ai Shan there is an elaborate exhibit of the tortures +inflicted on culprits in purgatory. Every funeral service conducted by +Buddhists or Taoists is intended to conduct the soul of the dead through +purgatory and pictures vividly the progressive experiences from the +first seventh day to the seventh seventh day. On the the seventh month, +on the fifteenth day [about August] a special service is held for the +souls of the dead in purgatory. Furthermore, every community has a +general service [about October] for the souls of those who died a +violent death or who have no one to look after them. During the war many +services were thus held for those who died on the battlefields of +Europe. At such services the scenes in purgatory are vividly portrayed +by pictures and figures. The temples distribute tracts with pictures of +purgatory so that women may see them and understand. On the stage are +often acted powerful plays whose scenes are laid in Hades. This +propaganda is perhaps the most efficient of its kind. + +Purgatory is depicted as consisting of ten courts each surrounded by +small hells, where the soul undergoes punishment and cleansing. The +fifth court, which may be taken as an example of the other courts, is in +charge of Yen Lo or Yama. Yama was once in charge of the first court, +but his tender heart pitied the souls who came before him and sent them +back to earth. Because of this leniency he was placed in charge of the +fifth court. + +When a soul has passed through the first four courts and it has been +discovered that there is no good conduct to its credit, it is led to the +fifth court and examined every seven days regarding past conduct. In +order to get back to the world of men, it eagerly promises to complete +various unfinished vows, such as to repair monasteries, schools, +bridges, or roads, to clean wells, to deepen rivers, to distribute good +books, to release animals, to take care of aged parents, or to bury them +suitably. But it is plainly told that the gods know its artifices, and +that now these unfinished tasks can never be completed. The gods have +reached the unanimous opinion that no injustice is being done. +Accordingly there is no appeal, but each soul is led by attendants with +bulls' heads and horses' faces to a tower whence they may see their +native village. Its front is in the shape of a bow with a perimeter of +twenty-seven miles; its height is four hundred and ninety feet. It is +guarded by walls of sword trees. + +Good men, whose deeds of omission are balanced by the good they have +done, return to life. Only souls judged to be evil see their village +from this tower. These can see their own families moving about, and can +hear their conversation. They realize how they disobeyed the teachings +of their elders. They see that the earthly goods for which they have +struggled are of no value. Their plottings rise up with lurid reality. +They see how they planned a new marriage although already married, how +they appropriated fields, state property, and falsified accounts, +putting the blame on persons who were dead. While they observe their +village they behold their erstwhile friends touch their coffin and +inwardly rejoice. They hear themselves called selfish and insincere. But +their punishment does not stop here. They behold their children punished +by magistrates, their women afflicted with strange diseases, their +daughters ravished, their sons led astray, their property taken away, +the ancestral house burned and their business ruined. From this tower +all passes before them as a lurid dream and they are stricken in heart. + +About the fifth court are sixteen small hells where the soul is +punished. In each one are stakes buried in the ground and fierce +animals. The hands and feet of the guilty one are bound to a stake, his +body is opened with small knives, and his heart and intestines quickly +devoured. + +In each of these sixteen hells is a certain type of sinner: (1) Those +who do not reverence the gods and demons and who doubt the existence of +rewards and punishments; (2) those who hurt and kill living beings; (3) +those who break their vows to do good; (4) those who resort to heterodox +practices and vainly hope to attain eternal life; (5) those who upbraid +good men, fear the wicked and hate men because they do not die speedily; +(6) those who strive with other people and then put the blame upon them; +(7) men who force women; and women who seduce young men, and all who +have libidinous desires; (8) those who gain profit for themselves by +injuring others; (9) the stingy and those who absolutely disregard +others, whether alive or dead, giving them no help in dire need, when +they can do so without injury to themselves; (10) those who steal and +put the crime upon others; (11) those who requite favors with hate; (12) +those whose hearts are perverse and poisonous, who instigate others to +do wrong even if they may not have carried out their suggestion; (13) +those who tempt others by deceit; (14) those who involve others in their +squabbles and in gambling and then themselves win out; (15) those who +stubbornly persist in their false ideas, do not repent, and slander +others; (16) those who hate good and virtuous men. + +Besides these sixteen sorts of sinners the fifth court deals with other +types of wicked people; those who do not believe in rewards and +punishments after death, who hinder good causes, who burn incense +without a sincere heart, speak of the sins of others, who burn books +that urge men to be good and worship the Great Dipper, but persist in +eating meat; those who hate men; who repeat sutras and incantations, and +take part in religious ceremonies, but do not fast beforehand; who +slander the Buddhist and Taoist religions; who know how to read, but +refuse to read the ancient and modern exhortations regarding rewards and +punishments; who dig into graves and destroy their marks, who purposely +set fire to trees and underbrush, or are careless with fire in their own +houses; who shoot arrows at animals with the intent, to kill; who urge +and tempt the sick and weak to enter into contests of any kind with +themselves; who throw tiles and stones over neighboring walls, poison +fish in the river, fire guns, or make nets or traps for birds; who sow +salt on the ground, who do not bury dead eats and snakes very deep and +thus cause death to those who dig; who cause men to dig the frozen +ground in winter or spring (the vapors of earth chill such diggers to +death); who tear down adjoining walls and compel their neighbors to move +the kitchen stove; who appropriate public highways, lands, close wells +and stop gutters. + +Those who have committed any of the above sins are taken, to the tower +whence they can see their own village and then are consigned to the +great crying hell, Raurava, that is, the fourth of the Buddhist hot +hells. [Footnote: Buddhism distinguishes hot and cold hells. In a +country like India severe cold is a serious torture.] Thence they go to +their respective small hells. When their time has expired, they are +examined in order to see whether they have any other sins which need +punishment. + +Those who have committed any of the above sins may not only escape +punishment, but may have their punishment in the sixth court lessened, +if they fast regularly on the eighth day of the first month and take a +vow not to commit these sins. Some sins, however, cannot be arranged for +in such a way, such as the killing of living beings and hurting them; +the associating with heretics; committing fornication with women and +then poisoning them; committing adultery, violence, envy, or injuring +the good name of others; stealing, requiting favors with hatred, and +hearing exhortation but not repenting. These are major sins. + +_2. Its Social Value_ + +The social value of purgatory is quite plain from the description of the +fifth court and of the sinners who are punished therein. Purgatory is +the social mirror of China, wherein the consequences of all unsocial +acts are pictured in such a vivid way as to deter the individual from +committing them. It is effective in China, not only because of the +realistic presentation, but because the opinion of the community is +against such acts and in favor of repressing them on every occasion. + +_3. The Buddhist Heaven._ + +Buddhism brought into China not only a fully developed purgatory but +also a heaven which all may enter. The sovereign of the western heaven +is Amitabha (or in Chinese O-mi-to-fo), with whom Kuan Yin, the goddess +of Mercy, is usually associated. Amitabha is explained as meaning +"boundless age." The original meaning is "boundless light," which +suggests a Persian origin with Mannichean influences. The translations +of the Amitabha sutras were wholly made by natives of central Asia. + +Amitabha is one of the thousand Buddhas; he is regarded as the reflex of +Sakyamuni and is connected also in his earthly incarnation with a monk +called Dharmakara. This monk desired to become a Buddha. This wish he +presented to Lokes'vararaja asking him to teach him as to what a Buddha +and a Buddha country ought to be. Lokes'vararaja imparted this +knowledge. Then the monk after meditation returned having made +forty-eight vows that he would not become a Buddha, until all living +beings should attain salvation in his heaven. + +The eighteenth vow expresses his ideal: + +"O Bhagavat, if those beings who have directed their thought towards the +highest perfect knowledge in other worlds, and who, after having heard +my name, when I have obtained Bodhi (knowledge), have meditated on me +with serene thoughts; if at the moment of their death, after having +approached them surrounded by an assembly of monks, I should not stand +before them worshipped by them, that is, so that their thoughts should +not be troubled, then may I not obtain the highest perfect knowledge." + +A few extracts from the _Amitabha Vyuha Sutra_ will illustrate the +Buddhist idea of life in this Pure Land: + +"In the western region beyond one hundred thousand myriads of Buddhist +lands there is a world. Great Happiness by name. This land has a Buddha +called Amitabha. The living beings there do not suffer any pain, but +enjoy all happiness. Therefore, it is called the land of Pure Delight +... the land of Pure Delight has seven precious fountains full of water +containing the eight virtues. The bottom of these fountains is covered +with golden sand. On four sides there are steps made of gold, silver, +crystal and glass, precious stones, red pearls, and highly polished +agates. In the pools are variously colored, light emitting lotus flowers +as large as cart wheels, delicate, admirable, odorous and pure..." + +"The Buddha of this land makes heavenly music. It is covered with gold. +Morning and evening during six hours it rains the wonderful celestial +flowers (Erythrina Indica). All the inhabitants of this land on clear +mornings after dressing offer these celestial flowers to the hundred +thousand myriads of Buddhas of the regions who return to their country +at meal time. When they have eaten they go away again." + +"This country possesses every kind of wonderful varicolored birds, the +white egret, the peacock, the parrot, the s'rarika (a long legged bird), +the Kalavingka (a sweet voiced bird) ... All these birds, morning and +evening during the six hours, utter forth a beautiful harmonious sound. +Their song produces the five _indrya_ (roots of faith, energy, +memory, ecstatic meditation, wisdom), the five _bala_ (the powers +of faith, energy, memory, meditation and wisdom), the seven +_bodhyanga_ (the seven degrees of intelligence, memory, +discrimination, energy, tranquillity, ecstatic contemplation, +indifference), and the eight portions of the correct path _marga,_ +(the possession of correct views, decision and purity of thought and +will, the ability of reproducing any sound uttered in the universe, vow +of poverty, asceticism, attainment of meditative abstraction of +self-control, religious recollectedness, honesty and virtue), and such +doctrines. When all beings of this land have heard the music, they +declare their faithfulness to the Buddha, Dharma and the Sangha (the +Buddha, the Law and the community of monks)." + +As to those who enter this land it says: + +"All living beings who hear this should make a vow to be born in that +land. How can they reach the Pure Land? All very good men will gather in +that place ... He whose blessedness and virtue are great can be born +into that country. If there is a good man or woman who, on hearing of +Amitabha, takes this name and holds it in his mind one, two, three, +four, five, six, or seven days, and his whole heart is not distracted, +to that man at death Amitabha will appear. His heart will not be +disturbed. He will at once enter into life in the land of Pure Delight +of Amitabha. I see this blessing and hence utter these words. Those +living beings who hear these words should make a vow to be born in that +land." + +_4. The Harmonization of These Ideas with Ancestor Worship_ + +The extension of life beyond the grave in purgatory, or in the Pure Land +and through transmigration was readily accepted in China. Both the new +ideas and the disciplines through which to realize them were eagerly +adopted, and have held their place to this day. In other lands the +creation of a heaven and a hades has weakened the grip of ancestor +worship and ultimately displaced it. In China the opposite result has +obtained, due, no doubt, to the fact that the family system and along +with it the supreme duty of filial piety were fostered by the state and +Buddhism and its teachings were permitted only in so far as they +bolstered it up. Another reason lies in the agricultural basis of +China's civilization, reenforced by the great difficulty of +communication, which tended to make the family system dominant in China. +Today, the improvement of communication and the introduction of the +industrial system of the West with the individual emphasis of modern +education are factors which are weakening the family system and with it +ancestral worship. + + + + +VIII + + +THE SPIRITUAL VALUES EMPHASIZED BY BUDDHISM IN CHINA + +Near the House of Parliament in Peking is located a small monastery +dedicated to the goddess of Mercy, Kuan Yin. Before her image the +incense burners send forth curling clouds of smoke. The walls are +decorated with old paintings of gods and goddesses. The temple with its +courtyard has the appearance of prosperity. Its neat reception room, +with its tables, chairs and clock, shows the influence of the modern +world. + +Here a monk in the prime of life spent a few months recently lecturing +on Buddhism to members of parliament and to scholars from various parts +of China. Frequently the writer used to drop in of an afternoon to +discuss Buddhism and its outlook. Usually a simple repast concluded +these conversations, the substance of which forms the greater part of +this section. + +_1. The Threefold Classification of Men Under Buddhism_ + +"What does Buddhism do for men?" + +"There are in the world at least three classes of men. The lowest class +live among material things, they are occupied with possessions. Their +life is entangled in the crude and coarse materials which they regard as +real. A second, higher class, regard ideas as realities. They are not +entangled in the maze of things, but are confused by ideas, ascribing +reality to them. The third and highest class are those who by meditation +have freed themselves from the thraldom of ideas and can enter the +sixteen heavens." + +_2. Salvation for the Common Man_ + +"What can Buddhism do for the lowest class?" + +"For this class Buddhism has the ten prohibitions. Every man has in him +ten evils, which must be driven out. Three have to do with evil in the +body, namely, not to steal, not to kill, not to commit adultery; four +belong to the mouth, lying, exaggeration, abuse, and ambiguous talk; +three belong to the mind, covetousness, malice, and unbelief." + +"Is not this entirely negative?" + +"Yes, but it is necessary, for during the process of eliminating these +evil deeds, man acquires patience and equanimity. Buddhism does not stop +with the prohibitions. The believer must practice the ten charitable +deeds. Not only must he remove the desire to kill living beings, but he +must cultivate the desire to save all beings. Not only must he not +steal, but he must assist men with his money. Not only must he not give +himself to lasciviousness, but he must treat all men with propriety. So +each prohibition involves a positive impulse to virtue, which is quite +as essential as the refraining from evil." + +"What energizing power does Buddhism provide?" + +"First, is purgatory with its terrors. The evil man, seeing the +consequences of his acts upon himself, becomes afraid to do them and +does that which is good. Then there is transmigration with the danger of +transmigration into beasts and insects. Again, there are the rewards in +the paradise of Amitabha. Moreover, there is even the possibility not +only of saving one's self, but by accumulated merit of saving one's +parents and relatives and shortening their stay in purgatory." + +_3. The Place of Faith_ + +"Can any man enter the western paradise of Amitabha?" + +"Yes, it is open to all men. The sutra says: 'If there be any one who +commits evil deeds, and even completes the ten evil actions, the five +deadly sins and the like; that man, being himself stupid and guilty of +many crimes, deserves to fall into a miserable path of existence and +suffer endless pains during many long ages. On the eve of death he may +meet a good and learned teacher who, soothing and encouraging him in +various ways, will preach to him the excellent Law and teach him the +remembrance of Buddha, but being harassed by pains', he will have no +time to think of Buddha.'" + +"What hope has such a man?" + +"Even such a man has hope. The sutra says: 'Some good friend will say to +him: Even if thou canst not exercise the remembrance of Buddha, utter +the name of Buddha Amitabha.' Let him do so serenely with his voice +uninterrupted; let him be (continually) thinking of Buddha, until he has +completed ten times the thought, repeating 'Namah O-mi-to-fo,' I put my +trust in Buddha! On the strength of (his merit of) uttering Buddha's +name he will, during every repetition expiate the sins which involve him +in births and deaths during eighty millions of long ages. He will, while +dying, see a golden lotus-flower, like the disk of the sun, appearing +before his eyes; in a moment he will be born in the world of highest +happiness. After twelve greater ages the lotus-flower will unfold; +thereupon the Bodhisattvas, Avalokitesvaras and Mahasattva's, raising +their voices in great compassion, will preach to him in detail the real +state of all the elements of nature and the law of the expiation of +sins." + +"Does faith save such a man?" + +"Yes, not his own faith, but the faith which prompted the vow of +Amitabha. Amitabha's faith in the possibility of his salvation gives him +supreme confidence that he will attain salvation. All he needs is to +have the desire to be born in that paradise and to repeat the name of +Amitabha." + +_4. Salvation of the Second Class_ + +"How do those of the second class attain salvation?" + +"The men of the second class regard ideas as realities. They are not +entangled in the maze of things, but are confused by ideas, regarding +them as real. These men do not need images and outward sanctions, but +they need heaven and purgatory though regarding them as ideas. By +performing the ten good deeds they will obtain a quiet heart, having no +fear, and become saints and sages. Among men, saints and sages occupy a +high rank, but not so among Buddhists. By merit of good works merely +they enter the planes of sensuous desire, the six celestial worlds +located immediately above the earth." + +_5. Salvation for the Highest Class_ + +"And the third class?" + +"This class has many ranks. There are those who by the practice of +meditation (four _dkyanas_) [Footnote: Dhyana means contemplation. +In later times under the influence of the idea of transmigration heavens +were imagined which corresponded to the degrees of contemplation.] can +enter the sixteen heavens conditioned by form. By the practice of the +four _arupa-dhyanas_ [Footnote: That degree of abstract +contemplation from which all sensations are absent.] they enter the four +highest heavens free from all sensuous desires and not conditioned by +form. These heavens are the anteroom of Nirvana." + +"What is the driving power in all this?" + +"It is _virya_ or energy." + +_6. Heaven and Purgatory_ + +"Do heaven and purgatory exist?" + +"Heaven and purgatory are in the minds and hearts of men. Really heaven +is in the mind of Amitabha and purgatory exists in the illusioned brains +of men." + +"Does anything exist?" + +"Nagarjuna says: 'There is no production, no destruction, no +annihilation, no persistence, no unity, no plurality, no coming in and +no going forth.'" + +_7. Sin_ + +"Does sin exist?" + +"In the mind of the real Buddhist sin and virtue are different aspects +of the all. Sin is illusion; virtue is illusion, There is a higher unity +in which they are reconciled." + +_8. Nirvana_ + +_"Do you know of any one who attained Nirvana?"_ + +"Yes, I have experienced it. It is not a state beyond the grave. It is a +state into which one can enter here." + +"Can you express this experience in words?" + +"Impossible. I can only indicate the shore of this great ocean. At first +I was in great distress and agony, as though carrying the illusions of +the world. Then came a great peace and calm, ineffable, serene, and +surpassing the power of language to express." + +_9. The Philosophical Background_ + +"What is behind this universe!" + +"Underlying this universe of phenomena and change there is a unity. It +is the basis of all being. It is within all being and all being rests in +it. It is because of this common background that men are able to +apprehend it. This universal basis we call _dharma,_ or law. Its +characteristics are that everything born grows old, is subject to +disease and death; that the teachings of Buddha purify the mind and +enable it to obtain supreme enlightenment; that all Buddhas by treading +the same way of perfection will attain the highest freedom." + +"You speak of the Buddhist Trinity." + +"Yes, we have the Dharmakaya. This is the essence-body, the ground of +all being, taking many forms, Buddhas, Bodhisattvas, spirits, angels, +men and even demons. It is impersonal, all-pervasive. It may be called +the first person. The second person is the Sambhogakaya, the body of +bliss. This is the heavenly manifestation of Buddha. The third person is +the Nirmanakaya. This is the projection of the body of bliss on earth." + +Some identify this trinity with that of the Christian faith. While there +is a resemblance, we should note that the first person of the Buddhist +trinity would correspond to God as the absolute or the impersonal +background of universal Being. The second corresponds to the glorified +Christ and the third to the historic Jesus. There is no counterpart +either to God the Father or to the Holy Spirit. + +"Do you believe in the salvation of all beings?" + +"Yes, all have the Buddha heart. All living beings will finally become +Buddhas." + +Then turning to a friend of mine the speaker said: "What have you done +in Buddhism?" The friend answered: "I have written and translated many +books." "I do not mean that," he answered. "What _work_ have you +done?" The friend confessed that he had not done much else. Then he +said: "Every morning when you awake, reflect deeply and profoundly upon +your state before you were born. Think back to that state where your +soul was merged with Buddha. Find yourself in that state and you will +find ineffable enlightenment and joy." + +The sun was setting behind the Western hills. The blare of trumpets +sounded on the city wall. Outside of the door was the whirling sound of +Peking returning home from its mundane tasks and joys. We joined the +rushing, restless crowd and still we felt the calm of another world. Has +not Christianity a message of balm and peace for these sons of the East +who are so sensitive to the touch of the eternal and sublime? + +_10. What Buddhism Has to Give_ + +An important government official obliged to deal with many vexatious +requests and demands declared: "I could not get through my day's work, +if I did not spend an hour every day in meditation, just as Buddha did +when he became enlightened." He was asked what he did when he meditated +or prayed. "Nothing at all." "Well, about what do you think?" "Of +nothing at all. I stop thinking when I engage in religious meditation. +Life makes me think too much. I should lose my sanity, if I did not stop +thinking and enter into the 'void', whence we all came and into which we +all are going to drop back." + +His Christian inquirer still was unsatisfied by the Buddhist's +description of his prayer life, and pressed further for details. "What +happens when you meditate or pray?" + +"Nothing happens, I tell you, except, that I experience a peace which +the passing world cannot give and which the passing world cannot +altogether take away. The secret of religion is simply to realize that +everything is passing away. When you accept that fact, then you become +really free. The Christian world seemed to have been tremendously +impressed by the slogan of the French soldiers at Verdun, 'They shall +not pass!' Perhaps the German soldiers did not pass just then or there. +But the French soldiers themselves are all passing away. And everything +in the world is passing away. What our Buddhist religion teaches us is: +'Let it pass!' You cannot keep anything for very long. And prayer or +meditation is simply to practice yourself in that thought deliberately. +Oh, it is a wonderful peace when you fully believe that gospel, and +enter into it every day. Vanity of vanities, everything is vanity! Why +worry? We do altogether too much worrying. To pray means simply to quit +worrying, to quit thinking, to enter into the indescribably passionless +peace of Nirvana." + +Here seemed to be an ardent Buddhist. When asked what he thought as the +difference between a Buddhist and a Christian, he answered promptly: + +"Yes, there is my wife. She is a very good woman. All the neighbors come +to her, when there is any one sick or in trouble. So I say to her: +'Wife, I should think you would make a first-class Christian.' But I +think she lets herself be worried by altogether too many troubles. She +is all the time thinking and fussing and planning. To be sure, it is +mostly about other people, But then she does have the children and the +house and the relatives and friends and neighbors to look after. Perhaps +she really cannot be a Buddhist. Perhaps it is all a matter of +temperament. Oh, but I tell you it is great to be a Buddhist, because it +gives you such a wonderful peace." + + + + +IX + + +PRESENT-DAY BUDDHISM: + +_1. Periods of Buddhist History_ + +The history of Buddhism in China may be divided into four periods. +Buddhism entered China, as we have seen, in the second century B.C. The +first period, that of the translation and propagation of the faith, +ended in 420 A.D. The second period, that of interpenetration, lasted to +the beginning of the T'ang dynasty, 618 A.D. The third, the period of +establishment, ended with the close of the five dynasties, in 960 A.D. +The fourth period, that of decay, has extended to the present day. + +_2. The Progress of the Last Twenty-five Years_ + +There are signs of a revival of Buddhism in China. Whether this is a +tide, or a wave, only the future can reveal. In 1893 Dharmapala, an +Indian monk, stopped in Shanghai on his way back from the Congress of +Religions in Chicago. It was his purpose to make a tour of China, to +arouse the Chinese Buddhists to send missionaries to India to restore +Buddhism there, and then to start a propaganda throughout the whole +world. He addressed the monks of Shanghai. Dr. Edkins, the veteran +missionary, acted as his interpreter. Dharmapala was surrounded by a +horde of curious monks who were more interested in his strange +appearance and in the cost of his garments than they were in his great +ideals. They were also feeling the iron heel of the Confucian government +and at once inquired about the attitude of the government toward such an +innovation. Dharmapala did not go beyond Shanghai. + +Japanese Buddhists, especially the members of the Hongwanji sect, have +taken a deep interest in Chinese Buddhists. Count Otani once visited the +chief monasteries of China. Numerous Japanese Buddhists have made such +visits. In 1902, the Empress Dowager, fired by a reforming zeal, decided +to confiscate Buddhist property and to use the proceeds for the spread +of modern education. The Buddhist monasteries put themselves under the +protection of Japanese monks in order to hold their property. When by +1906 the Empress Dowager saw the consequences of her edict, she at once +issued a new edict, reversing the former one, and the Japanese monks +took their departure. + +The Japanese Buddhists have been fired by missionary zeal for China. In +many of the large cities of China are the temples of the Hongwanji sect. +Established primarily for the Japanese, these temples are intended to +serve as points of departure for a nation-wide missionary work. The +twenty-one demands made upon China included two significant items in the +last group which the Chinese refused to sign: "Art. 2: Japanese +hospitals, churches and schools in the interior of China shall be +granted the right of owning land." "Art. 7: China agrees that Japanese +subjects shall have the right of missionary propaganda in China." + +Under Japanese influence there was established in 1907 at Nanking, under +the leadership of Yang, a lay Buddhist devotee, a school for the +training of Buddhist missionaries. The students were to go to Japan for +further training, and the more promising ones were to study in India. +This project was discontinued after the death of Yang on account of the +lack of funds. + +When the republic was established Buddhism felt a wave of reform. The +monasteries established schools for monks and children. A magazine was +published which appeared irregularly for several numbers and then +stopped. A national organization was formed with headquarters at Peking. +A survey of monasteries was begun. The activities in lecturing and +propaganda were increased, but Yuan Shih-kai issued twenty-seven +regulations for the control of Buddhist monasteries, which markedly +dampened the ardor of the reformers. + +The world war which accentuated the spirit of nationalism had the added +effect of stirring up Buddhist enthusiasm. There are at present signs of +new activity among them in China. + +_3. Present Activities_ + +While Buddhism may be standing still or even dying in certain parts of +China, it is showing signs of new life in the provinces of Kiangsu and +Chekiang and in the large cities. Such revival in centers subject to the +influence of the modern world shows that Buddhism in China as in Japan +has sufficient vitality to adjust itself to modern conditions. Let us +consider some of these activities. + +_(a) The Reconstruction of Monasteries._--During the T'ai Ping +rebellion, which devastated China in 1850-1865, the monasteries suffered +with the towns. Not only were the monasteries burned to the ground, but +their means of support were taken away and the monks were scattered. +There are still many of these ruined monasteries in the Yangtze valley +and in southern and western China. Quite a number of them have been +rebuilt. Perhaps the most notable example is that at Changchow which was +destroyed during the rebellion. Today it is the largest monastery in +China, having about two thousand monks. In Fukien several new +monasteries have been built in the last few decades. In the provinces of +Chekiang and Kiangsu, in the large cities and about Peking there are +building activities, showing that the monasteries are feeling a new wave +of prosperity. + +T'ai Hsu, one of the leaders' of modern Buddhism, is holding up an ideal +program for Buddhism in this time of reconstruction. He proposes that +there should be 576 central monasteries, 4608 preaching places, 72 +Buddhist hospitals and 72 orphanages. + +_(b) Accessions._--Regarding the number of monks it is almost +impossible to obtain any reliable figures. A conservative estimate, +based upon partial returns, makes the number of monks about 400,000 and +that of nuns about 10,000. The impression among the Buddhists is that +the number of monks is increasing. That is quite probable in view of the +rebuilding and repairing which is now in progress. + +More significant is the number of accessions from the learned class. +Many officials, disheartened by the present confused political +situation, have sought refuge in the monasteries. Some of them are now +abbots of monasteries and are using their influence to build them up. +All over China there are Confucian scholars who are giving themselves to +the study of Buddhism and to meditation. Some of the Chinese students +who have studied in Buddhist universities in Japan are propagating +Buddhism by lecture and pen. + +_(c) Publications._--Quite as significant is the increase in the +publication of Buddhist literature of all kinds. Many of the monasteries +have printing departments where they publish the sutras needed for their +own use. In addition, there are eight or more publishing centers where +Buddhist literature is printed. The most famous are Yang's establishment +at Nanking, the Buddhist Press in Yangchow and that in Peking. In these +establishments about nine hundred different works are being published. +The most noteworthy recent publication has been that of the Chinese +Buddhist Tripitaka in Shanghai. + +Among these publications are a few modern issues. The Chung Hua Book +Company has published several works on Buddhism. Other books have been +issued for the sake of harmonizing Buddhism with western science and +philosophy. In this enterprise Japanese influence is visible. In 1921 a +Shanghai press published a dictionary of Buddhist terms containing 3302 +pages, based on the Japanese Dictionary of Buddhism. Other works also +show the influence of Japanese scholarship. + +Among the publications have appeared two magazines. One published at +Ningpo, is called "New Buddhism." This is struggling and may have to +succumb. The other is known as the "Sound of the Sea Tide," now +published in Hankow. Moreover, in all the large cities there are +Buddhist bookshops where only Buddhist works are sold. These all report +a good business. This literary activity reveals an interest among the +reading classes of China. Few such books are purchased by the monks. The +Chinese scholars read them for their style and for their deep +philosophy, but also for light and for help in the present distracting +political situation of their country. + +_(d) Lectures._--Along with publication goes the spread of Buddhism +by lectures in the monasteries and the cities of China. A few years ago +Buddhist sermons, however serious, were only listened to by monks and by +a few pious devotees. Today such addresses are advertised and are +usually well attended by the intellectuals. Often many women are found +listening. Monks like T'ai Hsue and Yuan Ying have a national reputation. +Not only monks, but laymen trained in Japan are delivering lectures on +the Buddhist sutras. The favorites are the Awakening of Faith and the +Suddharma Pundarika sutra. + +_(e) Buddhist Societies._--With the lectures goes the organization +of Buddhist societies for all sorts of purposes. There is a central +society in Peking which has branches in every province. The connection +is rather loose. Buddhism has never been in favor of centralization. Nor +for that matter would the government have allowed it. The chief ends +aimed at by these societies are fellowship, devotion, study, +propagation, and service. Such societies, often short lived, are +springing up in many quarters. They meet for lectures on Buddhism or to +conduct a study class in some of the sutras. Occasionally the more +ambitious conduct an institute for several months. Some spend part of +the time in meditation together. Several schools for children are +supported by these societies. They also encourage work of a religious +nature among prisoners, distributing tracts and holding services. Such +activities are especially appreciated by those who are to suffer the +death penalty. The societies are also doing publishing work. The two +magazines are supported by the members of the larger societies. + +_(f) Signs of Social Ambition._--Social work is a prominent feature +of some of these Buddhist societies. They have raised money for famine +stricken regions, have opened orphanages, and assist in Red Cross work. +One of the largest Chinese institutions for ministering to people who +are sick and in trouble is located at Hankow. Around a central Buddhist +temple is a modern-built hospital, an orphanage and several schools for +poor children. It may not maintain western standards of efficiency, but +it certainly represents the outreach of modern Buddhism. + +Perhaps their most far-reaching advance has been made because of the +realization that leaders are needed and that they must be trained. +Several schools for this purpose have sprung into existence. Such +schools are necessarily very primitive and are struggling with the +difficulties of finding an adequate staff and equipment and of obtaining +the best type of students. + +Another sign of new life has been the making of programs for the future +development of Buddhism. One of the most comprehensive appeared a short +time ago. For the individual it proposes the cultivation of love, mercy, +equality, freedom, progressiveness, an established faith, patience and +endurance. For all men it proposes (1) an education according to +capacity; (2) a trade suited to ability; (3) an opportunity to develop +one's powers; (4) a chance for enlightenment for all. For society it +urges the cultivation of cooperation, social service, sacrifice for the +social weal, and the social consciousness in the individual. On behalf +of the country it urges patriotism, participation in the government, and +cooperation in international movements. For the world it advocates +universal progress. As to the universe it specifies as a goal the +bringing of men into harmony with spiritual realities, the enlightenment +of all and the realization of the spiritual universe. + +A Buddhist writer sums up the aims of new Buddhism as follows: + +"Formerly Buddhism desired to escape the sinful world. Today Buddhism +not only desires to escape this world of sin, but longs to transform +this world of sin into a new world dominated by the ideals of Buddhism. +Formerly Buddhism was occupied with erecting and perfecting its +doctrines and polity as an organization. Today it not only hopes to +perfect the doctrines and polity, but desires to spread the doctrines +and ideals abroad so as to help mankind to become truly cultured." + +_4. The Attitude of Tibetan Lamas_ + +Not only the Chinese Buddhists, but the Lamas of Mongolia and Tibet are +feeling the impulses of the new age. Quite recently an exhibition was +held in the Lama temple at Peking which attracted thousands of visitors. +Its object was to obtain money to repair the temple, and thus to give +its work a fresh impulse. That these impulses are not necessarily +hostile to Christianity is shown by a letter written by the Kurung +Tsering Lama of Kokonor district to the Rev. T. Soerensen of Szechuan: + +"I, your humble servant, have seen several copies of the Scriptures and, +having read them carefully, they certainly made me believe in Christ. I +understand a little of the outstanding principles and the doctrinal +teaching of the One Son, but as to the Holy Spirit's nature and essence, +and as to the origin of this religion, I am not at all clear, and it is +therefore important that the doctrinal principles of this religion +should be fully explained, so as to enlighten the unintelligent and +people of small mental ability. + +"The teaching of the science of medicine and astrology is also very +important. It is therefore evident if we want this blessing openly +manifested, we must believe in the religion of the only Son of God. +Being in earnest, I therefore pray you from my heart not to consider +this letter lightly. With a hundred salutations." + +Enclosed with this letter was a poem written in most elegant language. + +"O thou Supreme God and most precious Father, The truth above all +religions, The Ruler of all animate and inanimate worlds! Greater than +wisdom, separated from birth and death, Is his son Christ the Lord +shining in glory among endless beings. Incomprehensible wonder, +miraculously made! In this teaching I myself also believe--As your +spirit is with heaven united, My soul undivided is seeking the truth +Jesus the Savior's desire fulfilling, For the coming of the Kingdom of +Heaven I am praying. Happiness to all." + +_5. The Buddhist World Versus the Christian World_ + +Looking back over the last twenty-five years we see rising quite +distinctly a Buddhist world growing conscious of itself, of its past +history and of its mission to the world. This Buddhist, world has much +more of a program than it had twenty-five years ago. Its object is to +unite the Mahayana and the Hinayana branches of Buddhism and to spread +Buddhist propaganda over the world. At present the leadership of this +movement is in Japan. It is in part a political movement. There is no +question that Christianity is not at all pleasing to the Japanese +militarists. It is regarded by them as the advance post of western +industrialism and political ambition. Quite naturally such leaders +desire to make the Buddhist world a unit. It is also a social movement. +The spirit of the Japanese Buddhist has been brought to consciousness by +the new position of Japan. Japan is seeking to take its place in the +world as a first rate power. By this not only will Japan's industry and +commerce profit, but its spiritual values must also be adapted to the +world. The movement then has its spiritual side. Japanese travelers and +people are going to all parts of the world. They carry with them the +religious ideals which have been shaped by Buddhism. Buddhism in the +past was one of the great religions of salvation with an inspiring +missionary message. It is again awakening to this task of +evangelization. Under the leadership of Japanese scholars and religious +statesmen the Japanese are seeking to unite the Buddhist world so that +it shall become a force in the new world. Japan is thus trying to give +back what it has received in the past. + +At present in Buddhist countries there is a strong force working against +this movement. Nationalism is a new force to be reckoned with. Still +even with the spirit of nationalism permeating every group, the Buddhist +world is getting together and will strive to make its contribution to +the life of the whole world. + + + + +X + + +THE CHRISTIAN APPROACH TO BUDDHISTS + +_1. Questions Which Buddhists Ask_ + +Buddhists are approaching Christianity. In many places a spirit of +inquiry and interest in the Christian religion is met. It is not +necessary that there should be a Buddhist world permanently over against +a Christian world. The questions which Buddhists ask a missionary +indicate an interest in vital themes. Some of them are as follows: + +We put our trust in the three Precious Ones. In what do you trust? Is +not your Shang Ti (name for God used in China) a being lower than Buddha +and just a little higher than a Bodhisattva? Is not Shang Ti the tribal +god of the Jews? Do you believe in the existence of _purgatory?