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+Project Gutenberg's Buddhism and Buddhists in China, by Lewis Hodus
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+Title: Buddhism and Buddhists in China
+
+Author: Lewis Hodus
+
+Release Date: June, 2005 [EBook #8390]
+[Yes, we are more than one year ahead of schedule]
+[This file was first posted on July 6, 2003]
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+
+*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK BUDDHISM AND BUDDHISTS IN CHINA ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Lee Dawei, V-M Osterman
+and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team
+
+
+
+
+BUDDHISM AND BUDDHISTS IN CHINA
+
+BY
+
+LEWIS HODOUS, D.D.
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: EX LIBRIS:
+CHARLES FRANKLIN THWING
+Western Reserve University
+Library
+
+From the Library of
+Charles Franklin Thwing
+Acquired in 1938]
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE
+
+This volume is the third to be published of a series on "The World's
+Living Religions," projected in 1920 by the Board of Missionary
+Preparation of the Foreign Missions Conference of North America. The
+series seeks to introduce Western readers to the real religious life of
+each great national area of the non-Christian world.
+
+Buddhism is a religion which must be viewed from many angles. Its
+original form, as preached by Gautama in India and developed in the
+early years succeeding, and as embodied in the sacred literature of
+early Buddhism, is not representative of the actual Buddhism of any land
+today. The faithful student of Buddhist literature would be as far
+removed from understanding the working activities of a busy center of
+Buddhism in Burmah, Tibet or China today as a student of patristic
+literature would be from appreciating the Christian life of London or
+New York City.
+
+Moreover Buddhism, like Christianity, has been affected by national
+conditions. It has developed at least three markedly different types,
+requiring, therefore, as many distinct volumes of this series for its
+fair interpretation and presentation. The volume on the Buddhism of
+Southern Asia by Professor Kenneth J. Saunders was published in May,
+1923; this volume on the Buddhism of China by Professor Hodous will be
+the second to appear; a third on the Buddhism of Japan, to be written by
+Dr. R. C. Armstrong, will be published in 1924. Each of these is needed
+in order that the would be student of Buddhism as practiced in those
+countries should be given a true, impressive and friendly picture of
+what he will meet.
+
+A missionary no less than a professional student of Buddhism needs to
+approach that religion with a real appreciation of what it aims to do
+for its people and does do. No one can come into contact with the best
+that Buddhism offers without being impressed by its serenity, assurance
+and power.
+
+Professor Hodous has written this volume on Buddhism in China out of the
+ripe experience and continuing studies of sixteen years of missionary
+service in Foochow, the chief city of Fukien Province, China, one of the
+important centers of Buddhism. His local studies were supplemented by
+the results of broader research and study in northern China. No other
+available writer on the subject has gone so far as he in reproducing the
+actual thinking of a trained Buddhist mind in regard to the fundamentals
+of religion. At the same time he has taken pains to exhibit and to
+interpret the religious life of the peasant as affected by Buddhism. He
+has sought to be absolutely fair to Buddhism, but still to express his
+own conviction that the best that is in Buddhism is given far more
+adequate expression in Christianity.
+
+The purpose of each volume in this series is impressionistic rather than
+definitely educational. They are not textbooks for the formal study of
+Buddhism, but introductions to its study. They aim to kindle interest
+and to direct the activity of the awakened student along sound lines.
+For further study each volume amply provides through directions and
+literature in the appendices. It seeks to help the student to
+discriminate, to think in terms of a devotee of Buddhism when he
+compares that religion with Christianity. It assumes, however, that
+Christianity is the broader and deeper revelation of God and the world
+of today.
+
+Buddhism in China undoubtedly includes among its adherents many
+high-minded, devout, and earnest souls who live an idealistic life.
+Christianity ought to make a strong appeal to such minds, taking from
+them none of the joy or assurance or devotion which they possess, but
+promoting a deeper, better balanced interpretation of the active world,
+a nobler conception of God, a stronger sense of sinfulness and need, and
+a truer idea of the full meaning of incarnation and revelation.
+
+It is our hope that this fresh contribution to the understanding of
+Buddhism as it is today may be found helpful to readers everywhere.
+
+The Editors.
+
+_New York city,
+December, 1923._
+
+The Committee of Reference and Counsel of the Foreign Missions
+Conference of North America has authorized the publication of this
+series. The author of each volume is alone responsible for the opinions
+expressed, unless otherwise stated.
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS
+
+
+CHAPTER
+
+I. INTRODUCTORY
+
+II. THE ENTRANCE OF BUDDHISM INTO CHINA
+
+III. THE ESTABLISHMENT OF BUDDHISM AS THE PREDOMINATING RELIGION OF CHINA
+  1. The World of Invisible Spirits
+  2. The Universal Sense of Ancestor Control
+  3. Degenerate Taoism
+  4. The Organizing Value of Confucianism
+  5. Buddhism an Inclusive Religion
+
+IV. BUDDHISM AND THE PEASANT
+  1. The Monastery of Kushan
+  2. Monasteries Control Feng-shui
+  3. Prayer for Rain
+    (a) The altar
+    (b) The prayer service
+    (c) Its Meaning
+  4. Monasteries are Supported because They
+     Control Feng-shui
+
+V. BUDDHISM AND THE FAMILY
+  1. Kuan Yin, the Giver of Children and Protector of Women
+  2. Kuan Yin, the Model of Local Mother-Goddesses
+  3. Exhortations on Family Virtues
+  4. Services for the Dead
+
+VI. BUDDHISM AND SOCIAL LIFE
+  1. How the Laity is Trained in Buddhist Ideas
+  2. Effect of Ideals of Mercy and Universal Love
+  3. Relation to Confucian Ideal
+  4. The Embodiment of Buddhist Ideals in the Vegetarian Sects
+  5. Pilgrimages
+
+VII. BUDDHISM AND THE FUTURE LIFE
+  1. The Buddhist Purgatory
+  2. Its Social Value
+  3. The Buddhist Heaven
+  4. The Harmonization of These Ideas with Ancestor Worship
+
+VIII. THE SPIRITUAL VALUES EMPHASIZED BY BUDDHISM IN CHINA
+  1. The Threefold Classification of Men under Buddhism
+  2. Salvation for the Common Man
+  3. The Place of Faith
+  4. Salvation of the Second Class
+  5. Salvation for the Highest Class
+  6. Heaven and Purgatory
+  7. Sin
+  8. Nirvana
+  9. The Philosophical Background
+  10. What Buddhism Has to Give
+
+IX. PRESENT-DAY BUDDHISM
+  1. Periods of Buddhist History
+  2. The Progress of the Last Twenty-five Years
+  3. Present Activities
+    (a) The reconstruction of monasteries
+    (b) Accessions
+    (c) Publications
+    (d) Lectures
+    (e) Buddhist societies
+    (f) Signs of social ambition
+  4. The Attitude of Tibetan Lamas
+  5. The Buddhist World Versus the Christian World
+
+X. THE CHRISTIAN APPROACH TO BUDDHISTS
+  1. Questions which Buddhists Ask
+  2. Knowledge and Sympathy
+  3. Emphasis on the AEsthetic in Christianity
+  4. Emphasis on the Mystical in Christianity
+  5. Emphasis on the Social Elements in Christianity
+  6. Emphasis on the Person of Jesus Christ
+    (a) As a Historical Character
+    (b) As the Revealer
+    (c) As the Saviour
+    (d) As the Eternal Son of God
+  7. How Christianity Expresses Itself in Buddhist Minds
+  8. Christianity's Constructive Values
+
+APPENDIX ONE, Hints for the Preliminary Study of Buddhism in China
+
+APPENDIX TWO, A Brief Bibliography
+
+
+
+
+BUDDHISM AND BUDDHISTS IN CHINA
+
+
+
+
+I
+
+
+INTRODUCTORY
+
+A well known missionary of Peking, China, was invited one day by a
+Buddhist acquaintance to attend the ceremony of initiation for a class
+of one hundred and eighty priests and some twenty laity who had been
+undergoing preparatory instruction at the stately and important Buddhist
+monastery. The beautiful courts of the temple were filled by a throng of
+invited guests and spectators, waiting to watch the impressive
+procession of candidates, acolytes, attendants and high officials, all
+in their appropriate vestments. No outsider was privileged to witness
+the solemn taking by each candidate for the priesthood of the vow to
+"keep the Ten Laws," followed by the indelible branding of his scalp,
+truly a "baptism of fire." Less private was the initiation of the lay
+brethren and _sisters,_ more lightly branded on the right wrist,
+while all about intoned "Na Mah Pen Shih Shih Chia Mou Ni Fo." (I put my
+trust in my original Teacher, Saekyamuni, Buddha.)
+
+The missionary was deeply impressed by the serenity and devotion of the
+worshipers and by the dignity and solemnity of the service. The last
+candidate to rise and receive the baptism of branding was a young
+married woman of refined appearance, attended by an elderly lady,
+evidently her mother, who watched with an expression of mingled
+devotion, insight and pride her daughter's initiation and welcomed her
+at the end of the process with radiant face, as a daughter, now, in a
+spiritual as well as a physical sense. At that moment an attendant,
+noting the keen interest of the missionary, said to him rather
+flippantly, "Would you not like to have your arm branded, too?" "I
+might," he replied, "just out of curiosity, but I could not receive the
+branding as a believer in the Buddha. I am a Christian believer. To be
+branded without inward faith would be an insult to your religion as well
+as treachery to my own, would it not? Is not real religion a matter of
+the heart?"
+
+The old lady, who had overheard with evident disapproval the remark of
+the attendant, turned to the missionary at once and said, "Is that the
+way you Westerners, you Christians, speak of your faith? Is the reality
+of religion for you also an inward experience of the heart?" And with
+that began an interesting interchange of conversation, each party
+discovering that in the heart of the other was a genuine longing for God
+that overwhelmed all the artificial, material distinctions and the human
+devices through which men have limited to particular and exclusive paths
+their way of search, and drew these two pilgrims on the way toward God
+into a common and very real fellowship of the spirit.
+
+A Buddhist monk was passing by a mission building in another city' of
+China when his attention was suddenly drawn to the Svastika and other
+Buddhist symbols which the architect had skilfully used in decorating
+the building. His face brightened as he said to his companion: "I did
+not know that Christians had any appreciation of beauty in their
+religion."
+
+These incidents reveal aspects of the alchemy of the soul by which the
+real devotee of one religion perceives values which are dear to him in
+another religion. The good which he has attained in his old religion
+enables him to appropriate the better in the new religion. A converted
+monk, explaining his acceptance of Christianity, said: "I found in Jesus
+Christ the great Bodhisattva, my Saviour, who brings to fruition the
+aspirations awakened in me by Buddhism."
+
+Just as it has been said that they do not know England who know England
+only, so it may be said with equal truth that they do not know
+Christianity who know it and no other faith. There are many in China
+like the old lady at the temple, who have found in Buddhism something of
+that spiritual satisfaction and stimulus which true Christianity
+affords, in fuller measure. The recognition of such religious values by
+the student or the missionary furnishes a sound foundation for the
+building of a truer spirituality among such devotees.
+
+As will be seen in what follows, religion in China is at first sight a
+mixed affair. From the standpoint of cruder household superstitions an
+average Chinese family may be regarded as Taoists; the principles by
+which its members seek to guide their lives individually and socially
+may be called Confucian; their attitude of worship and their hopes for
+the future make them Buddhists. The student would not be far afield when
+he credits the religious aspirations of the Chinese today to Buddhism,
+regarding Confucianism as furnishing the ethical system to which they
+submit and Taoism as responsible for many superstitious practices. But
+the Buddhism found in China differs radically from that of Southern
+Asia, as will be made clear by the following sketch of its introduction
+into the Flowery Kingdom and its subsequent history.
+
+
+
+
+II
+
+
+THE ENTRANCE OF BUDDHISM INTO CHINA
+
+Buddhism was not an indigenous religion of China. Its, founder was
+Gautama of India in the sixth century B.C. Some centuries later it found
+its way into China by way of central Asia. There is a tradition that as
+early as 142 B.C. Chang Ch'ien, an ambassador of the Chinese emperor, Wu
+Ti, visited the countries of central Asia, where he first learned about
+the new religion which was making such headway and reported concerning
+it to his master. A few years later the generals of Wu Ti captured a
+gold image of the Buddha which the emperor set up in his palace and
+worshiped, but he took no further steps.
+
+According to Chinese historians Buddhism was officially recognized in
+China about 67 A.D. A few years before that date, the emperor, Ming-Ti,
+saw in a dream a large golden image with a halo hovering above his
+palace. His advisers, some of whom were no doubt already favorable to
+the new religion, interpreted the image of the dream to be that of
+Buddha, the great sage of India, who was inviting his adhesion.
+Following their advice the emperor sent an embassy to study into
+Buddhism. It brought back two Indian monks and a quantity of Buddhist
+classics. These were carried on a white horse and so the monastery which
+the emperor built for the monks and those who came after them was called
+the White Horse Monastery. Its tablet is said to have survived to this
+day.
+
+This dream story is worth repeating because it goes to show that
+Buddhism was not only known at an early date, but was favored at the
+court of China. In fact, the same history which relates the dream
+contains the biography of an official who became an adherent of Buddhism
+a few years before the dream took place. This is not at all surprising,
+because an acquaintance with Buddhism was the inevitable concomitant of
+the military campaigning, the many embassies and the wide-ranging trade
+of those centuries. But the introduction of Buddhism into China was
+especially promoted by reason of the current policy of the Chinese
+government of moving conquered populations in countries west of China
+into China proper, The vanquished peoples brought their own religion
+along with them. At one time what is now the province of Shansi was
+populated in this way by the Hsiung-nu, many of whom were Buddhists.
+
+The introduction and spread of Buddhism were hastened by the decline of
+Confucianism and Taoism. The Han dynasty (206 B. C.-221 A. D.)
+established a government founded on Confucianism. It reproduced the
+classics destroyed in the previous dynasty and encouraged their study;
+it established the state worship of Confucius; it based its laws and
+regulations upon the ideals and principles advocated by Confucius. The
+great increase of wealth and power under this dynasty led to a gradual
+deterioration in the character of the rulers and officials. The sigid
+Confucian regulations became burdensome to the people who ceased to
+respect their leaders. Confucianism lost its hold as the complete
+solution of the problems of life. At the same time Taoism had become a
+veritable jumble of meaningless and superstitious rites which served to
+support a horde of ignorant, selfish priests. The high religious ideals
+of the earlier Taoist mystics were abandoned for a search after the
+elixir of life during fruitless journeys to the isles of the Immortals
+which were supposed to be in the Eastern Sea.
+
+At this juncture there arose in North China a sect of men called the
+Purists who advocated a return from the vagaries of Taoism and the
+irritating rules of Confucianism to the simple life practised by the
+Taoist mystics. When these thoughtful and earnest minded men came into
+contact with Buddhism they were captivated by it. It had all they were
+claiming for Taoist mysticism and more. They devoted their literary
+ability and religious fervor to the spreading of the new religion and
+its success was in no small measure due to their efforts. As a result of
+this early association the tenets of the two religions seemed so much
+alike that various emperors called assemblies of Buddhists and Taoists
+with the intention of effecting a union of the two religions into one.
+If the emperor was under the influence of Buddhism he tried to force all
+Taoists to become Buddhists. If he was favorable to Taoism he tried to
+make all Buddhists become Taoists.
+
+But such mandates were as unsuccessful as other similar schemes have
+been. In the third century A. D. after the Han dynasty had ended, China
+was broken up into several small kingdoms which contended for supremacy,
+so that for about four hundred years the whole country was in a state of
+disunion. One of the strong dynasties of this period, the Northern Wei
+(386-535 A. D.), was distinctly loyal to Buddhism. During its
+continuance Buddhism prospered greatly. Although Chinese were not
+permitted to become monks until 335 A. D., still Buddhism made rapid
+advances and in the fourth century, when that restriction was removed,
+about nine-tenths of the people of northwestern China had become
+Buddhists. Since then Buddhism has been an established factor in Chinese
+life.
+
+
+
+
+III
+
+
+THE ESTABLISHMENT OF BUDDHISM AS THE PREDOMINATING RELIGION OF CHINA
+
+Even the historical influences noted above do not account entirely for
+the spread of Buddhism in China. In order to understand this and the
+place which Buddhism occupies, we need to review briefly the different
+forms which religion takes in China and to note how Buddhism has related
+itself to them.
+
+_1. The World of Invisible Spirits_
+
+The Chinese believe _in_ a surrounding-world of spirits, whose
+origin is exceedingly various. They touch life at every point. There are
+spirits which are guardians of the soil, tree spirits, mountain demons,
+fire gods, the spirits of animals, of mountains, of rivers, seas and
+stars, of the heavenly bodies and of many forms of active life. These
+spirits to the Chinese mind, of today are a projection, a sort of
+spiritual counterpart, of the many sided interests, practical or
+otherwise, of the groups and communities by whom they are worshipped.
+There are other spirits which mirror the ideals of the groups by which
+they are worshipped. Some of them may have been incarnated in the lives
+of great leaders. There are spirits which are mere animations,
+occasional spirits, associated with objects crossing the interests of
+men, but not constant enough to attain a definite, independent life as
+spiritual beings. Thus surrounding the average Chinese peasant there is
+a densely populated spirit world affecting in all kinds of ways his,
+daily existence. This other world is the background which must be kept
+in mind by one who would understand or attempt to guide Chinese
+religious experience. It is the basis on which all organized forms of
+religious activity are built. The nearest of these to his heart is the
+proper regard for his ancestors.
+
+_2. The Universal Sense_ of _Ancestor Control_
+
+The ancestral control of family life occupies so large and important a
+place in Chinese thought and practice that ancestor worship has been
+called the original religion of the Chinese. It is certain that the
+earliest Confucian records recognize ancestor worship; but doubtless it
+antedated them, growing up out of the general religious consciousness of
+the people. The discussion of that origin in detail cannot be taken up
+here. It may be followed in the literature noted in the appendix or in
+the volume of this series entitled "Present-Day Confucianism." Ancestor
+worship is active today, however, because the Chinese as a people
+believe that these ancestors control in a very real way the good or evil
+fortunes of their descendants, because this recognition of ancestors
+furnishes a potent means of promoting family unity and social ethics,
+and, most of all, because a happy future life is supposed to be
+dependent upon descendants who will faithfully minister to the dead.
+Since each one desires such a future he is faithful in promoting the
+observance of the obligation. Consequently, ancestor worship, like the
+previously mentioned belief in the invisible spiritual world, underlies
+all other religious developments. No family is so obscure or poor that
+it does not submit to the ritual or discipline which is supposed to
+ensure the favor of the spirits belonging to the community. Likewise,
+every such family is loyal to the supposed needs of its deceased
+ancestors. In a very intimate way these beliefs are interwoven with the
+private and social morality of every family or group in Chinese society,
+and must be taken into account by any one who seeks to bring a religious
+message to the Chinese people.
+
+_3. Degenerate Taoism_
+
+Taoism is that system of Chinese religious thought and practice,
+beginning about the fifth century B. C., which was originally based on
+the teachings of Lao Tzu and developed in the writings of Lieh Tzu and
+Chuang Tzu and found in the Tao Te Ching. It is really in this original
+form a philosophy of some merit. According to its teaching the Tao is
+the great impersonal background of the world from which all things
+proceed as beams from the sun, and to which all beings return. In
+contrast to the present, transient, changing world the Tao is
+unchangeable and quiet. Originally the Taoists emphasized quiescence, a
+life in accordance with nature, as a means of assimilating themselves to
+the Tao, believing that in this way they would obtain length of days,
+eternal life and especially the power to become superior to natural
+conditions.
+
+There is a movement today among Chinese scholars in favor of a return to
+this original highest form of Taoism. It appeals to them as a philosophy
+of life; an answer to its riddles. Among the masses of the people,
+however, Taoism manifests itself in a ritual of extreme superstition. It
+recommends magic tricks and curious superstitions as a means of
+prolonging life. It expresses itself very largely in these degrading
+practices which few Chinese will defend, but which are yet very commonly
+practiced.
+
+_4. The Organizing Value of Confucianism_
+
+Confucianism brought organization into these hazy conceptions of life
+and duty. It took for granted this spiritual-unspiritual background of
+animism, ancestor-worship and Taoism, but reshaped and adapted it as a
+whole so that it might fit into that proper organization of the state
+and nation which was one of its great objectives. Just as Confucianism
+related the family to the village, the village to the district, and the
+district to the state, so it organized the spiritual world into a
+hierarchy with Shang Ti as its head. This hierarchy was developed along
+the lines of the organization mentioned above. Under Shang Ti were the
+five cosmic emperors, one for each of the four quarters and one for
+heaven above, under whom were the gods of the soil, the mountains,
+rivers, seas, stars, the sun and moon, the ancestors and the gods of
+special groups. Each of the deities in the various ranks had duties to
+those above and rights with reference to those below. These duties and
+rights, as they affected the individual, were not only expressed in law
+but were embodied in ceremony and music, in daily religious life and
+practice in such a way that each individual had reason to feel that he
+was a functioning agent in this grand Confucian universe. If any one
+failed to do his part, the whole universe would suffer. So thoroughly
+has this idea been adopted by the Chinese people that every one joins in
+forcing an individual, however reluctant or careless, to perform his
+part of each ceremony as it has been ordered from high antiquity.
+
+The emperor alone worshipped the supreme deity, Shang Ti; the great
+officers of state, according to the dignity of their office, were
+related to subordinate gods and required to show them adequate respect
+and reverence. Confucius and a long line of noted men following him were
+semi-deified [Footnote: Confucius was by imperial decree deified in
+1908.] and highly reverenced by the literati, the class from which the
+officers of state were as a rule obtained, in connection with their
+duties, and as an expression of their ideals. To the common people were
+left the ordinary local deities, while all classes, of course, each in
+its own fashion reverenced, cherished and obeyed their ancestors. It
+should be remarked at this point that Confucianism of this official
+character has broken down, not only under the impact of modern ideas,
+but under the longing of the Chinese for a universal deity. The people
+turn to Heaven and to the Pearly Emperor, the popular counterpart of
+Shang Ti.
+
+Viewed from another angle, Confucianism is an elaborate system of
+ethics. In writings which are virtually the scriptures of the Chinese
+people Confucius and his successors have set forth the principles which
+should govern the life of a people who recognize this spiritual universe
+and system. These ethics have grown out of a long and, in some respects,
+a sound experience. Much can be said in their favor. The essential
+weaknesses of the Confucian system of ethics lie in its sectional and
+personal loyalties and its monarchical basis. The spirit of democracy is
+a deadly foe to Confucianism. Another element of weakness is its
+excessive dependence upon the past. Confucius reached ultimate wisdom by
+the study of the best that had been attained before his day. He looked
+backward rather than forward. Consequently a modern, broadly educated
+Confucianist finds himself in an anomalous position. He does not need
+absolutely to reject the wisdom which Confucianism embodies, but he can
+no longer accept it as a sound, reliable and indisputable scheme of
+thought and action. Yet its simple ethical principles and its social
+relationships are basal in the lives of the vast masses of the Chinese.
+
+_5. Buddhism an. Inclusive Religion._
+
+Upon this, confused jumble of spiritism, superstition, loyalty to
+ancestors and submission to a divine hierarchy Buddhism was
+superimposed. It quickly dominated all because of its superior
+excellence. The form of Buddhism which became established in China was
+not, to be sure, like the Buddhism preached by Gautama and his
+disciples, or like that form of Buddhism which had taken root in Burma
+or Ceylon. Except in name, the Buddhism of Southern Asia and the
+Buddhism which developed in China were virtually two distinct types of
+religion. The Buddhism of Burma and Ceylon was of the conservative
+Hinayana ("Little Vehicle" of salvation) school, while that of China was
+of the progressive Mahayana ("Great Vehicle" of salvation) school. Their
+differences are so marked as to be worthy of a careful statement.
+
+The Hinayana, which is today the type of Buddhism in Ceylon, Burma and
+Siam, has always clung closely to tradition as expressed in the original
+Buddhist scriptures. Its basic ideas were that life is on the whole a
+time of suffering, that the cause of this sorrow is desire or ignorance,
+and that there is a possible deliverance from it. This deliverance or
+salvation is to be attained by following the eightfold path, namely,
+right knowledge, aspiration, speech, conduct, means of livelihood,
+endeavor, mindfulness and meditation. To the beatific state to be
+ultimately attained Gautama gave the name Nirvana, explained by his
+followers variously either as an utter extinction of personality or as a
+passionless peace, a general state of well-being free from all evil
+desire or clinging to life and released from the chain of
+transmigration. Hinayana Buddhism appeals to the individual as affording
+a way of escape from evil desire and its consequences by acquiring
+knowledge, by constant discipline, and by a devotedness of the life to
+religious ends through membership in the monastic order which Buddha
+established. It encourages, however, a personal salvation worked out by
+the individual alone.
+
+The Mahayana school of Buddhists accept the general ideas of the
+Hinayana regarding life and salvation, but so change the spirit and
+objectives as to make Buddhism into what is virtually another religion.
+It does not confine salvation to the few who can retire from the world
+and give themselves wholly to good works, but opens Buddhahood to all.
+The "saint" of Hinayana Buddhism is the _arhat_ who is intent on
+saving himself. The saint of Mahayana Buddhism is the candidate for
+Buddhahood (Bodhisattva) who defers his entrance into the bliss of
+deliverance in order to save others. Mahayana Buddhism is progressive.
+It encourages missionary enterprise and was a secret of the remarkable
+spread of Buddhism over Asia. Moreover, while the Hinayana school
+recognizes no god or being to whom worship is given, the Mahayana came
+to regard Gautama himself as a god and salvation as life in a heavenly
+world of pure souls. Thus the Mahayana type of thinking constitutes a
+bridge between Hinayana Buddhism and Christianity. In fact, a recent
+writer has declared that Hinayana Buddhists are verging toward these
+more spiritual conceptions. [Footnote: See Saunders, _Buddhism and
+Buddhists in Southern Asia,_ pp. 10, 20.]
+
+After the death of Sakyamuni [Footnote: Sakyamuni is the name by which
+Gautama, the Buddha, is familiarly known in China.] Buddhism broke up
+into a number of sects usually said to be eighteen in number. When
+Buddhism came to China some of these sects were introduced, but they
+assumed new forms in their Chinese environment. Besides the sects
+brought, from India the Chinese developed several strong sects of their
+own. Usually they speak of ten sects although the number is far larger,
+if the various subdivisions are included.
+
+To indicate the manifold differences between these groups in Buddhism
+would take us far afield and would not be profitable. It will be of
+interest, however, to consider some of the chief sects. One of the sects
+introduced from India is the Pure Land or the Ching T'u which holds
+before the believer the "Western Paradise" gained through faith in
+Amitabha. Any one, no matter what his life may have been, may enter the
+Western Paradise by repeating the name of Amitabha. This sect is
+widespread in China. In Japan there are two branches of it known as the
+Nishi-Hongwanji and the Higashi-Hongwanji with their head monasteries in
+Kyoto. They are the most progressive sects in Japan and are carrying on
+missionary work in China, the Hawaiian Islands and in the United States.
+
+Another strong sect is the Meditative sect or the Ch'an Men (Zen in
+Japan). This was introduced by Bodhidharma, or Tamo, who arrived in the
+capital of China in the year 520 A.D. On his arrival the emperor Wu Ti
+tried to impress the sage with his greatness saying: "We have built
+temples, multiplied the Scriptures, encouraged many to join the Order:
+is not there much merit in all this?" "None," was the blunt reply. "But
+what say the holy books? Do they not promise rewards for such deeds?"
+"There is nothing holy." "But you, yourself, are you not one of the holy
+ones?" "I don't know." "Who are you?" "I don't know." Thus introduced,
+the great man proceeded to open his missionary-labors by sitting down
+opposite a wall arid gazing at it for the next nine years. From this he
+has been called the "wall-gazer." He and his successors promulgated the
+doctrine that neither the scriptures, the ritual nor the organization,
+in fact nothing outward had any value in the attainment of
+enlightenment. They held that the heart of the universe is Buddha and
+that apart from the heart or the thought all is unreal. They thought
+themselves back into the universal Buddha and then found the Buddha
+heart in all nature. Thus they awakened the spirit which permeated
+nature, art and literature and made the whole world kin with the spirit
+of the Buddha.
+
+
+  "The golden light upon the sunkist peaks,
+  The water murmuring in the pebbly creeks,
+  Are Buddha. In the stillness, hark, he speaks!"
+
+
+[Footnote: K. J. Saunders in _Epochs of Buddhist History._]
+
+Such pantheism and quietism often lead to a confusion in moral
+relations, but these mystics were quite correct in their morals because
+they checked up their mysticism with the moral system of the Buddha.
+
+Still another important sect originated in the sixth century A. D. on
+Chinese soil, namely, the T'ien T'ai (Japanese Tendai), so called
+because it started in a monastery situated on the beautiful T'ien T'ai
+mountains south of Ningpo. Chih K'ai, the founder, realized that
+Buddhism contained a great mass of contradictory teachings and practice,
+all attributed to the Buddha. He sought for a harmonizing principle and
+found it in the arbitrary theory that these teachings were given to
+different people on five different occasions and hence the
+discrepancies. The practical message of this sect has been that all
+beings have the Buddha heart and that the Buddha loves all beings, so
+that all beings may attain salvation, which consists in the full
+realization of the Buddha heart latent in them.
+
+There was a time when these sects were very active and flourishing in
+China. At the present time the various tendencies for which they stood
+have been adopted by Buddhism as a whole and the various sectaries,
+though still keeping the name of the sect, live peacefully in the same
+monastery. All the monasteries practice meditation, believe in the
+paradise of Amitabha, and are enjoying the ironic calm advocated by the
+T'ien T'ai. While the struggle among the sects of China has been
+followed by a calm which resembles stagnation, those in Japan are very
+active and the reader is referred to the volume of this series on
+Japanese Buddhism for further treatment of the subject.
+
+When Buddhism entered China it brought with it a new world. It was new
+_practical_ and new spiritually. It brought a knowledge unknown
+before regarding the heavenly bodies, regarding nature and regarding
+medicine, and a practice vastly above the realm of magical arts. In
+addition to these practical benefits, Buddhism proclaimed a new
+spiritual universe far more real and extensive than any of which the
+Chinese had dreamed, and peopled with spiritual beings having
+characteristics entirely novel. In comparison with this new universe or
+series of universes which Indian imagination had created, the Chinese
+universe was wooden and geometric. Since it was an organized system and
+a greater rather than a different one, the Chinese people readily
+accepted it and made it their own.
+
+Buddhism not only enlarged the universe and gave the individual a range
+of opportunity hitherto unsuspected, but it introduced a scheme of
+religious practice, or rather several of them, enabling the individual
+devotee to attain a place in this spiritual universe through his own
+efforts. These "ways" of salvation were quite in harmony with Chinese
+ideas. They resembled what had already been a part of the national
+practice and so were readily adopted and adapted by the Chinese.
+
+Buddhism rendered a great service to the Chinese through its new
+estimate of the individual. Ancient China scarcely recognized the
+individual. He was merged in the family and the clan. Taoists, to be
+sure, talked of "immortals" and Confucianism exhibited its typical
+personality, or "princely man," but these were thought of as supermen,
+as ideals. The classics of China had very little to say about the common
+people. The great common crowd was submerged. Buddhism, on the other
+hand, gave every individual a distinct place in the great wheel
+_dharma,_ the law, and made it possible for him to reach the very
+highest goal of salvation. This introduced a genuinely new element into
+the social and family life of the Chinese people.
+
+Buddhism was so markedly superior to any one of the four other methods
+of expressing the religious life, that it quickly won practical
+recognition as the real religion of China. Confucianism may be called
+the doctrine of the learned classes. It formulates their principles of
+life, but it is in no strict sense a popular religion. It is rather a
+state ritual, or a scheme of personal and social ethics. Taoism
+recognizes the immediate influence of the spirit world, but it ministers
+only to local ideals and needs. In the usages of family and community
+life, ancestor worship has a definite place, but an occasional one.
+Buddhism was able to leave untouched each of these expressions of
+Chinese personal and social life, and yet it went far beyond them in
+ministering to religious development. Its ideas of being, of moral
+responsibility and of religious relationships furnished a new psychology
+which with all its imperfections far surpassed that of the Chinese.
+Buddhism's organization was so satisfying and adaptable that not only
+was it taken over readily by the Chinese, but it has also persisted in
+China without marked changes since its introduction. Most of all it
+stressed personal salvation and promised an escape from the impersonal
+world of distress and hunger which surrounds the average Chinese into a
+heaven ruled by Amitabha [Footnote: Amitabha, meaning "infinite light,"
+is the Sanskrit name of one of the Buddhas moat highly revered in China.
+The usual Chinese equivalent is Omi-To-Fo.] the Merciful. The
+obligations of Buddhism are very definite and universally recognized. It
+enforces high standards of living, but has added significance because it
+draws each devotee into a sort of fellowship with the divine, and mates
+not this life alone, but this life plus a future life, the end of human
+activity. Buddhism, therefore, really expresses the deepest religious
+life of the people of China.
+
+It will be worth while to note some illustrations of the conviction of
+the Chinese people that there are three religions to which they owe
+allegiance and yet that these are essentially one. They often say, "The
+three teachings are the whole teaching." An old scholar is reported to
+have remarked, "The three roads are different, but they lead to the same
+source." A common story reports that Confucius was asked in the other
+world about drinking wine, which Buddhists forbid but Taoists permit.
+Confucius replied: "If I do not drink I become a Buddha. If I drink I
+become an Immortal. Well, if there is wine, I shall drink; if there is
+none, I shall abstain." This expresses characteristically the Chinese
+habit of adaptation. Such a decision sounds quite up to date.
+
+The Ethical Culture Society of Peking, recently organized, has upon its
+walls pictures of Buddha, Lao Tzu, Confucius and Christ. Its members
+claim to worship Shang Ti as the god of all religions. An offshoot of
+this society, the T'ung Shan She, associates the three founders very
+closely with Christ. It claims to have a deeper revelation of Christ
+than the Christians themselves. A new organization, the Tao Yuan, plans
+to harmonize the three old religions with Mohammedanism and
+Christianity.
+
+Buddhism has consistently and continually striven to bring about a unity
+of religion in China by interpenetrating Confucianism and Taoism. Quite
+early the Buddhists invented the story that the Bodhisattva Ju T'ung was
+really Confucius incarnate. There was at one time a Buddhist temple to
+Confucius in the province of Shantung. The Buddhists also gave out the
+story that Bodhisattva Kas'yapa was the incarnation of Lao Tzu, the
+founder of Taoism. An artist painted Lao Tzu transformed into a Buddha,
+seated in a lotus bud with a halo about his head. In front of the Buddha
+was Confucius doing reverence. A Chinese scholar, asked for his opinion
+about the picture, said: "Buddha should be seated; Lao Tzu should be
+standing at the side looking askance at Buddha; and Confucius should be
+grovelling on the floor."
+
+A monument dating from 543 A. D., illustrates this tendency of Buddhism
+to represent its own superiority in Chinese religious life. At the top
+of the monument is Brahma, lower down is Sakyamuni with his disciples,
+Ananda and Kas'yapa on one face, and on the other Sakyamuni again,
+conversing with Buddha Prabhutaratna and worshipped by monks and
+Bodhisattvas. On the pedestal are Confucian and Taoist deities, ten in
+number. Thus Buddhism sought to rank itself clearly above the other two
+religions. From the early days Buddhism regarded itself as their
+superior and began the processes of interpenetration and absorption. In
+consequence the values originally inherent in Buddhism have come to be
+regarded as the natural possession of the Chinese. It does express their
+religious life, especially in South China, where outward manifestations
+of religion are perhaps more marked than in the north.
+
+
+
+
+IV
+
+
+BUDDHISM AND THE PEASANT
+
+In order that, one may realize the place that Buddhism holds in the
+religious life of the Chinese people as a whole, he must turn to the
+organizations through which it functions. It is sometimes difficult to
+estimate the place of Buddhism in China, because it so interpenetrates
+the whole cultural and social life of the people. It becomes their
+"way." To see how it touches the life of the average man or woman in
+various ways will, therefore, be illuminating. The most outstanding
+evidence of devotion are the many monasteries which dot the land in all
+Buddhist countries. China is less dominated by them than other lands,
+yet they form a very important reason for the persistence and strength
+of Buddhism there. One of the famous old shrines will represent them as
+a class and give evidence of their importance.
+
+_1. The Monastery of Kushan_
+
+Kushan Monastery, located about four hours' ride by sedan-chair from
+Foochow, is a famous shrine of South China. It occupies a large
+amphitheater about fifteen hundred feet above the plain, part way up
+Kushan, the "Drum Mountain," some three thousand feet high. From the top
+of the mountain on clear days with the help of a glass the blue shores
+of Formosa may be seen on the eastern horizon. The spacious monastery
+buildings are surrounded by a grove of noble trees, in which squirrels,
+pheasants, chipmunks and snakes enjoy an undisturbed life.
+
+The ascent to the monastery begins on the bank of the Min River. At the
+foot of the mountain in a large temple the traveler may obtain mountain
+chairs carried by two or more coolies. The road, paved with granite
+slabs cut from the mountain side, consists of a series of stone stairs,
+which zig-zag up the mountain under the shadow of ancient pine trees.
+Every turn brings to view a bit of landscape carpeted with rice, or a
+distant view where mountains and sky meet. A brook rushes by the side of
+the road. Here it breaks into a beautiful waterfall. There it gurgles'
+in a deep ravine. The sides of the road are covered with large granite
+blocks which, loosened from the mountain side by earthquakes, have
+disposed themselves promiscuously. Their blackened, weather-beaten sides
+are incised with Chinese characters. One of them bears the words: "We
+put our trust in Amitabha." Another immortalizes the sentiments of some
+great official who has made the pilgrimage to the mountain. Near the
+monastery stand the sombre dagobas where repose the ashes of former
+abbots and monastery officials. Not far away on the other side of the
+road, hidden by trees, is the crematory where the last remains of the
+brethren are consumed by the flames.
+
+As one approaches the monastery he hears the regular sounds of a bell
+tolled by a water-wheel, reminding the faithful of Buddha's law. He sees
+monks strolling leisurely about and lay brethren carrying wood,
+cultivating the gardens, or tending the animals released by pious
+devotees to heap up merit for themselves in the next world. Just inside
+the main gate is a large fish pond, where goldfish of great size
+struggle with one another, and with the lazy turtles, for the round hard
+cakes purchased from the monks by the merit-seeking devotee.
+
+The monastery itself consists of a large group of buildings erected
+about stone-paved courts, rising in terraces on the mountain side. The
+large court at the entrance leads to the "Hall of the Four Kings." As
+one enters the spacious door, he _is_ faced by a jolly, almost
+naked image of the "Laughing Buddha." This is Maitreya, the Mea siah of
+the Buddhists, who will return to the world five thousand years after
+the departure of Sakyamuni. In the northern monasteries Maitreya is
+often represented as reaching a height when standing of seventy feet or
+more, which indicates the stature to which man will attain when he
+returns to earth. On each side of the visitor are two immense images of
+the Deva kings. In Brahman cosmogony they were the guardians of the
+world. In this entrance hall of the Buddhist monastery they stand as
+guardians of the Buddhist faith. In the same hall looking toward the
+open court beyond is Wei To, another guardian deity of Buddhism.
+Somewhere near by is Kuan Ti, the god worshipped by the soldiers and
+merchants. Although a Confucian god, he was early adopted by Buddhist
+monks into their pantheon and made the guardian of their Order.
+
+Beyond this entrance hall is a large stone-paved court. On the right
+side is a bell-tower whose bell is tolled by a monk who has kept the vow
+of silence for fourteen years. On the left is a drum-tower. On the right
+one finds a series of small shrines. A passage way leads to the library
+where numerous Buddhist writings repose in lacquered cases, some of them
+written in their own blood by devout monks. On the same side are guest
+halls, the dining room for three hundred monks, and the spacious, well
+equipped kitchen with running water piped from a reservoir in the hills
+above. A store where books, images and the simple requirements of the
+monks can be obtained is just above the dining room. On the left side of
+the court are large buildings used as dormitories far the monks,
+storerooms, and for housing the great printing establishment with its
+thousands of wooden blocks on which are carved passages from the
+Buddhist scriptures. Here also are kept the coffins in which the monks
+are to be burned.
+
+On a terrace above the north side of the court rises the main hall,
+called the "Hall of the Triratna," the Buddhist Trinity, where three
+gilded images are seated on a lotus flower with halos covering their
+backs and heads. The center image is that of Sakyamuni, the Buddha. On
+his right is Yao Shih, the Buddha of medicine, and on the left,
+Amitabha. Quite often these images are said to represent the Buddha, the
+Law and the Community of Monks. On the altar are candlesticks and a fine
+incense burner from which curls of smoke arise. An immense lamp hangs
+from the ceiling. In the rear are banners with praises to Buddha given
+by pious devotees. The floor is tiled and covered with round mats made
+of palm fiber on which the monks kneel during worship. Before the mats
+are low stands for books. On each side of this main hall are the images
+of nine Buddhist saints (_arhats_), eighteen in all. Behind this
+large temple opens another court and on a terrace above it stands the
+hall of the Law with the images of Kuan Yin, the goddess of Mercy, and
+the twenty-four devas. Here also are small images of viceroys and
+patrons of the monastery.
+
+The hillsides are dotted with numerous temples and shrines. There is one
+to Chu-Hsi, the great philosopher of the Sung dynasty, who was born in
+Fukien. In it are preserved a few characters indited by his hand. On the
+west side of the monastery are large buildings for the housing of
+animals released by merit-seeking devotees. Here cows, hogs, goats,
+chickens, geese and ducks spend their old age without fear of beginning
+their transmigration by forming the main portion of a Chinese feast.
+
+The monastery is governed by an abbot, usually a man of good business
+ability, elected by the monks. Under him are the officers of the two
+wings or groups of attendants. One set looks after the spiritual
+interests, of the monks; the-other takes care of their material needs:
+The monks have worship about two o'clock in the morning and again at
+about four in the afternoon. The rest of the long day they spend in
+meditation, or study, in strolling about the mountain side or in sleep.
+Their life is separated from all stirring contact with the life of the
+world.
+
+_2. Monasteries Control Feng-shui_
+
+This monastery with its appointments is a good type of the monasteries
+all over China. It was founded at the request of the inhabitants of the
+neighborhood, because the dragons of the region used to cause much
+damage to the crops in the surrounding country. A holy monk came,
+founded the monastery, and by his good influence so curbed the dragons
+that the country-side has enjoyed peace ever since and the monastery has
+prospered. Since the fourth century of our era records show that by the
+building of monasteries in strategic place's holy monks brought rains
+and prosperity to various regions, or prevented floods and calamities
+from damaging the villages. In other words the monasteries are regarded
+as the controllers of _feng-shui_ (wind and water). According to
+the Chinese philosophy winds and water are spiritual forces and may be
+so controlled by other spiritual forces that instead of bringing harm
+they will confer benefit upon the people. Floods and dry seasons are so
+frequent in China that any institution holding out the promise of
+regulating them would become firmly established in the affection of the
+people. The monasteries have taken this place.
+
+One of the picturesque features of a Chinese landscape is the pagoda.
+These structures were introduced in the early stages of Buddhism to
+enshrine the relics of Buddha. It was said that Buddha's body consisted
+of eighty thousand parts, hence numerous pagodas were erected to shelter
+these relics. Inasmuch as a pagoda contained the relics of Buddha, it
+possessed magic power and so came to play a great part in the control of
+the winds and the rains. The pagoda in China has an odd number of
+stories varying from three to thirteen. The odd numbers belong to the
+positive principle in nature which is superior to the negative
+principle. The pagoda plays quite a part in the festivals of the people.
+On certain occasions the stories are hung with lanterns and the pagodas
+are visited by numerous throngs.
+
+_3. Prayer for Rain_
+
+Prayers for rain afford such a common illustration of the relation of
+Buddhism to the life of the peasant that a detailed presentation of such
+a service may be of seal value.
+
+During a prolonged drought in some district of China, when the heat
+opens gaping cracks in the fields and the grain is drying up, the
+populace may visit their highest official and apprise him of the dire
+situation. He often forbids the slaughter of all animals for three days
+and, in case rain has not thereby come, he goes in person or sends a
+deputy to the nearest monastery to direct the monks to pray for rain.
+
+_(a) The Altar._--On such an occasion the great hall of the Law may
+be used for the ceremony. Quite often a special altar is erected in an
+enclosure near the monastery on a platform one foot high and twenty-five
+feet on each side, overspread by a tent of green cloth. In the center
+seats are arranged for the presiding monk and his assistants. On each of
+the four sides of the altar is placed an image of the Dragon King who is
+supposed to control the rain. If an image is not obtainable a piece of
+paper inscribed with the name of the dragon may be used. Flowers, fruits
+and incense are spread before the images. On the doors of the tent are
+painted dragons with clouds. The tent and altar are green and the monks
+wear green garments, because green belongs to the spring and suggests
+rain. For this ceremony the monks prepare themselves by abstinence and
+cleansing. The presiding monk is one of high moral character and
+religious fervor. While some monks recite appropriate sutras, two others
+look after the offerings, the incense, and the sprinkling of water
+during the ceremony to suggest the coming of rain. The services continue
+day and night, being conducted by groups of monks in succession.
+
+_(b) The Prayer Service._--The ceremonial is opened by a chant as
+follows:
+
+"Pearly dew of the jade heavens, golden waves of Buddha's ocean, scatter
+the lotus flowers on a thousand thousand worlds of suffering, that the
+heart of mercy may wash away great calamity, that a drop may become a
+flood, that a drop may purify mountains and rivers.
+
+"We put our trust in the Bodhisattvas and Mahasattvas that purify the
+earth."
+
+The chant ended, a monk takes a bowl of water and repeats thrice: "We
+put our trust in the great merciful Kuan Yin Bodhisattva." Then follows
+the chant:
+
+"The Bodhisattva's sweet dew of the willow is able to make one drop
+spread over the ten directions. It washes away the rank odors and dirt.
+It keeps the altars clean and pure. The mysterious words of the doctrine
+will be reverently repeated."
+
+This chant ended, the monks intone incantations of Kuan Yin, quite
+unintelligible even to them, but of magical value. While these are being
+uttered, the presiding monk and his attendants walk around the altar,
+while one of them with a branch sprinkles water on the floor. This
+symbolizes the cleansing of the altar and of the monks from all
+impurities which might render the ritual ineffective. When the
+perambulating monks have returned to their place, while the sprinkler
+continues his duties, the monks repeat the words: "We put our trust in
+the sweet dew kings, Bodhisattvas and Mahasattvas."
+
+The Bodhisattvas have now come to the purified altar and while the abbot
+offers incense to them, the monks repeat the words:
+
+"The fields are destroyed so that they resemble the back of a tortoise.
+The demons of drought produce calamity. The dark people [Footnote: A
+term denoting the Chinese.] pray earnestly while crops are being
+destroyed. We pray that abundant, limpid liquid may descend to purify
+and refresh the whole world. The clouds of incense rise."
+
+This plaint is repeated thrice and is followed by an invocation:
+
+"Wholeheartedly we cast ourselves to the earth, O Triratna, who dost
+exist eternally in the realm of _dharma_ of the ten directions."
+
+The leader remains quiet a long time with his eyes closed, visualizing
+the Buddhas, the Bodhisattvas, the dragon kings, and the saints, all
+with their heavenly eyes and ears knowing that this region is afflicted
+with drought, that an altar has been constructed and that all have come
+to make petition. This meditation is regarded as of chief importance. It
+is followed by an announcement to the effect that the sutra praying for
+rain was given by the Buddha, that a drought is afflicting the land,
+that the altar has been erected in accordance with the regulations and
+that prayer is being made for rain. But fearing that something may have
+been overlooked, the magic formula of "the king of light who turns the
+wheel" is read seven times so as to remedy such oversight.
+
+The altar having thus been cleansed of all impurities, the rain sutra is
+opened and the one hundred and eighty-eight dragon kings are urged by
+name in groups of ten to take action. The formula is as follows:
+
+"We with our whole heart invite such and such dragon kings to come. We
+desire that the heart and wisdom which knows others intuitively will
+move the spirits above to obey the Buddha, to take pity on the people
+below and to come to our province and send down sweet rain."
+
+When the dragons have all been duly invited, the monks chant suitable
+magical formulas, while the leader sits in meditation visualizing these
+dragon kings and their tender solicitude for the people in distress. The
+monastery bell is sounded and the wooden fish is beaten, while drums and
+cymbals add their effect. The whole is intended to draw the attention of
+the dragon kings to the drought. Then the fifty-four Buddhas are invited
+in a similar manner in groups of ten, the sixth group consisting of
+four. A similar form of address is used and similar magical formulas are
+recited with the noisy accompaniment. The ceremony concludes by the
+expression of the hope that the three jewels (Buddha, the Law and the
+Community of Monks) and the dragon kings will grant the rain.
+
+Upon the altar are four copies of an announcement to the dragon kings
+and Buddhas. On the first day three copies are sent to them through the
+flames, one to the Buddhas, one to the dragon kings and one to the
+devas. One copy is read daily and then sent up at the thanksgiving
+ceremony. The announcement is as follows:
+
+"We put our trust in the limitless, reverent ocean clouds, the dragons
+of august virtue and all their host, all dragon kings and holy saints.
+Their august virtue is difficult to measure. In accord with the command
+of Buddha they send liquid rain. May their quiet mercy descend to the
+altar; may they send down purity and freshness, spreading over the ten
+directions. We put our trust in the company of dragon kings of the
+clouds, the saints and the Bodhisattvas."
+
+The offerings are made only in the morning inasmuch as the Buddhas,
+following ancient custom, are not supposed to eat after the noonday
+meal. Great care is taken that the altar shall not be desecrated by any
+one who eats meat or drinks wine. The magic formulas of great mercy are
+uttered or the name of Kuan Yin is repeated a thousand times. The monks,
+take turn in these services which continue day and night until rain
+comes.
+
+_(c) Its Meaning._--In the religious consciousness of the people is
+the idea that the drought is a punishment for sin. The altar is made
+pure and acceptable and sin is removed in various symbolic ways. This
+fits in with the idea that man is an intimate part of the world order.
+His sin disturbs the order of nature. Heaven manifests displeasures by
+sending down calamities upon men. Men should cease their wrongdoing
+which disturbs the natural order and should also wash away the effects
+of their sins. The services for rain with their magic formulas help to
+clear away the consequences of sin and to predispose Heaven to grant its
+blessings again.
+
+_4. Monasteries Are Supported Because They Control Feng-shui_
+
+The prayers for rain are an important part of the Chinese peasant's
+world order. Drought is the manifestation of Heaven's displeasure at the
+infraction of Heaven's laws. It calls for self-examination and
+repentance. Thus the monastery opens up the windows of the universal
+order as this touches the humble tiller of the soil.
+
+The Buddhist monasteries not only hold services in time of drought, but
+also in time of flood and at times when plagues of grasshoppers afflict
+the land, or when diseases afflict human beings. Their adoption of
+Chinese customs led them to have special ceremonies at the eclipse of
+the sun and moon, although they knew the cause of the eclipse. Peasants
+and officials support the monastery because of these services regulating
+the wind and water influences and through them bringing the people into
+harmonious relation with the great world of spirits.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+BUDDHISM AND THE FAMILY
+
+One of the criticisms of the Chinese against Buddhism is that it is
+opposed to filial piety. According to Mencius the greatest unfilial act
+is to leave no progeny. In spite of this charge Buddhism has done much
+for the family. It has taken over the ethics of the family, filial
+piety, obedience and respect for elders, and has made them a part of its
+system. Transgression of these fundamental duties is visited by dire
+punishments in the next world. The faithful observance is followed not
+only by the rewards of the Confucian system, but results in the greatest
+rewards in the future life.
+
+_1. Kuan Yin, the Giver of Children and Protector of Women_
+
+Buddhism has done more. Out of its atmosphere of love and mercy toward
+all beings has developed Kuan Yin, the ideal of Chinese womanhood, the
+goddess of Mercy, who embodies the Chinese ideal of beauty, filial piety
+and compassion toward the weak and suffering. She is especially the
+goddess of women, being interested in all their affairs. Her image is
+found in almost every household and her temples have a place in every
+part of China.
+
+A brief history of this deity will enable us to understand the
+significance of the cult. Kuan Yin started as a male god in India,
+called Avalokitesvara, who was worshipped from the third to the seventh
+century of our era. He was the protector of sailors and people in
+danger. In the course of time, either in China or in India, the god
+became a goddess. Some think that this was due to the influence of
+Christianity. In China both forms survive, though the goddess is better
+known. A Buddhist once said that a Bodhisattva is neither male nor
+female and appears in whatever form is convenient.
+
+Kuan Yin is a very popular goddess. Her experiences in Hades are
+dramatically presented by traveling theatrical companies. Her deeds of
+mercy are portrayed in art. Her well known story runs as follows:
+
+Kuan Yin was the daughter of the ruler of a prosperous kingdom located
+somewhere near the island of Sumatra. Her birth was announced to the
+queen by a dream. The little girl ate no meat nor milk. Her disposition
+was very good. Her intelligence was most extraordinary. Once she read
+anything she never forgot it.
+
+At the age of sixteen her father tried to betroth her to a young prince.