_ +What sufferings will those endure who do not live a virtuous life? Do +you believe in the reality of the Western Paradise? How can one enter +it? There being three kinds of merit, by what method is the great merit +accumulated? How is the middle and the small merit accumulated? What are +the fruits of these proportions of merit and what are they like? Tell me +how to believe Christ. What work of meditation do you perform? Is not +Buddhism more democratic than Christianity, because it holds out the +possibility of Buddhahood to all beings? Is not Buddhism more inclusive, +because it provides for the salvation of all beings? + +_2. Knowledge and Sympathy_ + +These questions make it plain that the worker who is to deal with +Buddhists should have a broad background of general culture. He must be +thoroughly humanized. He should have a good knowledge of the history of +philosophy and religion, including the work of the modern philosophers. +A knowledge of the life of Buddha and of the doctrines of the Hinayana +or Southern Buddhism, as well as the tenets of the Mahayana should be in +his possession. The psychology of religion should interpenetrate his +historical learning; the best methods of pedagogy should guide his +approach to men. Of course he must speak the language of the Buddhist, +not only the spiritual language, but his everyday patois. He will find +it an advantage to know some Sanskrit. While this requirement is not +very urgent at present, it will rapidly become a necessity for doing the +best work. + +This knowledge should be interpenetrated by a genuine sympathy, that is, +imagination tinged with emotion. The worker should be able to view +doctrines, values and actions from the point of view of the Buddhist and +his past history. He must have a genuine interest in and a great +capacity for friendship. The Buddhists are very human, responding to +friendship very quickly. Such friendship forms a link between the man +and the larger friendship of Christ. + +_3. Emphasis on the Aesthetic in Christianity_ + +A Chinese Christian leader described his idea of a church as a place +removed from the din of the street, approached by a walk flanked with +trees and flowers and adorned within by symbols speaking to the heart of +the Chinese. He longed for the mystic silence and the beauty of holiness +which would open the windows of the world of spiritual reality and throw +its light upon the problems of life. He was asked, "Would you adapt some +of the symbols of the Chinese religions?" He said, "Many of those +symbols are neutral. They suggest religious emotion. Their character +depends upon the content which the occasion puts into them. If the +content is Christian then the symbols and emotions will become +Christian." + +Christianity is a religion of beauty. The beautiful in architecture, +symbol and ritual, expressing the spiritual universe of the past, +present and future, makes a strong appeal to the Chinese heart. It may +well be emphasized in the future as never before. + +_4. Emphasis on the Mystical in Christianity_ + +Not long ago a Buddhist in one of the large cities of China was +converted. He found great joy in the experience which revived him and +gathered into unity the broken fragments of his life. He attended church +regularly and participated in the prayer meetings. Gradually he +discovered that he was not being nourished. He felt his joy slipping +away from him and his divided life reinstating itself. He went to +Buddhism for consolation. He is not hostile to the church. He +appreciates the help he received, but he said that he came for +consolation and peace and found the same--hard orthodoxy and morality so +familiar to him in Confucianism. + +While the case of this man may have individual peculiarities, it may be +made the starting point for a discussion of the situation in many +churches in China. The early message to the Chinese was doctrinal. The +false notion of many gods had to be displaced by the idea of the one +true God. With this idea of the true God a few other tenets of the +Christian religion are often held as dogmatic propositions to be +repeated when questions are asked. The great sin preached is the worship +of idols. + +The second part of the Christian message is salvation by faith in Jesus +Christ. This salvation is other-worldly to a large extent. The extreme +emphasis upon it has made of the church an insurance society, membership +in which insures bliss in the world beyond. + +The third part of the message has been concerned with moral acts, +abstinence from opium (liquor and tobacco in some churches), polygamy, +and the gross sins. Attendance upon church services, contribution for +the support of the church, and the refusal to contribute to idolatry +have also been required. + +The emphasis to a large extent was doctrinal, moral and individual. The +result has been a body of people free from the gross sins, but also +innocent of the great virtues and individualistic in their outlook upon +this world and the next. This emphasis is needed, but in addition there +should be the cultivation of the presence of God in the soul by +appropriate means. The Christian Church of China should develop a +technique of the spiritual life suited to the East. The formation of +habits of devotion should be emphasized. Intercessory prayer should be +given a larger place. Contemplation and meditation should be regarded +not merely as an escape from the turmoil and strife of the world, but as +a preparation for the highest life of service and sacrifice. Buddhist +mysticism united the whole universe and was the great foundation of +Chinese art, literature and morality. The spiritual world of +Christianity must likewise seep through into the very thought of Asia +and inspire the new art, literature and morality which will be the world +expression of a Christian universe. + +_5. Emphasis on the Social Elements in Christianity_ + +To the aesthetic and mystical emphasis must be attached a social +emphasis. Buddhism is often criticized as not being social. It is a +highly socialized religion. It has had a large influence upon social +life in the East. This social life is different from ours. We see its +wrongs and weaknesses. Likewise do the Buddhists see the materialism and +injustice of our social life. Christianity must relate itself to the +modern world as it is rising in China and seek not merely to remedy a +few wrongs or heal a few diseases, but must release the healing stream +into the social life of the East. This will be done and is being done +through the Church community which has become conscious of itself, +realizing its needs and wants, seeking in an intelligent and systematic +way to rehabilitate itself. It is not so much the external unrelated +efforts that accomplish the thing needed, but it is rather the community +life stirred by ideals and fired by a new dynamic which begins the work +of reformation. + +_6. Emphasis on the Person of Jesus Christ_ + +_(a) As a Historical Character._--The great asset of the missionary +among Buddhists is the historical person of Christ. In contrast to many +of the Bodhisattvas, the saviours of the Buddhists, Jesus is a +historical character. His life among men was the life of God among men. + +_(b) As the Revealer._--God is like Christ. Christ reveals God as +the complete, the perfect person. He possessed the pure spiritual +personality. The chief characteristic of this personality is love. This +love conscious of itself finds its highest joy in the well-being of +others. This love of God produced human life which, springing from the +lowest form, broke through the material elements and is capable of +attaining the highest development. + +Christ reveals to man his heavenly relationship. Man created in the +likeness of God stands in the highest relation of one person to another +through love. He likens this relation to that of father and son. He +lifts man to the fellowship with the divine. Yet such a fellowship that +man preserves his personality. + +Christ reveals man in his relation to men as a brother and the form of +love which shall control the relation of man to God as well as man to +man. + +Christ revealed and founded the Kingdom, a society of the saved, +dominated by the spirit of the founder and making this spirit of love +and service the organizing power in the world. + +_(c) As the Saviour._--Mahayana Buddhism emphasized saviourhood. +Christ is the saviour of men. In Buddhism the stress is placed upon the +merit of the saviour and the saved. There is no question that merit has +some value. Yet Christ does not save us by merit, nor do we help to save +one another by merit. Salvation is a moral and spiritual process. It is +concerned with the biology of the soul. The salvation that we preach is +not the salvation by knowledge, or meditation, or merit, but by the +interpenetration of Christ's spirit in ours, by the mystic and moral +union of our life with his. As Paul says: "That I may know Him and the +power of His resurrection and the fellowship of His suffering." Yet He +is not the saviour of the individual alone. He saves the community, the +church. Only as His spirit permeates and dominates the community does he +find his true self and the real salvation. + +_(d) As the Eternal Son, of God._--The Mahayana system does not +emphasize the historicity of Amitabha or of the Bodhisattvas. Spiritual +truth is the development of the soul. It is not limited by time and +place. Likewise Christianity must emphasize the eternal character of +Jesus Christ. "The Logos existed in the very beginning, the Logos was +with God, the Logos was God." To the Mahayanist this spiritual history +is more real than any fact conditioned by time and place. + +The Christian worker must learn to understand the import of the Gospel +of John. He must see in Jesus Christ "The real Light, which enlightens +every man." He must be able to convince himself that the Christ is the +fulfillment of the highest aspirations of the Mahayana system. + +_7. How Christianity Expresses Itself in Buddhist Minds_ + +In 1920 a number of Buddhist monks, under the leadership of Rev. K. L. +Reichelt formed a Christian brotherhood. The members of this small +brotherhood decided that they must subscribe to vows and they took the +four following: + +"I promise before the Almighty and Omniscient God, that I with my whole +heart will surrender myself to the true Trinity, God the Father, the Son +and the Holy Spirit. I will with my whole heart have faith in Jesus +Christ as the Saviour of the world who gives completion to the +profoundest and best objects of the higher Buddhism. I will live in this +faith now and ever after. + +"I promise solemnly before God with my whole heart to devote myself to +the study of the true doctrine and break wholly with the evil manners of +the world and show forth in my public and private life that I am truly +united with Christ. + +"I promise that I in every respect will try so to educate myself that I +can be of use in the work of God on earth. I will with undivided heart +devote myself to the great work; to lead my brethren in the Buddhist +Association forward to the understanding of Christ as the only One, who +gives completion to the highest and profoundest ideas of Higher +Buddhism. + +"I promise that until my last hour I will work so that out of our +Christian Brotherhood there may grow forth a strong church of Christ +among Buddhists. I will not permit any evil thing to grow in my heart, +which could divide the brotherhood, but will always try to promote the +progress of every member in the knowledge of the holy obligations laid +down in these vows and our constitution." + +Such men ought, to make choice Christians. + +_8. Christianity's Constructive Values_ + +Buddhism in the course of its long history developed certain religious +ideas and values which we find in Christianity. It faced the fact of sin +and placed it in the heart. It diagnosed the fundamental instincts of +men, sex-appetite, will-to-achieve, and pugnacity. These must be +overcome. It regards them as delusions which must be eliminated. +Christianity also deals with these instincts. It is under no delusion as +to their strength. There are certain tendencies in Christianity which +have tried to annihilate them. The central tendency of Christianity, +however, recognizing their power for good, seeks to sublimate them and +make them serve the individual and society. This attitude of the two +religions toward these instincts is fundamentally different. The +attitude of Christianity has been justified even in Buddhist lands where +the religious life of the people has followed the same line that +Christianity advocates. + +Early Buddhism tried to dissolve man's personality. Later Buddhism +corrected this and perhaps has appealed too much to the desire on the +part of the individual to enter a heaven which is merely a replica of +the earth. Christianity starts with a personal God and holds up before +the believer the goal of perfection for his own personality. It finds +man without a self and confers a real selfhood upon him. + +Early Buddhism taught that salvation is accomplished by the individual +alone. It denies the possibility and the necessity of help from a divine +source. Subsequent history has proved this to have been wrong. In India, +Buddhism has been displaced by Hinduism, and in China, and Japan, the +Mahayana has developed the idea of salvation through another. The great +stream of Buddhism has recognized that man by himself is helpless. He +must have the help of a divine power in order to obtain salvation. +Christianity asserts that salvation is possible only through the +intervention of God. The incarnation, the life, death and resurrection +of Jesus and his work in the world through the Holy Spirit on the one +hand are the expression of God's solicitude for man, and, on the other +hand, correspond to the deep need which men of all ages have felt, for a +power above themselves. From the early stages of magic to the highest +reaches of religion we find this constant factor recognized by human +groups all over the world. They bear witness to a power above themselves +to whom they continually appeal. In Christianity we find this main +tendency enunciated most clearly. The individual cannot save himself. +Mankind cannot save itself. Both must rely upon the assistance of the +divine power which started this universe on its way and which is the +ever present creative force. + +Christianity, moreover, has established the community of believers +including all classes and conditions of men. Herein each one may realize +him&if. Herein also he may realize the kind of community which is +friendly to his highest aspirations for himself. Herein he has the +opportunity to transmute the instincts above mentioned into forces which +make for the larger development of his own person and the well-being of +the community. + +Accordingly, as Christians face Buddhists, they can do so with the +consciousness that this great religion has been reaching out after the +light which shines brightly in our Christian religion. They have the +assurance not only that they have a message which brings fulfilment to +the ideas of the Mahayana, but also that it has prepared the way for the +hearts of the Chinese to receive the highest message of Christianity. + + + + +APPENDIX I + + +HINTS FOR THE PRELIMINARY STUDY OF BUDDHISM IN CHINA + +The student should read and inwardly digest the booklet of K. J. +Saunders + +He should follow the directions given in Appendix One of that book, This +procedure is important because the Hinayana Buddhism and the life of +Buddha are the background of Buddhism in China. + +Then he may take Hackmann's _Buddhism as a Religion_ +(No. 15). This will give a general orientation. This may be followed +with R. F. Johnston's _Buddhist China_ (No. +_20_). Along with this he may read Suzuki's +_Awakening of Faith_ (No. 32), and also his +_Outlines of Mahayana Buddhism (No._ 33). McGovern's +_Introduction to Mahayana Buddhism_ (No._ 23) will +illuminate the philosophical background of Buddhism, and Eliot's +_Hinduism and Buddhism_ (No. 13) will add historical +perspective. + +The translation of _Mahdydna Sutras_ by Beal and in the +Sacred Books of the East will give him some of the sources for the +doctrines held in China. He may begin as the Buddhist missionaries did +with the sutra of the Forty-two sections and then take up the Diamond +Sutra, and then completing the sutras in Vol. 59 and the Catena of +Buddhist Scriptures. + +For the study of the ethical side he will find De Groot's _Le Code +du Mahayana en Chine_ very helpful. For the study of the sects +Eliot, Vol. III, pp. 303-320 Northern Buddhism_ (No. 14) will +be helpful. + +In all his study he will find Eitel's _Handbook of Chinese +Buddhism_ (No. 12) indispensable. He must, however, make a +Chinese index in order to be able to use the book. + +Contact with monks will be helpful and is quite necessary in order to +appreciate the human problems of the work. + + + + +APPENDIX II + + +A BRIEF BIBLIOGRAPHY + +1. BEAL, S. _Abstract of Four Lectures_ upon _Buddhist +Literature_ in _China._ London, Triibner, 1882. + +Lecture II, on "Method of Buddha's Teaching in the Vinaya Pitaka," and +Lecture IV, on "Coincidences Between Buddhism and Other Religions," +especially desirable. + + +2. ---- _Buddhism in China,_ London, S. P. C. K, 1884. + +The best comprehensive account of Chinese Buddhism, written by an +authority. + + +3. ---- _Catena of Buddhist Scriptures,_ from the Chinese. London, +Triibner, 1871. + +A good introduction to Chinese Buddhism from the sources. + +4. ---- _The Romantic Legend of Sakya Buddha._ London, +Triibner, 1875. + +Recounts Buddha's history from the beginning to the +conversion of the Kasyapas and others. + + +5. ---- _Texts from the Buddhist Canon Commonly Known_ as _D_ +hammapada. London, Triibner, 1878. Pocket edition, 1902. + +These "Scriptural Texts," translated from the Chinese and abridged, are +usually connected with some event in Buddha's history. This translation +has Indian anecdotes, illustrating the verses. + + +6. COULING, S., editor. _The Encyclopaedia Sinica._ Shanghai, Kelly +& Walsh, 1917. + +Contains, on pages 67-75, a number of brief articles upon Buddhism in +China. + + +7. DE QROOT, J. J. M. _Religion of the Chinese._ New York, +Macmillan, 1900. + +Pages 164-223 contain a summary of the main facts about Chinese Buddhism +by an authority. + + +8. ---- _Sectarianism and Religious Persecution in China._ 2 vols. +J. Mueller, Amsterdam, 1903-1904. + +Treats from sources Confucianism's persecution of Buddhism and other +sects. See Vol. II. Index, under Buddhism, p. 572. + + +9. DORE, HENEI. _Researches into Chinese Superstitions._ 6 vols. +Tusewei Press, 1914-1920. + +A well illustrated miscellany of superstitions of all Chinese religions +showing indistinctly their interpenetration by Buddhism. +For Buddhism proper, see Vol. VI, pp. 89-233. + + +10. EDKINS, J. _Chinese Buddhism._ 2d edition. London, Truebner, +1893. + +A very full account of Buddhism as seen by a Sinologue of the last +generation. + + +11. EITEL, E. J. _Buddhism: Its Historical, Theoretical and Popular +Aspects._ Hongkong, Lane, Crawford and Co., 1884. + +Written by an observant scholar and descriptive of Buddhism of South +China especially. + + +12. ---- _Handbook of Chinese Buddhism._ Presbyterian Mission Press, +Shanghai. + +This is a Sanskrit-Chinese dictionary, a reprint of the second edition +of 1888 without the Chinese index necessary for identifying Chinese +Buddhist terms. + + +13. ELIOT, SIR CHARLES. _Hinduism and Buddhism, An Historical +Sketch._ 3 vols. Edward Arnold and Co., 1921. + +This is a valuable contribution to our knowledge of Buddhism by an +experienced student. The parts especially related to Chinese Buddhism +are Vol. II, pp. 3-106; Vol. Ill, 223-335. + + +14. JETTY, A. _Gods of Northern Buddhism._ Oxford, Clarendon Press, +1914. + +This work is helpful in identifying images in the temples, though +unfortunately few of those given are Chinese. + + +15. HACKMANN, H. _Buddhism as a Religion._ London, Probsthain, +1910. + +Gives a general view of Buddhism from first-hand investigation. For +Chinese Buddhism see pp. 200-257. + + +16. HASTINGS, JAMES. _The Encyclopedia of Religion and Ethics._ New +York, Scribners, 1908. + +Articles Asvaghosa, Bodhisattva, China (Buddhism in), Mahayana Missions +(Buddhist). + + +17. HUME, R. E. _The Living Religions of the World._ New York, +Scribners, 1924. + +A clear comparative study of these religions in the light of Christian +standards. + + +18. INGLIS, J. W. "Christian Element in Chinese Buddhism." +_International Review of Missions,_ Vol. V, 1916, pp. 587-602. An +excellent article by a veteran missionary and scholar of Manchuria. + + +19. JOHNSON, S. _Oriental Religions ... China._ Boston, Houghton, +Osgood Co., 1878. + +Pages 800-833 give a comprehensive summary by a student of comparative +religion. + + +20. JOHNSTON, R. F. _Buddhist_ China. New York, Dutton, 1913. + +A well-written, interesting book. The author knows his subject, and is +held in high esteem by Buddhists in China. + + +21. KEITH, A. BERRIEDALE. _Buddhist Philosophy in India and +Ceylon._ Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1923. + +A study of the historic development of the Buddhistic philosophy in +India and Ceylon which throws much light on the Mahayana. + + +22. LODGE, J. E. _Chinese Buddhist Art._ Asia, Vol. XIX, June, +1919. + +Some of the choicest half-tones illustrating its character accompanied +by interesting descriptions. + + +23. McGOVERN, W. M. _An Introduction of Mahayana Buddhism._ Dutton, +1922. + +Though written from the point of view of Japanese Buddhism it gives a +good treatment of metaphysical and psychological aspects of the Mahayana +system. + + +24. MUeLLER, F. MAX. _Sacred Books of the East._ Vol. XLIX, +Buddhist, Mahayana Texts. Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1894. + +A book of sources necessary for understanding Northern Buddhism. + + +25. PARKER, E. H. _China and Religion._ New York, Dutton, 1905. + +A sketch of Buddhism by a scholar long resident in China is found in +Chapter IV. + + +26. PAUL, C. T. _The Presentation of Christianity to Buddhists._ +New York, Board of Missionary Preparation, 1924. + +A carefully prepared study of Buddhism from the viewpoint of +missionaries working in Buddhist lands. + + +27. REICHELT, K. L. "Special Work Among Chinese Buddhists." _Chinese +Recorder,_ Vol. LI, 1920, July issue, pp. 491-497. + +An article by a pioneer in work among Buddhists, of rare insight and +sympathy. + + +28. RICHARD, T. _The Awakening of Faith in the Mahayana Doctrine._ +2d edition. Shanghai, 1918. + +A loose translation by a very large-hearted and sympathetic student with +an irenic spirit. See 32 below. + + +29. RICHARD, T. _Guide to Buddhahood; Being a Standard Manual of +Chinese Buddhism._ Shanghai., 1907. + + +30. SAUNDERS, K. J. _Epochs of Buddhist History_ (Haskell +Lectures), Chicago University Press, 1922. + +A good summary of the main developments in Buddhism. + + +31. STAUFFER, M. T. _The Christian Occupation of China._ Shanghai +Continuation Committee, 1922. + +The introductory section contains articles upon China's religions. + + +32. SUZUKI, T. A'svaghosa's _Awakening of Faith in the Mahayana._ +Chicago, Open Court Publishing Co., 1900. + +A far more accurate translation of this work than No. 28 above. + + +33. ---- Outlines of _Mahayana Buddhism._ Chicago, Open Court +Publishing Co., 1908. + +While written from the Japanese point of view it is necessary to the +understanding of Chinese Buddhism. + + +34. WATTERS, T. "Buddhism in China." _Chinese Recorder,_ Vol. II, +1870, pp. 1-7, 38-43, 64-68, 81-88, 117-122, 145-150, Shanghai. + +A valuable series of articles by an excellent Chinese scholar, +discussing the history, persecutions, and various Buddhas of China. + + +35. WEI, F. C. M. "Salvation by Faith as Taught by the Pure Land Sect." +_Chinese Recorder,_ Vol. LI, 1920, pp. 395- 401, 485-491. + +A good article on the sect whose ideas have spread over China and Japan. + + +36. WIEGER, L. _Bouddhisme Chinois,_ 2 vols. Ho-Kien-Fou, Roman +Catholic Press, 1910-1913. + +This contains the Chinese text and French translation of the life of +Buddha as known to China; also the ritual observed in ordination. A +useful source book. + + + + + +End of Project Gutenberg's Buddhism and Buddhists in China, by Lewis Hodus + +*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK BUDDHISM AND BUDDHISTS IN CHINA *** + +This file should be named 7bdsm10.txt or 7bdsm10.zip +Corrected EDITIONS of our eBooks get a new NUMBER, 7bdsm11.txt +VERSIONS based on separate sources get new LETTER, 7bdsm10a.txt + +Produced by Lee Dawei, V-M Osterman +and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team + +Project Gutenberg eBooks are often created from several printed +editions, all of which are confirmed as Public Domain in the US +unless a copyright notice is included. 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If you are not located in the United States, you'll have +to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. + +Title: Buddhism and Buddhists in China + +Author: Lewis Hodous + +Posting Date: February 24, 2015 [EBook #8390] +Release Date: June, 2005 +First Posted: July 6, 2003 + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK BUDDHISM AND BUDDHISTS IN CHINA *** + + + + +Produced by Lee Dawei, V-M Osterman and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team + + + + + + + + + + +BUDDHISM AND BUDDHISTS IN CHINA + +BY + +LEWIS HODOUS, D.D. + + + + +[Illustration: EX LIBRIS: +CHARLES FRANKLIN THWING +Western Reserve University +Library + +From the Library of +Charles Franklin Thwing +Acquired in 1938] + + + + +PREFACE + +This volume is the third to be published of a series on "The World's +Living Religions," projected in 1920 by the Board of Missionary +Preparation of the Foreign Missions Conference of North America. The +series seeks to introduce Western readers to the real religious life of +each great national area of the non-Christian world. + +Buddhism is a religion which must be viewed from many angles. Its +original form, as preached by Gautama in India and developed in the +early years succeeding, and as embodied in the sacred literature of +early Buddhism, is not representative of the actual Buddhism of any land +today. The faithful student of Buddhist literature would be as far +removed from understanding the working activities of a busy center of +Buddhism in Burmah, Tibet or China today as a student of patristic +literature would be from appreciating the Christian life of London or +New York City. + +Moreover Buddhism, like Christianity, has been affected by national +conditions. It has developed at least three markedly different types, +requiring, therefore, as many distinct volumes of this series for its +fair interpretation and presentation. The volume on the Buddhism of +Southern Asia by Professor Kenneth J. Saunders was published in May, +1923; this volume on the Buddhism of China by Professor Hodous will be +the second to appear; a third on the Buddhism of Japan, to be written by +Dr. R. C. Armstrong, will be published in 1924. Each of these is needed +in order that the would be student of Buddhism as practiced in those +countries should be given a true, impressive and friendly picture of +what he will meet. + +A missionary no less than a professional student of Buddhism needs to +approach that religion with a real appreciation of what it aims to do +for its people and does do. No one can come into contact with the best +that Buddhism offers without being impressed by its serenity, assurance +and power. + +Professor Hodous has written this volume on Buddhism in China out of the +ripe experience and continuing studies of sixteen years of missionary +service in Foochow, the chief city of Fukien Province, China, one of the +important centers of Buddhism. His local studies were supplemented by +the results of broader research and study in northern China. No other +available writer on the subject has gone so far as he in reproducing the +actual thinking of a trained Buddhist mind in regard to the fundamentals +of religion. At the same time he has taken pains to exhibit and to +interpret the religious life of the peasant as affected by Buddhism. He +has sought to be absolutely fair to Buddhism, but still to express his +own conviction that the best that is in Buddhism is given far more +adequate expression in Christianity. + +The purpose of each volume in this series is impressionistic rather than +definitely educational. They are not textbooks for the formal study of +Buddhism, but introductions to its study. They aim to kindle interest +and to direct the activity of the awakened student along sound lines. +For further study each volume amply provides through directions and +literature in the appendices. It seeks to help the student to +discriminate, to think in terms of a devotee of Buddhism when he +compares that religion with Christianity. It assumes, however, that +Christianity is the broader and deeper revelation of God and the world +of today. + +Buddhism in China undoubtedly includes among its adherents many +high-minded, devout, and earnest souls who live an idealistic life. +Christianity ought to make a strong appeal to such minds, taking from +them none of the joy or assurance or devotion which they possess, but +promoting a deeper, better balanced interpretation of the active world, +a nobler conception of God, a stronger sense of sinfulness and need, and +a truer idea of the full meaning of incarnation and revelation. + +It is our hope that this fresh contribution to the understanding of +Buddhism as it is today may be found helpful to readers everywhere. + +The Editors. + +_New York city, +December, 1923._ + +The Committee of Reference and Counsel of the Foreign Missions +Conference of North America has authorized the publication of this +series. The author of each volume is alone responsible for the opinions +expressed, unless otherwise stated. + + + + +CONTENTS + + +CHAPTER + +I. INTRODUCTORY + +II. THE ENTRANCE OF BUDDHISM INTO CHINA + +III. THE ESTABLISHMENT OF BUDDHISM AS THE PREDOMINATING RELIGION OF CHINA + 1. The World of Invisible Spirits + 2. The Universal Sense of Ancestor Control + 3. Degenerate Taoism + 4. The Organizing Value of Confucianism + 5. Buddhism an Inclusive Religion + +IV. BUDDHISM AND THE PEASANT + 1. The Monastery of Kushan + 2. Monasteries Control Fêng-shui + 3. Prayer for Rain + (a) The altar + (b) The prayer service + (c) Its Meaning + 4. Monasteries are Supported because They + Control Fêng-shui + +V. BUDDHISM AND THE FAMILY + 1. Kuan Yin, the Giver of Children and Protector of Women + 2. Kuan Yin, the Model of Local Mother-Goddesses + 3. Exhortations on Family Virtues + 4. Services for the Dead + +VI. BUDDHISM AND SOCIAL LIFE + 1. How the Laity is Trained in Buddhist Ideas + 2. Effect of Ideals of Mercy and Universal Love + 3. Relation to Confucian Ideal + 4. The Embodiment of Buddhist Ideals in the Vegetarian Sects + 5. Pilgrimages + +VII. BUDDHISM AND THE FUTURE LIFE + 1. The Buddhist Purgatory + 2. Its Social Value + 3. The Buddhist Heaven + 4. The Harmonization of These Ideas with Ancestor Worship + +VIII. THE SPIRITUAL VALUES EMPHASIZED BY BUDDHISM IN CHINA + 1. The Threefold Classification of Men under Buddhism + 2. Salvation for the Common Man + 3. The Place of Faith + 4. Salvation of the Second Class + 5. Salvation for the Highest Class + 6. Heaven and Purgatory + 7. Sin + 8. Nirvana + 9. The Philosophical Background + 10. What Buddhism Has to Give + +IX. PRESENT-DAY BUDDHISM + 1. Periods of Buddhist History + 2. The Progress of the Last Twenty-five Years + 3. Present Activities + (a) The reconstruction of monasteries + (b) Accessions + (c) Publications + (d) Lectures + (e) Buddhist societies + (f) Signs of social ambition + 4. The Attitude of Tibetan Lamas + 5. The Buddhist World Versus the Christian World + +X. THE CHRISTIAN APPROACH TO BUDDHISTS + 1. Questions which Buddhists Ask + 2. Knowledge and Sympathy + 3. Emphasis on the Ĉsthetic in Christianity + 4. Emphasis on the Mystical in Christianity + 5. Emphasis on the Social Elements in Christianity + 6. Emphasis on the Person of Jesus Christ + (a) As a Historical Character + (b) As the Revealer + (c) As the Saviour + (d) As the Eternal Son of God + 7. How Christianity Expresses Itself in Buddhist Minds + 8. Christianity's Constructive Values + +APPENDIX ONE, Hints for the Preliminary Study of Buddhism in China + +APPENDIX TWO, A Brief Bibliography + + + + +BUDDHISM AND BUDDHISTS IN CHINA + + + + +I + + +INTRODUCTORY + +A well known missionary of Peking, China, was invited one day by a +Buddhist acquaintance to attend the ceremony of initiation for a class +of one hundred and eighty priests and some twenty laity who had been +undergoing preparatory instruction at the stately and important Buddhist +monastery. The beautiful courts of the temple were filled by a throng of +invited guests and spectators, waiting to watch the impressive +procession of candidates, acolytes, attendants and high officials, all +in their appropriate vestments. No outsider was privileged to witness +the solemn taking by each candidate for the priesthood of the vow to +"keep the Ten Laws," followed by the indelible branding of his scalp, +truly a "baptism of fire." Less private was the initiation of the lay +brethren and _sisters,_ more lightly branded on the right wrist, +while all about intoned "Na Mah Pen Shih Shih Chia Mou Ni Fo." (I put my +trust in my original Teacher, Säkyamuni, Buddha.) + +The missionary was deeply impressed by the serenity and devotion of the +worshipers and by the dignity and solemnity of the service. The last +candidate to rise and receive the baptism of branding was a young +married woman of refined appearance, attended by an elderly lady, +evidently her mother, who watched with an expression of mingled +devotion, insight and pride her daughter's initiation and welcomed her +at the end of the process with radiant face, as a daughter, now, in a +spiritual as well as a physical sense. At that moment an attendant, +noting the keen interest of the missionary, said to him rather +flippantly, "Would you not like to have your arm branded, too?" "I +might," he replied, "just out of curiosity, but I could not receive the +branding as a believer in the Buddha. I am a Christian believer. To be +branded without inward faith would be an insult to your religion as well +as treachery to my own, would it not? Is not real religion a matter of +the heart?" + +The old lady, who had overheard with evident disapproval the remark of +the attendant, turned to the missionary at once and said, "Is that the +way you Westerners, you Christians, speak of your faith? Is the reality +of religion for you also an inward experience of the heart?" And with +that began an interesting interchange of conversation, each party +discovering that in the heart of the other was a genuine longing for God +that overwhelmed all the artificial, material distinctions and the human +devices through which men have limited to particular and exclusive paths +their way of search, and drew these two pilgrims on the way toward God +into a common and very real fellowship of the spirit. + +A Buddhist monk was passing by a mission building in another city' of +China when his attention was suddenly drawn to the Svastika and other +Buddhist symbols which the architect had skilfully used in decorating +the building. His face brightened as he said to his companion: "I did +not know that Christians had any appreciation of beauty in their +religion." + +These incidents reveal aspects of the alchemy of the soul by which the +real devotee of one religion perceives values which are dear to him in +another religion. The good which he has attained in his old religion +enables him to appropriate the better in the new religion. A converted +monk, explaining his acceptance of Christianity, said: "I found in Jesus +Christ the great Bodhisattva, my Saviour, who brings to fruition the +aspirations awakened in me by Buddhism." + +Just as it has been said that they do not know England who know England +only, so it may be said with equal truth that they do not know +Christianity who know it and no other faith. There are many in China +like the old lady at the temple, who have found in Buddhism something of +that spiritual satisfaction and stimulus which true Christianity +affords, in fuller measure. The recognition of such religious values by +the student or the missionary furnishes a sound foundation for the +building of a truer spirituality among such devotees. + +As will be seen in what follows, religion in China is at first sight a +mixed affair. From the standpoint of cruder household superstitions an +average Chinese family may be regarded as Taoists; the principles by +which its members seek to guide their lives individually and socially +may be called Confucian; their attitude of worship and their hopes for +the future make them Buddhists. The student would not be far afield when +he credits the religious aspirations of the Chinese today to Buddhism, +regarding Confucianism as furnishing the ethical system to which they +submit and Taoism as responsible for many superstitious practices. But +the Buddhism found in China differs radically from that of Southern +Asia, as will be made clear by the following sketch of its introduction +into the Flowery Kingdom and its subsequent history. + + + + +II + + +THE ENTRANCE OF BUDDHISM INTO CHINA + +Buddhism was not an indigenous religion of China. Its founder was +Gautama of India in the sixth century B.C. Some centuries later it found +its way into China by way of central Asia. There is a tradition that as +early as 142 B.C. Chang Ch'ien, an ambassador of the Chinese emperor, Wu +Ti, visited the countries of central Asia, where he first learned about +the new religion which was making such headway and reported concerning +it to his master. A few years later the generals of Wu Ti captured a +gold image of the Buddha which the emperor set up in his palace and +worshiped, but he took no further steps. + +According to Chinese historians Buddhism was officially recognized in +China about 67 A.D. A few years before that date, the emperor, Ming-Ti, +saw in a dream a large golden image with a halo hovering above his +palace. His advisers, some of whom were no doubt already favorable to +the new religion, interpreted the image of the dream to be that of +Buddha, the great sage of India, who was inviting his adhesion. +Following their advice the emperor sent an embassy to study into +Buddhism. It brought back two Indian monks and a quantity of Buddhist +classics. These were carried on a white horse and so the monastery which +the emperor built for the monks and those who came after them was called +the White Horse Monastery. Its tablet is said to have survived to this +day. + +This dream story is worth repeating because it goes to show that +Buddhism was not only known at an early date, but was favored at the +court of China. In fact, the same history which relates the dream +contains the biography of an official who became an adherent of Buddhism +a few years before the dream took place. This is not at all surprising, +because an acquaintance with Buddhism was the inevitable concomitant of +the military campaigning, the many embassies and the wide-ranging trade +of those centuries. But the introduction of Buddhism into China was +especially promoted by reason of the current policy of the Chinese +government of moving conquered populations in countries west of China +into China proper, The vanquished peoples brought their own religion +along with them. At one time what is now the province of Shansi was +populated in this way by the Hsiung-nu, many of whom were Buddhists. + +The introduction and spread of Buddhism were hastened by the decline of +Confucianism and Taoism. The Han dynasty (206 B. C.-221 A. D.) +established a government founded on Confucianism. It reproduced the +classics destroyed in the previous dynasty and encouraged their study; +it established the state worship of Confucius; it based its laws and +regulations upon the ideals and principles advocated by Confucius. The +great increase of wealth and power under this dynasty led to a gradual +deterioration in the character of the rulers and officials. The rigid +Confucian regulations became burdensome to the people who ceased to +respect their leaders. Confucianism lost its hold as the complete +solution of the problems of life. At the same time Taoism had become a +veritable jumble of meaningless and superstitious rites which served to +support a horde of ignorant, selfish priests. The high religious ideals +of the earlier Taoist mystics were abandoned for a search after the +elixir of life during fruitless journeys to the isles of the Immortals +which were supposed to be in the Eastern Sea. + +At this juncture there arose in North China a sect of men called the +Purists who advocated a return from the vagaries of Taoism and the +irritating rules of Confucianism to the simple life practised by the +Taoist mystics. When these thoughtful and earnest minded men came into +contact with Buddhism they were captivated by it. It had all they were +claiming for Taoist mysticism and more. They devoted their literary +ability and religious fervor to the spreading of the new religion and +its success was in no small measure due to their efforts. As a result of +this early association the tenets of the two religions seemed so much +alike that various emperors called assemblies of Buddhists and Taoists +with the intention of effecting a union of the two religions into one. +If the emperor was under the influence of Buddhism he tried to force all +Taoists to become Buddhists. If he was favorable to Taoism he tried to +make all Buddhists become Taoists. + +But such mandates were as unsuccessful as other similar schemes have +been. In the third century A. D. after the Han dynasty had ended, China +was broken up into several small kingdoms which contended for supremacy, +so that for about four hundred years the whole country was in a state of +disunion. One of the strong dynasties of this period, the Northern Wei +(386-535 A. D.), was distinctly loyal to Buddhism. During its +continuance Buddhism prospered greatly. Although Chinese were not +permitted to become monks until 335 A. D., still Buddhism made rapid +advances and in the fourth century, when that restriction was removed, +about nine-tenths of the people of northwestern China had become +Buddhists. Since then Buddhism has been an established factor in Chinese +life. + + + + +III + + +THE ESTABLISHMENT OF BUDDHISM AS THE PREDOMINATING RELIGION OF CHINA + +Even the historical influences noted above do not account entirely for +the spread of Buddhism in China. In order to understand this and the +place which Buddhism occupies, we need to review briefly the different +forms which religion takes in China and to note how Buddhism has related +itself to them. + +_1. The World of Invisible Spirits_ + +The Chinese believe _in_ a surrounding-world of spirits, whose +origin is exceedingly various. They touch life at every point. There are +spirits which are guardians of the soil, tree spirits, mountain demons, +fire gods, the spirits of animals, of mountains, of rivers, seas and +stars, of the heavenly bodies and of many forms of active life. These +spirits to the Chinese mind, of today are a projection, a sort of +spiritual counterpart, of the many sided interests, practical or +otherwise, of the groups and communities by whom they are worshipped. +There are other spirits which mirror the ideals of the groups by which +they are worshipped. Some of them may have been incarnated in the lives +of great leaders. There are spirits which are mere animations, +occasional spirits, associated with objects crossing the interests of +men, but not constant enough to attain a definite, independent life as +spiritual beings. Thus surrounding the average Chinese peasant there is +a densely populated spirit world affecting in all kinds of ways his, +daily existence. This other world is the background which must be kept +in mind by one who would understand or attempt to guide Chinese +religious experience. It is the basis on which all organized forms of +religious activity are built. The nearest of these to his heart is the +proper regard for his ancestors. + +_2. The Universal Sense_ of _Ancestor Control_ + +The ancestral control of family life occupies so large and important a +place in Chinese thought and practice that ancestor worship has been +called the original religion of the Chinese. It is certain that the +earliest Confucian records recognize ancestor worship; but doubtless it +antedated them, growing up out of the general religious consciousness of +the people. The discussion of that origin in detail cannot be taken up +here. It may be followed in the literature noted in the appendix or in +the volume of this series entitled "Present-Day Confucianism." Ancestor +worship is active today, however, because the Chinese as a people +believe that these ancestors control in a very real way the good or evil +fortunes of their descendants, because this recognition of ancestors +furnishes a potent means of promoting family unity and social ethics, +and, most of all, because a happy future life is supposed to be +dependent upon descendants who will faithfully minister to the dead. +Since each one desires such a future he is faithful in promoting the +observance of the obligation. Consequently, ancestor worship, like the +previously mentioned belief in the invisible spiritual world, underlies +all other religious developments. No family is so obscure or poor that +it does not submit to the ritual or discipline which is supposed to +ensure the favor of the spirits belonging to the community. Likewise, +every such family is loyal to the supposed needs of its deceased +ancestors. In a very intimate way these beliefs are interwoven with the +private and social morality of every family or group in Chinese society, +and must be taken into account by any one who seeks to bring a religious +message to the Chinese people. + +_3. Degenerate Taoism_ + +Taoism is that system of Chinese religious thought and practice, +beginning about the fifth century B. C., which was originally based on +the teachings of Lao Tzu and developed in the writings of Lieh Tzu and +Chuang Tzu and found in the Tao Tê Ching. It is really in this original +form a philosophy of some merit. According to its teaching the Tao is +the great impersonal background of the world from which all things +proceed as beams from the sun, and to which all beings return. In +contrast to the present, transient, changing world the Tao is +unchangeable and quiet. Originally the Taoists emphasized quiescence, a +life in accordance with nature, as a means of assimilating themselves to +the Tao, believing that in this way they would obtain length of days, +eternal life and especially the power to become superior to natural +conditions. + +There is a movement today among Chinese scholars in favor of a return to +this original highest form of Taoism. It appeals to them as a philosophy +of life; an answer to its riddles. Among the masses of the people, +however, Taoism manifests itself in a ritual of extreme superstition. It +recommends magic tricks and curious superstitions as a means of +prolonging life. It expresses itself very largely in these degrading +practices which few Chinese will defend, but which are yet very commonly +practiced. + +_4. The Organizing Value of Confucianism_ + +Confucianism brought organization into these hazy conceptions of life +and duty. It took for granted this spiritual-unspiritual background of +animism, ancestor-worship and Taoism, but reshaped and adapted it as a +whole so that it might fit into that proper organization of the state +and nation which was one of its great objectives. Just as Confucianism +related the family to the village, the village to the district, and the +district to the state, so it organized the spiritual world into a +hierarchy with Shang Ti as its head. This hierarchy was developed along +the lines of the organization mentioned above. Under Shang Ti were the +five cosmic emperors, one for each of the four quarters and one for +heaven above, under whom were the gods of the soil, the mountains, +rivers, seas, stars, the sun and moon, the ancestors and the gods of +special groups. Each of the deities in the various ranks had duties to +those above and rights with reference to those below. These duties and +rights, as they affected the individual, were not only expressed in law +but were embodied in ceremony and music, in daily religious life and +practice in such a way that each individual had reason to feel that he +was a functioning agent in this grand Confucian universe. If any one +failed to do his part, the whole universe would suffer. So thoroughly +has this idea been adopted by the Chinese people that every one joins in +forcing an individual, however reluctant or careless, to perform his +part of each ceremony as it has been ordered from high antiquity. + +The emperor alone worshipped the supreme deity, Shang Ti; the great +officers of state, according to the dignity of their office, were +related to subordinate gods and required to show them adequate respect +and reverence. Confucius and a long line of noted men following him were +semi-deified [Footnote: Confucius was by imperial decree deified in +1908.] and highly reverenced by the literati, the class from which the +officers of state were as a rule obtained, in connection with their +duties, and as an expression of their ideals. To the common people were +left the ordinary local deities, while all classes, of course, each in +its own fashion reverenced, cherished and obeyed their ancestors. It +should be remarked at this point that Confucianism of this official +character has broken down, not only under the impact of modern ideas, +but under the longing of the Chinese for a universal deity. The people +turn to Heaven and to the Pearly Emperor, the popular counterpart of +Shang Ti. + +Viewed from another angle, Confucianism is an elaborate system of +ethics. In writings which are virtually the scriptures of the Chinese +people Confucius and his successors have set forth the principles which +should govern the life of a people who recognize this spiritual universe +and system. These ethics have grown out of a long and, in some respects, +a sound experience. Much can be said in their favor. The essential +weaknesses of the Confucian system of ethics lie in its sectional and +personal loyalties and its monarchical basis. The spirit of democracy is +a deadly foe to Confucianism. Another element of weakness is its +excessive dependence upon the past. Confucius reached ultimate wisdom by +the study of the best that had been attained before his day. He looked +backward rather than forward. Consequently a modern, broadly educated +Confucianist finds himself in an anomalous position. He does not need +absolutely to reject the wisdom which Confucianism embodies, but he can +no longer accept it as a sound, reliable and indisputable scheme of +thought and action. Yet its simple ethical principles and its social +relationships are basal in the lives of the vast masses of the Chinese. + +_5. Buddhism an Inclusive Religion._ + +Upon this, confused jumble of spiritism, superstition, loyalty to +ancestors and submission to a divine hierarchy Buddhism was +superimposed. It quickly dominated all because of its superior +excellence. The form of Buddhism which became established in China was +not, to be sure, like the Buddhism preached by Gautama and his +disciples, or like that form of Buddhism which had taken root in Burma +or Ceylon. Except in name, the Buddhism of Southern Asia and the +Buddhism which developed in China were virtually two distinct types of +religion. The Buddhism of Burma and Ceylon was of the conservative +Hînayâna ("Little Vehicle" of salvation) school, while that of China was +of the progressive Mahâyâna ("Great Vehicle" of salvation) school. Their +differences are so marked as to be worthy of a careful statement. + +The Hinayana, which is today the type of Buddhism in Ceylon, Burma and +Siam, has always clung closely to tradition as expressed in the original +Buddhist scriptures. Its basic ideas were that life is on the whole a +time of suffering, that the cause of this sorrow is desire or ignorance, +and that there is a possible deliverance from it. This deliverance or +salvation is to be attained by following the eightfold path, namely, +right knowledge, aspiration, speech, conduct, means of livelihood, +endeavor, mindfulness and meditation. To the beatific state to be +ultimately attained Gautama gave the name Nirvana, explained by his +followers variously either as an utter extinction of personality or as a +passionless peace, a general state of well-being free from all evil +desire or clinging to life and released from the chain of +transmigration. Hinayana Buddhism appeals to the individual as affording +a way of escape from evil desire and its consequences by acquiring +knowledge, by constant discipline, and by a devotedness of the life to +religious ends through membership in the monastic order which Buddha +established. It encourages, however, a personal salvation worked out by +the individual alone. + +The Mahâyâna school of Buddhists accept the general ideas of the +Hinayana regarding life and salvation, but so change the spirit and +objectives as to make Buddhism into what is virtually another religion. +It does not confine salvation to the few who can retire from the world +and give themselves wholly to good works, but opens Buddhahood to all. +The "saint" of Hinayana Buddhism is the _arhat_ who is intent on +saving himself. The saint of Mahâyâna Buddhism is the candidate for +Buddhahood (Bodhisattva) who defers his entrance into the bliss of +deliverance in order to save others. Mahâyâna Buddhism is progressive. +It encourages missionary enterprise and was a secret of the remarkable +spread of Buddhism over Asia. Moreover, while the Hînayâna school +recognizes no god or being to whom worship is given, the Mahâyanâ came +to regard Gautama himself as a god and salvation as life in a heavenly +world of pure souls. Thus the Mahâyâna type of thinking constitutes a +bridge between Hînayâna Buddhism and Christianity. In fact, a recent +writer has declared that Hînayâna Buddhists are verging toward these +more spiritual conceptions. [Footnote: See Saunders, _Buddhism and +Buddhists in Southern Asia,_ pp. 10, 20.] + +After the death of Sâkyamuni [Footnote: Sâkyamuni is the name by which +Gautama, the Buddha, is familiarly known in China.] Buddhism broke up +into a number of sects usually said to be eighteen in number. When +Buddhism came to China some of these sects were introduced, but they +assumed new forms in their Chinese environment. Besides the sects +brought, from India the Chinese developed several strong sects of their +own. Usually they speak of ten sects although the number is far larger, +if the various subdivisions are included. + +To indicate the manifold differences between these groups in Buddhism +would take us far afield and would not be profitable. It will be of +interest, however, to consider some of the chief sects. One of the sects +introduced from India is the Pure Land or the Ching T'u which holds +before the believer the "Western Paradise" gained through faith in +Amitâbha. Any one, no matter what his life may have been, may enter the +Western Paradise by repeating the name of Amitâbha. This sect is +widespread in China. In Japan there are two branches of it known as the +Nishi-Hongwanji and the Higashi-Hongwanji with their head monasteries in +Kyoto. They are the most progressive sects in Japan and are carrying on +missionary work in China, the Hawaiian Islands and in the United States. + +Another strong sect is the Meditative sect or the Ch'an Men (Zen in +Japan). This was introduced by Bodhidharma, or Tamo, who arrived in the +capital of China in the year 520 A.D. On his arrival the emperor Wu Ti +tried to impress the sage with his greatness saying: "We have built +temples, multiplied the Scriptures, encouraged many to join the Order: +is not there much merit in all this?" "None," was the blunt reply. "But +what say the holy books? Do they not promise rewards for such deeds?" +"There is nothing holy." "But you, yourself, are you not one of the holy +ones?" "I don't know." "Who are you?" "I don't know." Thus introduced, +the great man proceeded to open his missionary-labors by sitting down +opposite a wall arid gazing at it for the next nine years. From this he +has been called the "wall-gazer." He and his successors promulgated the +doctrine that neither the scriptures, the ritual nor the organization, +in fact nothing outward had any value in the attainment of +enlightenment. They held that the heart of the universe is Buddha and +that apart from the heart or the thought all is unreal. They thought +themselves back into the universal Buddha and then found the Buddha +heart in all nature. Thus they awakened the spirit which permeated +nature, art and literature and made the whole world kin with the spirit +of the Buddha. + + + "The golden light upon the sunkist peaks, + The water murmuring in the pebbly creeks, + Are Buddha. In the stillness, hark, he speaks!" + + +[Footnote: K. J. Saunders in _Epochs of Buddhist History._] + +Such pantheism and quietism often lead to a confusion in moral +relations, but these mystics were quite correct in their morals because +they checked up their mysticism with the moral system of the Buddha. + +Still another important sect originated in the sixth century A. D. on +Chinese soil, namely, the T'ien T'ai (Japanese Tendai), so called +because it started in a monastery situated on the beautiful T'ien T'ai +mountains south of Ningpo. Chih K'ai, the founder, realized that +Buddhism contained a great mass of contradictory teachings and practice, +all attributed to the Buddha. He sought for a harmonizing principle and +found it in the arbitrary theory that these teachings were given to +different people on five different occasions and hence the +discrepancies. The practical message of this sect has been that all +beings have the Buddha heart and that the Buddha loves all beings, so +that all beings may attain salvation, which consists in the full +realization of the Buddha heart latent in them. + +There was a time when these sects were very active and flourishing in +China. At the present time the various tendencies for which they stood +have been adopted by Buddhism as a whole and the various sectaries, +though still keeping the name of the sect, live peacefully in the same +monastery. All the monasteries practice meditation, believe in the +paradise of Amitâbha, and are enjoying the ironic calm advocated by the +T'ien T'ai. While the struggle among the sects of China has been +followed by a calm which resembles stagnation, those in Japan are very +active and the reader is referred to the volume of this series on +Japanese Buddhism for further treatment of the subject. + +When Buddhism entered China it brought with it a new world. It was new +_practical_ and new spiritually. It brought a knowledge unknown +before regarding the heavenly bodies, regarding nature and regarding +medicine, and a practice vastly above the realm of magical arts. In +addition to these practical benefits, Buddhism proclaimed a new +spiritual universe far more real and extensive than any of which the +Chinese had dreamed, and peopled with spiritual beings having +characteristics entirely novel. In comparison with this new universe or +series of universes which Indian imagination had created, the Chinese +universe was wooden and geometric. Since it was an organized system and +a greater rather than a different one, the Chinese people readily +accepted it and made it their own. + +Buddhism not only enlarged the universe and gave the individual a range +of opportunity hitherto unsuspected, but it introduced a scheme of +religious practice, or rather several of them, enabling the individual +devotee to attain a place in this spiritual universe through his own +efforts. These "ways" of salvation were quite in harmony with Chinese +ideas. They resembled what had already been a part of the national +practice and so were readily adopted and adapted by the Chinese. + +Buddhism rendered a great service to the Chinese through its new +estimate of the individual. Ancient China scarcely recognized the +individual. He was merged in the family and the clan. Taoists, to be +sure, talked of "immortals" and Confucianism exhibited its typical +personality, or "princely man," but these were thought of as supermen, +as ideals. The classics of China had very little to say about the common +people. The great common crowd was submerged. Buddhism, on the other +hand, gave every individual a distinct place in the great wheel +_dharma,_ the law, and made it possible for him to reach the very +highest goal of salvation. This introduced a genuinely new element into +the social and family life of the Chinese people. + +Buddhism was so markedly superior to any one of the four other methods +of expressing the religious life, that it quickly won practical +recognition as the real religion of China. Confucianism may be called +the doctrine of the learned classes. It formulates their principles of +life, but it is in no strict sense a popular religion. It is rather a +state ritual, or a scheme of personal and social ethics. Taoism +recognizes the immediate influence of the spirit world, but it ministers +only to local ideals and needs. In the usages of family and community +life, ancestor worship has a definite place, but an occasional one. +Buddhism was able to leave untouched each of these expressions of +Chinese personal and social life, and yet it went far beyond them in +ministering to religious development. Its ideas of being, of moral +responsibility and of religious relationships furnished a new psychology +which with all its imperfections far surpassed that of the Chinese. +Buddhism's organization was so satisfying and adaptable that not only +was it taken over readily by the Chinese, but it has also persisted in +China without marked changes since its introduction. Most of all it +stressed personal salvation and promised an escape from the impersonal +world of distress and hunger which surrounds the average Chinese into a +heaven ruled by Amitâbha [Footnote: Amitâbha, meaning "infinite light," +is the Sanskrit name of one of the Buddhas moat highly revered in China. +The usual Chinese equivalent is Omi-To-Fo.] the Merciful. The +obligations of Buddhism are very definite and universally recognized. It +enforces high standards of living, but has added significance because it +draws each devotee into a sort of fellowship with the divine, and mates +not this life alone, but this life plus a future life, the end of human +activity. Buddhism, therefore, really expresses the deepest religious +life of the people of China. + +It will be worth while to note some illustrations of the conviction of +the Chinese people that there are three religions to which they owe +allegiance and yet that these are essentially one. They often say, "The +three teachings are the whole teaching." An old scholar is reported to +have remarked, "The three roads are different, but they lead to the same +source." A common story reports that Confucius was asked in the other +world about drinking wine, which Buddhists forbid but Taoists permit. +Confucius replied: "If I do not drink I become a Buddha. If I drink I +become an Immortal. Well, if there is wine, I shall drink; if there is +none, I shall abstain." This expresses characteristically the Chinese +habit of adaptation. Such a decision sounds quite up to date. + +The Ethical Culture Society of Peking, recently organized, has upon its +walls pictures of Buddha, Lao Tzu, Confucius and Christ. Its members +claim to worship Shang Ti as the god of all religions. An offshoot of +this society, the T'ung Shan She, associates the three founders very +closely with Christ. It claims to have a deeper revelation of Christ +than the Christians themselves. A new organization, the Tao Yuan, plans +to harmonize the three old religions with Mohammedanism and +Christianity. + +Buddhism has consistently and continually striven to bring about a unity +of religion in China by interpenetrating Confucianism and Taoism. Quite +early the Buddhists invented the story that the Bodhisattva Ju T'ung was +really Confucius incarnate. There was at one time a Buddhist temple to +Confucius in the province of Shantung. The Buddhists also gave out the +story that Bodhisattva Kas'yapa was the incarnation of Lao Tzu, the +founder of Taoism. An artist painted Lao Tzu transformed into a Buddha, +seated in a lotus bud with a halo about his head. In front of the Buddha +was Confucius doing reverence. A Chinese scholar, asked for his opinion +about the picture, said: "Buddha should be seated; Lao Tzu should be +standing at the side looking askance at Buddha; and Confucius should be +grovelling on the floor." + +A monument dating from 543 A. D., illustrates this tendency of Buddhism +to represent its own superiority in Chinese religious life. At the top +of the monument is Brahma, lower down is Sâkyamuni with his disciples, +Ananda and Kas'yapa on one face, and on the other Sâkyamuni again, +conversing with Buddha Prabhutaratna and worshipped by monks and +Bodhisattvas. On the pedestal are Confucian and Taoist deities, ten in +number. Thus Buddhism sought to rank itself clearly above the other two +religions. From the early days Buddhism regarded itself as their +superior and began the processes of interpenetration and absorption. In +consequence the values originally inherent in Buddhism have come to be +regarded as the natural possession of the Chinese. It does express their +religious life, especially in South China, where outward manifestations +of religion are perhaps more marked than in the north. + + + + +IV + + +BUDDHISM AND THE PEASANT + +In order that, one may realize the place that Buddhism holds in the +religious life of the Chinese people as a whole, he must turn to the +organizations through which it functions. It is sometimes difficult to +estimate the place of Buddhism in China, because it so interpenetrates +the whole cultural and social life of the people. It becomes their +"way." To see how it touches the life of the average man or woman in +various ways will, therefore, be illuminating. The most outstanding +evidence of devotion are the many monasteries which dot the land in all +Buddhist countries. China is less dominated by them than other lands, +yet they form a very important reason for the persistence and strength +of Buddhism there. One of the famous old shrines will represent them as +a class and give evidence of their importance. + +_1. The Monastery of Kushan_ + +Kushan Monastery, located about four hours' ride by sedan-chair from +Foochow, is a famous shrine of South China. It occupies a large +amphitheater about fifteen hundred feet above the plain, part way up +Kushan, the "Drum Mountain," some three thousand feet high. From the top +of the mountain on clear days with the help of a glass the blue shores +of Formosa may be seen on the eastern horizon. The spacious monastery +buildings are surrounded by a grove of noble trees, in which squirrels, +pheasants, chipmunks and snakes enjoy an undisturbed life. + +The ascent to the monastery begins on the bank of the Min River. At the +foot of the mountain in a large temple the traveler may obtain mountain +chairs carried by two or more coolies. The road, paved with granite +slabs cut from the mountain side, consists of a series of stone stairs, +which zig-zag up the mountain under the shadow of ancient pine trees. +Every turn brings to view a bit of landscape carpeted with rice, or a +distant view where mountains and sky meet. A brook rushes by the side of +the road. Here it breaks into a beautiful waterfall. There it gurgles' +in a deep ravine. The sides of the road are covered with large granite +blocks which, loosened from the mountain side by earthquakes, have +disposed themselves promiscuously. Their blackened, weather-beaten sides +are incised with Chinese characters. One of them bears the words: "We +put our trust in Amitâbha." Another immortalizes the sentiments of some +great official who has made the pilgrimage to the mountain. Near the +monastery stand the sombre dagobas where repose the ashes of former +abbots and monastery officials. Not far away on the other side of the +road, hidden by trees, is the crematory where the last remains of the +brethren are consumed by the flames. + +As one approaches the monastery he hears the regular sounds of a bell +tolled by a water-wheel, reminding the faithful of Buddha's law. He sees +monks strolling leisurely about and lay brethren carrying wood, +cultivating the gardens, or tending the animals released by pious +devotees to heap up merit for themselves in the next world. Just inside +the main gate is a large fish pond, where goldfish of great size +struggle with one another, and with the lazy turtles, for the round hard +cakes purchased from the monks by the merit-seeking devotee. + +The monastery itself consists of a large group of buildings erected +about stone-paved courts, rising in terraces on the mountain side. The +large court at the entrance leads to the "Hall of the Four Kings." As +one enters the spacious door, he _is_ faced by a jolly, almost +naked image of the "Laughing Buddha." This is Maitrêya, the Mea siah of +the Buddhists, who will return to the world five thousand years after +the departure of Sâkyamuni. In the northern monasteries Maitrêya is +often represented as reaching a height when standing of seventy feet or +more, which indicates the stature to which man will attain when he +returns to earth. On each side of the visitor are two immense images of +the Deva kings. In Brahman cosmogony they were the guardians of the +world. In this entrance hall of the Buddhist monastery they stand as +guardians of the Buddhist faith. In the same hall looking toward the +open court beyond is Wei To, another guardian deity of Buddhism. +Somewhere near by is Kuan Ti, the god worshipped by the soldiers and +merchants. Although a Confucian god, he was early adopted by Buddhist +monks into their pantheon and made the guardian of their Order. + +Beyond this entrance hall is a large stone-paved court. On the right +side is a bell-tower whose bell is tolled by a monk who has kept the vow +of silence for fourteen years. On the left is a drum-tower. On the right +one finds a series of small shrines. A passage way leads to the library +where numerous Buddhist writings repose in lacquered cases, some of them +written in their own blood by devout monks. On the same side are guest +halls, the dining room for three hundred monks, and the spacious, well +equipped kitchen with running water piped from a reservoir in the hills +above. A store where books, images and the simple requirements of the +monks can be obtained is just above the dining room. On the left side of +the court are large buildings used as dormitories far the monks, +storerooms, and for housing the great printing establishment with its +thousands of wooden blocks on which are carved passages from the +Buddhist scriptures. Here also are kept the coffins in which the monks +are to be burned. + +On a terrace above the north side of the court rises the main hall, +called the "Hall of the Triratna," the Buddhist Trinity, where three +gilded images are seated on a lotus flower with halos covering their +backs and heads. The center image is that of Sâkyamuni, the Buddha. On +his right is Yao Shih, the Buddha of medicine, and on the left, +Amitâbha. Quite often these images are said to represent the Buddha, the +Law and the Community of Monks. On the altar are candlesticks and a fine +incense burner from which curls of smoke arise. An immense lamp hangs +from the ceiling. In the rear are banners with praises to Buddha given +by pious devotees. The floor is tiled and covered with round mats made +of palm fiber on which the monks kneel during worship. Before the mats +are low stands for books. On each side of this main hall are the images +of nine Buddhist saints (_arhats_), eighteen in all. Behind this +large temple opens another court and on a terrace above it stands the +hall of the Law with the images of Kuan Yin, the goddess of Mercy, and +the twenty-four devas. Here also are small images of viceroys and +patrons of the monastery. + +The hillsides are dotted with numerous temples and shrines. There is one +to Chu-Hsi, the great philosopher of the Sung dynasty, who was born in +Fukien. In it are preserved a few characters indited by his hand. On the +west side of the monastery are large buildings for the housing of +animals released by merit-seeking devotees. Here cows, hogs, goats, +chickens, geese and ducks spend their old age without fear of beginning +their transmigration by forming the main portion of a Chinese feast. + +The monastery is governed by an abbot, usually a man of good business +ability, elected by the monks. Under him are the officers of the two +wings or groups of attendants. One set looks after the spiritual +interests, of the monks; the-other takes care of their material needs: +The monks have worship about two o'clock in the morning and again at +about four in the afternoon. The rest of the long day they spend in +meditation, or study, in strolling about the mountain side or in sleep. +Their life is separated from all stirring contact with the life of the +world. + +_2. Monasteries Control Fêng-shui_ + +This monastery with its appointments is a good type of the monasteries +all over China. It was founded at the request of the inhabitants of the +neighborhood, because the dragons of the region used to cause much +damage to the crops in the surrounding country. A holy monk came, +founded the monastery, and by his good influence so curbed the dragons +that the country-side has enjoyed peace ever since and the monastery has +prospered. Since the fourth century of our era records show that by the +building of monasteries in strategic place's holy monks brought rains +and prosperity to various regions, or prevented floods and calamities +from damaging the villages. In other words the monasteries are regarded +as the controllers of _fêng-shui_ (wind and water). According to +the Chinese philosophy winds and water are spiritual forces and may be +so controlled by other spiritual forces that instead of bringing harm +they will confer benefit upon the people. Floods and dry seasons are so +frequent in China that any institution holding out the promise of +regulating them would become firmly established in the affection of the +people. The monasteries have taken this place. + +One of the picturesque features of a Chinese landscape is the pagoda. +These structures were introduced in the early stages of Buddhism to +enshrine the relics of Buddha. It was said that Buddha's body consisted +of eighty thousand parts, hence numerous pagodas were erected to shelter +these relics. Inasmuch as a pagoda contained the relics of Buddha, it +possessed magic power and so came to play a great part in the control of +the winds and the rains. The pagoda in China has an odd number of +stories varying from three to thirteen. The odd numbers belong to the +positive principle in nature which is superior to the negative +principle. The pagoda plays quite a part in the festivals of the people. +On certain occasions the stories are hung with lanterns and the pagodas +are visited by numerous throngs. + +_3. Prayer for Rain_ + +Prayers for rain afford such a common illustration of the relation of +Buddhism to the life of the peasant that a detailed presentation of such +a service may be of seal value. + +During a prolonged drought in some district of China, when the heat +opens gaping cracks in the fields and the grain is drying up, the +populace may visit their highest official and apprise him of the dire +situation. He often forbids the slaughter of all animals for three days +and, in case rain has not thereby come, he goes in person or sends a +deputy to the nearest monastery to direct the monks to pray for rain. + +_(a) The Altar._--On such an occasion the great hall of the Law may +be used for the ceremony. Quite often a special altar is erected in an +enclosure near the monastery on a platform one foot high and twenty-five +feet on each side, overspread by a tent of green cloth. In the center +seats are arranged for the presiding monk and his assistants. On each of +the four sides of the altar is placed an image of the Dragon King who is +supposed to control the rain. If an image is not obtainable a piece of +paper inscribed with the name of the dragon may be used. Flowers, fruits +and incense are spread before the images. On the doors of the tent are +painted dragons with clouds. The tent and altar are green and the monks +wear green garments, because green belongs to the spring and suggests +rain. For this ceremony the monks prepare themselves by abstinence and +cleansing. The presiding monk is one of high moral character and +religious fervor. While some monks recite appropriate sutras, two others +look after the offerings, the incense, and the sprinkling of water +during the ceremony to suggest the coming of rain. The services continue +day and night, being conducted by groups of monks in succession. + +_(b) The Prayer Service._--The ceremonial is opened by a chant as +follows: + +"Pearly dew of the jade heavens, golden waves of Buddha's ocean, scatter +the lotus flowers on a thousand thousand worlds of suffering, that the +heart of mercy may wash away great calamity, that a drop may become a +flood, that a drop may purify mountains and rivers. + +"We put our trust in the Bodhisattvas and Mahâsattvas that purify the +earth." + +The chant ended, a monk takes a bowl of water and repeats thrice: "We +put our trust in the great merciful Kuan Yin Bodhisattva." Then follows +the chant: + +"The Bodhisattva's sweet dew of the willow is able to make one drop +spread over the ten directions. It washes away the rank odors and dirt. +It keeps the altars clean and pure. The mysterious words of the doctrine +will be reverently repeated." + +This chant ended, the monks intone incantations of Kuan Yin, quite +unintelligible even to them, but of magical value. While these are being +uttered, the presiding monk and his attendants walk around the altar, +while one of them with a branch sprinkles water on the floor. This +symbolizes the cleansing of the altar and of the monks from all +impurities which might render the ritual ineffective. When the +perambulating monks have returned to their place, while the sprinkler +continues his duties, the monks repeat the words: "We put our trust in +the sweet dew kings, Bodhisattvas and Mahâsattvas." + +The Bodhisattvas have now come to the purified altar and while the abbot +offers incense to them, the monks repeat the words: + +"The fields are destroyed so that they resemble the back of a tortoise. +The demons of drought produce calamity. The dark people [Footnote: A +term denoting the Chinese.] pray earnestly while crops are being +destroyed. We pray that abundant, limpid liquid may descend to purify +and refresh the whole world. The clouds of incense rise." + +This plaint is repeated thrice and is followed by an invocation: + +"Wholeheartedly we cast ourselves to the earth, O Triratna, who dost +exist eternally in the realm of _dharma_ of the ten directions." + +The leader remains quiet a long time with his eyes closed, visualizing +the Buddhas, the Bodhisattvas, the dragon kings, and the saints, all +with their heavenly eyes and ears knowing that this region is afflicted +with drought, that an altar has been constructed and that all have come +to make petition. This meditation is regarded as of chief importance. It +is followed by an announcement to the effect that the sutra praying for +rain was given by the Buddha, that a drought is afflicting the land, +that the altar has been erected in accordance with the regulations and +that prayer is being made for rain. But fearing that something may have +been overlooked, the magic formula of "the king of light who turns the +wheel" is read seven times so as to remedy such oversight. + +The altar having thus been cleansed of all impurities, the rain sutra is +opened and the one hundred and eighty-eight dragon kings are urged by +name in groups of ten to take action. The formula is as follows: + +"We with our whole heart invite such and such dragon kings to come. We +desire that the heart and wisdom which knows others intuitively will +move the spirits above to obey the Buddha, to take pity on the people +below and to come to our province and send down sweet rain." + +When the dragons have all been duly invited, the monks chant suitable +magical formulas, while the leader sits in meditation visualizing these +dragon kings and their tender solicitude for the people in distress. The +monastery bell is sounded and the wooden fish is beaten, while drums and +cymbals add their effect. The whole is intended to draw the attention of +the dragon kings to the drought. Then the fifty-four Buddhas are invited +in a similar manner in groups of ten, the sixth group consisting of +four. A similar form of address is used and similar magical formulas are +recited with the noisy accompaniment. The ceremony concludes by the +expression of the hope that the three jewels (Buddha, the Law and the +Community of Monks) and the dragon kings will grant the rain. + +Upon the altar are four copies of an announcement to the dragon kings +and Buddhas. On the first day three copies are sent to them through the +flames, one to the Buddhas, one to the dragon kings and one to the +devas. One copy is read daily and then sent up at the thanksgiving +ceremony. The announcement is as follows: + +"We put our trust in the limitless, reverent ocean clouds, the dragons +of august virtue and all their host, all dragon kings and holy saints. +Their august virtue is difficult to measure. In accord with the command +of Buddha they send liquid rain. May their quiet mercy descend to the +altar; may they send down purity and freshness, spreading over the ten +directions. We put our trust in the company of dragon kings of the +clouds, the saints and the Bodhisattvas." + +The offerings are made only in the morning inasmuch as the Buddhas, +following ancient custom, are not supposed to eat after the noonday +meal. Great care is taken that the altar shall not be desecrated by any +one who eats meat or drinks wine. The magic formulas of great mercy are +uttered or the name of Kuan Yin is repeated a thousand times. The monks, +take turn in these services which continue day and night until rain +comes. + +_(c) Its Meaning._--In the religious consciousness of the people is +the idea that the drought is a punishment for sin. The altar is made +pure and acceptable and sin is removed in various symbolic ways. This +fits in with the idea that man is an intimate part of the world order. +His sin disturbs the order of nature. Heaven manifests displeasures by +sending down calamities upon men. Men should cease their wrongdoing +which disturbs the natural order and should also wash away the effects +of their sins. The services for rain with their magic formulas help to +clear away the consequences of sin and to predispose Heaven to grant its +blessings again. + +_4. Monasteries Are Supported Because They Control Fêng-shui_ + +The prayers for rain are an important part of the Chinese peasant's +world order. Drought is the manifestation of Heaven's displeasure at the +infraction of Heaven's laws. It calls for self-examination and +repentance. Thus the monastery opens up the windows of the universal +order as this touches the humble tiller of the soil. + +The Buddhist monasteries not only hold services in time of drought, but +also in time of flood and at times when plagues of grasshoppers afflict +the land, or when diseases afflict human beings. Their adoption of +Chinese customs led them to have special ceremonies at the eclipse of +the sun and moon, although they knew the cause of the eclipse. Peasants +and officials support the monastery because of these services regulating +the wind and water influences and through them bringing the people into +harmonious relation with the great world of spirits. + + + + + + +BUDDHISM AND THE FAMILY + +One of the criticisms of the Chinese against Buddhism is that it is +opposed to filial piety. According to Mencius the greatest unfilial act +is to leave no progeny. In spite of this charge Buddhism has done much +for the family. It has taken over the ethics of the family, filial +piety, obedience and respect for elders, and has made them a part of its +system. Transgression of these fundamental duties is visited by dire +punishments in the next world. The faithful observance is followed not +only by the rewards of the Confucian system, but results in the greatest +rewards in the future life. + +_1. Kuan Yin, the Giver of Children and Protector of Women_ + +Buddhism has done more. Out of its atmosphere of love and mercy toward +all beings has developed Kuan Yin, the ideal of Chinese womanhood, the +goddess of Mercy, who embodies the Chinese ideal of beauty, filial piety +and compassion toward the weak and suffering. She is especially the +goddess of women, being interested in all their affairs. Her image is +found in almost every household and her temples have a place in every +part of China. + +A brief history of this deity will enable us to understand the +significance of the cult. Kuan Yin started as a male god in India, +called Avalôkitêsvara, who was worshipped from the third to the seventh +century of our era. He was the protector of sailors and people in +danger. In the course of time, either in China or in India, the god +became a goddess. Some think that this was due to the influence of +Christianity. In China both forms survive, though the goddess is better +known. A Buddhist once said that a Bodhisattva is neither male nor +female and appears in whatever form is convenient. + +Kuan Yin is a very popular goddess. Her experiences in Hades are +dramatically presented by traveling theatrical companies. Her deeds of +mercy are portrayed in art. Her well known story runs as follows: + +Kuan Yin was the daughter of the ruler of a prosperous kingdom located +somewhere near the island of Sumatra. Her birth was announced to the +queen by a dream. The little girl ate no meat nor milk. Her disposition +was very good. Her intelligence was most extraordinary. Once she read +anything she never forgot it. + +At the age of sixteen her father tried to betroth her to a young prince. +She refused and decided to give herself to a life of fasting and +abstinence. Angered b-v her obstinacy the father ordered her to take off +her court dress and jewels, to put on the garb of a servant and to carry +water for the garden. The garden never looked so beautiful. The daughter +also looked well and showed no signs of weariness, because the gods +assisted her in her work. + +Relenting a little the king sent an older sister to urge Kuan Yin to +accept the husband he had found for her. When she refused, he sent her +to a monastery and charged the abbess to treat her harshly, so that she +might be forced to return home. Expecting to win the king's favor, the +abbess put the most unpleasant tasks on the girl. But again the gods +assisted her and made her work light, so that her tasks were always well +done and the young woman was cheerful. + +One day the report came to the king that his daughter was associating +with a young monk discussing heterodox doctrines and that she had given +birth to a child. This news so enraged the king that he burned the +monastery, killing many monks. The princess was captured and brought +before him. Inasmuch as she was obdurate, the king ordered her to be +executed. The executioner's sword, however, broke into a thousand pieces +without doing her any injury. The king then ordered her to be strangled. +A golden image sixteen feet high appeared on the spot. The princess +laughed and cried: "Where there was no image, an image appeared. I see +the real form. When body flesh is strangled, then appear the lights of +ten thousand roads." She went to purgatory and purgatory at once changed +into paradise. Yama, in order to save his purgatory, sent her back to +the world. She appeared at Puto, an island off the coast of Chekiang +near Ningpo. Here she rescued sailors and performed many miracles for +people in distress. + +In the meantime the father, who had committed many sins, became sick. +His allotted time of life had been shortened by twenty years. Moreover, +an ulcer grew on his body for every one of the five hundred monks he had +killed when he burned the monastery. A miserable, loathsome old man, he +came to an old monk, who was really the princess in disguise, and asked +for help. The monk told him that an eye and an arm of a blood relative +made into medicine was the only cure for his trouble. The two living +daughters were willing to make such an offering, but their husbands +would not permit them to do so. The old monk urged the monarch to take +up a life of abstinence, to rebuild the monastery he had burned, and to +provide money for services to take the five hundred monks whom he had +killed through purgatory. He also said that a nun in the convent would +offer an arm and an eye. When the monarch entered the monastery, he +found hanging before the incense burner an arm and an eye. These were +boiled, mixed with medicine and rubbed on the king's body. He soon +became well. Further inquiry revealed that these members belonged to his +daughter. + +This is the story of the most popular goddess in China. She is +worshipped by her devotees on the first and fifteenth of every month, on +the nineteenth of the sixth month, when she became a Bodhisattva, and on +the nineteenth of the ninth month, when she put on the necklace. A month +after marriage every young bride is presented with an image of the +Goddess of Mercy, an incense-burner and candlesticks. + +This goddess is worshipped whenever trouble comes to man or woman. Her +names signify her willingness to listen to all prayers. She is the "one +who regards the voice," i.e., prayer; "one who hears the prayers of the +world;" "one who regards and exists by himself as sovereign;" "the +ancestor of Buddha who regards prayer;" "one who frees from fear;" +"Buddha the august king;" "the great white robed scholar;" "great +compassion and mercy." + +_2. Kuan Yin, the Model of Local Mother-Goddesses_ + +This conception is the creation of the social and religious +consciousness of the women in China. It reveals their aspirations for +mercy, compassion, filial piety and for the beauty that crowns a well +developed character. Such an ideal does not mean that these have been +realized in all the numerous homes of the Chinese, but it manifests +their sense of such an ideal to be realized in life and their ardent +longing for its realization. + +Mother-goddesses are found all over China and they have all of them been +influenced by Kuan Yin. Some of them have originated with actual women +who were deified after death. Here is the story of one of these +goddesses who presides over the censer in a small temple in Formosa. She +was born in the province of Kuangtung. At the age of seven she was +adopted by a family as the future wife of their eighteen-year-old son. +One day while crossing a river he was drowned. This was a great blow to +her. When she was fourteen years old the father of the family died. The +two women, thus left alone, wept bitterly day and night. The comfort of +relatives was of little avail. The mother was becoming emaciated with +grief. The daughter, unable to bear the strain any longer, washed +herself, burned incense before the ancestral tablet of her betrothed, +and then took this vow: + +"I am willing to remain a virgin, to apply myself to carrying water and +working at the mortar and to serve my mother-in-law. If I cherish any +other purpose and change my chastity and obedience, may Heaven slay me +and earth annihilate me." + +When the mother heard this vow she stopped her weeping. Inasmuch as they +had no uncle to look after them, they worked day and night. A relative +of her future husband gave her one of his sons as an adopted son. The +child died after a few months. This was a great grief. Then the mother +died. The daughter sold her possessions to obtain money for a proper +burial. She had only a coarse mourning cloth for her dress. After a +while she adopted a child as her son. When he grew up she found him a +wife who served her as faithfully as she had served her mother-in-law. +When she was eighty years old, she dreamed that the golden maid and jade +messenger of Kuan Yin stood beside her saying: "The court of Heaven has +ordered you to become a god (shên)." She died soon after this. She said +of herself: + +"Shang Ti took compassion upon me during my life, because with a firm +heart I kept my chastity and served my mother-in-law with complete +obedience. Therefore he gave me the office of Kuan Pin. I have performed +my duties in several places. Now I am transferred to Formosa." + +This story and many others like it mirror the moral ideals of the women +of China in the midst of their struggles for help and light and +guidance. + +_3. Exhortations on Family Virtues_ + +The Buddhists issue a large number of tracts. These are very commonly +paid for by devotees who make a vow that, if their parent becomes well, +they will pay for the printing of several hundred or thousand of these +tracts for free distribution. In these tracts are usually many stories +illustrating the rewards of filial piety. The story is told in one of +them about a Mrs. Chin whose father-in-law being ill was unable to +sleep for sixty days. His condition grew worse. Mrs. Chin knelt before +Kuan Yin's altar, cut out a piece of flesh from her arm and cooked it +with the father's food. His health at once improved and he lived to the +age of seventy-seven. Another story is told in the same tract of a woman +who cut out a piece of her liver and gave it as medicine to her +mother-in-law. + +These Buddhist tracts take up all the moral habits which make the family +and clan strong and stable and surround them by the highest sanctions. A +tract picked up in a Buddhist temple at Hangchow purports to be the +revelation of the will of Buddha. It urges sixteen virtues. The first is +filial piety. The tract says: + +"Filial piety is the chief of all virtues. Heaven and Earth honor filial +piety. There is no greater sin than to cherish unfilial thoughts. The +spirits know the beginning of such thoughts. Heaven openly rewards a +heart that is filial." + +The second one mentioned is another important family virtue, namely, +reverence: + +"The saints, sages, immortals and Buddhas are the outgrowth of +reverence. The greatest sin is to lack reverence for father and mother. +When brothers lack reverence for one another, they harm the hands and +feet. When husband and wife lack reverence, the harmony of the household +is ruined. When friends do not have reverence, they bring about +calamity." + +Then follow similar exhortations on sincerity, justice, self-restraint, +forbearance, benevolence, generosity, absence of pride, covetousness, +lying, adultery, mutual love, self-denial, hope for the consolations of +religion and for an undivided heart ruled by peace. These are virtues +quite essential to the integrity of the family. They are taught, not in +the abstract but by the exhibition of shining examples, by vivid +representations of the rewards both here and hereafter, and by pictures +of awful punishments. So by precept and example, by threat of punishment +here and hereafter and by declaration of reward in the future Buddhism +has tried to maintain the family virtues of the Confucian system and has +attempted to permeate them by the spirit of sacrifice. Still it has +always been the sacrifice of the weak for the strong, of the young for +the aged, of the low for the high, of women for men. + +_4. Services for the Dead_ + +Buddhism very early took over the relatively simple services for the +dead and developed them into an elaborate ritual which made very vivid +the spiritual universe which Buddhism introduced. In the sixth century a +service was held in behalf of the father-in-law of Emperor Ning Ti +(516-528 A. D.) for seven times every seven days. He feasted a thousand +monks every day, and caused seven persons to become monks. On the +hundredth day after the death he feasted ten thousand monks and caused +twenty-seven persons to become monks. + +Since that time services on every seventh day after the decease until +the forty-ninth day, when a grand finale ends the ceremonies, have been +very popular. + +The object of such services is to conduct the soul of the dead through +purgatory, in order that it may return to life or enter the Western +Paradise. This is done by making a pleasing offering to the guardians +and officers of purgatory, and to the gods and Bodhisattvas whose mercy +saves people. Numerous missives are consigned to the flames, informing +the rulers of the nether world about the soul of the dead; offerings of +gold and silver, of various articles of apparel, of trunks, houses, and +servants are made, all, however, made out of bamboo frames covered with +paper. Various powerful incantations are recited which force open the +gates of purgatory and let the soul out. + +The services may be crowded into one day or they may be held on every +seventh day until the forty-ninth day, i.e., seven sevens. Various +explanations are given' for these services. + +During the first week the soul of the dead arrives at the "Demon Gate +Barrier." Here money is demanded by the demons on the ground that in his +last transmigration the deceased borrowed money. Accordingly large +quantities of silver shoes [Footnote: The silver used for this purpose +is molded, in accordance with ancient usage, in the shape of shoes and +carried about in that form by merchants.] must be sent to the dead so +that he may settle all claims and avoid beating and inconvenience. +During the second week the soul arrives at a place where he is weighed. +If the evil outweighs the good, the soul is sawn asunder and ground to +powder. In the third week he comes to the "Bad Dog" village. Here good +people pass unharmed, but the evil are torn by the fierce beasts until +the blood flows. In the fourth week the soul is confronted with a large +mirror in which he sees his evil deeds and their consequences, seeing +himself degraded in the next transmigration to a beast. In the fifth +week the soul views the scenes in his own village. + +In the sixth week he reaches the bridge which spans the "Inevitable +River." This bridge is 100,000 feet high and one and three-tenths of an +inch wide. It is crossed by riding astride as on a horse. Beneath rushes +the whirl-pool filled with serpents darting their heads to and fro. At +the foot of the bridge lictors force unwilling travelers to ascend. The +good do not cross this bridge, but are led by "golden youth" to gold and +silver bridges which cross the stream on either side of this "Bridge of +Sighs." + +In the seventh week the soul is taken first to Mrs. Wang who dispenses a +drink which blots out all memories of the earthly life. Then the +individual enters the great wheel of transmigration. This is divided +into eighty-one sections from which one hundred and eight thousand small +and tortuous paths radiate out into the four continents of the world. +The soul is directed along one of these paths and is duly reborn in the +world as an animal or as a human being or passes on into the Western +Paradise. + +In imitation of this bridge a bridge is built of tables in front of the +home of the dead. At the end the tables are placed upside down and a +lantern placed on each table-leg. At night this bridge is illuminated. A +company of monks repeat their prayers and incantations, while others +mount upon the bridge to impersonate devils. The pious son with the +tablet of his deceased parent comes to take his father over the bridge. +When his way is disputed by the demons, he falls on his knees and begs +and gives them money, negotiating the passage at last with the aid of a +large quantity of silver. + +Another ceremony is the breaking through purgatory. Five supplications +duly signed are addressed to the proper authorities, four being +suspended at each of the four sides of the table and one at the center. +Tiles are then placed over the table or on the ground. After +incantations have been repeated to the accompaniment of the sounding of +the bell and the wooden fish, the supplications are burned and the tiles +are broken as a symbol of breaking through purgatory and of releasing +the soul. + +Thus Buddhism has taken over the most important function of ancestor +worship, has extended it and made it more significant to each individual +as well as to the family. + + + + +VI + + +BUDDHISM AND SOCIAL LIFE + +_1. How the Laity is Trained in Buddhist Ideas_ + +A common way of emphasizing moral ideas among the people by Buddhist +teachers is the use of tracts purporting to have a divine origin. The +following gives the substance of such a tract: + +Not long ago in the province of Shantung, there was a sharp and sudden +clap of thunder. After the frightened people had collected their wits, +they discovered a small book written in red in front of the house of a +certain Mr. Li. Mr. Li picked up the book, copied it and read it +reverently. He gave a copy to Mr. Ma, the prefect, but Mr. Ma did not +believe in the book. Thereupon Maitrêya, the Messiah of the Buddhists, +spoke from the sky as follows: + + + "These are the years of the final age. The people under + heaven do not reverence Heaven and Earth, they are not + filial to father and mother, they do not respect their + superiors. They cheat the fatherless, impose upon the + widow, oppress the weak; they use large weights for + themselves and small measures for others. They injure the good. + They covet for their own profit. They cheat men of money, + use the five grains carelessly, kill the cow that draws the + plow. This volume is sent for their special benefit. If + they recite it they will avoid trouble. If they disbelieve, + the years with the cyclical character _Ping_ and _Ting_ will + have fields without men to plant them and houses without + men to live in them. In the fifth month of these years + evil serpents will infest the whole country. In the eighth + and ninth months the bodies of evil men will fill the land. + + "Those who believe this book and propagate its teachings + will not encounter the ten sorrows of the age: war, + fire, no peace day and night, separation of man and wife, + the scattering of the sons and daughters, evil men spread + over the country, dead bones unburied, clothing with no + one to wear it, rice with no one to eat it, and the difficulty + of ever seeing a peaceful year. Sâkyamuni foreseeing this + final age sent down this volume in Shantung. The Goddess + of Mercy saw the sorrows of all living beings. + Maitrêya commanded the two runners of T'ai Shan, the + god of the Eastern Mountain, to investigate the conduct + of men and as a first punishment to increase the price of + rice, and then besides the ten sorrows already mentioned + above, to inflict the punishments of flood, fire, wind, + thunder, tigers, snakes, sword, disease, famine and cold. + The rule of Sâkyamuni which has lasted twelve thousand + years is now fulfilled, and Maitrêya succeeds to his place." + + +These sorrows may be escaped by reciting this sutra whose substance we +find above. If it is repeated three times the person will escape the +calamity of fire and water. If one man passes it on to ten men and ten +men pass it on to a hundred, they will escape the calamities of sword, +disease and imprisonment, and receive blessings which cannot be +measured. He who in addition to repeating the sutra practices abstinence +will insure peace for himself. He who presents one hundred copies to +others will insure his personal peace. He who presents a thousand copies +will insure the peace of his family. He who is attacked by disease, may +escape it by taking five cash of the reign of Shun Chih (1644-1661 A. +D.), the first emperor of the Ch'ing dynasty, one mace of the seed of +cypress, one mace of the bark of mulberry, boil in one bowl of water +until only eight-tenths of the water remain, drink and he will become +well. + +In this way the five Buddhist commandments for the laity not to kill any +living creature, not to steal, not to commit adultery, not to lie, and +not to use intoxicating liquor are propagated and made real to the +common man. The method is quite efficient. Whole provinces have been put +into a panic by such prophecies. + +_2. Effect of Ideals of Mercy and Universal Love_ + +The command not to kill any living being has had considerable influence +in China. There are volumes of stories telling of the punishments which +will be visited upon those who disobey and of the rewards of those who +release living animals. Every monastery has a special place for animals +thus released by pious devotees. + +There is a popular story about a fishmonger of the T'ang dynasty who was +taken sick and during his illness dreamed that he was taken to +purgatory. His body was aflame with fire and pained him as though he +were being roasted. Flying fiery chariots with darting flames swept +around him and burned his body. Ten thousand fish strove with one +another to get a bite of his flesh. The ruler of the lower regions +accused him of killing many fish and hence his punishment. For a number +of days he was hanging between life and death. His relatives were urged +to perform some works of penance. They had his fishing implements +burned. With reverent hearts they made two images of Kuan Yin, presented +offerings and repented. The whole family performed abstinence, stopped +killing living things, printed and gave away over a hundred copies of +the Diamond Sutra, and ferried over a large number of souls through +purgatory. As a result of their efforts the sick man became well. + +The following comment was made on the above story by a scholar. If its +premises are granted, the conclusion is inevitable: + +"If the fiery chariots are seal, why does not man see them? If they are +false, how is it that man feels the pain? But where do the fiery +chariots come from? They come from the heart and head of the one who +kills fish. The fire in the heart (heart belongs to the element fire) +causes destruction. The chariot fire also causes destruction." + +This attitude of mercy has been extended to human beings. There are +numerous tracts against the drowning of little girls in those regions +where this custom is prevalent. One tells the following story: + +In the province of Kwangtung there lived a Mrs. Chang who daily burned +incense and repeated Buddha's name. One day she and her husband died. +Much to their surprise and consternation Yama (the potentate of hell) +decided that Mr. Chang must become a pig and Mrs. Chang a dog. Mrs. +Chang accordingly went to Yama and said, "During life we honored Buddha +and so why should we become animals after death?" Yama said, "What use +is it to honor Buddha? During life you drowned three girls whom I sent +into life. People with the face of a man and the heart of a beast, +should they not be punished?" The husband accordingly took on a pig's +skin and the wife a dog's. Then by a dream they revealed to their +brother Chang number two that, although they repeated Buddha's name, +they were not permitted to be reborn as men, because they had drowned +little girls. + +Perhaps the extent of this spirit, of mercy and its possibilities may be +illustrated by the reverence for the ox. While there is a great deal of +cruelty in China to animals and men, it is rarely that one sees an ox +abused. Up to the advent of the foreigner an ox was not killed for meat. +In many places in China today the slaughter of an ox would bring the +punishments of the law upon the butcher. No doubt this reverence is due +to the great Indian reverence for the cow. The law of kindness has been +extended to other animals, taking the rather spectacular form of +releasing a few decrepit animals and allowing them to spend their last +days in a monastery compound. There are many kindly things done in +China. The dead are buried, the sick are provided with medicine. Every +year numerous wadded garments are given away to poor people. Various +groups carrying on a humble ministry of helpfulness have found a real +inspiration in the ideals held before them in Buddhism, the rewards +promised and punishments threatened. + +_3. Relation to Confucian Ideals_ + +Why have not these ideals exercised a larger influence in China? The +answer is quite simple. The activities of the monks have been +strenuously opposed by the Confucian state system. The philosopher, +Chang Nan-hsiian, a contemporary of Chu-Hsi, states concisely for us the +differences betwen Confucianism and Buddhism in his comment on a passage +in the _Book of Records._ + +"Strong drink is a thing intended to be-used in offering sacrifices and +entertaining guests,--such employment of it is what Heaven has +prescribed. But men by their abuse of such drink come to lose their +virtue and destroy their persons--such employment of it is what Heaven +has annexed its terrors to. The Buddhists, hating the use of things +where Heaven sends down its terrors, put away as well the use of them +which Heaven has prescribed. + +"For instance, in the use of meats and drinks, there is such a thing as +wildly abusing and destroying the creatures of Heaven. The Buddhists, +disliking this, confine themselves to a vegetable diet, while we only +abjure wild abuse and destruction. In the use of clothes, again, there +is such a thing as wasteful extravagance. The Buddhists, disliking this, +will have no clothes but those of a dark and sad color, while we only +condemn extravagance. They, further, through dislike of criminal +connection between the sexes, would abolish the relation between husband +and wife, while we denounce only the criminal connection. + +"The Buddhists, disliking the excesses to which the evil desires of men +lead, would put away, along with them, the actions which are in +accordance with the justice of heavenly principles, while we, the +orthodox, put away the evil desires of men, whereupon what are called +heavenly principles are the more brightly seen. Suppose the case of a +stream of water. The Buddhists, through dislike of its being foul with +mud, proceed to dam it up with earth. They do not consider that when the +earth has dammed up the stream, the supply of water will be cut off. It +is not so with us, the orthodox. We seek only to cleanse away the mud +and sand, so that the pure water may be available for use. This is the +difference between the Buddhists and the Learned School." [Footnote: +_Shu King,_ Pt. V, Bk. X, p. 122.] + +This statement reveals at once the opposition of the sect of the Learned +and the influence which Buddhism exerted upon its members. + +Buddhism while enjoying occasional favor from the state was often +zealously persecuted. In 819 Han Yii issued his celebrated act of +accusation. In 845 the emperor Wu Tsung issued his decree of +secularization. At that time 4600 monasteries and 40,000 smaller +establishments were pulled down and 265,000 monks and nuns were sent +back to lay life. Their rich lands were confiscated. Under the Ming +dynasty, as well as under the Ch'ing dynasty, Buddhism enjoyed a +precarious existence. Whether Buddhism would have improved the moral +conditions of the Chinese; if it had been given a free hand, is +difficult to affirm. Still its failure is at least partly due to the +opposition of Confucian orthodoxy. + +_4. The Embodiment of Buddhist Ideals in the Vegetarian sects_ + +The state persecutions of Buddhism forced it to leave temporarily its +institutional life and trust itself to the people. These persecutions +were usually followed by a revival of piety and religion among the +people. The Buddhist teachers gathered about themselves a large number +of lay devotees who formed societies which practice religious rites in +secret. These sects have preserved the genuine Buddhist piety, not only +in times of persecution, but at times when the Buddhist organization +under imperial favor was departing from its simplicity. + +A number of these sects have continued under different names for several +centuries. For example, the Tsai Li, a society now enjoying a quiet +existence in North China, is successor to the White Lotus society. The +latter started in the fifth century. Its members sought salvation in the +Pure Land of Amitabha. In the eleventh century it enjoyed imperial +favor. During the Mongol dynasty it fought against the throne with +rebels and placed one of its leaders, Chu Yüan-chang, a monk, on the +throne, who became the founder of the Ming dynasty. The sect was soon +proscribed and its members persecuted by the government. During the +Ch'ing dynasty it took part in a rebellion and was ruthlessly +exterminated. At present it goes under the name of _Tsai Li,_ i.e., +within the Li or principles of the three religions. It is a mediator +among the three religions. + +There are thirty-one organizations of this sect in Peking and branches +throughout North China. The society forbids the use of wine and opium, +though it does not forbid the use of meat. It usually has a Buddhist +image, Kuan Yin or some other. It uses Buddhist prayers and +incantations. The outstanding doctrines held during its long history +have been the hope of salvation in the Western Heaven of Amitâbha, the +early coming of Maitrêya, the Buddhist Messiah, and the large use of +magic formulas and incantations. + +Another sect which embodies Buddhist ideals is the Chin Tan, the sect of +the philosopher's stone or pill of immortality. Its founder was the +writer of the Nestorian tablet and so the sect is related to +Christianity. It exalts the teaching of universal love. This is one of +several examples of a supposed contact between Buddhism and +Christianity. + +These sects of which the two above are examples are present in all parts +of China. They obey the five Buddhist commandments for laymen. The +members spend much time in fasting and prayer, and in the repetition of +Buddhist books. Their lives as a rule are simple and sincere. They are +preparing for rebirth in the land of Amitâbha, or are expecting the +early coming of the Buddhist Messiah to set this world right. In the +meantime, by means of incantations, personal regimen and cooperative +action they are doing all they can to usher in a better state. + +_5. Pilgrimages_ + +Pilgrimages are very popular in China. The famous Buddhist shrines are +Wu T'ai Shan in Shansi, Puto on the coast of Chekiang, Chiu Hua Shan in +Anhwei, and Omei Shan in Szechuan. These, one on each side of China, +represent the four elements of Buddhist science, wind, water, fire and +earth. They are also the centers of the worship of the four great +Bodhisattvas, Wenshu, Kuan Yin, Titsang and Puhsien. Besides these large +centers there are many others to which pilgrims direct their footsteps. + +In the spring of the year, when the god of spring covers the earth with +a green mantle, when the sky and winds call, many start on their +pilgrimage. Many go singly and laboriously, kneeling and bowing every +few steps. Others go in happy companies, chaperoned by a pious, village +dame, who has organized the group. Some go because their turn has come. +They are members of a guild which has a fund devoted to pilgrimages by +its members. Some go for the performance of a vow made to Kuan Yin, when +the father was sick unto death and the goddess prolonged his life. To +others it is the culmination of a pious life. All go for the joy which +travel in the spring gives. + +Puto, an island off the coast of Chekiang, is the goal of many pilgrims +from all parts of China. In, the monasteries on the island are about two +thousand monks. In the pilgrim season this number is increased to ten +thousand monks and thousands of lay pilgrims. + +A group of pilgrims was going along merrily. The sun was bright, +lighting up the white caps on the deep blue sea. Spring was rioting all +about. One member was an abbot from Hangchow. A small, humble-looking +man with a few straggling long hairs where the mustache usually grows, +was a lay Buddhist from Wuchang. One was a bright young monk from +Tientsin. Last, but almost omnipresent and always bubbling over, was a +servant of the abbot from Hangchow. He was in the presence of divinity +and his whole life was heightened for the time being. "Why did you +come!" they were asked. "We came to worship the holy mother, Kuan Yin." +When they entered a shrine each purchased three sticks, of incense and +two candles and reverently placed them before the image of the goddess, +kneeling and bowing. Then they sat and partook of the tea offered by the +attendant. After paying a small gratuity, they went on to the next +shrine. + +On the way a large black snake as thick as an arm lazily crossed over +the road. They stood, reverent and awestruck, until he disappeared in +the grass, remarking that this was a good omen. When crossing a sand +dune piled up by the winds the abbot from Hangchow remarked that this +was called the flying sand, wafted there by the goddess who took pity on +some travelers who had been compelled to cross a narrow strait in order +to come to a cave. This cave, called Fan Yin Tung, is one of the rifts +made by an earthquake and washed out by wind and waves. Below it rushes +the tide; from above the sun sends down a few rays. Each pilgrim after +offering incense looks into the darkness to see whether he can behold in +the dark cavern an image of some Buddha. One sees Kuan Yin and is +acclaimed as having had a good vision. Another sees the Laughing Buddha. +All exclaim that he has been the most fortunate of all, for this Buddha +is the Messiah to come and he who beholds him will be blessed. So from +place to place they wander, chatting and seeing the sights of the +island. Thus thousands are doing in various parts of China, and in this +way strengthening the hold of Buddhism upon themselves and their +communities. + + + + +VII + + +BUDDHISM AND THE FUTURE LIFE + +Before the advent of Buddhism the Chinese had only a vague idea +regarding life after death. The Land and Water Classic mentions the Tu +Shuo mountain in the Eastern Sea, under which spirits of the dead live, +the entrance guarded by two spirits, Shên Tu and Yü Lei, who are in +general control of the demons. In some parts of China the names or +pictures, of these spirits are placed on the doors of a house to guard +it. The Taoists early developed the idea of a western paradise presided +over by the Queen of the West, located at first in the K'un Lun +mountains and later in the islands of the Eastern Sea. This heaven, +however, was limited to Taoist hermits and mystics. Buddhism made a +complete purgatory and heaven known to every one in China. + +_1. The Buddhist Purgatory_ + +This is really Buddhism's most noteworthy addition to China's religious +equipment; Buddhism lays much stress upon the experiences of a soul +immediately after death. Its punishments are well known to every +individual. The temple of the City Guardian found in every walled city +has a replica of the court in purgatory over which he presides. In the +temples of T'ai Shan there is an elaborate exhibit of the tortures +inflicted on culprits in purgatory. Every funeral service conducted by +Buddhists or Taoists is intended to conduct the soul of the dead through +purgatory and pictures vividly the progressive experiences from the +first seventh day to the seventh seventh day. On the the seventh month, +on the fifteenth day [about August] a special service is held for the +souls of the dead in purgatory. Furthermore, every community has a +general service [about October] for the souls of those who died a +violent death or who have no one to look after them. During the war many +services were thus held for those who died on the battlefields of +Europe. At such services the scenes in purgatory are vividly portrayed +by pictures and figures. The temples distribute tracts with pictures of +purgatory so that women may see them and understand. On the stage are +often acted powerful plays whose scenes are laid in Hades. This +propaganda is perhaps the most efficient of its kind. + +Purgatory is depicted as consisting of ten courts each surrounded by +small hells, where the soul undergoes punishment and cleansing. The +fifth court, which may be taken as an example of the other courts, is in +charge of Yen Lo or Yama. Yama was once in charge of the first court, +but his tender heart pitied the souls who came before him and sent them +back to earth. Because of this leniency he was placed in charge of the +fifth court. + +When a soul has passed through the first four courts and it has been +discovered that there is no good conduct to its credit, it is led to the +fifth court and examined every seven days regarding past conduct. In +order to get back to the world of men, it eagerly promises to complete +various unfinished vows, such as to repair monasteries, schools, +bridges, or roads, to clean wells, to deepen rivers, to distribute good +books, to release animals, to take care of aged parents, or to bury them +suitably. But it is plainly told that the gods know its artifices, and +that now these unfinished tasks can never be completed. The gods have +reached the unanimous opinion that no injustice is being done. +Accordingly there is no appeal, but each soul is led by attendants with +bulls' heads and horses' faces to a tower whence they may see their +native village. Its front is in the shape of a bow with a perimeter of +twenty-seven miles; its height is four hundred and ninety feet. It is +guarded by walls of sword trees. + +Good men, whose deeds of omission are balanced by the good they have +done, return to life. Only souls judged to be evil see their village +from this tower. These can see their own families moving about, and can +hear their conversation. They realize how they disobeyed the teachings +of their elders. They see that the earthly goods for which they have +struggled are of no value. Their plottings rise up with lurid reality. +They see how they planned a new marriage although already married, how +they appropriated fields, state property, and falsified accounts, +putting the blame on persons who were dead. While they observe their +village they behold their erstwhile friends touch their coffin and +inwardly rejoice. They hear themselves called selfish and insincere. But +their punishment does not stop here. They behold their children punished +by magistrates, their women afflicted with strange diseases, their +daughters ravished, their sons led astray, their property taken away, +the ancestral house burned and their business ruined. From this tower +all passes before them as a lurid dream and they are stricken in heart. + +About the fifth court are sixteen small hells where the soul is +punished. In each one are stakes buried in the ground and fierce +animals. The hands and feet of the guilty one are bound to a stake, his +body is opened with small knives, and his heart and intestines quickly +devoured. + +In each of these sixteen hells is a certain type of sinner: (1) Those +who do not reverence the gods and demons and who doubt the existence of +rewards and punishments; (2) those who hurt and kill living beings; (3) +those who break their vows to do good; (4) those who resort to heterodox +practices and vainly hope to attain eternal life; (5) those who upbraid +good men, fear the wicked and hate men because they do not die speedily; +(6) those who strive with other people and then put the blame upon them; +(7) men who force women; and women who seduce young men, and all who +have libidinous desires; (8) those who gain profit for themselves by +injuring others; (9) the stingy and those who absolutely disregard +others, whether alive or dead, giving them no help in dire need, when +they can do so without injury to themselves; (10) those who steal and +put the crime upon others; (11) those who requite favors with hate; (12) +those whose hearts are perverse and poisonous, who instigate others to +do wrong even if they may not have carried out their suggestion; (13) +those who tempt others by deceit; (14) those who involve others in their +squabbles and in gambling and then themselves win out; (15) those who +stubbornly persist in their false ideas, do not repent, and slander +others; (16) those who hate good and virtuous men. + +Besides these sixteen sorts of sinners the fifth court deals with other +types of wicked people; those who do not believe in rewards and +punishments after death, who hinder good causes, who burn incense +without a sincere heart, speak of the sins of others, who burn books +that urge men to be good and worship the Great Dipper, but persist in +eating meat; those who hate men; who repeat sutras and incantations, and +take part in religious ceremonies, but do not fast beforehand; who +slander the Buddhist and Taoist religions; who know how to read, but +refuse to read the ancient and modern exhortations regarding rewards and +punishments; who dig into graves and destroy their marks, who purposely +set fire to trees and underbrush, or are careless with fire in their own +houses; who shoot arrows at animals with the intent, to kill; who urge +and tempt the sick and weak to enter into contests of any kind with +themselves; who throw tiles and stones over neighboring walls, poison +fish in the river, fire guns, or make nets or traps for birds; who sow +salt on the ground, who do not bury dead eats and snakes very deep and +thus cause death to those who dig; who cause men to dig the frozen +ground in winter or spring (the vapors of earth chill such diggers to +death); who tear down adjoining walls and compel their neighbors to move +the kitchen stove; who appropriate public highways, lands, close wells +and stop gutters. + +Those who have committed any of the above sins are taken, to the tower +whence they can see their own village and then are consigned to the +great crying hell, Râurava, that is, the fourth of the Buddhist hot +hells. [Footnote: Buddhism distinguishes hot and cold hells. In a +country like India severe cold is a serious torture.] Thence they go to +their respective small hells. When their time has expired, they are +examined in order to see whether they have any other sins which need +punishment. + +Those who have committed any of the above sins may not only escape +punishment, but may have their punishment in the sixth court lessened, +if they fast regularly on the eighth day of the first month and take a +vow not to commit these sins. Some sins, however, cannot be arranged for +in such a way, such as the killing of living beings and hurting them; +the associating with heretics; committing fornication with women and +then poisoning them; committing adultery, violence, envy, or injuring +the good name of others; stealing, requiting favors with hatred, and +hearing exhortation but not repenting. These are major sins. + +_2. Its Social Value_ + +The social value of purgatory is quite plain from the description of the +fifth court and of the sinners who are punished therein. Purgatory is +the social mirror of China, wherein the consequences of all unsocial +acts are pictured in such a vivid way as to deter the individual from +committing them. It is effective in China, not only because of the +realistic presentation, but because the opinion of the community is +against such acts and in favor of repressing them on every occasion. + +_3. The Buddhist Heaven._ + +Buddhism brought into China not only a fully developed purgatory but +also a heaven which all may enter. The sovereign of the western heaven +is Amitâbha (or in Chinese O-mi-to-fo), with whom Kuan Yin, the goddess +of Mercy, is usually associated. Amitâbha is explained as meaning +"boundless age." The original meaning is "boundless light," which +suggests a Persian origin with Mannichean influences. The translations +of the Amitâbha sutras were wholly made by natives of central Asia. + +Amitâbha is one of the thousand Buddhas; he is regarded as the reflex of +Sakyamuni and is connected also in his earthly incarnation with a monk +called Dharmâkara. This monk desired to become a Buddha. This wish he +presented to Lôkês'vararâja asking him to teach him as to what a Buddha +and a Buddha country ought to be. Lôkês'vararâja imparted this +knowledge. Then the monk after meditation returned having made +forty-eight vows that he would not become a Buddha, until all living +beings should attain salvation in his heaven. + +The eighteenth vow expresses his ideal: + +"O Bhagavat, if those beings who have directed their thought towards the +highest perfect knowledge in other worlds, and who, after having heard +my name, when I have obtained Bodhi (knowledge), have meditated on me +with serene thoughts; if at the moment of their death, after having +approached them surrounded by an assembly of monks, I should not stand +before them worshipped by them, that is, so that their thoughts should +not be troubled, then may I not obtain the highest perfect knowledge." + +A few extracts from the _Amitâbha Vyûha Sûtra_ will illustrate the +Buddhist idea of life in this Pure Land: + +"In the western region beyond one hundred thousand myriads of Buddhist +lands there is a world. Great Happiness by name. This land has a Buddha +called Amitâbha. The living beings there do not suffer any pain, but +enjoy all happiness. Therefore, it is called the land of Pure Delight +... the land of Pure Delight has seven precious fountains full of water +containing the eight virtues. The bottom of these fountains is covered +with golden sand. On four sides there are steps made of gold, silver, +crystal and glass, precious stones, red pearls, and highly polished +agates. In the pools are variously colored, light emitting lotus flowers +as large as cart wheels, delicate, admirable, odorous and pure..." + +"The Buddha of this land makes heavenly music. It is covered with gold. +Morning and evening during six hours it rains the wonderful celestial +flowers (Erythrina Indica). All the inhabitants of this land on clear +mornings after dressing offer these celestial flowers to the hundred +thousand myriads of Buddhas of the regions who return to their country +at meal time. When they have eaten they go away again." + +"This country possesses every kind of wonderful varicolored birds, the +white egret, the peacock, the parrot, the s'rarika (a long legged bird), +the Kalavingka (a sweet voiced bird) ... All these birds, morning and +evening during the six hours, utter forth a beautiful harmonious sound. +Their song produces the five _indrya_ (roots of faith, energy, +memory, ecstatic meditation, wisdom), the five _bala_ (the powers +of faith, energy, memory, meditation and wisdom), the seven +_bodhyanga_ (the seven degrees of intelligence, memory, +discrimination, energy, tranquillity, ecstatic contemplation, +indifference), and the eight portions of the correct path _marga,_ +(the possession of correct views, decision and purity of thought and +will, the ability of reproducing any sound uttered in the universe, vow +of poverty, asceticism, attainment of meditative abstraction of +self-control, religious recollectedness, honesty and virtue), and such +doctrines. When all beings of this land have heard the music, they +declare their faithfulness to the Buddha, Dharma and the Sangha (the +Buddha, the Law and the community of monks)." + +As to those who enter this land it says: + +"All living beings who hear this should make a vow to be born in that +land. How can they reach the Pure Land? All very good men will gather in +that place ... He whose blessedness and virtue are great can be born +into that country. If there is a good man or woman who, on hearing of +Amitâbha, takes this name and holds it in his mind one, two, three, +four, five, six, or seven days, and his whole heart is not distracted, +to that man at death Amitâbha will appear. His heart will not be +disturbed. He will at once enter into life in the land of Pure Delight +of Amitâbha. I see this blessing and hence utter these words. Those +living beings who hear these words should make a vow to be born in that +land." + +_4. The Harmonization of These Ideas with Ancestor Worship_ + +The extension of life beyond the grave in purgatory, or in the Pure Land +and through transmigration was readily accepted in China. Both the new +ideas and the disciplines through which to realize them were eagerly +adopted, and have held their place to this day. In other lands the +creation of a heaven and a hades has weakened the grip of ancestor +worship and ultimately displaced it. In China the opposite result has +obtained, due, no doubt, to the fact that the family system and along +with it the supreme duty of filial piety were fostered by the state and +Buddhism and its teachings were permitted only in so far as they +bolstered it up. Another reason lies in the agricultural basis of +China's civilization, reenforced by the great difficulty of +communication, which tended to make the family system dominant in China. +Today, the improvement of communication and the introduction of the +industrial system of the West with the individual emphasis of modern +education are factors which are weakening the family system and with it +ancestral worship. + + + + +VIII + + +THE SPIRITUAL VALUES EMPHASIZED BY BUDDHISM IN CHINA + +Near the House of Parliament in Peking is located a small monastery +dedicated to the goddess of Mercy, Kuan Yin. Before her image the +incense burners send forth curling clouds of smoke. The walls are +decorated with old paintings of gods and goddesses. The temple with its +courtyard has the appearance of prosperity. Its neat reception room, +with its tables, chairs and clock, shows the influence of the modern +world. + +Here a monk in the prime of life spent a few months recently lecturing +on Buddhism to members of parliament and to scholars from various parts +of China. Frequently the writer used to drop in of an afternoon to +discuss Buddhism and its outlook. Usually a simple repast concluded +these conversations, the substance of which forms the greater part of +this section. + +_1. The Threefold Classification of Men Under Buddhism_ + +"What does Buddhism do for men?" + +"There are in the world at least three classes of men. The lowest class +live among material things, they are occupied with possessions. Their +life is entangled in the crude and coarse materials which they regard as +real. A second, higher class, regard ideas as realities. They are not +entangled in the maze of things, but are confused by ideas, ascribing +reality to them. The third and highest class are those who by meditation +have freed themselves from the thraldom of ideas and can enter the +sixteen heavens." + +_2. Salvation for the Common Man_ + +"What can Buddhism do for the lowest class?" + +"For this class Buddhism has the ten prohibitions. Every man has in him +ten evils, which must be driven out. Three have to do with evil in the +body, namely, not to steal, not to kill, not to commit adultery; four +belong to the mouth, lying, exaggeration, abuse, and ambiguous talk; +three belong to the mind, covetousness, malice, and unbelief." + +"Is not this entirely negative?" + +"Yes, but it is necessary, for during the process of eliminating these +evil deeds, man acquires patience and equanimity. Buddhism does not stop +with the prohibitions. The believer must practice the ten charitable +deeds. Not only must he remove the desire to kill living beings, but he +must cultivate the desire to save all beings. Not only must he not +steal, but he must assist men with his money. Not only must he not give +himself to lasciviousness, but he must treat all men with propriety. So +each prohibition involves a positive impulse to virtue, which is quite +as essential as the refraining from evil." + +"What energizing power does Buddhism provide?" + +"First, is purgatory with its terrors. The evil man, seeing the +consequences of his acts upon himself, becomes afraid to do them and +does that which is good. Then there is transmigration with the danger of +transmigration into beasts and insects. Again, there are the rewards in +the paradise of Amitâbha. Moreover, there is even the possibility not +only of saving one's self, but by accumulated merit of saving one's +parents and relatives and shortening their stay in purgatory." + +_3. The Place of Faith_ + +"Can any man enter the western paradise of Amitâbha?" + +"Yes, it is open to all men. The sutra says: 'If there be any one who +commits evil deeds, and even completes the ten evil actions, the five +deadly sins and the like; that man, being himself stupid and guilty of +many crimes, deserves to fall into a miserable path of existence and +suffer endless pains during many long ages. On the eve of death he may +meet a good and learned teacher who, soothing and encouraging him in +various ways, will preach to him the excellent Law and teach him the +remembrance of Buddha, but being harassed by pains', he will have no +time to think of Buddha.'" + +"What hope has such a man?" + +"Even such a man has hope. The sutra says: 'Some good friend will say to +him: Even if thou canst not exercise the remembrance of Buddha, utter +the name of Buddha Amitabha.' Let him do so serenely with his voice +uninterrupted; let him be (continually) thinking of Buddha, until he has +completed ten times the thought, repeating 'Namah O-mi-to-fo,' I put my +trust in Buddha! On the strength of (his merit of) uttering Buddha's +name he will, during every repetition expiate the sins which involve him +in births and deaths during eighty millions of long ages. He will, while +dying, see a golden lotus-flower, like the disk of the sun, appearing +before his eyes; in a moment he will be born in the world of highest +happiness. After twelve greater ages the lotus-flower will unfold; +thereupon the Bodhisattvas, Avalôkitësvaras and Mahasattva's, raising +their voices in great compassion, will preach to him in detail the real +state of all the elements of nature and the law of the expiation of +sins." + +"Does faith save such a man?" + +"Yes, not his own faith, but the faith which prompted the vow of +Amitabha. Amitâbha's faith in the possibility of his salvation gives him +supreme confidence that he will attain salvation. All he needs is to +have the desire to be born in that paradise and to repeat the name of +Amitabha." + +_4. Salvation of the Second Class_ + +"How do those of the second class attain salvation?" + +"The men of the second class regard ideas as realities. They are not +entangled in the maze of things, but are confused by ideas, regarding +them as real. These men do not need images and outward sanctions, but +they need heaven and purgatory though regarding them as ideas. By +performing the ten good deeds they will obtain a quiet heart, having no +fear, and become saints and sages. Among men, saints and sages occupy a +high rank, but not so among Buddhists. By merit of good works merely +they enter the planes of sensuous desire, the six celestial worlds +located immediately above the earth." + +_5. Salvation for the Highest Class_ + +"And the third class?" + +"This class has many ranks. There are those who by the practice of +meditation (four _dkyanas_) [Footnote: Dhyana means contemplation. +In later times under the influence of the idea of transmigration heavens +were imagined which corresponded to the degrees of contemplation.] can +enter the sixteen heavens conditioned by form. By the practice of the +four _arûpa-dhyânas_ [Footnote: That degree of abstract +contemplation from which all sensations are absent.] they enter the four +highest heavens free from all sensuous desires and not conditioned by +form. These heavens are the anteroom of Nirvana." + +"What is the driving power in all this?" + +"It is _vîrya_ or energy." + +_6. Heaven and Purgatory_ + +"Do heaven and purgatory exist?" + +"Heaven and purgatory are in the minds and hearts of men. Really heaven +is in the mind of Amitâbha and purgatory exists in the illusioned brains +of men." + +"Does anything exist?" + +"Nâgârjuna says: 'There is no production, no destruction, no +annihilation, no persistence, no unity, no plurality, no coming in and +no going forth.'" + +_7. Sin_ + +"Does sin exist?" + +"In the mind of the real Buddhist sin and virtue are different aspects +of the all. Sin is illusion; virtue is illusion, There is a higher unity +in which they are reconciled." + +_8. Nirvâna_ + +_"Do you know of any one who attained Nirvâna?"_ + +"Yes, I have experienced it. It is not a state beyond the grave. It is a +state into which one can enter here." + +"Can you express this experience in words?" + +"Impossible. I can only indicate the shore of this great ocean. At first +I was in great distress and agony, as though carrying the illusions of +the world. Then came a great peace and calm, ineffable, serene, and +surpassing the power of language to express." + +_9. The Philosophical Background_ + +"What is behind this universe!" + +"Underlying this universe of phenomena and change there is a unity. It +is the basis of all being. It is within all being and all being rests in +it. It is because of this common background that men are able to +apprehend it. This universal basis we call _dharma,_ or law. Its +characteristics are that everything born grows old, is subject to +disease and death; that the teachings of Buddha purify the mind and +enable it to obtain supreme enlightenment; that all Buddhas by treading +the same way of perfection will attain the highest freedom." + +"You speak of the Buddhist Trinity." + +"Yes, we have the Dharmakâya. This is the essence-body, the ground of +all being, taking many forms, Buddhas, Bodhisattvas, spirits, angels, +men and even demons. It is impersonal, all-pervasive. It may be called +the first person. The second person is the Sambhogakâya, the body of +bliss. This is the heavenly manifestation of Buddha. The third person is +the Nirmânakâya. This is the projection of the body of bliss on earth." + +Some identify this trinity with that of the Christian faith. While there +is a resemblance, we should note that the first person of the Buddhist +trinity would correspond to God as the absolute or the impersonal +background of universal Being. The second corresponds to the glorified +Christ and the third to the historic Jesus. There is no counterpart +either to God the Father or to the Holy Spirit. + +"Do you believe in the salvation of all beings?" + +"Yes, all have the Buddha heart. All living beings will finally become +Buddhas." + +Then turning to a friend of mine the speaker said: "What have you done +in Buddhism?" The friend answered: "I have written and translated many +books." "I do not mean that," he answered. "What _work_ have you +done?" The friend confessed that he had not done much else. Then he +said: "Every morning when you awake, reflect deeply and profoundly upon +your state before you were born. Think back to that state where your +soul was merged with Buddha. Find yourself in that state and you will +find ineffable enlightenment and joy." + +The sun was setting behind the Western hills. The blare of trumpets +sounded on the city wall. Outside of the door was the whirling sound of +Peking returning home from its mundane tasks and joys. We joined the +rushing, restless crowd and still we felt the calm of another world. Has +not Christianity a message of balm and peace for these sons of the East +who are so sensitive to the touch of the eternal and sublime? + +_10. What Buddhism Has to Give_ + +An important government official obliged to deal with many vexatious +requests and demands declared: "I could not get through my day's work, +if I did not spend an hour every day in meditation, just as Buddha did +when he became enlightened." He was asked what he did when he meditated +or prayed. "Nothing at all." "Well, about what do you think?" "Of +nothing at all. I stop thinking when I engage in religious meditation. +Life makes me think too much. I should lose my sanity, if I did not stop +thinking and enter into the 'void', whence we all came and into which we +all are going to drop back." + +His Christian inquirer still was unsatisfied by the Buddhist's +description of his prayer life, and pressed further for details. "What +happens when you meditate or pray?" + +"Nothing happens, I tell you, except, that I experience a peace which +the passing world cannot give and which the passing world cannot +altogether take away. The secret of religion is simply to realize that +everything is passing away. When you accept that fact, then you become +really free. The Christian world seemed to have been tremendously +impressed by the slogan of the French soldiers at Verdun, 'They shall +not pass!' Perhaps the German soldiers did not pass just then or there. +But the French soldiers themselves are all passing away. And everything +in the world is passing away. What our Buddhist religion teaches us is: +'Let it pass!' You cannot keep anything for very long. And prayer or +meditation is simply to practice yourself in that thought deliberately. +Oh, it is a wonderful peace when you fully believe that gospel, and +enter into it every day. Vanity of vanities, everything is vanity! Why +worry? We do altogether too much worrying. To pray means simply to quit +worrying, to quit thinking, to enter into the indescribably passionless +peace of Nirvana." + +Here seemed to be an ardent Buddhist. When asked what he thought as the +difference between a Buddhist and a Christian, he answered promptly: + +"Yes, there is my wife. She is a very good woman. All the neighbors come +to her, when there is any one sick or in trouble. So I say to her: +'Wife, I should think you would make a first-class Christian.' But I +think she lets herself be worried by altogether too many troubles. She +is all the time thinking and fussing and planning. To be sure, it is +mostly about other people, But then she does have the children and the +house and the relatives and friends and neighbors to look after. Perhaps +she really cannot be a Buddhist. Perhaps it is all a matter of +temperament. Oh, but I tell you it is great to be a Buddhist, because it +gives you such a wonderful peace." + + + + +IX + + +PRESENT-DAY BUDDHISM: + +_1. Periods of Buddhist History_ + +The history of Buddhism in China may be divided into four periods. +Buddhism entered China, as we have seen, in the second century B.C. The +first period, that of the translation and propagation of the faith, +ended in 420 A.D. The second period, that of interpenetration, lasted to +the beginning of the T'ang dynasty, 618 A.D. The third, the period of +establishment, ended with the close of the five dynasties, in 960 A.D. +The fourth period, that of decay, has extended to the present day. + +_2. The Progress of the Last Twenty-five Years_ + +There are signs of a revival of Buddhism in China. Whether this is a +tide, or a wave, only the future can reveal. In 1893 Dharmapala, an +Indian monk, stopped in Shanghai on his way back from the Congress of +Religions in Chicago. It was his purpose to make a tour of China, to +arouse the Chinese Buddhists to send missionaries to India to restore +Buddhism there, and then to start a propaganda throughout the whole +world. He addressed the monks of Shanghai. Dr. Edkins, the veteran +missionary, acted as his interpreter. Dharmapala was surrounded by a +horde of curious monks who were more interested in his strange +appearance and in the cost of his garments than they were in his great +ideals. They were also feeling the iron heel of the Confucian government +and at once inquired about the attitude of the government toward such an +innovation. Dharmapala did not go beyond Shanghai. + +Japanese Buddhists, especially the members of the Hongwanji sect, have +taken a deep interest in Chinese Buddhists. Count Otani once visited the +chief monasteries of China. Numerous Japanese Buddhists have made such +visits. In 1902, the Empress Dowager, fired by a reforming zeal, decided +to confiscate Buddhist property and to use the proceeds for the spread +of modern education. The Buddhist monasteries put themselves under the +protection of Japanese monks in order to hold their property. When by +1906 the Empress Dowager saw the consequences of her edict, she at once +issued a new edict, reversing the former one, and the Japanese monks +took their departure. + +The Japanese Buddhists have been fired by missionary zeal for China. In +many of the large cities of China are the temples of the Hongwanji sect. +Established primarily for the Japanese, these temples are intended to +serve as points of departure for a nation-wide missionary work. The +twenty-one demands made upon China included two significant items in the +last group which the Chinese refused to sign: "Art. 2: Japanese +hospitals, churches and schools in the interior of China shall be +granted the right of owning land." "Art. 7: China agrees that Japanese +subjects shall have the right of missionary propaganda in China." + +Under Japanese influence there was established in 1907 at Nanking, under +the leadership of Yang, a lay Buddhist devotee, a school for the +training of Buddhist missionaries. The students were to go to Japan for +further training, and the more promising ones were to study in India. +This project was discontinued after the death of Yang on account of the +lack of funds. + +When the republic was established Buddhism felt a wave of reform. The +monasteries established schools for monks and children. A magazine was +published which appeared irregularly for several numbers and then +stopped. A national organization was formed with headquarters at Peking. +A survey of monasteries was begun. The activities in lecturing and +propaganda were increased, but Yuan Shih-kai issued twenty-seven +regulations for the control of Buddhist monasteries, which markedly +dampened the ardor of the reformers. + +The world war which accentuated the spirit of nationalism had the added +effect of stirring up Buddhist enthusiasm. There are at present signs of +new activity among them in China. + +_3. Present Activities_ + +While Buddhism may be standing still or even dying in certain parts of +China, it is showing signs of new life in the provinces of Kiangsu and +Chekiang and in the large cities. Such revival in centers subject to the +influence of the modern world shows that Buddhism in China as in Japan +has sufficient vitality to adjust itself to modern conditions. Let us +consider some of these activities. + +_(a) The Reconstruction of Monasteries._--During the T'ai Ping +rebellion, which devastated China in 1850-1865, the monasteries suffered +with the towns. Not only were the monasteries burned to the ground, but +their means of support were taken away and the monks were scattered. +There are still many of these ruined monasteries in the Yangtze valley +and in southern and western China. Quite a number of them have been +rebuilt. Perhaps the most notable example is that at Changchow which was +destroyed during the rebellion. Today it is the largest monastery in +China, having about two thousand monks. In Fukien several new +monasteries have been built in the last few decades. In the provinces of +Chekiang and Kiangsu, in the large cities and about Peking there are +building activities, showing that the monasteries are feeling a new wave +of prosperity. + +T'ai Hsu, one of the leaders' of modern Buddhism, is holding up an ideal +program for Buddhism in this time of reconstruction. He proposes that +there should be 576 central monasteries, 4608 preaching places, 72 +Buddhist hospitals and 72 orphanages. + +_(b) Accessions._--Regarding the number of monks it is almost +impossible to obtain any reliable figures. A conservative estimate, +based upon partial returns, makes the number of monks about 400,000 and +that of nuns about 10,000. The impression among the Buddhists is that +the number of monks is increasing. That is quite probable in view of the +rebuilding and repairing which is now in progress. + +More significant is the number of accessions from the learned class. +Many officials, disheartened by the present confused political +situation, have sought refuge in the monasteries. Some of them are now +abbots of monasteries and are using their influence to build them up. +All over China there are Confucian scholars who are giving themselves to +the study of Buddhism and to meditation. Some of the Chinese students +who have studied in Buddhist universities in Japan are propagating +Buddhism by lecture and pen. + +_(c) Publications._--Quite as significant is the increase in the +publication of Buddhist literature of all kinds. Many of the monasteries +have printing departments where they publish the sutras needed for their +own use. In addition, there are eight or more publishing centers where +Buddhist literature is printed. The most famous are Yang's establishment +at Nanking, the Buddhist Press in Yangchow and that in Peking. In these +establishments about nine hundred different works are being published. +The most noteworthy recent publication has been that of the Chinese +Buddhist Tripitaka in Shanghai. + +Among these publications are a few modern issues. The Chung Hua Book +Company has published several works on Buddhism. Other books have been +issued for the sake of harmonizing Buddhism with western science and +philosophy. In this enterprise Japanese influence is visible. In 1921 a +Shanghai press published a dictionary of Buddhist terms containing 3302 +pages, based on the Japanese Dictionary of Buddhism. Other works also +show the influence of Japanese scholarship. + +Among the publications have appeared two magazines. One published at +Ningpo, is called "New Buddhism." This is struggling and may have to +succumb. The other is known as the "Sound of the Sea Tide," now +published in Hankow. Moreover, in all the large cities there are +Buddhist bookshops where only Buddhist works are sold. These all report +a good business. This literary activity reveals an interest among the +reading classes of China. Few such books are purchased by the monks. The +Chinese scholars read