+She refused and decided to give herself to a life of fasting and
+abstinence. Angered b-v her obstinacy the father ordered her to take off
+her court dress and jewels, to put on the garb of a servant and to carry
+water for the garden. The garden never looked so beautiful. The daughter
+also looked well and showed no signs of weariness, because the gods
+assisted her in her work.
+
+Relenting a little the king sent an older sister to urge Kuan Yin to
+accept the husband he had found for her. When she refused, he sent her
+to a monastery and charged the abbess to treat her harshly, so that she
+might be forced to return home. Expecting to win the king's favor, the
+abbess put the most unpleasant tasks on the girl. But again the gods
+assisted her and made her work light, so that her tasks were always well
+done and the young woman was cheerful.
+
+One day the report came to the king that his daughter was associating
+with a young monk discussing heterodox doctrines and that she had given
+birth to a child. This news so enraged the king that he burned the
+monastery, killing many monks. The princess was captured and brought
+before him. Inasmuch as she was obdurate, the king ordered her to be
+executed. The executioner's sword, however, broke into a thousand pieces
+without doing her any injury. The king then ordered her to be strangled.
+A golden image sixteen feet high appeared on the spot. The princess
+laughed and cried: "Where there was no image, an image appeared. I see
+the real form. When body flesh is strangled, then appear the lights of
+ten thousand roads." She went to purgatory and purgatory at once changed
+into paradise. Yama, in order to save his purgatory, sent her back to
+the world. She appeared at Puto, an island off the coast of Chekiang
+near Ningpo. Here she rescued sailors and performed many miracles for
+people in distress.
+
+In the meantime the father, who had committed many sins, became sick.
+His allotted time of life had been shortened by twenty years. Moreover,
+an ulcer grew on his body for every one of the five hundred monks he had
+killed when he burned the monastery. A miserable, loathsome old man, he
+came to an old monk, who was really the princess in disguise, and asked
+for help. The monk told him that an eye and an arm of a blood relative
+made into medicine was the only cure for his trouble. The two living
+daughters were willing to make such an offering, but their husbands
+would not permit them to do so. The old monk urged the monarch to take
+up a life of abstinence, to rebuild the monastery he had burned, and to
+provide money for services to take the five hundred monks whom he had
+killed through purgatory. He also said that a nun in the convent would
+offer an arm and an eye. When the monarch entered the monastery, he
+found hanging before the incense burner an arm and an eye. These were
+boiled, mixed with medicine and rubbed on the king's body. He soon
+became well. Further inquiry revealed that these members belonged to his
+daughter.
+
+This is the story of the most popular goddess in China. She is
+worshipped by her devotees on the first and fifteenth of every month, on
+the nineteenth of the sixth month, when she became a Bodhisattva, and on
+the nineteenth of the ninth month, when she put on the necklace. A month
+after marriage every young bride is presented with an image of the
+Goddess of Mercy, an incense-burner and candlesticks.
+
+This goddess is worshipped whenever trouble comes to man or woman. Her
+names signify her willingness to listen to all prayers. She is the "one
+who regards the voice," i.e., prayer; "one who hears the prayers of the
+world;" "one who regards and exists by himself as sovereign;" "the
+ancestor of Buddha who regards prayer;" "one who frees from fear;"
+"Buddha the august king;" "the great white robed scholar;" "great
+compassion and mercy."
+
+_2. Kuan Yin, the Model of Local Mother-Goddesses_
+
+This conception is the creation of the social and religious
+consciousness of the women in China. It reveals their aspirations for
+mercy, compassion, filial piety and for the beauty that crowns a well
+developed character. Such an ideal does not mean that these have been
+realized in all the numerous homes of the Chinese, but it manifests
+their sense of such an ideal to be realized in life and their ardent
+longing for its realization.
+
+Mother-goddesses are found all over China and they have all of them been
+influenced by Kuan Yin. Some of them have originated with actual women
+who were deified after death. Here is the story of one of these
+goddesses who presides over the censer in a small temple in Formosa. She
+was born in the province of Kuangtung. At the age of seven she was
+adopted by a family as the future wife of their eighteen-year-old son.
+One day while crossing a river he was drowned. This was a great blow to
+her. When she was fourteen years old the father of the family died. The
+two women, thus left alone, wept bitterly day and night. The comfort of
+relatives was of little avail. The mother was becoming emaciated with
+grief. The daughter, unable to bear the strain any longer, washed
+herself, burned incense before the ancestral tablet of her betrothed,
+and then took this vow:
+
+"I am willing to remain a virgin, to apply myself to carrying water and
+working at the mortar and to serve my mother-in-law. If I cherish any
+other purpose and change my chastity and obedience, may Heaven slay me
+and earth annihilate me."
+
+When the mother heard this vow she stopped her weeping. Inasmuch as they
+had no uncle to look after them, they worked day and night. A relative
+of her future husband gave her one of his sons as an adopted son. The
+child died after a few months. This was a great grief. Then the mother
+died. The daughter sold her possessions to obtain money for a proper
+burial. She had only a coarse mourning cloth for her dress. After a
+while she adopted a child as her son. When he grew up she found him a
+wife who served her as faithfully as she had served her mother-in-law.
+When she was eighty years old, she dreamed that the golden maid and jade
+messenger of Kuan Yin stood beside her saying: "The court of Heaven has
+ordered you to become a god (shen)." She died soon after this. She said
+of herself:
+
+"Shang Ti took compassion upon me during my life, because with a firm
+heart I kept my chastity and served my mother-in-law with complete
+obedience. Therefore he gave me the office of Kuan Pin. I have performed
+my duties in several places. Now I am transferred to Formosa."
+
+This story and many others like it mirror the moral ideals of the women
+of China in the midst of their struggles for help and light and
+guidance.
+
+_3. Exhortations on Family Virtues_
+
+The Buddhists issue a large number of tracts. These are very commonly
+paid for by devotees who make a vow that, if their parent becomes well,
+they will pay for the printing of several hundred or thousand of these
+tracts for free distribution. In these tracts are usually many stories
+illustrating the rewards of filial piety. The story is told in one of
+them about a Mrs. Chin whose father-in-law being ill was unable to
+sleep for sixty days. His condition grew worse. Mrs. Chin knelt before
+Kuan Yin's altar, cut out a piece of flesh from her arm and cooked it
+with the father's food. His health at once improved and he lived to the
+age of seventy-seven. Another story is told in the same tract of a woman
+who cut out a piece of her liver and gave it as medicine to her
+mother-in-law.
+
+These Buddhist tracts take up all the moral habits which make the family
+and clan strong and stable and surround them by the highest sanctions. A
+tract picked up in a Buddhist temple at Hangchow purports to be the
+revelation of the will of Buddha. It urges sixteen virtues. The first is
+filial piety. The tract says:
+
+"Filial piety is the chief of all virtues. Heaven and Earth honor filial
+piety. There is no greater sin than to cherish unfilial thoughts. The
+spirits know the beginning of such thoughts. Heaven openly rewards a
+heart that is filial."
+
+The second one mentioned is another important family virtue, namely,
+reverence:
+
+"The saints, sages, immortals and Buddhas are the outgrowth of
+reverence. The greatest sin is to lack reverence for father and mother.
+When brothers lack reverence for one another, they harm the hands and
+feet. When husband and wife lack reverence, the harmony of the household
+is ruined. When friends do not have reverence, they bring about
+calamity."
+
+Then follow similar exhortations on sincerity, justice, self-restraint,
+forbearance, benevolence, generosity, absence of pride, covetousness,
+lying, adultery, mutual love, self-denial, hope for the consolations of
+religion and for an undivided heart ruled by peace. These are virtues
+quite essential to the integrity of the family. They are taught, not in
+the abstract but by the exhibition of shining examples, by vivid
+representations of the rewards both here and hereafter, and by pictures
+of awful punishments. So by precept and example, by threat of punishment
+here and hereafter and by declaration of reward in the future Buddhism
+has tried to maintain the family virtues of the Confucian system and has
+attempted to permeate them by the spirit of sacrifice. Still it has
+always been the sacrifice of the weak for the strong, of the young for
+the aged, of the low for the high, of women for men.
+
+_4. Services for the Dead_
+
+Buddhism very early took over the relatively simple services for the
+dead and developed them into an elaborate ritual which made very vivid
+the spiritual universe which Buddhism introduced. In the sixth century a
+service was held in behalf of the father-in-law of Emperor Ning Ti
+(516-528 A. D.) for seven times every seven days. He feasted a thousand
+monks every day, and caused seven persons to become monks. On the
+hundredth day after the death he feasted ten thousand monks and caused
+twenty-seven persons to become monks.
+
+Since that time services on every seventh day after the decease until
+the forty-ninth day, when a grand finale ends the ceremonies, have been
+very popular.
+
+The object of such services is to conduct the soul of the dead through
+purgatory, in order that it may return to life or enter the Western
+Paradise. This is done by making a pleasing offering to the guardians
+and officers of purgatory, and to the gods and Bodhisattvas whose mercy
+saves people. Numerous missives are consigned to the flames, informing
+the rulers of the nether world about the soul of the dead; offerings of
+gold and silver, of various articles of apparel, of trunks, houses, and
+servants are made, all, however, made out of bamboo frames covered with
+paper. Various powerful incantations are recited which force open the
+gates of purgatory and let the soul out.
+
+The services may be crowded into one day or they may be held on every
+seventh day until the forty-ninth day, i.e., seven sevens. Various
+explanations are given' for these services.
+
+During the first week the soul of the dead arrives at the "Demon Gate
+Barrier." Here money is demanded by the demons on the ground that in his
+last transmigration the deceased borrowed money. Accordingly large
+quantities of silver shoes [Footnote: The silver used for this purpose
+is molded, in accordance with ancient usage, in the shape of shoes and
+carried about in that form by merchants.] must be sent to the dead so
+that he may settle all claims and avoid beating and inconvenience.
+During the second week the soul arrives at a place where he is weighed.
+If the evil outweighs the good, the soul is sawn asunder and ground to
+powder. In the third week he comes to the "Bad Dog" village. Here good
+people pass unharmed, but the evil are torn by the fierce beasts until
+the blood flows. In the fourth week the soul is confronted with a large
+mirror in which he sees his evil deeds and their consequences, seeing
+himself degraded in the next transmigration to a beast. In the fifth
+week the soul views the scenes in his own village.
+
+In the sixth week he reaches the bridge which spans the "Inevitable
+River." This bridge is 100,000 feet high and one and three-tenths of an
+inch wide. It is crossed by riding astride as on a horse. Beneath rushes
+the whirl-pool filled with serpents darting their heads to and fro. At
+the foot of the bridge lictors force unwilling travelers to ascend. The
+good do not cross this bridge, but are led by "golden youth" to gold and
+silver bridges which cross the stream on either side of this "Bridge of
+Sighs."
+
+In the seventh week the soul is taken first to Mrs. Wang who dispenses a
+drink which blots out all memories of the earthly life. Then the
+individual enters the great wheel of transmigration. This is divided
+into eighty-one sections from which one hundred and eight thousand small
+and tortuous paths radiate out into the four continents of the world.
+The soul is directed along one of these paths and is duly reborn in the
+world as an animal or as a human being or passes on into the Western
+Paradise.
+
+In imitation of this bridge a bridge is built of tables in front of the
+home of the dead. At the end the tables are placed upside down and a
+lantern placed on each table-leg. At night this bridge is illuminated. A
+company of monks repeat their prayers and incantations, while others
+mount upon the bridge to impersonate devils. The pious son with the
+tablet of his deceased parent comes to take his father over the bridge.
+When his way is disputed by the demons, he falls on his knees and begs
+and gives them money, negotiating the passage at last with the aid of a
+large quantity of silver.
+
+Another ceremony is the breaking through purgatory. Five supplications
+duly signed are addressed to the proper authorities, four being
+suspended at each of the four sides of the table and one at the center.
+Tiles are then placed over the table or on the ground. After
+incantations have been repeated to the accompaniment of the sounding of
+the bell and the wooden fish, the supplications are burned and the tiles
+are broken as a symbol of breaking through purgatory and of releasing
+the soul.
+
+Thus Buddhism has taken over the most important function of ancestor
+worship, has extended it and made it more significant to each individual
+as well as to the family.
+
+
+
+
+VI
+
+
+BUDDHISM AND SOCIAL LIFE
+
+_1. How the Laity is Trained in Buddhist Ideas_
+
+A common way of emphasizing moral ideas among the people by Buddhist
+teachers is the use of tracts purporting to have a divine origin. The
+following gives the substance of such a tract:
+
+Not long ago in the province of Shantung, there was a sharp and sudden
+clap of thunder. After the frightened people had collected their wits,
+they discovered a small book written in red in front of the house of a
+certain Mr. Li. Mr. Li picked up the book, copied it and read it
+reverently. He gave a copy to Mr. Ma, the prefect, but Mr. Ma did not
+believe in the book. Thereupon Maitreya, the Messiah of the Buddhists,
+spoke from the sky as follows:
+
+
+  "These are the years of the final age. The people under
+  heaven do not reverence Heaven and Earth, they are not
+  filial to father and mother, they do not respect their
+  superiors. They cheat the fatherless, impose upon the
+  widow, oppress the weak; they use large weights for
+  themselves and small measures for others. They injure the good.
+  They covet for their own profit. They cheat men of money,
+  use the five grains carelessly, kill the cow that draws the
+  plow. This volume is sent for their special benefit. If
+  they recite it they will avoid trouble. If they disbelieve,
+  the years with the cyclical character _Ping_ and _Ting_ will
+  have fields without men to plant them and houses without
+  men to live in them. In the fifth month of these years
+  evil serpents will infest the whole country. In the eighth
+  and ninth months the bodies of evil men will fill the land.
+
+  "Those who believe this book and propagate its teachings
+  will not encounter the ten sorrows of the age: war,
+  fire, no peace day and night, separation of man and wife,
+  the scattering of the sons and daughters, evil men spread
+  over the country, dead bones unburied, clothing with no
+  one to wear it, rice with no one to eat it, and the difficulty
+  of ever seeing a peaceful year. Sakyamuni foreseeing this
+  final age sent down this volume in Shantung. The Goddess
+  of Mercy saw the sorrows of all living beings.
+  Maitreya commanded the two runners of T'ai Shan, the
+  god of the Eastern Mountain, to investigate the conduct
+  of men and as a first punishment to increase the price of
+  rice, and then besides the ten sorrows already mentioned
+  above, to inflict the punishments of flood, fire, wind,
+  thunder, tigers, snakes, sword, disease, famine and cold.
+  The rule of Sakyamuni which has lasted twelve thousand
+  years is now fulfilled, and Maitreya succeeds to his place."
+
+
+These sorrows may be escaped by reciting this sutra whose substance we
+find above. If it is repeated three times the person will escape the
+calamity of fire and water. If one man passes it on to ten men and ten
+men pass it on to a hundred, they will escape the calamities of sword,
+disease and imprisonment, and receive blessings which cannot be
+measured. He who in addition to repeating the sutra practices abstinence
+will insure peace for himself. He who presents one hundred copies to
+others will insure his personal peace. He who presents a thousand copies
+will insure the peace of his family. He who is attacked by disease, may
+escape it by taking five cash of the reign of Shun Chih (1644-1661 A.
+D.), the first emperor of the Ch'ing dynasty, one mace of the seed of
+cypress, one mace of the bark of mulberry, boil in one bowl of water
+until only eight-tenths of the water remain, drink and he will become
+well.
+
+In this way the five Buddhist commandments for the laity not to kill any
+living creature, not to steal, not to commit adultery, not to lie, and
+not to use intoxicating liquor are propagated and made real to the
+common man. The method is quite efficient. Whole provinces have been put
+into a panic by such prophecies.
+
+_2. Effect of Ideals of Mercy and Universal Love_
+
+The command not to kill any living being has had considerable influence
+in China. There are volumes of stories telling of the punishments which
+will be visited upon those who disobey and of the rewards of those who
+release living animals. Every monastery has a special place for animals
+thus released by pious devotees.
+
+There is a popular story about a fishmonger of the T'ang dynasty who was
+taken sick and during his illness dreamed that he was taken to
+purgatory. His body was aflame with fire and pained him as though he
+were being roasted. Flying fiery chariots with darting flames swept
+around him and burned his body. Ten thousand fish strove with one
+another to get a bite of his flesh. The ruler of the lower regions
+accused him of killing many fish and hence his punishment. For a number
+of days he was hanging between life and death. His relatives were urged
+to perform some works of penance. They had his fishing implements
+burned. With reverent hearts they made two images of Kuan Yin, presented
+offerings and repented. The whole family performed abstinence, stopped
+killing living things, printed and gave away over a hundred copies of
+the Diamond Sutra, and ferried over a large number of souls through
+purgatory. As a result of their efforts the sick man became well.
+
+The following comment was made on the above story by a scholar. If its
+premises are granted, the conclusion is inevitable:
+
+"If the fiery chariots are seal, why does not man see them? If they are
+false, how is it that man feels the pain? But where do the fiery
+chariots come from? They come from the heart and head of the one who
+kills fish. The fire in the heart (heart belongs to the element fire)
+causes destruction. The chariot fire also causes destruction."
+
+This attitude of mercy has been extended to human beings. There are
+numerous tracts against the drowning of little girls in those regions
+where this custom is prevalent. One tells the following story:
+
+In the province of Kwangtung there lived a Mrs. Chang who daily burned
+incense and repeated Buddha's name. One day she and her husband died.
+Much to their surprise and consternation Yama (the potentate of hell)
+decided that Mr. Chang must become a pig and Mrs. Chang a dog. Mrs.
+Chang accordingly went to Yama and said, "During life we honored Buddha
+and so why should we become animals after death?" Yama said, "What use
+is it to honor Buddha? During life you drowned three girls whom I sent
+into life. People with the face of a man and the heart of a beast,
+should they not be punished?" The husband accordingly took on a pig's
+skin and the wife a dog's. Then by a dream they revealed to their
+brother Chang number two that, although they repeated Buddha's name,
+they were not permitted to be reborn as men, because they had drowned
+little girls.
+
+Perhaps the extent of this spirit, of mercy and its possibilities may be
+illustrated by the reverence for the ox. While there is a great deal of
+cruelty in China to animals and men, it is rarely that one sees an ox
+abused. Up to the advent of the foreigner an ox was not killed for meat.
+In many places in China today the slaughter of an ox would bring the
+punishments of the law upon the butcher. No doubt this reverence is due
+to the great Indian reverence for the cow. The law of kindness has been
+extended to other animals, taking the rather spectacular form of
+releasing a few decrepit animals and allowing them to spend their last
+days in a monastery compound. There are many kindly things done in
+China. The dead are buried, the sick are provided with medicine. Every
+year numerous wadded garments are given away to poor people. Various
+groups carrying on a humble ministry of helpfulness have found a real
+inspiration in the ideals held before them in Buddhism, the rewards
+promised and punishments threatened.
+
+_3. Relation to Confucian Ideals_
+
+Why have not these ideals exercised a larger influence in China? The
+answer is quite simple. The activities of the monks have been
+strenuously opposed by the Confucian state system. The philosopher,
+Chang Nan-hsiian, a contemporary of Chu-Hsi, states concisely for us the
+differences betwen Confucianism and Buddhism in his comment on a passage
+in the _Book of Records._
+
+"Strong drink is a thing intended to be-used in offering sacrifices and
+entertaining guests,--such employment of it is what Heaven has
+prescribed. But men by their abuse of such drink come to lose their
+virtue and destroy their persons--such employment of it is what Heaven
+has annexed its terrors to. The Buddhists, hating the use of things
+where Heaven sends down its terrors, put away as well the use of them
+which Heaven has prescribed.
+
+"For instance, in the use of meats and drinks, there is such a thing as
+wildly abusing and destroying the creatures of Heaven. The Buddhists,
+disliking this, confine themselves to a vegetable diet, while we only
+abjure wild abuse and destruction. In the use of clothes, again, there
+is such a thing as wasteful extravagance. The Buddhists, disliking this,
+will have no clothes but those of a dark and sad color, while we only
+condemn extravagance. They, further, through dislike of criminal
+connection between the sexes, would abolish the relation between husband
+and wife, while we denounce only the criminal connection.
+
+"The Buddhists, disliking the excesses to which the evil desires of men
+lead, would put away, along with them, the actions which are in
+accordance with the justice of heavenly principles, while we, the
+orthodox, put away the evil desires of men, whereupon what are called
+heavenly principles are the more brightly seen. Suppose the case of a
+stream of water. The Buddhists, through dislike of its being foul with
+mud, proceed to dam it up with earth. They do not consider that when the
+earth has dammed up the stream, the supply of water will be cut off. It
+is not so with us, the orthodox. We seek only to cleanse away the mud
+and sand, so that the pure water may be available for use. This is the
+difference between the Buddhists and the Learned School." [Footnote:
+_Shu King,_ Pt. V, Bk. X, p. 122.]
+
+This statement reveals at once the opposition of the sect of the Learned
+and the influence which Buddhism exerted upon its members.
+
+Buddhism while enjoying occasional favor from the state was often
+zealously persecuted. In 819 Han Yii issued his celebrated act of
+accusation. In 845 the emperor Wu Tsung issued his decree of
+secularization. At that time 4600 monasteries and 40,000 smaller
+establishments were pulled down and 265,000 monks and nuns were sent
+back to lay life. Their rich lands were confiscated. Under the Ming
+dynasty, as well as under the Ch'ing dynasty, Buddhism enjoyed a
+precarious existence. Whether Buddhism would have improved the moral
+conditions of the Chinese; if it had been given a free hand, is
+difficult to affirm. Still its failure is at least partly due to the
+opposition of Confucian orthodoxy.
+
+_4. The Embodiment of Buddhist Ideals in the Vegetarian sects_
+
+The state persecutions of Buddhism forced it to leave temporarily its
+institutional life and trust itself to the people. These persecutions
+were usually followed by a revival of piety and religion among the
+people. The Buddhist teachers gathered about themselves a large number
+of lay devotees who formed societies which practice religious rites in
+secret. These sects have preserved the genuine Buddhist piety, not only
+in times of persecution, but at times when the Buddhist organization
+under imperial favor was departing from its simplicity.
+
+A number of these sects have continued under different names for several
+centuries. For example, the Tsai Li, a society now enjoying a quiet
+existence in North China, is successor to the White Lotus society. The
+latter started in the fifth century. Its members sought salvation in the
+Pure Land of Amitabha. In the eleventh century it enjoyed imperial
+favor. During the Mongol dynasty it fought against the throne with
+rebels and placed one of its leaders, Chu Yuean-chang, a monk, on the
+throne, who became the founder of the Ming dynasty. The sect was soon
+proscribed and its members persecuted by the government. During the
+Ch'ing dynasty it took part in a rebellion and was ruthlessly
+exterminated. At present it goes under the name of _Tsai Li,_ i.e.,
+within the Li or principles of the three religions. It is a mediator
+among the three religions.
+
+There are thirty-one organizations of this sect in Peking and branches
+throughout North China. The society forbids the use of wine and opium,
+though it does not forbid the use of meat. It usually has a Buddhist
+image, Kuan Yin or some other. It uses Buddhist prayers and
+incantations. The outstanding doctrines held during its long history
+have been the hope of salvation in the Western Heaven of Amitabha, the
+early coming of Maitreya, the Buddhist Messiah, and the large use of
+magic formulas and incantations.
+
+Another sect which embodies Buddhist ideals is the Chin Tan, the sect of
+the philosopher's stone or pill of immortality. Its founder was the
+writer of the Nestorian tablet and so the sect is related to
+Christianity. It exalts the teaching of universal love. This is one of
+several examples of a supposed contact between Buddhism and
+Christianity.
+
+These sects of which the two above are examples are present in all parts
+of China. They obey the five Buddhist commandments for laymen. The
+members spend much time in fasting and prayer, and in the repetition of
+Buddhist books. Their lives as a rule are simple and sincere. They are
+preparing for rebirth in the land of Amitabha, or are expecting the
+early coming of the Buddhist Messiah to set this world right. In the
+meantime, by means of incantations, personal regimen and cooperative
+action they are doing all they can to usher in a better state.
+
+_5. Pilgrimages_
+
+Pilgrimages are very popular in China. The famous Buddhist shrines are
+Wu T'ai Shan in Shansi, Puto on the coast of Chekiang, Chiu Hua Shan in
+Anhwei, and Omei Shan in Szechuan. These, one on each side of China,
+represent the four elements of Buddhist science, wind, water, fire and
+earth. They are also the centers of the worship of the four great
+Bodhisattvas, Wenshu, Kuan Yin, Titsang and Puhsien. Besides these large
+centers there are many others to which pilgrims direct their footsteps.
+
+In the spring of the year, when the god of spring covers the earth with
+a green mantle, when the sky and winds call, many start on their
+pilgrimage. Many go singly and laboriously, kneeling and bowing every
+few steps. Others go in happy companies, chaperoned by a pious, village
+dame, who has organized the group. Some go because their turn has come.
+They are members of a guild which has a fund devoted to pilgrimages by
+its members. Some go for the performance of a vow made to Kuan Yin, when
+the father was sick unto death and the goddess prolonged his life. To
+others it is the culmination of a pious life. All go for the joy which
+travel in the spring gives.
+
+Puto, an island off the coast of Chekiang, is the goal of many pilgrims
+from all parts of China. In, the monasteries on the island are about two
+thousand monks. In the pilgrim season this number is increased to ten
+thousand monks and thousands of lay pilgrims.
+
+A group of pilgrims was going along merrily. The sun was bright,
+lighting up the white caps on the deep blue sea. Spring was rioting all
+about. One member was an abbot from Hangchow. A small, humble-looking
+man with a few straggling long hairs where the mustache usually grows,
+was a lay Buddhist from Wuchang. One was a bright young monk from
+Tientsin. Last, but almost omnipresent and always bubbling over, was a
+servant of the abbot from Hangchow. He was in the presence of divinity
+and his whole life was heightened for the time being. "Why did you
+come!" they were asked. "We came to worship the holy mother, Kuan Yin."
+When they entered a shrine each purchased three sticks, of incense and
+two candles and reverently placed them before the image of the goddess,
+kneeling and bowing. Then they sat and partook of the tea offered by the
+attendant. After paying a small gratuity, they went on to the next
+shrine.
+
+On the way a large black snake as thick as an arm lazily crossed over
+the road. They stood, reverent and awestruck, until he disappeared in
+the grass, remarking that this was a good omen. When crossing a sand
+dune piled up by the winds the abbot from Hangchow remarked that this
+was called the flying sand, wafted there by the goddess who took pity on
+some travelers who had been compelled to cross a narrow strait in order
+to come to a cave. This cave, called Fan Yin Tung, is one of the rifts
+made by an earthquake and washed out by wind and waves. Below it rushes
+the tide; from above the sun sends down a few rays. Each pilgrim after
+offering incense looks into the darkness to see whether he can behold in
+the dark cavern an image of some Buddha. One sees Kuan Yin and is
+acclaimed as having had a good vision. Another sees the Laughing Buddha.
+All exclaim that he has been the most fortunate of all, for this Buddha
+is the Messiah to come and he who beholds him will be blessed. So from
+place to place they wander, chatting and seeing the sights of the
+island. Thus thousands are doing in various parts of China, and in this
+way strengthening the hold of Buddhism upon themselves and their
+communities.
+
+
+
+
+VII
+
+
+BUDDHISM AND THE FUTURE LIFE
+
+Before the advent of Buddhism the Chinese had only a vague idea
+regarding life after death. The Land and Water Classic mentions the Tu
+Shuo mountain in the Eastern Sea, under which spirits of the dead live,
+the entrance guarded by two spirits, Shen Tu and Yue Lei, who are in
+general control of the demons. In some parts of China the names or
+pictures, of these spirits are placed on the doors of a house to guard
+it. The Taoists early developed the idea of a western paradise presided
+over by the Queen of the West, located at first in the K'un Lun
+mountains and later in the islands of the Eastern Sea. This heaven,
+however, was limited to Taoist hermits and mystics. Buddhism made a
+complete purgatory and heaven known to every one in China.
+
+_1. The Buddhist Purgatory_
+
+This is really Buddhism's most noteworthy addition to China's religious
+equipment; Buddhism lays much stress upon the experiences of a soul
+immediately after death. Its punishments are well known to every
+individual. The temple of the City Guardian found in every walled city
+has a replica of the court in purgatory over which he presides. In the
+temples of T'ai Shan there is an elaborate exhibit of the tortures
+inflicted on culprits in purgatory. Every funeral service conducted by
+Buddhists or Taoists is intended to conduct the soul of the dead through
+purgatory and pictures vividly the progressive experiences from the
+first seventh day to the seventh seventh day. On the the seventh month,
+on the fifteenth day [about August] a special service is held for the
+souls of the dead in purgatory. Furthermore, every community has a
+general service [about October] for the souls of those who died a
+violent death or who have no one to look after them. During the war many
+services were thus held for those who died on the battlefields of
+Europe. At such services the scenes in purgatory are vividly portrayed
+by pictures and figures. The temples distribute tracts with pictures of
+purgatory so that women may see them and understand. On the stage are
+often acted powerful plays whose scenes are laid in Hades. This
+propaganda is perhaps the most efficient of its kind.
+
+Purgatory is depicted as consisting of ten courts each surrounded by
+small hells, where the soul undergoes punishment and cleansing. The
+fifth court, which may be taken as an example of the other courts, is in
+charge of Yen Lo or Yama. Yama was once in charge of the first court,
+but his tender heart pitied the souls who came before him and sent them
+back to earth. Because of this leniency he was placed in charge of the
+fifth court.
+
+When a soul has passed through the first four courts and it has been
+discovered that there is no good conduct to its credit, it is led to the
+fifth court and examined every seven days regarding past conduct. In
+order to get back to the world of men, it eagerly promises to complete
+various unfinished vows, such as to repair monasteries, schools,
+bridges, or roads, to clean wells, to deepen rivers, to distribute good
+books, to release animals, to take care of aged parents, or to bury them
+suitably. But it is plainly told that the gods know its artifices, and
+that now these unfinished tasks can never be completed. The gods have
+reached the unanimous opinion that no injustice is being done.
+Accordingly there is no appeal, but each soul is led by attendants with
+bulls' heads and horses' faces to a tower whence they may see their
+native village. Its front is in the shape of a bow with a perimeter of
+twenty-seven miles; its height is four hundred and ninety feet. It is
+guarded by walls of sword trees.
+
+Good men, whose deeds of omission are balanced by the good they have
+done, return to life. Only souls judged to be evil see their village
+from this tower. These can see their own families moving about, and can
+hear their conversation. They realize how they disobeyed the teachings
+of their elders. They see that the earthly goods for which they have
+struggled are of no value. Their plottings rise up with lurid reality.
+They see how they planned a new marriage although already married, how
+they appropriated fields, state property, and falsified accounts,
+putting the blame on persons who were dead. While they observe their
+village they behold their erstwhile friends touch their coffin and
+inwardly rejoice. They hear themselves called selfish and insincere. But
+their punishment does not stop here. They behold their children punished
+by magistrates, their women afflicted with strange diseases, their
+daughters ravished, their sons led astray, their property taken away,
+the ancestral house burned and their business ruined. From this tower
+all passes before them as a lurid dream and they are stricken in heart.
+
+About the fifth court are sixteen small hells where the soul is
+punished. In each one are stakes buried in the ground and fierce
+animals. The hands and feet of the guilty one are bound to a stake, his
+body is opened with small knives, and his heart and intestines quickly
+devoured.
+
+In each of these sixteen hells is a certain type of sinner: (1) Those
+who do not reverence the gods and demons and who doubt the existence of
+rewards and punishments; (2) those who hurt and kill living beings; (3)
+those who break their vows to do good; (4) those who resort to heterodox
+practices and vainly hope to attain eternal life; (5) those who upbraid
+good men, fear the wicked and hate men because they do not die speedily;
+(6) those who strive with other people and then put the blame upon them;
+(7) men who force women; and women who seduce young men, and all who
+have libidinous desires; (8) those who gain profit for themselves by
+injuring others; (9) the stingy and those who absolutely disregard
+others, whether alive or dead, giving them no help in dire need, when
+they can do so without injury to themselves; (10) those who steal and
+put the crime upon others; (11) those who requite favors with hate; (12)
+those whose hearts are perverse and poisonous, who instigate others to
+do wrong even if they may not have carried out their suggestion; (13)
+those who tempt others by deceit; (14) those who involve others in their
+squabbles and in gambling and then themselves win out; (15) those who
+stubbornly persist in their false ideas, do not repent, and slander
+others; (16) those who hate good and virtuous men.
+
+Besides these sixteen sorts of sinners the fifth court deals with other
+types of wicked people; those who do not believe in rewards and
+punishments after death, who hinder good causes, who burn incense
+without a sincere heart, speak of the sins of others, who burn books
+that urge men to be good and worship the Great Dipper, but persist in
+eating meat; those who hate men; who repeat sutras and incantations, and
+take part in religious ceremonies, but do not fast beforehand; who
+slander the Buddhist and Taoist religions; who know how to read, but
+refuse to read the ancient and modern exhortations regarding rewards and
+punishments; who dig into graves and destroy their marks, who purposely
+set fire to trees and underbrush, or are careless with fire in their own
+houses; who shoot arrows at animals with the intent, to kill; who urge
+and tempt the sick and weak to enter into contests of any kind with
+themselves; who throw tiles and stones over neighboring walls, poison
+fish in the river, fire guns, or make nets or traps for birds; who sow
+salt on the ground, who do not bury dead eats and snakes very deep and
+thus cause death to those who dig; who cause men to dig the frozen
+ground in winter or spring (the vapors of earth chill such diggers to
+death); who tear down adjoining walls and compel their neighbors to move
+the kitchen stove; who appropriate public highways, lands, close wells
+and stop gutters.
+
+Those who have committed any of the above sins are taken, to the tower
+whence they can see their own village and then are consigned to the
+great crying hell, Raurava, that is, the fourth of the Buddhist hot
+hells. [Footnote: Buddhism distinguishes hot and cold hells. In a
+country like India severe cold is a serious torture.] Thence they go to
+their respective small hells. When their time has expired, they are
+examined in order to see whether they have any other sins which need
+punishment.
+
+Those who have committed any of the above sins may not only escape
+punishment, but may have their punishment in the sixth court lessened,
+if they fast regularly on the eighth day of the first month and take a
+vow not to commit these sins. Some sins, however, cannot be arranged for
+in such a way, such as the killing of living beings and hurting them;
+the associating with heretics; committing fornication with women and
+then poisoning them; committing adultery, violence, envy, or injuring
+the good name of others; stealing, requiting favors with hatred, and
+hearing exhortation but not repenting. These are major sins.
+
+_2. Its Social Value_
+
+The social value of purgatory is quite plain from the description of the
+fifth court and of the sinners who are punished therein. Purgatory is
+the social mirror of China, wherein the consequences of all unsocial
+acts are pictured in such a vivid way as to deter the individual from
+committing them. It is effective in China, not only because of the
+realistic presentation, but because the opinion of the community is
+against such acts and in favor of repressing them on every occasion.
+
+_3. The Buddhist Heaven._
+
+Buddhism brought into China not only a fully developed purgatory but
+also a heaven which all may enter. The sovereign of the western heaven
+is Amitabha (or in Chinese O-mi-to-fo), with whom Kuan Yin, the goddess
+of Mercy, is usually associated. Amitabha is explained as meaning
+"boundless age." The original meaning is "boundless light," which
+suggests a Persian origin with Mannichean influences. The translations
+of the Amitabha sutras were wholly made by natives of central Asia.
+
+Amitabha is one of the thousand Buddhas; he is regarded as the reflex of
+Sakyamuni and is connected also in his earthly incarnation with a monk
+called Dharmakara. This monk desired to become a Buddha. This wish he
+presented to Lokes'vararaja asking him to teach him as to what a Buddha
+and a Buddha country ought to be. Lokes'vararaja imparted this
+knowledge. Then the monk after meditation returned having made
+forty-eight vows that he would not become a Buddha, until all living
+beings should attain salvation in his heaven.
+
+The eighteenth vow expresses his ideal:
+
+"O Bhagavat, if those beings who have directed their thought towards the
+highest perfect knowledge in other worlds, and who, after having heard
+my name, when I have obtained Bodhi (knowledge), have meditated on me
+with serene thoughts; if at the moment of their death, after having
+approached them surrounded by an assembly of monks, I should not stand
+before them worshipped by them, that is, so that their thoughts should
+not be troubled, then may I not obtain the highest perfect knowledge."
+
+A few extracts from the _Amitabha Vyuha Sutra_ will illustrate the
+Buddhist idea of life in this Pure Land:
+
+"In the western region beyond one hundred thousand myriads of Buddhist
+lands there is a world. Great Happiness by name. This land has a Buddha
+called Amitabha. The living beings there do not suffer any pain, but
+enjoy all happiness. Therefore, it is called the land of Pure Delight
+... the land of Pure Delight has seven precious fountains full of water
+containing the eight virtues. The bottom of these fountains is covered
+with golden sand. On four sides there are steps made of gold, silver,
+crystal and glass, precious stones, red pearls, and highly polished
+agates. In the pools are variously colored, light emitting lotus flowers
+as large as cart wheels, delicate, admirable, odorous and pure..."
+
+"The Buddha of this land makes heavenly music. It is covered with gold.
+Morning and evening during six hours it rains the wonderful celestial
+flowers (Erythrina Indica). All the inhabitants of this land on clear
+mornings after dressing offer these celestial flowers to the hundred
+thousand myriads of Buddhas of the regions who return to their country
+at meal time. When they have eaten they go away again."
+
+"This country possesses every kind of wonderful varicolored birds, the
+white egret, the peacock, the parrot, the s'rarika (a long legged bird),
+the Kalavingka (a sweet voiced bird) ... All these birds, morning and
+evening during the six hours, utter forth a beautiful harmonious sound.
+Their song produces the five _indrya_ (roots of faith, energy,
+memory, ecstatic meditation, wisdom), the five _bala_ (the powers
+of faith, energy, memory, meditation and wisdom), the seven
+_bodhyanga_ (the seven degrees of intelligence, memory,
+discrimination, energy, tranquillity, ecstatic contemplation,
+indifference), and the eight portions of the correct path _marga,_
+(the possession of correct views, decision and purity of thought and
+will, the ability of reproducing any sound uttered in the universe, vow
+of poverty, asceticism, attainment of meditative abstraction of
+self-control, religious recollectedness, honesty and virtue), and such
+doctrines. When all beings of this land have heard the music, they
+declare their faithfulness to the Buddha, Dharma and the Sangha (the
+Buddha, the Law and the community of monks)."
+
+As to those who enter this land it says:
+
+"All living beings who hear this should make a vow to be born in that
+land. How can they reach the Pure Land? All very good men will gather in
+that place ... He whose blessedness and virtue are great can be born
+into that country. If there is a good man or woman who, on hearing of
+Amitabha, takes this name and holds it in his mind one, two, three,
+four, five, six, or seven days, and his whole heart is not distracted,
+to that man at death Amitabha will appear. His heart will not be
+disturbed. He will at once enter into life in the land of Pure Delight
+of Amitabha. I see this blessing and hence utter these words. Those
+living beings who hear these words should make a vow to be born in that
+land."
+
+_4. The Harmonization of These Ideas with Ancestor Worship_
+
+The extension of life beyond the grave in purgatory, or in the Pure Land
+and through transmigration was readily accepted in China. Both the new
+ideas and the disciplines through which to realize them were eagerly
+adopted, and have held their place to this day. In other lands the
+creation of a heaven and a hades has weakened the grip of ancestor
+worship and ultimately displaced it. In China the opposite result has
+obtained, due, no doubt, to the fact that the family system and along
+with it the supreme duty of filial piety were fostered by the state and
+Buddhism and its teachings were permitted only in so far as they
+bolstered it up. Another reason lies in the agricultural basis of
+China's civilization, reenforced by the great difficulty of
+communication, which tended to make the family system dominant in China.
+Today, the improvement of communication and the introduction of the
+industrial system of the West with the individual emphasis of modern
+education are factors which are weakening the family system and with it
+ancestral worship.
+
+
+
+
+VIII
+
+
+THE SPIRITUAL VALUES EMPHASIZED BY BUDDHISM IN CHINA
+
+Near the House of Parliament in Peking is located a small monastery
+dedicated to the goddess of Mercy, Kuan Yin. Before her image the
+incense burners send forth curling clouds of smoke. The walls are
+decorated with old paintings of gods and goddesses. The temple with its
+courtyard has the appearance of prosperity. Its neat reception room,
+with its tables, chairs and clock, shows the influence of the modern
+world.
+
+Here a monk in the prime of life spent a few months recently lecturing
+on Buddhism to members of parliament and to scholars from various parts
+of China. Frequently the writer used to drop in of an afternoon to
+discuss Buddhism and its outlook. Usually a simple repast concluded
+these conversations, the substance of which forms the greater part of
+this section.
+
+_1. The Threefold Classification of Men Under Buddhism_
+
+"What does Buddhism do for men?"
+
+"There are in the world at least three classes of men. The lowest class
+live among material things, they are occupied with possessions. Their
+life is entangled in the crude and coarse materials which they regard as
+real. A second, higher class, regard ideas as realities. They are not
+entangled in the maze of things, but are confused by ideas, ascribing
+reality to them. The third and highest class are those who by meditation
+have freed themselves from the thraldom of ideas and can enter the
+sixteen heavens."
+
+_2. Salvation for the Common Man_
+
+"What can Buddhism do for the lowest class?"
+
+"For this class Buddhism has the ten prohibitions. Every man has in him
+ten evils, which must be driven out. Three have to do with evil in the
+body, namely, not to steal, not to kill, not to commit adultery; four
+belong to the mouth, lying, exaggeration, abuse, and ambiguous talk;
+three belong to the mind, covetousness, malice, and unbelief."
+
+"Is not this entirely negative?"
+
+"Yes, but it is necessary, for during the process of eliminating these
+evil deeds, man acquires patience and equanimity. Buddhism does not stop
+with the prohibitions. The believer must practice the ten charitable
+deeds. Not only must he remove the desire to kill living beings, but he
+must cultivate the desire to save all beings. Not only must he not
+steal, but he must assist men with his money. Not only must he not give
+himself to lasciviousness, but he must treat all men with propriety. So
+each prohibition involves a positive impulse to virtue, which is quite
+as essential as the refraining from evil."
+
+"What energizing power does Buddhism provide?"
+
+"First, is purgatory with its terrors. The evil man, seeing the
+consequences of his acts upon himself, becomes afraid to do them and
+does that which is good. Then there is transmigration with the danger of
+transmigration into beasts and insects. Again, there are the rewards in
+the paradise of Amitabha. Moreover, there is even the possibility not
+only of saving one's self, but by accumulated merit of saving one's
+parents and relatives and shortening their stay in purgatory."
+
+_3. The Place of Faith_
+
+"Can any man enter the western paradise of Amitabha?"
+
+"Yes, it is open to all men. The sutra says: 'If there be any one who
+commits evil deeds, and even completes the ten evil actions, the five
+deadly sins and the like; that man, being himself stupid and guilty of
+many crimes, deserves to fall into a miserable path of existence and
+suffer endless pains during many long ages. On the eve of death he may
+meet a good and learned teacher who, soothing and encouraging him in
+various ways, will preach to him the excellent Law and teach him the
+remembrance of Buddha, but being harassed by pains', he will have no
+time to think of Buddha.'"
+
+"What hope has such a man?"
+
+"Even such a man has hope. The sutra says: 'Some good friend will say to
+him: Even if thou canst not exercise the remembrance of Buddha, utter
+the name of Buddha Amitabha.' Let him do so serenely with his voice
+uninterrupted; let him be (continually) thinking of Buddha, until he has
+completed ten times the thought, repeating 'Namah O-mi-to-fo,' I put my
+trust in Buddha! On the strength of (his merit of) uttering Buddha's
+name he will, during every repetition expiate the sins which involve him
+in births and deaths during eighty millions of long ages. He will, while
+dying, see a golden lotus-flower, like the disk of the sun, appearing
+before his eyes; in a moment he will be born in the world of highest
+happiness. After twelve greater ages the lotus-flower will unfold;
+thereupon the Bodhisattvas, Avalokitesvaras and Mahasattva's, raising
+their voices in great compassion, will preach to him in detail the real
+state of all the elements of nature and the law of the expiation of
+sins."
+
+"Does faith save such a man?"
+
+"Yes, not his own faith, but the faith which prompted the vow of
+Amitabha. Amitabha's faith in the possibility of his salvation gives him
+supreme confidence that he will attain salvation. All he needs is to
+have the desire to be born in that paradise and to repeat the name of
+Amitabha."
+
+_4. Salvation of the Second Class_
+
+"How do those of the second class attain salvation?"
+
+"The men of the second class regard ideas as realities. They are not
+entangled in the maze of things, but are confused by ideas, regarding
+them as real. These men do not need images and outward sanctions, but
+they need heaven and purgatory though regarding them as ideas. By
+performing the ten good deeds they will obtain a quiet heart, having no
+fear, and become saints and sages. Among men, saints and sages occupy a
+high rank, but not so among Buddhists. By merit of good works merely
+they enter the planes of sensuous desire, the six celestial worlds
+located immediately above the earth."
+
+_5. Salvation for the Highest Class_
+
+"And the third class?"
+
+"This class has many ranks. There are those who by the practice of
+meditation (four _dkyanas_) [Footnote: Dhyana means contemplation.
+In later times under the influence of the idea of transmigration heavens
+were imagined which corresponded to the degrees of contemplation.] can
+enter the sixteen heavens conditioned by form. By the practice of the
+four _arupa-dhyanas_ [Footnote: That degree of abstract
+contemplation from which all sensations are absent.] they enter the four
+highest heavens free from all sensuous desires and not conditioned by
+form. These heavens are the anteroom of Nirvana."
+
+"What is the driving power in all this?"
+
+"It is _virya_ or energy."
+
+_6. Heaven and Purgatory_
+
+"Do heaven and purgatory exist?"
+
+"Heaven and purgatory are in the minds and hearts of men. Really heaven
+is in the mind of Amitabha and purgatory exists in the illusioned brains
+of men."
+
+"Does anything exist?"
+
+"Nagarjuna says: 'There is no production, no destruction, no
+annihilation, no persistence, no unity, no plurality, no coming in and
+no going forth.'"
+
+_7. Sin_
+
+"Does sin exist?"
+
+"In the mind of the real Buddhist sin and virtue are different aspects
+of the all. Sin is illusion; virtue is illusion, There is a higher unity
+in which they are reconciled."
+
+_8. Nirvana_
+
+_"Do you know of any one who attained Nirvana?"_
+
+"Yes, I have experienced it. It is not a state beyond the grave. It is a
+state into which one can enter here."
+
+"Can you express this experience in words?"
+
+"Impossible. I can only indicate the shore of this great ocean. At first
+I was in great distress and agony, as though carrying the illusions of
+the world. Then came a great peace and calm, ineffable, serene, and
+surpassing the power of language to express."
+
+_9. The Philosophical Background_
+
+"What is behind this universe!"
+
+"Underlying this universe of phenomena and change there is a unity. It
+is the basis of all being. It is within all being and all being rests in
+it. It is because of this common background that men are able to
+apprehend it. This universal basis we call _dharma,_ or law. Its
+characteristics are that everything born grows old, is subject to
+disease and death; that the teachings of Buddha purify the mind and
+enable it to obtain supreme enlightenment; that all Buddhas by treading
+the same way of perfection will attain the highest freedom."
+
+"You speak of the Buddhist Trinity."
+
+"Yes, we have the Dharmakaya. This is the essence-body, the ground of
+all being, taking many forms, Buddhas, Bodhisattvas, spirits, angels,
+men and even demons. It is impersonal, all-pervasive. It may be called
+the first person. The second person is the Sambhogakaya, the body of
+bliss. This is the heavenly manifestation of Buddha. The third person is
+the Nirmanakaya. This is the projection of the body of bliss on earth."
+
+Some identify this trinity with that of the Christian faith. While there
+is a resemblance, we should note that the first person of the Buddhist
+trinity would correspond to God as the absolute or the impersonal
+background of universal Being. The second corresponds to the glorified
+Christ and the third to the historic Jesus. There is no counterpart
+either to God the Father or to the Holy Spirit.
+
+"Do you believe in the salvation of all beings?"
+
+"Yes, all have the Buddha heart. All living beings will finally become
+Buddhas."
+
+Then turning to a friend of mine the speaker said: "What have you done
+in Buddhism?" The friend answered: "I have written and translated many
+books." "I do not mean that," he answered. "What _work_ have you
+done?" The friend confessed that he had not done much else. Then he
+said: "Every morning when you awake, reflect deeply and profoundly upon
+your state before you were born. Think back to that state where your
+soul was merged with Buddha. Find yourself in that state and you will
+find ineffable enlightenment and joy."
+
+The sun was setting behind the Western hills. The blare of trumpets
+sounded on the city wall. Outside of the door was the whirling sound of
+Peking returning home from its mundane tasks and joys. We joined the
+rushing, restless crowd and still we felt the calm of another world. Has
+not Christianity a message of balm and peace for these sons of the East
+who are so sensitive to the touch of the eternal and sublime?
+
+_10. What Buddhism Has to Give_
+
+An important government official obliged to deal with many vexatious
+requests and demands declared: "I could not get through my day's work,
+if I did not spend an hour every day in meditation, just as Buddha did
+when he became enlightened." He was asked what he did when he meditated
+or prayed. "Nothing at all." "Well, about what do you think?" "Of
+nothing at all. I stop thinking when I engage in religious meditation.
+Life makes me think too much. I should lose my sanity, if I did not stop
+thinking and enter into the 'void', whence we all came and into which we
+all are going to drop back."
+
+His Christian inquirer still was unsatisfied by the Buddhist's
+description of his prayer life, and pressed further for details. "What
+happens when you meditate or pray?"
+
+"Nothing happens, I tell you, except, that I experience a peace which
+the passing world cannot give and which the passing world cannot
+altogether take away. The secret of religion is simply to realize that
+everything is passing away. When you accept that fact, then you become
+really free. The Christian world seemed to have been tremendously
+impressed by the slogan of the French soldiers at Verdun, 'They shall
+not pass!' Perhaps the German soldiers did not pass just then or there.
+But the French soldiers themselves are all passing away. And everything
+in the world is passing away. What our Buddhist religion teaches us is:
+'Let it pass!' You cannot keep anything for very long. And prayer or
+meditation is simply to practice yourself in that thought deliberately.
+Oh, it is a wonderful peace when you fully believe that gospel, and
+enter into it every day. Vanity of vanities, everything is vanity! Why
+worry? We do altogether too much worrying. To pray means simply to quit
+worrying, to quit thinking, to enter into the indescribably passionless
+peace of Nirvana."
+
+Here seemed to be an ardent Buddhist. When asked what he thought as the
+difference between a Buddhist and a Christian, he answered promptly:
+
+"Yes, there is my wife. She is a very good woman. All the neighbors come
+to her, when there is any one sick or in trouble. So I say to her:
+'Wife, I should think you would make a first-class Christian.' But I
+think she lets herself be worried by altogether too many troubles. She
+is all the time thinking and fussing and planning. To be sure, it is
+mostly about other people, But then she does have the children and the
+house and the relatives and friends and neighbors to look after. Perhaps
+she really cannot be a Buddhist. Perhaps it is all a matter of
+temperament. Oh, but I tell you it is great to be a Buddhist, because it
+gives you such a wonderful peace."
+
+
+
+
+IX
+
+
+PRESENT-DAY BUDDHISM:
+
+_1. Periods of Buddhist History_
+
+The history of Buddhism in China may be divided into four periods.
+Buddhism entered China, as we have seen, in the second century B.C. The
+first period, that of the translation and propagation of the faith,
+ended in 420 A.D. The second period, that of interpenetration, lasted to
+the beginning of the T'ang dynasty, 618 A.D. The third, the period of
+establishment, ended with the close of the five dynasties, in 960 A.D.
+The fourth period, that of decay, has extended to the present day.
+
+_2. The Progress of the Last Twenty-five Years_
+
+There are signs of a revival of Buddhism in China. Whether this is a
+tide, or a wave, only the future can reveal. In 1893 Dharmapala, an
+Indian monk, stopped in Shanghai on his way back from the Congress of
+Religions in Chicago. It was his purpose to make a tour of China, to
+arouse the Chinese Buddhists to send missionaries to India to restore
+Buddhism there, and then to start a propaganda throughout the whole
+world. He addressed the monks of Shanghai. Dr. Edkins, the veteran
+missionary, acted as his interpreter. Dharmapala was surrounded by a
+horde of curious monks who were more interested in his strange
+appearance and in the cost of his garments than they were in his great
+ideals. They were also feeling the iron heel of the Confucian government
+and at once inquired about the attitude of the government toward such an
+innovation. Dharmapala did not go beyond Shanghai.
+
+Japanese Buddhists, especially the members of the Hongwanji sect, have
+taken a deep interest in Chinese Buddhists. Count Otani once visited the
+chief monasteries of China. Numerous Japanese Buddhists have made such
+visits. In 1902, the Empress Dowager, fired by a reforming zeal, decided
+to confiscate Buddhist property and to use the proceeds for the spread
+of modern education. The Buddhist monasteries put themselves under the
+protection of Japanese monks in order to hold their property. When by
+1906 the Empress Dowager saw the consequences of her edict, she at once
+issued a new edict, reversing the former one, and the Japanese monks
+took their departure.
+
+The Japanese Buddhists have been fired by missionary zeal for China. In
+many of the large cities of China are the temples of the Hongwanji sect.
+Established primarily for the Japanese, these temples are intended to
+serve as points of departure for a nation-wide missionary work. The
+twenty-one demands made upon China included two significant items in the
+last group which the Chinese refused to sign: "Art. 2: Japanese
+hospitals, churches and schools in the interior of China shall be
+granted the right of owning land." "Art. 7: China agrees that Japanese
+subjects shall have the right of missionary propaganda in China."
+
+Under Japanese influence there was established in 1907 at Nanking, under
+the leadership of Yang, a lay Buddhist devotee, a school for the
+training of Buddhist missionaries. The students were to go to Japan for
+further training, and the more promising ones were to study in India.
+This project was discontinued after the death of Yang on account of the
+lack of funds.
+
+When the republic was established Buddhism felt a wave of reform. The
+monasteries established schools for monks and children. A magazine was
+published which appeared irregularly for several numbers and then
+stopped. A national organization was formed with headquarters at Peking.
+A survey of monasteries was begun. The activities in lecturing and
+propaganda were increased, but Yuan Shih-kai issued twenty-seven
+regulations for the control of Buddhist monasteries, which markedly
+dampened the ardor of the reformers.
+
+The world war which accentuated the spirit of nationalism had the added
+effect of stirring up Buddhist enthusiasm. There are at present signs of
+new activity among them in China.
+
+_3. Present Activities_
+
+While Buddhism may be standing still or even dying in certain parts of
+China, it is showing signs of new life in the provinces of Kiangsu and
+Chekiang and in the large cities. Such revival in centers subject to the
+influence of the modern world shows that Buddhism in China as in Japan
+has sufficient vitality to adjust itself to modern conditions. Let us
+consider some of these activities.
+
+_(a) The Reconstruction of Monasteries._--During the T'ai Ping
+rebellion, which devastated China in 1850-1865, the monasteries suffered
+with the towns. Not only were the monasteries burned to the ground, but
+their means of support were taken away and the monks were scattered.
+There are still many of these ruined monasteries in the Yangtze valley
+and in southern and western China. Quite a number of them have been
+rebuilt. Perhaps the most notable example is that at Changchow which was
+destroyed during the rebellion. Today it is the largest monastery in
+China, having about two thousand monks. In Fukien several new
+monasteries have been built in the last few decades. In the provinces of
+Chekiang and Kiangsu, in the large cities and about Peking there are
+building activities, showing that the monasteries are feeling a new wave
+of prosperity.
+
+T'ai Hsu, one of the leaders' of modern Buddhism, is holding up an ideal
+program for Buddhism in this time of reconstruction. He proposes that
+there should be 576 central monasteries, 4608 preaching places, 72
+Buddhist hospitals and 72 orphanages.
+
+_(b) Accessions._--Regarding the number of monks it is almost
+impossible to obtain any reliable figures. A conservative estimate,
+based upon partial returns, makes the number of monks about 400,000 and
+that of nuns about 10,000. The impression among the Buddhists is that
+the number of monks is increasing. That is quite probable in view of the
+rebuilding and repairing which is now in progress.
+
+More significant is the number of accessions from the learned class.
+Many officials, disheartened by the present confused political
+situation, have sought refuge in the monasteries. Some of them are now
+abbots of monasteries and are using their influence to build them up.
+All over China there are Confucian scholars who are giving themselves to
+the study of Buddhism and to meditation. Some of the Chinese students
+who have studied in Buddhist universities in Japan are propagating
+Buddhism by lecture and pen.
+
+_(c) Publications._--Quite as significant is the increase in the
+publication of Buddhist literature of all kinds. Many of the monasteries
+have printing departments where they publish the sutras needed for their
+own use. In addition, there are eight or more publishing centers where
+Buddhist literature is printed. The most famous are Yang's establishment
+at Nanking, the Buddhist Press in Yangchow and that in Peking. In these
+establishments about nine hundred different works are being published.
+The most noteworthy recent publication has been that of the Chinese
+Buddhist Tripitaka in Shanghai.
+
+Among these publications are a few modern issues. The Chung Hua Book
+Company has published several works on Buddhism. Other books have been
+issued for the sake of harmonizing Buddhism with western science and
+philosophy. In this enterprise Japanese influence is visible. In 1921 a
+Shanghai press published a dictionary of Buddhist terms containing 3302
+pages, based on the Japanese Dictionary of Buddhism. Other works also
+show the influence of Japanese scholarship.
+
+Among the publications have appeared two magazines. One published at
+Ningpo, is called "New Buddhism." This is struggling and may have to
+succumb. The other is known as the "Sound of the Sea Tide," now
+published in Hankow. Moreover, in all the large cities there are
+Buddhist bookshops where only Buddhist works are sold. These all report
+a good business. This literary activity reveals an interest among the
+reading classes of China. Few such books are purchased by the monks. The
+Chinese scholars read them for their style and for their deep
+philosophy, but also for light and for help in the present distracting
+political situation of their country.
+
+_(d) Lectures._--Along with publication goes the spread of Buddhism
+by lectures in the monasteries and the cities of China. A few years ago
+Buddhist sermons, however serious, were only listened to by monks and by
+a few pious devotees. Today such addresses are advertised and are
+usually well attended by the intellectuals. Often many women are found
+listening. Monks like T'ai Hsue and Yuan Ying have a national reputation.
+Not only monks, but laymen trained in Japan are delivering lectures on
+the Buddhist sutras. The favorites are the Awakening of Faith and the
+Suddharma Pundarika sutra.
+
+_(e) Buddhist Societies._--With the lectures goes the organization
+of Buddhist societies for all sorts of purposes. There is a central
+society in Peking which has branches in every province. The connection
+is rather loose. Buddhism has never been in favor of centralization. Nor
+for that matter would the government have allowed it. The chief ends
+aimed at by these societies are fellowship, devotion, study,
+propagation, and service. Such societies, often short lived, are
+springing up in many quarters. They meet for lectures on Buddhism or to
+conduct a study class in some of the sutras. Occasionally the more
+ambitious conduct an institute for several months. Some spend part of
+the time in meditation together. Several schools for children are
+supported by these societies. They also encourage work of a religious
+nature among prisoners, distributing tracts and holding services. Such
+activities are especially appreciated by those who are to suffer the
+death penalty. The societies are also doing publishing work. The two
+magazines are supported by the members of the larger societies.
+
+_(f) Signs of Social Ambition._--Social work is a prominent feature
+of some of these Buddhist societies. They have raised money for famine
+stricken regions, have opened orphanages, and assist in Red Cross work.
+One of the largest Chinese institutions for ministering to people who
+are sick and in trouble is located at Hankow. Around a central Buddhist
+temple is a modern-built hospital, an orphanage and several schools for
+poor children. It may not maintain western standards of efficiency, but
+it certainly represents the outreach of modern Buddhism.
+
+Perhaps their most far-reaching advance has been made because of the
+realization that leaders are needed and that they must be trained.
+Several schools for this purpose have sprung into existence. Such
+schools are necessarily very primitive and are struggling with the
+difficulties of finding an adequate staff and equipment and of obtaining
+the best type of students.
+
+Another sign of new life has been the making of programs for the future
+development of Buddhism. One of the most comprehensive appeared a short
+time ago. For the individual it proposes the cultivation of love, mercy,
+equality, freedom, progressiveness, an established faith, patience and
+endurance. For all men it proposes (1) an education according to
+capacity; (2) a trade suited to ability; (3) an opportunity to develop
+one's powers; (4) a chance for enlightenment for all. For society it
+urges the cultivation of cooperation, social service, sacrifice for the
+social weal, and the social consciousness in the individual. On behalf
+of the country it urges patriotism, participation in the government, and
+cooperation in international movements. For the world it advocates
+universal progress. As to the universe it specifies as a goal the
+bringing of men into harmony with spiritual realities, the enlightenment
+of all and the realization of the spiritual universe.
+
+A Buddhist writer sums up the aims of new Buddhism as follows:
+
+"Formerly Buddhism desired to escape the sinful world. Today Buddhism
+not only desires to escape this world of sin, but longs to transform
+this world of sin into a new world dominated by the ideals of Buddhism.
+Formerly Buddhism was occupied with erecting and perfecting its
+doctrines and polity as an organization. Today it not only hopes to
+perfect the doctrines and polity, but desires to spread the doctrines
+and ideals abroad so as to help mankind to become truly cultured."
+
+_4. The Attitude of Tibetan Lamas_
+
+Not only the Chinese Buddhists, but the Lamas of Mongolia and Tibet are
+feeling the impulses of the new age. Quite recently an exhibition was
+held in the Lama temple at Peking which attracted thousands of visitors.
+Its object was to obtain money to repair the temple, and thus to give
+its work a fresh impulse. That these impulses are not necessarily
+hostile to Christianity is shown by a letter written by the Kurung
+Tsering Lama of Kokonor district to the Rev. T. Soerensen of Szechuan:
+
+"I, your humble servant, have seen several copies of the Scriptures and,
+having read them carefully, they certainly made me believe in Christ. I
+understand a little of the outstanding principles and the doctrinal
+teaching of the One Son, but as to the Holy Spirit's nature and essence,
+and as to the origin of this religion, I am not at all clear, and it is
+therefore important that the doctrinal principles of this religion
+should be fully explained, so as to enlighten the unintelligent and
+people of small mental ability.
+
+"The teaching of the science of medicine and astrology is also very
+important. It is therefore evident if we want this blessing openly
+manifested, we must believe in the religion of the only Son of God.
+Being in earnest, I therefore pray you from my heart not to consider
+this letter lightly. With a hundred salutations."
+
+Enclosed with this letter was a poem written in most elegant language.
+
+"O thou Supreme God and most precious Father, The truth above all
+religions, The Ruler of all animate and inanimate worlds! Greater than
+wisdom, separated from birth and death, Is his son Christ the Lord
+shining in glory among endless beings. Incomprehensible wonder,
+miraculously made! In this teaching I myself also believe--As your
+spirit is with heaven united, My soul undivided is seeking the truth
+Jesus the Savior's desire fulfilling, For the coming of the Kingdom of
+Heaven I am praying. Happiness to all."
+
+_5. The Buddhist World Versus the Christian World_
+
+Looking back over the last twenty-five years we see rising quite
+distinctly a Buddhist world growing conscious of itself, of its past
+history and of its mission to the world. This Buddhist, world has much
+more of a program than it had twenty-five years ago. Its object is to
+unite the Mahayana and the Hinayana branches of Buddhism and to spread
+Buddhist propaganda over the world. At present the leadership of this
+movement is in Japan. It is in part a political movement. There is no
+question that Christianity is not at all pleasing to the Japanese
+militarists. It is regarded by them as the advance post of western
+industrialism and political ambition. Quite naturally such leaders
+desire to make the Buddhist world a unit. It is also a social movement.
+The spirit of the Japanese Buddhist has been brought to consciousness by
+the new position of Japan. Japan is seeking to take its place in the
+world as a first rate power. By this not only will Japan's industry and
+commerce profit, but its spiritual values must also be adapted to the
+world. The movement then has its spiritual side. Japanese travelers and
+people are going to all parts of the world. They carry with them the
+religious ideals which have been shaped by Buddhism. Buddhism in the
+past was one of the great religions of salvation with an inspiring
+missionary message. It is again awakening to this task of
+evangelization. Under the leadership of Japanese scholars and religious
+statesmen the Japanese are seeking to unite the Buddhist world so that
+it shall become a force in the new world. Japan is thus trying to give
+back what it has received in the past.
+
+At present in Buddhist countries there is a strong force working against
+this movement. Nationalism is a new force to be reckoned with. Still
+even with the spirit of nationalism permeating every group, the Buddhist
+world is getting together and will strive to make its contribution to
+the life of the whole world.
+
+
+
+
+X
+
+
+THE CHRISTIAN APPROACH TO BUDDHISTS
+
+_1. Questions Which Buddhists Ask_
+
+Buddhists are approaching Christianity. In many places a spirit of
+inquiry and interest in the Christian religion is met. It is not
+necessary that there should be a Buddhist world permanently over against
+a Christian world. The questions which Buddhists ask a missionary
+indicate an interest in vital themes. Some of them are as follows:
+
+We put our trust in the three Precious Ones. In what do you trust? Is
+not your Shang Ti (name for God used in China) a being lower than Buddha
+and just a little higher than a Bodhisattva? Is not Shang Ti the tribal
+god of the Jews? Do you believe in the existence of _purgatory?_
+What sufferings will those endure who do not live a virtuous life? Do
+you believe in the reality of the Western Paradise? How can one enter
+it? There being three kinds of merit, by what method is the great merit
+accumulated? How is the middle and the small merit accumulated? What are
+the fruits of these proportions of merit and what are they like? Tell me
+how to believe Christ. What work of meditation do you perform? Is not
+Buddhism more democratic than Christianity, because it holds out the
+possibility of Buddhahood to all beings? Is not Buddhism more inclusive,
+because it provides for the salvation of all beings?
+
+_2. Knowledge and Sympathy_
+
+These questions make it plain that the worker who is to deal with
+Buddhists should have a broad background of general culture. He must be
+thoroughly humanized. He should have a good knowledge of the history of
+philosophy and religion, including the work of the modern philosophers.
+A knowledge of the life of Buddha and of the doctrines of the Hinayana
+or Southern Buddhism, as well as the tenets of the Mahayana should be in
+his possession. The psychology of religion should interpenetrate his
+historical learning; the best methods of pedagogy should guide his
+approach to men. Of course he must speak the language of the Buddhist,
+not only the spiritual language, but his everyday patois. He will find
+it an advantage to know some Sanskrit. While this requirement is not
+very urgent at present, it will rapidly become a necessity for doing the
+best work.
+
+This knowledge should be interpenetrated by a genuine sympathy, that is,
+imagination tinged with emotion. The worker should be able to view
+doctrines, values and actions from the point of view of the Buddhist and
+his past history. He must have a genuine interest in and a great
+capacity for friendship. The Buddhists are very human, responding to
+friendship very quickly. Such friendship forms a link between the man
+and the larger friendship of Christ.
+
+_3. Emphasis on the Aesthetic in Christianity_
+
+A Chinese Christian leader described his idea of a church as a place
+removed from the din of the street, approached by a walk flanked with
+trees and flowers and adorned within by symbols speaking to the heart of
+the Chinese. He longed for the mystic silence and the beauty of holiness
+which would open the windows of the world of spiritual reality and throw
+its light upon the problems of life. He was asked, "Would you adapt some
+of the symbols of the Chinese religions?" He said, "Many of those
+symbols are neutral. They suggest religious emotion. Their character
+depends upon the content which the occasion puts into them. If the
+content is Christian then the symbols and emotions will become
+Christian."
+
+Christianity is a religion of beauty. The beautiful in architecture,
+symbol and ritual, expressing the spiritual universe of the past,
+present and future, makes a strong appeal to the Chinese heart. It may
+well be emphasized in the future as never before.
+
+_4. Emphasis on the Mystical in Christianity_
+
+Not long ago a Buddhist in one of the large cities of China was
+converted. He found great joy in the experience which revived him and
+gathered into unity the broken fragments of his life. He attended church
+regularly and participated in the prayer meetings. Gradually he
+discovered that he was not being nourished. He felt his joy slipping
+away from him and his divided life reinstating itself. He went to
+Buddhism for consolation. He is not hostile to the church. He
+appreciates the help he received, but he said that he came for
+consolation and peace and found the same--hard orthodoxy and morality so
+familiar to him in Confucianism.
+
+While the case of this man may have individual peculiarities, it may be
+made the starting point for a discussion of the situation in many
+churches in China. The early message to the Chinese was doctrinal. The
+false notion of many gods had to be displaced by the idea of the one
+true God. With this idea of the true God a few other tenets of the
+Christian religion are often held as dogmatic propositions to be
+repeated when questions are asked. The great sin preached is the worship
+of idols.
+
+The second part of the Christian message is salvation by faith in Jesus
+Christ. This salvation is other-worldly to a large extent. The extreme
+emphasis upon it has made of the church an insurance society, membership
+in which insures bliss in the world beyond.
+
+The third part of the message has been concerned with moral acts,
+abstinence from opium (liquor and tobacco in some churches), polygamy,
+and the gross sins. Attendance upon church services, contribution for
+the support of the church, and the refusal to contribute to idolatry
+have also been required.
+
+The emphasis to a large extent was doctrinal, moral and individual. The
+result has been a body of people free from the gross sins, but also
+innocent of the great virtues and individualistic in their outlook upon
+this world and the next. This emphasis is needed, but in addition there
+should be the cultivation of the presence of God in the soul by
+appropriate means. The Christian Church of China should develop a
+technique of the spiritual life suited to the East. The formation of
+habits of devotion should be emphasized. Intercessory prayer should be
+given a larger place. Contemplation and meditation should be regarded
+not merely as an escape from the turmoil and strife of the world, but as
+a preparation for the highest life of service and sacrifice. Buddhist
+mysticism united the whole universe and was the great foundation of
+Chinese art, literature and morality. The spiritual world of
+Christianity must likewise seep through into the very thought of Asia
+and inspire the new art, literature and morality which will be the world
+expression of a Christian universe.
+
+_5. Emphasis on the Social Elements in Christianity_
+
+To the aesthetic and mystical emphasis must be attached a social
+emphasis. Buddhism is often criticized as not being social. It is a
+highly socialized religion. It has had a large influence upon social
+life in the East. This social life is different from ours. We see its
+wrongs and weaknesses. Likewise do the Buddhists see the materialism and
+injustice of our social life. Christianity must relate itself to the
+modern world as it is rising in China and seek not merely to remedy a
+few wrongs or heal a few diseases, but must release the healing stream
+into the social life of the East. This will be done and is being done
+through the Church community which has become conscious of itself,
+realizing its needs and wants, seeking in an intelligent and systematic
+way to rehabilitate itself. It is not so much the external unrelated
+efforts that accomplish the thing needed, but it is rather the community
+life stirred by ideals and fired by a new dynamic which begins the work
+of reformation.
+
+_6. Emphasis on the Person of Jesus Christ_
+
+_(a) As a Historical Character._--The great asset of the missionary
+among Buddhists is the historical person of Christ. In contrast to many
+of the Bodhisattvas, the saviours of the Buddhists, Jesus is a
+historical character. His life among men was the life of God among men.
+
+_(b) As the Revealer._--God is like Christ. Christ reveals God as
+the complete, the perfect person. He possessed the pure spiritual
+personality. The chief characteristic of this personality is love. This
+love conscious of itself finds its highest joy in the well-being of
+others. This love of God produced human life which, springing from the
+lowest form, broke through the material elements and is capable of
+attaining the highest development.
+
+Christ reveals to man his heavenly relationship. Man created in the
+likeness of God stands in the highest relation of one person to another
+through love. He likens this relation to that of father and son. He
+lifts man to the fellowship with the divine. Yet such a fellowship that
+man preserves his personality.
+
+Christ reveals man in his relation to men as a brother and the form of
+love which shall control the relation of man to God as well as man to
+man.
+
+Christ revealed and founded the Kingdom, a society of the saved,
+dominated by the spirit of the founder and making this spirit of love
+and service the organizing power in the world.
+
+_(c) As the Saviour._--Mahayana Buddhism emphasized saviourhood.
+Christ is the saviour of men. In Buddhism the stress is placed upon the
+merit of the saviour and the saved. There is no question that merit has
+some value. Yet Christ does not save us by merit, nor do we help to save
+one another by merit. Salvation is a moral and spiritual process. It is
+concerned with the biology of the soul. The salvation that we preach is
+not the salvation by knowledge, or meditation, or merit, but by the
+interpenetration of Christ's spirit in ours, by the mystic and moral
+union of our life with his. As Paul says: "That I may know Him and the
+power of His resurrection and the fellowship of His suffering." Yet He
+is not the saviour of the individual alone. He saves the community, the
+church. Only as His spirit permeates and dominates the community does he
+find his true self and the real salvation.
+
+_(d) As the Eternal Son, of God._--The Mahayana system does not
+emphasize the historicity of Amitabha or of the Bodhisattvas. Spiritual
+truth is the development of the soul. It is not limited by time and
+place. Likewise Christianity must emphasize the eternal character of
+Jesus Christ. "The Logos existed in the very beginning, the Logos was
+with God, the Logos was God." To the Mahayanist this spiritual history
+is more real than any fact conditioned by time and place.
+
+The Christian worker must learn to understand the import of the Gospel
+of John. He must see in Jesus Christ "The real Light, which enlightens
+every man." He must be able to convince himself that the Christ is the
+fulfillment of the highest aspirations of the Mahayana system.
+
+_7. How Christianity Expresses Itself in Buddhist Minds_
+
+In 1920 a number of Buddhist monks, under the leadership of Rev. K. L.
+Reichelt formed a Christian brotherhood. The members of this small
+brotherhood decided that they must subscribe to vows and they took the
+four following:
+
+"I promise before the Almighty and Omniscient God, that I with my whole
+heart will surrender myself to the true Trinity, God the Father, the Son
+and the Holy Spirit. I will with my whole heart have faith in Jesus
+Christ as the Saviour of the world who gives completion to the
+profoundest and best objects of the higher Buddhism. I will live in this
+faith now and ever after.
+
+"I promise solemnly before God with my whole heart to devote myself to
+the study of the true doctrine and break wholly with the evil manners of
+the world and show forth in my public and private life that I am truly
+united with Christ.
+
+"I promise that I in every respect will try so to educate myself that I
+can be of use in the work of God on earth. I will with undivided heart
+devote myself to the great work; to lead my brethren in the Buddhist
+Association forward to the understanding of Christ as the only One, who
+gives completion to the highest and profoundest ideas of Higher
+Buddhism.
+
+"I promise that until my last hour I will work so that out of our
+Christian Brotherhood there may grow forth a strong church of Christ
+among Buddhists. I will not permit any evil thing to grow in my heart,
+which could divide the brotherhood, but will always try to promote the
+progress of every member in the knowledge of the holy obligations laid
+down in these vows and our constitution."
+
+Such men ought, to make choice Christians.
+
+_8. Christianity's Constructive Values_
+
+Buddhism in the course of its long history developed certain religious
+ideas and values which we find in Christianity. It faced the fact of sin
+and placed it in the heart. It diagnosed the fundamental instincts of
+men, sex-appetite, will-to-achieve, and pugnacity. These must be
+overcome. It regards them as delusions which must be eliminated.
+Christianity also deals with these instincts. It is under no delusion as
+to their strength. There are certain tendencies in Christianity which
+have tried to annihilate them. The central tendency of Christianity,
+however, recognizing their power for good, seeks to sublimate them and
+make them serve the individual and society. This attitude of the two
+religions toward these instincts is fundamentally different. The
+attitude of Christianity has been justified even in Buddhist lands where
+the religious life of the people has followed the same line that
+Christianity advocates.
+
+Early Buddhism tried to dissolve man's personality. Later Buddhism
+corrected this and perhaps has appealed too much to the desire on the
+part of the individual to enter a heaven which is merely a replica of
+the earth. Christianity starts with a personal God and holds up before
+the believer the goal of perfection for his own personality. It finds
+man without a self and confers a real selfhood upon him.
+
+Early Buddhism taught that salvation is accomplished by the individual
+alone. It denies the possibility and the necessity of help from a divine
+source. Subsequent history has proved this to have been wrong. In India,
+Buddhism has been displaced by Hinduism, and in China, and Japan, the
+Mahayana has developed the idea of salvation through another. The great
+stream of Buddhism has recognized that man by himself is helpless. He
+must have the help of a divine power in order to obtain salvation.
+Christianity asserts that salvation is possible only through the
+intervention of God. The incarnation, the life, death and resurrection
+of Jesus and his work in the world through the Holy Spirit on the one
+hand are the expression of God's solicitude for man, and, on the other
+hand, correspond to the deep need which men of all ages have felt, for a
+power above themselves. From the early stages of magic to the highest
+reaches of religion we find this constant factor recognized by human
+groups all over the world. They bear witness to a power above themselves
+to whom they continually appeal. In Christianity we find this main
+tendency enunciated most clearly. The individual cannot save himself.
+Mankind cannot save itself. Both must rely upon the assistance of the
+divine power which started this universe on its way and which is the
+ever present creative force.
+
+Christianity, moreover, has established the community of believers
+including all classes and conditions of men. Herein each one may realize
+him&if. Herein also he may realize the kind of community which is
+friendly to his highest aspirations for himself. Herein he has the
+opportunity to transmute the instincts above mentioned into forces which
+make for the larger development of his own person and the well-being of
+the community.
+
+Accordingly, as Christians face Buddhists, they can do so with the
+consciousness that this great religion has been reaching out after the
+light which shines brightly in our Christian religion. They have the
+assurance not only that they have a message which brings fulfilment to
+the ideas of the Mahayana, but also that it has prepared the way for the
+hearts of the Chinese to receive the highest message of Christianity.
+
+
+
+
+APPENDIX I
+
+
+HINTS FOR THE PRELIMINARY STUDY OF BUDDHISM IN CHINA
+
+The student should read and inwardly digest the booklet of K. J.
+Saunders
+
+He should follow the directions given in Appendix One of that book, This
+procedure is important because the Hinayana Buddhism and the life of
+Buddha are the background of Buddhism in China.
+
+Then he may take Hackmann's _Buddhism as a Religion_
+(No. 15). This will give a general orientation. This may be followed
+with R. F. Johnston's _Buddhist China_ (No.
+_20_). Along with this he may read Suzuki's
+_Awakening of Faith_ (No. 32), and also his
+_Outlines of Mahayana Buddhism (No._ 33). McGovern's
+_Introduction to Mahayana Buddhism_ (No._ 23) will
+illuminate the philosophical background of Buddhism, and Eliot's
+_Hinduism and Buddhism_ (No. 13) will add historical
+perspective.
+
+The translation of _Mahdydna Sutras_ by Beal and in the
+Sacred Books of the East will give him some of the sources for the
+doctrines held in China. He may begin as the Buddhist missionaries did
+with the sutra of the Forty-two sections and then take up the Diamond
+Sutra, and then completing the sutras in Vol. 59 and the Catena of
+Buddhist Scriptures.
+
+For the study of the ethical side he will find De Groot's _Le Code
+du Mahayana en Chine_ very helpful. For the study of the sects
+Eliot, Vol. III, pp. 303-320 Northern Buddhism_ (No. 14) will
+be helpful.
+
+In all his study he will find Eitel's _Handbook of Chinese
+Buddhism_ (No. 12) indispensable. He must, however, make a
+Chinese index in order to be able to use the book.
+
+Contact with monks will be helpful and is quite necessary in order to
+appreciate the human problems of the work.
+
+
+
+
+APPENDIX II
+
+
+A BRIEF BIBLIOGRAPHY
+
+1. BEAL, S. _Abstract of Four Lectures_ upon _Buddhist
+Literature_ in _China._ London, Triibner, 1882.
+
+Lecture II, on "Method of Buddha's Teaching in the Vinaya Pitaka," and
+Lecture IV, on "Coincidences Between Buddhism and Other Religions,"
+especially desirable.
+
+
+2. ---- _Buddhism in China,_ London, S. P. C. K, 1884.
+
+The best comprehensive account of Chinese Buddhism, written by an
+authority.
+
+
+3. ---- _Catena of Buddhist Scriptures,_ from the Chinese. London,
+Triibner, 1871.
+
+A good introduction to Chinese Buddhism from the sources.
+
+4. ---- _The Romantic Legend of Sakya Buddha._ London,
+Triibner, 1875.
+
+Recounts Buddha's history from the beginning to the
+conversion of the Kasyapas and others.
+
+
+5. ---- _Texts from the Buddhist Canon Commonly Known_ as _D_
+hammapada. London, Triibner, 1878. Pocket edition, 1902.
+
+These "Scriptural Texts," translated from the Chinese and abridged, are
+usually connected with some event in Buddha's history. This translation
+has Indian anecdotes, illustrating the verses.
+
+
+6. COULING, S., editor. _The Encyclopaedia Sinica._ Shanghai, Kelly
+& Walsh, 1917.
+
+Contains, on pages 67-75, a number of brief articles upon Buddhism in
+China.
+
+
+7. DE QROOT, J. J. M. _Religion of the Chinese._ New York,
+Macmillan, 1900.
+
+Pages 164-223 contain a summary of the main facts about Chinese Buddhism
+by an authority.
+
+
+8. ---- _Sectarianism and Religious Persecution in China._ 2 vols.
+J. Mueller, Amsterdam, 1903-1904.
+
+Treats from sources Confucianism's persecution of Buddhism and other
+sects. See Vol. II. Index, under Buddhism, p. 572.
+
+
+9. DORE, HENEI. _Researches into Chinese Superstitions._ 6 vols.
+Tusewei Press, 1914-1920.
+
+A well illustrated miscellany of superstitions of all Chinese religions
+showing indistinctly their interpenetration by Buddhism.
+For Buddhism proper, see Vol. VI, pp. 89-233.
+
+
+10. EDKINS, J. _Chinese Buddhism._ 2d edition. London, Truebner,
+1893.
+
+A very full account of Buddhism as seen by a Sinologue of the last
+generation.
+
+
+11. EITEL, E. J. _Buddhism: Its Historical, Theoretical and Popular
+Aspects._ Hongkong, Lane, Crawford and Co., 1884.
+
+Written by an observant scholar and descriptive of Buddhism of South
+China especially.
+
+
+12. ---- _Handbook of Chinese Buddhism._ Presbyterian Mission Press,
+Shanghai.
+
+This is a Sanskrit-Chinese dictionary, a reprint of the second edition
+of 1888 without the Chinese index necessary for identifying Chinese
+Buddhist terms.
+
+
+13. ELIOT, SIR CHARLES. _Hinduism and Buddhism, An Historical
+Sketch._ 3 vols. Edward Arnold and Co., 1921.
+
+This is a valuable contribution to our knowledge of Buddhism by an
+experienced student. The parts especially related to Chinese Buddhism
+are Vol. II, pp. 3-106; Vol. Ill, 223-335.
+
+
+14. JETTY, A. _Gods of Northern Buddhism._ Oxford, Clarendon Press,
+1914.
+
+This work is helpful in identifying images in the temples, though
+unfortunately few of those given are Chinese.
+
+
+15. HACKMANN, H. _Buddhism as a Religion._ London, Probsthain,
+1910.
+
+Gives a general view of Buddhism from first-hand investigation. For
+Chinese Buddhism see pp. 200-257.
+
+
+16. HASTINGS, JAMES. _The Encyclopedia of Religion and Ethics._ New
+York, Scribners, 1908.
+
+Articles Asvaghosa, Bodhisattva, China (Buddhism in), Mahayana Missions
+(Buddhist).
+
+
+17. HUME, R. E. _The Living Religions of the World._ New York,
+Scribners, 1924.
+
+A clear comparative study of these religions in the light of Christian
+standards.
+
+
+18. INGLIS, J. W. "Christian Element in Chinese Buddhism."
+_International Review of Missions,_ Vol. V, 1916, pp. 587-602. An
+excellent article by a veteran missionary and scholar of Manchuria.
+
+
+19. JOHNSON, S. _Oriental Religions ... China._ Boston, Houghton,
+Osgood Co., 1878.
+
+Pages 800-833 give a comprehensive summary by a student of comparative
+religion.
+
+
+20. JOHNSTON, R. F. _Buddhist_ China. New York, Dutton, 1913.
+
+A well-written, interesting book. The author knows his subject, and is
+held in high esteem by Buddhists in China.
+
+
+21. KEITH, A. BERRIEDALE. _Buddhist Philosophy in India and
+Ceylon._ Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1923.
+
+A study of the historic development of the Buddhistic philosophy in
+India and Ceylon which throws much light on the Mahayana.
+
+
+22. LODGE, J. E. _Chinese Buddhist Art._ Asia, Vol. XIX, June,
+1919.
+
+Some of the choicest half-tones illustrating its character accompanied
+by interesting descriptions.
+
+
+23. McGOVERN, W. M. _An Introduction of Mahayana Buddhism._ Dutton,
+1922.
+
+Though written from the point of view of Japanese Buddhism it gives a
+good treatment of metaphysical and psychological aspects of the Mahayana
+system.
+
+
+24. MUeLLER, F. MAX. _Sacred Books of the East._ Vol. XLIX,
+Buddhist, Mahayana Texts. Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1894.
+
+A book of sources necessary for understanding Northern Buddhism.
+
+
+25. PARKER, E. H. _China and Religion._ New York, Dutton, 1905.
+
+A sketch of Buddhism by a scholar long resident in China is found in
+Chapter IV.
+
+
+26. PAUL, C. T. _The Presentation of Christianity to Buddhists._
+New York, Board of Missionary Preparation, 1924.
+
+A carefully prepared study of Buddhism from the viewpoint of
+missionaries working in Buddhist lands.
+
+
+27. REICHELT, K. L. "Special Work Among Chinese Buddhists." _Chinese
+Recorder,_ Vol. LI, 1920, July issue, pp. 491-497.
+
+An article by a pioneer in work among Buddhists, of rare insight and
+sympathy.
+
+
+28. RICHARD, T. _The Awakening of Faith in the Mahayana Doctrine._
+2d edition. Shanghai, 1918.
+
+A loose translation by a very large-hearted and sympathetic student with
+an irenic spirit. See 32 below.
+
+
+29. RICHARD, T. _Guide to Buddhahood; Being a Standard Manual of
+Chinese Buddhism._ Shanghai., 1907.
+
+
+30. SAUNDERS, K. J. _Epochs of Buddhist History_ (Haskell
+Lectures), Chicago University Press, 1922.
+
+A good summary of the main developments in Buddhism.
+
+
+31. STAUFFER, M. T. _The Christian Occupation of China._ Shanghai
+Continuation Committee, 1922.
+
+The introductory section contains articles upon China's religions.
+
+
+32. SUZUKI, T. A'svaghosa's _Awakening of Faith in the Mahayana._
+Chicago, Open Court Publishing Co., 1900.
+
+A far more accurate translation of this work than No. 28 above.
+
+
+33. ---- Outlines of _Mahayana Buddhism._ Chicago, Open Court
+Publishing Co., 1908.
+
+While written from the Japanese point of view it is necessary to the
+understanding of Chinese Buddhism.
+
+
+34. WATTERS, T. "Buddhism in China." _Chinese Recorder,_ Vol. II,
+1870, pp. 1-7, 38-43, 64-68, 81-88, 117-122, 145-150, Shanghai.
+
+A valuable series of articles by an excellent Chinese scholar,
+discussing the history, persecutions, and various Buddhas of China.
+
+
+35. WEI, F. C. M. "Salvation by Faith as Taught by the Pure Land Sect."
+_Chinese Recorder,_ Vol. LI, 1920, pp. 395- 401, 485-491.
+
+A good article on the sect whose ideas have spread over China and Japan.
+
+
+36. WIEGER, L. _Bouddhisme Chinois,_ 2 vols. Ho-Kien-Fou, Roman
+Catholic Press, 1910-1913.
+
+This contains the Chinese text and French translation of the life of
+Buddha as known to China; also the ritual observed in ordination. A
+useful source book.
+
+
+
+
+
+End of Project Gutenberg's Buddhism and Buddhists in China, by Lewis Hodus
+
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+Project Gutenberg's Buddhism and Buddhists in China, by Lewis Hodous
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most
+other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions
+whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of
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+
+Title: Buddhism and Buddhists in China
+
+Author: Lewis Hodous
+
+Posting Date: February 24, 2015 [EBook #8390]
+Release Date: June, 2005
+First Posted: July 6, 2003
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK BUDDHISM AND BUDDHISTS IN CHINA ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Lee Dawei, V-M Osterman and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team
+
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+
+
+
+BUDDHISM AND BUDDHISTS IN CHINA
+
+BY
+
+LEWIS HODOUS, D.D.
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: EX LIBRIS:
+CHARLES FRANKLIN THWING
+Western Reserve University
+Library
+
+From the Library of
+Charles Franklin Thwing
+Acquired in 1938]
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE
+
+This volume is the third to be published of a series on "The World's
+Living Religions," projected in 1920 by the Board of Missionary
+Preparation of the Foreign Missions Conference of North America. The
+series seeks to introduce Western readers to the real religious life of
+each great national area of the non-Christian world.
+
+Buddhism is a religion which must be viewed from many angles. Its
+original form, as preached by Gautama in India and developed in the
+early years succeeding, and as embodied in the sacred literature of
+early Buddhism, is not representative of the actual Buddhism of any land
+today. The faithful student of Buddhist literature would be as far
+removed from understanding the working activities of a busy center of
+Buddhism in Burmah, Tibet or China today as a student of patristic
+literature would be from appreciating the Christian life of London or
+New York City.
+
+Moreover Buddhism, like Christianity, has been affected by national
+conditions. It has developed at least three markedly different types,
+requiring, therefore, as many distinct volumes of this series for its
+fair interpretation and presentation. The volume on the Buddhism of
+Southern Asia by Professor Kenneth J. Saunders was published in May,
+1923; this volume on the Buddhism of China by Professor Hodous will be
+the second to appear; a third on the Buddhism of Japan, to be written by
+Dr. R. C. Armstrong, will be published in 1924. Each of these is needed
+in order that the would be student of Buddhism as practiced in those
+countries should be given a true, impressive and friendly picture of
+what he will meet.
+
+A missionary no less than a professional student of Buddhism needs to
+approach that religion with a real appreciation of what it aims to do
+for its people and does do. No one can come into contact with the best
+that Buddhism offers without being impressed by its serenity, assurance
+and power.
+
+Professor Hodous has written this volume on Buddhism in China out of the
+ripe experience and continuing studies of sixteen years of missionary
+service in Foochow, the chief city of Fukien Province, China, one of the
+important centers of Buddhism. His local studies were supplemented by
+the results of broader research and study in northern China. No other
+available writer on the subject has gone so far as he in reproducing the
+actual thinking of a trained Buddhist mind in regard to the fundamentals
+of religion. At the same time he has taken pains to exhibit and to
+interpret the religious life of the peasant as affected by Buddhism. He
+has sought to be absolutely fair to Buddhism, but still to express his
+own conviction that the best that is in Buddhism is given far more
+adequate expression in Christianity.
+
+The purpose of each volume in this series is impressionistic rather than
+definitely educational. They are not textbooks for the formal study of
+Buddhism, but introductions to its study. They aim to kindle interest
+and to direct the activity of the awakened student along sound lines.
+For further study each volume amply provides through directions and
+literature in the appendices. It seeks to help the student to
+discriminate, to think in terms of a devotee of Buddhism when he
+compares that religion with Christianity. It assumes, however, that
+Christianity is the broader and deeper revelation of God and the world
+of today.
+
+Buddhism in China undoubtedly includes among its adherents many
+high-minded, devout, and earnest souls who live an idealistic life.
+Christianity ought to make a strong appeal to such minds, taking from
+them none of the joy or assurance or devotion which they possess, but
+promoting a deeper, better balanced interpretation of the active world,
+a nobler conception of God, a stronger sense of sinfulness and need, and
+a truer idea of the full meaning of incarnation and revelation.
+
+It is our hope that this fresh contribution to the understanding of
+Buddhism as it is today may be found helpful to readers everywhere.
+
+The Editors.
+
+_New York city,
+December, 1923._
+
+The Committee of Reference and Counsel of the Foreign Missions
+Conference of North America has authorized the publication of this
+series. The author of each volume is alone responsible for the opinions
+expressed, unless otherwise stated.
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS
+
+
+CHAPTER
+
+I. INTRODUCTORY
+
+II. THE ENTRANCE OF BUDDHISM INTO CHINA
+
+III. THE ESTABLISHMENT OF BUDDHISM AS THE PREDOMINATING RELIGION OF CHINA
+  1. The World of Invisible Spirits
+  2. The Universal Sense of Ancestor Control
+  3. Degenerate Taoism
+  4. The Organizing Value of Confucianism
+  5. Buddhism an Inclusive Religion
+
+IV. BUDDHISM AND THE PEASANT
+  1. The Monastery of Kushan
+  2. Monasteries Control Fêng-shui
+  3. Prayer for Rain
+    (a) The altar
+    (b) The prayer service
+    (c) Its Meaning
+  4. Monasteries are Supported because They
+     Control Fêng-shui
+
+V. BUDDHISM AND THE FAMILY
+  1. Kuan Yin, the Giver of Children and Protector of Women
+  2. Kuan Yin, the Model of Local Mother-Goddesses
+  3. Exhortations on Family Virtues
+  4. Services for the Dead
+
+VI. BUDDHISM AND SOCIAL LIFE
+  1. How the Laity is Trained in Buddhist Ideas
+  2. Effect of Ideals of Mercy and Universal Love
+  3. Relation to Confucian Ideal
+  4. The Embodiment of Buddhist Ideals in the Vegetarian Sects
+  5. Pilgrimages
+
+VII. BUDDHISM AND THE FUTURE LIFE
+  1. The Buddhist Purgatory
+  2. Its Social Value
+  3. The Buddhist Heaven
+  4. The Harmonization of These Ideas with Ancestor Worship
+
+VIII. THE SPIRITUAL VALUES EMPHASIZED BY BUDDHISM IN CHINA
+  1. The Threefold Classification of Men under Buddhism
+  2. Salvation for the Common Man
+  3. The Place of Faith
+  4. Salvation of the Second Class
+  5. Salvation for the Highest Class
+  6. Heaven and Purgatory
+  7. Sin
+  8. Nirvana
+  9. The Philosophical Background
+  10. What Buddhism Has to Give
+
+IX. PRESENT-DAY BUDDHISM
+  1. Periods of Buddhist History
+  2. The Progress of the Last Twenty-five Years
+  3. Present Activities
+    (a) The reconstruction of monasteries
+    (b) Accessions
+    (c) Publications
+    (d) Lectures
+    (e) Buddhist societies
+    (f) Signs of social ambition
+  4. The Attitude of Tibetan Lamas
+  5. The Buddhist World Versus the Christian World
+
+X. THE CHRISTIAN APPROACH TO BUDDHISTS
+  1. Questions which Buddhists Ask
+  2. Knowledge and Sympathy
+  3. Emphasis on the Ĉsthetic in Christianity
+  4. Emphasis on the Mystical in Christianity
+  5. Emphasis on the Social Elements in Christianity
+  6. Emphasis on the Person of Jesus Christ
+    (a) As a Historical Character
+    (b) As the Revealer
+    (c) As the Saviour
+    (d) As the Eternal Son of God
+  7. How Christianity Expresses Itself in Buddhist Minds
+  8. Christianity's Constructive Values
+
+APPENDIX ONE, Hints for the Preliminary Study of Buddhism in China
+
+APPENDIX TWO, A Brief Bibliography
+
+
+
+
+BUDDHISM AND BUDDHISTS IN CHINA
+
+
+
+
+I
+
+
+INTRODUCTORY
+
+A well known missionary of Peking, China, was invited one day by a
+Buddhist acquaintance to attend the ceremony of initiation for a class
+of one hundred and eighty priests and some twenty laity who had been
+undergoing preparatory instruction at the stately and important Buddhist
+monastery. The beautiful courts of the temple were filled by a throng of
+invited guests and spectators, waiting to watch the impressive
+procession of candidates, acolytes, attendants and high officials, all
+in their appropriate vestments. No outsider was privileged to witness
+the solemn taking by each candidate for the priesthood of the vow to
+"keep the Ten Laws," followed by the indelible branding of his scalp,
+truly a "baptism of fire." Less private was the initiation of the lay
+brethren and _sisters,_ more lightly branded on the right wrist,
+while all about intoned "Na Mah Pen Shih Shih Chia Mou Ni Fo." (I put my
+trust in my original Teacher, Säkyamuni, Buddha.)
+
+The missionary was deeply impressed by the serenity and devotion of the
+worshipers and by the dignity and solemnity of the service. The last
+candidate to rise and receive the baptism of branding was a young
+married woman of refined appearance, attended by an elderly lady,
+evidently her mother, who watched with an expression of mingled
+devotion, insight and pride her daughter's initiation and welcomed her
+at the end of the process with radiant face, as a daughter, now, in a
+spiritual as well as a physical sense. At that moment an attendant,
+noting the keen interest of the missionary, said to him rather
+flippantly, "Would you not like to have your arm branded, too?" "I
+might," he replied, "just out of curiosity, but I could not receive the
+branding as a believer in the Buddha. I am a Christian believer. To be
+branded without inward faith would be an insult to your religion as well
+as treachery to my own, would it not? Is not real religion a matter of
+the heart?"
+
+The old lady, who had overheard with evident disapproval the remark of
+the attendant, turned to the missionary at once and said, "Is that the
+way you Westerners, you Christians, speak of your faith? Is the reality
+of religion for you also an inward experience of the heart?" And with
+that began an interesting interchange of conversation, each party
+discovering that in the heart of the other was a genuine longing for God
+that overwhelmed all the artificial, material distinctions and the human
+devices through which men have limited to particular and exclusive paths
+their way of search, and drew these two pilgrims on the way toward God
+into a common and very real fellowship of the spirit.
+
+A Buddhist monk was passing by a mission building in another city' of
+China when his attention was suddenly drawn to the Svastika and other
+Buddhist symbols which the architect had skilfully used in decorating
+the building. His face brightened as he said to his companion: "I did
+not know that Christians had any appreciation of beauty in their
+religion."
+
+These incidents reveal aspects of the alchemy of the soul by which the
+real devotee of one religion perceives values which are dear to him in
+another religion. The good which he has attained in his old religion
+enables him to appropriate the better in the new religion. A converted
+monk, explaining his acceptance of Christianity, said: "I found in Jesus
+Christ the great Bodhisattva, my Saviour, who brings to fruition the
+aspirations awakened in me by Buddhism."
+
+Just as it has been said that they do not know England who know England
+only, so it may be said with equal truth that they do not know
+Christianity who know it and no other faith. There are many in China
+like the old lady at the temple, who have found in Buddhism something of
+that spiritual satisfaction and stimulus which true Christianity
+affords, in fuller measure. The recognition of such religious values by
+the student or the missionary furnishes a sound foundation for the
+building of a truer spirituality among such devotees.
+
+As will be seen in what follows, religion in China is at first sight a
+mixed affair. From the standpoint of cruder household superstitions an
+average Chinese family may be regarded as Taoists; the principles by
+which its members seek to guide their lives individually and socially
+may be called Confucian; their attitude of worship and their hopes for
+the future make them Buddhists. The student would not be far afield when
+he credits the religious aspirations of the Chinese today to Buddhism,
+regarding Confucianism as furnishing the ethical system to which they
+submit and Taoism as responsible for many superstitious practices. But
+the Buddhism found in China differs radically from that of Southern
+Asia, as will be made clear by the following sketch of its introduction
+into the Flowery Kingdom and its subsequent history.
+
+
+
+
+II
+
+
+THE ENTRANCE OF BUDDHISM INTO CHINA
+
+Buddhism was not an indigenous religion of China. Its founder was
+Gautama of India in the sixth century B.C. Some centuries later it found
+its way into China by way of central Asia. There is a tradition that as
+early as 142 B.C. Chang Ch'ien, an ambassador of the Chinese emperor, Wu
+Ti, visited the countries of central Asia, where he first learned about
+the new religion which was making such headway and reported concerning
+it to his master. A few years later the generals of Wu Ti captured a
+gold image of the Buddha which the emperor set up in his palace and
+worshiped, but he took no further steps.
+
+According to Chinese historians Buddhism was officially recognized in
+China about 67 A.D. A few years before that date, the emperor, Ming-Ti,
+saw in a dream a large golden image with a halo hovering above his
+palace. His advisers, some of whom were no doubt already favorable to
+the new religion, interpreted the image of the dream to be that of
+Buddha, the great sage of India, who was inviting his adhesion.
+Following their advice the emperor sent an embassy to study into
+Buddhism. It brought back two Indian monks and a quantity of Buddhist
+classics. These were carried on a white horse and so the monastery which
+the emperor built for the monks and those who came after them was called
+the White Horse Monastery. Its tablet is said to have survived to this
+day.
+
+This dream story is worth repeating because it goes to show that
+Buddhism was not only known at an early date, but was favored at the
+court of China. In fact, the same history which relates the dream
+contains the biography of an official who became an adherent of Buddhism
+a few years before the dream took place. This is not at all surprising,
+because an acquaintance with Buddhism was the inevitable concomitant of
+the military campaigning, the many embassies and the wide-ranging trade
+of those centuries. But the introduction of Buddhism into China was
+especially promoted by reason of the current policy of the Chinese
+government of moving conquered populations in countries west of China
+into China proper, The vanquished peoples brought their own religion
+along with them. At one time what is now the province of Shansi was
+populated in this way by the Hsiung-nu, many of whom were Buddhists.
+
+The introduction and spread of Buddhism were hastened by the decline of
+Confucianism and Taoism. The Han dynasty (206 B. C.-221 A. D.)
+established a government founded on Confucianism. It reproduced the
+classics destroyed in the previous dynasty and encouraged their study;
+it established the state worship of Confucius; it based its laws and
+regulations upon the ideals and principles advocated by Confucius. The
+great increase of wealth and power under this dynasty led to a gradual
+deterioration in the character of the rulers and officials. The rigid
+Confucian regulations became burdensome to the people who ceased to
+respect their leaders. Confucianism lost its hold as the complete
+solution of the problems of life. At the same time Taoism had become a
+veritable jumble of meaningless and superstitious rites which served to
+support a horde of ignorant, selfish priests. The high religious ideals
+of the earlier Taoist mystics were abandoned for a search after the
+elixir of life during fruitless journeys to the isles of the Immortals
+which were supposed to be in the Eastern Sea.
+
+At this juncture there arose in North China a sect of men called the
+Purists who advocated a return from the vagaries of Taoism and the
+irritating rules of Confucianism to the simple life practised by the
+Taoist mystics. When these thoughtful and earnest minded men came into
+contact with Buddhism they were captivated by it. It had all they were
+claiming for Taoist mysticism and more. They devoted their literary
+ability and religious fervor to the spreading of the new religion and
+its success was in no small measure due to their efforts. As a result of
+this early association the tenets of the two religions seemed so much
+alike that various emperors called assemblies of Buddhists and Taoists
+with the intention of effecting a union of the two religions into one.
+If the emperor was under the influence of Buddhism he tried to force all
+Taoists to become Buddhists. If he was favorable to Taoism he tried to
+make all Buddhists become Taoists.
+
+But such mandates were as unsuccessful as other similar schemes have
+been. In the third century A. D. after the Han dynasty had ended, China
+was broken up into several small kingdoms which contended for supremacy,
+so that for about four hundred years the whole country was in a state of
+disunion. One of the strong dynasties of this period, the Northern Wei
+(386-535 A. D.), was distinctly loyal to Buddhism. During its
+continuance Buddhism prospered greatly. Although Chinese were not
+permitted to become monks until 335 A. D., still Buddhism made rapid
+advances and in the fourth century, when that restriction was removed,
+about nine-tenths of the people of northwestern China had become
+Buddhists. Since then Buddhism has been an established factor in Chinese
+life.
+
+
+
+
+III
+
+
+THE ESTABLISHMENT OF BUDDHISM AS THE PREDOMINATING RELIGION OF CHINA
+
+Even the historical influences noted above do not account entirely for
+the spread of Buddhism in China. In order to understand this and the
+place which Buddhism occupies, we need to review briefly the different
+forms which religion takes in China and to note how Buddhism has related
+itself to them.
+
+_1. The World of Invisible Spirits_
+
+The Chinese believe _in_ a surrounding-world of spirits, whose
+origin is exceedingly various. They touch life at every point. There are
+spirits which are guardians of the soil, tree spirits, mountain demons,
+fire gods, the spirits of animals, of mountains, of rivers, seas and
+stars, of the heavenly bodies and of many forms of active life. These
+spirits to the Chinese mind, of today are a projection, a sort of
+spiritual counterpart, of the many sided interests, practical or
+otherwise, of the groups and communities by whom they are worshipped.
+There are other spirits which mirror the ideals of the groups by which
+they are worshipped. Some of them may have been incarnated in the lives
+of great leaders. There are spirits which are mere animations,
+occasional spirits, associated with objects crossing the interests of
+men, but not constant enough to attain a definite, independent life as
+spiritual beings. Thus surrounding the average Chinese peasant there is
+a densely populated spirit world affecting in all kinds of ways his,
+daily existence. This other world is the background which must be kept
+in mind by one who would understand or attempt to guide Chinese
+religious experience. It is the basis on which all organized forms of
+religious activity are built. The nearest of these to his heart is the
+proper regard for his ancestors.
+
+_2. The Universal Sense_ of _Ancestor Control_
+
+The ancestral control of family life occupies so large and important a
+place in Chinese thought and practice that ancestor worship has been
+called the original religion of the Chinese. It is certain that the
+earliest Confucian records recognize ancestor worship; but doubtless it
+antedated them, growing up out of the general religious consciousness of
+the people. The discussion of that origin in detail cannot be taken up
+here. It may be followed in the literature noted in the appendix or in
+the volume of this series entitled "Present-Day Confucianism." Ancestor
+worship is active today, however, because the Chinese as a people
+believe that these ancestors control in a very real way the good or evil
+fortunes of their descendants, because this recognition of ancestors
+furnishes a potent means of promoting family unity and social ethics,
+and, most of all, because a happy future life is supposed to be
+dependent upon descendants who will faithfully minister to the dead.