them for their style and for their deep +philosophy, but also for light and for help in the present distracting +political situation of their country. + +_(d) Lectures._--Along with publication goes the spread of Buddhism +by lectures in the monasteries and the cities of China. A few years ago +Buddhist sermons, however serious, were only listened to by monks and by +a few pious devotees. Today such addresses are advertised and are +usually well attended by the intellectuals. Often many women are found +listening. Monks like T'ai Hsü and Yuan Ying have a national reputation. +Not only monks, but laymen trained in Japan are delivering lectures on +the Buddhist sutras. The favorites are the Awakening of Faith and the +Suddharma Pundarika sutra. + +_(e) Buddhist Societies._--With the lectures goes the organization +of Buddhist societies for all sorts of purposes. There is a central +society in Peking which has branches in every province. The connection +is rather loose. Buddhism has never been in favor of centralization. Nor +for that matter would the government have allowed it. The chief ends +aimed at by these societies are fellowship, devotion, study, +propagation, and service. Such societies, often short lived, are +springing up in many quarters. They meet for lectures on Buddhism or to +conduct a study class in some of the sutras. Occasionally the more +ambitious conduct an institute for several months. Some spend part of +the time in meditation together. Several schools for children are +supported by these societies. They also encourage work of a religious +nature among prisoners, distributing tracts and holding services. Such +activities are especially appreciated by those who are to suffer the +death penalty. The societies are also doing publishing work. The two +magazines are supported by the members of the larger societies. + +_(f) Signs of Social Ambition._--Social work is a prominent feature +of some of these Buddhist societies. They have raised money for famine +stricken regions, have opened orphanages, and assist in Red Cross work. +One of the largest Chinese institutions for ministering to people who +are sick and in trouble is located at Hankow. Around a central Buddhist +temple is a modern-built hospital, an orphanage and several schools for +poor children. It may not maintain western standards of efficiency, but +it certainly represents the outreach of modern Buddhism. + +Perhaps their most far-reaching advance has been made because of the +realization that leaders are needed and that they must be trained. +Several schools for this purpose have sprung into existence. Such +schools are necessarily very primitive and are struggling with the +difficulties of finding an adequate staff and equipment and of obtaining +the best type of students. + +Another sign of new life has been the making of programs for the future +development of Buddhism. One of the most comprehensive appeared a short +time ago. For the individual it proposes the cultivation of love, mercy, +equality, freedom, progressiveness, an established faith, patience and +endurance. For all men it proposes (1) an education according to +capacity; (2) a trade suited to ability; (3) an opportunity to develop +one's powers; (4) a chance for enlightenment for all. For society it +urges the cultivation of cooperation, social service, sacrifice for the +social weal, and the social consciousness in the individual. On behalf +of the country it urges patriotism, participation in the government, and +cooperation in international movements. For the world it advocates +universal progress. As to the universe it specifies as a goal the +bringing of men into harmony with spiritual realities, the enlightenment +of all and the realization of the spiritual universe. + +A Buddhist writer sums up the aims of new Buddhism as follows: + +"Formerly Buddhism desired to escape the sinful world. Today Buddhism +not only desires to escape this world of sin, but longs to transform +this world of sin into a new world dominated by the ideals of Buddhism. +Formerly Buddhism was occupied with erecting and perfecting its +doctrines and polity as an organization. Today it not only hopes to +perfect the doctrines and polity, but desires to spread the doctrines +and ideals abroad so as to help mankind to become truly cultured." + +_4. The Attitude of Tibetan Lamas_ + +Not only the Chinese Buddhists, but the Lamas of Mongolia and Tibet are +feeling the impulses of the new age. Quite recently an exhibition was +held in the Lama temple at Peking which attracted thousands of visitors. +Its object was to obtain money to repair the temple, and thus to give +its work a fresh impulse. That these impulses are not necessarily +hostile to Christianity is shown by a letter written by the Kurung +Tsering Lama of Kokonor district to the Rev. T. Sörensen of Szechuan: + +"I, your humble servant, have seen several copies of the Scriptures and, +having read them carefully, they certainly made me believe in Christ. I +understand a little of the outstanding principles and the doctrinal +teaching of the One Son, but as to the Holy Spirit's nature and essence, +and as to the origin of this religion, I am not at all clear, and it is +therefore important that the doctrinal principles of this religion +should be fully explained, so as to enlighten the unintelligent and +people of small mental ability. + +"The teaching of the science of medicine and astrology is also very +important. It is therefore evident if we want this blessing openly +manifested, we must believe in the religion of the only Son of God. +Being in earnest, I therefore pray you from my heart not to consider +this letter lightly. With a hundred salutations." + +Enclosed with this letter was a poem written in most elegant language. + +"O thou Supreme God and most precious Father, The truth above all +religions, The Ruler of all animate and inanimate worlds! Greater than +wisdom, separated from birth and death, Is his son Christ the Lord +shining in glory among endless beings. Incomprehensible wonder, +miraculously made! In this teaching I myself also believe--As your +spirit is with heaven united, My soul undivided is seeking the truth +Jesus the Savior's desire fulfilling, For the coming of the Kingdom of +Heaven I am praying. Happiness to all." + +_5. The Buddhist World Versus the Christian World_ + +Looking back over the last twenty-five years we see rising quite +distinctly a Buddhist world growing conscious of itself, of its past +history and of its mission to the world. This Buddhist, world has much +more of a program than it had twenty-five years ago. Its object is to +unite the Mahayâna and the Hînayâna branches of Buddhism and to spread +Buddhist propaganda over the world. At present the leadership of this +movement is in Japan. It is in part a political movement. There is no +question that Christianity is not at all pleasing to the Japanese +militarists. It is regarded by them as the advance post of western +industrialism and political ambition. Quite naturally such leaders +desire to make the Buddhist world a unit. It is also a social movement. +The spirit of the Japanese Buddhist has been brought to consciousness by +the new position of Japan. Japan is seeking to take its place in the +world as a first rate power. By this not only will Japan's industry and +commerce profit, but its spiritual values must also be adapted to the +world. The movement then has its spiritual side. Japanese travelers and +people are going to all parts of the world. They carry with them the +religious ideals which have been shaped by Buddhism. Buddhism in the +past was one of the great religions of salvation with an inspiring +missionary message. It is again awakening to this task of +evangelization. Under the leadership of Japanese scholars and religious +statesmen the Japanese are seeking to unite the Buddhist world so that +it shall become a force in the new world. Japan is thus trying to give +back what it has received in the past. + +At present in Buddhist countries there is a strong force working against +this movement. Nationalism is a new force to be reckoned with. Still +even with the spirit of nationalism permeating every group, the Buddhist +world is getting together and will strive to make its contribution to +the life of the whole world. + + + + +X + + +THE CHRISTIAN APPROACH TO BUDDHISTS + +_1. Questions Which Buddhists Ask_ + +Buddhists are approaching Christianity. In many places a spirit of +inquiry and interest in the Christian religion is met. It is not +necessary that there should be a Buddhist world permanently over against +a Christian world. The questions which Buddhists ask a missionary +indicate an interest in vital themes. Some of them are as follows: + +We put our trust in the three Precious Ones. In what do you trust? Is +not your Shang Ti (name for God used in China) a being lower than Buddha +and just a little higher than a Bodhisattva? Is not Shang Ti the tribal +god of the Jews? Do you believe in the existence of _purgatory?_ +What sufferings will those endure who do not live a virtuous life? Do +you believe in the reality of the Western Paradise? How can one enter +it? There being three kinds of merit, by what method is the great merit +accumulated? How is the middle and the small merit accumulated? What are +the fruits of these proportions of merit and what are they like? Tell me +how to believe Christ. What work of meditation do you perform? Is not +Buddhism more democratic than Christianity, because it holds out the +possibility of Buddhahood to all beings? Is not Buddhism more inclusive, +because it provides for the salvation of all beings? + +_2. Knowledge and Sympathy_ + +These questions make it plain that the worker who is to deal with +Buddhists should have a broad background of general culture. He must be +thoroughly humanized. He should have a good knowledge of the history of +philosophy and religion, including the work of the modern philosophers. +A knowledge of the life of Buddha and of the doctrines of the Hînayâna +or Southern Buddhism, as well as the tenets of the Mahayâna should be in +his possession. The psychology of religion should interpenetrate his +historical learning; the best methods of pedagogy should guide his +approach to men. Of course he must speak the language of the Buddhist, +not only the spiritual language, but his everyday patois. He will find +it an advantage to know some Sanskrit. While this requirement is not +very urgent at present, it will rapidly become a necessity for doing the +best work. + +This knowledge should be interpenetrated by a genuine sympathy, that is, +imagination tinged with emotion. The worker should be able to view +doctrines, values and actions from the point of view of the Buddhist and +his past history. He must have a genuine interest in and a great +capacity for friendship. The Buddhists are very human, responding to +friendship very quickly. Such friendship forms a link between the man +and the larger friendship of Christ. + +_3. Emphasis on the Aesthetic in Christianity_ + +A Chinese Christian leader described his idea of a church as a place +removed from the din of the street, approached by a walk flanked with +trees and flowers and adorned within by symbols speaking to the heart of +the Chinese. He longed for the mystic silence and the beauty of holiness +which would open the windows of the world of spiritual reality and throw +its light upon the problems of life. He was asked, "Would you adapt some +of the symbols of the Chinese religions?" He said, "Many of those +symbols are neutral. They suggest religious emotion. Their character +depends upon the content which the occasion puts into them. If the +content is Christian then the symbols and emotions will become +Christian." + +Christianity is a religion of beauty. The beautiful in architecture, +symbol and ritual, expressing the spiritual universe of the past, +present and future, makes a strong appeal to the Chinese heart. It may +well be emphasized in the future as never before. + +_4. Emphasis on the Mystical in Christianity_ + +Not long ago a Buddhist in one of the large cities of China was +converted. He found great joy in the experience which revived him and +gathered into unity the broken fragments of his life. He attended church +regularly and participated in the prayer meetings. Gradually he +discovered that he was not being nourished. He felt his joy slipping +away from him and his divided life reinstating itself. He went to +Buddhism for consolation. He is not hostile to the church. He +appreciates the help he received, but he said that he came for +consolation and peace and found the same--hard orthodoxy and morality so +familiar to him in Confucianism. + +While the case of this man may have individual peculiarities, it may be +made the starting point for a discussion of the situation in many +churches in China. The early message to the Chinese was doctrinal. The +false notion of many gods had to be displaced by the idea of the one +true God. With this idea of the true God a few other tenets of the +Christian religion are often held as dogmatic propositions to be +repeated when questions are asked. The great sin preached is the worship +of idols. + +The second part of the Christian message is salvation by faith in Jesus +Christ. This salvation is other-worldly to a large extent. The extreme +emphasis upon it has made of the church an insurance society, membership +in which insures bliss in the world beyond. + +The third part of the message has been concerned with moral acts, +abstinence from opium (liquor and tobacco in some churches), polygamy, +and the gross sins. Attendance upon church services, contribution for +the support of the church, and the refusal to contribute to idolatry +have also been required. + +The emphasis to a large extent was doctrinal, moral and individual. The +result has been a body of people free from the gross sins, but also +innocent of the great virtues and individualistic in their outlook upon +this world and the next. This emphasis is needed, but in addition there +should be the cultivation of the presence of God in the soul by +appropriate means. The Christian Church of China should develop a +technique of the spiritual life suited to the East. The formation of +habits of devotion should be emphasized. Intercessory prayer should be +given a larger place. Contemplation and meditation should be regarded +not merely as an escape from the turmoil and strife of the world, but as +a preparation for the highest life of service and sacrifice. Buddhist +mysticism united the whole universe and was the great foundation of +Chinese art, literature and morality. The spiritual world of +Christianity must likewise seep through into the very thought of Asia +and inspire the new art, literature and morality which will be the world +expression of a Christian universe. + +_5. Emphasis on the Social Elements in Christianity_ + +To the aesthetic and mystical emphasis must be attached a social +emphasis. Buddhism is often criticized as not being social. It is a +highly socialized religion. It has had a large influence upon social +life in the East. This social life is different from ours. We see its +wrongs and weaknesses. Likewise do the Buddhists see the materialism and +injustice of our social life. Christianity must relate itself to the +modern world as it is rising in China and seek not merely to remedy a +few wrongs or heal a few diseases, but must release the healing stream +into the social life of the East. This will be done and is being done +through the Church community which has become conscious of itself, +realizing its needs and wants, seeking in an intelligent and systematic +way to rehabilitate itself. It is not so much the external unrelated +efforts that accomplish the thing needed, but it is rather the community +life stirred by ideals and fired by a new dynamic which begins the work +of reformation. + +_6. Emphasis on the Person of Jesus Christ_ + +_(a) As a Historical Character._--The great asset of the missionary +among Buddhists is the historical person of Christ. In contrast to many +of the Bodhisattvas, the saviours of the Buddhists, Jesus is a +historical character. His life among men was the life of God among men. + +_(b) As the Revealer._--God is like Christ. Christ reveals God as +the complete, the perfect person. He possessed the pure spiritual +personality. The chief characteristic of this personality is love. This +love conscious of itself finds its highest joy in the well-being of +others. This love of God produced human life which, springing from the +lowest form, broke through the material elements and is capable of +attaining the highest development. + +Christ reveals to man his heavenly relationship. Man created in the +likeness of God stands in the highest relation of one person to another +through love. He likens this relation to that of father and son. He +lifts man to the fellowship with the divine. Yet such a fellowship that +man preserves his personality. + +Christ reveals man in his relation to men as a brother and the form of +love which shall control the relation of man to God as well as man to +man. + +Christ revealed and founded the Kingdom, a society of the saved, +dominated by the spirit of the founder and making this spirit of love +and service the organizing power in the world. + +_(c) As the Saviour._--Mahayâna Buddhism emphasized saviourhood. +Christ is the saviour of men. In Buddhism the stress is placed upon the +merit of the saviour and the saved. There is no question that merit has +some value. Yet Christ does not save us by merit, nor do we help to save +one another by merit. Salvation is a moral and spiritual process. It is +concerned with the biology of the soul. The salvation that we preach is +not the salvation by knowledge, or meditation, or merit, but by the +interpenetration of Christ's spirit in ours, by the mystic and moral +union of our life with his. As Paul says: "That I may know Him and the +power of His resurrection and the fellowship of His suffering." Yet He +is not the saviour of the individual alone. He saves the community, the +church. Only as His spirit permeates and dominates the community does he +find his true self and the real salvation. + +_(d) As the Eternal Son, of God._--The Mahayâna system does not +emphasize the historicity of Amitabha or of the Bodhisattvas. Spiritual +truth is the development of the soul. It is not limited by time and +place. Likewise Christianity must emphasize the eternal character of +Jesus Christ. "The Logos existed in the very beginning, the Logos was +with God, the Logos was God." To the Mahâyânist this spiritual history +is more real than any fact conditioned by time and place. + +The Christian worker must learn to understand the import of the Gospel +of John. He must see in Jesus Christ "The real Light, which enlightens +every man." He must be able to convince himself that the Christ is the +fulfillment of the highest aspirations of the Mahâyâna system. + +_7. How Christianity Expresses Itself in Buddhist Minds_ + +In 1920 a number of Buddhist monks, under the leadership of Rev. K. L. +Reichelt formed a Christian brotherhood. The members of this small +brotherhood decided that they must subscribe to vows and they took the +four following: + +"I promise before the Almighty and Omniscient God, that I with my whole +heart will surrender myself to the true Trinity, God the Father, the Son +and the Holy Spirit. I will with my whole heart have faith in Jesus +Christ as the Saviour of the world who gives completion to the +profoundest and best objects of the higher Buddhism. I will live in this +faith now and ever after. + +"I promise solemnly before God with my whole heart to devote myself to +the study of the true doctrine and break wholly with the evil manners of +the world and show forth in my public and private life that I am truly +united with Christ. + +"I promise that I in every respect will try so to educate myself that I +can be of use in the work of God on earth. I will with undivided heart +devote myself to the great work; to lead my brethren in the Buddhist +Association forward to the understanding of Christ as the only One, who +gives completion to the highest and profoundest ideas of Higher +Buddhism. + +"I promise that until my last hour I will work so that out of our +Christian Brotherhood there may grow forth a strong church of Christ +among Buddhists. I will not permit any evil thing to grow in my heart, +which could divide the brotherhood, but will always try to promote the +progress of every member in the knowledge of the holy obligations laid +down in these vows and our constitution." + +Such men ought, to make choice Christians. + +_8. Christianity's Constructive Values_ + +Buddhism in the course of its long history developed certain religious +ideas and values which we find in Christianity. It faced the fact of sin +and placed it in the heart. It diagnosed the fundamental instincts of +men, sex-appetite, will-to-achieve, and pugnacity. These must be +overcome. It regards them as delusions which must be eliminated. +Christianity also deals with these instincts. It is under no delusion as +to their strength. There are certain tendencies in Christianity which +have tried to annihilate them. The central tendency of Christianity, +however, recognizing their power for good, seeks to sublimate them and +make them serve the individual and society. This attitude of the two +religions toward these instincts is fundamentally different. The +attitude of Christianity has been justified even in Buddhist lands where +the religious life of the people has followed the same line that +Christianity advocates. + +Early Buddhism tried to dissolve man's personality. Later Buddhism +corrected this and perhaps has appealed too much to the desire on the +part of the individual to enter a heaven which is merely a replica of +the earth. Christianity starts with a personal God and holds up before +the believer the goal of perfection for his own personality. It finds +man without a self and confers a real selfhood upon him. + +Early Buddhism taught that salvation is accomplished by the individual +alone. It denies the possibility and the necessity of help from a divine +source. Subsequent history has proved this to have been wrong. In India, +Buddhism has been displaced by Hinduism, and in China, and Japan, the +Mahâyâna has developed the idea of salvation through another. The great +stream of Buddhism has recognized that man by himself is helpless. He +must have the help of a divine power in order to obtain salvation. +Christianity asserts that salvation is possible only through the +intervention of God. The incarnation, the life, death and resurrection +of Jesus and his work in the world through the Holy Spirit on the one +hand are the expression of God's solicitude for man, and, on the other +hand, correspond to the deep need which men of all ages have felt, for a +power above themselves. From the early stages of magic to the highest +reaches of religion we find this constant factor recognized by human +groups all over the world. They bear witness to a power above themselves +to whom they continually appeal. In Christianity we find this main +tendency enunciated most clearly. The individual cannot save himself. +Mankind cannot save itself. Both must rely upon the assistance of the +divine power which started this universe on its way and which is the +ever present creative force. + +Christianity, moreover, has established the community of believers +including all classes and conditions of men. Herein each one may realize +himself. Herein also he may realize the kind of community which is +friendly to his highest aspirations for himself. Herein he has the +opportunity to transmute the instincts above mentioned into forces which +make for the larger development of his own person and the well-being of +the community. + +Accordingly, as Christians face Buddhists, they can do so with the +consciousness that this great religion has been reaching out after the +light which shines brightly in our Christian religion. They have the +assurance not only that they have a message which brings fulfilment to +the ideas of the Mahâyâna, but also that it has prepared the way for the +hearts of the Chinese to receive the highest message of Christianity. + + + + +APPENDIX I + + +HINTS FOR THE PRELIMINARY STUDY OF BUDDHISM IN CHINA + +The student should read and inwardly digest the booklet of K. J. +Saunders. + +He should follow the directions given in Appendix One of that book, This +procedure is important because the Hînayâna Buddhism and the life of +Buddha are the background of Buddhism in China. + +Then he may take Hackmann's _Buddhism as a Religion_ +(No. 15). This will give a general orientation. This may be followed +with R. F. Johnston's _Buddhist China_ (No. +_20_). Along with this he may read Suzuki's +_Awakening of Faith_ (No. 32), and also his +_Outlines of Mahâyanâ Buddhism (No._ 33). McGovern's +_Introduction to Mahâyanâ Buddhism (No._ 23) will +illuminate the philosophical background of Buddhism, and Eliot's +_Hinduism and Buddhism_ (No. 13) will add historical +perspective. + +The translation of _Mahdydna Sutras_ by Beal and in the +Sacred Books of the East will give him some of the sources for the +doctrines held in China. He may begin as the Buddhist missionaries did +with the sutra of the Forty-two sections and then take up the Diamond +Sutra, and then completing the sutras in Vol. 59 and the Catena of +Buddhist Scriptures. + +For the study of the ethical side he will find De Groot's _Le Code +du Mahâyâna en Chine_ very helpful. For the study of the sects +Eliot, Vol. III, pp. 303-320 _Northern Buddhism_ (No. 14) will +be helpful. + +In all his study he will find Eitel's _Handbook of Chinese +Buddhism_ (No. 12) indispensable. He must, however, make a +Chinese index in order to be able to use the book. + +Contact with monks will be helpful and is quite necessary in order to +appreciate the human problems of the work. + + + + +APPENDIX II + + +A BRIEF BIBLIOGRAPHY + +1. BEAL, S. _Abstract of Four Lectures_ upon _Buddhist +Literature_ in _China._ London, Triibner, 1882. + +Lecture II, on "Method of Buddha's Teaching in the Vinaya Pitaka," and +Lecture IV, on "Coincidences Between Buddhism and Other Religions," +especially desirable. + + +2. ---- _Buddhism in China,_ London, S. P. C. K, 1884. + +The best comprehensive account of Chinese Buddhism, written by an +authority. + + +3. ---- _Catena of Buddhist Scriptures,_ from the Chinese. London, +Triibner, 1871. + +A good introduction to Chinese Buddhism from the sources. + +4. ---- _The Romantic Legend of Sâkya Buddha._ London, +Triibner, 1875. + +Recounts Buddha's history from the beginning to the +conversion of the Kâsyapas and others. + + +5. ---- _Texts from the Buddhist Canon Commonly Known_ as _D_ +hammapada. London, Triibner, 1878. Pocket edition, 1902. + +These "Scriptural Texts," translated from the Chinese and abridged, are +usually connected with some event in Buddha's history. This translation +has Indian anecdotes, illustrating the verses. + + +6. COULING, S., editor. _The Encyclopaedia Sinica._ Shanghai, Kelly +& Walsh, 1917. + +Contains, on pages 67-75, a number of brief articles upon Buddhism in +China. + + +7. DE QROOT, J. J. M. _Religion of the Chinese._ New York, +Macmillan, 1900. + +Pages 164-223 contain a summary of the main facts about Chinese Buddhism +by an authority. + + +8. ---- _Sectarianism and Religious Persecution in China._ 2 vols. +J. Müller, Amsterdam, 1903-1904. + +Treats from sources Confucianism's persecution of Buddhism and other +sects. See Vol. II. Index, under Buddhism, p. 572. + + +9. DORE, HENEI. _Researches into Chinese Superstitions._ 6 vols. +Tusewei Press, 1914-1920. + +A well illustrated miscellany of superstitions of all Chinese religions +showing indistinctly their interpenetration by Buddhism. +For Buddhism proper, see Vol. VI, pp. 89-233. + + +10. EDKINS, J. _Chinese Buddhism._ 2d edition. London, Trübner, +1893. + +A very full account of Buddhism as seen by a Sinologue of the last +generation. + + +11. EITEL, E. J. _Buddhism: Its Historical, Theoretical and Popular +Aspects._ Hongkong, Lane, Crawford and Co., 1884. + +Written by an observant scholar and descriptive of Buddhism of South +China especially. + + +12. ---- _Handbook of Chinese Buddhism._ Presbyterian Mission Press, +Shanghai. + +This is a Sanskrit-Chinese dictionary, a reprint of the second edition +of 1888 without the Chinese index necessary for identifying Chinese +Buddhist terms. + + +13. ELIOT, SIR CHARLES. _Hinduism and Buddhism, An Historical +Sketch._ 3 vols. Edward Arnold and Co., 1921. + +This is a valuable contribution to our knowledge of Buddhism by an +experienced student. The parts especially related to Chinese Buddhism +are Vol. II, pp. 3-106; Vol. Ill, 223-335. + + +14. JETTY, A. _Gods of Northern Buddhism._ Oxford, Clarendon Press, +1914. + +This work is helpful in identifying images in the temples, though +unfortunately few of those given are Chinese. + + +15. HACKMANN, H. _Buddhism as a Religion._ London, Probsthain, +1910. + +Gives a general view of Buddhism from first-hand investigation. For +Chinese Buddhism see pp. 200-257. + + +16. HASTINGS, JAMES. _The Encyclopedia of Religion and Ethics._ New +York, Scribners, 1908. + +Articles Asvaghosa, Bodhisattva, China (Buddhism in), Mahâyâna Missions +(Buddhist). + + +17. HUME, R. E. _The Living Religions of the World._ New York, +Scribners, 1924. + +A clear comparative study of these religions in the light of Christian +standards. + + +18. INGLIS, J. W. "Christian Element in Chinese Buddhism." +_International Review of Missions,_ Vol. V, 1916, pp. 587-602. An +excellent article by a veteran missionary and scholar of Manchuria. + + +19. JOHNSON, S. _Oriental Religions ... China._ Boston, Houghton, +Osgood Co., 1878. + +Pages 800-833 give a comprehensive summary by a student of comparative +religion. + + +20. JOHNSTON, R. F. _Buddhist_ China. New York, Dutton, 1913. + +A well-written, interesting book. The author knows his subject, and is +held in high esteem by Buddhists in China. + + +21. KEITH, A. BERRIEDALE. _Buddhist Philosophy in India and +Ceylon._ Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1923. + +A study of the historic development of the Buddhistic philosophy in +India and Ceylon which throws much light on the Mahâyâna. + + +22. LODGE, J. E. _Chinese Buddhist Art._ Asia, Vol. XIX, June, +1919. + +Some of the choicest half-tones illustrating its character accompanied +by interesting descriptions. + + +23. McGOVERN, W. M. _An Introduction of Mahâyâna Buddhism._ Dutton, +1922. + +Though written from the point of view of Japanese Buddhism it gives a +good treatment of metaphysical and psychological aspects of the Mahâyâna +system. + + +24. MÜLLER, F. MAX. _Sacred Books of the East._ Vol. XLIX, +Buddhist, Mahâyâna Texts. Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1894. + +A book of sources necessary for understanding Northern Buddhism. + + +25. PARKER, E. H. _China and Religion._ New York, Dutton, 1905. + +A sketch of Buddhism by a scholar long resident in China is found in +Chapter IV. + + +26. PAUL, C. T. _The Presentation of Christianity to Buddhists._ +New York, Board of Missionary Preparation, 1924. + +A carefully prepared study of Buddhism from the viewpoint of +missionaries working in Buddhist lands. + + +27. REICHELT, K. L. "Special Work Among Chinese Buddhists." _Chinese +Recorder,_ Vol. LI, 1920, July issue, pp. 491-497. + +An article by a pioneer in work among Buddhists, of rare insight and +sympathy. + + +28. RICHARD, T. _The Awakening of Faith in the Mahâyâna Doctrine._ +2d edition. Shanghai, 1918. + +A loose translation by a very large-hearted and sympathetic student with +an irenic spirit. See 32 below. + + +29. RICHARD, T. _Guide to Buddhahood; Being a Standard Manual of +Chinese Buddhism._ Shanghai., 1907. + + +30. SAUNDERS, K. J. _Epochs of Buddhist History_ (Haskell +Lectures), Chicago University Press, 1922. + +A good summary of the main developments in Buddhism. + + +31. STAUFFER, M. T. _The Christian Occupation of China._ Shanghai +Continuation Committee, 1922. + +The introductory section contains articles upon China's religions. + + +32. SUZUKI, T. A'svaghosa's _Awakening of Faith in the Mahâyâna._ +Chicago, Open Court Publishing Co., 1900. + +A far more accurate translation of this work than No. 28 above. + + +33. ---- Outlines of _Mahâyâna Buddhism._ Chicago, Open Court +Publishing Co., 1908. + +While written from the Japanese point of view it is necessary to the +understanding of Chinese Buddhism. + + +34. WATTERS, T. "Buddhism in China." _Chinese Recorder,_ Vol. II, +1870, pp. 1-7, 38-43, 64-68, 81-88, 117-122, 145-150, Shanghai. + +A valuable series of articles by an excellent Chinese scholar, +discussing the history, persecutions, and various Buddhas of China. + + +35. WEI, F. C. M. "Salvation by Faith as Taught by the Pure Land Sect." +_Chinese Recorder,_ Vol. LI, 1920, pp. 395-401, 485-491. + +A good article on the sect whose ideas have spread over China and Japan. + + +36. WIEGER, L. _Bouddhisme Chinois,_ 2 vols. Ho-Kien-Fou, Roman +Catholic Press, 1910-1913. + +This contains the Chinese text and French translation of the life of +Buddha as known to China; also the ritual observed in ordination. A +useful source book. + + + + + + + + + + +End of Project Gutenberg's Buddhism and Buddhists in China, by Lewis Hodous + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK BUDDHISM AND BUDDHISTS IN CHINA *** + +***** This file should be named 8390-8.txt or 8390-8.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + http://www.gutenberg.org/8/3/9/8390/ + +Produced by Lee Dawei, V-M Osterman and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will +be renamed. + +Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright +law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, +so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United +States without permission and without paying copyright +royalties. 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Be sure to check the +copyright laws for your country before downloading or redistributing +this or any other Project Gutenberg eBook. + +This header should be the first thing seen when viewing this Project +Gutenberg file. Please do not remove it. Do not change or edit the +header without written permission. + +Please read the "legal small print," and other information about the +eBook and Project Gutenberg at the bottom of this file. Included is +important information about your specific rights and restrictions in +how the file may be used. You can also find out about how to make a +donation to Project Gutenberg, and how to get involved. + + +**Welcome To The World of Free Plain Vanilla Electronic Texts** + +**eBooks Readable By Both Humans and By Computers, Since 1971** + +*****These eBooks Were Prepared By Thousands of Volunteers!***** + + +Title: Buddhism and Buddhists in China + +Author: Lewis Hodus + +Release Date: June, 2005 [EBook #8390] +[Yes, we are more than one year ahead of schedule] +[This file was first posted on July 6, 2003] + +Edition: 10 + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-Latin-1 + +*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK BUDDHISM AND BUDDHISTS IN CHINA *** + + + + +Produced by Lee Dawei, V-M Osterman +and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team + + + + +BUDDHISM AND BUDDHISTS IN CHINA + +BY + +LEWIS HODOUS, D.D. + + + + +[Illustration: EX LIBRIS: +CHARLES FRANKLIN THWING +Western Reserve University +Library + +From the Library of +Charles Franklin Thwing +Acquired in 1938] + + + + +PREFACE + +This volume is the third to be published of a series on "The World's +Living Religions," projected in 1920 by the Board of Missionary +Preparation of the Foreign Missions Conference of North America. The +series seeks to introduce Western readers to the real religious life of +each great national area of the non-Christian world. + +Buddhism is a religion which must be viewed from many angles. Its +original form, as preached by Gautama in India and developed in the +early years succeeding, and as embodied in the sacred literature of +early Buddhism, is not representative of the actual Buddhism of any land +today. The faithful student of Buddhist literature would be as far +removed from understanding the working activities of a busy center of +Buddhism in Burmah, Tibet or China today as a student of patristic +literature would be from appreciating the Christian life of London or +New York City. + +Moreover Buddhism, like Christianity, has been affected by national +conditions. It has developed at least three markedly different types, +requiring, therefore, as many distinct volumes of this series for its +fair interpretation and presentation. The volume on the Buddhism of +Southern Asia by Professor Kenneth J. Saunders was published in May, +1923; this volume on the Buddhism of China by Professor Hodous will be +the second to appear; a third on the Buddhism of Japan, to be written by +Dr. R. C. Armstrong, will be published in 1924. Each of these is needed +in order that the would be student of Buddhism as practiced in those +countries should be given a true, impressive and friendly picture of +what he will meet. + +A missionary no less than a professional student of Buddhism needs to +approach that religion with a real appreciation of what it aims to do +for its people and does do. No one can come into contact with the best +that Buddhism offers without being impressed by its serenity, assurance +and power. + +Professor Hodous has written this volume on Buddhism in China out of the +ripe experience and continuing studies of sixteen years of missionary +service in Foochow, the chief city of Fukien Province, China, one of the +important centers of Buddhism. His local studies were supplemented by +the results of broader research and study in northern China. No other +available writer on the subject has gone so far as he in reproducing the +actual thinking of a trained Buddhist mind in regard to the fundamentals +of religion. At the same time he has taken pains to exhibit and to +interpret the religious life of the peasant as affected by Buddhism. He +has sought to be absolutely fair to Buddhism, but still to express his +own conviction that the best that is in Buddhism is given far more +adequate expression in Christianity. + +The purpose of each volume in this series is impressionistic rather than +definitely educational. They are not textbooks for the formal study of +Buddhism, but introductions to its study. They aim to kindle interest +and to direct the activity of the awakened student along sound lines. +For further study each volume amply provides through directions and +literature in the appendices. It seeks to help the student to +discriminate, to think in terms of a devotee of Buddhism when he +compares that religion with Christianity. It assumes, however, that +Christianity is the broader and deeper revelation of God and the world +of today. + +Buddhism in China undoubtedly includes among its adherents many +high-minded, devout, and earnest souls who live an idealistic life. +Christianity ought to make a strong appeal to such minds, taking from +them none of the joy or assurance or devotion which they possess, but +promoting a deeper, better balanced interpretation of the active world, +a nobler conception of God, a stronger sense of sinfulness and need, and +a truer idea of the full meaning of incarnation and revelation. + +It is our hope that this fresh contribution to the understanding of +Buddhism as it is today may be found helpful to readers everywhere. + +The Editors. + +_New York city, +December, 1923._ + +The Committee of Reference and Counsel of the Foreign Missions +Conference of North America has authorized the publication of this +series. The author of each volume is alone responsible for the opinions +expressed, unless otherwise stated. + + + + +CONTENTS + + +CHAPTER + +I. INTRODUCTORY + +II. THE ENTRANCE OF BUDDHISM INTO CHINA + +III. THE ESTABLISHMENT OF BUDDHISM AS THE PREDOMINATING RELIGION OF CHINA + 1. The World of Invisible Spirits + 2. The Universal Sense of Ancestor Control + 3. Degenerate Taoism + 4. The Organizing Value of Confucianism + 5. Buddhism an Inclusive Religion + +IV. BUDDHISM AND THE PEASANT + 1. The Monastery of Kushan + 2. Monasteries Control Fêng-shui + 3. Prayer for Rain + (a) The altar + (b) The prayer service + (c) Its Meaning + 4. Monasteries are Supported because They + Control Fêng-shui + +V. BUDDHISM AND THE FAMILY + 1. Kuan Yin, the Giver of Children and Protector of Women + 2. Kuan Yin, the Model of Local Mother-Goddesses + 3. Exhortations on Family Virtues + 4. Services for the Dead + +VI. BUDDHISM AND SOCIAL LIFE + 1. How the Laity is Trained in Buddhist Ideas + 2. Effect of Ideals of Mercy and Universal Love + 3. Relation to Confucian Ideal + 4. The Embodiment of Buddhist Ideals in the Vegetarian Sects + 5. Pilgrimages + +VII. BUDDHISM AND THE FUTURE LIFE + 1. The Buddhist Purgatory + 2. Its Social Value + 3. The Buddhist Heaven + 4. The Harmonization of These Ideas with Ancestor Worship + +VIII. THE SPIRITUAL VALUES EMPHASIZED BY BUDDHISM IN CHINA + 1. The Threefold Classification of Men under Buddhism + 2. Salvation for the Common Man + 3. The Place of Faith + 4. Salvation of the Second Class + 5. Salvation for the Highest Class + 6. Heaven and Purgatory + 7. Sin + 8. Nirvana + 9. The Philosophical Background + 10. What Buddhism Has to Give + +IX. PRESENT-DAY BUDDHISM + 1. Periods of Buddhist History + 2. The Progress of the Last Twenty-five Years + 3. Present Activities + (a) The reconstruction of monasteries + (b) Accessions + (c) Publications + (d) Lectures + (e) Buddhist societies + (f) Signs of social ambition + 4. The Attitude of Tibetan Lamas + 5. The Buddhist World Versus the Christian World + +X. THE CHRISTIAN APPROACH TO BUDDHISTS + 1. Questions which Buddhists Ask + 2. Knowledge and Sympathy + 3. Emphasis on the Ĉsthetic in Christianity + 4. Emphasis on the Mystical in Christianity + 5. Emphasis on the Social Elements in Christianity + 6. Emphasis on the Person of Jesus Christ + (a) As a Historical Character + (b) As the Revealer + (c) As the Saviour + (d) As the Eternal Son of God + 7. How Christianity Expresses Itself in Buddhist Minds + 8. Christianity's Constructive Values + +APPENDIX ONE, Hints for the Preliminary Study of Buddhism in China + +APPENDIX TWO, A Brief Bibliography + + + + +BUDDHISM AND BUDDHISTS IN CHINA + + + + +I + + +INTRODUCTORY + +A well known missionary of Peking, China, was invited one day by a +Buddhist acquaintance to attend the ceremony of initiation for a class +of one hundred and eighty priests and some twenty laity who had been +undergoing preparatory instruction at the stately and important Buddhist +monastery. The beautiful courts of the temple were filled by a throng of +invited guests and spectators, waiting to watch the impressive +procession of candidates, acolytes, attendants and high officials, all +in their appropriate vestments. No outsider was privileged to witness +the solemn taking by each candidate for the priesthood of the vow to +"keep the Ten Laws," followed by the indelible branding of his scalp, +truly a "baptism of fire." Less private was the initiation of the lay +brethren and _sisters,_ more lightly branded on the right wrist, +while all about intoned "Na Mah Pen Shih Shih Chia Mou Ni Fo." (I put my +trust in my original Teacher, Säkyamuni, Buddha.) + +The missionary was deeply impressed by the serenity and devotion of the +worshipers and by the dignity and solemnity of the service. The last +candidate to rise and receive the baptism of branding was a young +married woman of refined appearance, attended by an elderly lady, +evidently her mother, who watched with an expression of mingled +devotion, insight and pride her daughter's initiation and welcomed her +at the end of the process with radiant face, as a daughter, now, in a +spiritual as well as a physical sense. At that moment an attendant, +noting the keen interest of the missionary, said to him rather +flippantly, "Would you not like to have your arm branded, too?" "I +might," he replied, "just out of curiosity, but I could not receive the +branding as a believer in the Buddha. I am a Christian believer. To be +branded without inward faith would be an insult to your religion as well +as treachery to my own, would it not? Is not real religion a matter of +the heart?" + +The old lady, who had overheard with evident disapproval the remark of +the attendant, turned to the missionary at once and said, "Is that the +way you Westerners, you Christians, speak of your faith? Is the reality +of religion for you also an inward experience of the heart?" And with +that began an interesting interchange of conversation, each party +discovering that in the heart of the other was a genuine longing for God +that overwhelmed all the artificial, material distinctions and the human +devices through which men have limited to particular and exclusive paths +their way of search, and drew these two pilgrims on the way toward God +into a common and very real fellowship of the spirit. + +A Buddhist monk was passing by a mission building in another city' of +China when his attention was suddenly drawn to the Svastika and other +Buddhist symbols which the architect had skilfully used in decorating +the building. His face brightened as he said to his companion: "I did +not know that Christians had any appreciation of beauty in their +religion." + +These incidents reveal aspects of the alchemy of the soul by which the +real devotee of one religion perceives values which are dear to him in +another religion. The good which he has attained in his old religion +enables him to appropriate the better in the new religion. A converted +monk, explaining his acceptance of Christianity, said: "I found in Jesus +Christ the great Bodhisattva, my Saviour, who brings to fruition the +aspirations awakened in me by Buddhism." + +Just as it has been said that they do not know England who know England +only, so it may be said with equal truth that they do not know +Christianity who know it and no other faith. There are many in China +like the old lady at the temple, who have found in Buddhism something of +that spiritual satisfaction and stimulus which true Christianity +affords, in fuller measure. The recognition of such religious values by +the student or the missionary furnishes a sound foundation for the +building of a truer spirituality among such devotees. + +As will be seen in what follows, religion in China is at first sight a +mixed affair. From the standpoint of cruder household superstitions an +average Chinese family may be regarded as Taoists; the principles by +which its members seek to guide their lives individually and socially +may be called Confucian; their attitude of worship and their hopes for +the future make them Buddhists. The student would not be far afield when +he credits the religious aspirations of the Chinese today to Buddhism, +regarding Confucianism as furnishing the ethical system to which they +submit and Taoism as responsible for many superstitious practices. But +the Buddhism found in China differs radically from that of Southern +Asia, as will be made clear by the following sketch of its introduction +into the Flowery Kingdom and its subsequent history. + + + + +II + + +THE ENTRANCE OF BUDDHISM INTO CHINA + +Buddhism was not an indigenous religion of China. Its, founder was +Gautama of India in the sixth century B.C. Some centuries later it found +its way into China by way of central Asia. There is a tradition that as +early as 142 B.C. Chang Ch'ien, an ambassador of the Chinese emperor, Wu +Ti, visited the countries of central Asia, where he first learned about +the new religion which was making such headway and reported concerning +it to his master. A few years later the generals of Wu Ti captured a +gold image of the Buddha which the emperor set up in his palace and +worshiped, but he took no further steps. + +According to Chinese historians Buddhism was officially recognized in +China about 67 A.D. A few years before that date, the emperor, Ming-Ti, +saw in a dream a large golden image with a halo hovering above his +palace. His advisers, some of whom were no doubt already favorable to +the new religion, interpreted the image of the dream to be that of +Buddha, the great sage of India, who was inviting his adhesion. +Following their advice the emperor sent an embassy to study into +Buddhism. It brought back two Indian monks and a quantity of Buddhist +classics. These were carried on a white horse and so the monastery which +the emperor built for the monks and those who came after them was called +the White Horse Monastery. Its tablet is said to have survived to this +day. + +This dream story is worth repeating because it goes to show that +Buddhism was not only known at an early date, but was favored at the +court of China. In fact, the same history which relates the dream +contains the biography of an official who became an adherent of Buddhism +a few years before the dream took place. This is not at all surprising, +because an acquaintance with Buddhism was the inevitable concomitant of +the military campaigning, the many embassies and the wide-ranging trade +of those centuries. But the introduction of Buddhism into China was +especially promoted by reason of the current policy of the Chinese +government of moving conquered populations in countries west of China +into China proper, The vanquished peoples brought their own religion +along with them. At one time what is now the province of Shansi was +populated in this way by the Hsiung-nu, many of whom were Buddhists. + +The introduction and spread of Buddhism were hastened by the decline of +Confucianism and Taoism. The Han dynasty (206 B. C.