+Since each one desires such a future he is faithful in promoting the
+observance of the obligation. Consequently, ancestor worship, like the
+previously mentioned belief in the invisible spiritual world, underlies
+all other religious developments. No family is so obscure or poor that
+it does not submit to the ritual or discipline which is supposed to
+ensure the favor of the spirits belonging to the community. Likewise,
+every such family is loyal to the supposed needs of its deceased
+ancestors. In a very intimate way these beliefs are interwoven with the
+private and social morality of every family or group in Chinese society,
+and must be taken into account by any one who seeks to bring a religious
+message to the Chinese people.
+
+_3. Degenerate Taoism_
+
+Taoism is that system of Chinese religious thought and practice,
+beginning about the fifth century B. C., which was originally based on
+the teachings of Lao Tzu and developed in the writings of Lieh Tzu and
+Chuang Tzu and found in the Tao Tê Ching. It is really in this original
+form a philosophy of some merit. According to its teaching the Tao is
+the great impersonal background of the world from which all things
+proceed as beams from the sun, and to which all beings return. In
+contrast to the present, transient, changing world the Tao is
+unchangeable and quiet. Originally the Taoists emphasized quiescence, a
+life in accordance with nature, as a means of assimilating themselves to
+the Tao, believing that in this way they would obtain length of days,
+eternal life and especially the power to become superior to natural
+conditions.
+
+There is a movement today among Chinese scholars in favor of a return to
+this original highest form of Taoism. It appeals to them as a philosophy
+of life; an answer to its riddles. Among the masses of the people,
+however, Taoism manifests itself in a ritual of extreme superstition. It
+recommends magic tricks and curious superstitions as a means of
+prolonging life. It expresses itself very largely in these degrading
+practices which few Chinese will defend, but which are yet very commonly
+practiced.
+
+_4. The Organizing Value of Confucianism_
+
+Confucianism brought organization into these hazy conceptions of life
+and duty. It took for granted this spiritual-unspiritual background of
+animism, ancestor-worship and Taoism, but reshaped and adapted it as a
+whole so that it might fit into that proper organization of the state
+and nation which was one of its great objectives. Just as Confucianism
+related the family to the village, the village to the district, and the
+district to the state, so it organized the spiritual world into a
+hierarchy with Shang Ti as its head. This hierarchy was developed along
+the lines of the organization mentioned above. Under Shang Ti were the
+five cosmic emperors, one for each of the four quarters and one for
+heaven above, under whom were the gods of the soil, the mountains,
+rivers, seas, stars, the sun and moon, the ancestors and the gods of
+special groups. Each of the deities in the various ranks had duties to
+those above and rights with reference to those below. These duties and
+rights, as they affected the individual, were not only expressed in law
+but were embodied in ceremony and music, in daily religious life and
+practice in such a way that each individual had reason to feel that he
+was a functioning agent in this grand Confucian universe. If any one
+failed to do his part, the whole universe would suffer. So thoroughly
+has this idea been adopted by the Chinese people that every one joins in
+forcing an individual, however reluctant or careless, to perform his
+part of each ceremony as it has been ordered from high antiquity.
+
+The emperor alone worshipped the supreme deity, Shang Ti; the great
+officers of state, according to the dignity of their office, were
+related to subordinate gods and required to show them adequate respect
+and reverence. Confucius and a long line of noted men following him were
+semi-deified [Footnote: Confucius was by imperial decree deified in
+1908.] and highly reverenced by the literati, the class from which the
+officers of state were as a rule obtained, in connection with their
+duties, and as an expression of their ideals. To the common people were
+left the ordinary local deities, while all classes, of course, each in
+its own fashion reverenced, cherished and obeyed their ancestors. It
+should be remarked at this point that Confucianism of this official
+character has broken down, not only under the impact of modern ideas,
+but under the longing of the Chinese for a universal deity. The people
+turn to Heaven and to the Pearly Emperor, the popular counterpart of
+Shang Ti.
+
+Viewed from another angle, Confucianism is an elaborate system of
+ethics. In writings which are virtually the scriptures of the Chinese
+people Confucius and his successors have set forth the principles which
+should govern the life of a people who recognize this spiritual universe
+and system. These ethics have grown out of a long and, in some respects,
+a sound experience. Much can be said in their favor. The essential
+weaknesses of the Confucian system of ethics lie in its sectional and
+personal loyalties and its monarchical basis. The spirit of democracy is
+a deadly foe to Confucianism. Another element of weakness is its
+excessive dependence upon the past. Confucius reached ultimate wisdom by
+the study of the best that had been attained before his day. He looked
+backward rather than forward. Consequently a modern, broadly educated
+Confucianist finds himself in an anomalous position. He does not need
+absolutely to reject the wisdom which Confucianism embodies, but he can
+no longer accept it as a sound, reliable and indisputable scheme of
+thought and action. Yet its simple ethical principles and its social
+relationships are basal in the lives of the vast masses of the Chinese.
+
+_5. Buddhism an Inclusive Religion._
+
+Upon this, confused jumble of spiritism, superstition, loyalty to
+ancestors and submission to a divine hierarchy Buddhism was
+superimposed. It quickly dominated all because of its superior
+excellence. The form of Buddhism which became established in China was
+not, to be sure, like the Buddhism preached by Gautama and his
+disciples, or like that form of Buddhism which had taken root in Burma
+or Ceylon. Except in name, the Buddhism of Southern Asia and the
+Buddhism which developed in China were virtually two distinct types of
+religion. The Buddhism of Burma and Ceylon was of the conservative
+Hînayâna ("Little Vehicle" of salvation) school, while that of China was
+of the progressive Mahâyâna ("Great Vehicle" of salvation) school. Their
+differences are so marked as to be worthy of a careful statement.
+
+The Hinayana, which is today the type of Buddhism in Ceylon, Burma and
+Siam, has always clung closely to tradition as expressed in the original
+Buddhist scriptures. Its basic ideas were that life is on the whole a
+time of suffering, that the cause of this sorrow is desire or ignorance,
+and that there is a possible deliverance from it. This deliverance or
+salvation is to be attained by following the eightfold path, namely,
+right knowledge, aspiration, speech, conduct, means of livelihood,
+endeavor, mindfulness and meditation. To the beatific state to be
+ultimately attained Gautama gave the name Nirvana, explained by his
+followers variously either as an utter extinction of personality or as a
+passionless peace, a general state of well-being free from all evil
+desire or clinging to life and released from the chain of
+transmigration. Hinayana Buddhism appeals to the individual as affording
+a way of escape from evil desire and its consequences by acquiring
+knowledge, by constant discipline, and by a devotedness of the life to
+religious ends through membership in the monastic order which Buddha
+established. It encourages, however, a personal salvation worked out by
+the individual alone.
+
+The Mahâyâna school of Buddhists accept the general ideas of the
+Hinayana regarding life and salvation, but so change the spirit and
+objectives as to make Buddhism into what is virtually another religion.
+It does not confine salvation to the few who can retire from the world
+and give themselves wholly to good works, but opens Buddhahood to all.
+The "saint" of Hinayana Buddhism is the _arhat_ who is intent on
+saving himself. The saint of Mahâyâna Buddhism is the candidate for
+Buddhahood (Bodhisattva) who defers his entrance into the bliss of
+deliverance in order to save others. Mahâyâna Buddhism is progressive.
+It encourages missionary enterprise and was a secret of the remarkable
+spread of Buddhism over Asia. Moreover, while the Hînayâna school
+recognizes no god or being to whom worship is given, the Mahâyanâ came
+to regard Gautama himself as a god and salvation as life in a heavenly
+world of pure souls. Thus the Mahâyâna type of thinking constitutes a
+bridge between Hînayâna Buddhism and Christianity. In fact, a recent
+writer has declared that Hînayâna Buddhists are verging toward these
+more spiritual conceptions. [Footnote: See Saunders, _Buddhism and
+Buddhists in Southern Asia,_ pp. 10, 20.]
+
+After the death of Sâkyamuni [Footnote: Sâkyamuni is the name by which
+Gautama, the Buddha, is familiarly known in China.] Buddhism broke up
+into a number of sects usually said to be eighteen in number. When
+Buddhism came to China some of these sects were introduced, but they
+assumed new forms in their Chinese environment. Besides the sects
+brought, from India the Chinese developed several strong sects of their
+own. Usually they speak of ten sects although the number is far larger,
+if the various subdivisions are included.
+
+To indicate the manifold differences between these groups in Buddhism
+would take us far afield and would not be profitable. It will be of
+interest, however, to consider some of the chief sects. One of the sects
+introduced from India is the Pure Land or the Ching T'u which holds
+before the believer the "Western Paradise" gained through faith in
+Amitâbha. Any one, no matter what his life may have been, may enter the
+Western Paradise by repeating the name of Amitâbha. This sect is
+widespread in China. In Japan there are two branches of it known as the
+Nishi-Hongwanji and the Higashi-Hongwanji with their head monasteries in
+Kyoto. They are the most progressive sects in Japan and are carrying on
+missionary work in China, the Hawaiian Islands and in the United States.
+
+Another strong sect is the Meditative sect or the Ch'an Men (Zen in
+Japan). This was introduced by Bodhidharma, or Tamo, who arrived in the
+capital of China in the year 520 A.D. On his arrival the emperor Wu Ti
+tried to impress the sage with his greatness saying: "We have built
+temples, multiplied the Scriptures, encouraged many to join the Order:
+is not there much merit in all this?" "None," was the blunt reply. "But
+what say the holy books? Do they not promise rewards for such deeds?"
+"There is nothing holy." "But you, yourself, are you not one of the holy
+ones?" "I don't know." "Who are you?" "I don't know." Thus introduced,
+the great man proceeded to open his missionary-labors by sitting down
+opposite a wall arid gazing at it for the next nine years. From this he
+has been called the "wall-gazer." He and his successors promulgated the
+doctrine that neither the scriptures, the ritual nor the organization,
+in fact nothing outward had any value in the attainment of
+enlightenment. They held that the heart of the universe is Buddha and
+that apart from the heart or the thought all is unreal. They thought
+themselves back into the universal Buddha and then found the Buddha
+heart in all nature. Thus they awakened the spirit which permeated
+nature, art and literature and made the whole world kin with the spirit
+of the Buddha.
+
+
+  "The golden light upon the sunkist peaks,
+  The water murmuring in the pebbly creeks,
+  Are Buddha. In the stillness, hark, he speaks!"
+
+
+[Footnote: K. J. Saunders in _Epochs of Buddhist History._]
+
+Such pantheism and quietism often lead to a confusion in moral
+relations, but these mystics were quite correct in their morals because
+they checked up their mysticism with the moral system of the Buddha.
+
+Still another important sect originated in the sixth century A. D. on
+Chinese soil, namely, the T'ien T'ai (Japanese Tendai), so called
+because it started in a monastery situated on the beautiful T'ien T'ai
+mountains south of Ningpo. Chih K'ai, the founder, realized that
+Buddhism contained a great mass of contradictory teachings and practice,
+all attributed to the Buddha. He sought for a harmonizing principle and
+found it in the arbitrary theory that these teachings were given to
+different people on five different occasions and hence the
+discrepancies. The practical message of this sect has been that all
+beings have the Buddha heart and that the Buddha loves all beings, so
+that all beings may attain salvation, which consists in the full
+realization of the Buddha heart latent in them.
+
+There was a time when these sects were very active and flourishing in
+China. At the present time the various tendencies for which they stood
+have been adopted by Buddhism as a whole and the various sectaries,
+though still keeping the name of the sect, live peacefully in the same
+monastery. All the monasteries practice meditation, believe in the
+paradise of Amitâbha, and are enjoying the ironic calm advocated by the
+T'ien T'ai. While the struggle among the sects of China has been
+followed by a calm which resembles stagnation, those in Japan are very
+active and the reader is referred to the volume of this series on
+Japanese Buddhism for further treatment of the subject.
+
+When Buddhism entered China it brought with it a new world. It was new
+_practical_ and new spiritually. It brought a knowledge unknown
+before regarding the heavenly bodies, regarding nature and regarding
+medicine, and a practice vastly above the realm of magical arts. In
+addition to these practical benefits, Buddhism proclaimed a new
+spiritual universe far more real and extensive than any of which the
+Chinese had dreamed, and peopled with spiritual beings having
+characteristics entirely novel. In comparison with this new universe or
+series of universes which Indian imagination had created, the Chinese
+universe was wooden and geometric. Since it was an organized system and
+a greater rather than a different one, the Chinese people readily
+accepted it and made it their own.
+
+Buddhism not only enlarged the universe and gave the individual a range
+of opportunity hitherto unsuspected, but it introduced a scheme of
+religious practice, or rather several of them, enabling the individual
+devotee to attain a place in this spiritual universe through his own
+efforts. These "ways" of salvation were quite in harmony with Chinese
+ideas. They resembled what had already been a part of the national
+practice and so were readily adopted and adapted by the Chinese.
+
+Buddhism rendered a great service to the Chinese through its new
+estimate of the individual. Ancient China scarcely recognized the
+individual. He was merged in the family and the clan. Taoists, to be
+sure, talked of "immortals" and Confucianism exhibited its typical
+personality, or "princely man," but these were thought of as supermen,
+as ideals. The classics of China had very little to say about the common
+people. The great common crowd was submerged. Buddhism, on the other
+hand, gave every individual a distinct place in the great wheel
+_dharma,_ the law, and made it possible for him to reach the very
+highest goal of salvation. This introduced a genuinely new element into
+the social and family life of the Chinese people.
+
+Buddhism was so markedly superior to any one of the four other methods
+of expressing the religious life, that it quickly won practical
+recognition as the real religion of China. Confucianism may be called
+the doctrine of the learned classes. It formulates their principles of
+life, but it is in no strict sense a popular religion. It is rather a
+state ritual, or a scheme of personal and social ethics. Taoism
+recognizes the immediate influence of the spirit world, but it ministers
+only to local ideals and needs. In the usages of family and community
+life, ancestor worship has a definite place, but an occasional one.
+Buddhism was able to leave untouched each of these expressions of
+Chinese personal and social life, and yet it went far beyond them in
+ministering to religious development. Its ideas of being, of moral
+responsibility and of religious relationships furnished a new psychology
+which with all its imperfections far surpassed that of the Chinese.
+Buddhism's organization was so satisfying and adaptable that not only
+was it taken over readily by the Chinese, but it has also persisted in
+China without marked changes since its introduction. Most of all it
+stressed personal salvation and promised an escape from the impersonal
+world of distress and hunger which surrounds the average Chinese into a
+heaven ruled by Amitâbha [Footnote: Amitâbha, meaning "infinite light,"
+is the Sanskrit name of one of the Buddhas moat highly revered in China.
+The usual Chinese equivalent is Omi-To-Fo.] the Merciful. The
+obligations of Buddhism are very definite and universally recognized. It
+enforces high standards of living, but has added significance because it
+draws each devotee into a sort of fellowship with the divine, and mates
+not this life alone, but this life plus a future life, the end of human
+activity. Buddhism, therefore, really expresses the deepest religious
+life of the people of China.
+
+It will be worth while to note some illustrations of the conviction of
+the Chinese people that there are three religions to which they owe
+allegiance and yet that these are essentially one. They often say, "The
+three teachings are the whole teaching." An old scholar is reported to
+have remarked, "The three roads are different, but they lead to the same
+source." A common story reports that Confucius was asked in the other
+world about drinking wine, which Buddhists forbid but Taoists permit.
+Confucius replied: "If I do not drink I become a Buddha. If I drink I
+become an Immortal. Well, if there is wine, I shall drink; if there is
+none, I shall abstain." This expresses characteristically the Chinese
+habit of adaptation. Such a decision sounds quite up to date.
+
+The Ethical Culture Society of Peking, recently organized, has upon its
+walls pictures of Buddha, Lao Tzu, Confucius and Christ. Its members
+claim to worship Shang Ti as the god of all religions. An offshoot of
+this society, the T'ung Shan She, associates the three founders very
+closely with Christ. It claims to have a deeper revelation of Christ
+than the Christians themselves. A new organization, the Tao Yuan, plans
+to harmonize the three old religions with Mohammedanism and
+Christianity.
+
+Buddhism has consistently and continually striven to bring about a unity
+of religion in China by interpenetrating Confucianism and Taoism. Quite
+early the Buddhists invented the story that the Bodhisattva Ju T'ung was
+really Confucius incarnate. There was at one time a Buddhist temple to
+Confucius in the province of Shantung. The Buddhists also gave out the
+story that Bodhisattva Kas'yapa was the incarnation of Lao Tzu, the
+founder of Taoism. An artist painted Lao Tzu transformed into a Buddha,
+seated in a lotus bud with a halo about his head. In front of the Buddha
+was Confucius doing reverence. A Chinese scholar, asked for his opinion
+about the picture, said: "Buddha should be seated; Lao Tzu should be
+standing at the side looking askance at Buddha; and Confucius should be
+grovelling on the floor."
+
+A monument dating from 543 A. D., illustrates this tendency of Buddhism
+to represent its own superiority in Chinese religious life. At the top
+of the monument is Brahma, lower down is Sâkyamuni with his disciples,
+Ananda and Kas'yapa on one face, and on the other Sâkyamuni again,
+conversing with Buddha Prabhutaratna and worshipped by monks and
+Bodhisattvas. On the pedestal are Confucian and Taoist deities, ten in
+number. Thus Buddhism sought to rank itself clearly above the other two
+religions. From the early days Buddhism regarded itself as their
+superior and began the processes of interpenetration and absorption. In
+consequence the values originally inherent in Buddhism have come to be
+regarded as the natural possession of the Chinese. It does express their
+religious life, especially in South China, where outward manifestations
+of religion are perhaps more marked than in the north.
+
+
+
+
+IV
+
+
+BUDDHISM AND THE PEASANT
+
+In order that, one may realize the place that Buddhism holds in the
+religious life of the Chinese people as a whole, he must turn to the
+organizations through which it functions. It is sometimes difficult to
+estimate the place of Buddhism in China, because it so interpenetrates
+the whole cultural and social life of the people. It becomes their
+"way." To see how it touches the life of the average man or woman in
+various ways will, therefore, be illuminating. The most outstanding
+evidence of devotion are the many monasteries which dot the land in all
+Buddhist countries. China is less dominated by them than other lands,
+yet they form a very important reason for the persistence and strength
+of Buddhism there. One of the famous old shrines will represent them as
+a class and give evidence of their importance.
+
+_1. The Monastery of Kushan_
+
+Kushan Monastery, located about four hours' ride by sedan-chair from
+Foochow, is a famous shrine of South China. It occupies a large
+amphitheater about fifteen hundred feet above the plain, part way up
+Kushan, the "Drum Mountain," some three thousand feet high. From the top
+of the mountain on clear days with the help of a glass the blue shores
+of Formosa may be seen on the eastern horizon. The spacious monastery
+buildings are surrounded by a grove of noble trees, in which squirrels,
+pheasants, chipmunks and snakes enjoy an undisturbed life.
+
+The ascent to the monastery begins on the bank of the Min River. At the
+foot of the mountain in a large temple the traveler may obtain mountain
+chairs carried by two or more coolies. The road, paved with granite
+slabs cut from the mountain side, consists of a series of stone stairs,
+which zig-zag up the mountain under the shadow of ancient pine trees.
+Every turn brings to view a bit of landscape carpeted with rice, or a
+distant view where mountains and sky meet. A brook rushes by the side of
+the road. Here it breaks into a beautiful waterfall. There it gurgles'
+in a deep ravine. The sides of the road are covered with large granite
+blocks which, loosened from the mountain side by earthquakes, have
+disposed themselves promiscuously. Their blackened, weather-beaten sides
+are incised with Chinese characters. One of them bears the words: "We
+put our trust in Amitâbha." Another immortalizes the sentiments of some
+great official who has made the pilgrimage to the mountain. Near the
+monastery stand the sombre dagobas where repose the ashes of former
+abbots and monastery officials. Not far away on the other side of the
+road, hidden by trees, is the crematory where the last remains of the
+brethren are consumed by the flames.
+
+As one approaches the monastery he hears the regular sounds of a bell
+tolled by a water-wheel, reminding the faithful of Buddha's law. He sees
+monks strolling leisurely about and lay brethren carrying wood,
+cultivating the gardens, or tending the animals released by pious
+devotees to heap up merit for themselves in the next world. Just inside
+the main gate is a large fish pond, where goldfish of great size
+struggle with one another, and with the lazy turtles, for the round hard
+cakes purchased from the monks by the merit-seeking devotee.
+
+The monastery itself consists of a large group of buildings erected
+about stone-paved courts, rising in terraces on the mountain side. The
+large court at the entrance leads to the "Hall of the Four Kings." As
+one enters the spacious door, he _is_ faced by a jolly, almost
+naked image of the "Laughing Buddha." This is Maitrêya, the Mea siah of
+the Buddhists, who will return to the world five thousand years after
+the departure of Sâkyamuni. In the northern monasteries Maitrêya is
+often represented as reaching a height when standing of seventy feet or
+more, which indicates the stature to which man will attain when he
+returns to earth. On each side of the visitor are two immense images of
+the Deva kings. In Brahman cosmogony they were the guardians of the
+world. In this entrance hall of the Buddhist monastery they stand as
+guardians of the Buddhist faith. In the same hall looking toward the
+open court beyond is Wei To, another guardian deity of Buddhism.
+Somewhere near by is Kuan Ti, the god worshipped by the soldiers and
+merchants. Although a Confucian god, he was early adopted by Buddhist
+monks into their pantheon and made the guardian of their Order.
+
+Beyond this entrance hall is a large stone-paved court. On the right
+side is a bell-tower whose bell is tolled by a monk who has kept the vow
+of silence for fourteen years. On the left is a drum-tower. On the right
+one finds a series of small shrines. A passage way leads to the library
+where numerous Buddhist writings repose in lacquered cases, some of them
+written in their own blood by devout monks. On the same side are guest
+halls, the dining room for three hundred monks, and the spacious, well
+equipped kitchen with running water piped from a reservoir in the hills
+above. A store where books, images and the simple requirements of the
+monks can be obtained is just above the dining room. On the left side of
+the court are large buildings used as dormitories far the monks,
+storerooms, and for housing the great printing establishment with its
+thousands of wooden blocks on which are carved passages from the
+Buddhist scriptures. Here also are kept the coffins in which the monks
+are to be burned.
+
+On a terrace above the north side of the court rises the main hall,
+called the "Hall of the Triratna," the Buddhist Trinity, where three
+gilded images are seated on a lotus flower with halos covering their
+backs and heads. The center image is that of Sâkyamuni, the Buddha. On
+his right is Yao Shih, the Buddha of medicine, and on the left,
+Amitâbha. Quite often these images are said to represent the Buddha, the
+Law and the Community of Monks. On the altar are candlesticks and a fine
+incense burner from which curls of smoke arise. An immense lamp hangs
+from the ceiling. In the rear are banners with praises to Buddha given
+by pious devotees. The floor is tiled and covered with round mats made
+of palm fiber on which the monks kneel during worship. Before the mats
+are low stands for books. On each side of this main hall are the images
+of nine Buddhist saints (_arhats_), eighteen in all. Behind this
+large temple opens another court and on a terrace above it stands the
+hall of the Law with the images of Kuan Yin, the goddess of Mercy, and
+the twenty-four devas. Here also are small images of viceroys and
+patrons of the monastery.
+
+The hillsides are dotted with numerous temples and shrines. There is one
+to Chu-Hsi, the great philosopher of the Sung dynasty, who was born in
+Fukien. In it are preserved a few characters indited by his hand. On the
+west side of the monastery are large buildings for the housing of
+animals released by merit-seeking devotees. Here cows, hogs, goats,
+chickens, geese and ducks spend their old age without fear of beginning
+their transmigration by forming the main portion of a Chinese feast.
+
+The monastery is governed by an abbot, usually a man of good business
+ability, elected by the monks. Under him are the officers of the two
+wings or groups of attendants. One set looks after the spiritual
+interests, of the monks; the-other takes care of their material needs:
+The monks have worship about two o'clock in the morning and again at
+about four in the afternoon. The rest of the long day they spend in
+meditation, or study, in strolling about the mountain side or in sleep.
+Their life is separated from all stirring contact with the life of the
+world.
+
+_2. Monasteries Control Fêng-shui_
+
+This monastery with its appointments is a good type of the monasteries
+all over China. It was founded at the request of the inhabitants of the
+neighborhood, because the dragons of the region used to cause much
+damage to the crops in the surrounding country. A holy monk came,
+founded the monastery, and by his good influence so curbed the dragons
+that the country-side has enjoyed peace ever since and the monastery has
+prospered. Since the fourth century of our era records show that by the
+building of monasteries in strategic place's holy monks brought rains
+and prosperity to various regions, or prevented floods and calamities
+from damaging the villages. In other words the monasteries are regarded
+as the controllers of _fêng-shui_ (wind and water). According to
+the Chinese philosophy winds and water are spiritual forces and may be
+so controlled by other spiritual forces that instead of bringing harm
+they will confer benefit upon the people. Floods and dry seasons are so
+frequent in China that any institution holding out the promise of
+regulating them would become firmly established in the affection of the
+people. The monasteries have taken this place.
+
+One of the picturesque features of a Chinese landscape is the pagoda.
+These structures were introduced in the early stages of Buddhism to
+enshrine the relics of Buddha. It was said that Buddha's body consisted
+of eighty thousand parts, hence numerous pagodas were erected to shelter
+these relics. Inasmuch as a pagoda contained the relics of Buddha, it
+possessed magic power and so came to play a great part in the control of
+the winds and the rains. The pagoda in China has an odd number of
+stories varying from three to thirteen. The odd numbers belong to the
+positive principle in nature which is superior to the negative
+principle. The pagoda plays quite a part in the festivals of the people.
+On certain occasions the stories are hung with lanterns and the pagodas
+are visited by numerous throngs.
+
+_3. Prayer for Rain_
+
+Prayers for rain afford such a common illustration of the relation of
+Buddhism to the life of the peasant that a detailed presentation of such
+a service may be of seal value.
+
+During a prolonged drought in some district of China, when the heat
+opens gaping cracks in the fields and the grain is drying up, the
+populace may visit their highest official and apprise him of the dire
+situation. He often forbids the slaughter of all animals for three days
+and, in case rain has not thereby come, he goes in person or sends a
+deputy to the nearest monastery to direct the monks to pray for rain.
+
+_(a) The Altar._--On such an occasion the great hall of the Law may
+be used for the ceremony. Quite often a special altar is erected in an
+enclosure near the monastery on a platform one foot high and twenty-five
+feet on each side, overspread by a tent of green cloth. In the center
+seats are arranged for the presiding monk and his assistants. On each of
+the four sides of the altar is placed an image of the Dragon King who is
+supposed to control the rain. If an image is not obtainable a piece of
+paper inscribed with the name of the dragon may be used. Flowers, fruits
+and incense are spread before the images. On the doors of the tent are
+painted dragons with clouds. The tent and altar are green and the monks
+wear green garments, because green belongs to the spring and suggests
+rain. For this ceremony the monks prepare themselves by abstinence and
+cleansing. The presiding monk is one of high moral character and
+religious fervor. While some monks recite appropriate sutras, two others
+look after the offerings, the incense, and the sprinkling of water
+during the ceremony to suggest the coming of rain. The services continue
+day and night, being conducted by groups of monks in succession.
+
+_(b) The Prayer Service._--The ceremonial is opened by a chant as
+follows:
+
+"Pearly dew of the jade heavens, golden waves of Buddha's ocean, scatter
+the lotus flowers on a thousand thousand worlds of suffering, that the
+heart of mercy may wash away great calamity, that a drop may become a
+flood, that a drop may purify mountains and rivers.
+
+"We put our trust in the Bodhisattvas and Mahâsattvas that purify the
+earth."
+
+The chant ended, a monk takes a bowl of water and repeats thrice: "We
+put our trust in the great merciful Kuan Yin Bodhisattva." Then follows
+the chant:
+
+"The Bodhisattva's sweet dew of the willow is able to make one drop
+spread over the ten directions. It washes away the rank odors and dirt.
+It keeps the altars clean and pure. The mysterious words of the doctrine
+will be reverently repeated."
+
+This chant ended, the monks intone incantations of Kuan Yin, quite
+unintelligible even to them, but of magical value. While these are being
+uttered, the presiding monk and his attendants walk around the altar,
+while one of them with a branch sprinkles water on the floor. This
+symbolizes the cleansing of the altar and of the monks from all
+impurities which might render the ritual ineffective. When the
+perambulating monks have returned to their place, while the sprinkler
+continues his duties, the monks repeat the words: "We put our trust in
+the sweet dew kings, Bodhisattvas and Mahâsattvas."
+
+The Bodhisattvas have now come to the purified altar and while the abbot
+offers incense to them, the monks repeat the words:
+
+"The fields are destroyed so that they resemble the back of a tortoise.
+The demons of drought produce calamity. The dark people [Footnote: A
+term denoting the Chinese.] pray earnestly while crops are being
+destroyed. We pray that abundant, limpid liquid may descend to purify
+and refresh the whole world. The clouds of incense rise."
+
+This plaint is repeated thrice and is followed by an invocation:
+
+"Wholeheartedly we cast ourselves to the earth, O Triratna, who dost
+exist eternally in the realm of _dharma_ of the ten directions."
+
+The leader remains quiet a long time with his eyes closed, visualizing
+the Buddhas, the Bodhisattvas, the dragon kings, and the saints, all
+with their heavenly eyes and ears knowing that this region is afflicted
+with drought, that an altar has been constructed and that all have come
+to make petition. This meditation is regarded as of chief importance. It
+is followed by an announcement to the effect that the sutra praying for
+rain was given by the Buddha, that a drought is afflicting the land,
+that the altar has been erected in accordance with the regulations and
+that prayer is being made for rain. But fearing that something may have
+been overlooked, the magic formula of "the king of light who turns the
+wheel" is read seven times so as to remedy such oversight.
+
+The altar having thus been cleansed of all impurities, the rain sutra is
+opened and the one hundred and eighty-eight dragon kings are urged by
+name in groups of ten to take action. The formula is as follows:
+
+"We with our whole heart invite such and such dragon kings to come. We
+desire that the heart and wisdom which knows others intuitively will
+move the spirits above to obey the Buddha, to take pity on the people
+below and to come to our province and send down sweet rain."
+
+When the dragons have all been duly invited, the monks chant suitable
+magical formulas, while the leader sits in meditation visualizing these
+dragon kings and their tender solicitude for the people in distress. The
+monastery bell is sounded and the wooden fish is beaten, while drums and
+cymbals add their effect. The whole is intended to draw the attention of
+the dragon kings to the drought. Then the fifty-four Buddhas are invited
+in a similar manner in groups of ten, the sixth group consisting of
+four. A similar form of address is used and similar magical formulas are
+recited with the noisy accompaniment. The ceremony concludes by the
+expression of the hope that the three jewels (Buddha, the Law and the
+Community of Monks) and the dragon kings will grant the rain.
+
+Upon the altar are four copies of an announcement to the dragon kings
+and Buddhas. On the first day three copies are sent to them through the
+flames, one to the Buddhas, one to the dragon kings and one to the
+devas. One copy is read daily and then sent up at the thanksgiving
+ceremony. The announcement is as follows:
+
+"We put our trust in the limitless, reverent ocean clouds, the dragons
+of august virtue and all their host, all dragon kings and holy saints.
+Their august virtue is difficult to measure. In accord with the command
+of Buddha they send liquid rain. May their quiet mercy descend to the
+altar; may they send down purity and freshness, spreading over the ten
+directions. We put our trust in the company of dragon kings of the
+clouds, the saints and the Bodhisattvas."
+
+The offerings are made only in the morning inasmuch as the Buddhas,
+following ancient custom, are not supposed to eat after the noonday
+meal. Great care is taken that the altar shall not be desecrated by any
+one who eats meat or drinks wine. The magic formulas of great mercy are
+uttered or the name of Kuan Yin is repeated a thousand times. The monks,
+take turn in these services which continue day and night until rain
+comes.
+
+_(c) Its Meaning._--In the religious consciousness of the people is
+the idea that the drought is a punishment for sin. The altar is made
+pure and acceptable and sin is removed in various symbolic ways. This
+fits in with the idea that man is an intimate part of the world order.
+His sin disturbs the order of nature. Heaven manifests displeasures by
+sending down calamities upon men. Men should cease their wrongdoing
+which disturbs the natural order and should also wash away the effects
+of their sins. The services for rain with their magic formulas help to
+clear away the consequences of sin and to predispose Heaven to grant its
+blessings again.
+
+_4. Monasteries Are Supported Because They Control Fêng-shui_
+
+The prayers for rain are an important part of the Chinese peasant's
+world order. Drought is the manifestation of Heaven's displeasure at the
+infraction of Heaven's laws. It calls for self-examination and
+repentance. Thus the monastery opens up the windows of the universal
+order as this touches the humble tiller of the soil.
+
+The Buddhist monasteries not only hold services in time of drought, but
+also in time of flood and at times when plagues of grasshoppers afflict
+the land, or when diseases afflict human beings. Their adoption of
+Chinese customs led them to have special ceremonies at the eclipse of
+the sun and moon, although they knew the cause of the eclipse. Peasants
+and officials support the monastery because of these services regulating
+the wind and water influences and through them bringing the people into
+harmonious relation with the great world of spirits.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+BUDDHISM AND THE FAMILY
+
+One of the criticisms of the Chinese against Buddhism is that it is
+opposed to filial piety. According to Mencius the greatest unfilial act
+is to leave no progeny. In spite of this charge Buddhism has done much
+for the family. It has taken over the ethics of the family, filial
+piety, obedience and respect for elders, and has made them a part of its
+system. Transgression of these fundamental duties is visited by dire
+punishments in the next world. The faithful observance is followed not
+only by the rewards of the Confucian system, but results in the greatest
+rewards in the future life.
+
+_1. Kuan Yin, the Giver of Children and Protector of Women_
+
+Buddhism has done more. Out of its atmosphere of love and mercy toward
+all beings has developed Kuan Yin, the ideal of Chinese womanhood, the
+goddess of Mercy, who embodies the Chinese ideal of beauty, filial piety
+and compassion toward the weak and suffering. She is especially the
+goddess of women, being interested in all their affairs. Her image is
+found in almost every household and her temples have a place in every
+part of China.
+
+A brief history of this deity will enable us to understand the
+significance of the cult. Kuan Yin started as a male god in India,
+called Avalôkitêsvara, who was worshipped from the third to the seventh
+century of our era. He was the protector of sailors and people in
+danger. In the course of time, either in China or in India, the god
+became a goddess. Some think that this was due to the influence of
+Christianity. In China both forms survive, though the goddess is better
+known. A Buddhist once said that a Bodhisattva is neither male nor
+female and appears in whatever form is convenient.
+
+Kuan Yin is a very popular goddess. Her experiences in Hades are
+dramatically presented by traveling theatrical companies. Her deeds of
+mercy are portrayed in art. Her well known story runs as follows:
+
+Kuan Yin was the daughter of the ruler of a prosperous kingdom located
+somewhere near the island of Sumatra. Her birth was announced to the
+queen by a dream. The little girl ate no meat nor milk. Her disposition
+was very good. Her intelligence was most extraordinary. Once she read
+anything she never forgot it.
+
+At the age of sixteen her father tried to betroth her to a young prince.
+She refused and decided to give herself to a life of fasting and
+abstinence. Angered b-v her obstinacy the father ordered her to take off
+her court dress and jewels, to put on the garb of a servant and to carry
+water for the garden. The garden never looked so beautiful. The daughter
+also looked well and showed no signs of weariness, because the gods
+assisted her in her work.
+
+Relenting a little the king sent an older sister to urge Kuan Yin to
+accept the husband he had found for her. When she refused, he sent her
+to a monastery and charged the abbess to treat her harshly, so that she
+might be forced to return home. Expecting to win the king's favor, the
+abbess put the most unpleasant tasks on the girl. But again the gods
+assisted her and made her work light, so that her tasks were always well
+done and the young woman was cheerful.
+
+One day the report came to the king that his daughter was associating
+with a young monk discussing heterodox doctrines and that she had given
+birth to a child. This news so enraged the king that he burned the
+monastery, killing many monks. The princess was captured and brought
+before him. Inasmuch as she was obdurate, the king ordered her to be
+executed. The executioner's sword, however, broke into a thousand pieces
+without doing her any injury. The king then ordered her to be strangled.
+A golden image sixteen feet high appeared on the spot. The princess
+laughed and cried: "Where there was no image, an image appeared. I see
+the real form. When body flesh is strangled, then appear the lights of
+ten thousand roads." She went to purgatory and purgatory at once changed
+into paradise. Yama, in order to save his purgatory, sent her back to
+the world. She appeared at Puto, an island off the coast of Chekiang
+near Ningpo. Here she rescued sailors and performed many miracles for
+people in distress.
+
+In the meantime the father, who had committed many sins, became sick.
+His allotted time of life had been shortened by twenty years. Moreover,
+an ulcer grew on his body for every one of the five hundred monks he had
+killed when he burned the monastery. A miserable, loathsome old man, he
+came to an old monk, who was really the princess in disguise, and asked
+for help. The monk told him that an eye and an arm of a blood relative
+made into medicine was the only cure for his trouble. The two living
+daughters were willing to make such an offering, but their husbands
+would not permit them to do so. The old monk urged the monarch to take
+up a life of abstinence, to rebuild the monastery he had burned, and to
+provide money for services to take the five hundred monks whom he had
+killed through purgatory. He also said that a nun in the convent would
+offer an arm and an eye. When the monarch entered the monastery, he
+found hanging before the incense burner an arm and an eye. These were
+boiled, mixed with medicine and rubbed on the king's body. He soon
+became well. Further inquiry revealed that these members belonged to his
+daughter.
+
+This is the story of the most popular goddess in China. She is
+worshipped by her devotees on the first and fifteenth of every month, on
+the nineteenth of the sixth month, when she became a Bodhisattva, and on
+the nineteenth of the ninth month, when she put on the necklace. A month
+after marriage every young bride is presented with an image of the
+Goddess of Mercy, an incense-burner and candlesticks.
+
+This goddess is worshipped whenever trouble comes to man or woman. Her
+names signify her willingness to listen to all prayers. She is the "one
+who regards the voice," i.e., prayer; "one who hears the prayers of the
+world;" "one who regards and exists by himself as sovereign;" "the
+ancestor of Buddha who regards prayer;" "one who frees from fear;"
+"Buddha the august king;" "the great white robed scholar;" "great
+compassion and mercy."
+
+_2. Kuan Yin, the Model of Local Mother-Goddesses_
+
+This conception is the creation of the social and religious
+consciousness of the women in China. It reveals their aspirations for
+mercy, compassion, filial piety and for the beauty that crowns a well
+developed character. Such an ideal does not mean that these have been
+realized in all the numerous homes of the Chinese, but it manifests
+their sense of such an ideal to be realized in life and their ardent
+longing for its realization.
+
+Mother-goddesses are found all over China and they have all of them been
+influenced by Kuan Yin. Some of them have originated with actual women
+who were deified after death. Here is the story of one of these
+goddesses who presides over the censer in a small temple in Formosa. She
+was born in the province of Kuangtung. At the age of seven she was
+adopted by a family as the future wife of their eighteen-year-old son.
+One day while crossing a river he was drowned. This was a great blow to
+her. When she was fourteen years old the father of the family died. The
+two women, thus left alone, wept bitterly day and night. The comfort of
+relatives was of little avail. The mother was becoming emaciated with
+grief. The daughter, unable to bear the strain any longer, washed
+herself, burned incense before the ancestral tablet of her betrothed,
+and then took this vow:
+
+"I am willing to remain a virgin, to apply myself to carrying water and
+working at the mortar and to serve my mother-in-law. If I cherish any
+other purpose and change my chastity and obedience, may Heaven slay me
+and earth annihilate me."
+
+When the mother heard this vow she stopped her weeping. Inasmuch as they
+had no uncle to look after them, they worked day and night. A relative
+of her future husband gave her one of his sons as an adopted son. The
+child died after a few months. This was a great grief. Then the mother
+died. The daughter sold her possessions to obtain money for a proper
+burial. She had only a coarse mourning cloth for her dress. After a
+while she adopted a child as her son. When he grew up she found him a
+wife who served her as faithfully as she had served her mother-in-law.
+When she was eighty years old, she dreamed that the golden maid and jade
+messenger of Kuan Yin stood beside her saying: "The court of Heaven has
+ordered you to become a god (shên)." She died soon after this. She said
+of herself:
+
+"Shang Ti took compassion upon me during my life, because with a firm
+heart I kept my chastity and served my mother-in-law with complete
+obedience. Therefore he gave me the office of Kuan Pin. I have performed
+my duties in several places. Now I am transferred to Formosa."
+
+This story and many others like it mirror the moral ideals of the women
+of China in the midst of their struggles for help and light and
+guidance.
+
+_3. Exhortations on Family Virtues_
+
+The Buddhists issue a large number of tracts. These are very commonly
+paid for by devotees who make a vow that, if their parent becomes well,
+they will pay for the printing of several hundred or thousand of these
+tracts for free distribution. In these tracts are usually many stories
+illustrating the rewards of filial piety. The story is told in one of
+them about a Mrs. Chin whose father-in-law being ill was unable to
+sleep for sixty days. His condition grew worse. Mrs. Chin knelt before
+Kuan Yin's altar, cut out a piece of flesh from her arm and cooked it
+with the father's food. His health at once improved and he lived to the
+age of seventy-seven. Another story is told in the same tract of a woman
+who cut out a piece of her liver and gave it as medicine to her
+mother-in-law.
+
+These Buddhist tracts take up all the moral habits which make the family
+and clan strong and stable and surround them by the highest sanctions. A
+tract picked up in a Buddhist temple at Hangchow purports to be the
+revelation of the will of Buddha. It urges sixteen virtues. The first is
+filial piety. The tract says:
+
+"Filial piety is the chief of all virtues. Heaven and Earth honor filial
+piety. There is no greater sin than to cherish unfilial thoughts. The
+spirits know the beginning of such thoughts. Heaven openly rewards a
+heart that is filial."
+
+The second one mentioned is another important family virtue, namely,
+reverence:
+
+"The saints, sages, immortals and Buddhas are the outgrowth of
+reverence. The greatest sin is to lack reverence for father and mother.
+When brothers lack reverence for one another, they harm the hands and
+feet. When husband and wife lack reverence, the harmony of the household
+is ruined. When friends do not have reverence, they bring about
+calamity."
+
+Then follow similar exhortations on sincerity, justice, self-restraint,
+forbearance, benevolence, generosity, absence of pride, covetousness,
+lying, adultery, mutual love, self-denial, hope for the consolations of
+religion and for an undivided heart ruled by peace. These are virtues
+quite essential to the integrity of the family. They are taught, not in
+the abstract but by the exhibition of shining examples, by vivid
+representations of the rewards both here and hereafter, and by pictures
+of awful punishments. So by precept and example, by threat of punishment
+here and hereafter and by declaration of reward in the future Buddhism
+has tried to maintain the family virtues of the Confucian system and has
+attempted to permeate them by the spirit of sacrifice. Still it has
+always been the sacrifice of the weak for the strong, of the young for
+the aged, of the low for the high, of women for men.
+
+_4. Services for the Dead_
+
+Buddhism very early took over the relatively simple services for the
+dead and developed them into an elaborate ritual which made very vivid
+the spiritual universe which Buddhism introduced. In the sixth century a
+service was held in behalf of the father-in-law of Emperor Ning Ti
+(516-528 A. D.) for seven times every seven days. He feasted a thousand
+monks every day, and caused seven persons to become monks. On the
+hundredth day after the death he feasted ten thousand monks and caused
+twenty-seven persons to become monks.
+
+Since that time services on every seventh day after the decease until
+the forty-ninth day, when a grand finale ends the ceremonies, have been
+very popular.
+
+The object of such services is to conduct the soul of the dead through
+purgatory, in order that it may return to life or enter the Western
+Paradise. This is done by making a pleasing offering to the guardians
+and officers of purgatory, and to the gods and Bodhisattvas whose mercy
+saves people. Numerous missives are consigned to the flames, informing
+the rulers of the nether world about the soul of the dead; offerings of
+gold and silver, of various articles of apparel, of trunks, houses, and
+servants are made, all, however, made out of bamboo frames covered with
+paper. Various powerful incantations are recited which force open the
+gates of purgatory and let the soul out.
+
+The services may be crowded into one day or they may be held on every
+seventh day until the forty-ninth day, i.e., seven sevens. Various
+explanations are given' for these services.
+
+During the first week the soul of the dead arrives at the "Demon Gate
+Barrier." Here money is demanded by the demons on the ground that in his
+last transmigration the deceased borrowed money. Accordingly large
+quantities of silver shoes [Footnote: The silver used for this purpose
+is molded, in accordance with ancient usage, in the shape of shoes and
+carried about in that form by merchants.] must be sent to the dead so
+that he may settle all claims and avoid beating and inconvenience.
+During the second week the soul arrives at a place where he is weighed.
+If the evil outweighs the good, the soul is sawn asunder and ground to
+powder. In the third week he comes to the "Bad Dog" village. Here good
+people pass unharmed, but the evil are torn by the fierce beasts until
+the blood flows. In the fourth week the soul is confronted with a large
+mirror in which he sees his evil deeds and their consequences, seeing
+himself degraded in the next transmigration to a beast. In the fifth
+week the soul views the scenes in his own village.
+
+In the sixth week he reaches the bridge which spans the "Inevitable
+River." This bridge is 100,000 feet high and one and three-tenths of an
+inch wide. It is crossed by riding astride as on a horse. Beneath rushes
+the whirl-pool filled with serpents darting their heads to and fro. At
+the foot of the bridge lictors force unwilling travelers to ascend. The
+good do not cross this bridge, but are led by "golden youth" to gold and
+silver bridges which cross the stream on either side of this "Bridge of
+Sighs."
+
+In the seventh week the soul is taken first to Mrs. Wang who dispenses a
+drink which blots out all memories of the earthly life. Then the
+individual enters the great wheel of transmigration. This is divided
+into eighty-one sections from which one hundred and eight thousand small
+and tortuous paths radiate out into the four continents of the world.
+The soul is directed along one of these paths and is duly reborn in the
+world as an animal or as a human being or passes on into the Western
+Paradise.
+
+In imitation of this bridge a bridge is built of tables in front of the
+home of the dead. At the end the tables are placed upside down and a
+lantern placed on each table-leg. At night this bridge is illuminated. A
+company of monks repeat their prayers and incantations, while others
+mount upon the bridge to impersonate devils. The pious son with the
+tablet of his deceased parent comes to take his father over the bridge.
+When his way is disputed by the demons, he falls on his knees and begs
+and gives them money, negotiating the passage at last with the aid of a
+large quantity of silver.
+
+Another ceremony is the breaking through purgatory. Five supplications
+duly signed are addressed to the proper authorities, four being
+suspended at each of the four sides of the table and one at the center.
+Tiles are then placed over the table or on the ground. After
+incantations have been repeated to the accompaniment of the sounding of
+the bell and the wooden fish, the supplications are burned and the tiles
+are broken as a symbol of breaking through purgatory and of releasing
+the soul.
+
+Thus Buddhism has taken over the most important function of ancestor
+worship, has extended it and made it more significant to each individual
+as well as to the family.
+
+
+
+
+VI
+
+
+BUDDHISM AND SOCIAL LIFE
+
+_1. How the Laity is Trained in Buddhist Ideas_
+
+A common way of emphasizing moral ideas among the people by Buddhist
+teachers is the use of tracts purporting to have a divine origin. The
+following gives the substance of such a tract:
+
+Not long ago in the province of Shantung, there was a sharp and sudden
+clap of thunder. After the frightened people had collected their wits,
+they discovered a small book written in red in front of the house of a
+certain Mr. Li. Mr. Li picked up the book, copied it and read it
+reverently. He gave a copy to Mr. Ma, the prefect, but Mr. Ma did not
+believe in the book. Thereupon Maitrêya, the Messiah of the Buddhists,
+spoke from the sky as follows:
+
+
+  "These are the years of the final age. The people under
+  heaven do not reverence Heaven and Earth, they are not
+  filial to father and mother, they do not respect their
+  superiors. They cheat the fatherless, impose upon the
+  widow, oppress the weak; they use large weights for
+  themselves and small measures for others. They injure the good.
+  They covet for their own profit. They cheat men of money,
+  use the five grains carelessly, kill the cow that draws the
+  plow. This volume is sent for their special benefit. If
+  they recite it they will avoid trouble. If they disbelieve,
+  the years with the cyclical character _Ping_ and _Ting_ will
+  have fields without men to plant them and houses without
+  men to live in them. In the fifth month of these years
+  evil serpents will infest the whole country. In the eighth
+  and ninth months the bodies of evil men will fill the land.
+
+  "Those who believe this book and propagate its teachings
+  will not encounter the ten sorrows of the age: war,
+  fire, no peace day and night, separation of man and wife,
+  the scattering of the sons and daughters, evil men spread
+  over the country, dead bones unburied, clothing with no
+  one to wear it, rice with no one to eat it, and the difficulty
+  of ever seeing a peaceful year. Sâkyamuni foreseeing this
+  final age sent down this volume in Shantung. The Goddess
+  of Mercy saw the sorrows of all living beings.
+  Maitrêya commanded the two runners of T'ai Shan, the
+  god of the Eastern Mountain, to investigate the conduct
+  of men and as a first punishment to increase the price of
+  rice, and then besides the ten sorrows already mentioned
+  above, to inflict the punishments of flood, fire, wind,
+  thunder, tigers, snakes, sword, disease, famine and cold.
+  The rule of Sâkyamuni which has lasted twelve thousand
+  years is now fulfilled, and Maitrêya succeeds to his place."
+
+
+These sorrows may be escaped by reciting this sutra whose substance we
+find above. If it is repeated three times the person will escape the
+calamity of fire and water. If one man passes it on to ten men and ten
+men pass it on to a hundred, they will escape the calamities of sword,
+disease and imprisonment, and receive blessings which cannot be
+measured. He who in addition to repeating the sutra practices abstinence
+will insure peace for himself. He who presents one hundred copies to
+others will insure his personal peace. He who presents a thousand copies
+will insure the peace of his family. He who is attacked by disease, may
+escape it by taking five cash of the reign of Shun Chih (1644-1661 A.
+D.), the first emperor of the Ch'ing dynasty, one mace of the seed of
+cypress, one mace of the bark of mulberry, boil in one bowl of water
+until only eight-tenths of the water remain, drink and he will become
+well.
+
+In this way the five Buddhist commandments for the laity not to kill any
+living creature, not to steal, not to commit adultery, not to lie, and
+not to use intoxicating liquor are propagated and made real to the
+common man. The method is quite efficient. Whole provinces have been put
+into a panic by such prophecies.
+
+_2. Effect of Ideals of Mercy and Universal Love_
+
+The command not to kill any living being has had considerable influence
+in China. There are volumes of stories telling of the punishments which
+will be visited upon those who disobey and of the rewards of those who
+release living animals. Every monastery has a special place for animals
+thus released by pious devotees.
+
+There is a popular story about a fishmonger of the T'ang dynasty who was
+taken sick and during his illness dreamed that he was taken to
+purgatory. His body was aflame with fire and pained him as though he
+were being roasted. Flying fiery chariots with darting flames swept
+around him and burned his body. Ten thousand fish strove with one
+another to get a bite of his flesh. The ruler of the lower regions
+accused him of killing many fish and hence his punishment. For a number
+of days he was hanging between life and death. His relatives were urged
+to perform some works of penance. They had his fishing implements
+burned. With reverent hearts they made two images of Kuan Yin, presented
+offerings and repented. The whole family performed abstinence, stopped
+killing living things, printed and gave away over a hundred copies of
+the Diamond Sutra, and ferried over a large number of souls through
+purgatory. As a result of their efforts the sick man became well.
+
+The following comment was made on the above story by a scholar. If its
+premises are granted, the conclusion is inevitable:
+
+"If the fiery chariots are seal, why does not man see them? If they are
+false, how is it that man feels the pain? But where do the fiery
+chariots come from? They come from the heart and head of the one who
+kills fish. The fire in the heart (heart belongs to the element fire)
+causes destruction. The chariot fire also causes destruction."
+
+This attitude of mercy has been extended to human beings. There are
+numerous tracts against the drowning of little girls in those regions
+where this custom is prevalent. One tells the following story:
+
+In the province of Kwangtung there lived a Mrs. Chang who daily burned
+incense and repeated Buddha's name. One day she and her husband died.
+Much to their surprise and consternation Yama (the potentate of hell)
+decided that Mr. Chang must become a pig and Mrs. Chang a dog. Mrs.
+Chang accordingly went to Yama and said, "During life we honored Buddha
+and so why should we become animals after death?" Yama said, "What use
+is it to honor Buddha? During life you drowned three girls whom I sent
+into life. People with the face of a man and the heart of a beast,
+should they not be punished?" The husband accordingly took on a pig's
+skin and the wife a dog's. Then by a dream they revealed to their
+brother Chang number two that, although they repeated Buddha's name,
+they were not permitted to be reborn as men, because they had drowned
+little girls.