-221 A. D.) +established a government founded on Confucianism. It reproduced the +classics destroyed in the previous dynasty and encouraged their study; +it established the state worship of Confucius; it based its laws and +regulations upon the ideals and principles advocated by Confucius. The +great increase of wealth and power under this dynasty led to a gradual +deterioration in the character of the rulers and officials. The sigid +Confucian regulations became burdensome to the people who ceased to +respect their leaders. Confucianism lost its hold as the complete +solution of the problems of life. At the same time Taoism had become a +veritable jumble of meaningless and superstitious rites which served to +support a horde of ignorant, selfish priests. The high religious ideals +of the earlier Taoist mystics were abandoned for a search after the +elixir of life during fruitless journeys to the isles of the Immortals +which were supposed to be in the Eastern Sea. + +At this juncture there arose in North China a sect of men called the +Purists who advocated a return from the vagaries of Taoism and the +irritating rules of Confucianism to the simple life practised by the +Taoist mystics. When these thoughtful and earnest minded men came into +contact with Buddhism they were captivated by it. It had all they were +claiming for Taoist mysticism and more. They devoted their literary +ability and religious fervor to the spreading of the new religion and +its success was in no small measure due to their efforts. As a result of +this early association the tenets of the two religions seemed so much +alike that various emperors called assemblies of Buddhists and Taoists +with the intention of effecting a union of the two religions into one. +If the emperor was under the influence of Buddhism he tried to force all +Taoists to become Buddhists. If he was favorable to Taoism he tried to +make all Buddhists become Taoists. + +But such mandates were as unsuccessful as other similar schemes have +been. In the third century A. D. after the Han dynasty had ended, China +was broken up into several small kingdoms which contended for supremacy, +so that for about four hundred years the whole country was in a state of +disunion. One of the strong dynasties of this period, the Northern Wei +(386-535 A. D.), was distinctly loyal to Buddhism. During its +continuance Buddhism prospered greatly. Although Chinese were not +permitted to become monks until 335 A. D., still Buddhism made rapid +advances and in the fourth century, when that restriction was removed, +about nine-tenths of the people of northwestern China had become +Buddhists. Since then Buddhism has been an established factor in Chinese +life. + + + + +III + + +THE ESTABLISHMENT OF BUDDHISM AS THE PREDOMINATING RELIGION OF CHINA + +Even the historical influences noted above do not account entirely for +the spread of Buddhism in China. In order to understand this and the +place which Buddhism occupies, we need to review briefly the different +forms which religion takes in China and to note how Buddhism has related +itself to them. + +_1. The World of Invisible Spirits_ + +The Chinese believe _in_ a surrounding-world of spirits, whose +origin is exceedingly various. They touch life at every point. There are +spirits which are guardians of the soil, tree spirits, mountain demons, +fire gods, the spirits of animals, of mountains, of rivers, seas and +stars, of the heavenly bodies and of many forms of active life. These +spirits to the Chinese mind, of today are a projection, a sort of +spiritual counterpart, of the many sided interests, practical or +otherwise, of the groups and communities by whom they are worshipped. +There are other spirits which mirror the ideals of the groups by which +they are worshipped. Some of them may have been incarnated in the lives +of great leaders. There are spirits which are mere animations, +occasional spirits, associated with objects crossing the interests of +men, but not constant enough to attain a definite, independent life as +spiritual beings. Thus surrounding the average Chinese peasant there is +a densely populated spirit world affecting in all kinds of ways his, +daily existence. This other world is the background which must be kept +in mind by one who would understand or attempt to guide Chinese +religious experience. It is the basis on which all organized forms of +religious activity are built. The nearest of these to his heart is the +proper regard for his ancestors. + +_2. The Universal Sense_ of _Ancestor Control_ + +The ancestral control of family life occupies so large and important a +place in Chinese thought and practice that ancestor worship has been +called the original religion of the Chinese. It is certain that the +earliest Confucian records recognize ancestor worship; but doubtless it +antedated them, growing up out of the general religious consciousness of +the people. The discussion of that origin in detail cannot be taken up +here. It may be followed in the literature noted in the appendix or in +the volume of this series entitled "Present-Day Confucianism." Ancestor +worship is active today, however, because the Chinese as a people +believe that these ancestors control in a very real way the good or evil +fortunes of their descendants, because this recognition of ancestors +furnishes a potent means of promoting family unity and social ethics, +and, most of all, because a happy future life is supposed to be +dependent upon descendants who will faithfully minister to the dead. +Since each one desires such a future he is faithful in promoting the +observance of the obligation. Consequently, ancestor worship, like the +previously mentioned belief in the invisible spiritual world, underlies +all other religious developments. No family is so obscure or poor that +it does not submit to the ritual or discipline which is supposed to +ensure the favor of the spirits belonging to the community. Likewise, +every such family is loyal to the supposed needs of its deceased +ancestors. In a very intimate way these beliefs are interwoven with the +private and social morality of every family or group in Chinese society, +and must be taken into account by any one who seeks to bring a religious +message to the Chinese people. + +_3. Degenerate Taoism_ + +Taoism is that system of Chinese religious thought and practice, +beginning about the fifth century B. C., which was originally based on +the teachings of Lao Tzu and developed in the writings of Lieh Tzu and +Chuang Tzu and found in the Tao Tê Ching. It is really in this original +form a philosophy of some merit. According to its teaching the Tao is +the great impersonal background of the world from which all things +proceed as beams from the sun, and to which all beings return. In +contrast to the present, transient, changing world the Tao is +unchangeable and quiet. Originally the Taoists emphasized quiescence, a +life in accordance with nature, as a means of assimilating themselves to +the Tao, believing that in this way they would obtain length of days, +eternal life and especially the power to become superior to natural +conditions. + +There is a movement today among Chinese scholars in favor of a return to +this original highest form of Taoism. It appeals to them as a philosophy +of life; an answer to its riddles. Among the masses of the people, +however, Taoism manifests itself in a ritual of extreme superstition. It +recommends magic tricks and curious superstitions as a means of +prolonging life. It expresses itself very largely in these degrading +practices which few Chinese will defend, but which are yet very commonly +practiced. + +_4. The Organizing Value of Confucianism_ + +Confucianism brought organization into these hazy conceptions of life +and duty. It took for granted this spiritual-unspiritual background of +animism, ancestor-worship and Taoism, but reshaped and adapted it as a +whole so that it might fit into that proper organization of the state +and nation which was one of its great objectives. Just as Confucianism +related the family to the village, the village to the district, and the +district to the state, so it organized the spiritual world into a +hierarchy with Shang Ti as its head. This hierarchy was developed along +the lines of the organization mentioned above. Under Shang Ti were the +five cosmic emperors, one for each of the four quarters and one for +heaven above, under whom were the gods of the soil, the mountains, +rivers, seas, stars, the sun and moon, the ancestors and the gods of +special groups. Each of the deities in the various ranks had duties to +those above and rights with reference to those below. These duties and +rights, as they affected the individual, were not only expressed in law +but were embodied in ceremony and music, in daily religious life and +practice in such a way that each individual had reason to feel that he +was a functioning agent in this grand Confucian universe. If any one +failed to do his part, the whole universe would suffer. So thoroughly +has this idea been adopted by the Chinese people that every one joins in +forcing an individual, however reluctant or careless, to perform his +part of each ceremony as it has been ordered from high antiquity. + +The emperor alone worshipped the supreme deity, Shang Ti; the great +officers of state, according to the dignity of their office, were +related to subordinate gods and required to show them adequate respect +and reverence. Confucius and a long line of noted men following him were +semi-deified [Footnote: Confucius was by imperial decree deified in +1908.] and highly reverenced by the literati, the class from which the +officers of state were as a rule obtained, in connection with their +duties, and as an expression of their ideals. To the common people were +left the ordinary local deities, while all classes, of course, each in +its own fashion reverenced, cherished and obeyed their ancestors. It +should be remarked at this point that Confucianism of this official +character has broken down, not only under the impact of modern ideas, +but under the longing of the Chinese for a universal deity. The people +turn to Heaven and to the Pearly Emperor, the popular counterpart of +Shang Ti. + +Viewed from another angle, Confucianism is an elaborate system of +ethics. In writings which are virtually the scriptures of the Chinese +people Confucius and his successors have set forth the principles which +should govern the life of a people who recognize this spiritual universe +and system. These ethics have grown out of a long and, in some respects, +a sound experience. Much can be said in their favor. The essential +weaknesses of the Confucian system of ethics lie in its sectional and +personal loyalties and its monarchical basis. The spirit of democracy is +a deadly foe to Confucianism. Another element of weakness is its +excessive dependence upon the past. Confucius reached ultimate wisdom by +the study of the best that had been attained before his day. He looked +backward rather than forward. Consequently a modern, broadly educated +Confucianist finds himself in an anomalous position. He does not need +absolutely to reject the wisdom which Confucianism embodies, but he can +no longer accept it as a sound, reliable and indisputable scheme of +thought and action. Yet its simple ethical principles and its social +relationships are basal in the lives of the vast masses of the Chinese. + +_5. Buddhism an. Inclusive Religion._ + +Upon this, confused jumble of spiritism, superstition, loyalty to +ancestors and submission to a divine hierarchy Buddhism was +superimposed. It quickly dominated all because of its superior +excellence. The form of Buddhism which became established in China was +not, to be sure, like the Buddhism preached by Gautama and his +disciples, or like that form of Buddhism which had taken root in Burma +or Ceylon. Except in name, the Buddhism of Southern Asia and the +Buddhism which developed in China were virtually two distinct types of +religion. The Buddhism of Burma and Ceylon was of the conservative +Hînayâna ("Little Vehicle" of salvation) school, while that of China was +of the progressive Mahâyâna ("Great Vehicle" of salvation) school. Their +differences are so marked as to be worthy of a careful statement. + +The Hinayana, which is today the type of Buddhism in Ceylon, Burma and +Siam, has always clung closely to tradition as expressed in the original +Buddhist scriptures. Its basic ideas were that life is on the whole a +time of suffering, that the cause of this sorrow is desire or ignorance, +and that there is a possible deliverance from it. This deliverance or +salvation is to be attained by following the eightfold path, namely, +right knowledge, aspiration, speech, conduct, means of livelihood, +endeavor, mindfulness and meditation. To the beatific state to be +ultimately attained Gautama gave the name Nirvana, explained by his +followers variously either as an utter extinction of personality or as a +passionless peace, a general state of well-being free from all evil +desire or clinging to life and released from the chain of +transmigration. Hinayana Buddhism appeals to the individual as affording +a way of escape from evil desire and its consequences by acquiring +knowledge, by constant discipline, and by a devotedness of the life to +religious ends through membership in the monastic order which Buddha +established. It encourages, however, a personal salvation worked out by +the individual alone. + +The Mahâyâna school of Buddhists accept the general ideas of the +Hinayana regarding life and salvation, but so change the spirit and +objectives as to make Buddhism into what is virtually another religion. +It does not confine salvation to the few who can retire from the world +and give themselves wholly to good works, but opens Buddhahood to all. +The "saint" of Hinayana Buddhism is the _arhat_ who is intent on +saving himself. The saint of Mahâyâna Buddhism is the candidate for +Buddhahood (Bodhisattva) who defers his entrance into the bliss of +deliverance in order to save others. Mahâyâna Buddhism is progressive. +It encourages missionary enterprise and was a secret of the remarkable +spread of Buddhism over Asia. Moreover, while the Hînayâna school +recognizes no god or being to whom worship is given, the Mahâyanâ came +to regard Gautama himself as a god and salvation as life in a heavenly +world of pure souls. Thus the Mahâyâna type of thinking constitutes a +bridge between Hînayâna Buddhism and Christianity. In fact, a recent +writer has declared that Hînayâna Buddhists are verging toward these +more spiritual conceptions. [Footnote: See Saunders, _Buddhism and +Buddhists in Southern Asia,_ pp. 10, 20.] + +After the death of Sâkyamuni [Footnote: Sâkyamuni is the name by which +Gautama, the Buddha, is familiarly known in China.] Buddhism broke up +into a number of sects usually said to be eighteen in number. When +Buddhism came to China some of these sects were introduced, but they +assumed new forms in their Chinese environment. Besides the sects +brought, from India the Chinese developed several strong sects of their +own. Usually they speak of ten sects although the number is far larger, +if the various subdivisions are included. + +To indicate the manifold differences between these groups in Buddhism +would take us far afield and would not be profitable. It will be of +interest, however, to consider some of the chief sects. One of the sects +introduced from India is the Pure Land or the Ching T'u which holds +before the believer the "Western Paradise" gained through faith in +Amitâbha. Any one, no matter what his life may have been, may enter the +Western Paradise by repeating the name of Amitâbha. This sect is +widespread in China. In Japan there are two branches of it known as the +Nishi-Hongwanji and the Higashi-Hongwanji with their head monasteries in +Kyoto. They are the most progressive sects in Japan and are carrying on +missionary work in China, the Hawaiian Islands and in the United States. + +Another strong sect is the Meditative sect or the Ch'an Men (Zen in +Japan). This was introduced by Bodhidharma, or Tamo, who arrived in the +capital of China in the year 520 A.D. On his arrival the emperor Wu Ti +tried to impress the sage with his greatness saying: "We have built +temples, multiplied the Scriptures, encouraged many to join the Order: +is not there much merit in all this?" "None," was the blunt reply. "But +what say the holy books? Do they not promise rewards for such deeds?" +"There is nothing holy." "But you, yourself, are you not one of the holy +ones?" "I don't know." "Who are you?" "I don't know." Thus introduced, +the great man proceeded to open his missionary-labors by sitting down +opposite a wall arid gazing at it for the next nine years. From this he +has been called the "wall-gazer." He and his successors promulgated the +doctrine that neither the scriptures, the ritual nor the organization, +in fact nothing outward had any value in the attainment of +enlightenment. They held that the heart of the universe is Buddha and +that apart from the heart or the thought all is unreal. They thought +themselves back into the universal Buddha and then found the Buddha +heart in all nature. Thus they awakened the spirit which permeated +nature, art and literature and made the whole world kin with the spirit +of the Buddha. + + + "The golden light upon the sunkist peaks, + The water murmuring in the pebbly creeks, + Are Buddha. In the stillness, hark, he speaks!" + + +[Footnote: K. J. Saunders in _Epochs of Buddhist History._] + +Such pantheism and quietism often lead to a confusion in moral +relations, but these mystics were quite correct in their morals because +they checked up their mysticism with the moral system of the Buddha. + +Still another important sect originated in the sixth century A. D. on +Chinese soil, namely, the T'ien T'ai (Japanese Tendai), so called +because it started in a monastery situated on the beautiful T'ien T'ai +mountains south of Ningpo. Chih K'ai, the founder, realized that +Buddhism contained a great mass of contradictory teachings and practice, +all attributed to the Buddha. He sought for a harmonizing principle and +found it in the arbitrary theory that these teachings were given to +different people on five different occasions and hence the +discrepancies. The practical message of this sect has been that all +beings have the Buddha heart and that the Buddha loves all beings, so +that all beings may attain salvation, which consists in the full +realization of the Buddha heart latent in them. + +There was a time when these sects were very active and flourishing in +China. At the present time the various tendencies for which they stood +have been adopted by Buddhism as a whole and the various sectaries, +though still keeping the name of the sect, live peacefully in the same +monastery. All the monasteries practice meditation, believe in the +paradise of Amitâbha, and are enjoying the ironic calm advocated by the +T'ien T'ai. While the struggle among the sects of China has been +followed by a calm which resembles stagnation, those in Japan are very +active and the reader is referred to the volume of this series on +Japanese Buddhism for further treatment of the subject. + +When Buddhism entered China it brought with it a new world. It was new +_practical_ and new spiritually. It brought a knowledge unknown +before regarding the heavenly bodies, regarding nature and regarding +medicine, and a practice vastly above the realm of magical arts. In +addition to these practical benefits, Buddhism proclaimed a new +spiritual universe far more real and extensive than any of which the +Chinese had dreamed, and peopled with spiritual beings having +characteristics entirely novel. In comparison with this new universe or +series of universes which Indian imagination had created, the Chinese +universe was wooden and geometric. Since it was an organized system and +a greater rather than a different one, the Chinese people readily +accepted it and made it their own. + +Buddhism not only enlarged the universe and gave the individual a range +of opportunity hitherto unsuspected, but it introduced a scheme of +religious practice, or rather several of them, enabling the individual +devotee to attain a place in this spiritual universe through his own +efforts. These "ways" of salvation were quite in harmony with Chinese +ideas. They resembled what had already been a part of the national +practice and so were readily adopted and adapted by the Chinese. + +Buddhism rendered a great service to the Chinese through its new +estimate of the individual. Ancient China scarcely recognized the +individual. He was merged in the family and the clan. Taoists, to be +sure, talked of "immortals" and Confucianism exhibited its typical +personality, or "princely man," but these were thought of as supermen, +as ideals. The classics of China had very little to say about the common +people. The great common crowd was submerged. Buddhism, on the other +hand, gave every individual a distinct place in the great wheel +_dharma,_ the law, and made it possible for him to reach the very +highest goal of salvation. This introduced a genuinely new element into +the social and family life of the Chinese people. + +Buddhism was so markedly superior to any one of the four other methods +of expressing the religious life, that it quickly won practical +recognition as the real religion of China. Confucianism may be called +the doctrine of the learned classes. It formulates their principles of +life, but it is in no strict sense a popular religion. It is rather a +state ritual, or a scheme of personal and social ethics. Taoism +recognizes the immediate influence of the spirit world, but it ministers +only to local ideals and needs. In the usages of family and community +life, ancestor worship has a definite place, but an occasional one. +Buddhism was able to leave untouched each of these expressions of +Chinese personal and social life, and yet it went far beyond them in +ministering to religious development. Its ideas of being, of moral +responsibility and of religious relationships furnished a new psychology +which with all its imperfections far surpassed that of the Chinese. +Buddhism's organization was so satisfying and adaptable that not only +was it taken over readily by the Chinese, but it has also persisted in +China without marked changes since its introduction. Most of all it +stressed personal salvation and promised an escape from the impersonal +world of distress and hunger which surrounds the average Chinese into a +heaven ruled by Amitâbha [Footnote: Amitâbha, meaning "infinite light," +is the Sanskrit name of one of the Buddhas moat highly revered in China. +The usual Chinese equivalent is Omi-To-Fo.] the Merciful. The +obligations of Buddhism are very definite and universally recognized. It +enforces high standards of living, but has added significance because it +draws each devotee into a sort of fellowship with the divine, and mates +not this life alone, but this life plus a future life, the end of human +activity. Buddhism, therefore, really expresses the deepest religious +life of the people of China. + +It will be worth while to note some illustrations of the conviction of +the Chinese people that there are three religions to which they owe +allegiance and yet that these are essentially one. They often say, "The +three teachings are the whole teaching." An old scholar is reported to +have remarked, "The three roads are different, but they lead to the same +source." A common story reports that Confucius was asked in the other +world about drinking wine, which Buddhists forbid but Taoists permit. +Confucius replied: "If I do not drink I become a Buddha. If I drink I +become an Immortal. Well, if there is wine, I shall drink; if there is +none, I shall abstain." This expresses characteristically the Chinese +habit of adaptation. Such a decision sounds quite up to date. + +The Ethical Culture Society of Peking, recently organized, has upon its +walls pictures of Buddha, Lao Tzu, Confucius and Christ. Its members +claim to worship Shang Ti as the god of all religions. An offshoot of +this society, the T'ung Shan She, associates the three founders very +closely with Christ. It claims to have a deeper revelation of Christ +than the Christians themselves. A new organization, the Tao Yuan, plans +to harmonize the three old religions with Mohammedanism and +Christianity. + +Buddhism has consistently and continually striven to bring about a unity +of religion in China by interpenetrating Confucianism and Taoism. Quite +early the Buddhists invented the story that the Bodhisattva Ju T'ung was +really Confucius incarnate. There was at one time a Buddhist temple to +Confucius in the province of Shantung. The Buddhists also gave out the +story that Bodhisattva Kas'yapa was the incarnation of Lao Tzu, the +founder of Taoism. An artist painted Lao Tzu transformed into a Buddha, +seated in a lotus bud with a halo about his head. In front of the Buddha +was Confucius doing reverence. A Chinese scholar, asked for his opinion +about the picture, said: "Buddha should be seated; Lao Tzu should be +standing at the side looking askance at Buddha; and Confucius should be +grovelling on the floor." + +A monument dating from 543 A. D., illustrates this tendency of Buddhism +to represent its own superiority in Chinese religious life. At the top +of the monument is Brahma, lower down is Sâkyamuni with his disciples, +Ananda and Kas'yapa on one face, and on the other Sâkyamuni again, +conversing with Buddha Prabhutaratna and worshipped by monks and +Bodhisattvas. On the pedestal are Confucian and Taoist deities, ten in +number. Thus Buddhism sought to rank itself clearly above the other two +religions. From the early days Buddhism regarded itself as their +superior and began the processes of interpenetration and absorption. In +consequence the values originally inherent in Buddhism have come to be +regarded as the natural possession of the Chinese. It does express their +religious life, especially in South China, where outward manifestations +of religion are perhaps more marked than in the north. + + + + +IV + + +BUDDHISM AND THE PEASANT + +In order that, one may realize the place that Buddhism holds in the +religious life of the Chinese people as a whole, he must turn to the +organizations through which it functions. It is sometimes difficult to +estimate the place of Buddhism in China, because it so interpenetrates +the whole cultural and social life of the people. It becomes their +"way." To see how it touches the life of the average man or woman in +various ways will, therefore, be illuminating. The most outstanding +evidence of devotion are the many monasteries which dot the land in all +Buddhist countries. China is less dominated by them than other lands, +yet they form a very important reason for the persistence and strength +of Buddhism there. One of the famous old shrines will represent them as +a class and give evidence of their importance. + +_1. The Monastery of Kushan_ + +Kushan Monastery, located about four hours' ride by sedan-chair from +Foochow, is a famous shrine of South China. It occupies a large +amphitheater about fifteen hundred feet above the plain, part way up +Kushan, the "Drum Mountain," some three thousand feet high. From the top +of the mountain on clear days with the help of a glass the blue shores +of Formosa may be seen on the eastern horizon. The spacious monastery +buildings are surrounded by a grove of noble trees, in which squirrels, +pheasants, chipmunks and snakes enjoy an undisturbed life. + +The ascent to the monastery begins on the bank of the Min River. At the +foot of the mountain in a large temple the traveler may obtain mountain +chairs carried by two or more coolies. The road, paved with granite +slabs cut from the mountain side, consists of a series of stone stairs, +which zig-zag up the mountain under the shadow of ancient pine trees. +Every turn brings to view a bit of landscape carpeted with rice, or a +distant view where mountains and sky meet. A brook rushes by the side of +the road. Here it breaks into a beautiful waterfall. There it gurgles' +in a deep ravine. The sides of the road are covered with large granite +blocks which, loosened from the mountain side by earthquakes, have +disposed themselves promiscuously. Their blackened, weather-beaten sides +are incised with Chinese characters. One of them bears the words: "We +put our trust in Amitâbha." Another immortalizes the sentiments of some +great official who has made the pilgrimage to the mountain. Near the +monastery stand the sombre dagobas where repose the ashes of former +abbots and monastery officials. Not far away on the other side of the +road, hidden by trees, is the crematory where the last remains of the +brethren are consumed by the flames. + +As one approaches the monastery he hears the regular sounds of a bell +tolled by a water-wheel, reminding the faithful of Buddha's law. He sees +monks strolling leisurely about and lay brethren carrying wood, +cultivating the gardens, or tending the animals released by pious +devotees to heap up merit for themselves in the next world. Just inside +the main gate is a large fish pond, where goldfish of great size +struggle with one another, and with the lazy turtles, for the round hard +cakes purchased from the monks by the merit-seeking devotee. + +The monastery itself consists of a large group of buildings erected +about stone-paved courts, rising in terraces on the mountain side. The +large court at the entrance leads to the "Hall of the Four Kings." As +one enters the spacious door, he _is_ faced by a jolly, almost +naked image of the "Laughing Buddha." This is Maitrêya, the Mea siah of +the Buddhists, who will return to the world five thousand years after +the departure of Sâkyamuni. In the northern monasteries Maitrêya is +often represented as reaching a height when standing of seventy feet or +more, which indicates the stature to which man will attain when he +returns to earth. On each side of the visitor are two immense images of +the Deva kings. In Brahman cosmogony they were the guardians of the +world. In this entrance hall of the Buddhist monastery they stand as +guardians of the Buddhist faith. In the same hall looking toward the +open court beyond is Wei To, another guardian deity of Buddhism. +Somewhere near by is Kuan Ti, the god worshipped by the soldiers and +merchants. Although a Confucian god, he was early adopted by Buddhist +monks into their pantheon and made the guardian of their Order. + +Beyond this entrance hall is a large stone-paved court. On the right +side is a bell-tower whose bell is tolled by a monk who has kept the vow +of silence for fourteen years. On the left is a drum-tower. On the right +one finds a series of small shrines. A passage way leads to the library +where numerous Buddhist writings repose in lacquered cases, some of them +written in their own blood by devout monks. On the same side are guest +halls, the dining room for three hundred monks, and the spacious, well +equipped kitchen with running water piped from a reservoir in the hills +above. A store where books, images and the simple requirements of the +monks can be obtained is just above the dining room. On the left side of +the court are large buildings used as dormitories far the monks, +storerooms, and for housing the great printing establishment with its +thousands of wooden blocks on which are carved passages from the +Buddhist scriptures. Here also are kept the coffins in which the monks +are to be burned. + +On a terrace above the north side of the court rises the main hall, +called the "Hall of the Triratna," the Buddhist Trinity, where three +gilded images are seated on a lotus flower with halos covering their +backs and heads. The center image is that of Sâkyamuni, the Buddha. On +his right is Yao Shih, the Buddha of medicine, and on the left, +Amitâbha. Quite often these images are said to represent the Buddha, the +Law and the Community of Monks. On the altar are candlesticks and a fine +incense burner from which curls of smoke arise. An immense lamp hangs +from the ceiling. In the rear are banners with praises to Buddha given +by pious devotees. The floor is tiled and covered with round mats made +of palm fiber on which the monks kneel during worship. Before the mats +are low stands for books. On each side of this main hall are the images +of nine Buddhist saints (_arhats_), eighteen in all. Behind this +large temple opens another court and on a terrace above it stands the +hall of the Law with the images of Kuan Yin, the goddess of Mercy, and +the twenty-four devas. Here also are small images of viceroys and +patrons of the monastery. + +The hillsides are dotted with numerous temples and shrines. There is one +to Chu-Hsi, the great philosopher of the Sung dynasty, who was born in +Fukien. In it are preserved a few characters indited by his hand. On the +west side of the monastery are large buildings for the housing of +animals released by merit-seeking devotees. Here cows, hogs, goats, +chickens, geese and ducks spend their old age without fear of beginning +their transmigration by forming the main portion of a Chinese feast. + +The monastery is governed by an abbot, usually a man of good business +ability, elected by the monks. Under him are the officers of the two +wings or groups of attendants. One set looks after the spiritual +interests, of the monks; the-other takes care of their material needs: +The monks have worship about two o'clock in the morning and again at +about four in the afternoon. The rest of the long day they spend in +meditation, or study, in strolling about the mountain side or in sleep. +Their life is separated from all stirring contact with the life of the +world. + +_2. Monasteries Control Fêng-shui_ + +This monastery with its appointments is a good type of the monasteries +all over China. It was founded at the request of the inhabitants of the +neighborhood, because the dragons of the region used to cause much +damage to the crops in the surrounding country. A holy monk came, +founded the monastery, and by his good influence so curbed the dragons +that the country-side has enjoyed peace ever since and the monastery has +prospered. Since the fourth century of our era records show that by the +building of monasteries in strategic place's holy monks brought rains +and prosperity to various regions, or prevented floods and calamities +from damaging the villages. In other words the monasteries are regarded +as the controllers of _fêng-shui_ (wind and water). According to +the Chinese philosophy winds and water are spiritual forces and may be +so controlled by other spiritual forces that instead of bringing harm +they will confer benefit upon the people. Floods and dry seasons are so +frequent in China that any institution holding out the promise of +regulating them would become firmly established in the affection of the +people. The monasteries have taken this place. + +One of the picturesque features of a Chinese landscape is the pagoda. +These structures were introduced in the early stages of Buddhism to +enshrine the relics of Buddha. It was said that Buddha's body consisted +of eighty thousand parts, hence numerous pagodas were erected to shelter +these relics. Inasmuch as a pagoda contained the relics of Buddha, it +possessed magic power and so came to play a great part in the control of +the winds and the rains. The pagoda in China has an odd number of +stories varying from three to thirteen. The odd numbers belong to the +positive principle in nature which is superior to the negative +principle. The pagoda plays quite a part in the festivals of the people. +On certain occasions the stories are hung with lanterns and the pagodas +are visited by numerous throngs. + +_3. Prayer for Rain_ + +Prayers for rain afford such a common illustration of the relation of +Buddhism to the life of the peasant that a detailed presentation of such +a service may be of seal value. + +During a prolonged drought in some district of China, when the heat +opens gaping cracks in the fields and the grain is drying up, the +populace may visit their highest official and apprise him of the dire +situation. He often forbids the slaughter of all animals for three days +and, in case rain has not thereby come, he goes in person or sends a +deputy to the nearest monastery to direct the monks to pray for rain. + +_(a) The Altar._--On such an occasion the great hall of the Law may +be used for the ceremony. Quite often a special altar is erected in an +enclosure near the monastery on a platform one foot high and twenty-five +feet on each side, overspread by a tent of green cloth. In the center +seats are arranged for the presiding monk and his assistants. On each of +the four sides of the altar is placed an image of the Dragon King who is +supposed to control the rain. If an image is not obtainable a piece of +paper inscribed with the name of the dragon may be used. Flowers, fruits +and incense are spread before the images. On the doors of the tent are +painted dragons with clouds. The tent and altar are green and the monks +wear green garments, because green belongs to the spring and suggests +rain. For this ceremony the monks prepare themselves by abstinence and +cleansing. The presiding monk is one of high moral character and +religious fervor. While some monks recite appropriate sutras, two others +look after the offerings, the incense, and the sprinkling of water +during the ceremony to suggest the coming of rain. The services continue +day and night, being conducted by groups of monks in succession. + +_(b) The Prayer Service._--The ceremonial is opened by a chant as +follows: + +"Pearly dew of the jade heavens, golden waves of Buddha's ocean, scatter +the lotus flowers on a thousand thousand worlds of suffering, that the +heart of mercy may wash away great calamity, that a drop may become a +flood, that a drop may purify mountains and rivers. + +"We put our trust in the Bodhisattvas and Mahâsattvas that purify the +earth." + +The chant ended, a monk takes a bowl of water and repeats thrice: "We +put our trust in the great merciful Kuan Yin Bodhisattva." Then follows +the chant: + +"The Bodhisattva's sweet dew of the willow is able to make one drop +spread over the ten directions. It washes away the rank odors and dirt. +It keeps the altars clean and pure. The mysterious words of the doctrine +will be reverently repeated." + +This chant ended, the monks intone incantations of Kuan Yin, quite +unintelligible even to them, but of magical value. While these are being +uttered, the presiding monk and his attendants walk around the altar, +while one of them with a branch sprinkles water on the floor. This +symbolizes the cleansing of the altar and of the monks from all +impurities which might render the ritual ineffective. When the +perambulating monks have returned to their place, while the sprinkler +continues his duties, the monks repeat the words: "We put our trust in +the sweet dew kings, Bodhisattvas and Mahâsattvas." + +The Bodhisattvas have now come to the purified altar and while the abbot +offers incense to them, the monks repeat the words: + +"The fields are destroyed so that they resemble the back of a tortoise. +The demons of drought produce calamity. The dark people [Footnote: A +term denoting the Chinese.] pray earnestly while crops are being +destroyed. We pray that abundant, limpid liquid may descend to purify +and refresh the whole world. The clouds of incense rise." + +This plaint is repeated thrice and is followed by an invocation: + +"Wholeheartedly we cast ourselves to the earth, O Triratna, who dost +exist eternally in the realm of _dharma_ of the ten directions." + +The leader remains quiet a long time with his eyes closed, visualizing +the Buddhas, the Bodhisattvas, the dragon kings, and the saints, all +with their heavenly eyes and ears knowing that this region is afflicted +with drought, that an altar has been constructed and that all have come +to make petition. This meditation is regarded as of chief importance. It +is followed by an announcement to the effect that the sutra praying for +rain was given by the Buddha, that a drought is afflicting the land, +that the altar has been erected in accordance with the regulations and +that prayer is being made for rain. But fearing that something may have +been overlooked, the magic formula of "the king of light who turns the +wheel" is read seven times so as to remedy such oversight. + +The altar having thus been cleansed of all impurities, the rain sutra is +opened and the one hundred and eighty-eight dragon kings are urged by +name in groups of ten to take action. The formula is as follows: + +"We with our whole heart invite such and such dragon kings to come. We +desire that the heart and wisdom which knows others intuitively will +move the spirits above to obey the Buddha, to take pity on the people +below and to come to our province and send down sweet rain." + +When the dragons have all been duly invited, the monks chant suitable +magical formulas, while the leader sits in meditation visualizing these +dragon kings and their tender solicitude for the people in distress. The +monastery bell is sounded and the wooden fish is beaten, while drums and +cymbals add their effect. The whole is intended to draw the attention of +the dragon kings to the drought. Then the fifty-four Buddhas are invited +in a similar manner in groups of ten, the sixth group consisting of +four. A similar form of address is used and similar magical formulas are +recited with the noisy accompaniment. The ceremony concludes by the +expression of the hope that the three jewels (Buddha, the Law and the +Community of Monks) and the dragon kings will grant the rain. + +Upon the altar are four copies of an announcement to the dragon kings +and Buddhas. On the first day three copies are sent to them through the +flames, one to the Buddhas, one to the dragon kings and one to the +devas. One copy is read daily and then sent up at the thanksgiving +ceremony. The announcement is as follows: + +"We put our trust in the limitless, reverent ocean clouds, the dragons +of august virtue and all their host, all dragon kings and holy saints. +Their august virtue is difficult to measure. In accord with the command +of Buddha they send liquid rain. May their quiet mercy descend to the +altar; may they send down purity and freshness, spreading over the ten +directions. We put our trust in the company of dragon kings of the +clouds, the saints and the Bodhisattvas." + +The offerings are made only in the morning inasmuch as the Buddhas, +following ancient custom, are not supposed to eat after the noonday +meal. Great care is taken that the altar shall not be desecrated by any +one who eats meat or drinks wine. The magic formulas of great mercy are +uttered or the name of Kuan Yin is repeated a thousand times. The monks, +take turn in these services which continue day and night until rain +comes. + +_(c) Its Meaning._--In the religious consciousness of the people is +the idea that the drought is a punishment for sin. The altar is made +pure and acceptable and sin is removed in various symbolic ways. This +fits in with the idea that man is an intimate part of the world order. +His sin disturbs the order of nature. Heaven manifests displeasures by +sending down calamities upon men. Men should cease their wrongdoing +which disturbs the natural order and should also wash away the effects +of their sins. The services for rain with their magic formulas help to +clear away the consequences of sin and to predispose Heaven to grant its +blessings again. + +_4. Monasteries Are Supported Because They Control Fêng-shui_ + +The prayers for rain are an important part of the Chinese peasant's +world order. Drought is the manifestation of Heaven's displeasure at the +infraction of Heaven's laws. It calls for self-examination and +repentance. Thus the monastery opens up the windows of the universal +order as this touches the humble tiller of the soil. + +The Buddhist monasteries not only hold services in time of drought, but +also in time of flood and at times when plagues of grasshoppers afflict +the land, or when diseases afflict human beings. Their adoption of +Chinese customs led them to have special ceremonies at the eclipse of +the sun and moon, although they knew the cause of the eclipse. Peasants +and officials support the monastery because of these services regulating +the wind and water influences and through them bringing the people into +harmonious relation with the great world of spirits. + + + + + + +BUDDHISM AND THE FAMILY + +One of the criticisms of the Chinese against Buddhism is that it is +opposed to filial piety. According to Mencius the greatest unfilial act +is to leave no progeny. In spite of this charge Buddhism has done much +for the family. It has taken over the ethics of the family, filial +piety, obedience and respect for elders, and has made them a part of its +system. Transgression of these fundamental duties is visited by dire +punishments in the next world. The faithful observance is followed not +only by the rewards of the Confucian system, but results in the greatest +rewards in the future life. + +_1. Kuan Yin, the Giver of Children and Protector of Women_ + +Buddhism has done more. Out of its atmosphere of love and mercy toward +all beings has developed Kuan Yin, the ideal of Chinese womanhood, the +goddess of Mercy, who embodies the Chinese ideal of beauty, filial piety +and compassion toward the weak and suffering. She is especially the +goddess of women, being interested in all their affairs. Her image is +found in almost every household and her temples have a place in every +part of China. + +A brief history of this deity will enable us to understand the +significance of the cult. Kuan Yin started as a male god in India, +called Avalôkitêsvara, who was worshipped from the third to the seventh +century of our era. He was the protector of sailors and people in +danger. In the course of time, either in China or in India, the god +became a goddess. Some think that this was due to the influence of +Christianity. In China both forms survive, though the goddess is better +known. A Buddhist once said that a Bodhisattva is neither male nor +female and appears in whatever form is convenient. + +Kuan Yin is a very popular goddess. Her experiences in Hades are +dramatically presented by traveling theatrical companies. Her deeds of +mercy are portrayed in art. Her well known story runs as follows: + +Kuan Yin was the daughter of the ruler of a prosperous kingdom located +somewhere near the island of Sumatra. Her birth was announced to the +queen by a dream. The little girl ate no meat nor milk. Her disposition +was very good. Her intelligence was most extraordinary. Once she read +anything she never forgot it. + +At the age of sixteen her father tried to betroth her to a young prince. +She refused and decided to give herself to a life of fasting and +abstinence. Angered b-v her obstinacy the father ordered her to take off +her court dress and jewels, to put on the garb of a servant and to carry +water for the garden. The garden never looked so beautiful. The daughter +also looked well and showed no signs of weariness, because the gods +assisted her in her work. + +Relenting a little the king sent an older sister to urge Kuan Yin to +accept the husband he had found for her. When she refused, he sent her +to a monastery and charged the abbess to treat her harshly, so that she +might be forced to return home. Expecting to win the king's favor, the +abbess put the most unpleasant tasks on the girl. But again the gods +assisted her and made her work light, so that her tasks were always well +done and the young woman was cheerful. + +One day the report came to the king that his daughter was associating +with a young monk discussing heterodox doctrines and that she had given +birth to a child. This news so enraged the king that he burned the +monastery, killing many monks. The princess was captured and brought +before him. Inasmuch as she was obdurate, the king ordered her to be +executed. The executioner's sword, however, broke into a thousand pieces +without doing her any injury. The king then ordered her to be strangled. +A golden image sixteen feet high appeared on the spot. The princess +laughed and cried: "Where there was no image, an image appeared. I see +the real form. When body flesh is strangled, then appear the lights of +ten thousand roads." She went to purgatory and purgatory at once changed +into paradise. Yama, in order to save his purgatory, sent her back to +the world. She appeared at Puto, an island off the coast of Chekiang +near Ningpo. Here she rescued sailors and performed many miracles for +people in distress. + +In the meantime the father, who had committed many sins, became sick. +His allotted time of life had been shortened by twenty years. Moreover, +an ulcer grew on his body for every one of the five hundred monks he had +killed when he burned the monastery. A miserable, loathsome old man, he +came to an old monk, who was really the princess in disguise, and asked +for help. The monk told him that an eye and an arm of a blood relative +made into medicine was the only cure for his trouble. The two living +daughters were willing to make such an offering, but their husbands +would not permit them to do so. The old monk urged the monarch to take +up a life of