+
+Perhaps the extent of this spirit, of mercy and its possibilities may be
+illustrated by the reverence for the ox. While there is a great deal of
+cruelty in China to animals and men, it is rarely that one sees an ox
+abused. Up to the advent of the foreigner an ox was not killed for meat.
+In many places in China today the slaughter of an ox would bring the
+punishments of the law upon the butcher. No doubt this reverence is due
+to the great Indian reverence for the cow. The law of kindness has been
+extended to other animals, taking the rather spectacular form of
+releasing a few decrepit animals and allowing them to spend their last
+days in a monastery compound. There are many kindly things done in
+China. The dead are buried, the sick are provided with medicine. Every
+year numerous wadded garments are given away to poor people. Various
+groups carrying on a humble ministry of helpfulness have found a real
+inspiration in the ideals held before them in Buddhism, the rewards
+promised and punishments threatened.
+
+_3. Relation to Confucian Ideals_
+
+Why have not these ideals exercised a larger influence in China? The
+answer is quite simple. The activities of the monks have been
+strenuously opposed by the Confucian state system. The philosopher,
+Chang Nan-hsiian, a contemporary of Chu-Hsi, states concisely for us the
+differences betwen Confucianism and Buddhism in his comment on a passage
+in the _Book of Records._
+
+"Strong drink is a thing intended to be-used in offering sacrifices and
+entertaining guests,--such employment of it is what Heaven has
+prescribed. But men by their abuse of such drink come to lose their
+virtue and destroy their persons--such employment of it is what Heaven
+has annexed its terrors to. The Buddhists, hating the use of things
+where Heaven sends down its terrors, put away as well the use of them
+which Heaven has prescribed.
+
+"For instance, in the use of meats and drinks, there is such a thing as
+wildly abusing and destroying the creatures of Heaven. The Buddhists,
+disliking this, confine themselves to a vegetable diet, while we only
+abjure wild abuse and destruction. In the use of clothes, again, there
+is such a thing as wasteful extravagance. The Buddhists, disliking this,
+will have no clothes but those of a dark and sad color, while we only
+condemn extravagance. They, further, through dislike of criminal
+connection between the sexes, would abolish the relation between husband
+and wife, while we denounce only the criminal connection.
+
+"The Buddhists, disliking the excesses to which the evil desires of men
+lead, would put away, along with them, the actions which are in
+accordance with the justice of heavenly principles, while we, the
+orthodox, put away the evil desires of men, whereupon what are called
+heavenly principles are the more brightly seen. Suppose the case of a
+stream of water. The Buddhists, through dislike of its being foul with
+mud, proceed to dam it up with earth. They do not consider that when the
+earth has dammed up the stream, the supply of water will be cut off. It
+is not so with us, the orthodox. We seek only to cleanse away the mud
+and sand, so that the pure water may be available for use. This is the
+difference between the Buddhists and the Learned School." [Footnote:
+_Shu King,_ Pt. V, Bk. X, p. 122.]
+
+This statement reveals at once the opposition of the sect of the Learned
+and the influence which Buddhism exerted upon its members.
+
+Buddhism while enjoying occasional favor from the state was often
+zealously persecuted. In 819 Han Yii issued his celebrated act of
+accusation. In 845 the emperor Wu Tsung issued his decree of
+secularization. At that time 4600 monasteries and 40,000 smaller
+establishments were pulled down and 265,000 monks and nuns were sent
+back to lay life. Their rich lands were confiscated. Under the Ming
+dynasty, as well as under the Ch'ing dynasty, Buddhism enjoyed a
+precarious existence. Whether Buddhism would have improved the moral
+conditions of the Chinese; if it had been given a free hand, is
+difficult to affirm. Still its failure is at least partly due to the
+opposition of Confucian orthodoxy.
+
+_4. The Embodiment of Buddhist Ideals in the Vegetarian sects_
+
+The state persecutions of Buddhism forced it to leave temporarily its
+institutional life and trust itself to the people. These persecutions
+were usually followed by a revival of piety and religion among the
+people. The Buddhist teachers gathered about themselves a large number
+of lay devotees who formed societies which practice religious rites in
+secret. These sects have preserved the genuine Buddhist piety, not only
+in times of persecution, but at times when the Buddhist organization
+under imperial favor was departing from its simplicity.
+
+A number of these sects have continued under different names for several
+centuries. For example, the Tsai Li, a society now enjoying a quiet
+existence in North China, is successor to the White Lotus society. The
+latter started in the fifth century. Its members sought salvation in the
+Pure Land of Amitabha. In the eleventh century it enjoyed imperial
+favor. During the Mongol dynasty it fought against the throne with
+rebels and placed one of its leaders, Chu Yüan-chang, a monk, on the
+throne, who became the founder of the Ming dynasty. The sect was soon
+proscribed and its members persecuted by the government. During the
+Ch'ing dynasty it took part in a rebellion and was ruthlessly
+exterminated. At present it goes under the name of _Tsai Li,_ i.e.,
+within the Li or principles of the three religions. It is a mediator
+among the three religions.
+
+There are thirty-one organizations of this sect in Peking and branches
+throughout North China. The society forbids the use of wine and opium,
+though it does not forbid the use of meat. It usually has a Buddhist
+image, Kuan Yin or some other. It uses Buddhist prayers and
+incantations. The outstanding doctrines held during its long history
+have been the hope of salvation in the Western Heaven of Amitâbha, the
+early coming of Maitrêya, the Buddhist Messiah, and the large use of
+magic formulas and incantations.
+
+Another sect which embodies Buddhist ideals is the Chin Tan, the sect of
+the philosopher's stone or pill of immortality. Its founder was the
+writer of the Nestorian tablet and so the sect is related to
+Christianity. It exalts the teaching of universal love. This is one of
+several examples of a supposed contact between Buddhism and
+Christianity.
+
+These sects of which the two above are examples are present in all parts
+of China. They obey the five Buddhist commandments for laymen. The
+members spend much time in fasting and prayer, and in the repetition of
+Buddhist books. Their lives as a rule are simple and sincere. They are
+preparing for rebirth in the land of Amitâbha, or are expecting the
+early coming of the Buddhist Messiah to set this world right. In the
+meantime, by means of incantations, personal regimen and cooperative
+action they are doing all they can to usher in a better state.
+
+_5. Pilgrimages_
+
+Pilgrimages are very popular in China. The famous Buddhist shrines are
+Wu T'ai Shan in Shansi, Puto on the coast of Chekiang, Chiu Hua Shan in
+Anhwei, and Omei Shan in Szechuan. These, one on each side of China,
+represent the four elements of Buddhist science, wind, water, fire and
+earth. They are also the centers of the worship of the four great
+Bodhisattvas, Wenshu, Kuan Yin, Titsang and Puhsien. Besides these large
+centers there are many others to which pilgrims direct their footsteps.
+
+In the spring of the year, when the god of spring covers the earth with
+a green mantle, when the sky and winds call, many start on their
+pilgrimage. Many go singly and laboriously, kneeling and bowing every
+few steps. Others go in happy companies, chaperoned by a pious, village
+dame, who has organized the group. Some go because their turn has come.
+They are members of a guild which has a fund devoted to pilgrimages by
+its members. Some go for the performance of a vow made to Kuan Yin, when
+the father was sick unto death and the goddess prolonged his life. To
+others it is the culmination of a pious life. All go for the joy which
+travel in the spring gives.
+
+Puto, an island off the coast of Chekiang, is the goal of many pilgrims
+from all parts of China. In, the monasteries on the island are about two
+thousand monks. In the pilgrim season this number is increased to ten
+thousand monks and thousands of lay pilgrims.
+
+A group of pilgrims was going along merrily. The sun was bright,
+lighting up the white caps on the deep blue sea. Spring was rioting all
+about. One member was an abbot from Hangchow. A small, humble-looking
+man with a few straggling long hairs where the mustache usually grows,
+was a lay Buddhist from Wuchang. One was a bright young monk from
+Tientsin. Last, but almost omnipresent and always bubbling over, was a
+servant of the abbot from Hangchow. He was in the presence of divinity
+and his whole life was heightened for the time being. "Why did you
+come!" they were asked. "We came to worship the holy mother, Kuan Yin."
+When they entered a shrine each purchased three sticks, of incense and
+two candles and reverently placed them before the image of the goddess,
+kneeling and bowing. Then they sat and partook of the tea offered by the
+attendant. After paying a small gratuity, they went on to the next
+shrine.
+
+On the way a large black snake as thick as an arm lazily crossed over
+the road. They stood, reverent and awestruck, until he disappeared in
+the grass, remarking that this was a good omen. When crossing a sand
+dune piled up by the winds the abbot from Hangchow remarked that this
+was called the flying sand, wafted there by the goddess who took pity on
+some travelers who had been compelled to cross a narrow strait in order
+to come to a cave. This cave, called Fan Yin Tung, is one of the rifts
+made by an earthquake and washed out by wind and waves. Below it rushes
+the tide; from above the sun sends down a few rays. Each pilgrim after
+offering incense looks into the darkness to see whether he can behold in
+the dark cavern an image of some Buddha. One sees Kuan Yin and is
+acclaimed as having had a good vision. Another sees the Laughing Buddha.
+All exclaim that he has been the most fortunate of all, for this Buddha
+is the Messiah to come and he who beholds him will be blessed. So from
+place to place they wander, chatting and seeing the sights of the
+island. Thus thousands are doing in various parts of China, and in this
+way strengthening the hold of Buddhism upon themselves and their
+communities.
+
+
+
+
+VII
+
+
+BUDDHISM AND THE FUTURE LIFE
+
+Before the advent of Buddhism the Chinese had only a vague idea
+regarding life after death. The Land and Water Classic mentions the Tu
+Shuo mountain in the Eastern Sea, under which spirits of the dead live,
+the entrance guarded by two spirits, Shên Tu and Yü Lei, who are in
+general control of the demons. In some parts of China the names or
+pictures, of these spirits are placed on the doors of a house to guard
+it. The Taoists early developed the idea of a western paradise presided
+over by the Queen of the West, located at first in the K'un Lun
+mountains and later in the islands of the Eastern Sea. This heaven,
+however, was limited to Taoist hermits and mystics. Buddhism made a
+complete purgatory and heaven known to every one in China.
+
+_1. The Buddhist Purgatory_
+
+This is really Buddhism's most noteworthy addition to China's religious
+equipment; Buddhism lays much stress upon the experiences of a soul
+immediately after death. Its punishments are well known to every
+individual. The temple of the City Guardian found in every walled city
+has a replica of the court in purgatory over which he presides. In the
+temples of T'ai Shan there is an elaborate exhibit of the tortures
+inflicted on culprits in purgatory. Every funeral service conducted by
+Buddhists or Taoists is intended to conduct the soul of the dead through
+purgatory and pictures vividly the progressive experiences from the
+first seventh day to the seventh seventh day. On the the seventh month,
+on the fifteenth day [about August] a special service is held for the
+souls of the dead in purgatory. Furthermore, every community has a
+general service [about October] for the souls of those who died a
+violent death or who have no one to look after them. During the war many
+services were thus held for those who died on the battlefields of
+Europe. At such services the scenes in purgatory are vividly portrayed
+by pictures and figures. The temples distribute tracts with pictures of
+purgatory so that women may see them and understand. On the stage are
+often acted powerful plays whose scenes are laid in Hades. This
+propaganda is perhaps the most efficient of its kind.
+
+Purgatory is depicted as consisting of ten courts each surrounded by
+small hells, where the soul undergoes punishment and cleansing. The
+fifth court, which may be taken as an example of the other courts, is in
+charge of Yen Lo or Yama. Yama was once in charge of the first court,
+but his tender heart pitied the souls who came before him and sent them
+back to earth. Because of this leniency he was placed in charge of the
+fifth court.
+
+When a soul has passed through the first four courts and it has been
+discovered that there is no good conduct to its credit, it is led to the
+fifth court and examined every seven days regarding past conduct. In
+order to get back to the world of men, it eagerly promises to complete
+various unfinished vows, such as to repair monasteries, schools,
+bridges, or roads, to clean wells, to deepen rivers, to distribute good
+books, to release animals, to take care of aged parents, or to bury them
+suitably. But it is plainly told that the gods know its artifices, and
+that now these unfinished tasks can never be completed. The gods have
+reached the unanimous opinion that no injustice is being done.
+Accordingly there is no appeal, but each soul is led by attendants with
+bulls' heads and horses' faces to a tower whence they may see their
+native village. Its front is in the shape of a bow with a perimeter of
+twenty-seven miles; its height is four hundred and ninety feet. It is
+guarded by walls of sword trees.
+
+Good men, whose deeds of omission are balanced by the good they have
+done, return to life. Only souls judged to be evil see their village
+from this tower. These can see their own families moving about, and can
+hear their conversation. They realize how they disobeyed the teachings
+of their elders. They see that the earthly goods for which they have
+struggled are of no value. Their plottings rise up with lurid reality.
+They see how they planned a new marriage although already married, how
+they appropriated fields, state property, and falsified accounts,
+putting the blame on persons who were dead. While they observe their
+village they behold their erstwhile friends touch their coffin and
+inwardly rejoice. They hear themselves called selfish and insincere. But
+their punishment does not stop here. They behold their children punished
+by magistrates, their women afflicted with strange diseases, their
+daughters ravished, their sons led astray, their property taken away,
+the ancestral house burned and their business ruined. From this tower
+all passes before them as a lurid dream and they are stricken in heart.
+
+About the fifth court are sixteen small hells where the soul is
+punished. In each one are stakes buried in the ground and fierce
+animals. The hands and feet of the guilty one are bound to a stake, his
+body is opened with small knives, and his heart and intestines quickly
+devoured.
+
+In each of these sixteen hells is a certain type of sinner: (1) Those
+who do not reverence the gods and demons and who doubt the existence of
+rewards and punishments; (2) those who hurt and kill living beings; (3)
+those who break their vows to do good; (4) those who resort to heterodox
+practices and vainly hope to attain eternal life; (5) those who upbraid
+good men, fear the wicked and hate men because they do not die speedily;
+(6) those who strive with other people and then put the blame upon them;
+(7) men who force women; and women who seduce young men, and all who
+have libidinous desires; (8) those who gain profit for themselves by
+injuring others; (9) the stingy and those who absolutely disregard
+others, whether alive or dead, giving them no help in dire need, when
+they can do so without injury to themselves; (10) those who steal and
+put the crime upon others; (11) those who requite favors with hate; (12)
+those whose hearts are perverse and poisonous, who instigate others to
+do wrong even if they may not have carried out their suggestion; (13)
+those who tempt others by deceit; (14) those who involve others in their
+squabbles and in gambling and then themselves win out; (15) those who
+stubbornly persist in their false ideas, do not repent, and slander
+others; (16) those who hate good and virtuous men.
+
+Besides these sixteen sorts of sinners the fifth court deals with other
+types of wicked people; those who do not believe in rewards and
+punishments after death, who hinder good causes, who burn incense
+without a sincere heart, speak of the sins of others, who burn books
+that urge men to be good and worship the Great Dipper, but persist in
+eating meat; those who hate men; who repeat sutras and incantations, and
+take part in religious ceremonies, but do not fast beforehand; who
+slander the Buddhist and Taoist religions; who know how to read, but
+refuse to read the ancient and modern exhortations regarding rewards and
+punishments; who dig into graves and destroy their marks, who purposely
+set fire to trees and underbrush, or are careless with fire in their own
+houses; who shoot arrows at animals with the intent, to kill; who urge
+and tempt the sick and weak to enter into contests of any kind with
+themselves; who throw tiles and stones over neighboring walls, poison
+fish in the river, fire guns, or make nets or traps for birds; who sow
+salt on the ground, who do not bury dead eats and snakes very deep and
+thus cause death to those who dig; who cause men to dig the frozen
+ground in winter or spring (the vapors of earth chill such diggers to
+death); who tear down adjoining walls and compel their neighbors to move
+the kitchen stove; who appropriate public highways, lands, close wells
+and stop gutters.
+
+Those who have committed any of the above sins are taken, to the tower
+whence they can see their own village and then are consigned to the
+great crying hell, Râurava, that is, the fourth of the Buddhist hot
+hells. [Footnote: Buddhism distinguishes hot and cold hells. In a
+country like India severe cold is a serious torture.] Thence they go to
+their respective small hells. When their time has expired, they are
+examined in order to see whether they have any other sins which need
+punishment.
+
+Those who have committed any of the above sins may not only escape
+punishment, but may have their punishment in the sixth court lessened,
+if they fast regularly on the eighth day of the first month and take a
+vow not to commit these sins. Some sins, however, cannot be arranged for
+in such a way, such as the killing of living beings and hurting them;
+the associating with heretics; committing fornication with women and
+then poisoning them; committing adultery, violence, envy, or injuring
+the good name of others; stealing, requiting favors with hatred, and
+hearing exhortation but not repenting. These are major sins.
+
+_2. Its Social Value_
+
+The social value of purgatory is quite plain from the description of the
+fifth court and of the sinners who are punished therein. Purgatory is
+the social mirror of China, wherein the consequences of all unsocial
+acts are pictured in such a vivid way as to deter the individual from
+committing them. It is effective in China, not only because of the
+realistic presentation, but because the opinion of the community is
+against such acts and in favor of repressing them on every occasion.
+
+_3. The Buddhist Heaven._
+
+Buddhism brought into China not only a fully developed purgatory but
+also a heaven which all may enter. The sovereign of the western heaven
+is Amitâbha (or in Chinese O-mi-to-fo), with whom Kuan Yin, the goddess
+of Mercy, is usually associated. Amitâbha is explained as meaning
+"boundless age." The original meaning is "boundless light," which
+suggests a Persian origin with Mannichean influences. The translations
+of the Amitâbha sutras were wholly made by natives of central Asia.
+
+Amitâbha is one of the thousand Buddhas; he is regarded as the reflex of
+Sakyamuni and is connected also in his earthly incarnation with a monk
+called Dharmâkara. This monk desired to become a Buddha. This wish he
+presented to Lôkês'vararâja asking him to teach him as to what a Buddha
+and a Buddha country ought to be. Lôkês'vararâja imparted this
+knowledge. Then the monk after meditation returned having made
+forty-eight vows that he would not become a Buddha, until all living
+beings should attain salvation in his heaven.
+
+The eighteenth vow expresses his ideal:
+
+"O Bhagavat, if those beings who have directed their thought towards the
+highest perfect knowledge in other worlds, and who, after having heard
+my name, when I have obtained Bodhi (knowledge), have meditated on me
+with serene thoughts; if at the moment of their death, after having
+approached them surrounded by an assembly of monks, I should not stand
+before them worshipped by them, that is, so that their thoughts should
+not be troubled, then may I not obtain the highest perfect knowledge."
+
+A few extracts from the _Amitâbha Vyûha Sûtra_ will illustrate the
+Buddhist idea of life in this Pure Land:
+
+"In the western region beyond one hundred thousand myriads of Buddhist
+lands there is a world. Great Happiness by name. This land has a Buddha
+called Amitâbha. The living beings there do not suffer any pain, but
+enjoy all happiness. Therefore, it is called the land of Pure Delight
+... the land of Pure Delight has seven precious fountains full of water
+containing the eight virtues. The bottom of these fountains is covered
+with golden sand. On four sides there are steps made of gold, silver,
+crystal and glass, precious stones, red pearls, and highly polished
+agates. In the pools are variously colored, light emitting lotus flowers
+as large as cart wheels, delicate, admirable, odorous and pure..."
+
+"The Buddha of this land makes heavenly music. It is covered with gold.
+Morning and evening during six hours it rains the wonderful celestial
+flowers (Erythrina Indica). All the inhabitants of this land on clear
+mornings after dressing offer these celestial flowers to the hundred
+thousand myriads of Buddhas of the regions who return to their country
+at meal time. When they have eaten they go away again."
+
+"This country possesses every kind of wonderful varicolored birds, the
+white egret, the peacock, the parrot, the s'rarika (a long legged bird),
+the Kalavingka (a sweet voiced bird) ... All these birds, morning and
+evening during the six hours, utter forth a beautiful harmonious sound.
+Their song produces the five _indrya_ (roots of faith, energy,
+memory, ecstatic meditation, wisdom), the five _bala_ (the powers
+of faith, energy, memory, meditation and wisdom), the seven
+_bodhyanga_ (the seven degrees of intelligence, memory,
+discrimination, energy, tranquillity, ecstatic contemplation,
+indifference), and the eight portions of the correct path _marga,_
+(the possession of correct views, decision and purity of thought and
+will, the ability of reproducing any sound uttered in the universe, vow
+of poverty, asceticism, attainment of meditative abstraction of
+self-control, religious recollectedness, honesty and virtue), and such
+doctrines. When all beings of this land have heard the music, they
+declare their faithfulness to the Buddha, Dharma and the Sangha (the
+Buddha, the Law and the community of monks)."
+
+As to those who enter this land it says:
+
+"All living beings who hear this should make a vow to be born in that
+land. How can they reach the Pure Land? All very good men will gather in
+that place ... He whose blessedness and virtue are great can be born
+into that country. If there is a good man or woman who, on hearing of
+Amitâbha, takes this name and holds it in his mind one, two, three,
+four, five, six, or seven days, and his whole heart is not distracted,
+to that man at death Amitâbha will appear. His heart will not be
+disturbed. He will at once enter into life in the land of Pure Delight
+of Amitâbha. I see this blessing and hence utter these words. Those
+living beings who hear these words should make a vow to be born in that
+land."
+
+_4. The Harmonization of These Ideas with Ancestor Worship_
+
+The extension of life beyond the grave in purgatory, or in the Pure Land
+and through transmigration was readily accepted in China. Both the new
+ideas and the disciplines through which to realize them were eagerly
+adopted, and have held their place to this day. In other lands the
+creation of a heaven and a hades has weakened the grip of ancestor
+worship and ultimately displaced it. In China the opposite result has
+obtained, due, no doubt, to the fact that the family system and along
+with it the supreme duty of filial piety were fostered by the state and
+Buddhism and its teachings were permitted only in so far as they
+bolstered it up. Another reason lies in the agricultural basis of
+China's civilization, reenforced by the great difficulty of
+communication, which tended to make the family system dominant in China.
+Today, the improvement of communication and the introduction of the
+industrial system of the West with the individual emphasis of modern
+education are factors which are weakening the family system and with it
+ancestral worship.
+
+
+
+
+VIII
+
+
+THE SPIRITUAL VALUES EMPHASIZED BY BUDDHISM IN CHINA
+
+Near the House of Parliament in Peking is located a small monastery
+dedicated to the goddess of Mercy, Kuan Yin. Before her image the
+incense burners send forth curling clouds of smoke. The walls are
+decorated with old paintings of gods and goddesses. The temple with its
+courtyard has the appearance of prosperity. Its neat reception room,
+with its tables, chairs and clock, shows the influence of the modern
+world.
+
+Here a monk in the prime of life spent a few months recently lecturing
+on Buddhism to members of parliament and to scholars from various parts
+of China. Frequently the writer used to drop in of an afternoon to
+discuss Buddhism and its outlook. Usually a simple repast concluded
+these conversations, the substance of which forms the greater part of
+this section.
+
+_1. The Threefold Classification of Men Under Buddhism_
+
+"What does Buddhism do for men?"
+
+"There are in the world at least three classes of men. The lowest class
+live among material things, they are occupied with possessions. Their
+life is entangled in the crude and coarse materials which they regard as
+real. A second, higher class, regard ideas as realities. They are not
+entangled in the maze of things, but are confused by ideas, ascribing
+reality to them. The third and highest class are those who by meditation
+have freed themselves from the thraldom of ideas and can enter the
+sixteen heavens."
+
+_2. Salvation for the Common Man_
+
+"What can Buddhism do for the lowest class?"
+
+"For this class Buddhism has the ten prohibitions. Every man has in him
+ten evils, which must be driven out. Three have to do with evil in the
+body, namely, not to steal, not to kill, not to commit adultery; four
+belong to the mouth, lying, exaggeration, abuse, and ambiguous talk;
+three belong to the mind, covetousness, malice, and unbelief."
+
+"Is not this entirely negative?"
+
+"Yes, but it is necessary, for during the process of eliminating these
+evil deeds, man acquires patience and equanimity. Buddhism does not stop
+with the prohibitions. The believer must practice the ten charitable
+deeds. Not only must he remove the desire to kill living beings, but he
+must cultivate the desire to save all beings. Not only must he not
+steal, but he must assist men with his money. Not only must he not give
+himself to lasciviousness, but he must treat all men with propriety. So
+each prohibition involves a positive impulse to virtue, which is quite
+as essential as the refraining from evil."
+
+"What energizing power does Buddhism provide?"
+
+"First, is purgatory with its terrors. The evil man, seeing the
+consequences of his acts upon himself, becomes afraid to do them and
+does that which is good. Then there is transmigration with the danger of
+transmigration into beasts and insects. Again, there are the rewards in
+the paradise of Amitâbha. Moreover, there is even the possibility not
+only of saving one's self, but by accumulated merit of saving one's
+parents and relatives and shortening their stay in purgatory."
+
+_3. The Place of Faith_
+
+"Can any man enter the western paradise of Amitâbha?"
+
+"Yes, it is open to all men. The sutra says: 'If there be any one who
+commits evil deeds, and even completes the ten evil actions, the five
+deadly sins and the like; that man, being himself stupid and guilty of
+many crimes, deserves to fall into a miserable path of existence and
+suffer endless pains during many long ages. On the eve of death he may
+meet a good and learned teacher who, soothing and encouraging him in
+various ways, will preach to him the excellent Law and teach him the
+remembrance of Buddha, but being harassed by pains', he will have no
+time to think of Buddha.'"
+
+"What hope has such a man?"
+
+"Even such a man has hope. The sutra says: 'Some good friend will say to
+him: Even if thou canst not exercise the remembrance of Buddha, utter
+the name of Buddha Amitabha.' Let him do so serenely with his voice
+uninterrupted; let him be (continually) thinking of Buddha, until he has
+completed ten times the thought, repeating 'Namah O-mi-to-fo,' I put my
+trust in Buddha! On the strength of (his merit of) uttering Buddha's
+name he will, during every repetition expiate the sins which involve him
+in births and deaths during eighty millions of long ages. He will, while
+dying, see a golden lotus-flower, like the disk of the sun, appearing
+before his eyes; in a moment he will be born in the world of highest
+happiness. After twelve greater ages the lotus-flower will unfold;
+thereupon the Bodhisattvas, Avalôkitësvaras and Mahasattva's, raising
+their voices in great compassion, will preach to him in detail the real
+state of all the elements of nature and the law of the expiation of
+sins."
+
+"Does faith save such a man?"
+
+"Yes, not his own faith, but the faith which prompted the vow of
+Amitabha. Amitâbha's faith in the possibility of his salvation gives him
+supreme confidence that he will attain salvation. All he needs is to
+have the desire to be born in that paradise and to repeat the name of
+Amitabha."
+
+_4. Salvation of the Second Class_
+
+"How do those of the second class attain salvation?"
+
+"The men of the second class regard ideas as realities. They are not
+entangled in the maze of things, but are confused by ideas, regarding
+them as real. These men do not need images and outward sanctions, but
+they need heaven and purgatory though regarding them as ideas. By
+performing the ten good deeds they will obtain a quiet heart, having no
+fear, and become saints and sages. Among men, saints and sages occupy a
+high rank, but not so among Buddhists. By merit of good works merely
+they enter the planes of sensuous desire, the six celestial worlds
+located immediately above the earth."
+
+_5. Salvation for the Highest Class_
+
+"And the third class?"
+
+"This class has many ranks. There are those who by the practice of
+meditation (four _dkyanas_) [Footnote: Dhyana means contemplation.
+In later times under the influence of the idea of transmigration heavens
+were imagined which corresponded to the degrees of contemplation.] can
+enter the sixteen heavens conditioned by form. By the practice of the
+four _arûpa-dhyânas_ [Footnote: That degree of abstract
+contemplation from which all sensations are absent.] they enter the four
+highest heavens free from all sensuous desires and not conditioned by
+form. These heavens are the anteroom of Nirvana."
+
+"What is the driving power in all this?"
+
+"It is _vîrya_ or energy."
+
+_6. Heaven and Purgatory_
+
+"Do heaven and purgatory exist?"
+
+"Heaven and purgatory are in the minds and hearts of men. Really heaven
+is in the mind of Amitâbha and purgatory exists in the illusioned brains
+of men."
+
+"Does anything exist?"
+
+"Nâgârjuna says: 'There is no production, no destruction, no
+annihilation, no persistence, no unity, no plurality, no coming in and
+no going forth.'"
+
+_7. Sin_
+
+"Does sin exist?"
+
+"In the mind of the real Buddhist sin and virtue are different aspects
+of the all. Sin is illusion; virtue is illusion, There is a higher unity
+in which they are reconciled."
+
+_8. Nirvâna_
+
+_"Do you know of any one who attained Nirvâna?"_
+
+"Yes, I have experienced it. It is not a state beyond the grave. It is a
+state into which one can enter here."
+
+"Can you express this experience in words?"
+
+"Impossible. I can only indicate the shore of this great ocean. At first
+I was in great distress and agony, as though carrying the illusions of
+the world. Then came a great peace and calm, ineffable, serene, and
+surpassing the power of language to express."
+
+_9. The Philosophical Background_
+
+"What is behind this universe!"
+
+"Underlying this universe of phenomena and change there is a unity. It
+is the basis of all being. It is within all being and all being rests in
+it. It is because of this common background that men are able to
+apprehend it. This universal basis we call _dharma,_ or law. Its
+characteristics are that everything born grows old, is subject to
+disease and death; that the teachings of Buddha purify the mind and
+enable it to obtain supreme enlightenment; that all Buddhas by treading
+the same way of perfection will attain the highest freedom."
+
+"You speak of the Buddhist Trinity."
+
+"Yes, we have the Dharmakâya. This is the essence-body, the ground of
+all being, taking many forms, Buddhas, Bodhisattvas, spirits, angels,
+men and even demons. It is impersonal, all-pervasive. It may be called
+the first person. The second person is the Sambhogakâya, the body of
+bliss. This is the heavenly manifestation of Buddha. The third person is
+the Nirmânakâya. This is the projection of the body of bliss on earth."
+
+Some identify this trinity with that of the Christian faith. While there
+is a resemblance, we should note that the first person of the Buddhist
+trinity would correspond to God as the absolute or the impersonal
+background of universal Being. The second corresponds to the glorified
+Christ and the third to the historic Jesus. There is no counterpart
+either to God the Father or to the Holy Spirit.
+
+"Do you believe in the salvation of all beings?"
+
+"Yes, all have the Buddha heart. All living beings will finally become
+Buddhas."
+
+Then turning to a friend of mine the speaker said: "What have you done
+in Buddhism?" The friend answered: "I have written and translated many
+books." "I do not mean that," he answered. "What _work_ have you
+done?" The friend confessed that he had not done much else. Then he
+said: "Every morning when you awake, reflect deeply and profoundly upon
+your state before you were born. Think back to that state where your
+soul was merged with Buddha. Find yourself in that state and you will
+find ineffable enlightenment and joy."
+
+The sun was setting behind the Western hills. The blare of trumpets
+sounded on the city wall. Outside of the door was the whirling sound of
+Peking returning home from its mundane tasks and joys. We joined the
+rushing, restless crowd and still we felt the calm of another world. Has
+not Christianity a message of balm and peace for these sons of the East
+who are so sensitive to the touch of the eternal and sublime?
+
+_10. What Buddhism Has to Give_
+
+An important government official obliged to deal with many vexatious
+requests and demands declared: "I could not get through my day's work,
+if I did not spend an hour every day in meditation, just as Buddha did
+when he became enlightened." He was asked what he did when he meditated
+or prayed. "Nothing at all." "Well, about what do you think?" "Of
+nothing at all. I stop thinking when I engage in religious meditation.
+Life makes me think too much. I should lose my sanity, if I did not stop
+thinking and enter into the 'void', whence we all came and into which we
+all are going to drop back."
+
+His Christian inquirer still was unsatisfied by the Buddhist's
+description of his prayer life, and pressed further for details. "What
+happens when you meditate or pray?"
+
+"Nothing happens, I tell you, except, that I experience a peace which
+the passing world cannot give and which the passing world cannot
+altogether take away. The secret of religion is simply to realize that
+everything is passing away. When you accept that fact, then you become
+really free. The Christian world seemed to have been tremendously
+impressed by the slogan of the French soldiers at Verdun, 'They shall
+not pass!' Perhaps the German soldiers did not pass just then or there.
+But the French soldiers themselves are all passing away. And everything
+in the world is passing away. What our Buddhist religion teaches us is:
+'Let it pass!' You cannot keep anything for very long. And prayer or
+meditation is simply to practice yourself in that thought deliberately.
+Oh, it is a wonderful peace when you fully believe that gospel, and
+enter into it every day. Vanity of vanities, everything is vanity! Why
+worry? We do altogether too much worrying. To pray means simply to quit
+worrying, to quit thinking, to enter into the indescribably passionless
+peace of Nirvana."
+
+Here seemed to be an ardent Buddhist. When asked what he thought as the
+difference between a Buddhist and a Christian, he answered promptly:
+
+"Yes, there is my wife. She is a very good woman. All the neighbors come
+to her, when there is any one sick or in trouble. So I say to her:
+'Wife, I should think you would make a first-class Christian.' But I
+think she lets herself be worried by altogether too many troubles. She
+is all the time thinking and fussing and planning. To be sure, it is
+mostly about other people, But then she does have the children and the
+house and the relatives and friends and neighbors to look after. Perhaps
+she really cannot be a Buddhist. Perhaps it is all a matter of
+temperament. Oh, but I tell you it is great to be a Buddhist, because it
+gives you such a wonderful peace."
+
+
+
+
+IX
+
+
+PRESENT-DAY BUDDHISM:
+
+_1. Periods of Buddhist History_
+
+The history of Buddhism in China may be divided into four periods.
+Buddhism entered China, as we have seen, in the second century B.C. The
+first period, that of the translation and propagation of the faith,
+ended in 420 A.D. The second period, that of interpenetration, lasted to
+the beginning of the T'ang dynasty, 618 A.D. The third, the period of
+establishment, ended with the close of the five dynasties, in 960 A.D.
+The fourth period, that of decay, has extended to the present day.
+
+_2. The Progress of the Last Twenty-five Years_
+
+There are signs of a revival of Buddhism in China. Whether this is a
+tide, or a wave, only the future can reveal. In 1893 Dharmapala, an
+Indian monk, stopped in Shanghai on his way back from the Congress of
+Religions in Chicago. It was his purpose to make a tour of China, to
+arouse the Chinese Buddhists to send missionaries to India to restore
+Buddhism there, and then to start a propaganda throughout the whole
+world. He addressed the monks of Shanghai. Dr. Edkins, the veteran
+missionary, acted as his interpreter. Dharmapala was surrounded by a
+horde of curious monks who were more interested in his strange
+appearance and in the cost of his garments than they were in his great
+ideals. They were also feeling the iron heel of the Confucian government
+and at once inquired about the attitude of the government toward such an
+innovation. Dharmapala did not go beyond Shanghai.
+
+Japanese Buddhists, especially the members of the Hongwanji sect, have
+taken a deep interest in Chinese Buddhists. Count Otani once visited the
+chief monasteries of China. Numerous Japanese Buddhists have made such
+visits. In 1902, the Empress Dowager, fired by a reforming zeal, decided
+to confiscate Buddhist property and to use the proceeds for the spread
+of modern education. The Buddhist monasteries put themselves under the
+protection of Japanese monks in order to hold their property. When by
+1906 the Empress Dowager saw the consequences of her edict, she at once
+issued a new edict, reversing the former one, and the Japanese monks
+took their departure.
+
+The Japanese Buddhists have been fired by missionary zeal for China. In
+many of the large cities of China are the temples of the Hongwanji sect.
+Established primarily for the Japanese, these temples are intended to
+serve as points of departure for a nation-wide missionary work. The
+twenty-one demands made upon China included two significant items in the
+last group which the Chinese refused to sign: "Art. 2: Japanese
+hospitals, churches and schools in the interior of China shall be
+granted the right of owning land." "Art. 7: China agrees that Japanese
+subjects shall have the right of missionary propaganda in China."
+
+Under Japanese influence there was established in 1907 at Nanking, under
+the leadership of Yang, a lay Buddhist devotee, a school for the
+training of Buddhist missionaries. The students were to go to Japan for
+further training, and the more promising ones were to study in India.
+This project was discontinued after the death of Yang on account of the
+lack of funds.
+
+When the republic was established Buddhism felt a wave of reform. The
+monasteries established schools for monks and children. A magazine was
+published which appeared irregularly for several numbers and then
+stopped. A national organization was formed with headquarters at Peking.
+A survey of monasteries was begun. The activities in lecturing and
+propaganda were increased, but Yuan Shih-kai issued twenty-seven
+regulations for the control of Buddhist monasteries, which markedly
+dampened the ardor of the reformers.
+
+The world war which accentuated the spirit of nationalism had the added
+effect of stirring up Buddhist enthusiasm. There are at present signs of
+new activity among them in China.
+
+_3. Present Activities_
+
+While Buddhism may be standing still or even dying in certain parts of
+China, it is showing signs of new life in the provinces of Kiangsu and
+Chekiang and in the large cities. Such revival in centers subject to the
+influence of the modern world shows that Buddhism in China as in Japan
+has sufficient vitality to adjust itself to modern conditions. Let us
+consider some of these activities.
+
+_(a) The Reconstruction of Monasteries._--During the T'ai Ping
+rebellion, which devastated China in 1850-1865, the monasteries suffered
+with the towns. Not only were the monasteries burned to the ground, but
+their means of support were taken away and the monks were scattered.
+There are still many of these ruined monasteries in the Yangtze valley
+and in southern and western China. Quite a number of them have been
+rebuilt. Perhaps the most notable example is that at Changchow which was
+destroyed during the rebellion. Today it is the largest monastery in
+China, having about two thousand monks. In Fukien several new
+monasteries have been built in the last few decades. In the provinces of
+Chekiang and Kiangsu, in the large cities and about Peking there are
+building activities, showing that the monasteries are feeling a new wave
+of prosperity.
+
+T'ai Hsu, one of the leaders' of modern Buddhism, is holding up an ideal
+program for Buddhism in this time of reconstruction. He proposes that
+there should be 576 central monasteries, 4608 preaching places, 72
+Buddhist hospitals and 72 orphanages.
+
+_(b) Accessions._--Regarding the number of monks it is almost
+impossible to obtain any reliable figures. A conservative estimate,
+based upon partial returns, makes the number of monks about 400,000 and
+that of nuns about 10,000. The impression among the Buddhists is that
+the number of monks is increasing. That is quite probable in view of the
+rebuilding and repairing which is now in progress.
+
+More significant is the number of accessions from the learned class.
+Many officials, disheartened by the present confused political
+situation, have sought refuge in the monasteries. Some of them are now
+abbots of monasteries and are using their influence to build them up.
+All over China there are Confucian scholars who are giving themselves to
+the study of Buddhism and to meditation. Some of the Chinese students
+who have studied in Buddhist universities in Japan are propagating
+Buddhism by lecture and pen.
+
+_(c) Publications._--Quite as significant is the increase in the
+publication of Buddhist literature of all kinds. Many of the monasteries
+have printing departments where they publish the sutras needed for their
+own use. In addition, there are eight or more publishing centers where
+Buddhist literature is printed. The most famous are Yang's establishment
+at Nanking, the Buddhist Press in Yangchow and that in Peking. In these
+establishments about nine hundred different works are being published.
+The most noteworthy recent publication has been that of the Chinese
+Buddhist Tripitaka in Shanghai.
+
+Among these publications are a few modern issues. The Chung Hua Book
+Company has published several works on Buddhism. Other books have been
+issued for the sake of harmonizing Buddhism with western science and
+philosophy. In this enterprise Japanese influence is visible. In 1921 a
+Shanghai press published a dictionary of Buddhist terms containing 3302
+pages, based on the Japanese Dictionary of Buddhism. Other works also
+show the influence of Japanese scholarship.
+
+Among the publications have appeared two magazines. One published at
+Ningpo, is called "New Buddhism." This is struggling and may have to
+succumb. The other is known as the "Sound of the Sea Tide," now
+published in Hankow. Moreover, in all the large cities there are
+Buddhist bookshops where only Buddhist works are sold. These all report
+a good business. This literary activity reveals an interest among the
+reading classes of China. Few such books are purchased by the monks. The
+Chinese scholars read them for their style and for their deep
+philosophy, but also for light and for help in the present distracting
+political situation of their country.
+
+_(d) Lectures._--Along with publication goes the spread of Buddhism
+by lectures in the monasteries and the cities of China. A few years ago
+Buddhist sermons, however serious, were only listened to by monks and by
+a few pious devotees. Today such addresses are advertised and are
+usually well attended by the intellectuals. Often many women are found
+listening. Monks like T'ai Hsü and Yuan Ying have a national reputation.
+Not only monks, but laymen trained in Japan are delivering lectures on
+the Buddhist sutras. The favorites are the Awakening of Faith and the
+Suddharma Pundarika sutra.
+
+_(e) Buddhist Societies._--With the lectures goes the organization
+of Buddhist societies for all sorts of purposes. There is a central
+society in Peking which has branches in every province. The connection
+is rather loose. Buddhism has never been in favor of centralization. Nor
+for that matter would the government have allowed it. The chief ends
+aimed at by these societies are fellowship, devotion, study,
+propagation, and service. Such societies, often short lived, are
+springing up in many quarters. They meet for lectures on Buddhism or to
+conduct a study class in some of the sutras. Occasionally the more
+ambitious conduct an institute for several months. Some spend part of
+the time in meditation together. Several schools for children are
+supported by these societies. They also encourage work of a religious
+nature among prisoners, distributing tracts and holding services. Such
+activities are especially appreciated by those who are to suffer the
+death penalty. The societies are also doing publishing work. The two
+magazines are supported by the members of the larger societies.
+
+_(f) Signs of Social Ambition._--Social work is a prominent feature
+of some of these Buddhist societies. They have raised money for famine
+stricken regions, have opened orphanages, and assist in Red Cross work.
+One of the largest Chinese institutions for ministering to people who
+are sick and in trouble is located at Hankow. Around a central Buddhist
+temple is a modern-built hospital, an orphanage and several schools for
+poor children. It may not maintain western standards of efficiency, but
+it certainly represents the outreach of modern Buddhism.
+
+Perhaps their most far-reaching advance has been made because of the
+realization that leaders are needed and that they must be trained.
+Several schools for this purpose have sprung into existence. Such
+schools are necessarily very primitive and are struggling with the
+difficulties of finding an adequate staff and equipment and of obtaining
+the best type of students.
+
+Another sign of new life has been the making of programs for the future
+development of Buddhism. One of the most comprehensive appeared a short
+time ago. For the individual it proposes the cultivation of love, mercy,
+equality, freedom, progressiveness, an established faith, patience and
+endurance. For all men it proposes (1) an education according to
+capacity; (2) a trade suited to ability; (3) an opportunity to develop
+one's powers; (4) a chance for enlightenment for all. For society it
+urges the cultivation of cooperation, social service, sacrifice for the
+social weal, and the social consciousness in the individual. On behalf
+of the country it urges patriotism, participation in the government, and
+cooperation in international movements. For the world it advocates
+universal progress. As to the universe it specifies as a goal the
+bringing of men into harmony with spiritual realities, the enlightenment
+of all and the realization of the spiritual universe.
+
+A Buddhist writer sums up the aims of new Buddhism as follows:
+
+"Formerly Buddhism desired to escape the sinful world. Today Buddhism
+not only desires to escape this world of sin, but longs to transform
+this world of sin into a new world dominated by the ideals of Buddhism.
+Formerly Buddhism was occupied with erecting and perfecting its
+doctrines and polity as an organization. Today it not only hopes to
+perfect the doctrines and polity, but desires to spread the doctrines
+and ideals abroad so as to help mankind to become truly cultured."
+
+_4. The Attitude of Tibetan Lamas_
+
+Not only the Chinese Buddhists, but the Lamas of Mongolia and Tibet are
+feeling the impulses of the new age. Quite recently an exhibition was
+held in the Lama temple at Peking which attracted thousands of visitors.
+Its object was to obtain money to repair the temple, and thus to give
+its work a fresh impulse. That these impulses are not necessarily
+hostile to Christianity is shown by a letter written by the Kurung
+Tsering Lama of Kokonor district to the Rev. T. Sörensen of Szechuan:
+
+"I, your humble servant, have seen several copies of the Scriptures and,
+having read them carefully, they certainly made me believe in Christ. I
+understand a little of the outstanding principles and the doctrinal
+teaching of the One Son, but as to the Holy Spirit's nature and essence,
+and as to the origin of this religion, I am not at all clear, and it is
+therefore important that the doctrinal principles of this religion
+should be fully explained, so as to enlighten the unintelligent and
+people of small mental ability.
+
+"The teaching of the science of medicine and astrology is also very
+important. It is therefore evident if we want this blessing openly
+manifested, we must believe in the religion of the only Son of God.
+Being in earnest, I therefore pray you from my heart not to consider
+this letter lightly. With a hundred salutations."
+
+Enclosed with this letter was a poem written in most elegant language.
+
+"O thou Supreme God and most precious Father, The truth above all
+religions, The Ruler of all animate and inanimate worlds! Greater than
+wisdom, separated from birth and death, Is his son Christ the Lord
+shining in glory among endless beings. Incomprehensible wonder,
+miraculously made! In this teaching I myself also believe--As your
+spirit is with heaven united, My soul undivided is seeking the truth
+Jesus the Savior's desire fulfilling, For the coming of the Kingdom of
+Heaven I am praying. Happiness to all."
+
+_5. The Buddhist World Versus the Christian World_
+
+Looking back over the last twenty-five years we see rising quite
+distinctly a Buddhist world growing conscious of itself, of its past
+history and of its mission to the world. This Buddhist, world has much
+more of a program than it had twenty-five years ago. Its object is to
+unite the Mahayâna and the Hînayâna branches of Buddhism and to spread
+Buddhist propaganda over the world. At present the leadership of this
+movement is in Japan. It is in part a political movement. There is no
+question that Christianity is not at all pleasing to the Japanese
+militarists. It is regarded by them as the advance post of western
+industrialism and political ambition. Quite naturally such leaders
+desire to make the Buddhist world a unit. It is also a social movement.
+The spirit of the Japanese Buddhist has been brought to consciousness by
+the new position of Japan. Japan is seeking to take its place in the
+world as a first rate power. By this not only will Japan's industry and
+commerce profit, but its spiritual values must also be adapted to the
+world. The movement then has its spiritual side. Japanese travelers and
+people are going to all parts of the world. They carry with them the
+religious ideals which have been shaped by Buddhism. Buddhism in the
+past was one of the great religions of salvation with an inspiring
+missionary message. It is again awakening to this task of
+evangelization. Under the leadership of Japanese scholars and religious
+statesmen the Japanese are seeking to unite the Buddhist world so that
+it shall become a force in the new world. Japan is thus trying to give
+back what it has received in the past.
+
+At present in Buddhist countries there is a strong force working against
+this movement. Nationalism is a new force to be reckoned with. Still
+even with the spirit of nationalism permeating every group, the Buddhist
+world is getting together and will strive to make its contribution to
+the life of the whole world.
+
+
+
+
+X
+
+
+THE CHRISTIAN APPROACH TO BUDDHISTS
+
+_1. Questions Which Buddhists Ask_
+
+Buddhists are approaching Christianity. In many places a spirit of
+inquiry and interest in the Christian religion is met. It is not
+necessary that there should be a Buddhist world permanently over against
+a Christian world. The questions which Buddhists ask a missionary
+indicate an interest in vital themes. Some of them are as follows:
+
+We put our trust in the three Precious Ones. In what do you trust? Is
+not your Shang Ti (name for God used in China) a being lower than Buddha
+and just a little higher than a Bodhisattva? Is not Shang Ti the tribal
+god of the Jews? Do you believe in the existence of _purgatory?_
+What sufferings will those endure who do not live a virtuous life? Do
+you believe in the reality of the Western Paradise? How can one enter
+it? There being three kinds of merit, by what method is the great merit
+accumulated? How is the middle and the small merit accumulated? What are
+the fruits of these proportions of merit and what are they like? Tell me
+how to believe Christ. What work of meditation do you perform? Is not
+Buddhism more democratic than Christianity, because it holds out the
+possibility of Buddhahood to all beings? Is not Buddhism more inclusive,
+because it provides for the salvation of all beings?
+
+_2. Knowledge and Sympathy_
+
+These questions make it plain that the worker who is to deal with
+Buddhists should have a broad background of general culture. He must be
+thoroughly humanized. He should have a good knowledge of the history of
+philosophy and religion, including the work of the modern philosophers.
+A knowledge of the life of Buddha and of the doctrines of the Hînayâna
+or Southern Buddhism, as well as the tenets of the Mahayâna should be in
+his possession. The psychology of religion should interpenetrate his
+historical learning; the best methods of pedagogy should guide his
+approach to men. Of course he must speak the language of the Buddhist,
+not only the spiritual language, but his everyday patois. He will find
+it an advantage to know some Sanskrit. While this requirement is not
+very urgent at present, it will rapidly become a necessity for doing the
+best work.
+
+This knowledge should be interpenetrated by a genuine sympathy, that is,
+imagination tinged with emotion. The worker should be able to view
+doctrines, values and actions from the point of view of the Buddhist and
+his past history. He must have a genuine interest in and a great
+capacity for friendship. The Buddhists are very human, responding to
+friendship very quickly. Such friendship forms a link between the man
+and the larger friendship of Christ.
+
+_3. Emphasis on the Aesthetic in Christianity_
+
+A Chinese Christian leader described his idea of a church as a place
+removed from the din of the street, approached by a walk flanked with
+trees and flowers and adorned within by symbols speaking to the heart of
+the Chinese. He longed for the mystic silence and the beauty of holiness
+which would open the windows of the world of spiritual reality and throw
+its light upon the problems of life. He was asked, "Would you adapt some
+of the symbols of the Chinese religions?" He said, "Many of those
+symbols are neutral. They suggest religious emotion. Their character
+depends upon the content which the occasion puts into them. If the
+content is Christian then the symbols and emotions will become
+Christian."
+
+Christianity is a religion of beauty. The beautiful in architecture,
+symbol and ritual, expressing the spiritual universe of the past,
+present and future, makes a strong appeal to the Chinese heart. It may
+well be emphasized in the future as never before.
+
+_4. Emphasis on the Mystical in Christianity_
+
+Not long ago a Buddhist in one of the large cities of China was
+converted. He found great joy in the experience which revived him and
+gathered into unity the broken fragments of his life. He attended church
+regularly and participated in the prayer meetings. Gradually he
+discovered that he was not being nourished. He felt his joy slipping
+away from him and his divided life reinstating itself. He went to
+Buddhism for consolation. He is not hostile to the church. He
+appreciates the help he received, but he said that he came for
+consolation and peace and found the same--hard orthodoxy and morality so
+familiar to him in Confucianism.
+
+While the case of this man may have individual peculiarities, it may be
+made the starting point for a discussion of the situation in many
+churches in China. The early message to the Chinese was doctrinal. The
+false notion of many gods had to be displaced by the idea of the one
+true God. With this idea of the true God a few other tenets of the
+Christian religion are often held as dogmatic propositions to be
+repeated when questions are asked. The great sin preached is the worship
+of idols.
+
+The second part of the Christian message is salvation by faith in Jesus
+Christ. This salvation is other-worldly to a large extent. The extreme
+emphasis upon it has made of the church an insurance society, membership
+in which insures bliss in the world beyond.
+
+The third part of the message has been concerned with moral acts,
+abstinence from opium (liquor and tobacco in some churches), polygamy,
+and the gross sins. Attendance upon church services, contribution for
+the support of the church, and the refusal to contribute to idolatry
+have also been required.
+
+The emphasis to a large extent was doctrinal, moral and individual. The
+result has been a body of people free from the gross sins, but also
+innocent of the great virtues and individualistic in their outlook upon
+this world and the next. This emphasis is needed, but in addition there
+should be the cultivation of the presence of God in the soul by
+appropriate means. The Christian Church of China should develop a
+technique of the spiritual life suited to the East. The formation of
+habits of devotion should be emphasized. Intercessory prayer should be
+given a larger place. Contemplation and meditation should be regarded
+not merely as an escape from the turmoil and strife of the world, but as
+a preparation for the highest life of service and sacrifice. Buddhist
+mysticism united the whole universe and was the great foundation of
+Chinese art, literature and morality. The spiritual world of
+Christianity must likewise seep through into the very thought of Asia
+and inspire the new art, literature and morality which will be the world
+expression of a Christian universe.
+
+_5. Emphasis on the Social Elements in Christianity_
+
+To the aesthetic and mystical emphasis must be attached a social
+emphasis. Buddhism is often criticized as not being social. It is a
+highly socialized religion. It has had a large influence upon social
+life in the East. This social life is different from ours. We see its
+wrongs and weaknesses. Likewise do the Buddhists see the materialism and
+injustice of our social life. Christianity must relate itself to the
+modern world as it is rising in China and seek not merely to remedy a
+few wrongs or heal a few diseases, but must release the healing stream
+into the social life of the East. This will be done and is being done
+through the Church community which has become conscious of itself,
+realizing its needs and wants, seeking in an intelligent and systematic
+way to rehabilitate itself. It is not so much the external unrelated
+efforts that accomplish the thing needed, but it is rather the community
+life stirred by ideals and fired by a new dynamic which begins the work
+of reformation.