abstinence, to rebuild the monastery he had burned, and to +provide money for services to take the five hundred monks whom he had +killed through purgatory. He also said that a nun in the convent would +offer an arm and an eye. When the monarch entered the monastery, he +found hanging before the incense burner an arm and an eye. These were +boiled, mixed with medicine and rubbed on the king's body. He soon +became well. Further inquiry revealed that these members belonged to his +daughter. + +This is the story of the most popular goddess in China. She is +worshipped by her devotees on the first and fifteenth of every month, on +the nineteenth of the sixth month, when she became a Bodhisattva, and on +the nineteenth of the ninth month, when she put on the necklace. A month +after marriage every young bride is presented with an image of the +Goddess of Mercy, an incense-burner and candlesticks. + +This goddess is worshipped whenever trouble comes to man or woman. Her +names signify her willingness to listen to all prayers. She is the "one +who regards the voice," i.e., prayer; "one who hears the prayers of the +world;" "one who regards and exists by himself as sovereign;" "the +ancestor of Buddha who regards prayer;" "one who frees from fear;" +"Buddha the august king;" "the great white robed scholar;" "great +compassion and mercy." + +_2. Kuan Yin, the Model of Local Mother-Goddesses_ + +This conception is the creation of the social and religious +consciousness of the women in China. It reveals their aspirations for +mercy, compassion, filial piety and for the beauty that crowns a well +developed character. Such an ideal does not mean that these have been +realized in all the numerous homes of the Chinese, but it manifests +their sense of such an ideal to be realized in life and their ardent +longing for its realization. + +Mother-goddesses are found all over China and they have all of them been +influenced by Kuan Yin. Some of them have originated with actual women +who were deified after death. Here is the story of one of these +goddesses who presides over the censer in a small temple in Formosa. She +was born in the province of Kuangtung. At the age of seven she was +adopted by a family as the future wife of their eighteen-year-old son. +One day while crossing a river he was drowned. This was a great blow to +her. When she was fourteen years old the father of the family died. The +two women, thus left alone, wept bitterly day and night. The comfort of +relatives was of little avail. The mother was becoming emaciated with +grief. The daughter, unable to bear the strain any longer, washed +herself, burned incense before the ancestral tablet of her betrothed, +and then took this vow: + +"I am willing to remain a virgin, to apply myself to carrying water and +working at the mortar and to serve my mother-in-law. If I cherish any +other purpose and change my chastity and obedience, may Heaven slay me +and earth annihilate me." + +When the mother heard this vow she stopped her weeping. Inasmuch as they +had no uncle to look after them, they worked day and night. A relative +of her future husband gave her one of his sons as an adopted son. The +child died after a few months. This was a great grief. Then the mother +died. The daughter sold her possessions to obtain money for a proper +burial. She had only a coarse mourning cloth for her dress. After a +while she adopted a child as her son. When he grew up she found him a +wife who served her as faithfully as she had served her mother-in-law. +When she was eighty years old, she dreamed that the golden maid and jade +messenger of Kuan Yin stood beside her saying: "The court of Heaven has +ordered you to become a god (shên)." She died soon after this. She said +of herself: + +"Shang Ti took compassion upon me during my life, because with a firm +heart I kept my chastity and served my mother-in-law with complete +obedience. Therefore he gave me the office of Kuan Pin. I have performed +my duties in several places. Now I am transferred to Formosa." + +This story and many others like it mirror the moral ideals of the women +of China in the midst of their struggles for help and light and +guidance. + +_3. Exhortations on Family Virtues_ + +The Buddhists issue a large number of tracts. These are very commonly +paid for by devotees who make a vow that, if their parent becomes well, +they will pay for the printing of several hundred or thousand of these +tracts for free distribution. In these tracts are usually many stories +illustrating the rewards of filial piety. The story is told in one of +them about a Mrs. Chin whose father-in-law being ill was unable to +sleep for sixty days. His condition grew worse. Mrs. Chin knelt before +Kuan Yin's altar, cut out a piece of flesh from her arm and cooked it +with the father's food. His health at once improved and he lived to the +age of seventy-seven. Another story is told in the same tract of a woman +who cut out a piece of her liver and gave it as medicine to her +mother-in-law. + +These Buddhist tracts take up all the moral habits which make the family +and clan strong and stable and surround them by the highest sanctions. A +tract picked up in a Buddhist temple at Hangchow purports to be the +revelation of the will of Buddha. It urges sixteen virtues. The first is +filial piety. The tract says: + +"Filial piety is the chief of all virtues. Heaven and Earth honor filial +piety. There is no greater sin than to cherish unfilial thoughts. The +spirits know the beginning of such thoughts. Heaven openly rewards a +heart that is filial." + +The second one mentioned is another important family virtue, namely, +reverence: + +"The saints, sages, immortals and Buddhas are the outgrowth of +reverence. The greatest sin is to lack reverence for father and mother. +When brothers lack reverence for one another, they harm the hands and +feet. When husband and wife lack reverence, the harmony of the household +is ruined. When friends do not have reverence, they bring about +calamity." + +Then follow similar exhortations on sincerity, justice, self-restraint, +forbearance, benevolence, generosity, absence of pride, covetousness, +lying, adultery, mutual love, self-denial, hope for the consolations of +religion and for an undivided heart ruled by peace. These are virtues +quite essential to the integrity of the family. They are taught, not in +the abstract but by the exhibition of shining examples, by vivid +representations of the rewards both here and hereafter, and by pictures +of awful punishments. So by precept and example, by threat of punishment +here and hereafter and by declaration of reward in the future Buddhism +has tried to maintain the family virtues of the Confucian system and has +attempted to permeate them by the spirit of sacrifice. Still it has +always been the sacrifice of the weak for the strong, of the young for +the aged, of the low for the high, of women for men. + +_4. Services for the Dead_ + +Buddhism very early took over the relatively simple services for the +dead and developed them into an elaborate ritual which made very vivid +the spiritual universe which Buddhism introduced. In the sixth century a +service was held in behalf of the father-in-law of Emperor Ning Ti +(516-528 A. D.) for seven times every seven days. He feasted a thousand +monks every day, and caused seven persons to become monks. On the +hundredth day after the death he feasted ten thousand monks and caused +twenty-seven persons to become monks. + +Since that time services on every seventh day after the decease until +the forty-ninth day, when a grand finale ends the ceremonies, have been +very popular. + +The object of such services is to conduct the soul of the dead through +purgatory, in order that it may return to life or enter the Western +Paradise. This is done by making a pleasing offering to the guardians +and officers of purgatory, and to the gods and Bodhisattvas whose mercy +saves people. Numerous missives are consigned to the flames, informing +the rulers of the nether world about the soul of the dead; offerings of +gold and silver, of various articles of apparel, of trunks, houses, and +servants are made, all, however, made out of bamboo frames covered with +paper. Various powerful incantations are recited which force open the +gates of purgatory and let the soul out. + +The services may be crowded into one day or they may be held on every +seventh day until the forty-ninth day, i.e., seven sevens. Various +explanations are given' for these services. + +During the first week the soul of the dead arrives at the "Demon Gate +Barrier." Here money is demanded by the demons on the ground that in his +last transmigration the deceased borrowed money. Accordingly large +quantities of silver shoes [Footnote: The silver used for this purpose +is molded, in accordance with ancient usage, in the shape of shoes and +carried about in that form by merchants.] must be sent to the dead so +that he may settle all claims and avoid beating and inconvenience. +During the second week the soul arrives at a place where he is weighed. +If the evil outweighs the good, the soul is sawn asunder and ground to +powder. In the third week he comes to the "Bad Dog" village. Here good +people pass unharmed, but the evil are torn by the fierce beasts until +the blood flows. In the fourth week the soul is confronted with a large +mirror in which he sees his evil deeds and their consequences, seeing +himself degraded in the next transmigration to a beast. In the fifth +week the soul views the scenes in his own village. + +In the sixth week he reaches the bridge which spans the "Inevitable +River." This bridge is 100,000 feet high and one and three-tenths of an +inch wide. It is crossed by riding astride as on a horse. Beneath rushes +the whirl-pool filled with serpents darting their heads to and fro. At +the foot of the bridge lictors force unwilling travelers to ascend. The +good do not cross this bridge, but are led by "golden youth" to gold and +silver bridges which cross the stream on either side of this "Bridge of +Sighs." + +In the seventh week the soul is taken first to Mrs. Wang who dispenses a +drink which blots out all memories of the earthly life. Then the +individual enters the great wheel of transmigration. This is divided +into eighty-one sections from which one hundred and eight thousand small +and tortuous paths radiate out into the four continents of the world. +The soul is directed along one of these paths and is duly reborn in the +world as an animal or as a human being or passes on into the Western +Paradise. + +In imitation of this bridge a bridge is built of tables in front of the +home of the dead. At the end the tables are placed upside down and a +lantern placed on each table-leg. At night this bridge is illuminated. A +company of monks repeat their prayers and incantations, while others +mount upon the bridge to impersonate devils. The pious son with the +tablet of his deceased parent comes to take his father over the bridge. +When his way is disputed by the demons, he falls on his knees and begs +and gives them money, negotiating the passage at last with the aid of a +large quantity of silver. + +Another ceremony is the breaking through purgatory. Five supplications +duly signed are addressed to the proper authorities, four being +suspended at each of the four sides of the table and one at the center. +Tiles are then placed over the table or on the ground. After +incantations have been repeated to the accompaniment of the sounding of +the bell and the wooden fish, the supplications are burned and the tiles +are broken as a symbol of breaking through purgatory and of releasing +the soul. + +Thus Buddhism has taken over the most important function of ancestor +worship, has extended it and made it more significant to each individual +as well as to the family. + + + + +VI + + +BUDDHISM AND SOCIAL LIFE + +_1. How the Laity is Trained in Buddhist Ideas_ + +A common way of emphasizing moral ideas among the people by Buddhist +teachers is the use of tracts purporting to have a divine origin. The +following gives the substance of such a tract: + +Not long ago in the province of Shantung, there was a sharp and sudden +clap of thunder. After the frightened people had collected their wits, +they discovered a small book written in red in front of the house of a +certain Mr. Li. Mr. Li picked up the book, copied it and read it +reverently. He gave a copy to Mr. Ma, the prefect, but Mr. Ma did not +believe in the book. Thereupon Maitrêya, the Messiah of the Buddhists, +spoke from the sky as follows: + + + "These are the years of the final age. The people under + heaven do not reverence Heaven and Earth, they are not + filial to father and mother, they do not respect their + superiors. They cheat the fatherless, impose upon the + widow, oppress the weak; they use large weights for + themselves and small measures for others. They injure the good. + They covet for their own profit. They cheat men of money, + use the five grains carelessly, kill the cow that draws the + plow. This volume is sent for their special benefit. If + they recite it they will avoid trouble. If they disbelieve, + the years with the cyclical character _Ping_ and _Ting_ will + have fields without men to plant them and houses without + men to live in them. In the fifth month of these years + evil serpents will infest the whole country. In the eighth + and ninth months the bodies of evil men will fill the land. + + "Those who believe this book and propagate its teachings + will not encounter the ten sorrows of the age: war, + fire, no peace day and night, separation of man and wife, + the scattering of the sons and daughters, evil men spread + over the country, dead bones unburied, clothing with no + one to wear it, rice with no one to eat it, and the difficulty + of ever seeing a peaceful year. Sâkyamuni foreseeing this + final age sent down this volume in Shantung. The Goddess + of Mercy saw the sorrows of all living beings. + Maitrêya commanded the two runners of T'ai Shan, the + god of the Eastern Mountain, to investigate the conduct + of men and as a first punishment to increase the price of + rice, and then besides the ten sorrows already mentioned + above, to inflict the punishments of flood, fire, wind, + thunder, tigers, snakes, sword, disease, famine and cold. + The rule of Sâkyamuni which has lasted twelve thousand + years is now fulfilled, and Maitrêya succeeds to his place." + + +These sorrows may be escaped by reciting this sutra whose substance we +find above. If it is repeated three times the person will escape the +calamity of fire and water. If one man passes it on to ten men and ten +men pass it on to a hundred, they will escape the calamities of sword, +disease and imprisonment, and receive blessings which cannot be +measured. He who in addition to repeating the sutra practices abstinence +will insure peace for himself. He who presents one hundred copies to +others will insure his personal peace. He who presents a thousand copies +will insure the peace of his family. He who is attacked by disease, may +escape it by taking five cash of the reign of Shun Chih (1644-1661 A. +D.), the first emperor of the Ch'ing dynasty, one mace of the seed of +cypress, one mace of the bark of mulberry, boil in one bowl of water +until only eight-tenths of the water remain, drink and he will become +well. + +In this way the five Buddhist commandments for the laity not to kill any +living creature, not to steal, not to commit adultery, not to lie, and +not to use intoxicating liquor are propagated and made real to the +common man. The method is quite efficient. Whole provinces have been put +into a panic by such prophecies. + +_2. Effect of Ideals of Mercy and Universal Love_ + +The command not to kill any living being has had considerable influence +in China. There are volumes of stories telling of the punishments which +will be visited upon those who disobey and of the rewards of those who +release living animals. Every monastery has a special place for animals +thus released by pious devotees. + +There is a popular story about a fishmonger of the T'ang dynasty who was +taken sick and during his illness dreamed that he was taken to +purgatory. His body was aflame with fire and pained him as though he +were being roasted. Flying fiery chariots with darting flames swept +around him and burned his body. Ten thousand fish strove with one +another to get a bite of his flesh. The ruler of the lower regions +accused him of killing many fish and hence his punishment. For a number +of days he was hanging between life and death. His relatives were urged +to perform some works of penance. They had his fishing implements +burned. With reverent hearts they made two images of Kuan Yin, presented +offerings and repented. The whole family performed abstinence, stopped +killing living things, printed and gave away over a hundred copies of +the Diamond Sutra, and ferried over a large number of souls through +purgatory. As a result of their efforts the sick man became well. + +The following comment was made on the above story by a scholar. If its +premises are granted, the conclusion is inevitable: + +"If the fiery chariots are seal, why does not man see them? If they are +false, how is it that man feels the pain? But where do the fiery +chariots come from? They come from the heart and head of the one who +kills fish. The fire in the heart (heart belongs to the element fire) +causes destruction. The chariot fire also causes destruction." + +This attitude of mercy has been extended to human beings. There are +numerous tracts against the drowning of little girls in those regions +where this custom is prevalent. One tells the following story: + +In the province of Kwangtung there lived a Mrs. Chang who daily burned +incense and repeated Buddha's name. One day she and her husband died. +Much to their surprise and consternation Yama (the potentate of hell) +decided that Mr. Chang must become a pig and Mrs. Chang a dog. Mrs. +Chang accordingly went to Yama and said, "During life we honored Buddha +and so why should we become animals after death?" Yama said, "What use +is it to honor Buddha? During life you drowned three girls whom I sent +into life. People with the face of a man and the heart of a beast, +should they not be punished?" The husband accordingly took on a pig's +skin and the wife a dog's. Then by a dream they revealed to their +brother Chang number two that, although they repeated Buddha's name, +they were not permitted to be reborn as men, because they had drowned +little girls. + +Perhaps the extent of this spirit, of mercy and its possibilities may be +illustrated by the reverence for the ox. While there is a great deal of +cruelty in China to animals and men, it is rarely that one sees an ox +abused. Up to the advent of the foreigner an ox was not killed for meat. +In many places in China today the slaughter of an ox would bring the +punishments of the law upon the butcher. No doubt this reverence is due +to the great Indian reverence for the cow. The law of kindness has been +extended to other animals, taking the rather spectacular form of +releasing a few decrepit animals and allowing them to spend their last +days in a monastery compound. There are many kindly things done in +China. The dead are buried, the sick are provided with medicine. Every +year numerous wadded garments are given away to poor people. Various +groups carrying on a humble ministry of helpfulness have found a real +inspiration in the ideals held before them in Buddhism, the rewards +promised and punishments threatened. + +_3. Relation to Confucian Ideals_ + +Why have not these ideals exercised a larger influence in China? The +answer is quite simple. The activities of the monks have been +strenuously opposed by the Confucian state system. The philosopher, +Chang Nan-hsiian, a contemporary of Chu-Hsi, states concisely for us the +differences betwen Confucianism and Buddhism in his comment on a passage +in the _Book of Records._ + +"Strong drink is a thing intended to be-used in offering sacrifices and +entertaining guests,--such employment of it is what Heaven has +prescribed. But men by their abuse of such drink come to lose their +virtue and destroy their persons--such employment of it is what Heaven +has annexed its terrors to. The Buddhists, hating the use of things +where Heaven sends down its terrors, put away as well the use of them +which Heaven has prescribed. + +"For instance, in the use of meats and drinks, there is such a thing as +wildly abusing and destroying the creatures of Heaven. The Buddhists, +disliking this, confine themselves to a vegetable diet, while we only +abjure wild abuse and destruction. In the use of clothes, again, there +is such a thing as wasteful extravagance. The Buddhists, disliking this, +will have no clothes but those of a dark and sad color, while we only +condemn extravagance. They, further, through dislike of criminal +connection between the sexes, would abolish the relation between husband +and wife, while we denounce only the criminal connection. + +"The Buddhists, disliking the excesses to which the evil desires of men +lead, would put away, along with them, the actions which are in +accordance with the justice of heavenly principles, while we, the +orthodox, put away the evil desires of men, whereupon what are called +heavenly principles are the more brightly seen. Suppose the case of a +stream of water. The Buddhists, through dislike of its being foul with +mud, proceed to dam it up with earth. They do not consider that when the +earth has dammed up the stream, the supply of water will be cut off. It +is not so with us, the orthodox. We seek only to cleanse away the mud +and sand, so that the pure water may be available for use. This is the +difference between the Buddhists and the Learned School." [Footnote: +_Shu King,_ Pt. V, Bk. X, p. 122.] + +This statement reveals at once the opposition of the sect of the Learned +and the influence which Buddhism exerted upon its members. + +Buddhism while enjoying occasional favor from the state was often +zealously persecuted. In 819 Han Yii issued his celebrated act of +accusation. In 845 the emperor Wu Tsung issued his decree of +secularization. At that time 4600 monasteries and 40,000 smaller +establishments were pulled down and 265,000 monks and nuns were sent +back to lay life. Their rich lands were confiscated. Under the Ming +dynasty, as well as under the Ch'ing dynasty, Buddhism enjoyed a +precarious existence. Whether Buddhism would have improved the moral +conditions of the Chinese; if it had been given a free hand, is +difficult to affirm. Still its failure is at least partly due to the +opposition of Confucian orthodoxy. + +_4. The Embodiment of Buddhist Ideals in the Vegetarian sects_ + +The state persecutions of Buddhism forced it to leave temporarily its +institutional life and trust itself to the people. These persecutions +were usually followed by a revival of piety and religion among the +people. The Buddhist teachers gathered about themselves a large number +of lay devotees who formed societies which practice religious rites in +secret. These sects have preserved the genuine Buddhist piety, not only +in times of persecution, but at times when the Buddhist organization +under imperial favor was departing from its simplicity. + +A number of these sects have continued under different names for several +centuries. For example, the Tsai Li, a society now enjoying a quiet +existence in North China, is successor to the White Lotus society. The +latter started in the fifth century. Its members sought salvation in the +Pure Land of Amitabha. In the eleventh century it enjoyed imperial +favor. During the Mongol dynasty it fought against the throne with +rebels and placed one of its leaders, Chu Yüan-chang, a monk, on the +throne, who became the founder of the Ming dynasty. The sect was soon +proscribed and its members persecuted by the government. During the +Ch'ing dynasty it took part in a rebellion and was ruthlessly +exterminated. At present it goes under the name of _Tsai Li,_ i.e., +within the Li or principles of the three religions. It is a mediator +among the three religions. + +There are thirty-one organizations of this sect in Peking and branches +throughout North China. The society forbids the use of wine and opium, +though it does not forbid the use of meat. It usually has a Buddhist +image, Kuan Yin or some other. It uses Buddhist prayers and +incantations. The outstanding doctrines held during its long history +have been the hope of salvation in the Western Heaven of Amitâbha, the +early coming of Maitrêya, the Buddhist Messiah, and the large use of +magic formulas and incantations. + +Another sect which embodies Buddhist ideals is the Chin Tan, the sect of +the philosopher's stone or pill of immortality. Its founder was the +writer of the Nestorian tablet and so the sect is related to +Christianity. It exalts the teaching of universal love. This is one of +several examples of a supposed contact between Buddhism and +Christianity. + +These sects of which the two above are examples are present in all parts +of China. They obey the five Buddhist commandments for laymen. The +members spend much time in fasting and prayer, and in the repetition of +Buddhist books. Their lives as a rule are simple and sincere. They are +preparing for rebirth in the land of Amitâbha, or are expecting the +early coming of the Buddhist Messiah to set this world right. In the +meantime, by means of incantations, personal regimen and cooperative +action they are doing all they can to usher in a better state. + +_5. Pilgrimages_ + +Pilgrimages are very popular in China. The famous Buddhist shrines are +Wu T'ai Shan in Shansi, Puto on the coast of Chekiang, Chiu Hua Shan in +Anhwei, and Omei Shan in Szechuan. These, one on each side of China, +represent the four elements of Buddhist science, wind, water, fire and +earth. They are also the centers of the worship of the four great +Bodhisattvas, Wenshu, Kuan Yin, Titsang and Puhsien. Besides these large +centers there are many others to which pilgrims direct their footsteps. + +In the spring of the year, when the god of spring covers the earth with +a green mantle, when the sky and winds call, many start on their +pilgrimage. Many go singly and laboriously, kneeling and bowing every +few steps. Others go in happy companies, chaperoned by a pious, village +dame, who has organized the group. Some go because their turn has come. +They are members of a guild which has a fund devoted to pilgrimages by +its members. Some go for the performance of a vow made to Kuan Yin, when +the father was sick unto death and the goddess prolonged his life. To +others it is the culmination of a pious life. All go for the joy which +travel in the spring gives. + +Puto, an island off the coast of Chekiang, is the goal of many pilgrims +from all parts of China. In, the monasteries on the island are about two +thousand monks. In the pilgrim season this number is increased to ten +thousand monks and thousands of lay pilgrims. + +A group of pilgrims was going along merrily. The sun was bright, +lighting up the white caps on the deep blue sea. Spring was rioting all +about. One member was an abbot from Hangchow. A small, humble-looking +man with a few straggling long hairs where the mustache usually grows, +was a lay Buddhist from Wuchang. One was a bright young monk from +Tientsin. Last, but almost omnipresent and always bubbling over, was a +servant of the abbot from Hangchow. He was in the presence of divinity +and his whole life was heightened for the time being. "Why did you +come!" they were asked. "We came to worship the holy mother, Kuan Yin." +When they entered a shrine each purchased three sticks, of incense and +two candles and reverently placed them before the image of the goddess, +kneeling and bowing. Then they sat and partook of the tea offered by the +attendant. After paying a small gratuity, they went on to the next +shrine. + +On the way a large black snake as thick as an arm lazily crossed over +the road. They stood, reverent and awestruck, until he disappeared in +the grass, remarking that this was a good omen. When crossing a sand +dune piled up by the winds the abbot from Hangchow remarked that this +was called the flying sand, wafted there by the goddess who took pity on +some travelers who had been compelled to cross a narrow strait in order +to come to a cave. This cave, called Fan Yin Tung, is one of the rifts +made by an earthquake and washed out by wind and waves. Below it rushes +the tide; from above the sun sends down a few rays. Each pilgrim after +offering incense looks into the darkness to see whether he can behold in +the dark cavern an image of some Buddha. One sees Kuan Yin and is +acclaimed as having had a good vision. Another sees the Laughing Buddha. +All exclaim that he has been the most fortunate of all, for this Buddha +is the Messiah to come and he who beholds him will be blessed. So from +place to place they wander, chatting and seeing the sights of the +island. Thus thousands are doing in various parts of China, and in this +way strengthening the hold of Buddhism upon themselves and their +communities. + + + + +VII + + +BUDDHISM AND THE FUTURE LIFE + +Before the advent of Buddhism the Chinese had only a vague idea +regarding life after death. The Land and Water Classic mentions the Tu +Shuo mountain in the Eastern Sea, under which spirits of the dead live, +the entrance guarded by two spirits, Shên Tu and Yü Lei, who are in +general control of the demons. In some parts of China the names or +pictures, of these spirits are placed on the doors of a house to guard +it. The Taoists early developed the idea of a western paradise presided +over by the Queen of the West, located at first in the K'un Lun +mountains and later in the islands of the Eastern Sea. This heaven, +however, was limited to Taoist hermits and mystics. Buddhism made a +complete purgatory and heaven known to every one in China. + +_1. The Buddhist Purgatory_ + +This is really Buddhism's most noteworthy addition to China's religious +equipment; Buddhism lays much stress upon the experiences of a soul +immediately after death. Its punishments are well known to every +individual. The temple of the City Guardian found in every walled city +has a replica of the court in purgatory over which he presides. In the +temples of T'ai Shan there is an elaborate exhibit of the tortures +inflicted on culprits in purgatory. Every funeral service conducted by +Buddhists or Taoists is intended to conduct the soul of the dead through +purgatory and pictures vividly the progressive experiences from the +first seventh day to the seventh seventh day. On the the seventh month, +on the fifteenth day [about August] a special service is held for the +souls of the dead in purgatory. Furthermore, every community has a +general service [about October] for the souls of those who died a +violent death or who have no one to look after them. During the war many +services were thus held for those who died on the battlefields of +Europe. At such services the scenes in purgatory are vividly portrayed +by pictures and figures. The temples distribute tracts with pictures of +purgatory so that women may see them and understand. On the stage are +often acted powerful plays whose scenes are laid in Hades. This +propaganda is perhaps the most efficient of its kind. + +Purgatory is depicted as consisting of ten courts each surrounded by +small hells, where the soul undergoes punishment and cleansing. The +fifth court, which may be taken as an example of the other courts, is in +charge of Yen Lo or Yama. Yama was once in charge of the first court, +but his tender heart pitied the souls who came before him and sent them +back to earth. Because of this leniency he was placed in charge of the +fifth court. + +When a soul has passed through the first four courts and it has been +discovered that there is no good conduct to its credit, it is led to the +fifth court and examined every seven days regarding past conduct. In +order to get back to the world of men, it eagerly promises to complete +various unfinished vows, such as to repair monasteries, schools, +bridges, or roads, to clean wells, to deepen rivers, to distribute good +books, to release animals, to take care of aged parents, or to bury them +suitably. But it is plainly told that the gods know its artifices, and +that now these unfinished tasks can never be completed. The gods have +reached the unanimous opinion that no injustice is being done. +Accordingly there is no appeal, but each soul is led by attendants with +bulls' heads and horses' faces to a tower whence they may see their +native village. Its front is in the shape of a bow with a perimeter of +twenty-seven miles; its height is four hundred and ninety feet. It is +guarded by walls of sword trees. + +Good men, whose deeds of omission are balanced by the good they have +done, return to life. Only souls judged to be evil see their village +from this tower. These can see their own families moving about, and can +hear their conversation. They realize how they disobeyed the teachings +of their elders. They see that the earthly goods for which they have +struggled are of no value. Their plottings rise up with lurid reality. +They see how they planned a new marriage although already married, how +they appropriated fields, state property, and falsified accounts, +putting the blame on persons who were dead. While they observe their +village they behold their erstwhile friends touch their coffin and +inwardly rejoice. They hear themselves called selfish and insincere. But +their punishment does not stop here. They behold their children punished +by magistrates, their women afflicted with strange diseases, their +daughters ravished, their sons led astray, their property taken away, +the ancestral house burned and their business ruined. From this tower +all passes before them as a lurid dream and they are stricken in heart. + +About the fifth court are sixteen small hells where the soul is +punished. In each one are stakes buried in the ground and fierce +animals. The hands and feet of the guilty one are bound to a stake, his +body is opened with small knives, and his heart and intestines quickly +devoured. + +In each of these sixteen hells is a certain type of sinner: (1) Those +who do not reverence the gods and demons and who doubt the existence of +rewards and punishments; (2) those who hurt and kill living beings; (3) +those who break their vows to do good; (4) those who resort to heterodox +practices and vainly hope to attain eternal life; (5) those who upbraid +good men, fear the wicked and hate men because they do not die speedily; +(6) those who strive with other people and then put the blame upon them; +(7) men who force women; and women who seduce young men, and all who +have libidinous desires; (8) those who gain profit for themselves by +injuring others; (9) the stingy and those who absolutely disregard +others, whether alive or dead, giving them no help in dire need, when +they can do so without injury to themselves; (10) those who steal and +put the crime upon others; (11) those who requite favors with hate; (12) +those whose hearts are perverse and poisonous, who instigate others to +do wrong even if they may not have carried out their suggestion; (13) +those who tempt others by deceit; (14) those who involve others in their +squabbles and in gambling and then themselves win out; (15) those who +stubbornly persist in their false ideas, do not repent, and slander +others; (16) those who hate good and virtuous men. + +Besides these sixteen sorts of sinners the fifth court deals with other +types of wicked people; those who do not believe in rewards and +punishments after death, who hinder good causes, who burn incense +without a sincere heart, speak of the sins of others, who burn books +that urge men to be good and worship the Great Dipper, but persist in +eating meat; those who hate men; who repeat sutras and incantations, and +take part in religious ceremonies, but do not fast beforehand; who +slander the Buddhist and Taoist religions; who know how to read, but +refuse to read the ancient and modern exhortations regarding rewards and +punishments; who dig into graves and destroy their marks, who purposely +set fire to trees and underbrush, or are careless with fire in their own +houses; who shoot arrows at animals with the intent, to kill; who urge +and tempt the sick and weak to enter into contests of any kind with +themselves; who throw tiles and stones over neighboring walls, poison +fish in the river, fire guns, or make nets or traps for birds; who sow +salt on the ground, who do not bury dead eats and snakes very deep and +thus cause death to those who dig; who cause men to dig the frozen +ground in winter or spring (the vapors of earth chill such diggers to +death); who tear down adjoining walls and compel their neighbors to move +the kitchen stove; who appropriate public highways, lands, close wells +and stop gutters. + +Those who have committed any of the above sins are taken, to the tower +whence they can see their own village and then are consigned to the +great crying hell, Râurava, that is, the fourth of the Buddhist hot +hells. [Footnote: Buddhism distinguishes hot and cold hells. In a +country like India severe cold is a serious torture.] Thence they go to +their respective small hells. When their time has expired, they are +examined in order to see whether they have any other sins which need +punishment. + +Those who have committed any of the above sins may not only escape +punishment, but may have their punishment in the sixth court lessened, +if they fast regularly on the eighth day of the first month and take a +vow not to commit these sins. Some sins, however, cannot be arranged for +in such a way, such as the killing of living beings and hurting them; +the associating with heretics; committing fornication with women and +then poisoning them; committing adultery, violence, envy, or injuring +the good name of others; stealing, requiting favors with hatred, and +hearing exhortation but not repenting. These are major sins. + +_2. Its Social Value_ + +The social value of purgatory is quite plain from the description of the +fifth court and of the sinners who are punished therein. Purgatory is +the social mirror of China, wherein the consequences of all unsocial +acts are pictured in such a vivid way as to deter the individual from +committing them. It is effective in China, not only because of the +realistic presentation, but because the opinion of the community is +against such acts and in favor of repressing them on every occasion. + +_3. The Buddhist Heaven._ + +Buddhism brought into China not only a fully developed purgatory but +also a heaven which all may enter. The sovereign of the western heaven +is Amitâbha (or in Chinese O-mi-to-fo), with whom Kuan Yin, the goddess +of Mercy, is usually associated. Amitâbha is explained as meaning +"boundless age." The original meaning is "boundless light," which +suggests a Persian origin with Mannichean influences. The translations +of the Amitâbha sutras were wholly made by natives of central Asia. + +Amitâbha is one of the thousand Buddhas; he is regarded as the reflex of +Sakyamuni and is connected also in his earthly incarnation with a monk +called Dharmâkara. This monk desired to become a Buddha. This wish he +presented to Lôkês'vararâja asking him to teach him as to what a Buddha +and a Buddha country ought to be. Lôkês'vararâja imparted this +knowledge. Then the monk after meditation returned having made +forty-eight vows that he would not become a Buddha, until all living +beings should attain salvation in his heaven. + +The eighteenth vow expresses his ideal: + +"O Bhagavat, if those beings who have directed their thought towards the +highest perfect knowledge in other worlds, and who, after having heard +my name, when I have obtained Bodhi (knowledge), have meditated on me +with serene thoughts; if at the moment of their death, after having +approached them surrounded by an assembly of monks, I should not stand +before them worshipped by them, that is, so that their thoughts should +not be troubled, then may I not obtain the highest perfect knowledge." + +A few extracts from the _Amitâbha Vyûha Sûtra_ will illustrate the +Buddhist idea of life in this Pure Land: + +"In the western region beyond one hundred thousand myriads of Buddhist +lands there is a world. Great Happiness by name. This land has a Buddha +called Amitâbha. The living beings there do not suffer any pain, but +enjoy all happiness. Therefore, it is called the land of Pure Delight +... the land of Pure Delight has seven precious fountains full of water +containing the eight virtues. The bottom of these fountains is covered +with golden sand. On four sides there are steps made of gold, silver, +crystal and glass, precious stones, red pearls, and highly polished +agates. In the pools are variously colored, light emitting lotus flowers +as large as cart wheels, delicate, admirable, odorous and pure..." + +"The Buddha of this land makes heavenly music. It is covered with gold. +Morning and evening during six hours it rains the wonderful celestial +flowers (Erythrina Indica). All the inhabitants of this land on clear +mornings after dressing offer these celestial flowers to the hundred +thousand myriads of Buddhas of the regions who return to their country +at meal time. When they have eaten they go away again." + +"This country possesses every kind of wonderful varicolored birds, the +white egret, the peacock, the parrot, the s'rarika (a long legged bird), +the Kalavingka (a sweet voiced bird) ... All these birds, morning and +evening during the six hours, utter forth a beautiful harmonious sound. +Their song produces the five _indrya_ (roots of faith, energy, +memory, ecstatic meditation, wisdom), the five _bala_ (the powers +of faith, energy, memory, meditation and wisdom), the seven +_bodhyanga_ (the seven degrees of intelligence, memory, +discrimination, energy, tranquillity, ecstatic contemplation, +indifference), and the eight portions of the correct path _marga,_ +(the possession of correct views, decision and purity of thought and +will, the ability of reproducing any sound uttered in the universe, vow +of poverty, asceticism, attainment of meditative abstraction of +self-control, religious recollectedness, honesty and virtue), and such +doctrines. When all beings of this land have heard the music, they +declare their faithfulness to the Buddha, Dharma and the Sangha (the +Buddha, the Law and the community of monks)." + +As to those who enter this land it says: + +"All living beings who hear this should make a vow to be born in that +land. How can they reach the Pure Land? All very good men will gather in +that place ... He whose blessedness and virtue are great can be born +into that country. If there is a good man or woman who, on hearing of +Amitâbha, takes this name and holds it in his mind one, two, three, +four, five, six, or seven days, and his whole heart is not distracted, +to that man at death Amitâbha will appear. His heart will not be +disturbed. He will at once enter into life in the land of Pure Delight +of Amitâbha. I see this blessing and hence utter these words. Those +living beings who hear these words should make a vow to be born in that +land." + +_4. The Harmonization of These Ideas with Ancestor Worship_ + +The extension of life beyond the grave in purgatory, or in the Pure Land +and through transmigration was readily accepted in China. Both the new +ideas and the disciplines through which to realize them were eagerly +adopted, and have held their place to this day. In other lands the +creation of a heaven and a hades has weakened the grip of ancestor +worship and ultimately displaced it. In China the opposite result has +obtained, due, no doubt, to the fact that the family system and along +with it the supreme duty of filial piety were fostered by the state and +Buddhism and its teachings were permitted only in so far as they +bolstered it up. Another reason lies in the agricultural basis of +China's civilization, reenforced by the great difficulty of +communication, which tended to make the family system dominant in China. +Today, the improvement of communication and the introduction of the +industrial system of the West with the individual emphasis of modern +education are factors which are weakening the family system and with it +ancestral worship. + + + + +VIII + + +THE SPIRITUAL VALUES EMPHASIZED BY BUDDHISM IN CHINA + +Near the House of Parliament in Peking is located a small monastery +dedicated to the goddess of Mercy, Kuan Yin. Before her image the +incense burners send forth curling clouds of smoke. The walls are +decorated with old paintings of gods and goddesses. The temple with its +courtyard has the appearance of prosperity. Its neat reception room, +with its tables, chairs and clock, shows the influence of the modern +world. + +Here a monk in the prime of life spent a few months recently lecturing +on Buddhism to members of parliament and to scholars from various parts +of China. Frequently the writer used to drop in of an afternoon to +discuss Buddhism and its outlook. Usually a simple repast concluded +these conversations, the substance of which forms the greater part of +this section. + +_1. The Threefold Classification of Men Under Buddhism_ + +"What does Buddhism do for men?" + +"There are in the world at least three classes of men. The lowest class +live among material things, they are occupied with possessions. Their +life is entangled in the crude and coarse materials which they regard as +real. A second, higher class, regard ideas as realities. They are not +entangled in the maze of things, but are confused by ideas, ascribing +reality to them. The third and highest class are those who by meditation +have freed themselves from the thraldom of ideas and can enter the +sixteen heavens." + +_2. Salvation for the Common Man_ + +"What can Buddhism do for the lowest class?" + +"For this class Buddhism has the ten prohibitions. Every man has in him +ten evils, which must be driven out. Three have to do with evil in the +body, namely, not to steal, not to kill, not to commit adultery; four +belong to the mouth, lying, exaggeration, abuse, and ambiguous talk; +three belong to the mind, covetousness, malice, and unbelief." + +"Is not this entirely negative?" + +"Yes, but it is necessary, for during the process of eliminating these +evil deeds, man acquires patience and equanimity. Buddhism does not stop +with the prohibitions. The believer must practice the ten charitable +deeds. Not only must he remove the desire to kill living beings, but he +must cultivate the desire to save all beings. Not only must he not +steal, but he must assist men with his money. Not only must he not give +himself to lasciviousness, but he must treat all men with propriety. So +each prohibition involves a positive impulse to virtue, which is quite +as essential as the refraining from evil." + +"What energizing power does Buddhism provide?" + +"First, is purgatory with its terrors. The evil man, seeing the +consequences of his acts upon himself, becomes afraid to do them and +does that which is good. Then there is transmigration with the danger of +transmigration into beasts and insects. Again, there are the rewards in +the paradise of Amitâbha. Moreover, there is even the possibility not +only of saving one's self, but by accumulated merit of saving one's +parents and relatives and shortening their stay in purgatory." + +_3. The Place of Faith_ + +"Can any man enter the western paradise of Amitâbha?" + +"Yes, it is open to all men. The sutra says: 'If there be any one who +commits evil deeds, and even completes the ten evil actions, the five +deadly sins and the like; that man, being himself stupid and guilty of +many crimes, deserves to fall into a miserable path of existence and +suffer endless pains during many long ages. On the eve of death he may +meet a good and learned teacher who, soothing and encouraging him in +various ways, will preach to him the excellent Law and teach him the +remembrance of Buddha, but being harassed by pains', he will have no +time to think of Buddha.'" + +"What hope has such a man?" + +"Even such a man has hope. The sutra says: 'Some good friend will say to +him: Even if thou canst not exercise the remembrance of Buddha, utter +the name of Buddha Amitabha.' Let him do so serenely with his voice +uninterrupted; let him be (continually) thinking of Buddha, until he has +completed ten times the thought, repeating 'Namah O-mi-to-fo,' I put my +trust in Buddha! On the strength of (his merit of) uttering Buddha's +name he will, during every repetition expiate the sins which involve him +in births and deaths during eighty millions of long ages. He will, while +dying, see a golden lotus-flower, like the disk of the sun, appearing +before his eyes; in a moment he will be born in the world of highest +happiness. After twelve greater ages the lotus-flower will unfold; +thereupon the Bodhisattvas, Avalôkitësvaras and Mahasattva's, raising +their voices in great compassion, will preach to him in detail the real +state of all the elements of nature and the law of the expiation of +sins." + +"Does faith save such a man?" + +"Yes, not his own faith, but the faith which prompted the vow of +Amitabha. Amitâbha's faith in the possibility of his salvation gives him +supreme confidence that he will attain salvation. All he needs is to +have the desire to be born in that paradise and to repeat the name of +Amitabha." + +_4. Salvation of the Second Class_ + +"How do those of the second class attain salvation?" + +"The men of the second class regard ideas as realities. They are not +entangled in the maze of things, but are confused by ideas, regarding +them as real. These men do not need images and outward sanctions, but +they need heaven and purgatory though regarding them as ideas. By +performing the ten good deeds they will obtain a quiet heart, having no +fear, and become saints and sages. Among men, saints and sages occupy a +high rank, but not so among Buddhists. By merit of good works merely +they enter the planes of sensuous desire, the six celestial worlds +located immediately above the earth." + +_5. Salvation for the Highest Class_ + +"And the third class?" + +"This class has many ranks. There are those who by the practice of +meditation (four _dkyanas_) [Footnote: Dhyana means contemplation. +In later times under the influence of the idea of transmigration heavens +were imagined which corresponded to the degrees of contemplation.] can +enter the sixteen heavens conditioned by form. By the practice of the +four _arûpa-dhyânas_ [Footnote: That degree of abstract +contemplation from which all sensations are absent.] they enter the four +highest heavens free from all sensuous desires and not conditioned by +form. These heavens are the anteroom of Nirvana." + +"What is the driving power in all this?" + +"It is _vîrya_ or energy." + +_6. Heaven and Purgatory_ + +"Do heaven and purgatory exist?" + +"Heaven and purgatory are in the minds and hearts of men. Really heaven +is in the mind of Amitâbha and purgatory exists in the illusioned brains +of men." + +"Does anything exist?" + +"Nâgârjuna says: 'There is no production, no destruction, no +annihilation, no persistence, no unity, no plurality, no coming in and +no going forth.'" + +_7. Sin_ + +"Does sin exist?" + +"In the mind of the real Buddhist sin and virtue are different aspects +of the all. Sin is illusion; virtue is illusion, There is a higher unity +in which they are reconciled." + +_8. Nirvâna_ + +_"Do you know of any one who attained Nirvâna?"