+
+_6. Emphasis on the Person of Jesus Christ_
+
+_(a) As a Historical Character._--The great asset of the missionary
+among Buddhists is the historical person of Christ. In contrast to many
+of the Bodhisattvas, the saviours of the Buddhists, Jesus is a
+historical character. His life among men was the life of God among men.
+
+_(b) As the Revealer._--God is like Christ. Christ reveals God as
+the complete, the perfect person. He possessed the pure spiritual
+personality. The chief characteristic of this personality is love. This
+love conscious of itself finds its highest joy in the well-being of
+others. This love of God produced human life which, springing from the
+lowest form, broke through the material elements and is capable of
+attaining the highest development.
+
+Christ reveals to man his heavenly relationship. Man created in the
+likeness of God stands in the highest relation of one person to another
+through love. He likens this relation to that of father and son. He
+lifts man to the fellowship with the divine. Yet such a fellowship that
+man preserves his personality.
+
+Christ reveals man in his relation to men as a brother and the form of
+love which shall control the relation of man to God as well as man to
+man.
+
+Christ revealed and founded the Kingdom, a society of the saved,
+dominated by the spirit of the founder and making this spirit of love
+and service the organizing power in the world.
+
+_(c) As the Saviour._--Mahayâna Buddhism emphasized saviourhood.
+Christ is the saviour of men. In Buddhism the stress is placed upon the
+merit of the saviour and the saved. There is no question that merit has
+some value. Yet Christ does not save us by merit, nor do we help to save
+one another by merit. Salvation is a moral and spiritual process. It is
+concerned with the biology of the soul. The salvation that we preach is
+not the salvation by knowledge, or meditation, or merit, but by the
+interpenetration of Christ's spirit in ours, by the mystic and moral
+union of our life with his. As Paul says: "That I may know Him and the
+power of His resurrection and the fellowship of His suffering." Yet He
+is not the saviour of the individual alone. He saves the community, the
+church. Only as His spirit permeates and dominates the community does he
+find his true self and the real salvation.
+
+_(d) As the Eternal Son, of God._--The Mahayâna system does not
+emphasize the historicity of Amitabha or of the Bodhisattvas. Spiritual
+truth is the development of the soul. It is not limited by time and
+place. Likewise Christianity must emphasize the eternal character of
+Jesus Christ. "The Logos existed in the very beginning, the Logos was
+with God, the Logos was God." To the Mahâyânist this spiritual history
+is more real than any fact conditioned by time and place.
+
+The Christian worker must learn to understand the import of the Gospel
+of John. He must see in Jesus Christ "The real Light, which enlightens
+every man." He must be able to convince himself that the Christ is the
+fulfillment of the highest aspirations of the Mahâyâna system.
+
+_7. How Christianity Expresses Itself in Buddhist Minds_
+
+In 1920 a number of Buddhist monks, under the leadership of Rev. K. L.
+Reichelt formed a Christian brotherhood. The members of this small
+brotherhood decided that they must subscribe to vows and they took the
+four following:
+
+"I promise before the Almighty and Omniscient God, that I with my whole
+heart will surrender myself to the true Trinity, God the Father, the Son
+and the Holy Spirit. I will with my whole heart have faith in Jesus
+Christ as the Saviour of the world who gives completion to the
+profoundest and best objects of the higher Buddhism. I will live in this
+faith now and ever after.
+
+"I promise solemnly before God with my whole heart to devote myself to
+the study of the true doctrine and break wholly with the evil manners of
+the world and show forth in my public and private life that I am truly
+united with Christ.
+
+"I promise that I in every respect will try so to educate myself that I
+can be of use in the work of God on earth. I will with undivided heart
+devote myself to the great work; to lead my brethren in the Buddhist
+Association forward to the understanding of Christ as the only One, who
+gives completion to the highest and profoundest ideas of Higher
+Buddhism.
+
+"I promise that until my last hour I will work so that out of our
+Christian Brotherhood there may grow forth a strong church of Christ
+among Buddhists. I will not permit any evil thing to grow in my heart,
+which could divide the brotherhood, but will always try to promote the
+progress of every member in the knowledge of the holy obligations laid
+down in these vows and our constitution."
+
+Such men ought, to make choice Christians.
+
+_8. Christianity's Constructive Values_
+
+Buddhism in the course of its long history developed certain religious
+ideas and values which we find in Christianity. It faced the fact of sin
+and placed it in the heart. It diagnosed the fundamental instincts of
+men, sex-appetite, will-to-achieve, and pugnacity. These must be
+overcome. It regards them as delusions which must be eliminated.
+Christianity also deals with these instincts. It is under no delusion as
+to their strength. There are certain tendencies in Christianity which
+have tried to annihilate them. The central tendency of Christianity,
+however, recognizing their power for good, seeks to sublimate them and
+make them serve the individual and society. This attitude of the two
+religions toward these instincts is fundamentally different. The
+attitude of Christianity has been justified even in Buddhist lands where
+the religious life of the people has followed the same line that
+Christianity advocates.
+
+Early Buddhism tried to dissolve man's personality. Later Buddhism
+corrected this and perhaps has appealed too much to the desire on the
+part of the individual to enter a heaven which is merely a replica of
+the earth. Christianity starts with a personal God and holds up before
+the believer the goal of perfection for his own personality. It finds
+man without a self and confers a real selfhood upon him.
+
+Early Buddhism taught that salvation is accomplished by the individual
+alone. It denies the possibility and the necessity of help from a divine
+source. Subsequent history has proved this to have been wrong. In India,
+Buddhism has been displaced by Hinduism, and in China, and Japan, the
+Mahâyâna has developed the idea of salvation through another. The great
+stream of Buddhism has recognized that man by himself is helpless. He
+must have the help of a divine power in order to obtain salvation.
+Christianity asserts that salvation is possible only through the
+intervention of God. The incarnation, the life, death and resurrection
+of Jesus and his work in the world through the Holy Spirit on the one
+hand are the expression of God's solicitude for man, and, on the other
+hand, correspond to the deep need which men of all ages have felt, for a
+power above themselves. From the early stages of magic to the highest
+reaches of religion we find this constant factor recognized by human
+groups all over the world. They bear witness to a power above themselves
+to whom they continually appeal. In Christianity we find this main
+tendency enunciated most clearly. The individual cannot save himself.
+Mankind cannot save itself. Both must rely upon the assistance of the
+divine power which started this universe on its way and which is the
+ever present creative force.
+
+Christianity, moreover, has established the community of believers
+including all classes and conditions of men. Herein each one may realize
+himself. Herein also he may realize the kind of community which is
+friendly to his highest aspirations for himself. Herein he has the
+opportunity to transmute the instincts above mentioned into forces which
+make for the larger development of his own person and the well-being of
+the community.
+
+Accordingly, as Christians face Buddhists, they can do so with the
+consciousness that this great religion has been reaching out after the
+light which shines brightly in our Christian religion. They have the
+assurance not only that they have a message which brings fulfilment to
+the ideas of the Mahâyâna, but also that it has prepared the way for the
+hearts of the Chinese to receive the highest message of Christianity.
+
+
+
+
+APPENDIX I
+
+
+HINTS FOR THE PRELIMINARY STUDY OF BUDDHISM IN CHINA
+
+The student should read and inwardly digest the booklet of K. J.
+Saunders.
+
+He should follow the directions given in Appendix One of that book, This
+procedure is important because the Hînayâna Buddhism and the life of
+Buddha are the background of Buddhism in China.
+
+Then he may take Hackmann's _Buddhism as a Religion_
+(No. 15). This will give a general orientation. This may be followed
+with R. F. Johnston's _Buddhist China_ (No.
+_20_). Along with this he may read Suzuki's
+_Awakening of Faith_ (No. 32), and also his
+_Outlines of Mahâyanâ Buddhism (No._ 33). McGovern's
+_Introduction to Mahâyanâ Buddhism (No._ 23) will
+illuminate the philosophical background of Buddhism, and Eliot's
+_Hinduism and Buddhism_ (No. 13) will add historical
+perspective.
+
+The translation of _Mahdydna Sutras_ by Beal and in the
+Sacred Books of the East will give him some of the sources for the
+doctrines held in China. He may begin as the Buddhist missionaries did
+with the sutra of the Forty-two sections and then take up the Diamond
+Sutra, and then completing the sutras in Vol. 59 and the Catena of
+Buddhist Scriptures.
+
+For the study of the ethical side he will find De Groot's _Le Code
+du Mahâyâna en Chine_ very helpful. For the study of the sects
+Eliot, Vol. III, pp. 303-320 _Northern Buddhism_ (No. 14) will
+be helpful.
+
+In all his study he will find Eitel's _Handbook of Chinese
+Buddhism_ (No. 12) indispensable. He must, however, make a
+Chinese index in order to be able to use the book.
+
+Contact with monks will be helpful and is quite necessary in order to
+appreciate the human problems of the work.
+
+
+
+
+APPENDIX II
+
+
+A BRIEF BIBLIOGRAPHY
+
+1. BEAL, S. _Abstract of Four Lectures_ upon _Buddhist
+Literature_ in _China._ London, Triibner, 1882.
+
+Lecture II, on "Method of Buddha's Teaching in the Vinaya Pitaka," and
+Lecture IV, on "Coincidences Between Buddhism and Other Religions,"
+especially desirable.
+
+
+2. ---- _Buddhism in China,_ London, S. P. C. K, 1884.
+
+The best comprehensive account of Chinese Buddhism, written by an
+authority.
+
+
+3. ---- _Catena of Buddhist Scriptures,_ from the Chinese. London,
+Triibner, 1871.
+
+A good introduction to Chinese Buddhism from the sources.
+
+4. ---- _The Romantic Legend of Sâkya Buddha._ London,
+Triibner, 1875.
+
+Recounts Buddha's history from the beginning to the
+conversion of the Kâsyapas and others.
+
+
+5. ---- _Texts from the Buddhist Canon Commonly Known_ as _D_
+hammapada. London, Triibner, 1878. Pocket edition, 1902.
+
+These "Scriptural Texts," translated from the Chinese and abridged, are
+usually connected with some event in Buddha's history. This translation
+has Indian anecdotes, illustrating the verses.
+
+
+6. COULING, S., editor. _The Encyclopaedia Sinica._ Shanghai, Kelly
+& Walsh, 1917.
+
+Contains, on pages 67-75, a number of brief articles upon Buddhism in
+China.
+
+
+7. DE QROOT, J. J. M. _Religion of the Chinese._ New York,
+Macmillan, 1900.
+
+Pages 164-223 contain a summary of the main facts about Chinese Buddhism
+by an authority.
+
+
+8. ---- _Sectarianism and Religious Persecution in China._ 2 vols.
+J. Müller, Amsterdam, 1903-1904.
+
+Treats from sources Confucianism's persecution of Buddhism and other
+sects. See Vol. II. Index, under Buddhism, p. 572.
+
+
+9. DORE, HENEI. _Researches into Chinese Superstitions._ 6 vols.
+Tusewei Press, 1914-1920.
+
+A well illustrated miscellany of superstitions of all Chinese religions
+showing indistinctly their interpenetration by Buddhism.
+For Buddhism proper, see Vol. VI, pp. 89-233.
+
+
+10. EDKINS, J. _Chinese Buddhism._ 2d edition. London, Trübner,
+1893.
+
+A very full account of Buddhism as seen by a Sinologue of the last
+generation.
+
+
+11. EITEL, E. J. _Buddhism: Its Historical, Theoretical and Popular
+Aspects._ Hongkong, Lane, Crawford and Co., 1884.
+
+Written by an observant scholar and descriptive of Buddhism of South
+China especially.
+
+
+12. ---- _Handbook of Chinese Buddhism._ Presbyterian Mission Press,
+Shanghai.
+
+This is a Sanskrit-Chinese dictionary, a reprint of the second edition
+of 1888 without the Chinese index necessary for identifying Chinese
+Buddhist terms.
+
+
+13. ELIOT, SIR CHARLES. _Hinduism and Buddhism, An Historical
+Sketch._ 3 vols. Edward Arnold and Co., 1921.
+
+This is a valuable contribution to our knowledge of Buddhism by an
+experienced student. The parts especially related to Chinese Buddhism
+are Vol. II, pp. 3-106; Vol. Ill, 223-335.
+
+
+14. JETTY, A. _Gods of Northern Buddhism._ Oxford, Clarendon Press,
+1914.
+
+This work is helpful in identifying images in the temples, though
+unfortunately few of those given are Chinese.
+
+
+15. HACKMANN, H. _Buddhism as a Religion._ London, Probsthain,
+1910.
+
+Gives a general view of Buddhism from first-hand investigation. For
+Chinese Buddhism see pp. 200-257.
+
+
+16. HASTINGS, JAMES. _The Encyclopedia of Religion and Ethics._ New
+York, Scribners, 1908.
+
+Articles Asvaghosa, Bodhisattva, China (Buddhism in), Mahâyâna Missions
+(Buddhist).
+
+
+17. HUME, R. E. _The Living Religions of the World._ New York,
+Scribners, 1924.
+
+A clear comparative study of these religions in the light of Christian
+standards.
+
+
+18. INGLIS, J. W. "Christian Element in Chinese Buddhism."
+_International Review of Missions,_ Vol. V, 1916, pp. 587-602. An
+excellent article by a veteran missionary and scholar of Manchuria.
+
+
+19. JOHNSON, S. _Oriental Religions ... China._ Boston, Houghton,
+Osgood Co., 1878.
+
+Pages 800-833 give a comprehensive summary by a student of comparative
+religion.
+
+
+20. JOHNSTON, R. F. _Buddhist_ China. New York, Dutton, 1913.
+
+A well-written, interesting book. The author knows his subject, and is
+held in high esteem by Buddhists in China.
+
+
+21. KEITH, A. BERRIEDALE. _Buddhist Philosophy in India and
+Ceylon._ Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1923.
+
+A study of the historic development of the Buddhistic philosophy in
+India and Ceylon which throws much light on the Mahâyâna.
+
+
+22. LODGE, J. E. _Chinese Buddhist Art._ Asia, Vol. XIX, June,
+1919.
+
+Some of the choicest half-tones illustrating its character accompanied
+by interesting descriptions.
+
+
+23. McGOVERN, W. M. _An Introduction of Mahâyâna Buddhism._ Dutton,
+1922.
+
+Though written from the point of view of Japanese Buddhism it gives a
+good treatment of metaphysical and psychological aspects of the Mahâyâna
+system.
+
+
+24. MÜLLER, F. MAX. _Sacred Books of the East._ Vol. XLIX,
+Buddhist, Mahâyâna Texts. Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1894.
+
+A book of sources necessary for understanding Northern Buddhism.
+
+
+25. PARKER, E. H. _China and Religion._ New York, Dutton, 1905.
+
+A sketch of Buddhism by a scholar long resident in China is found in
+Chapter IV.
+
+
+26. PAUL, C. T. _The Presentation of Christianity to Buddhists._
+New York, Board of Missionary Preparation, 1924.
+
+A carefully prepared study of Buddhism from the viewpoint of
+missionaries working in Buddhist lands.
+
+
+27. REICHELT, K. L. "Special Work Among Chinese Buddhists." _Chinese
+Recorder,_ Vol. LI, 1920, July issue, pp. 491-497.
+
+An article by a pioneer in work among Buddhists, of rare insight and
+sympathy.
+
+
+28. RICHARD, T. _The Awakening of Faith in the Mahâyâna Doctrine._
+2d edition. Shanghai, 1918.
+
+A loose translation by a very large-hearted and sympathetic student with
+an irenic spirit. See 32 below.
+
+
+29. RICHARD, T. _Guide to Buddhahood; Being a Standard Manual of
+Chinese Buddhism._ Shanghai., 1907.
+
+
+30. SAUNDERS, K. J. _Epochs of Buddhist History_ (Haskell
+Lectures), Chicago University Press, 1922.
+
+A good summary of the main developments in Buddhism.
+
+
+31. STAUFFER, M. T. _The Christian Occupation of China._ Shanghai
+Continuation Committee, 1922.
+
+The introductory section contains articles upon China's religions.
+
+
+32. SUZUKI, T. A'svaghosa's _Awakening of Faith in the Mahâyâna._
+Chicago, Open Court Publishing Co., 1900.
+
+A far more accurate translation of this work than No. 28 above.
+
+
+33. ---- Outlines of _Mahâyâna Buddhism._ Chicago, Open Court
+Publishing Co., 1908.
+
+While written from the Japanese point of view it is necessary to the
+understanding of Chinese Buddhism.
+
+
+34. WATTERS, T. "Buddhism in China." _Chinese Recorder,_ Vol. II,
+1870, pp. 1-7, 38-43, 64-68, 81-88, 117-122, 145-150, Shanghai.
+
+A valuable series of articles by an excellent Chinese scholar,
+discussing the history, persecutions, and various Buddhas of China.
+
+
+35. WEI, F. C. M. "Salvation by Faith as Taught by the Pure Land Sect."
+_Chinese Recorder,_ Vol. LI, 1920, pp. 395-401, 485-491.
+
+A good article on the sect whose ideas have spread over China and Japan.
+
+
+36. WIEGER, L. _Bouddhisme Chinois,_ 2 vols. Ho-Kien-Fou, Roman
+Catholic Press, 1910-1913.
+
+This contains the Chinese text and French translation of the life of
+Buddha as known to China; also the ritual observed in ordination. A
+useful source book.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+End of Project Gutenberg's Buddhism and Buddhists in China, by Lewis Hodous
+
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+Project Gutenberg's Buddhism and Buddhists in China, by Lewis Hodus
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+Title: Buddhism and Buddhists in China
+
+Author: Lewis Hodus
+
+Release Date: June, 2005 [EBook #8390]
+[Yes, we are more than one year ahead of schedule]
+[This file was first posted on July 6, 2003]
+
+Edition: 10
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-Latin-1
+
+*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK BUDDHISM AND BUDDHISTS IN CHINA ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Lee Dawei, V-M Osterman
+and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team
+
+
+
+
+BUDDHISM AND BUDDHISTS IN CHINA
+
+BY
+
+LEWIS HODOUS, D.D.
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: EX LIBRIS:
+CHARLES FRANKLIN THWING
+Western Reserve University
+Library
+
+From the Library of
+Charles Franklin Thwing
+Acquired in 1938]
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE
+
+This volume is the third to be published of a series on "The World's
+Living Religions," projected in 1920 by the Board of Missionary
+Preparation of the Foreign Missions Conference of North America. The
+series seeks to introduce Western readers to the real religious life of
+each great national area of the non-Christian world.
+
+Buddhism is a religion which must be viewed from many angles. Its
+original form, as preached by Gautama in India and developed in the
+early years succeeding, and as embodied in the sacred literature of
+early Buddhism, is not representative of the actual Buddhism of any land
+today. The faithful student of Buddhist literature would be as far
+removed from understanding the working activities of a busy center of
+Buddhism in Burmah, Tibet or China today as a student of patristic
+literature would be from appreciating the Christian life of London or
+New York City.
+
+Moreover Buddhism, like Christianity, has been affected by national
+conditions. It has developed at least three markedly different types,
+requiring, therefore, as many distinct volumes of this series for its
+fair interpretation and presentation. The volume on the Buddhism of
+Southern Asia by Professor Kenneth J. Saunders was published in May,
+1923; this volume on the Buddhism of China by Professor Hodous will be
+the second to appear; a third on the Buddhism of Japan, to be written by
+Dr. R. C. Armstrong, will be published in 1924. Each of these is needed
+in order that the would be student of Buddhism as practiced in those
+countries should be given a true, impressive and friendly picture of
+what he will meet.
+
+A missionary no less than a professional student of Buddhism needs to
+approach that religion with a real appreciation of what it aims to do
+for its people and does do. No one can come into contact with the best
+that Buddhism offers without being impressed by its serenity, assurance
+and power.
+
+Professor Hodous has written this volume on Buddhism in China out of the
+ripe experience and continuing studies of sixteen years of missionary
+service in Foochow, the chief city of Fukien Province, China, one of the
+important centers of Buddhism. His local studies were supplemented by
+the results of broader research and study in northern China. No other
+available writer on the subject has gone so far as he in reproducing the
+actual thinking of a trained Buddhist mind in regard to the fundamentals
+of religion. At the same time he has taken pains to exhibit and to
+interpret the religious life of the peasant as affected by Buddhism. He
+has sought to be absolutely fair to Buddhism, but still to express his
+own conviction that the best that is in Buddhism is given far more
+adequate expression in Christianity.
+
+The purpose of each volume in this series is impressionistic rather than
+definitely educational. They are not textbooks for the formal study of
+Buddhism, but introductions to its study. They aim to kindle interest
+and to direct the activity of the awakened student along sound lines.
+For further study each volume amply provides through directions and
+literature in the appendices. It seeks to help the student to
+discriminate, to think in terms of a devotee of Buddhism when he
+compares that religion with Christianity. It assumes, however, that
+Christianity is the broader and deeper revelation of God and the world
+of today.
+
+Buddhism in China undoubtedly includes among its adherents many
+high-minded, devout, and earnest souls who live an idealistic life.
+Christianity ought to make a strong appeal to such minds, taking from
+them none of the joy or assurance or devotion which they possess, but
+promoting a deeper, better balanced interpretation of the active world,
+a nobler conception of God, a stronger sense of sinfulness and need, and
+a truer idea of the full meaning of incarnation and revelation.
+
+It is our hope that this fresh contribution to the understanding of
+Buddhism as it is today may be found helpful to readers everywhere.
+
+The Editors.
+
+_New York city,
+December, 1923._
+
+The Committee of Reference and Counsel of the Foreign Missions
+Conference of North America has authorized the publication of this
+series. The author of each volume is alone responsible for the opinions
+expressed, unless otherwise stated.
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS
+
+
+CHAPTER
+
+I. INTRODUCTORY
+
+II. THE ENTRANCE OF BUDDHISM INTO CHINA
+
+III. THE ESTABLISHMENT OF BUDDHISM AS THE PREDOMINATING RELIGION OF CHINA
+  1. The World of Invisible Spirits
+  2. The Universal Sense of Ancestor Control
+  3. Degenerate Taoism
+  4. The Organizing Value of Confucianism
+  5. Buddhism an Inclusive Religion
+
+IV. BUDDHISM AND THE PEASANT
+  1. The Monastery of Kushan
+  2. Monasteries Control Fêng-shui
+  3. Prayer for Rain
+    (a) The altar
+    (b) The prayer service
+    (c) Its Meaning
+  4. Monasteries are Supported because They
+     Control Fêng-shui
+
+V. BUDDHISM AND THE FAMILY
+  1. Kuan Yin, the Giver of Children and Protector of Women
+  2. Kuan Yin, the Model of Local Mother-Goddesses
+  3. Exhortations on Family Virtues
+  4. Services for the Dead
+
+VI. BUDDHISM AND SOCIAL LIFE
+  1. How the Laity is Trained in Buddhist Ideas
+  2. Effect of Ideals of Mercy and Universal Love
+  3. Relation to Confucian Ideal
+  4. The Embodiment of Buddhist Ideals in the Vegetarian Sects
+  5. Pilgrimages
+
+VII. BUDDHISM AND THE FUTURE LIFE
+  1. The Buddhist Purgatory
+  2. Its Social Value
+  3. The Buddhist Heaven
+  4. The Harmonization of These Ideas with Ancestor Worship
+
+VIII. THE SPIRITUAL VALUES EMPHASIZED BY BUDDHISM IN CHINA
+  1. The Threefold Classification of Men under Buddhism
+  2. Salvation for the Common Man
+  3. The Place of Faith
+  4. Salvation of the Second Class
+  5. Salvation for the Highest Class
+  6. Heaven and Purgatory
+  7. Sin
+  8. Nirvana
+  9. The Philosophical Background
+  10. What Buddhism Has to Give
+
+IX. PRESENT-DAY BUDDHISM
+  1. Periods of Buddhist History
+  2. The Progress of the Last Twenty-five Years
+  3. Present Activities
+    (a) The reconstruction of monasteries
+    (b) Accessions
+    (c) Publications
+    (d) Lectures
+    (e) Buddhist societies
+    (f) Signs of social ambition
+  4. The Attitude of Tibetan Lamas
+  5. The Buddhist World Versus the Christian World
+
+X. THE CHRISTIAN APPROACH TO BUDDHISTS
+  1. Questions which Buddhists Ask
+  2. Knowledge and Sympathy
+  3. Emphasis on the Ĉsthetic in Christianity
+  4. Emphasis on the Mystical in Christianity
+  5. Emphasis on the Social Elements in Christianity
+  6. Emphasis on the Person of Jesus Christ
+    (a) As a Historical Character
+    (b) As the Revealer
+    (c) As the Saviour
+    (d) As the Eternal Son of God
+  7. How Christianity Expresses Itself in Buddhist Minds
+  8. Christianity's Constructive Values
+
+APPENDIX ONE, Hints for the Preliminary Study of Buddhism in China
+
+APPENDIX TWO, A Brief Bibliography
+
+
+
+
+BUDDHISM AND BUDDHISTS IN CHINA
+
+
+
+
+I
+
+
+INTRODUCTORY
+
+A well known missionary of Peking, China, was invited one day by a
+Buddhist acquaintance to attend the ceremony of initiation for a class
+of one hundred and eighty priests and some twenty laity who had been
+undergoing preparatory instruction at the stately and important Buddhist
+monastery. The beautiful courts of the temple were filled by a throng of
+invited guests and spectators, waiting to watch the impressive
+procession of candidates, acolytes, attendants and high officials, all
+in their appropriate vestments. No outsider was privileged to witness
+the solemn taking by each candidate for the priesthood of the vow to
+"keep the Ten Laws," followed by the indelible branding of his scalp,
+truly a "baptism of fire." Less private was the initiation of the lay
+brethren and _sisters,_ more lightly branded on the right wrist,
+while all about intoned "Na Mah Pen Shih Shih Chia Mou Ni Fo." (I put my
+trust in my original Teacher, Säkyamuni, Buddha.)
+
+The missionary was deeply impressed by the serenity and devotion of the
+worshipers and by the dignity and solemnity of the service. The last
+candidate to rise and receive the baptism of branding was a young
+married woman of refined appearance, attended by an elderly lady,
+evidently her mother, who watched with an expression of mingled
+devotion, insight and pride her daughter's initiation and welcomed her
+at the end of the process with radiant face, as a daughter, now, in a
+spiritual as well as a physical sense. At that moment an attendant,
+noting the keen interest of the missionary, said to him rather
+flippantly, "Would you not like to have your arm branded, too?" "I
+might," he replied, "just out of curiosity, but I could not receive the
+branding as a believer in the Buddha. I am a Christian believer. To be
+branded without inward faith would be an insult to your religion as well
+as treachery to my own, would it not? Is not real religion a matter of
+the heart?"
+
+The old lady, who had overheard with evident disapproval the remark of
+the attendant, turned to the missionary at once and said, "Is that the
+way you Westerners, you Christians, speak of your faith? Is the reality
+of religion for you also an inward experience of the heart?" And with
+that began an interesting interchange of conversation, each party
+discovering that in the heart of the other was a genuine longing for God
+that overwhelmed all the artificial, material distinctions and the human
+devices through which men have limited to particular and exclusive paths
+their way of search, and drew these two pilgrims on the way toward God
+into a common and very real fellowship of the spirit.
+
+A Buddhist monk was passing by a mission building in another city' of
+China when his attention was suddenly drawn to the Svastika and other
+Buddhist symbols which the architect had skilfully used in decorating
+the building. His face brightened as he said to his companion: "I did
+not know that Christians had any appreciation of beauty in their
+religion."
+
+These incidents reveal aspects of the alchemy of the soul by which the
+real devotee of one religion perceives values which are dear to him in
+another religion. The good which he has attained in his old religion
+enables him to appropriate the better in the new religion. A converted
+monk, explaining his acceptance of Christianity, said: "I found in Jesus
+Christ the great Bodhisattva, my Saviour, who brings to fruition the
+aspirations awakened in me by Buddhism."
+
+Just as it has been said that they do not know England who know England
+only, so it may be said with equal truth that they do not know
+Christianity who know it and no other faith. There are many in China
+like the old lady at the temple, who have found in Buddhism something of
+that spiritual satisfaction and stimulus which true Christianity
+affords, in fuller measure. The recognition of such religious values by
+the student or the missionary furnishes a sound foundation for the
+building of a truer spirituality among such devotees.
+
+As will be seen in what follows, religion in China is at first sight a
+mixed affair. From the standpoint of cruder household superstitions an
+average Chinese family may be regarded as Taoists; the principles by
+which its members seek to guide their lives individually and socially
+may be called Confucian; their attitude of worship and their hopes for
+the future make them Buddhists. The student would not be far afield when
+he credits the religious aspirations of the Chinese today to Buddhism,
+regarding Confucianism as furnishing the ethical system to which they
+submit and Taoism as responsible for many superstitious practices. But
+the Buddhism found in China differs radically from that of Southern
+Asia, as will be made clear by the following sketch of its introduction
+into the Flowery Kingdom and its subsequent history.
+
+
+
+
+II
+
+
+THE ENTRANCE OF BUDDHISM INTO CHINA
+
+Buddhism was not an indigenous religion of China. Its, founder was
+Gautama of India in the sixth century B.C. Some centuries later it found
+its way into China by way of central Asia. There is a tradition that as
+early as 142 B.C. Chang Ch'ien, an ambassador of the Chinese emperor, Wu
+Ti, visited the countries of central Asia, where he first learned about
+the new religion which was making such headway and reported concerning
+it to his master. A few years later the generals of Wu Ti captured a
+gold image of the Buddha which the emperor set up in his palace and
+worshiped, but he took no further steps.
+
+According to Chinese historians Buddhism was officially recognized in
+China about 67 A.D. A few years before that date, the emperor, Ming-Ti,
+saw in a dream a large golden image with a halo hovering above his
+palace. His advisers, some of whom were no doubt already favorable to
+the new religion, interpreted the image of the dream to be that of
+Buddha, the great sage of India, who was inviting his adhesion.
+Following their advice the emperor sent an embassy to study into
+Buddhism. It brought back two Indian monks and a quantity of Buddhist
+classics. These were carried on a white horse and so the monastery which
+the emperor built for the monks and those who came after them was called
+the White Horse Monastery. Its tablet is said to have survived to this
+day.
+
+This dream story is worth repeating because it goes to show that
+Buddhism was not only known at an early date, but was favored at the
+court of China. In fact, the same history which relates the dream
+contains the biography of an official who became an adherent of Buddhism
+a few years before the dream took place. This is not at all surprising,
+because an acquaintance with Buddhism was the inevitable concomitant of
+the military campaigning, the many embassies and the wide-ranging trade
+of those centuries. But the introduction of Buddhism into China was
+especially promoted by reason of the current policy of the Chinese
+government of moving conquered populations in countries west of China
+into China proper, The vanquished peoples brought their own religion
+along with them. At one time what is now the province of Shansi was
+populated in this way by the Hsiung-nu, many of whom were Buddhists.
+
+The introduction and spread of Buddhism were hastened by the decline of
+Confucianism and Taoism. The Han dynasty (206 B. C.-221 A. D.)
+established a government founded on Confucianism. It reproduced the
+classics destroyed in the previous dynasty and encouraged their study;
+it established the state worship of Confucius; it based its laws and
+regulations upon the ideals and principles advocated by Confucius. The
+great increase of wealth and power under this dynasty led to a gradual
+deterioration in the character of the rulers and officials. The sigid
+Confucian regulations became burdensome to the people who ceased to
+respect their leaders. Confucianism lost its hold as the complete
+solution of the problems of life. At the same time Taoism had become a
+veritable jumble of meaningless and superstitious rites which served to
+support a horde of ignorant, selfish priests. The high religious ideals
+of the earlier Taoist mystics were abandoned for a search after the
+elixir of life during fruitless journeys to the isles of the Immortals
+which were supposed to be in the Eastern Sea.
+
+At this juncture there arose in North China a sect of men called the
+Purists who advocated a return from the vagaries of Taoism and the
+irritating rules of Confucianism to the simple life practised by the
+Taoist mystics. When these thoughtful and earnest minded men came into
+contact with Buddhism they were captivated by it. It had all they were
+claiming for Taoist mysticism and more. They devoted their literary
+ability and religious fervor to the spreading of the new religion and
+its success was in no small measure due to their efforts. As a result of
+this early association the tenets of the two religions seemed so much
+alike that various emperors called assemblies of Buddhists and Taoists
+with the intention of effecting a union of the two religions into one.
+If the emperor was under the influence of Buddhism he tried to force all
+Taoists to become Buddhists. If he was favorable to Taoism he tried to
+make all Buddhists become Taoists.
+
+But such mandates were as unsuccessful as other similar schemes have
+been. In the third century A. D. after the Han dynasty had ended, China
+was broken up into several small kingdoms which contended for supremacy,
+so that for about four hundred years the whole country was in a state of
+disunion. One of the strong dynasties of this period, the Northern Wei
+(386-535 A. D.), was distinctly loyal to Buddhism. During its
+continuance Buddhism prospered greatly. Although Chinese were not
+permitted to become monks until 335 A. D., still Buddhism made rapid
+advances and in the fourth century, when that restriction was removed,
+about nine-tenths of the people of northwestern China had become
+Buddhists. Since then Buddhism has been an established factor in Chinese
+life.
+
+
+
+
+III
+
+
+THE ESTABLISHMENT OF BUDDHISM AS THE PREDOMINATING RELIGION OF CHINA
+
+Even the historical influences noted above do not account entirely for
+the spread of Buddhism in China. In order to understand this and the
+place which Buddhism occupies, we need to review briefly the different
+forms which religion takes in China and to note how Buddhism has related
+itself to them.
+
+_1. The World of Invisible Spirits_
+
+The Chinese believe _in_ a surrounding-world of spirits, whose
+origin is exceedingly various. They touch life at every point. There are
+spirits which are guardians of the soil, tree spirits, mountain demons,
+fire gods, the spirits of animals, of mountains, of rivers, seas and
+stars, of the heavenly bodies and of many forms of active life. These
+spirits to the Chinese mind, of today are a projection, a sort of
+spiritual counterpart, of the many sided interests, practical or
+otherwise, of the groups and communities by whom they are worshipped.
+There are other spirits which mirror the ideals of the groups by which
+they are worshipped. Some of them may have been incarnated in the lives
+of great leaders. There are spirits which are mere animations,
+occasional spirits, associated with objects crossing the interests of
+men, but not constant enough to attain a definite, independent life as
+spiritual beings. Thus surrounding the average Chinese peasant there is
+a densely populated spirit world affecting in all kinds of ways his,
+daily existence. This other world is the background which must be kept
+in mind by one who would understand or attempt to guide Chinese
+religious experience. It is the basis on which all organized forms of
+religious activity are built. The nearest of these to his heart is the
+proper regard for his ancestors.
+
+_2. The Universal Sense_ of _Ancestor Control_
+
+The ancestral control of family life occupies so large and important a
+place in Chinese thought and practice that ancestor worship has been
+called the original religion of the Chinese. It is certain that the
+earliest Confucian records recognize ancestor worship; but doubtless it
+antedated them, growing up out of the general religious consciousness of
+the people. The discussion of that origin in detail cannot be taken up
+here. It may be followed in the literature noted in the appendix or in
+the volume of this series entitled "Present-Day Confucianism." Ancestor
+worship is active today, however, because the Chinese as a people
+believe that these ancestors control in a very real way the good or evil
+fortunes of their descendants, because this recognition of ancestors
+furnishes a potent means of promoting family unity and social ethics,
+and, most of all, because a happy future life is supposed to be
+dependent upon descendants who will faithfully minister to the dead.
+Since each one desires such a future he is faithful in promoting the
+observance of the obligation. Consequently, ancestor worship, like the
+previously mentioned belief in the invisible spiritual world, underlies
+all other religious developments. No family is so obscure or poor that
+it does not submit to the ritual or discipline which is supposed to
+ensure the favor of the spirits belonging to the community. Likewise,
+every such family is loyal to the supposed needs of its deceased
+ancestors. In a very intimate way these beliefs are interwoven with the
+private and social morality of every family or group in Chinese society,
+and must be taken into account by any one who seeks to bring a religious
+message to the Chinese people.
+
+_3. Degenerate Taoism_
+
+Taoism is that system of Chinese religious thought and practice,
+beginning about the fifth century B. C., which was originally based on
+the teachings of Lao Tzu and developed in the writings of Lieh Tzu and
+Chuang Tzu and found in the Tao Tê Ching. It is really in this original
+form a philosophy of some merit. According to its teaching the Tao is
+the great impersonal background of the world from which all things
+proceed as beams from the sun, and to which all beings return. In
+contrast to the present, transient, changing world the Tao is
+unchangeable and quiet. Originally the Taoists emphasized quiescence, a
+life in accordance with nature, as a means of assimilating themselves to
+the Tao, believing that in this way they would obtain length of days,
+eternal life and especially the power to become superior to natural
+conditions.
+
+There is a movement today among Chinese scholars in favor of a return to
+this original highest form of Taoism. It appeals to them as a philosophy
+of life; an answer to its riddles. Among the masses of the people,
+however, Taoism manifests itself in a ritual of extreme superstition. It
+recommends magic tricks and curious superstitions as a means of
+prolonging life. It expresses itself very largely in these degrading
+practices which few Chinese will defend, but which are yet very commonly
+practiced.
+
+_4. The Organizing Value of Confucianism_
+
+Confucianism brought organization into these hazy conceptions of life
+and duty. It took for granted this spiritual-unspiritual background of
+animism, ancestor-worship and Taoism, but reshaped and adapted it as a
+whole so that it might fit into that proper organization of the state
+and nation which was one of its great objectives. Just as Confucianism
+related the family to the village, the village to the district, and the
+district to the state, so it organized the spiritual world into a
+hierarchy with Shang Ti as its head. This hierarchy was developed along
+the lines of the organization mentioned above. Under Shang Ti were the
+five cosmic emperors, one for each of the four quarters and one for
+heaven above, under whom were the gods of the soil, the mountains,
+rivers, seas, stars, the sun and moon, the ancestors and the gods of
+special groups. Each of the deities in the various ranks had duties to
+those above and rights with reference to those below. These duties and
+rights, as they affected the individual, were not only expressed in law
+but were embodied in ceremony and music, in daily religious life and
+practice in such a way that each individual had reason to feel that he
+was a functioning agent in this grand Confucian universe. If any one
+failed to do his part, the whole universe would suffer. So thoroughly
+has this idea been adopted by the Chinese people that every one joins in
+forcing an individual, however reluctant or careless, to perform his
+part of each ceremony as it has been ordered from high antiquity.
+
+The emperor alone worshipped the supreme deity, Shang Ti; the great
+officers of state, according to the dignity of their office, were
+related to subordinate gods and required to show them adequate respect
+and reverence. Confucius and a long line of noted men following him were
+semi-deified [Footnote: Confucius was by imperial decree deified in
+1908.] and highly reverenced by the literati, the class from which the
+officers of state were as a rule obtained, in connection with their
+duties, and as an expression of their ideals. To the common people were
+left the ordinary local deities, while all classes, of course, each in
+its own fashion reverenced, cherished and obeyed their ancestors. It
+should be remarked at this point that Confucianism of this official
+character has broken down, not only under the impact of modern ideas,
+but under the longing of the Chinese for a universal deity. The people
+turn to Heaven and to the Pearly Emperor, the popular counterpart of
+Shang Ti.
+
+Viewed from another angle, Confucianism is an elaborate system of
+ethics. In writings which are virtually the scriptures of the Chinese
+people Confucius and his successors have set forth the principles which
+should govern the life of a people who recognize this spiritual universe
+and system. These ethics have grown out of a long and, in some respects,
+a sound experience. Much can be said in their favor. The essential
+weaknesses of the Confucian system of ethics lie in its sectional and
+personal loyalties and its monarchical basis. The spirit of democracy is
+a deadly foe to Confucianism. Another element of weakness is its
+excessive dependence upon the past. Confucius reached ultimate wisdom by
+the study of the best that had been attained before his day. He looked
+backward rather than forward. Consequently a modern, broadly educated
+Confucianist finds himself in an anomalous position. He does not need
+absolutely to reject the wisdom which Confucianism embodies, but he can
+no longer accept it as a sound, reliable and indisputable scheme of
+thought and action. Yet its simple ethical principles and its social
+relationships are basal in the lives of the vast masses of the Chinese.
+
+_5. Buddhism an. Inclusive Religion._
+
+Upon this, confused jumble of spiritism, superstition, loyalty to
+ancestors and submission to a divine hierarchy Buddhism was
+superimposed. It quickly dominated all because of its superior
+excellence. The form of Buddhism which became established in China was
+not, to be sure, like the Buddhism preached by Gautama and his
+disciples, or like that form of Buddhism which had taken root in Burma
+or Ceylon. Except in name, the Buddhism of Southern Asia and the
+Buddhism which developed in China were virtually two distinct types of
+religion. The Buddhism of Burma and Ceylon was of the conservative
+Hînayâna ("Little Vehicle" of salvation) school, while that of China was
+of the progressive Mahâyâna ("Great Vehicle" of salvation) school. Their
+differences are so marked as to be worthy of a careful statement.
+
+The Hinayana, which is today the type of Buddhism in Ceylon, Burma and
+Siam, has always clung closely to tradition as expressed in the original
+Buddhist scriptures. Its basic ideas were that life is on the whole a
+time of suffering, that the cause of this sorrow is desire or ignorance,
+and that there is a possible deliverance from it. This deliverance or
+salvation is to be attained by following the eightfold path, namely,
+right knowledge, aspiration, speech, conduct, means of livelihood,
+endeavor, mindfulness and meditation. To the beatific state to be
+ultimately attained Gautama gave the name Nirvana, explained by his
+followers variously either as an utter extinction of personality or as a
+passionless peace, a general state of well-being free from all evil
+desire or clinging to life and released from the chain of
+transmigration. Hinayana Buddhism appeals to the individual as affording
+a way of escape from evil desire and its consequences by acquiring
+knowledge, by constant discipline, and by a devotedness of the life to
+religious ends through membership in the monastic order which Buddha
+established. It encourages, however, a personal salvation worked out by
+the individual alone.
+
+The Mahâyâna school of Buddhists accept the general ideas of the
+Hinayana regarding life and salvation, but so change the spirit and
+objectives as to make Buddhism into what is virtually another religion.
+It does not confine salvation to the few who can retire from the world
+and give themselves wholly to good works, but opens Buddhahood to all.
+The "saint" of Hinayana Buddhism is the _arhat_ who is intent on
+saving himself. The saint of Mahâyâna Buddhism is the candidate for
+Buddhahood (Bodhisattva) who defers his entrance into the bliss of
+deliverance in order to save others. Mahâyâna Buddhism is progressive.
+It encourages missionary enterprise and was a secret of the remarkable
+spread of Buddhism over Asia. Moreover, while the Hînayâna school
+recognizes no god or being to whom worship is given, the Mahâyanâ came
+to regard Gautama himself as a god and salvation as life in a heavenly
+world of pure souls. Thus the Mahâyâna type of thinking constitutes a
+bridge between Hînayâna Buddhism and Christianity. In fact, a recent
+writer has declared that Hînayâna Buddhists are verging toward these
+more spiritual conceptions. [Footnote: See Saunders, _Buddhism and
+Buddhists in Southern Asia,_ pp. 10, 20.]
+
+After the death of Sâkyamuni [Footnote: Sâkyamuni is the name by which
+Gautama, the Buddha, is familiarly known in China.] Buddhism broke up
+into a number of sects usually said to be eighteen in number. When
+Buddhism came to China some of these sects were introduced, but they
+assumed new forms in their Chinese environment. Besides the sects
+brought, from India the Chinese developed several strong sects of their
+own. Usually they speak of ten sects although the number is far larger,
+if the various subdivisions are included.
+
+To indicate the manifold differences between these groups in Buddhism
+would take us far afield and would not be profitable. It will be of
+interest, however, to consider some of the chief sects. One of the sects
+introduced from India is the Pure Land or the Ching T'u which holds
+before the believer the "Western Paradise" gained through faith in
+Amitâbha. Any one, no matter what his life may have been, may enter the
+Western Paradise by repeating the name of Amitâbha. This sect is
+widespread in China. In Japan there are two branches of it known as the
+Nishi-Hongwanji and the Higashi-Hongwanji with their head monasteries in
+Kyoto. They are the most progressive sects in Japan and are carrying on
+missionary work in China, the Hawaiian Islands and in the United States.
+
+Another strong sect is the Meditative sect or the Ch'an Men (Zen in
+Japan). This was introduced by Bodhidharma, or Tamo, who arrived in the
+capital of China in the year 520 A.D. On his arrival the emperor Wu Ti
+tried to impress the sage with his greatness saying: "We have built
+temples, multiplied the Scriptures, encouraged many to join the Order:
+is not there much merit in all this?" "None," was the blunt reply. "But
+what say the holy books? Do they not promise rewards for such deeds?"
+"There is nothing holy." "But you, yourself, are you not one of the holy
+ones?" "I don't know." "Who are you?" "I don't know." Thus introduced,
+the great man proceeded to open his missionary-labors by sitting down
+opposite a wall arid gazing at it for the next nine years. From this he
+has been called the "wall-gazer." He and his successors promulgated the
+doctrine that neither the scriptures, the ritual nor the organization,
+in fact nothing outward had any value in the attainment of
+enlightenment. They held that the heart of the universe is Buddha and
+that apart from the heart or the thought all is unreal. They thought
+themselves back into the universal Buddha and then found the Buddha
+heart in all nature. Thus they awakened the spirit which permeated
+nature, art and literature and made the whole world kin with the spirit
+of the Buddha.
+
+
+  "The golden light upon the sunkist peaks,
+  The water murmuring in the pebbly creeks,
+  Are Buddha. In the stillness, hark, he speaks!"
+
+
+[Footnote: K. J. Saunders in _Epochs of Buddhist History._]
+
+Such pantheism and quietism often lead to a confusion in moral
+relations, but these mystics were quite correct in their morals because
+they checked up their mysticism with the moral system of the Buddha.
+
+Still another important sect originated in the sixth century A. D. on
+Chinese soil, namely, the T'ien T'ai (Japanese Tendai), so called
+because it started in a monastery situated on the beautiful T'ien T'ai
+mountains south of Ningpo. Chih K'ai, the founder, realized that
+Buddhism contained a great mass of contradictory teachings and practice,
+all attributed to the Buddha. He sought for a harmonizing principle and
+found it in the arbitrary theory that these teachings were given to
+different people on five different occasions and hence the
+discrepancies. The practical message of this sect has been that all
+beings have the Buddha heart and that the Buddha loves all beings, so
+that all beings may attain salvation, which consists in the full
+realization of the Buddha heart latent in them.
+
+There was a time when these sects were very active and flourishing in
+China. At the present time the various tendencies for which they stood
+have been adopted by Buddhism as a whole and the various sectaries,
+though still keeping the name of the sect, live peacefully in the same
+monastery. All the monasteries practice meditation, believe in the
+paradise of Amitâbha, and are enjoying the ironic calm advocated by the
+T'ien T'ai. While the struggle among the sects of China has been
+followed by a calm which resembles stagnation, those in Japan are very
+active and the reader is referred to the volume of this series on
+Japanese Buddhism for further treatment of the subject.
+
+When Buddhism entered China it brought with it a new world. It was new
+_practical_ and new spiritually. It brought a knowledge unknown
+before regarding the heavenly bodies, regarding nature and regarding
+medicine, and a practice vastly above the realm of magical arts. In
+addition to these practical benefits, Buddhism proclaimed a new
+spiritual universe far more real and extensive than any of which the
+Chinese had dreamed, and peopled with spiritual beings having
+characteristics entirely novel. In comparison with this new universe or
+series of universes which Indian imagination had created, the Chinese
+universe was wooden and geometric. Since it was an organized system and
+a greater rather than a different one, the Chinese people readily
+accepted it and made it their own.
+
+Buddhism not only enlarged the universe and gave the individual a range
+of opportunity hitherto unsuspected, but it introduced a scheme of
+religious practice, or rather several of them, enabling the individual
+devotee to attain a place in this spiritual universe through his own
+efforts. These "ways" of salvation were quite in harmony with Chinese
+ideas. They resembled what had already been a part of the national
+practice and so were readily adopted and adapted by the Chinese.
+
+Buddhism rendered a great service to the Chinese through its new
+estimate of the individual. Ancient China scarcely recognized the
+individual. He was merged in the family and the clan. Taoists, to be
+sure, talked of "immortals" and Confucianism exhibited its typical
+personality, or "princely man," but these were thought of as supermen,
+as ideals. The classics of China had very little to say about the common
+people. The great common crowd was submerged. Buddhism, on the other
+hand, gave every individual a distinct place in the great wheel
+_dharma,_ the law, and made it possible for him to reach the very
+highest goal of salvation. This introduced a genuinely new element into
+the social and family life of the Chinese people.
+
+Buddhism was so markedly superior to any one of the four other methods
+of expressing the religious life, that it quickly won practical
+recognition as the real religion of China. Confucianism may be called
+the doctrine of the learned classes. It formulates their principles of
+life, but it is in no strict sense a popular religion. It is rather a
+state ritual, or a scheme of personal and social ethics. Taoism
+recognizes the immediate influence of the spirit world, but it ministers
+only to local ideals and needs. In the usages of family and community
+life, ancestor worship has a definite place, but an occasional one.
+Buddhism was able to leave untouched each of these expressions of
+Chinese personal and social life, and yet it went far beyond them in
+ministering to religious development. Its ideas of being, of moral
+responsibility and of religious relationships furnished a new psychology
+which with all its imperfections far surpassed that of the Chinese.
+Buddhism's organization was so satisfying and adaptable that not only
+was it taken over readily by the Chinese, but it has also persisted in
+China without marked changes since its introduction. Most of all it
+stressed personal salvation and promised an escape from the impersonal
+world of distress and hunger which surrounds the average Chinese into a
+heaven ruled by Amitâbha [Footnote: Amitâbha, meaning "infinite light,"
+is the Sanskrit name of one of the Buddhas moat highly revered in China.
+The usual Chinese equivalent is Omi-To-Fo.] the Merciful. The
+obligations of Buddhism are very definite and universally recognized. It
+enforces high standards of living, but has added significance because it
+draws each devotee into a sort of fellowship with the divine, and mates
+not this life alone, but this life plus a future life, the end of human
+activity. Buddhism, therefore, really expresses the deepest religious
+life of the people of China.
+
+It will be worth while to note some illustrations of the conviction of
+the Chinese people that there are three religions to which they owe
+allegiance and yet that these are essentially one. They often say, "The
+three teachings are the whole teaching." An old scholar is reported to
+have remarked, "The three roads are different, but they lead to the same
+source." A common story reports that Confucius was asked in the other
+world about drinking wine, which Buddhists forbid but Taoists permit.
+Confucius replied: "If I do not drink I become a Buddha. If I drink I
+become an Immortal. Well, if there is wine, I shall drink; if there is
+none, I shall abstain." This expresses characteristically the Chinese
+habit of adaptation. Such a decision sounds quite up to date.
+
+The Ethical Culture Society of Peking, recently organized, has upon its
+walls pictures of Buddha, Lao Tzu, Confucius and Christ. Its members
+claim to worship Shang Ti as the god of all religions. An offshoot of
+this society, the T'ung Shan She, associates the three founders very
+closely with Christ. It claims to have a deeper revelation of Christ
+than the Christians themselves. A new organization, the Tao Yuan, plans
+to harmonize the three old religions with Mohammedanism and
+Christianity.
+
+Buddhism has consistently and continually striven to bring about a unity
+of religion in China by interpenetrating Confucianism and Taoism. Quite
+early the Buddhists invented the story that the Bodhisattva Ju T'ung was
+really Confucius incarnate. There was at one time a Buddhist temple to
+Confucius in the province of Shantung. The Buddhists also gave out the
+story that Bodhisattva Kas'yapa was the incarnation of Lao Tzu, the
+founder of Taoism. An artist painted Lao Tzu transformed into a Buddha,
+seated in a lotus bud with a halo about his head. In front of the Buddha
+was Confucius doing reverence. A Chinese scholar, asked for his opinion
+about the picture, said: "Buddha should be seated; Lao Tzu should be
+standing at the side looking askance at Buddha; and Confucius should be
+grovelling on the floor."
+
+A monument dating from 543 A. D., illustrates this tendency of Buddhism
+to represent its own superiority in Chinese religious life. At the top
+of the monument is Brahma, lower down is Sâkyamuni with his disciples,
+Ananda and Kas'yapa on one face, and on the other Sâkyamuni again,
+conversing with Buddha Prabhutaratna and worshipped by monks and
+Bodhisattvas. On the pedestal are Confucian and Taoist deities, ten in
+number. Thus Buddhism sought to rank itself clearly above the other two
+religions. From the early days Buddhism regarded itself as their
+superior and began the processes of interpenetration and absorption. In
+consequence the values originally inherent in Buddhism have come to be
+regarded as the natural possession of the Chinese. It does express their
+religious life, especially in South China, where outward manifestations
+of religion are perhaps more marked than in the north.