_ + +"Yes, I have experienced it. It is not a state beyond the grave. It is a +state into which one can enter here." + +"Can you express this experience in words?" + +"Impossible. I can only indicate the shore of this great ocean. At first +I was in great distress and agony, as though carrying the illusions of +the world. Then came a great peace and calm, ineffable, serene, and +surpassing the power of language to express." + +_9. The Philosophical Background_ + +"What is behind this universe!" + +"Underlying this universe of phenomena and change there is a unity. It +is the basis of all being. It is within all being and all being rests in +it. It is because of this common background that men are able to +apprehend it. This universal basis we call _dharma,_ or law. Its +characteristics are that everything born grows old, is subject to +disease and death; that the teachings of Buddha purify the mind and +enable it to obtain supreme enlightenment; that all Buddhas by treading +the same way of perfection will attain the highest freedom." + +"You speak of the Buddhist Trinity." + +"Yes, we have the Dharmakâya. This is the essence-body, the ground of +all being, taking many forms, Buddhas, Bodhisattvas, spirits, angels, +men and even demons. It is impersonal, all-pervasive. It may be called +the first person. The second person is the Sambhogakâya, the body of +bliss. This is the heavenly manifestation of Buddha. The third person is +the Nirmânakâya. This is the projection of the body of bliss on earth." + +Some identify this trinity with that of the Christian faith. While there +is a resemblance, we should note that the first person of the Buddhist +trinity would correspond to God as the absolute or the impersonal +background of universal Being. The second corresponds to the glorified +Christ and the third to the historic Jesus. There is no counterpart +either to God the Father or to the Holy Spirit. + +"Do you believe in the salvation of all beings?" + +"Yes, all have the Buddha heart. All living beings will finally become +Buddhas." + +Then turning to a friend of mine the speaker said: "What have you done +in Buddhism?" The friend answered: "I have written and translated many +books." "I do not mean that," he answered. "What _work_ have you +done?" The friend confessed that he had not done much else. Then he +said: "Every morning when you awake, reflect deeply and profoundly upon +your state before you were born. Think back to that state where your +soul was merged with Buddha. Find yourself in that state and you will +find ineffable enlightenment and joy." + +The sun was setting behind the Western hills. The blare of trumpets +sounded on the city wall. Outside of the door was the whirling sound of +Peking returning home from its mundane tasks and joys. We joined the +rushing, restless crowd and still we felt the calm of another world. Has +not Christianity a message of balm and peace for these sons of the East +who are so sensitive to the touch of the eternal and sublime? + +_10. What Buddhism Has to Give_ + +An important government official obliged to deal with many vexatious +requests and demands declared: "I could not get through my day's work, +if I did not spend an hour every day in meditation, just as Buddha did +when he became enlightened." He was asked what he did when he meditated +or prayed. "Nothing at all." "Well, about what do you think?" "Of +nothing at all. I stop thinking when I engage in religious meditation. +Life makes me think too much. I should lose my sanity, if I did not stop +thinking and enter into the 'void', whence we all came and into which we +all are going to drop back." + +His Christian inquirer still was unsatisfied by the Buddhist's +description of his prayer life, and pressed further for details. "What +happens when you meditate or pray?" + +"Nothing happens, I tell you, except, that I experience a peace which +the passing world cannot give and which the passing world cannot +altogether take away. The secret of religion is simply to realize that +everything is passing away. When you accept that fact, then you become +really free. The Christian world seemed to have been tremendously +impressed by the slogan of the French soldiers at Verdun, 'They shall +not pass!' Perhaps the German soldiers did not pass just then or there. +But the French soldiers themselves are all passing away. And everything +in the world is passing away. What our Buddhist religion teaches us is: +'Let it pass!' You cannot keep anything for very long. And prayer or +meditation is simply to practice yourself in that thought deliberately. +Oh, it is a wonderful peace when you fully believe that gospel, and +enter into it every day. Vanity of vanities, everything is vanity! Why +worry? We do altogether too much worrying. To pray means simply to quit +worrying, to quit thinking, to enter into the indescribably passionless +peace of Nirvana." + +Here seemed to be an ardent Buddhist. When asked what he thought as the +difference between a Buddhist and a Christian, he answered promptly: + +"Yes, there is my wife. She is a very good woman. All the neighbors come +to her, when there is any one sick or in trouble. So I say to her: +'Wife, I should think you would make a first-class Christian.' But I +think she lets herself be worried by altogether too many troubles. She +is all the time thinking and fussing and planning. To be sure, it is +mostly about other people, But then she does have the children and the +house and the relatives and friends and neighbors to look after. Perhaps +she really cannot be a Buddhist. Perhaps it is all a matter of +temperament. Oh, but I tell you it is great to be a Buddhist, because it +gives you such a wonderful peace." + + + + +IX + + +PRESENT-DAY BUDDHISM: + +_1. Periods of Buddhist History_ + +The history of Buddhism in China may be divided into four periods. +Buddhism entered China, as we have seen, in the second century B.C. The +first period, that of the translation and propagation of the faith, +ended in 420 A.D. The second period, that of interpenetration, lasted to +the beginning of the T'ang dynasty, 618 A.D. The third, the period of +establishment, ended with the close of the five dynasties, in 960 A.D. +The fourth period, that of decay, has extended to the present day. + +_2. The Progress of the Last Twenty-five Years_ + +There are signs of a revival of Buddhism in China. Whether this is a +tide, or a wave, only the future can reveal. In 1893 Dharmapala, an +Indian monk, stopped in Shanghai on his way back from the Congress of +Religions in Chicago. It was his purpose to make a tour of China, to +arouse the Chinese Buddhists to send missionaries to India to restore +Buddhism there, and then to start a propaganda throughout the whole +world. He addressed the monks of Shanghai. Dr. Edkins, the veteran +missionary, acted as his interpreter. Dharmapala was surrounded by a +horde of curious monks who were more interested in his strange +appearance and in the cost of his garments than they were in his great +ideals. They were also feeling the iron heel of the Confucian government +and at once inquired about the attitude of the government toward such an +innovation. Dharmapala did not go beyond Shanghai. + +Japanese Buddhists, especially the members of the Hongwanji sect, have +taken a deep interest in Chinese Buddhists. Count Otani once visited the +chief monasteries of China. Numerous Japanese Buddhists have made such +visits. In 1902, the Empress Dowager, fired by a reforming zeal, decided +to confiscate Buddhist property and to use the proceeds for the spread +of modern education. The Buddhist monasteries put themselves under the +protection of Japanese monks in order to hold their property. When by +1906 the Empress Dowager saw the consequences of her edict, she at once +issued a new edict, reversing the former one, and the Japanese monks +took their departure. + +The Japanese Buddhists have been fired by missionary zeal for China. In +many of the large cities of China are the temples of the Hongwanji sect. +Established primarily for the Japanese, these temples are intended to +serve as points of departure for a nation-wide missionary work. The +twenty-one demands made upon China included two significant items in the +last group which the Chinese refused to sign: "Art. 2: Japanese +hospitals, churches and schools in the interior of China shall be +granted the right of owning land." "Art. 7: China agrees that Japanese +subjects shall have the right of missionary propaganda in China." + +Under Japanese influence there was established in 1907 at Nanking, under +the leadership of Yang, a lay Buddhist devotee, a school for the +training of Buddhist missionaries. The students were to go to Japan for +further training, and the more promising ones were to study in India. +This project was discontinued after the death of Yang on account of the +lack of funds. + +When the republic was established Buddhism felt a wave of reform. The +monasteries established schools for monks and children. A magazine was +published which appeared irregularly for several numbers and then +stopped. A national organization was formed with headquarters at Peking. +A survey of monasteries was begun. The activities in lecturing and +propaganda were increased, but Yuan Shih-kai issued twenty-seven +regulations for the control of Buddhist monasteries, which markedly +dampened the ardor of the reformers. + +The world war which accentuated the spirit of nationalism had the added +effect of stirring up Buddhist enthusiasm. There are at present signs of +new activity among them in China. + +_3. Present Activities_ + +While Buddhism may be standing still or even dying in certain parts of +China, it is showing signs of new life in the provinces of Kiangsu and +Chekiang and in the large cities. Such revival in centers subject to the +influence of the modern world shows that Buddhism in China as in Japan +has sufficient vitality to adjust itself to modern conditions. Let us +consider some of these activities. + +_(a) The Reconstruction of Monasteries._--During the T'ai Ping +rebellion, which devastated China in 1850-1865, the monasteries suffered +with the towns. Not only were the monasteries burned to the ground, but +their means of support were taken away and the monks were scattered. +There are still many of these ruined monasteries in the Yangtze valley +and in southern and western China. Quite a number of them have been +rebuilt. Perhaps the most notable example is that at Changchow which was +destroyed during the rebellion. Today it is the largest monastery in +China, having about two thousand monks. In Fukien several new +monasteries have been built in the last few decades. In the provinces of +Chekiang and Kiangsu, in the large cities and about Peking there are +building activities, showing that the monasteries are feeling a new wave +of prosperity. + +T'ai Hsu, one of the leaders' of modern Buddhism, is holding up an ideal +program for Buddhism in this time of reconstruction. He proposes that +there should be 576 central monasteries, 4608 preaching places, 72 +Buddhist hospitals and 72 orphanages. + +_(b) Accessions._--Regarding the number of monks it is almost +impossible to obtain any reliable figures. A conservative estimate, +based upon partial returns, makes the number of monks about 400,000 and +that of nuns about 10,000. The impression among the Buddhists is that +the number of monks is increasing. That is quite probable in view of the +rebuilding and repairing which is now in progress. + +More significant is the number of accessions from the learned class. +Many officials, disheartened by the present confused political +situation, have sought refuge in the monasteries. Some of them are now +abbots of monasteries and are using their influence to build them up. +All over China there are Confucian scholars who are giving themselves to +the study of Buddhism and to meditation. Some of the Chinese students +who have studied in Buddhist universities in Japan are propagating +Buddhism by lecture and pen. + +_(c) Publications._--Quite as significant is the increase in the +publication of Buddhist literature of all kinds. Many of the monasteries +have printing departments where they publish the sutras needed for their +own use. In addition, there are eight or more publishing centers where +Buddhist literature is printed. The most famous are Yang's establishment +at Nanking, the Buddhist Press in Yangchow and that in Peking. In these +establishments about nine hundred different works are being published. +The most noteworthy recent publication has been that of the Chinese +Buddhist Tripitaka in Shanghai. + +Among these publications are a few modern issues. The Chung Hua Book +Company has published several works on Buddhism. Other books have been +issued for the sake of harmonizing Buddhism with western science and +philosophy. In this enterprise Japanese influence is visible. In 1921 a +Shanghai press published a dictionary of Buddhist terms containing 3302 +pages, based on the Japanese Dictionary of Buddhism. Other works also +show the influence of Japanese scholarship. + +Among the publications have appeared two magazines. One published at +Ningpo, is called "New Buddhism." This is struggling and may have to +succumb. The other is known as the "Sound of the Sea Tide," now +published in Hankow. Moreover, in all the large cities there are +Buddhist bookshops where only Buddhist works are sold. These all report +a good business. This literary activity reveals an interest among the +reading classes of China. Few such books are purchased by the monks. The +Chinese scholars read them for their style and for their deep +philosophy, but also for light and for help in the present distracting +political situation of their country. + +_(d) Lectures._--Along with publication goes the spread of Buddhism +by lectures in the monasteries and the cities of China. A few years ago +Buddhist sermons, however serious, were only listened to by monks and by +a few pious devotees. Today such addresses are advertised and are +usually well attended by the intellectuals. Often many women are found +listening. Monks like T'ai Hsü and Yuan Ying have a national reputation. +Not only monks, but laymen trained in Japan are delivering lectures on +the Buddhist sutras. The favorites are the Awakening of Faith and the +Suddharma Pundarika sutra. + +_(e) Buddhist Societies._--With the lectures goes the organization +of Buddhist societies for all sorts of purposes. There is a central +society in Peking which has branches in every province. The connection +is rather loose. Buddhism has never been in favor of centralization. Nor +for that matter would the government have allowed it. The chief ends +aimed at by these societies are fellowship, devotion, study, +propagation, and service. Such societies, often short lived, are +springing up in many quarters. They meet for lectures on Buddhism or to +conduct a study class in some of the sutras. Occasionally the more +ambitious conduct an institute for several months. Some spend part of +the time in meditation together. Several schools for children are +supported by these societies. They also encourage work of a religious +nature among prisoners, distributing tracts and holding services. Such +activities are especially appreciated by those who are to suffer the +death penalty. The societies are also doing publishing work. The two +magazines are supported by the members of the larger societies. + +_(f) Signs of Social Ambition._--Social work is a prominent feature +of some of these Buddhist societies. They have raised money for famine +stricken regions, have opened orphanages, and assist in Red Cross work. +One of the largest Chinese institutions for ministering to people who +are sick and in trouble is located at Hankow. Around a central Buddhist +temple is a modern-built hospital, an orphanage and several schools for +poor children. It may not maintain western standards of efficiency, but +it certainly represents the outreach of modern Buddhism. + +Perhaps their most far-reaching advance has been made because of the +realization that leaders are needed and that they must be trained. +Several schools for this purpose have sprung into existence. Such +schools are necessarily very primitive and are struggling with the +difficulties of finding an adequate staff and equipment and of obtaining +the best type of students. + +Another sign of new life has been the making of programs for the future +development of Buddhism. One of the most comprehensive appeared a short +time ago. For the individual it proposes the cultivation of love, mercy, +equality, freedom, progressiveness, an established faith, patience and +endurance. For all men it proposes (1) an education according to +capacity; (2) a trade suited to ability; (3) an opportunity to develop +one's powers; (4) a chance for enlightenment for all. For society it +urges the cultivation of cooperation, social service, sacrifice for the +social weal, and the social consciousness in the individual. On behalf +of the country it urges patriotism, participation in the government, and +cooperation in international movements. For the world it advocates +universal progress. As to the universe it specifies as a goal the +bringing of men into harmony with spiritual realities, the enlightenment +of all and the realization of the spiritual universe. + +A Buddhist writer sums up the aims of new Buddhism as follows: + +"Formerly Buddhism desired to escape the sinful world. Today Buddhism +not only desires to escape this world of sin, but longs to transform +this world of sin into a new world dominated by the ideals of Buddhism. +Formerly Buddhism was occupied with erecting and perfecting its +doctrines and polity as an organization. Today it not only hopes to +perfect the doctrines and polity, but desires to spread the doctrines +and ideals abroad so as to help mankind to become truly cultured." + +_4. The Attitude of Tibetan Lamas_ + +Not only the Chinese Buddhists, but the Lamas of Mongolia and Tibet are +feeling the impulses of the new age. Quite recently an exhibition was +held in the Lama temple at Peking which attracted thousands of visitors. +Its object was to obtain money to repair the temple, and thus to give +its work a fresh impulse. That these impulses are not necessarily +hostile to Christianity is shown by a letter written by the Kurung +Tsering Lama of Kokonor district to the Rev. T. Sörensen of Szechuan: + +"I, your humble servant, have seen several copies of the Scriptures and, +having read them carefully, they certainly made me believe in Christ. I +understand a little of the outstanding principles and the doctrinal +teaching of the One Son, but as to the Holy Spirit's nature and essence, +and as to the origin of this religion, I am not at all clear, and it is +therefore important that the doctrinal principles of this religion +should be fully explained, so as to enlighten the unintelligent and +people of small mental ability. + +"The teaching of the science of medicine and astrology is also very +important. It is therefore evident if we want this blessing openly +manifested, we must believe in the religion of the only Son of God. +Being in earnest, I therefore pray you from my heart not to consider +this letter lightly. With a hundred salutations." + +Enclosed with this letter was a poem written in most elegant language. + +"O thou Supreme God and most precious Father, The truth above all +religions, The Ruler of all animate and inanimate worlds! Greater than +wisdom, separated from birth and death, Is his son Christ the Lord +shining in glory among endless beings. Incomprehensible wonder, +miraculously made! In this teaching I myself also believe--As your +spirit is with heaven united, My soul undivided is seeking the truth +Jesus the Savior's desire fulfilling, For the coming of the Kingdom of +Heaven I am praying. Happiness to all." + +_5. The Buddhist World Versus the Christian World_ + +Looking back over the last twenty-five years we see rising quite +distinctly a Buddhist world growing conscious of itself, of its past +history and of its mission to the world. This Buddhist, world has much +more of a program than it had twenty-five years ago. Its object is to +unite the Mahayâna and the Hînayâna branches of Buddhism and to spread +Buddhist propaganda over the world. At present the leadership of this +movement is in Japan. It is in part a political movement. There is no +question that Christianity is not at all pleasing to the Japanese +militarists. It is regarded by them as the advance post of western +industrialism and political ambition. Quite naturally such leaders +desire to make the Buddhist world a unit. It is also a social movement. +The spirit of the Japanese Buddhist has been brought to consciousness by +the new position of Japan. Japan is seeking to take its place in the +world as a first rate power. By this not only will Japan's industry and +commerce profit, but its spiritual values must also be adapted to the +world. The movement then has its spiritual side. Japanese travelers and +people are going to all parts of the world. They carry with them the +religious ideals which have been shaped by Buddhism. Buddhism in the +past was one of the great religions of salvation with an inspiring +missionary message. It is again awakening to this task of +evangelization. Under the leadership of Japanese scholars and religious +statesmen the Japanese are seeking to unite the Buddhist world so that +it shall become a force in the new world. Japan is thus trying to give +back what it has received in the past. + +At present in Buddhist countries there is a strong force working against +this movement. Nationalism is a new force to be reckoned with. Still +even with the spirit of nationalism permeating every group, the Buddhist +world is getting together and will strive to make its contribution to +the life of the whole world. + + + + +X + + +THE CHRISTIAN APPROACH TO BUDDHISTS + +_1. Questions Which Buddhists Ask_ + +Buddhists are approaching Christianity. In many places a spirit of +inquiry and interest in the Christian religion is met. It is not +necessary that there should be a Buddhist world permanently over against +a Christian world. The questions which Buddhists ask a missionary +indicate an interest in vital themes. Some of them are as follows: + +We put our trust in the three Precious Ones. In what do you trust? Is +not your Shang Ti (name for God used in China) a being lower than Buddha +and just a little higher than a Bodhisattva? Is not Shang Ti the tribal +god of the Jews? Do you believe in the existence of _purgatory?_ +What sufferings will those endure who do not live a virtuous life? Do +you believe in the reality of the Western Paradise? How can one enter +it? There being three kinds of merit, by what method is the great merit +accumulated? How is the middle and the small merit accumulated? What are +the fruits of these proportions of merit and what are they like? Tell me +how to believe Christ. What work of meditation do you perform? Is not +Buddhism more democratic than Christianity, because it holds out the +possibility of Buddhahood to all beings? Is not Buddhism more inclusive, +because it provides for the salvation of all beings? + +_2. Knowledge and Sympathy_ + +These questions make it plain that the worker who is to deal with +Buddhists should have a broad background of general culture. He must be +thoroughly humanized. He should have a good knowledge of the history of +philosophy and religion, including the work of the modern philosophers. +A knowledge of the life of Buddha and of the doctrines of the Hînayâna +or Southern Buddhism, as well as the tenets of the Mahayâna should be in +his possession. The psychology of religion should interpenetrate his +historical learning; the best methods of pedagogy should guide his +approach to men. Of course he must speak the language of the Buddhist, +not only the spiritual language, but his everyday patois. He will find +it an advantage to know some Sanskrit. While this requirement is not +very urgent at present, it will rapidly become a necessity for doing the +best work. + +This knowledge should be interpenetrated by a genuine sympathy, that is, +imagination tinged with emotion. The worker should be able to view +doctrines, values and actions from the point of view of the Buddhist and +his past history. He must have a genuine interest in and a great +capacity for friendship. The Buddhists are very human, responding to +friendship very quickly. Such friendship forms a link between the man +and the larger friendship of Christ. + +_3. Emphasis on the Aesthetic in Christianity_ + +A Chinese Christian leader described his idea of a church as a place +removed from the din of the street, approached by a walk flanked with +trees and flowers and adorned within by symbols speaking to the heart of +the Chinese. He longed for the mystic silence and the beauty of holiness +which would open the windows of the world of spiritual reality and throw +its light upon the problems of life. He was asked, "Would you adapt some +of the symbols of the Chinese religions?" He said, "Many of those +symbols are neutral. They suggest religious emotion. Their character +depends upon the content which the occasion puts into them. If the +content is Christian then the symbols and emotions will become +Christian." + +Christianity is a religion of beauty. The beautiful in architecture, +symbol and ritual, expressing the spiritual universe of the past, +present and future, makes a strong appeal to the Chinese heart. It may +well be emphasized in the future as never before. + +_4. Emphasis on the Mystical in Christianity_ + +Not long ago a Buddhist in one of the large cities of China was +converted. He found great joy in the experience which revived him and +gathered into unity the broken fragments of his life. He attended church +regularly and participated in the prayer meetings. Gradually he +discovered that he was not being nourished. He felt his joy slipping +away from him and his divided life reinstating itself. He went to +Buddhism for consolation. He is not hostile to the church. He +appreciates the help he received, but he said that he came for +consolation and peace and found the same--hard orthodoxy and morality so +familiar to him in Confucianism. + +While the case of this man may have individual peculiarities, it may be +made the starting point for a discussion of the situation in many +churches in China. The early message to the Chinese was doctrinal. The +false notion of many gods had to be displaced by the idea of the one +true God. With this idea of the true God a few other tenets of the +Christian religion are often held as dogmatic propositions to be +repeated when questions are asked. The great sin preached is the worship +of idols. + +The second part of the Christian message is salvation by faith in Jesus +Christ. This salvation is other-worldly to a large extent. The extreme +emphasis upon it has made of the church an insurance society, membership +in which insures bliss in the world beyond. + +The third part of the message has been concerned with moral acts, +abstinence from opium (liquor and tobacco in some churches), polygamy, +and the gross sins. Attendance upon church services, contribution for +the support of the church, and the refusal to contribute to idolatry +have also been required. + +The emphasis to a large extent was doctrinal, moral and individual. The +result has been a body of people free from the gross sins, but also +innocent of the great virtues and individualistic in their outlook upon +this world and the next. This emphasis is needed, but in addition there +should be the cultivation of the presence of God in the soul by +appropriate means. The Christian Church of China should develop a +technique of the spiritual life suited to the East. The formation of +habits of devotion should be emphasized. Intercessory prayer should be +given a larger place. Contemplation and meditation should be regarded +not merely as an escape from the turmoil and strife of the world, but as +a preparation for the highest life of service and sacrifice. Buddhist +mysticism united the whole universe and was the great foundation of +Chinese art, literature and morality. The spiritual world of +Christianity must likewise seep through into the very thought of Asia +and inspire the new art, literature and morality which will be the world +expression of a Christian universe. + +_5. Emphasis on the Social Elements in Christianity_ + +To the aesthetic and mystical emphasis must be attached a social +emphasis. Buddhism is often criticized as not being social. It is a +highly socialized religion. It has had a large influence upon social +life in the East. This social life is different from ours. We see its +wrongs and weaknesses. Likewise do the Buddhists see the materialism and +injustice of our social life. Christianity must relate itself to the +modern world as it is rising in China and seek not merely to remedy a +few wrongs or heal a few diseases, but must release the healing stream +into the social life of the East. This will be done and is being done +through the Church community which has become conscious of itself, +realizing its needs and wants, seeking in an intelligent and systematic +way to rehabilitate itself. It is not so much the external unrelated +efforts that accomplish the thing needed, but it is rather the community +life stirred by ideals and fired by a new dynamic which begins the work +of reformation. + +_6. Emphasis on the Person of Jesus Christ_ + +_(a) As a Historical Character._--The great asset of the missionary +among Buddhists is the historical person of Christ. In contrast to many +of the Bodhisattvas, the saviours of the Buddhists, Jesus is a +historical character. His life among men was the life of God among men. + +_(b) As the Revealer._--God is like Christ. Christ reveals God as +the complete, the perfect person. He possessed the pure spiritual +personality. The chief characteristic of this personality is love. This +love conscious of itself finds its highest joy in the well-being of +others. This love of God produced human life which, springing from the +lowest form, broke through the material elements and is capable of +attaining the highest development. + +Christ reveals to man his heavenly relationship. Man created in the +likeness of God stands in the highest relation of one person to another +through love. He likens this relation to that of father and son. He +lifts man to the fellowship with the divine. Yet such a fellowship that +man preserves his personality. + +Christ reveals man in his relation to men as a brother and the form of +love which shall control the relation of man to God as well as man to +man. + +Christ revealed and founded the Kingdom, a society of the saved, +dominated by the spirit of the founder and making this spirit of love +and service the organizing power in the world. + +_(c) As the Saviour._--Mahayâna Buddhism emphasized saviourhood. +Christ is the saviour of men. In Buddhism the stress is placed upon the +merit of the saviour and the saved. There is no question that merit has +some value. Yet Christ does not save us by merit, nor do we help to save +one another by merit. Salvation is a moral and spiritual process. It is +concerned with the biology of the soul. The salvation that we preach is +not the salvation by knowledge, or meditation, or merit, but by the +interpenetration of Christ's spirit in ours, by the mystic and moral +union of our life with his. As Paul says: "That I may know Him and the +power of His resurrection and the fellowship of His suffering." Yet He +is not the saviour of the individual alone. He saves the community, the +church. Only as His spirit permeates and dominates the community does he +find his true self and the real salvation. + +_(d) As the Eternal Son, of God._--The Mahayâna system does not +emphasize the historicity of Amitabha or of the Bodhisattvas. Spiritual +truth is the development of the soul. It is not limited by time and +place. Likewise Christianity must emphasize the eternal character of +Jesus Christ. "The Logos existed in the very beginning, the Logos was +with God, the Logos was God." To the Mahâyânist this spiritual history +is more real than any fact conditioned by time and place. + +The Christian worker must learn to understand the import of the Gospel +of John. He must see in Jesus Christ "The real Light, which enlightens +every man." He must be able to convince himself that the Christ is the +fulfillment of the highest aspirations of the Mahâyâna system. + +_7. How Christianity Expresses Itself in Buddhist Minds_ + +In 1920 a number of Buddhist monks, under the leadership of Rev. K. L. +Reichelt formed a Christian brotherhood. The members of this small +brotherhood decided that they must subscribe to vows and they took the +four following: + +"I promise before the Almighty and Omniscient God, that I with my whole +heart will surrender myself to the true Trinity, God the Father, the Son +and the Holy Spirit. I will with my whole heart have faith in Jesus +Christ as the Saviour of the world who gives completion to the +profoundest and best objects of the higher Buddhism. I will live in this +faith now and ever after. + +"I promise solemnly before God with my whole heart to devote myself to +the study of the true doctrine and break wholly with the evil manners of +the world and show forth in my public and private life that I am truly +united with Christ. + +"I promise that I in every respect will try so to educate myself that I +can be of use in the work of God on earth. I will with undivided heart +devote myself to the great work; to lead my brethren in the Buddhist +Association forward to the understanding of Christ as the only One, who +gives completion to the highest and profoundest ideas of Higher +Buddhism. + +"I promise that until my last hour I will work so that out of our +Christian Brotherhood there may grow forth a strong church of Christ +among Buddhists. I will not permit any evil thing to grow in my heart, +which could divide the brotherhood, but will always try to promote the +progress of every member in the knowledge of the holy obligations laid +down in these vows and our constitution." + +Such men ought, to make choice Christians. + +_8. Christianity's Constructive Values_ + +Buddhism in the course of its long history developed certain religious +ideas and values which we find in Christianity. It faced the fact of sin +and placed it in the heart. It diagnosed the fundamental instincts of +men, sex-appetite, will-to-achieve, and pugnacity. These must be +overcome. It regards them as delusions which must be eliminated. +Christianity also deals with these instincts. It is under no delusion as +to their strength. There are certain tendencies in Christianity which +have tried to annihilate them. The central tendency of Christianity, +however, recognizing their power for good, seeks to sublimate them and +make them serve the individual and society. This attitude of the two +religions toward these instincts is fundamentally different. The +attitude of Christianity has been justified even in Buddhist lands where +the religious life of the people has followed the same line that +Christianity advocates. + +Early Buddhism tried to dissolve man's personality. Later Buddhism +corrected this and perhaps has appealed too much to the desire on the +part of the individual to enter a heaven which is merely a replica of +the earth. Christianity starts with a personal God and holds up before +the believer the goal of perfection for his own personality. It finds +man without a self and confers a real selfhood upon him. + +Early Buddhism taught that salvation is accomplished by the individual +alone. It denies the possibility and the necessity of help from a divine +source. Subsequent history has proved this to have been wrong. In India, +Buddhism has been displaced by Hinduism, and in China, and Japan, the +Mahâyâna has developed the idea of salvation through another. The great +stream of Buddhism has recognized that man by himself is helpless. He +must have the help of a divine power in order to obtain salvation. +Christianity asserts that salvation is possible only through the +intervention of God. The incarnation, the life, death and resurrection +of Jesus and his work in the world through the Holy Spirit on the one +hand are the expression of God's solicitude for man, and, on the other +hand, correspond to the deep need which men of all ages have felt, for a +power above themselves. From the early stages of magic to the highest +reaches of religion we find this constant factor recognized by human +groups all over the world. They bear witness to a power above themselves +to whom they continually appeal. In Christianity we find this main +tendency enunciated most clearly. The individual cannot save himself. +Mankind cannot save itself. Both must rely upon the assistance of the +divine power which started this universe on its way and which is the +ever present creative force. + +Christianity, moreover, has established the community of believers +including all classes and conditions of men. Herein each one may realize +him&if. Herein also he may realize the kind of community which is +friendly to his highest aspirations for himself. Herein he has the +opportunity to transmute the instincts above mentioned into forces which +make for the larger development of his own person and the well-being of +the community. + +Accordingly, as Christians face Buddhists, they can do so with the +consciousness that this great religion has been reaching out after the +light which shines brightly in our Christian religion. They have the +assurance not only that they have a message which brings fulfilment to +the ideas of the Mahâyâna, but also that it has prepared the way for the +hearts of the Chinese to receive the highest message of Christianity. + + + + +APPENDIX I + + +HINTS FOR THE PRELIMINARY STUDY OF BUDDHISM IN CHINA + +The student should read and inwardly digest the booklet of K. J. +Saunders + +He should follow the directions given in Appendix One of that book, This +procedure is important because the Hînayâna Buddhism and the life of +Buddha are the background of Buddhism in China. + +Then he may take Hackmann's _Buddhism as a Religion_ +(No. 15). This will give a general orientation. This may be followed +with R. F. Johnston's _Buddhist China_ (No. +_20_). Along with this he may read Suzuki's +_Awakening of Faith_ (No. 32), and also his +_Outlines of Mahâyanâ Buddhism (No._ 33). McGovern's +_Introduction to Mahâyanâ Buddhism_ (No._ 23) will +illuminate the philosophical background of Buddhism, and Eliot's +_Hinduism and Buddhism_ (No. 13) will add historical +perspective. + +The translation of _Mahdydna Sutras_ by Beal and in the +Sacred Books of the East will give him some of the sources for the +doctrines held in China. He may begin as the Buddhist missionaries did +with the sutra of the Forty-two sections and then take up the Diamond +Sutra, and then completing the sutras in Vol. 59 and the Catena of +Buddhist Scriptures. + +For the study of the ethical side he will find De Groot's _Le Code +du Mahâyâna en Chine_ very helpful. For the study of the sects +Eliot, Vol. III, pp. 303-320 Northern Buddhism_ (No. 14) will +be helpful. + +In all his study he will find Eitel's _Handbook of Chinese +Buddhism_ (No. 12) indispensable. He must, however, make a +Chinese index in order to be able to use the book. + +Contact with monks will be helpful and is quite necessary in order to +appreciate the human problems of the work. + + + + +APPENDIX II + + +A BRIEF BIBLIOGRAPHY + +1. BEAL, S. _Abstract of Four Lectures_ upon _Buddhist +Literature_ in _China._ London, Triibner, 1882. + +Lecture II, on "Method of Buddha's Teaching in the Vinaya Pitaka," and +Lecture IV, on "Coincidences Between Buddhism and Other Religions," +especially desirable. + + +2. ---- _Buddhism in China,_ London, S. P. C. K, 1884. + +The best comprehensive account of Chinese Buddhism, written by an +authority. + + +3. ---- _Catena of Buddhist Scriptures,_ from the Chinese. London, +Triibner, 1871. + +A good introduction to Chinese Buddhism from the sources. + +4. ---- _The Romantic Legend of Sâkya Buddha._ London, +Triibner, 1875. + +Recounts Buddha's history from the beginning to the +conversion of the Kâsyapas and others. + + +5. ---- _Texts from the Buddhist Canon Commonly Known_ as _D_ +hammapada. London, Triibner, 1878. Pocket edition, 1902. + +These "Scriptural Texts," translated from the Chinese and abridged, are +usually connected with some event in Buddha's history. This translation +has Indian anecdotes, illustrating the verses. + + +6. COULING, S., editor. _The Encyclopaedia Sinica._ Shanghai, Kelly +& Walsh, 1917. + +Contains, on pages 67-75, a number of brief articles upon Buddhism in +China. + + +7. DE QROOT, J. J. M. _Religion of the Chinese._ New York, +Macmillan, 1900. + +Pages 164-223 contain a summary of the main facts about Chinese Buddhism +by an authority. + + +8. ---- _Sectarianism and Religious Persecution in China._ 2 vols. +J. Müller, Amsterdam, 1903-1904. + +Treats from sources Confucianism's persecution of Buddhism and other +sects. See Vol. II. Index, under Buddhism, p. 572. + + +9. DORE, HENEI. _Researches into Chinese Superstitions._ 6 vols. +Tusewei Press, 1914-1920. + +A well illustrated miscellany of superstitions of all Chinese religions +showing indistinctly their interpenetration by Buddhism. +For Buddhism proper, see Vol. VI, pp. 89-233. + + +10. EDKINS, J. _Chinese Buddhism._ 2d edition. London, Trübner, +1893. + +A very full account of Buddhism as seen by a Sinologue of the last +generation. + + +11. EITEL, E. J. _Buddhism: Its Historical, Theoretical and Popular +Aspects._ Hongkong, Lane, Crawford and Co., 1884. + +Written by an observant scholar and descriptive of Buddhism of South +China especially. + + +12. ---- _Handbook of Chinese Buddhism._ Presbyterian Mission Press, +Shanghai. + +This is a Sanskrit-Chinese dictionary, a reprint of the second edition +of 1888 without the Chinese index necessary for identifying Chinese +Buddhist terms. + + +13. ELIOT, SIR CHARLES. _Hinduism and Buddhism, An Historical +Sketch._ 3 vols. Edward Arnold and Co., 1921. + +This is a valuable contribution to our knowledge of Buddhism by an +experienced student. The parts especially related to Chinese Buddhism +are Vol. II, pp. 3-106; Vol. Ill, 223-335. + + +14. JETTY, A. _Gods of Northern Buddhism._ Oxford, Clarendon Press, +1914. + +This work is helpful in identifying images in the temples, though +unfortunately few of those given are Chinese. + + +15. HACKMANN, H. _Buddhism as a Religion._ London, Probsthain, +1910. + +Gives a general view of Buddhism from first-hand investigation. For +Chinese Buddhism see pp. 200-257. + + +16. HASTINGS, JAMES. _The Encyclopedia of Religion and Ethics._ New +York, Scribners, 1908. + +Articles Asvaghosa, Bodhisattva, China (Buddhism in), Mahâyâna Missions +(Buddhist). + + +17. HUME, R. E. _The Living Religions of the World._ New York, +Scribners, 1924. + +A clear comparative study of these religions in the light of Christian +standards. + + +18. INGLIS, J. W. "Christian Element in Chinese Buddhism." +_International Review of Missions,_ Vol. V, 1916, pp. 587-602. An +excellent article by a veteran missionary and scholar of Manchuria. + + +19. JOHNSON, S. _Oriental Religions ... China._ Boston, Houghton, +Osgood Co., 1878. + +Pages 800-833 give a comprehensive summary by a student of comparative +religion. + + +20. JOHNSTON, R. F. _Buddhist_ China. New York, Dutton, 1913. + +A well-written, interesting book. The author knows his subject, and is +held in high esteem by Buddhists in China. + + +21. KEITH, A. BERRIEDALE. _Buddhist Philosophy in India and +Ceylon._ Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1923. + +A study of the historic development of the Buddhistic philosophy in +India and Ceylon which throws much light on the Mahâyâna. + + +22. LODGE, J. E. _Chinese Buddhist Art._ Asia, Vol. XIX, June, +1919. + +Some of the choicest half-tones illustrating its character accompanied +by interesting descriptions. + + +23. McGOVERN, W. M. _An Introduction of Mahâyâna Buddhism._ Dutton, +1922. + +Though written from the point of view of Japanese Buddhism it gives a +good treatment of metaphysical and psychological aspects of the Mahâyâna +system. + + +24. MÜLLER, F. MAX. _Sacred Books of the East._ Vol. XLIX, +Buddhist, Mahâyâna Texts. Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1894. + +A book of sources necessary for understanding Northern Buddhism. + + +25. PARKER, E. H. _China and Religion._ New York, Dutton, 1905. + +A sketch of Buddhism by a scholar long resident in China is found in +Chapter IV. + + +26. PAUL, C. T. _The Presentation of Christianity to Buddhists._ +New York, Board of Missionary Preparation, 1924. + +A carefully prepared study of Buddhism from the viewpoint of +missionaries working in Buddhist lands. + + +27. REICHELT, K. L. "Special Work Among Chinese Buddhists." _Chinese +Recorder,_ Vol. LI, 1920, July issue, pp. 491-497. + +An article by a pioneer in work among Buddhists, of rare insight and +sympathy. + + +28. RICHARD, T. _The Awakening of Faith in the Mahâyâna Doctrine._ +2d edition. Shanghai, 1918. + +A loose translation by a very large-hearted and sympathetic student with +an irenic spirit. See 32 below. + + +29. RICHARD, T. _Guide to Buddhahood; Being a Standard Manual of +Chinese Buddhism._ Shanghai., 1907. + + +30. SAUNDERS, K. J. _Epochs of Buddhist History_ (Haskell +Lectures), Chicago University Press, 1922. + +A good summary of the main developments in Buddhism. + + +31. STAUFFER, M. T. _The Christian Occupation of China._ Shanghai +Continuation Committee, 1922. + +The introductory section contains articles upon China's religions. + + +32. SUZUKI, T. A'svaghosa's _Awakening of Faith in the Mahâyâna._ +Chicago, Open Court Publishing Co., 1900. + +A far more accurate translation of this work than No. 28 above. + + +33. ---- Outlines of _Mahâyâna Buddhism._ Chicago, Open Court +Publishing Co., 1908. + +While written from the Japanese point of view it is necessary to the +understanding of Chinese Buddhism. + + +34. WATTERS, T. "Buddhism in China." _Chinese Recorder,_ Vol. II, +1870, pp. 1-7, 38-43, 64-68, 81-88, 117-122, 145-150, Shanghai. + +A valuable series of articles by an excellent Chinese scholar, +discussing the history, persecutions, and various Buddhas of China. + + +35. WEI, F. C. M. "Salvation by Faith as Taught by the Pure Land Sect." +_Chinese Recorder,_ Vol. LI, 1920, pp. 395- 401, 485-491. + +A good article on the sect whose ideas have spread over China and Japan. + + +36. WIEGER, L. _Bouddhisme Chinois,_ 2 vols. Ho-Kien-Fou, Roman +Catholic Press, 1910-1913. + +This contains the Chinese text and French translation of the life of +Buddha as known to China; also the ritual observed in ordination. A +useful source book. + + + + + +End of Project Gutenberg's Buddhism and Buddhists in China, by Lewis Hodus + +*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK BUDDHISM AND BUDDHISTS IN CHINA *** + +This file should be named 8bdsm10.txt or 8bdsm10.zip +Corrected EDITIONS of our eBooks get a new NUMBER, 8bdsm11.txt +VERSIONS based on separate sources get new LETTER, 8bdsm10a.txt + +Produced by Lee Dawei, V-M Osterman +and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team + +Project Gutenberg eBooks are often created from several printed +editions, all of which are confirmed as Public Domain in the US +unless a copyright notice is included. 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