+
+
+
+
+IV
+
+
+BUDDHISM AND THE PEASANT
+
+In order that, one may realize the place that Buddhism holds in the
+religious life of the Chinese people as a whole, he must turn to the
+organizations through which it functions. It is sometimes difficult to
+estimate the place of Buddhism in China, because it so interpenetrates
+the whole cultural and social life of the people. It becomes their
+"way." To see how it touches the life of the average man or woman in
+various ways will, therefore, be illuminating. The most outstanding
+evidence of devotion are the many monasteries which dot the land in all
+Buddhist countries. China is less dominated by them than other lands,
+yet they form a very important reason for the persistence and strength
+of Buddhism there. One of the famous old shrines will represent them as
+a class and give evidence of their importance.
+
+_1. The Monastery of Kushan_
+
+Kushan Monastery, located about four hours' ride by sedan-chair from
+Foochow, is a famous shrine of South China. It occupies a large
+amphitheater about fifteen hundred feet above the plain, part way up
+Kushan, the "Drum Mountain," some three thousand feet high. From the top
+of the mountain on clear days with the help of a glass the blue shores
+of Formosa may be seen on the eastern horizon. The spacious monastery
+buildings are surrounded by a grove of noble trees, in which squirrels,
+pheasants, chipmunks and snakes enjoy an undisturbed life.
+
+The ascent to the monastery begins on the bank of the Min River. At the
+foot of the mountain in a large temple the traveler may obtain mountain
+chairs carried by two or more coolies. The road, paved with granite
+slabs cut from the mountain side, consists of a series of stone stairs,
+which zig-zag up the mountain under the shadow of ancient pine trees.
+Every turn brings to view a bit of landscape carpeted with rice, or a
+distant view where mountains and sky meet. A brook rushes by the side of
+the road. Here it breaks into a beautiful waterfall. There it gurgles'
+in a deep ravine. The sides of the road are covered with large granite
+blocks which, loosened from the mountain side by earthquakes, have
+disposed themselves promiscuously. Their blackened, weather-beaten sides
+are incised with Chinese characters. One of them bears the words: "We
+put our trust in Amitâbha." Another immortalizes the sentiments of some
+great official who has made the pilgrimage to the mountain. Near the
+monastery stand the sombre dagobas where repose the ashes of former
+abbots and monastery officials. Not far away on the other side of the
+road, hidden by trees, is the crematory where the last remains of the
+brethren are consumed by the flames.
+
+As one approaches the monastery he hears the regular sounds of a bell
+tolled by a water-wheel, reminding the faithful of Buddha's law. He sees
+monks strolling leisurely about and lay brethren carrying wood,
+cultivating the gardens, or tending the animals released by pious
+devotees to heap up merit for themselves in the next world. Just inside
+the main gate is a large fish pond, where goldfish of great size
+struggle with one another, and with the lazy turtles, for the round hard
+cakes purchased from the monks by the merit-seeking devotee.
+
+The monastery itself consists of a large group of buildings erected
+about stone-paved courts, rising in terraces on the mountain side. The
+large court at the entrance leads to the "Hall of the Four Kings." As
+one enters the spacious door, he _is_ faced by a jolly, almost
+naked image of the "Laughing Buddha." This is Maitrêya, the Mea siah of
+the Buddhists, who will return to the world five thousand years after
+the departure of Sâkyamuni. In the northern monasteries Maitrêya is
+often represented as reaching a height when standing of seventy feet or
+more, which indicates the stature to which man will attain when he
+returns to earth. On each side of the visitor are two immense images of
+the Deva kings. In Brahman cosmogony they were the guardians of the
+world. In this entrance hall of the Buddhist monastery they stand as
+guardians of the Buddhist faith. In the same hall looking toward the
+open court beyond is Wei To, another guardian deity of Buddhism.
+Somewhere near by is Kuan Ti, the god worshipped by the soldiers and
+merchants. Although a Confucian god, he was early adopted by Buddhist
+monks into their pantheon and made the guardian of their Order.
+
+Beyond this entrance hall is a large stone-paved court. On the right
+side is a bell-tower whose bell is tolled by a monk who has kept the vow
+of silence for fourteen years. On the left is a drum-tower. On the right
+one finds a series of small shrines. A passage way leads to the library
+where numerous Buddhist writings repose in lacquered cases, some of them
+written in their own blood by devout monks. On the same side are guest
+halls, the dining room for three hundred monks, and the spacious, well
+equipped kitchen with running water piped from a reservoir in the hills
+above. A store where books, images and the simple requirements of the
+monks can be obtained is just above the dining room. On the left side of
+the court are large buildings used as dormitories far the monks,
+storerooms, and for housing the great printing establishment with its
+thousands of wooden blocks on which are carved passages from the
+Buddhist scriptures. Here also are kept the coffins in which the monks
+are to be burned.
+
+On a terrace above the north side of the court rises the main hall,
+called the "Hall of the Triratna," the Buddhist Trinity, where three
+gilded images are seated on a lotus flower with halos covering their
+backs and heads. The center image is that of Sâkyamuni, the Buddha. On
+his right is Yao Shih, the Buddha of medicine, and on the left,
+Amitâbha. Quite often these images are said to represent the Buddha, the
+Law and the Community of Monks. On the altar are candlesticks and a fine
+incense burner from which curls of smoke arise. An immense lamp hangs
+from the ceiling. In the rear are banners with praises to Buddha given
+by pious devotees. The floor is tiled and covered with round mats made
+of palm fiber on which the monks kneel during worship. Before the mats
+are low stands for books. On each side of this main hall are the images
+of nine Buddhist saints (_arhats_), eighteen in all. Behind this
+large temple opens another court and on a terrace above it stands the
+hall of the Law with the images of Kuan Yin, the goddess of Mercy, and
+the twenty-four devas. Here also are small images of viceroys and
+patrons of the monastery.
+
+The hillsides are dotted with numerous temples and shrines. There is one
+to Chu-Hsi, the great philosopher of the Sung dynasty, who was born in
+Fukien. In it are preserved a few characters indited by his hand. On the
+west side of the monastery are large buildings for the housing of
+animals released by merit-seeking devotees. Here cows, hogs, goats,
+chickens, geese and ducks spend their old age without fear of beginning
+their transmigration by forming the main portion of a Chinese feast.
+
+The monastery is governed by an abbot, usually a man of good business
+ability, elected by the monks. Under him are the officers of the two
+wings or groups of attendants. One set looks after the spiritual
+interests, of the monks; the-other takes care of their material needs:
+The monks have worship about two o'clock in the morning and again at
+about four in the afternoon. The rest of the long day they spend in
+meditation, or study, in strolling about the mountain side or in sleep.
+Their life is separated from all stirring contact with the life of the
+world.
+
+_2. Monasteries Control Fêng-shui_
+
+This monastery with its appointments is a good type of the monasteries
+all over China. It was founded at the request of the inhabitants of the
+neighborhood, because the dragons of the region used to cause much
+damage to the crops in the surrounding country. A holy monk came,
+founded the monastery, and by his good influence so curbed the dragons
+that the country-side has enjoyed peace ever since and the monastery has
+prospered. Since the fourth century of our era records show that by the
+building of monasteries in strategic place's holy monks brought rains
+and prosperity to various regions, or prevented floods and calamities
+from damaging the villages. In other words the monasteries are regarded
+as the controllers of _fêng-shui_ (wind and water). According to
+the Chinese philosophy winds and water are spiritual forces and may be
+so controlled by other spiritual forces that instead of bringing harm
+they will confer benefit upon the people. Floods and dry seasons are so
+frequent in China that any institution holding out the promise of
+regulating them would become firmly established in the affection of the
+people. The monasteries have taken this place.
+
+One of the picturesque features of a Chinese landscape is the pagoda.
+These structures were introduced in the early stages of Buddhism to
+enshrine the relics of Buddha. It was said that Buddha's body consisted
+of eighty thousand parts, hence numerous pagodas were erected to shelter
+these relics. Inasmuch as a pagoda contained the relics of Buddha, it
+possessed magic power and so came to play a great part in the control of
+the winds and the rains. The pagoda in China has an odd number of
+stories varying from three to thirteen. The odd numbers belong to the
+positive principle in nature which is superior to the negative
+principle. The pagoda plays quite a part in the festivals of the people.
+On certain occasions the stories are hung with lanterns and the pagodas
+are visited by numerous throngs.
+
+_3. Prayer for Rain_
+
+Prayers for rain afford such a common illustration of the relation of
+Buddhism to the life of the peasant that a detailed presentation of such
+a service may be of seal value.
+
+During a prolonged drought in some district of China, when the heat
+opens gaping cracks in the fields and the grain is drying up, the
+populace may visit their highest official and apprise him of the dire
+situation. He often forbids the slaughter of all animals for three days
+and, in case rain has not thereby come, he goes in person or sends a
+deputy to the nearest monastery to direct the monks to pray for rain.
+
+_(a) The Altar._--On such an occasion the great hall of the Law may
+be used for the ceremony. Quite often a special altar is erected in an
+enclosure near the monastery on a platform one foot high and twenty-five
+feet on each side, overspread by a tent of green cloth. In the center
+seats are arranged for the presiding monk and his assistants. On each of
+the four sides of the altar is placed an image of the Dragon King who is
+supposed to control the rain. If an image is not obtainable a piece of
+paper inscribed with the name of the dragon may be used. Flowers, fruits
+and incense are spread before the images. On the doors of the tent are
+painted dragons with clouds. The tent and altar are green and the monks
+wear green garments, because green belongs to the spring and suggests
+rain. For this ceremony the monks prepare themselves by abstinence and
+cleansing. The presiding monk is one of high moral character and
+religious fervor. While some monks recite appropriate sutras, two others
+look after the offerings, the incense, and the sprinkling of water
+during the ceremony to suggest the coming of rain. The services continue
+day and night, being conducted by groups of monks in succession.
+
+_(b) The Prayer Service._--The ceremonial is opened by a chant as
+follows:
+
+"Pearly dew of the jade heavens, golden waves of Buddha's ocean, scatter
+the lotus flowers on a thousand thousand worlds of suffering, that the
+heart of mercy may wash away great calamity, that a drop may become a
+flood, that a drop may purify mountains and rivers.
+
+"We put our trust in the Bodhisattvas and Mahâsattvas that purify the
+earth."
+
+The chant ended, a monk takes a bowl of water and repeats thrice: "We
+put our trust in the great merciful Kuan Yin Bodhisattva." Then follows
+the chant:
+
+"The Bodhisattva's sweet dew of the willow is able to make one drop
+spread over the ten directions. It washes away the rank odors and dirt.
+It keeps the altars clean and pure. The mysterious words of the doctrine
+will be reverently repeated."
+
+This chant ended, the monks intone incantations of Kuan Yin, quite
+unintelligible even to them, but of magical value. While these are being
+uttered, the presiding monk and his attendants walk around the altar,
+while one of them with a branch sprinkles water on the floor. This
+symbolizes the cleansing of the altar and of the monks from all
+impurities which might render the ritual ineffective. When the
+perambulating monks have returned to their place, while the sprinkler
+continues his duties, the monks repeat the words: "We put our trust in
+the sweet dew kings, Bodhisattvas and Mahâsattvas."
+
+The Bodhisattvas have now come to the purified altar and while the abbot
+offers incense to them, the monks repeat the words:
+
+"The fields are destroyed so that they resemble the back of a tortoise.
+The demons of drought produce calamity. The dark people [Footnote: A
+term denoting the Chinese.] pray earnestly while crops are being
+destroyed. We pray that abundant, limpid liquid may descend to purify
+and refresh the whole world. The clouds of incense rise."
+
+This plaint is repeated thrice and is followed by an invocation:
+
+"Wholeheartedly we cast ourselves to the earth, O Triratna, who dost
+exist eternally in the realm of _dharma_ of the ten directions."
+
+The leader remains quiet a long time with his eyes closed, visualizing
+the Buddhas, the Bodhisattvas, the dragon kings, and the saints, all
+with their heavenly eyes and ears knowing that this region is afflicted
+with drought, that an altar has been constructed and that all have come
+to make petition. This meditation is regarded as of chief importance. It
+is followed by an announcement to the effect that the sutra praying for
+rain was given by the Buddha, that a drought is afflicting the land,
+that the altar has been erected in accordance with the regulations and
+that prayer is being made for rain. But fearing that something may have
+been overlooked, the magic formula of "the king of light who turns the
+wheel" is read seven times so as to remedy such oversight.
+
+The altar having thus been cleansed of all impurities, the rain sutra is
+opened and the one hundred and eighty-eight dragon kings are urged by
+name in groups of ten to take action. The formula is as follows:
+
+"We with our whole heart invite such and such dragon kings to come. We
+desire that the heart and wisdom which knows others intuitively will
+move the spirits above to obey the Buddha, to take pity on the people
+below and to come to our province and send down sweet rain."
+
+When the dragons have all been duly invited, the monks chant suitable
+magical formulas, while the leader sits in meditation visualizing these
+dragon kings and their tender solicitude for the people in distress. The
+monastery bell is sounded and the wooden fish is beaten, while drums and
+cymbals add their effect. The whole is intended to draw the attention of
+the dragon kings to the drought. Then the fifty-four Buddhas are invited
+in a similar manner in groups of ten, the sixth group consisting of
+four. A similar form of address is used and similar magical formulas are
+recited with the noisy accompaniment. The ceremony concludes by the
+expression of the hope that the three jewels (Buddha, the Law and the
+Community of Monks) and the dragon kings will grant the rain.
+
+Upon the altar are four copies of an announcement to the dragon kings
+and Buddhas. On the first day three copies are sent to them through the
+flames, one to the Buddhas, one to the dragon kings and one to the
+devas. One copy is read daily and then sent up at the thanksgiving
+ceremony. The announcement is as follows:
+
+"We put our trust in the limitless, reverent ocean clouds, the dragons
+of august virtue and all their host, all dragon kings and holy saints.
+Their august virtue is difficult to measure. In accord with the command
+of Buddha they send liquid rain. May their quiet mercy descend to the
+altar; may they send down purity and freshness, spreading over the ten
+directions. We put our trust in the company of dragon kings of the
+clouds, the saints and the Bodhisattvas."
+
+The offerings are made only in the morning inasmuch as the Buddhas,
+following ancient custom, are not supposed to eat after the noonday
+meal. Great care is taken that the altar shall not be desecrated by any
+one who eats meat or drinks wine. The magic formulas of great mercy are
+uttered or the name of Kuan Yin is repeated a thousand times. The monks,
+take turn in these services which continue day and night until rain
+comes.
+
+_(c) Its Meaning._--In the religious consciousness of the people is
+the idea that the drought is a punishment for sin. The altar is made
+pure and acceptable and sin is removed in various symbolic ways. This
+fits in with the idea that man is an intimate part of the world order.
+His sin disturbs the order of nature. Heaven manifests displeasures by
+sending down calamities upon men. Men should cease their wrongdoing
+which disturbs the natural order and should also wash away the effects
+of their sins. The services for rain with their magic formulas help to
+clear away the consequences of sin and to predispose Heaven to grant its
+blessings again.
+
+_4. Monasteries Are Supported Because They Control Fêng-shui_
+
+The prayers for rain are an important part of the Chinese peasant's
+world order. Drought is the manifestation of Heaven's displeasure at the
+infraction of Heaven's laws. It calls for self-examination and
+repentance. Thus the monastery opens up the windows of the universal
+order as this touches the humble tiller of the soil.
+
+The Buddhist monasteries not only hold services in time of drought, but
+also in time of flood and at times when plagues of grasshoppers afflict
+the land, or when diseases afflict human beings. Their adoption of
+Chinese customs led them to have special ceremonies at the eclipse of
+the sun and moon, although they knew the cause of the eclipse. Peasants
+and officials support the monastery because of these services regulating
+the wind and water influences and through them bringing the people into
+harmonious relation with the great world of spirits.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+BUDDHISM AND THE FAMILY
+
+One of the criticisms of the Chinese against Buddhism is that it is
+opposed to filial piety. According to Mencius the greatest unfilial act
+is to leave no progeny. In spite of this charge Buddhism has done much
+for the family. It has taken over the ethics of the family, filial
+piety, obedience and respect for elders, and has made them a part of its
+system. Transgression of these fundamental duties is visited by dire
+punishments in the next world. The faithful observance is followed not
+only by the rewards of the Confucian system, but results in the greatest
+rewards in the future life.
+
+_1. Kuan Yin, the Giver of Children and Protector of Women_
+
+Buddhism has done more. Out of its atmosphere of love and mercy toward
+all beings has developed Kuan Yin, the ideal of Chinese womanhood, the
+goddess of Mercy, who embodies the Chinese ideal of beauty, filial piety
+and compassion toward the weak and suffering. She is especially the
+goddess of women, being interested in all their affairs. Her image is
+found in almost every household and her temples have a place in every
+part of China.
+
+A brief history of this deity will enable us to understand the
+significance of the cult. Kuan Yin started as a male god in India,
+called Avalôkitêsvara, who was worshipped from the third to the seventh
+century of our era. He was the protector of sailors and people in
+danger. In the course of time, either in China or in India, the god
+became a goddess. Some think that this was due to the influence of
+Christianity. In China both forms survive, though the goddess is better
+known. A Buddhist once said that a Bodhisattva is neither male nor
+female and appears in whatever form is convenient.
+
+Kuan Yin is a very popular goddess. Her experiences in Hades are
+dramatically presented by traveling theatrical companies. Her deeds of
+mercy are portrayed in art. Her well known story runs as follows:
+
+Kuan Yin was the daughter of the ruler of a prosperous kingdom located
+somewhere near the island of Sumatra. Her birth was announced to the
+queen by a dream. The little girl ate no meat nor milk. Her disposition
+was very good. Her intelligence was most extraordinary. Once she read
+anything she never forgot it.
+
+At the age of sixteen her father tried to betroth her to a young prince.
+She refused and decided to give herself to a life of fasting and
+abstinence. Angered b-v her obstinacy the father ordered her to take off
+her court dress and jewels, to put on the garb of a servant and to carry
+water for the garden. The garden never looked so beautiful. The daughter
+also looked well and showed no signs of weariness, because the gods
+assisted her in her work.
+
+Relenting a little the king sent an older sister to urge Kuan Yin to
+accept the husband he had found for her. When she refused, he sent her
+to a monastery and charged the abbess to treat her harshly, so that she
+might be forced to return home. Expecting to win the king's favor, the
+abbess put the most unpleasant tasks on the girl. But again the gods
+assisted her and made her work light, so that her tasks were always well
+done and the young woman was cheerful.
+
+One day the report came to the king that his daughter was associating
+with a young monk discussing heterodox doctrines and that she had given
+birth to a child. This news so enraged the king that he burned the
+monastery, killing many monks. The princess was captured and brought
+before him. Inasmuch as she was obdurate, the king ordered her to be
+executed. The executioner's sword, however, broke into a thousand pieces
+without doing her any injury. The king then ordered her to be strangled.
+A golden image sixteen feet high appeared on the spot. The princess
+laughed and cried: "Where there was no image, an image appeared. I see
+the real form. When body flesh is strangled, then appear the lights of
+ten thousand roads." She went to purgatory and purgatory at once changed
+into paradise. Yama, in order to save his purgatory, sent her back to
+the world. She appeared at Puto, an island off the coast of Chekiang
+near Ningpo. Here she rescued sailors and performed many miracles for
+people in distress.
+
+In the meantime the father, who had committed many sins, became sick.
+His allotted time of life had been shortened by twenty years. Moreover,
+an ulcer grew on his body for every one of the five hundred monks he had
+killed when he burned the monastery. A miserable, loathsome old man, he
+came to an old monk, who was really the princess in disguise, and asked
+for help. The monk told him that an eye and an arm of a blood relative
+made into medicine was the only cure for his trouble. The two living
+daughters were willing to make such an offering, but their husbands
+would not permit them to do so. The old monk urged the monarch to take
+up a life of abstinence, to rebuild the monastery he had burned, and to
+provide money for services to take the five hundred monks whom he had
+killed through purgatory. He also said that a nun in the convent would
+offer an arm and an eye. When the monarch entered the monastery, he
+found hanging before the incense burner an arm and an eye. These were
+boiled, mixed with medicine and rubbed on the king's body. He soon
+became well. Further inquiry revealed that these members belonged to his
+daughter.
+
+This is the story of the most popular goddess in China. She is
+worshipped by her devotees on the first and fifteenth of every month, on
+the nineteenth of the sixth month, when she became a Bodhisattva, and on
+the nineteenth of the ninth month, when she put on the necklace. A month
+after marriage every young bride is presented with an image of the
+Goddess of Mercy, an incense-burner and candlesticks.
+
+This goddess is worshipped whenever trouble comes to man or woman. Her
+names signify her willingness to listen to all prayers. She is the "one
+who regards the voice," i.e., prayer; "one who hears the prayers of the
+world;" "one who regards and exists by himself as sovereign;" "the
+ancestor of Buddha who regards prayer;" "one who frees from fear;"
+"Buddha the august king;" "the great white robed scholar;" "great
+compassion and mercy."
+
+_2. Kuan Yin, the Model of Local Mother-Goddesses_
+
+This conception is the creation of the social and religious
+consciousness of the women in China. It reveals their aspirations for
+mercy, compassion, filial piety and for the beauty that crowns a well
+developed character. Such an ideal does not mean that these have been
+realized in all the numerous homes of the Chinese, but it manifests
+their sense of such an ideal to be realized in life and their ardent
+longing for its realization.
+
+Mother-goddesses are found all over China and they have all of them been
+influenced by Kuan Yin. Some of them have originated with actual women
+who were deified after death. Here is the story of one of these
+goddesses who presides over the censer in a small temple in Formosa. She
+was born in the province of Kuangtung. At the age of seven she was
+adopted by a family as the future wife of their eighteen-year-old son.
+One day while crossing a river he was drowned. This was a great blow to
+her. When she was fourteen years old the father of the family died. The
+two women, thus left alone, wept bitterly day and night. The comfort of
+relatives was of little avail. The mother was becoming emaciated with
+grief. The daughter, unable to bear the strain any longer, washed
+herself, burned incense before the ancestral tablet of her betrothed,
+and then took this vow:
+
+"I am willing to remain a virgin, to apply myself to carrying water and
+working at the mortar and to serve my mother-in-law. If I cherish any
+other purpose and change my chastity and obedience, may Heaven slay me
+and earth annihilate me."
+
+When the mother heard this vow she stopped her weeping. Inasmuch as they
+had no uncle to look after them, they worked day and night. A relative
+of her future husband gave her one of his sons as an adopted son. The
+child died after a few months. This was a great grief. Then the mother
+died. The daughter sold her possessions to obtain money for a proper
+burial. She had only a coarse mourning cloth for her dress. After a
+while she adopted a child as her son. When he grew up she found him a
+wife who served her as faithfully as she had served her mother-in-law.
+When she was eighty years old, she dreamed that the golden maid and jade
+messenger of Kuan Yin stood beside her saying: "The court of Heaven has
+ordered you to become a god (shên)." She died soon after this. She said
+of herself:
+
+"Shang Ti took compassion upon me during my life, because with a firm
+heart I kept my chastity and served my mother-in-law with complete
+obedience. Therefore he gave me the office of Kuan Pin. I have performed
+my duties in several places. Now I am transferred to Formosa."
+
+This story and many others like it mirror the moral ideals of the women
+of China in the midst of their struggles for help and light and
+guidance.
+
+_3. Exhortations on Family Virtues_
+
+The Buddhists issue a large number of tracts. These are very commonly
+paid for by devotees who make a vow that, if their parent becomes well,
+they will pay for the printing of several hundred or thousand of these
+tracts for free distribution. In these tracts are usually many stories
+illustrating the rewards of filial piety. The story is told in one of
+them about a Mrs. Chin whose father-in-law being ill was unable to
+sleep for sixty days. His condition grew worse. Mrs. Chin knelt before
+Kuan Yin's altar, cut out a piece of flesh from her arm and cooked it
+with the father's food. His health at once improved and he lived to the
+age of seventy-seven. Another story is told in the same tract of a woman
+who cut out a piece of her liver and gave it as medicine to her
+mother-in-law.
+
+These Buddhist tracts take up all the moral habits which make the family
+and clan strong and stable and surround them by the highest sanctions. A
+tract picked up in a Buddhist temple at Hangchow purports to be the
+revelation of the will of Buddha. It urges sixteen virtues. The first is
+filial piety. The tract says:
+
+"Filial piety is the chief of all virtues. Heaven and Earth honor filial
+piety. There is no greater sin than to cherish unfilial thoughts. The
+spirits know the beginning of such thoughts. Heaven openly rewards a
+heart that is filial."
+
+The second one mentioned is another important family virtue, namely,
+reverence:
+
+"The saints, sages, immortals and Buddhas are the outgrowth of
+reverence. The greatest sin is to lack reverence for father and mother.
+When brothers lack reverence for one another, they harm the hands and
+feet. When husband and wife lack reverence, the harmony of the household
+is ruined. When friends do not have reverence, they bring about
+calamity."
+
+Then follow similar exhortations on sincerity, justice, self-restraint,
+forbearance, benevolence, generosity, absence of pride, covetousness,
+lying, adultery, mutual love, self-denial, hope for the consolations of
+religion and for an undivided heart ruled by peace. These are virtues
+quite essential to the integrity of the family. They are taught, not in
+the abstract but by the exhibition of shining examples, by vivid
+representations of the rewards both here and hereafter, and by pictures
+of awful punishments. So by precept and example, by threat of punishment
+here and hereafter and by declaration of reward in the future Buddhism
+has tried to maintain the family virtues of the Confucian system and has
+attempted to permeate them by the spirit of sacrifice. Still it has
+always been the sacrifice of the weak for the strong, of the young for
+the aged, of the low for the high, of women for men.
+
+_4. Services for the Dead_
+
+Buddhism very early took over the relatively simple services for the
+dead and developed them into an elaborate ritual which made very vivid
+the spiritual universe which Buddhism introduced. In the sixth century a
+service was held in behalf of the father-in-law of Emperor Ning Ti
+(516-528 A. D.) for seven times every seven days. He feasted a thousand
+monks every day, and caused seven persons to become monks. On the
+hundredth day after the death he feasted ten thousand monks and caused
+twenty-seven persons to become monks.
+
+Since that time services on every seventh day after the decease until
+the forty-ninth day, when a grand finale ends the ceremonies, have been
+very popular.
+
+The object of such services is to conduct the soul of the dead through
+purgatory, in order that it may return to life or enter the Western
+Paradise. This is done by making a pleasing offering to the guardians
+and officers of purgatory, and to the gods and Bodhisattvas whose mercy
+saves people. Numerous missives are consigned to the flames, informing
+the rulers of the nether world about the soul of the dead; offerings of
+gold and silver, of various articles of apparel, of trunks, houses, and
+servants are made, all, however, made out of bamboo frames covered with
+paper. Various powerful incantations are recited which force open the
+gates of purgatory and let the soul out.
+
+The services may be crowded into one day or they may be held on every
+seventh day until the forty-ninth day, i.e., seven sevens. Various
+explanations are given' for these services.
+
+During the first week the soul of the dead arrives at the "Demon Gate
+Barrier." Here money is demanded by the demons on the ground that in his
+last transmigration the deceased borrowed money. Accordingly large
+quantities of silver shoes [Footnote: The silver used for this purpose
+is molded, in accordance with ancient usage, in the shape of shoes and
+carried about in that form by merchants.] must be sent to the dead so
+that he may settle all claims and avoid beating and inconvenience.
+During the second week the soul arrives at a place where he is weighed.
+If the evil outweighs the good, the soul is sawn asunder and ground to
+powder. In the third week he comes to the "Bad Dog" village. Here good
+people pass unharmed, but the evil are torn by the fierce beasts until
+the blood flows. In the fourth week the soul is confronted with a large
+mirror in which he sees his evil deeds and their consequences, seeing
+himself degraded in the next transmigration to a beast. In the fifth
+week the soul views the scenes in his own village.
+
+In the sixth week he reaches the bridge which spans the "Inevitable
+River." This bridge is 100,000 feet high and one and three-tenths of an
+inch wide. It is crossed by riding astride as on a horse. Beneath rushes
+the whirl-pool filled with serpents darting their heads to and fro. At
+the foot of the bridge lictors force unwilling travelers to ascend. The
+good do not cross this bridge, but are led by "golden youth" to gold and
+silver bridges which cross the stream on either side of this "Bridge of
+Sighs."
+
+In the seventh week the soul is taken first to Mrs. Wang who dispenses a
+drink which blots out all memories of the earthly life. Then the
+individual enters the great wheel of transmigration. This is divided
+into eighty-one sections from which one hundred and eight thousand small
+and tortuous paths radiate out into the four continents of the world.
+The soul is directed along one of these paths and is duly reborn in the
+world as an animal or as a human being or passes on into the Western
+Paradise.
+
+In imitation of this bridge a bridge is built of tables in front of the
+home of the dead. At the end the tables are placed upside down and a
+lantern placed on each table-leg. At night this bridge is illuminated. A
+company of monks repeat their prayers and incantations, while others
+mount upon the bridge to impersonate devils. The pious son with the
+tablet of his deceased parent comes to take his father over the bridge.
+When his way is disputed by the demons, he falls on his knees and begs
+and gives them money, negotiating the passage at last with the aid of a
+large quantity of silver.
+
+Another ceremony is the breaking through purgatory. Five supplications
+duly signed are addressed to the proper authorities, four being
+suspended at each of the four sides of the table and one at the center.
+Tiles are then placed over the table or on the ground. After
+incantations have been repeated to the accompaniment of the sounding of
+the bell and the wooden fish, the supplications are burned and the tiles
+are broken as a symbol of breaking through purgatory and of releasing
+the soul.
+
+Thus Buddhism has taken over the most important function of ancestor
+worship, has extended it and made it more significant to each individual
+as well as to the family.
+
+
+
+
+VI
+
+
+BUDDHISM AND SOCIAL LIFE
+
+_1. How the Laity is Trained in Buddhist Ideas_
+
+A common way of emphasizing moral ideas among the people by Buddhist
+teachers is the use of tracts purporting to have a divine origin. The
+following gives the substance of such a tract:
+
+Not long ago in the province of Shantung, there was a sharp and sudden
+clap of thunder. After the frightened people had collected their wits,
+they discovered a small book written in red in front of the house of a
+certain Mr. Li. Mr. Li picked up the book, copied it and read it
+reverently. He gave a copy to Mr. Ma, the prefect, but Mr. Ma did not
+believe in the book. Thereupon Maitrêya, the Messiah of the Buddhists,
+spoke from the sky as follows:
+
+
+  "These are the years of the final age. The people under
+  heaven do not reverence Heaven and Earth, they are not
+  filial to father and mother, they do not respect their
+  superiors. They cheat the fatherless, impose upon the
+  widow, oppress the weak; they use large weights for
+  themselves and small measures for others. They injure the good.
+  They covet for their own profit. They cheat men of money,
+  use the five grains carelessly, kill the cow that draws the
+  plow. This volume is sent for their special benefit. If
+  they recite it they will avoid trouble. If they disbelieve,
+  the years with the cyclical character _Ping_ and _Ting_ will
+  have fields without men to plant them and houses without
+  men to live in them. In the fifth month of these years
+  evil serpents will infest the whole country. In the eighth
+  and ninth months the bodies of evil men will fill the land.
+
+  "Those who believe this book and propagate its teachings
+  will not encounter the ten sorrows of the age: war,
+  fire, no peace day and night, separation of man and wife,
+  the scattering of the sons and daughters, evil men spread
+  over the country, dead bones unburied, clothing with no
+  one to wear it, rice with no one to eat it, and the difficulty
+  of ever seeing a peaceful year. Sâkyamuni foreseeing this
+  final age sent down this volume in Shantung. The Goddess
+  of Mercy saw the sorrows of all living beings.
+  Maitrêya commanded the two runners of T'ai Shan, the
+  god of the Eastern Mountain, to investigate the conduct
+  of men and as a first punishment to increase the price of
+  rice, and then besides the ten sorrows already mentioned
+  above, to inflict the punishments of flood, fire, wind,
+  thunder, tigers, snakes, sword, disease, famine and cold.
+  The rule of Sâkyamuni which has lasted twelve thousand
+  years is now fulfilled, and Maitrêya succeeds to his place."
+
+
+These sorrows may be escaped by reciting this sutra whose substance we
+find above. If it is repeated three times the person will escape the
+calamity of fire and water. If one man passes it on to ten men and ten
+men pass it on to a hundred, they will escape the calamities of sword,
+disease and imprisonment, and receive blessings which cannot be
+measured. He who in addition to repeating the sutra practices abstinence
+will insure peace for himself. He who presents one hundred copies to
+others will insure his personal peace. He who presents a thousand copies
+will insure the peace of his family. He who is attacked by disease, may
+escape it by taking five cash of the reign of Shun Chih (1644-1661 A.
+D.), the first emperor of the Ch'ing dynasty, one mace of the seed of
+cypress, one mace of the bark of mulberry, boil in one bowl of water
+until only eight-tenths of the water remain, drink and he will become
+well.
+
+In this way the five Buddhist commandments for the laity not to kill any
+living creature, not to steal, not to commit adultery, not to lie, and
+not to use intoxicating liquor are propagated and made real to the
+common man. The method is quite efficient. Whole provinces have been put
+into a panic by such prophecies.
+
+_2. Effect of Ideals of Mercy and Universal Love_
+
+The command not to kill any living being has had considerable influence
+in China. There are volumes of stories telling of the punishments which
+will be visited upon those who disobey and of the rewards of those who
+release living animals. Every monastery has a special place for animals
+thus released by pious devotees.
+
+There is a popular story about a fishmonger of the T'ang dynasty who was
+taken sick and during his illness dreamed that he was taken to
+purgatory. His body was aflame with fire and pained him as though he
+were being roasted. Flying fiery chariots with darting flames swept
+around him and burned his body. Ten thousand fish strove with one
+another to get a bite of his flesh. The ruler of the lower regions
+accused him of killing many fish and hence his punishment. For a number
+of days he was hanging between life and death. His relatives were urged
+to perform some works of penance. They had his fishing implements
+burned. With reverent hearts they made two images of Kuan Yin, presented
+offerings and repented. The whole family performed abstinence, stopped
+killing living things, printed and gave away over a hundred copies of
+the Diamond Sutra, and ferried over a large number of souls through
+purgatory. As a result of their efforts the sick man became well.
+
+The following comment was made on the above story by a scholar. If its
+premises are granted, the conclusion is inevitable:
+
+"If the fiery chariots are seal, why does not man see them? If they are
+false, how is it that man feels the pain? But where do the fiery
+chariots come from? They come from the heart and head of the one who
+kills fish. The fire in the heart (heart belongs to the element fire)
+causes destruction. The chariot fire also causes destruction."
+
+This attitude of mercy has been extended to human beings. There are
+numerous tracts against the drowning of little girls in those regions
+where this custom is prevalent. One tells the following story:
+
+In the province of Kwangtung there lived a Mrs. Chang who daily burned
+incense and repeated Buddha's name. One day she and her husband died.
+Much to their surprise and consternation Yama (the potentate of hell)
+decided that Mr. Chang must become a pig and Mrs. Chang a dog. Mrs.
+Chang accordingly went to Yama and said, "During life we honored Buddha
+and so why should we become animals after death?" Yama said, "What use
+is it to honor Buddha? During life you drowned three girls whom I sent
+into life. People with the face of a man and the heart of a beast,
+should they not be punished?" The husband accordingly took on a pig's
+skin and the wife a dog's. Then by a dream they revealed to their
+brother Chang number two that, although they repeated Buddha's name,
+they were not permitted to be reborn as men, because they had drowned
+little girls.
+
+Perhaps the extent of this spirit, of mercy and its possibilities may be
+illustrated by the reverence for the ox. While there is a great deal of
+cruelty in China to animals and men, it is rarely that one sees an ox
+abused. Up to the advent of the foreigner an ox was not killed for meat.
+In many places in China today the slaughter of an ox would bring the
+punishments of the law upon the butcher. No doubt this reverence is due
+to the great Indian reverence for the cow. The law of kindness has been
+extended to other animals, taking the rather spectacular form of
+releasing a few decrepit animals and allowing them to spend their last
+days in a monastery compound. There are many kindly things done in
+China. The dead are buried, the sick are provided with medicine. Every
+year numerous wadded garments are given away to poor people. Various
+groups carrying on a humble ministry of helpfulness have found a real
+inspiration in the ideals held before them in Buddhism, the rewards
+promised and punishments threatened.
+
+_3. Relation to Confucian Ideals_
+
+Why have not these ideals exercised a larger influence in China? The
+answer is quite simple. The activities of the monks have been
+strenuously opposed by the Confucian state system. The philosopher,
+Chang Nan-hsiian, a contemporary of Chu-Hsi, states concisely for us the
+differences betwen Confucianism and Buddhism in his comment on a passage
+in the _Book of Records._
+
+"Strong drink is a thing intended to be-used in offering sacrifices and
+entertaining guests,--such employment of it is what Heaven has
+prescribed. But men by their abuse of such drink come to lose their
+virtue and destroy their persons--such employment of it is what Heaven
+has annexed its terrors to. The Buddhists, hating the use of things
+where Heaven sends down its terrors, put away as well the use of them
+which Heaven has prescribed.
+
+"For instance, in the use of meats and drinks, there is such a thing as
+wildly abusing and destroying the creatures of Heaven. The Buddhists,
+disliking this, confine themselves to a vegetable diet, while we only
+abjure wild abuse and destruction. In the use of clothes, again, there
+is such a thing as wasteful extravagance. The Buddhists, disliking this,
+will have no clothes but those of a dark and sad color, while we only
+condemn extravagance. They, further, through dislike of criminal
+connection between the sexes, would abolish the relation between husband
+and wife, while we denounce only the criminal connection.
+
+"The Buddhists, disliking the excesses to which the evil desires of men
+lead, would put away, along with them, the actions which are in
+accordance with the justice of heavenly principles, while we, the
+orthodox, put away the evil desires of men, whereupon what are called
+heavenly principles are the more brightly seen. Suppose the case of a
+stream of water. The Buddhists, through dislike of its being foul with
+mud, proceed to dam it up with earth. They do not consider that when the
+earth has dammed up the stream, the supply of water will be cut off. It
+is not so with us, the orthodox. We seek only to cleanse away the mud
+and sand, so that the pure water may be available for use. This is the
+difference between the Buddhists and the Learned School." [Footnote:
+_Shu King,_ Pt. V, Bk. X, p. 122.]
+
+This statement reveals at once the opposition of the sect of the Learned
+and the influence which Buddhism exerted upon its members.
+
+Buddhism while enjoying occasional favor from the state was often
+zealously persecuted. In 819 Han Yii issued his celebrated act of
+accusation. In 845 the emperor Wu Tsung issued his decree of
+secularization. At that time 4600 monasteries and 40,000 smaller
+establishments were pulled down and 265,000 monks and nuns were sent
+back to lay life. Their rich lands were confiscated. Under the Ming
+dynasty, as well as under the Ch'ing dynasty, Buddhism enjoyed a
+precarious existence. Whether Buddhism would have improved the moral
+conditions of the Chinese; if it had been given a free hand, is
+difficult to affirm. Still its failure is at least partly due to the
+opposition of Confucian orthodoxy.
+
+_4. The Embodiment of Buddhist Ideals in the Vegetarian sects_
+
+The state persecutions of Buddhism forced it to leave temporarily its
+institutional life and trust itself to the people. These persecutions
+were usually followed by a revival of piety and religion among the
+people. The Buddhist teachers gathered about themselves a large number
+of lay devotees who formed societies which practice religious rites in
+secret. These sects have preserved the genuine Buddhist piety, not only
+in times of persecution, but at times when the Buddhist organization
+under imperial favor was departing from its simplicity.
+
+A number of these sects have continued under different names for several
+centuries. For example, the Tsai Li, a society now enjoying a quiet
+existence in North China, is successor to the White Lotus society. The
+latter started in the fifth century. Its members sought salvation in the
+Pure Land of Amitabha. In the eleventh century it enjoyed imperial
+favor. During the Mongol dynasty it fought against the throne with
+rebels and placed one of its leaders, Chu Yüan-chang, a monk, on the
+throne, who became the founder of the Ming dynasty. The sect was soon
+proscribed and its members persecuted by the government. During the
+Ch'ing dynasty it took part in a rebellion and was ruthlessly
+exterminated. At present it goes under the name of _Tsai Li,_ i.e.,
+within the Li or principles of the three religions. It is a mediator
+among the three religions.
+
+There are thirty-one organizations of this sect in Peking and branches
+throughout North China. The society forbids the use of wine and opium,
+though it does not forbid the use of meat. It usually has a Buddhist
+image, Kuan Yin or some other. It uses Buddhist prayers and
+incantations. The outstanding doctrines held during its long history
+have been the hope of salvation in the Western Heaven of Amitâbha, the
+early coming of Maitrêya, the Buddhist Messiah, and the large use of
+magic formulas and incantations.
+
+Another sect which embodies Buddhist ideals is the Chin Tan, the sect of
+the philosopher's stone or pill of immortality. Its founder was the
+writer of the Nestorian tablet and so the sect is related to
+Christianity. It exalts the teaching of universal love. This is one of
+several examples of a supposed contact between Buddhism and
+Christianity.
+
+These sects of which the two above are examples are present in all parts
+of China. They obey the five Buddhist commandments for laymen. The
+members spend much time in fasting and prayer, and in the repetition of
+Buddhist books. Their lives as a rule are simple and sincere. They are
+preparing for rebirth in the land of Amitâbha, or are expecting the
+early coming of the Buddhist Messiah to set this world right. In the
+meantime, by means of incantations, personal regimen and cooperative
+action they are doing all they can to usher in a better state.
+
+_5. Pilgrimages_
+
+Pilgrimages are very popular in China. The famous Buddhist shrines are
+Wu T'ai Shan in Shansi, Puto on the coast of Chekiang, Chiu Hua Shan in
+Anhwei, and Omei Shan in Szechuan. These, one on each side of China,
+represent the four elements of Buddhist science, wind, water, fire and
+earth. They are also the centers of the worship of the four great
+Bodhisattvas, Wenshu, Kuan Yin, Titsang and Puhsien. Besides these large
+centers there are many others to which pilgrims direct their footsteps.
+
+In the spring of the year, when the god of spring covers the earth with
+a green mantle, when the sky and winds call, many start on their
+pilgrimage. Many go singly and laboriously, kneeling and bowing every
+few steps. Others go in happy companies, chaperoned by a pious, village
+dame, who has organized the group. Some go because their turn has come.
+They are members of a guild which has a fund devoted to pilgrimages by
+its members. Some go for the performance of a vow made to Kuan Yin, when
+the father was sick unto death and the goddess prolonged his life. To
+others it is the culmination of a pious life. All go for the joy which
+travel in the spring gives.
+
+Puto, an island off the coast of Chekiang, is the goal of many pilgrims
+from all parts of China. In, the monasteries on the island are about two
+thousand monks. In the pilgrim season this number is increased to ten
+thousand monks and thousands of lay pilgrims.
+
+A group of pilgrims was going along merrily. The sun was bright,
+lighting up the white caps on the deep blue sea. Spring was rioting all
+about. One member was an abbot from Hangchow. A small, humble-looking
+man with a few straggling long hairs where the mustache usually grows,
+was a lay Buddhist from Wuchang. One was a bright young monk from
+Tientsin. Last, but almost omnipresent and always bubbling over, was a
+servant of the abbot from Hangchow. He was in the presence of divinity
+and his whole life was heightened for the time being. "Why did you
+come!" they were asked. "We came to worship the holy mother, Kuan Yin."
+When they entered a shrine each purchased three sticks, of incense and
+two candles and reverently placed them before the image of the goddess,
+kneeling and bowing. Then they sat and partook of the tea offered by the
+attendant. After paying a small gratuity, they went on to the next
+shrine.
+
+On the way a large black snake as thick as an arm lazily crossed over
+the road. They stood, reverent and awestruck, until he disappeared in
+the grass, remarking that this was a good omen. When crossing a sand
+dune piled up by the winds the abbot from Hangchow remarked that this
+was called the flying sand, wafted there by the goddess who took pity on
+some travelers who had been compelled to cross a narrow strait in order
+to come to a cave. This cave, called Fan Yin Tung, is one of the rifts
+made by an earthquake and washed out by wind and waves. Below it rushes
+the tide; from above the sun sends down a few rays. Each pilgrim after
+offering incense looks into the darkness to see whether he can behold in
+the dark cavern an image of some Buddha. One sees Kuan Yin and is
+acclaimed as having had a good vision. Another sees the Laughing Buddha.
+All exclaim that he has been the most fortunate of all, for this Buddha
+is the Messiah to come and he who beholds him will be blessed. So from
+place to place they wander, chatting and seeing the sights of the
+island. Thus thousands are doing in various parts of China, and in this
+way strengthening the hold of Buddhism upon themselves and their
+communities.
+
+
+
+
+VII
+
+
+BUDDHISM AND THE FUTURE LIFE
+
+Before the advent of Buddhism the Chinese had only a vague idea
+regarding life after death. The Land and Water Classic mentions the Tu
+Shuo mountain in the Eastern Sea, under which spirits of the dead live,
+the entrance guarded by two spirits, Shên Tu and Yü Lei, who are in
+general control of the demons. In some parts of China the names or
+pictures, of these spirits are placed on the doors of a house to guard
+it. The Taoists early developed the idea of a western paradise presided
+over by the Queen of the West, located at first in the K'un Lun
+mountains and later in the islands of the Eastern Sea. This heaven,
+however, was limited to Taoist hermits and mystics. Buddhism made a
+complete purgatory and heaven known to every one in China.
+
+_1. The Buddhist Purgatory_
+
+This is really Buddhism's most noteworthy addition to China's religious
+equipment; Buddhism lays much stress upon the experiences of a soul
+immediately after death. Its punishments are well known to every
+individual. The temple of the City Guardian found in every walled city
+has a replica of the court in purgatory over which he presides. In the
+temples of T'ai Shan there is an elaborate exhibit of the tortures
+inflicted on culprits in purgatory. Every funeral service conducted by
+Buddhists or Taoists is intended to conduct the soul of the dead through
+purgatory and pictures vividly the progressive experiences from the
+first seventh day to the seventh seventh day. On the the seventh month,
+on the fifteenth day [about August] a special service is held for the
+souls of the dead in purgatory. Furthermore, every community has a
+general service [about October] for the souls of those who died a
+violent death or who have no one to look after them. During the war many
+services were thus held for those who died on the battlefields of
+Europe. At such services the scenes in purgatory are vividly portrayed
+by pictures and figures. The temples distribute tracts with pictures of
+purgatory so that women may see them and understand. On the stage are
+often acted powerful plays whose scenes are laid in Hades. This
+propaganda is perhaps the most efficient of its kind.
+
+Purgatory is depicted as consisting of ten courts each surrounded by
+small hells, where the soul undergoes punishment and cleansing. The
+fifth court, which may be taken as an example of the other courts, is in
+charge of Yen Lo or Yama. Yama was once in charge of the first court,
+but his tender heart pitied the souls who came before him and sent them
+back to earth. Because of this leniency he was placed in charge of the
+fifth court.
+
+When a soul has passed through the first four courts and it has been
+discovered that there is no good conduct to its credit, it is led to the
+fifth court and examined every seven days regarding past conduct. In
+order to get back to the world of men, it eagerly promises to complete
+various unfinished vows, such as to repair monasteries, schools,
+bridges, or roads, to clean wells, to deepen rivers, to distribute good
+books, to release animals, to take care of aged parents, or to bury them
+suitably. But it is plainly told that the gods know its artifices, and
+that now these unfinished tasks can never be completed. The gods have
+reached the unanimous opinion that no injustice is being done.
+Accordingly there is no appeal, but each soul is led by attendants with
+bulls' heads and horses' faces to a tower whence they may see their
+native village. Its front is in the shape of a bow with a perimeter of
+twenty-seven miles; its height is four hundred and ninety feet. It is
+guarded by walls of sword trees.
+
+Good men, whose deeds of omission are balanced by the good they have
+done, return to life. Only souls judged to be evil see their village
+from this tower. These can see their own families moving about, and can
+hear their conversation. They realize how they disobeyed the teachings
+of their elders. They see that the earthly goods for which they have
+struggled are of no value. Their plottings rise up with lurid reality.
+They see how they planned a new marriage although already married, how
+they appropriated fields, state property, and falsified accounts,
+putting the blame on persons who were dead. While they observe their
+village they behold their erstwhile friends touch their coffin and
+inwardly rejoice. They hear themselves called selfish and insincere. But
+their punishment does not stop here. They behold their children punished
+by magistrates, their women afflicted with strange diseases, their
+daughters ravished, their sons led astray, their property taken away,
+the ancestral house burned and their business ruined. From this tower
+all passes before them as a lurid dream and they are stricken in heart.
+
+About the fifth court are sixteen small hells where the soul is
+punished. In each one are stakes buried in the ground and fierce
+animals. The hands and feet of the guilty one are bound to a stake, his
+body is opened with small knives, and his heart and intestines quickly
+devoured.
+
+In each of these sixteen hells is a certain type of sinner: (1) Those
+who do not reverence the gods and demons and who doubt the existence of
+rewards and punishments; (2) those who hurt and kill living beings; (3)
+those who break their vows to do good; (4) those who resort to heterodox
+practices and vainly hope to attain eternal life; (5) those who upbraid
+good men, fear the wicked and hate men because they do not die speedily;
+(6) those who strive with other people and then put the blame upon them;
+(7) men who force women; and women who seduce young men, and all who
+have libidinous desires; (8) those who gain profit for themselves by
+injuring others; (9) the stingy and those who absolutely disregard
+others, whether alive or dead, giving them no help in dire need, when
+they can do so without injury to themselves; (10) those who steal and
+put the crime upon others; (11) those who requite favors with hate; (12)
+those whose hearts are perverse and poisonous, who instigate others to
+do wrong even if they may not have carried out their suggestion; (13)
+those who tempt others by deceit; (14) those who involve others in their
+squabbles and in gambling and then themselves win out; (15) those who
+stubbornly persist in their false ideas, do not repent, and slander
+others; (16) those who hate good and virtuous men.
+
+Besides these sixteen sorts of sinners the fifth court deals with other
+types of wicked people; those who do not believe in rewards and
+punishments after death, who hinder good causes, who burn incense
+without a sincere heart, speak of the sins of others, who burn books
+that urge men to be good and worship the Great Dipper, but persist in
+eating meat; those who hate men; who repeat sutras and incantations, and
+take part in religious ceremonies, but do not fast beforehand; who
+slander the Buddhist and Taoist religions; who know how to read, but
+refuse to read the ancient and modern exhortations regarding rewards and
+punishments; who dig into graves and destroy their marks, who purposely
+set fire to trees and underbrush, or are careless with fire in their own
+houses; who shoot arrows at animals with the intent, to kill; who urge
+and tempt the sick and weak to enter into contests of any kind with
+themselves; who throw tiles and stones over neighboring walls, poison
+fish in the river, fire guns, or make nets or traps for birds; who sow
+salt on the ground, who do not bury dead eats and snakes very deep and
+thus cause death to those who dig; who cause men to dig the frozen
+ground in winter or spring (the vapors of earth chill such diggers to
+death); who tear down adjoining walls and compel their neighbors to move
+the kitchen stove; who appropriate public highways, lands, close wells
+and stop gutters.
+
+Those who have committed any of the above sins are taken, to the tower
+whence they can see their own village and then are consigned to the
+great crying hell, Râurava, that is, the fourth of the Buddhist hot
+hells. [Footnote: Buddhism distinguishes hot and cold hells. In a
+country like India severe cold is a serious torture.] Thence they go to
+their respective small hells. When their time has expired, they are
+examined in order to see whether they have any other sins which need
+punishment.
+
+Those who have committed any of the above sins may not only escape
+punishment, but may have their punishment in the sixth court lessened,
+if they fast regularly on the eighth day of the first month and take a
+vow not to commit these sins. Some sins, however, cannot be arranged for
+in such a way, such as the killing of living beings and hurting them;
+the associating with heretics; committing fornication with women and
+then poisoning them; committing adultery, violence, envy, or injuring
+the good name of others; stealing, requiting favors with hatred, and
+hearing exhortation but not repenting. These are major sins.
+
+_2. Its Social Value_
+
+The social value of purgatory is quite plain from the description of the
+fifth court and of the sinners who are punished therein. Purgatory is
+the social mirror of China, wherein the consequences of all unsocial
+acts are pictured in such a vivid way as to deter the individual from
+committing them. It is effective in China, not only because of the
+realistic presentation, but because the opinion of the community is
+against such acts and in favor of repressing them on every occasion.
+
+_3. The Buddhist Heaven._
+
+Buddhism brought into China not only a fully developed purgatory but
+also a heaven which all may enter. The sovereign of the western heaven
+is Amitâbha (or in Chinese O-mi-to-fo), with whom Kuan Yin, the goddess
+of Mercy, is usually associated. Amitâbha is explained as meaning
+"boundless age." The original meaning is "boundless light," which
+suggests a Persian origin with Mannichean influences. The translations
+of the Amitâbha sutras were wholly made by natives of central Asia.
+
+Amitâbha is one of the thousand Buddhas; he is regarded as the reflex of
+Sakyamuni and is connected also in his earthly incarnation with a monk
+called Dharmâkara. This monk desired to become a Buddha. This wish he
+presented to Lôkês'vararâja asking him to teach him as to what a Buddha
+and a Buddha country ought to be. Lôkês'vararâja imparted this
+knowledge. Then the monk after meditation returned having made
+forty-eight vows that he would not become a Buddha, until all living
+beings should attain salvation in his heaven.
+
+The eighteenth vow expresses his ideal:
+
+"O Bhagavat, if those beings who have directed their thought towards the
+highest perfect knowledge in other worlds, and who, after having heard
+my name, when I have obtained Bodhi (knowledge), have meditated on me
+with serene thoughts; if at the moment of their death, after having
+approached them surrounded by an assembly of monks, I should not stand
+before them worshipped by them, that is, so that their thoughts should
+not be troubled, then may I not obtain the highest perfect knowledge."
+
+A few extracts from the _Amitâbha Vyûha Sûtra_ will illustrate the
+Buddhist idea of life in this Pure Land:
+
+"In the western region beyond one hundred thousand myriads of Buddhist
+lands there is a world. Great Happiness by name. This land has a Buddha
+called Amitâbha. The living beings there do not suffer any pain, but
+enjoy all happiness. Therefore, it is called the land of Pure Delight
+... the land of Pure Delight has seven precious fountains full of water
+containing the eight virtues. The bottom of these fountains is covered
+with golden sand. On four sides there are steps made of gold, silver,
+crystal and glass, precious stones, red pearls, and highly polished
+agates. In the pools are variously colored, light emitting lotus flowers
+as large as cart wheels, delicate, admirable, odorous and pure..."
+
+"The Buddha of this land makes heavenly music. It is covered with gold.
+Morning and evening during six hours it rains the wonderful celestial
+flowers (Erythrina Indica). All the inhabitants of this land on clear
+mornings after dressing offer these celestial flowers to the hundred
+thousand myriads of Buddhas of the regions who return to their country
+at meal time. When they have eaten they go away again."
+
+"This country possesses every kind of wonderful varicolored birds, the
+white egret, the peacock, the parrot, the s'rarika (a long legged bird),
+the Kalavingka (a sweet voiced bird) ... All these birds, morning and
+evening during the six hours, utter forth a beautiful harmonious sound.
+Their song produces the five _indrya_ (roots of faith, energy,
+memory, ecstatic meditation, wisdom), the five _bala_ (the powers
+of faith, energy, memory, meditation and wisdom), the seven
+_bodhyanga_ (the seven degrees of intelligence, memory,
+discrimination, energy, tranquillity, ecstatic contemplation,
+indifference), and the eight portions of the correct path _marga,_
+(the possession of correct views, decision and purity of thought and
+will, the ability of reproducing any sound uttered in the universe, vow
+of poverty, asceticism, attainment of meditative abstraction of
+self-control, religious recollectedness, honesty and virtue), and such
+doctrines. When all beings of this land have heard the music, they
+declare their faithfulness to the Buddha, Dharma and the Sangha (the
+Buddha, the Law and the community of monks)."
+
+As to those who enter this land it says:
+
+"All living beings who hear this should make a vow to be born in that
+land. How can they reach the Pure Land? All very good men will gather in
+that place ... He whose blessedness and virtue are great can be born
+into that country. If there is a good man or woman who, on hearing of
+Amitâbha, takes this name and holds it in his mind one, two, three,
+four, five, six, or seven days, and his whole heart is not distracted,
+to that man at death Amitâbha will appear. His heart will not be
+disturbed. He will at once enter into life in the land of Pure Delight
+of Amitâbha. I see this blessing and hence utter these words. Those
+living beings who hear these words should make a vow to be born in that
+land."
+
+_4. The Harmonization of These Ideas with Ancestor Worship_
+
+The extension of life beyond the grave in purgatory, or in the Pure Land
+and through transmigration was readily accepted in China. Both the new
+ideas and the disciplines through which to realize them were eagerly
+adopted, and have held their place to this day. In other lands the
+creation of a heaven and a hades has weakened the grip of ancestor
+worship and ultimately displaced it. In China the opposite result has
+obtained, due, no doubt, to the fact that the family system and along
+with it the supreme duty of filial piety were fostered by the state and
+Buddhism and its teachings were permitted only in so far as they
+bolstered it up. Another reason lies in the agricultural basis of
+China's civilization, reenforced by the great difficulty of
+communication, which tended to make the family system dominant in China.
+Today, the improvement of communication and the introduction of the
+industrial system of the West with the individual emphasis of modern
+education are factors which are weakening the family system and with it
+ancestral worship.
+
+
+
+
+VIII
+
+
+THE SPIRITUAL VALUES EMPHASIZED BY BUDDHISM IN CHINA
+
+Near the House of Parliament in Peking is located a small monastery
+dedicated to the goddess of Mercy, Kuan Yin. Before her image the
+incense burners send forth curling clouds of smoke. The walls are
+decorated with old paintings of gods and goddesses. The temple with its
+courtyard has the appearance of prosperity. Its neat reception room,
+with its tables, chairs and clock, shows the influence of the modern
+world.
+
+Here a monk in the prime of life spent a few months recently lecturing
+on Buddhism to members of parliament and to scholars from various parts
+of China. Frequently the writer used to drop in of an afternoon to
+discuss Buddhism and its outlook. Usually a simple repast concluded
+these conversations, the substance of which forms the greater part of
+this section.
+
+_1. The Threefold Classification of Men Under Buddhism_
+
+"What does Buddhism do for men?"
+
+"There are in the world at least three classes of men. The lowest class
+live among material things, they are occupied with possessions. Their
+life is entangled in the crude and coarse materials which they regard as
+real. A second, higher class, regard ideas as realities. They are not
+entangled in the maze of things, but are confused by ideas, ascribing
+reality to them. The third and highest class are those who by meditation
+have freed themselves from the thraldom of ideas and can enter the
+sixteen heavens."
+
+_2. Salvation for the Common Man_
+
+"What can Buddhism do for the lowest class?"
+
+"For this class Buddhism has the ten prohibitions. Every man has in him
+ten evils, which must be driven out. Three have to do with evil in the
+body, namely, not to steal, not to kill, not to commit adultery; four
+belong to the mouth, lying, exaggeration, abuse, and ambiguous talk;
+three belong to the mind, covetousness, malice, and unbelief."
+
+"Is not this entirely negative?"
+
+"Yes, but it is necessary, for during the process of eliminating these
+evil deeds, man acquires patience and equanimity. Buddhism does not stop
+with the prohibitions. The believer must practice the ten charitable
+deeds. Not only must he remove the desire to kill living beings, but he
+must cultivate the desire to save all beings. Not only must he not
+steal, but he must assist men with his money. Not only must he not give
+himself to lasciviousness, but he must treat all men with propriety. So
+each prohibition involves a positive impulse to virtue, which is quite
+as essential as the refraining from evil."
+
+"What energizing power does Buddhism provide?"
+
+"First, is purgatory with its terrors. The evil man, seeing the
+consequences of his acts upon himself, becomes afraid to do them and
+does that which is good. Then there is transmigration with the danger of
+transmigration into beasts and insects. Again, there are the rewards in
+the paradise of Amitâbha. Moreover, there is even the possibility not
+only of saving one's self, but by accumulated merit of saving one's
+parents and relatives and shortening their stay in purgatory."
+
+_3. The Place of Faith_
+
+"Can any man enter the western paradise of Amitâbha?"
+
+"Yes, it is open to all men. The sutra says: 'If there be any one who
+commits evil deeds, and even completes the ten evil actions, the five
+deadly sins and the like; that man, being himself stupid and guilty of
+many crimes, deserves to fall into a miserable path of existence and
+suffer endless pains during many long ages. On the eve of death he may
+meet a good and learned teacher who, soothing and encouraging him in
+various ways, will preach to him the excellent Law and teach him the
+remembrance of Buddha, but being harassed by pains', he will have no
+time to think of Buddha.'"
+
+"What hope has such a man?"
+
+"Even such a man has hope. The sutra says: 'Some good friend will say to
+him: Even if thou canst not exercise the remembrance of Buddha, utter
+the name of Buddha Amitabha.' Let him do so serenely with his voice
+uninterrupted; let him be (continually) thinking of Buddha, until he has
+completed ten times the thought, repeating 'Namah O-mi-to-fo,' I put my
+trust in Buddha! On the strength of (his merit of) uttering Buddha's
+name he will, during every repetition expiate the sins which involve him
+in births and deaths during eighty millions of long ages. He will, while
+dying, see a golden lotus-flower, like the disk of the sun, appearing
+before his eyes; in a moment he will be born in the world of highest
+happiness. After twelve greater ages the lotus-flower will unfold;
+thereupon the Bodhisattvas, Avalôkitësvaras and Mahasattva's, raising
+their voices in great compassion, will preach to him in detail the real
+state of all the elements of nature and the law of the expiation of
+sins."
+
+"Does faith save such a man?"
+
+"Yes, not his own faith, but the faith which prompted the vow of
+Amitabha. Amitâbha's faith in the possibility of his salvation gives him
+supreme confidence that he will attain salvation. All he needs is to
+have the desire to be born in that paradise and to repeat the name of
+Amitabha."
+
+_4. Salvation of the Second Class_
+
+"How do those of the second class attain salvation?"
+
+"The men of the second class regard ideas as realities. They are not
+entangled in the maze of things, but are confused by ideas, regarding
+them as real. These men do not need images and outward sanctions, but
+they need heaven and purgatory though regarding them as ideas. By
+performing the ten good deeds they will obtain a quiet heart, having no
+fear, and become saints and sages. Among men, saints and sages occupy a
+high rank, but not so among Buddhists. By merit of good works merely
+they enter the planes of sensuous desire, the six celestial worlds
+located immediately above the earth."
+
+_5. Salvation for the Highest Class_
+
+"And the third class?"
+
+"This class has many ranks. There are those who by the practice of
+meditation (four _dkyanas_) [Footnote: Dhyana means contemplation.
+In later times under the influence of the idea of transmigration heavens
+were imagined which corresponded to the degrees of contemplation.] can
+enter the sixteen heavens conditioned by form. By the practice of the
+four _arûpa-dhyânas_ [Footnote: That degree of abstract
+contemplation from which all sensations are absent.] they enter the four
+highest heavens free from all sensuous desires and not conditioned by
+form. These heavens are the anteroom of Nirvana."
+
+"What is the driving power in all this?"
+
+"It is _vîrya_ or energy."
+
+_6. Heaven and Purgatory_
+
+"Do heaven and purgatory exist?"
+
+"Heaven and purgatory are in the minds and hearts of men. Really heaven
+is in the mind of Amitâbha and purgatory exists in the illusioned brains
+of men."
+
+"Does anything exist?"
+
+"Nâgârjuna says: 'There is no production, no destruction, no
+annihilation, no persistence, no unity, no plurality, no coming in and
+no going forth.'"
+
+_7. Sin_
+
+"Does sin exist?"
+
+"In the mind of the real Buddhist sin and virtue are different aspects
+of the all. Sin is illusion; virtue is illusion, There is a higher unity
+in which they are reconciled."
+
+_8. Nirvâna_
+
+_"Do you know of any one who attained Nirvâna?"_
+
+"Yes, I have experienced it. It is not a state beyond the grave. It is a
+state into which one can enter here."
+
+"Can you express this experience in words?"
+
+"Impossible. I can only indicate the shore of this great ocean. At first
+I was in great distress and agony, as though carrying the illusions of
+the world. Then came a great peace and calm, ineffable, serene, and
+surpassing the power of language to express."
+
+_9. The Philosophical Background_
+
+"What is behind this universe!"
+
+"Underlying this universe of phenomena and change there is a unity. It
+is the basis of all being. It is within all being and all being rests in
+it. It is because of this common background that men are able to
+apprehend it. This universal basis we call _dharma,_ or law. Its
+characteristics are that everything born grows old, is subject to
+disease and death; that the teachings of Buddha purify the mind and
+enable it to obtain supreme enlightenment; that all Buddhas by treading
+the same way of perfection will attain the highest freedom."
+
+"You speak of the Buddhist Trinity."
+
+"Yes, we have the Dharmakâya. This is the essence-body, the ground of
+all being, taking many forms, Buddhas, Bodhisattvas, spirits, angels,
+men and even demons. It is impersonal, all-pervasive. It may be called
+the first person. The second person is the Sambhogakâya, the body of
+bliss. This is the heavenly manifestation of Buddha. The third person is
+the Nirmânakâya. This is the projection of the body of bliss on earth."
+
+Some identify this trinity with that of the Christian faith. While there
+is a resemblance, we should note that the first person of the Buddhist
+trinity would correspond to God as the absolute or the impersonal
+background of universal Being. The second corresponds to the glorified
+Christ and the third to the historic Jesus. There is no counterpart
+either to God the Father or to the Holy Spirit.
+
+"Do you believe in the salvation of all beings?"
+
+"Yes, all have the Buddha heart. All living beings will finally become
+Buddhas."
+
+Then turning to a friend of mine the speaker said: "What have you done
+in Buddhism?" The friend answered: "I have written and translated many
+books." "I do not mean that," he answered. "What _work_ have you
+done?" The friend confessed that he had not done much else. Then he
+said: "Every morning when you awake, reflect deeply and profoundly upon
+your state before you were born. Think back to that state where your
+soul was merged with Buddha. Find yourself in that state and you will
+find ineffable enlightenment and joy."
+
+The sun was setting behind the Western hills. The blare of trumpets
+sounded on the city wall. Outside of the door was the whirling sound of
+Peking returning home from its mundane tasks and joys. We joined the
+rushing, restless crowd and still we felt the calm of another world. Has
+not Christianity a message of balm and peace for these sons of the East
+who are so sensitive to the touch of the eternal and sublime?
+
+_10. What Buddhism Has to Give_
+
+An important government official obliged to deal with many vexatious
+requests and demands declared: "I could not get through my day's work,
+if I did not spend an hour every day in meditation, just as Buddha did
+when he became enlightened." He was asked what he did when he meditated
+or prayed. "Nothing at all." "Well, about what do you think?" "Of
+nothing at all. I stop thinking when I engage in religious meditation.
+Life makes me think too much. I should lose my sanity, if I did not stop
+thinking and enter into the 'void', whence we all came and into which we
+all are going to drop back."
+
+His Christian inquirer still was unsatisfied by the Buddhist's
+description of his prayer life, and pressed further for details. "What
+happens when you meditate or pray?"
+
+"Nothing happens, I tell you, except, that I experience a peace which
+the passing world cannot give and which the passing world cannot
+altogether take away. The secret of religion is simply to realize that
+everything is passing away. When you accept that fact, then you become
+really free. The Christian world seemed to have been tremendously
+impressed by the slogan of the French soldiers at Verdun, 'They shall
+not pass!' Perhaps the German soldiers did not pass just then or there.
+But the French soldiers themselves are all passing away. And everything
+in the world is passing away. What our Buddhist religion teaches us is:
+'Let it pass!' You cannot keep anything for very long. And prayer or
+meditation is simply to practice yourself in that thought deliberately.
+Oh, it is a wonderful peace when you fully believe that gospel, and
+enter into it every day. Vanity of vanities, everything is vanity! Why
+worry? We do altogether too much worrying. To pray means simply to quit
+worrying, to quit thinking, to enter into the indescribably passionless
+peace of Nirvana."
+
+Here seemed to be an ardent Buddhist. When asked what he thought as the
+difference between a Buddhist and a Christian, he answered promptly:
+
+"Yes, there is my wife. She is a very good woman. All the neighbors come
+to her, when there is any one sick or in trouble. So I say to her:
+'Wife, I should think you would make a first-class Christian.' But I
+think she lets herself be worried by altogether too many troubles. She
+is all the time thinking and fussing and planning. To be sure, it is
+mostly about other people, But then she does have the children and the
+house and the relatives and friends and neighbors to look after. Perhaps
+she really cannot be a Buddhist. Perhaps it is all a matter of
+temperament. Oh, but I tell you it is great to be a Buddhist, because it
+gives you such a wonderful peace."
+
+
+
+
+IX
+
+
+PRESENT-DAY BUDDHISM:
+
+_1. Periods of Buddhist History_
+
+The history of Buddhism in China may be divided into four periods.
+Buddhism entered China, as we have seen, in the second century B.C. The
+first period, that of the translation and propagation of the faith,
+ended in 420 A.D. The second period, that of interpenetration, lasted to
+the beginning of the T'ang dynasty, 618 A.D. The third, the period of
+establishment, ended with the close of the five dynasties, in 960 A.D.
+The fourth period, that of decay, has extended to the present day.
+
+_2. The Progress of the Last Twenty-five Years_
+
+There are signs of a revival of Buddhism in China. Whether this is a
+tide, or a wave, only the future can reveal. In 1893 Dharmapala, an
+Indian monk, stopped in Shanghai on his way back from the Congress of
+Religions in Chicago. It was his purpose to make a tour of China, to
+arouse the Chinese Buddhists to send missionaries to India to restore
+Buddhism there, and then to start a propaganda throughout the whole
+world. He addressed the monks of Shanghai. Dr. Edkins, the veteran
+missionary, acted as his interpreter. Dharmapala was surrounded by a
+horde of curious monks who were more interested in his strange
+appearance and in the cost of his garments than they were in his great
+ideals. They were also feeling the iron heel of the Confucian government
+and at once inquired about the attitude of the government toward such an
+innovation. Dharmapala did not go beyond Shanghai.
+
+Japanese Buddhists, especially the members of the Hongwanji sect, have
+taken a deep interest in Chinese Buddhists. Count Otani once visited the
+chief monasteries of China. Numerous Japanese Buddhists have made such
+visits. In 1902, the Empress Dowager, fired by a reforming zeal, decided
+to confiscate Buddhist property and to use the proceeds for the spread
+of modern education. The Buddhist monasteries put themselves under the
+protection of Japanese monks in order to hold their property. When by
+1906 the Empress Dowager saw the consequences of her edict, she at once
+issued a new edict, reversing the former one, and the Japanese monks
+took their departure.
+
+The Japanese Buddhists have been fired by missionary zeal for China. In
+many of the large cities of China are the temples of the Hongwanji sect.
+Established primarily for the Japanese, these temples are intended to
+serve as points of departure for a nation-wide missionary work. The
+twenty-one demands made upon China included two significant items in the
+last group which the Chinese refused to sign: "Art. 2: Japanese
+hospitals, churches and schools in the interior of China shall be
+granted the right of owning land." "Art. 7: China agrees that Japanese
+subjects shall have the right of missionary propaganda in China."
+
+Under Japanese influence there was established in 1907 at Nanking, under
+the leadership of Yang, a lay Buddhist devotee, a school for the
+training of Buddhist missionaries. The students were to go to Japan for
+further training, and the more promising ones were to study in India.
+This project was discontinued after the death of Yang on account of the
+lack of funds.
+
+When the republic was established Buddhism felt a wave of reform. The
+monasteries established schools for monks and children. A magazine was
+published which appeared irregularly for several numbers and then
+stopped. A national organization was formed with headquarters at Peking.
+A survey of monasteries was begun. The activities in lecturing and
+propaganda were increased, but Yuan Shih-kai issued twenty-seven
+regulations for the control of Buddhist monasteries, which markedly
+dampened the ardor of the reformers.
+
+The world war which accentuated the spirit of nationalism had the added
+effect of stirring up Buddhist enthusiasm. There are at present signs of
+new activity among them in China.
+
+_3. Present Activities_
+
+While Buddhism may be standing still or even dying in certain parts of
+China, it is showing signs of new life in the provinces of Kiangsu and
+Chekiang and in the large cities. Such revival in centers subject to the
+influence of the modern world shows that Buddhism in China as in Japan
+has sufficient vitality to adjust itself to modern conditions. Let us
+consider some of these activities.
+
+_(a) The Reconstruction of Monasteries._--During the T'ai Ping
+rebellion, which devastated China in 1850-1865, the monasteries suffered
+with the towns. Not only were the monasteries burned to the ground, but
+their means of support were taken away and the monks were scattered.
+There are still many of these ruined monasteries in the Yangtze valley
+and in southern and western China. Quite a number of them have been
+rebuilt. Perhaps the most notable example is that at Changchow which was
+destroyed during the rebellion. Today it is the largest monastery in
+China, having about two thousand monks. In Fukien several new
+monasteries have been built in the last few decades. In the provinces of
+Chekiang and Kiangsu, in the large cities and about Peking there are
+building activities, showing that the monasteries are feeling a new wave
+of prosperity.
+
+T'ai Hsu, one of the leaders' of modern Buddhism, is holding up an ideal
+program for Buddhism in this time of reconstruction. He proposes that
+there should be 576 central monasteries, 4608 preaching places, 72
+Buddhist hospitals and 72 orphanages.
+
+_(b) Accessions._--Regarding the number of monks it is almost
+impossible to obtain any reliable figures. A conservative estimate,
+based upon partial returns, makes the number of monks about 400,000 and
+that of nuns about 10,000. The impression among the Buddhists is that
+the number of monks is increasing. That is quite probable in view of the
+rebuilding and repairing which is now in progress.
+
+More significant is the number of accessions from the learned class.
+Many officials, disheartened by the present confused political
+situation, have sought refuge in the monasteries. Some of them are now
+abbots of monasteries and are using their influence to build them up.
+All over China there are Confucian scholars who are giving themselves to
+the study of Buddhism and to meditation. Some of the Chinese students
+who have studied in Buddhist universities in Japan are propagating
+Buddhism by lecture and pen.
+
+_(c) Publications._--Quite as significant is the increase in the
+publication of Buddhist literature of all kinds. Many of the monasteries
+have printing departments where they publish the sutras needed for their
+own use. In addition, there are eight or more publishing centers where
+Buddhist literature is printed. The most famous are Yang's establishment
+at Nanking, the Buddhist Press in Yangchow and that in Peking. In these
+establishments about nine hundred different works are being published.
+The most noteworthy recent publication has been that of the Chinese
+Buddhist Tripitaka in Shanghai.
+
+Among these publications are a few modern issues. The Chung Hua Book
+Company has published several works on Buddhism. Other books have been
+issued for the sake of harmonizing Buddhism with western science and
+philosophy. In this enterprise Japanese influence is visible. In 1921 a
+Shanghai press published a dictionary of Buddhist terms containing 3302
+pages, based on the Japanese Dictionary of Buddhism. Other works also
+show the influence of Japanese scholarship.
+
+Among the publications have appeared two magazines. One published at
+Ningpo, is called "New Buddhism." This is struggling and may have to
+succumb. The other is known as the "Sound of the Sea Tide," now
+published in Hankow. Moreover, in all the large cities there are
+Buddhist bookshops where only Buddhist works are sold. These all report
+a good business. This literary activity reveals an interest among the
+reading classes of China. Few such books are purchased by the monks. The
+Chinese scholars read them for their style and for their deep
+philosophy, but also for light and for help in the present distracting
+political situation of their country.
+
+_(d) Lectures._--Along with publication goes the spread of Buddhism
+by lectures in the monasteries and the cities of China. A few years ago
+Buddhist sermons, however serious, were only listened to by monks and by
+a few pious devotees. Today such addresses are advertised and are
+usually well attended by the intellectuals. Often many women are found
+listening. Monks like T'ai Hsü and Yuan Ying have a national reputation.
+Not only monks, but laymen trained in Japan are delivering lectures on
+the Buddhist sutras. The favorites are the Awakening of Faith and the
+Suddharma Pundarika sutra.
+
+_(e) Buddhist Societies._--With the lectures goes the organization
+of Buddhist societies for all sorts of purposes. There is a central
+society in Peking which has branches in every province. The connection
+is rather loose. Buddhism has never been in favor of centralization. Nor
+for that matter would the government have allowed it. The chief ends
+aimed at by these societies are fellowship, devotion, study,
+propagation, and service. Such societies, often short lived, are
+springing up in many quarters. They meet for lectures on Buddhism or to
+conduct a study class in some of the sutras. Occasionally the more
+ambitious conduct an institute for several months. Some spend part of
+the time in meditation together. Several schools for children are
+supported by these societies. They also encourage work of a religious
+nature among prisoners, distributing tracts and holding services. Such
+activities are especially appreciated by those who are to suffer the
+death penalty. The societies are also doing publishing work. The two
+magazines are supported by the members of the larger societies.
+
+_(f) Signs of Social Ambition._--Social work is a prominent feature
+of some of these Buddhist societies. They have raised money for famine
+stricken regions, have opened orphanages, and assist in Red Cross work.
+One of the largest Chinese institutions for ministering to people who
+are sick and in trouble is located at Hankow. Around a central Buddhist
+temple is a modern-built hospital, an orphanage and several schools for
+poor children. It may not maintain western standards of efficiency, but
+it certainly represents the outreach of modern Buddhism.
+
+Perhaps their most far-reaching advance has been made because of the
+realization that leaders are needed and that they must be trained.
+Several schools for this purpose have sprung into existence. Such
+schools are necessarily very primitive and are struggling with the
+difficulties of finding an adequate staff and equipment and of obtaining
+the best type of students.
+
+Another sign of new life has been the making of programs for the future
+development of Buddhism. One of the most comprehensive appeared a short
+time ago. For the individual it proposes the cultivation of love, mercy,
+equality, freedom, progressiveness, an established faith, patience and
+endurance. For all men it proposes (1) an education according to
+capacity; (2) a trade suited to ability; (3) an opportunity to develop
+one's powers; (4) a chance for enlightenment for all. For society it
+urges the cultivation of cooperation, social service, sacrifice for the
+social weal, and the social consciousness in the individual. On behalf
+of the country it urges patriotism, participation in the government, and
+cooperation in international movements. For the world it advocates
+universal progress. As to the universe it specifies as a goal the
+bringing of men into harmony with spiritual realities, the enlightenment
+of all and the realization of the spiritual universe.
+
+A Buddhist writer sums up the aims of new Buddhism as follows:
+
+"Formerly Buddhism desired to escape the sinful world. Today Buddhism
+not only desires to escape this world of sin, but longs to transform
+this world of sin into a new world dominated by the ideals of Buddhism.
+Formerly Buddhism was occupied with erecting and perfecting its
+doctrines and polity as an organization. Today it not only hopes to
+perfect the doctrines and polity, but desires to spread the doctrines
+and ideals abroad so as to help mankind to become truly cultured."
+
+_4. The Attitude of Tibetan Lamas_
+
+Not only the Chinese Buddhists, but the Lamas of Mongolia and Tibet are
+feeling the impulses of the new age. Quite recently an exhibition was
+held in the Lama temple at Peking which attracted thousands of visitors.
+Its object was to obtain money to repair the temple, and thus to give
+its work a fresh impulse. That these impulses are not necessarily
+hostile to Christianity is shown by a letter written by the Kurung
+Tsering Lama of Kokonor district to the Rev. T. Sörensen of Szechuan:
+
+"I, your humble servant, have seen several copies of the Scriptures and,
+having read them carefully, they certainly made me believe in Christ. I
+understand a little of the outstanding principles and the doctrinal
+teaching of the One Son, but as to the Holy Spirit's nature and essence,
+and as to the origin of this religion, I am not at all clear, and it is
+therefore important that the doctrinal principles of this religion
+should be fully explained, so as to enlighten the unintelligent and
+people of small mental ability.
+
+"The teaching of the science of medicine and astrology is also very
+important. It is therefore evident if we want this blessing openly
+manifested, we must believe in the religion of the only Son of God.
+Being in earnest, I therefore pray you from my heart not to consider
+this letter lightly. With a hundred salutations."
+
+Enclosed with this letter was a poem written in most elegant language.
+
+"O thou Supreme God and most precious Father, The truth above all
+religions, The Ruler of all animate and inanimate worlds! Greater than
+wisdom, separated from birth and death, Is his son Christ the Lord
+shining in glory among endless beings. Incomprehensible wonder,
+miraculously made! In this teaching I myself also believe--As your
+spirit is with heaven united, My soul undivided is seeking the truth
+Jesus the Savior's desire fulfilling, For the coming of the Kingdom of
+Heaven I am praying. Happiness to all."
+
+_5. The Buddhist World Versus the Christian World_
+
+Looking back over the last twenty-five years we see rising quite
+distinctly a Buddhist world growing conscious of itself, of its past
+history and of its mission to the world. This Buddhist, world has much
+more of a program than it had twenty-five years ago. Its object is to
+unite the Mahayâna and the Hînayâna branches of Buddhism and to spread
+Buddhist propaganda over the world. At present the leadership of this
+movement is in Japan. It is in part a political movement. There is no
+question that Christianity is not at all pleasing to the Japanese
+militarists. It is regarded by them as the advance post of western
+industrialism and political ambition. Quite naturally such leaders
+desire to make the Buddhist world a unit. It is also a social movement.
+The spirit of the Japanese Buddhist has been brought to consciousness by
+the new position of Japan. Japan is seeking to take its place in the
+world as a first rate power. By this not only will Japan's industry and
+commerce profit, but its spiritual values must also be adapted to the
+world. The movement then has its spiritual side. Japanese travelers and
+people are going to all parts of the world. They carry with them the
+religious ideals which have been shaped by Buddhism. Buddhism in the
+past was one of the great religions of salvation with an inspiring
+missionary message. It is again awakening to this task of
+evangelization. Under the leadership of Japanese scholars and religious
+statesmen the Japanese are seeking to unite the Buddhist world so that
+it shall become a force in the new world. Japan is thus trying to give
+back what it has received in the past.
+
+At present in Buddhist countries there is a strong force working against
+this movement. Nationalism is a new force to be reckoned with. Still
+even with the spirit of nationalism permeating every group, the Buddhist
+world is getting together and will strive to make its contribution to
+the life of the whole world.
+
+
+
+
+X
+
+
+THE CHRISTIAN APPROACH TO BUDDHISTS
+
+_1. Questions Which Buddhists Ask_
+
+Buddhists are approaching Christianity. In many places a spirit of
+inquiry and interest in the Christian religion is met. It is not
+necessary that there should be a Buddhist world permanently over against
+a Christian world. The questions which Buddhists ask a missionary
+indicate an interest in vital themes. Some of them are as follows:
+
+We put our trust in the three Precious Ones. In what do you trust? Is
+not your Shang Ti (name for God used in China) a being lower than Buddha
+and just a little higher than a Bodhisattva? Is not Shang Ti the tribal
+god of the Jews? Do you believe in the existence of _purgatory?_
+What sufferings will those endure who do not live a virtuous life? Do
+you believe in the reality of the Western Paradise? How can one enter
+it? There being three kinds of merit, by what method is the great merit
+accumulated? How is the middle and the small merit accumulated? What are
+the fruits of these proportions of merit and what are they like? Tell me
+how to believe Christ. What work of meditation do you perform? Is not
+Buddhism more democratic than Christianity, because it holds out the
+possibility of Buddhahood to all beings? Is not Buddhism more inclusive,
+because it provides for the salvation of all beings?
+
+_2. Knowledge and Sympathy_
+
+These questions make it plain that the worker who is to deal with
+Buddhists should have a broad background of general culture. He must be
+thoroughly humanized. He should have a good knowledge of the history of
+philosophy and religion, including the work of the modern philosophers.
+A knowledge of the life of Buddha and of the doctrines of the Hînayâna
+or Southern Buddhism, as well as the tenets of the Mahayâna should be in
+his possession. The psychology of religion should interpenetrate his
+historical learning; the best methods of pedagogy should guide his
+approach to men. Of course he must speak the language of the Buddhist,
+not only the spiritual language, but his everyday patois. He will find
+it an advantage to know some Sanskrit. While this requirement is not
+very urgent at present, it will rapidly become a necessity for doing the
+best work.
+
+This knowledge should be interpenetrated by a genuine sympathy, that is,
+imagination tinged with emotion. The worker should be able to view
+doctrines, values and actions from the point of view of the Buddhist and
+his past history. He must have a genuine interest in and a great
+capacity for friendship. The Buddhists are very human, responding to
+friendship very quickly. Such friendship forms a link between the man
+and the larger friendship of Christ.
+
+_3. Emphasis on the Aesthetic in Christianity_
+
+A Chinese Christian leader described his idea of a church as a place
+removed from the din of the street, approached by a walk flanked with
+trees and flowers and adorned within by symbols speaking to the heart of
+the Chinese. He longed for the mystic silence and the beauty of holiness
+which would open the windows of the world of spiritual reality and throw
+its light upon the problems of life. He was asked, "Would you adapt some
+of the symbols of the Chinese religions?" He said, "Many of those
+symbols are neutral. They suggest religious emotion. Their character
+depends upon the content which the occasion puts into them. If the
+content is Christian then the symbols and emotions will become
+Christian."
+
+Christianity is a religion of beauty. The beautiful in architecture,
+symbol and ritual, expressing the spiritual universe of the past,
+present and future, makes a strong appeal to the Chinese heart. It may
+well be emphasized in the future as never before.
+
+_4. Emphasis on the Mystical in Christianity_
+
+Not long ago a Buddhist in one of the large cities of China was
+converted. He found great joy in the experience which revived him and
+gathered into unity the broken fragments of his life. He attended church
+regularly and participated in the prayer meetings. Gradually he
+discovered that he was not being nourished. He felt his joy slipping
+away from him and his divided life reinstating itself. He went to
+Buddhism for consolation. He is not hostile to the church. He
+appreciates the help he received, but he said that he came for
+consolation and peace and found the same--hard orthodoxy and morality so
+familiar to him in Confucianism.
+
+While the case of this man may have individual peculiarities, it may be
+made the starting point for a discussion of the situation in many
+churches in China. The early message to the Chinese was doctrinal. The
+false notion of many gods had to be displaced by the idea of the one
+true God. With this idea of the true God a few other tenets of the
+Christian religion are often held as dogmatic propositions to be
+repeated when questions are asked. The great sin preached is the worship
+of idols.
+
+The second part of the Christian message is salvation by faith in Jesus
+Christ. This salvation is other-worldly to a large extent. The extreme
+emphasis upon it has made of the church an insurance society, membership
+in which insures bliss in the world beyond.
+
+The third part of the message has been concerned with moral acts,
+abstinence from opium (liquor and tobacco in some churches), polygamy,
+and the gross sins. Attendance upon church services, contribution for
+the support of the church, and the refusal to contribute to idolatry
+have also been required.
+
+The emphasis to a large extent was doctrinal, moral and individual. The
+result has been a body of people free from the gross sins, but also
+innocent of the great virtues and individualistic in their outlook upon
+this world and the next. This emphasis is needed, but in addition there
+should be the cultivation of the presence of God in the soul by
+appropriate means. The Christian Church of China should develop a
+technique of the spiritual life suited to the East. The formation of
+habits of devotion should be emphasized. Intercessory prayer should be
+given a larger place. Contemplation and meditation should be regarded
+not merely as an escape from the turmoil and strife of the world, but as
+a preparation for the highest life of service and sacrifice. Buddhist
+mysticism united the whole universe and was the great foundation of
+Chinese art, literature and morality. The spiritual world of
+Christianity must likewise seep through into the very thought of Asia
+and inspire the new art, literature and morality which will be the world
+expression of a Christian universe.
+
+_5. Emphasis on the Social Elements in Christianity_
+
+To the aesthetic and mystical emphasis must be attached a social
+emphasis. Buddhism is often criticized as not being social. It is a
+highly socialized religion. It has had a large influence upon social
+life in the East. This social life is different from ours. We see its
+wrongs and weaknesses. Likewise do the Buddhists see the materialism and
+injustice of our social life. Christianity must relate itself to the
+modern world as it is rising in China and seek not merely to remedy a
+few wrongs or heal a few diseases, but must release the healing stream
+into the social life of the East. This will be done and is being done
+through the Church community which has become conscious of itself,
+realizing its needs and wants, seeking in an intelligent and systematic
+way to rehabilitate itself. It is not so much the external unrelated
+efforts that accomplish the thing needed, but it is rather the community
+life stirred by ideals and fired by a new dynamic which begins the work
+of reformation.
+
+_6. Emphasis on the Person of Jesus Christ_
+
+_(a) As a Historical Character._--The great asset of the missionary
+among Buddhists is the historical person of Christ. In contrast to many
+of the Bodhisattvas, the saviours of the Buddhists, Jesus is a
+historical character. His life among men was the life of God among men.
+
+_(b) As the Revealer._--God is like Christ. Christ reveals God as
+the complete, the perfect person. He possessed the pure spiritual
+personality. The chief characteristic of this personality is love. This
+love conscious of itself finds its highest joy in the well-being of
+others. This love of God produced human life which, springing from the
+lowest form, broke through the material elements and is capable of
+attaining the highest development.
+
+Christ reveals to man his heavenly relationship. Man created in the
+likeness of God stands in the highest relation of one person to another
+through love. He likens this relation to that of father and son. He
+lifts man to the fellowship with the divine. Yet such a fellowship that
+man preserves his personality.
+
+Christ reveals man in his relation to men as a brother and the form of
+love which shall control the relation of man to God as well as man to
+man.
+
+Christ revealed and founded the Kingdom, a society of the saved,
+dominated by the spirit of the founder and making this spirit of love
+and service the organizing power in the world.
+
+_(c) As the Saviour._--Mahayâna Buddhism emphasized saviourhood.
+Christ is the saviour of men. In Buddhism the stress is placed upon the
+merit of the saviour and the saved. There is no question that merit has
+some value. Yet Christ does not save us by merit, nor do we help to save
+one another by merit. Salvation is a moral and spiritual process. It is
+concerned with the biology of the soul. The salvation that we preach is
+not the salvation by knowledge, or meditation, or merit, but by the
+interpenetration of Christ's spirit in ours, by the mystic and moral
+union of our life with his. As Paul says: "That I may know Him and the
+power of His resurrection and the fellowship of His suffering." Yet He
+is not the saviour of the individual alone. He saves the community, the
+church. Only as His spirit permeates and dominates the community does he
+find his true self and the real salvation.
+
+_(d) As the Eternal Son, of God._--The Mahayâna system does not
+emphasize the historicity of Amitabha or of the Bodhisattvas. Spiritual
+truth is the development of the soul. It is not limited by time and
+place. Likewise Christianity must emphasize the eternal character of
+Jesus Christ. "The Logos existed in the very beginning, the Logos was
+with God, the Logos was God." To the Mahâyânist this spiritual history
+is more real than any fact conditioned by time and place.
+
+The Christian worker must learn to understand the import of the Gospel
+of John. He must see in Jesus Christ "The real Light, which enlightens
+every man." He must be able to convince himself that the Christ is the
+fulfillment of the highest aspirations of the Mahâyâna system.
+
+_7. How Christianity Expresses Itself in Buddhist Minds_
+
+In 1920 a number of Buddhist monks, under the leadership of Rev. K. L.
+Reichelt formed a Christian brotherhood. The members of this small
+brotherhood decided that they must subscribe to vows and they took the
+four following:
+
+"I promise before the Almighty and Omniscient God, that I with my whole
+heart will surrender myself to the true Trinity, God the Father, the Son
+and the Holy Spirit. I will with my whole heart have faith in Jesus
+Christ as the Saviour of the world who gives completion to the
+profoundest and best objects of the higher Buddhism. I will live in this
+faith now and ever after.
+
+"I promise solemnly before God with my whole heart to devote myself to
+the study of the true doctrine and break wholly with the evil manners of
+the world and show forth in my public and private life that I am truly
+united with Christ.
+
+"I promise that I in every respect will try so to educate myself that I
+can be of use in the work of God on earth. I will with undivided heart
+devote myself to the great work; to lead my brethren in the Buddhist
+Association forward to the understanding of Christ as the only One, who
+gives completion to the highest and profoundest ideas of Higher
+Buddhism.
+
+"I promise that until my last hour I will work so that out of our
+Christian Brotherhood there may grow forth a strong church of Christ
+among Buddhists. I will not permit any evil thing to grow in my heart,
+which could divide the brotherhood, but will always try to promote the
+progress of every member in the knowledge of the holy obligations laid
+down in these vows and our constitution."
+
+Such men ought, to make choice Christians.
+
+_8. Christianity's Constructive Values_
+
+Buddhism in the course of its long history developed certain religious
+ideas and values which we find in Christianity. It faced the fact of sin
+and placed it in the heart. It diagnosed the fundamental instincts of
+men, sex-appetite, will-to-achieve, and pugnacity. These must be
+overcome. It regards them as delusions which must be eliminated.
+Christianity also deals with these instincts. It is under no delusion as
+to their strength. There are certain tendencies in Christianity which
+have tried to annihilate them. The central tendency of Christianity,
+however, recognizing their power for good, seeks to sublimate them and
+make them serve the individual and society. This attitude of the two
+religions toward these instincts is fundamentally different. The
+attitude of Christianity has been justified even in Buddhist lands where
+the religious life of the people has followed the same line that
+Christianity advocates.
+
+Early Buddhism tried to dissolve man's personality. Later Buddhism
+corrected this and perhaps has appealed too much to the desire on the
+part of the individual to enter a heaven which is merely a replica of
+the earth. Christianity starts with a personal God and holds up before
+the believer the goal of perfection for his own personality. It finds
+man without a self and confers a real selfhood upon him.
+
+Early Buddhism taught that salvation is accomplished by the individual
+alone. It denies the possibility and the necessity of help from a divine
+source. Subsequent history has proved this to have been wrong. In India,
+Buddhism has been displaced by Hinduism, and in China, and Japan, the
+Mahâyâna has developed the idea of salvation through another. The great
+stream of Buddhism has recognized that man by himself is helpless. He
+must have the help of a divine power in order to obtain salvation.
+Christianity asserts that salvation is possible only through the
+intervention of God. The incarnation, the life, death and resurrection
+of Jesus and his work in the world through the Holy Spirit on the one
+hand are the expression of God's solicitude for man, and, on the other
+hand, correspond to the deep need which men of all ages have felt, for a
+power above themselves. From the early stages of magic to the highest
+reaches of religion we find this constant factor recognized by human
+groups all over the world. They bear witness to a power above themselves
+to whom they continually appeal. In Christianity we find this main
+tendency enunciated most clearly. The individual cannot save himself.
+Mankind cannot save itself. Both must rely upon the assistance of the
+divine power which started this universe on its way and which is the
+ever present creative force.
+
+Christianity, moreover, has established the community of believers
+including all classes and conditions of men. Herein each one may realize
+him&if. Herein also he may realize the kind of community which is
+friendly to his highest aspirations for himself. Herein he has the
+opportunity to transmute the instincts above mentioned into forces which
+make for the larger development of his own person and the well-being of
+the community.
+
+Accordingly, as Christians face Buddhists, they can do so with the
+consciousness that this great religion has been reaching out after the
+light which shines brightly in our Christian religion. They have the
+assurance not only that they have a message which brings fulfilment to
+the ideas of the Mahâyâna, but also that it has prepared the way for the
+hearts of the Chinese to receive the highest message of Christianity.
+
+
+
+
+APPENDIX I
+
+
+HINTS FOR THE PRELIMINARY STUDY OF BUDDHISM IN CHINA
+
+The student should read and inwardly digest the booklet of K. J.
+Saunders
+
+He should follow the directions given in Appendix One of that book, This
+procedure is important because the Hînayâna Buddhism and the life of
+Buddha are the background of Buddhism in China.
+
+Then he may take Hackmann's _Buddhism as a Religion_
+(No. 15). This will give a general orientation. This may be followed
+with R. F. Johnston's _Buddhist China_ (No.
+_20_). Along with this he may read Suzuki's
+_Awakening of Faith_ (No. 32), and also his
+_Outlines of Mahâyanâ Buddhism (No._ 33). McGovern's
+_Introduction to Mahâyanâ Buddhism_ (No._ 23) will
+illuminate the philosophical background of Buddhism, and Eliot's
+_Hinduism and Buddhism_ (No. 13) will add historical
+perspective.
+
+The translation of _Mahdydna Sutras_ by Beal and in the
+Sacred Books of the East will give him some of the sources for the
+doctrines held in China. He may begin as the Buddhist missionaries did
+with the sutra of the Forty-two sections and then take up the Diamond
+Sutra, and then completing the sutras in Vol. 59 and the Catena of
+Buddhist Scriptures.
+
+For the study of the ethical side he will find De Groot's _Le Code
+du Mahâyâna en Chine_ very helpful. For the study of the sects
+Eliot, Vol. III, pp. 303-320 Northern Buddhism_ (No. 14) will
+be helpful.
+
+In all his study he will find Eitel's _Handbook of Chinese
+Buddhism_ (No. 12) indispensable. He must, however, make a
+Chinese index in order to be able to use the book.
+
+Contact with monks will be helpful and is quite necessary in order to
+appreciate the human problems of the work.
+
+
+
+
+APPENDIX II
+
+
+A BRIEF BIBLIOGRAPHY
+
+1. BEAL, S. _Abstract of Four Lectures_ upon _Buddhist
+Literature_ in _China._ London, Triibner, 1882.
+
+Lecture II, on "Method of Buddha's Teaching in the Vinaya Pitaka," and
+Lecture IV, on "Coincidences Between Buddhism and Other Religions,"
+especially desirable.
+
+
+2. ---- _Buddhism in China,_ London, S. P. C. K, 1884.
+
+The best comprehensive account of Chinese Buddhism, written by an
+authority.
+
+
+3. ---- _Catena of Buddhist Scriptures,_ from the Chinese. London,
+Triibner, 1871.
+
+A good introduction to Chinese Buddhism from the sources.
+
+4. ---- _The Romantic Legend of Sâkya Buddha._ London,
+Triibner, 1875.
+
+Recounts Buddha's history from the beginning to the
+conversion of the Kâsyapas and others.
+
+
+5. ---- _Texts from the Buddhist Canon Commonly Known_ as _D_
+hammapada. London, Triibner, 1878. Pocket edition, 1902.
+
+These "Scriptural Texts," translated from the Chinese and abridged, are
+usually connected with some event in Buddha's history. This translation
+has Indian anecdotes, illustrating the verses.
+
+
+6. COULING, S., editor. _The Encyclopaedia Sinica._ Shanghai, Kelly
+& Walsh, 1917.
+
+Contains, on pages 67-75, a number of brief articles upon Buddhism in
+China.
+
+
+7. DE QROOT, J. J. M. _Religion of the Chinese._ New York,
+Macmillan, 1900.
+
+Pages 164-223 contain a summary of the main facts about Chinese Buddhism
+by an authority.
+
+
+8. ---- _Sectarianism and Religious Persecution in China._ 2 vols.
+J. Müller, Amsterdam, 1903-1904.
+
+Treats from sources Confucianism's persecution of Buddhism and other
+sects. See Vol. II. Index, under Buddhism, p. 572.
+
+
+9. DORE, HENEI. _Researches into Chinese Superstitions._ 6 vols.
+Tusewei Press, 1914-1920.
+
+A well illustrated miscellany of superstitions of all Chinese religions
+showing indistinctly their interpenetration by Buddhism.
+For Buddhism proper, see Vol. VI, pp. 89-233.
+
+
+10. EDKINS, J. _Chinese Buddhism._ 2d edition. London, Trübner,
+1893.
+
+A very full account of Buddhism as seen by a Sinologue of the last
+generation.
+
+
+11. EITEL, E. J. _Buddhism: Its Historical, Theoretical and Popular
+Aspects._ Hongkong, Lane, Crawford and Co., 1884.
+
+Written by an observant scholar and descriptive of Buddhism of South
+China especially.
+
+
+12. ---- _Handbook of Chinese Buddhism._ Presbyterian Mission Press,
+Shanghai.
+
+This is a Sanskrit-Chinese dictionary, a reprint of the second edition
+of 1888 without the Chinese index necessary for identifying Chinese
+Buddhist terms.
+
+
+13. ELIOT, SIR CHARLES. _Hinduism and Buddhism, An Historical
+Sketch._ 3 vols. Edward Arnold and Co., 1921.
+
+This is a valuable contribution to our knowledge of Buddhism by an
+experienced student. The parts especially related to Chinese Buddhism
+are Vol. II, pp. 3-106; Vol. Ill, 223-335.
+
+
+14. JETTY, A. _Gods of Northern Buddhism._ Oxford, Clarendon Press,
+1914.
+
+This work is helpful in identifying images in the temples, though
+unfortunately few of those given are Chinese.
+
+
+15. HACKMANN, H. _Buddhism as a Religion._ London, Probsthain,
+1910.
+
+Gives a general view of Buddhism from first-hand investigation. For
+Chinese Buddhism see pp. 200-257.
+
+
+16. HASTINGS, JAMES. _The Encyclopedia of Religion and Ethics._ New
+York, Scribners, 1908.
+
+Articles Asvaghosa, Bodhisattva, China (Buddhism in), Mahâyâna Missions
+(Buddhist).
+
+
+17. HUME, R. E. _The Living Religions of the World._ New York,
+Scribners, 1924.
+
+A clear comparative study of these religions in the light of Christian
+standards.
+
+
+18. INGLIS, J. W. "Christian Element in Chinese Buddhism."
+_International Review of Missions,_ Vol. V, 1916, pp. 587-602. An
+excellent article by a veteran missionary and scholar of Manchuria.
+
+
+19. JOHNSON, S. _Oriental Religions ... China._ Boston, Houghton,
+Osgood Co., 1878.
+
+Pages 800-833 give a comprehensive summary by a student of comparative
+religion.
+
+
+20. JOHNSTON, R. F. _Buddhist_ China. New York, Dutton, 1913.
+
+A well-written, interesting book. The author knows his subject, and is
+held in high esteem by Buddhists in China.
+
+
+21. KEITH, A. BERRIEDALE. _Buddhist Philosophy in India and
+Ceylon._ Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1923.
+
+A study of the historic development of the Buddhistic philosophy in
+India and Ceylon which throws much light on the Mahâyâna.
+
+
+22. LODGE, J. E. _Chinese Buddhist Art._ Asia, Vol. XIX, June,
+1919.
+
+Some of the choicest half-tones illustrating its character accompanied
+by interesting descriptions.
+
+
+23. McGOVERN, W. M. _An Introduction of Mahâyâna Buddhism._ Dutton,
+1922.
+
+Though written from the point of view of Japanese Buddhism it gives a
+good treatment of metaphysical and psychological aspects of the Mahâyâna
+system.
+
+
+24. MÜLLER, F. MAX. _Sacred Books of the East._ Vol. XLIX,
+Buddhist, Mahâyâna Texts. Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1894.
+
+A book of sources necessary for understanding Northern Buddhism.
+
+
+25. PARKER, E. H. _China and Religion._ New York, Dutton, 1905.
+
+A sketch of Buddhism by a scholar long resident in China is found in
+Chapter IV.
+
+
+26. PAUL, C. T. _The Presentation of Christianity to Buddhists._
+New York, Board of Missionary Preparation, 1924.
+
+A carefully prepared study of Buddhism from the viewpoint of
+missionaries working in Buddhist lands.
+
+
+27. REICHELT, K. L. "Special Work Among Chinese Buddhists." _Chinese
+Recorder,_ Vol. LI, 1920, July issue, pp. 491-497.
+
+An article by a pioneer in work among Buddhists, of rare insight and
+sympathy.
+
+
+28. RICHARD, T. _The Awakening of Faith in the Mahâyâna Doctrine._
+2d edition. Shanghai, 1918.
+
+A loose translation by a very large-hearted and sympathetic student with
+an irenic spirit. See 32 below.
+
+
+29. RICHARD, T. _Guide to Buddhahood; Being a Standard Manual of
+Chinese Buddhism._ Shanghai., 1907.
+
+
+30. SAUNDERS, K. J. _Epochs of Buddhist History_ (Haskell
+Lectures), Chicago University Press, 1922.
+
+A good summary of the main developments in Buddhism.
+
+
+31. STAUFFER, M. T. _The Christian Occupation of China._ Shanghai
+Continuation Committee, 1922.
+
+The introductory section contains articles upon China's religions.
+
+
+32. SUZUKI, T. A'svaghosa's _Awakening of Faith in the Mahâyâna._
+Chicago, Open Court Publishing Co., 1900.
+
+A far more accurate translation of this work than No. 28 above.
+
+
+33. ---- Outlines of _Mahâyâna Buddhism._ Chicago, Open Court
+Publishing Co., 1908.
+
+While written from the Japanese point of view it is necessary to the
+understanding of Chinese Buddhism.
+
+
+34. WATTERS, T. "Buddhism in China." _Chinese Recorder,_ Vol. II,
+1870, pp. 1-7, 38-43, 64-68, 81-88, 117-122, 145-150, Shanghai.
+
+A valuable series of articles by an excellent Chinese scholar,
+discussing the history, persecutions, and various Buddhas of China.
+
+
+35. WEI, F. C. M. "Salvation by Faith as Taught by the Pure Land Sect."
+_Chinese Recorder,_ Vol. LI, 1920, pp. 395- 401, 485-491.
+
+A good article on the sect whose ideas have spread over China and Japan.
+
+
+36. WIEGER, L. _Bouddhisme Chinois,_ 2 vols. Ho-Kien-Fou, Roman
+Catholic Press, 1910-1913.
+
+This contains the Chinese text and French translation of the life of
+Buddha as known to China; also the ritual observed in ordination. A
+useful source book.
+
+
+
+
+
+End of Project Gutenberg's Buddhism and Buddhists in China, by Lewis Hodus
+
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