path: root/79274-0.txt

*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 79274 ***


  Transcriber’s Notes

  Texts printed in italics, bold face and small capitals have been
  transcribed between _underscores_, =equal signs= and as ALL CAPITALS
  respectively.

  More Transcriber’s Notes may be found at the end of this text.


[Illustration: COFFEE TREE AND BERRIES.]




  COFFEE
  --ITS--
  HISTORY,
  CLASSIFICATION AND DESCRIPTION

  --BY--

  JOSEPH M. WALSH,

  AUTHOR OF
  “TEA: ITS HISTORY AND MYSTERY.”

  THE JOHN C. WINSTON CO.,
  PHILADELPHIA,
  CHICAGO, TORONTO.




  COPYRIGHTED, 1894,
  BY
  JOSEPH M. WALSH.

  _All Rights Reserved._




CHAPTER I.

EARLY HISTORY.


The gigantic extent to which the production and consumption of Coffee
has been carried of late years, the vast number of hands employed
in its cultivation and preparation for market, including the great
quantity of shipping necessary for its transportation, and the enormous
amount of capital invested in its production and trade, naturally
invest the commodity, not only from a commercial but also from a moral
and social standpoint, with great importance, creating as it does
an industry of almost fabulous proportions and capital, rendering
it second to no other article of food or drink in the world. The
early history of Coffee, however, like that of Tea, is involved in
considerable obscurity, the almost total absence of any historical
fact being only compensated for by an unusual profusion of legendary
and conjectural statements, or by purely mythical stories. As far
as can be ascertained, it was not known to the ancients, although
one writer claims that it is mentioned in the Bible, making the bold
assertion that the potion offered to King David on a certain occasion,
at the hands of the fair Abigail, to calm the temper of the excited
monarch, must have been Coffee, basing his argument on the untenable
grounds that the beverage, whatever it may have been, was prepared from
_something roasted_. Yet no mention of the plant or its product is to
be found among the Egyptians in the time of the Pharaohs, although
their trade at their period, as in the present, lay up the valley of
the Nile toward Berber, its reputed birthplace. It was unknown to the
Greeks and Romans in any form, and though claimed to have been in use
among the Arabs at a very remote time, no reference is made to it by
Mohamet or his followers up to the seventh century. No account of its
use is to be found during the first Moslem invasion of southern Europe
by Abdulrahman in the ninth century, although large quantities of the
commodity were captured in their camp before Vienna during their second
invasion of eastern Europe in the seventeenth century, and it is not
even alluded to by any of the writers who accompanied the Crusaders
into Syria during the thirteenth century.

To the Ethiopians its use is said to have been known from time
immemorial, and that the plant and its virtues were first discovered
in that country is now generally admitted by all authorities on
the subject. The first human beings who appear to have used the
Coffee-berry in any form being the semi-savage tribes inhabiting higher
Ethiopia, to which country the Coffee-plant is indigenous, and where it
is to be found at the present time, growing abundantly both in a wild
and cultivated state. Bruce, in his Travels to Discover the Source of
the Nile, published in 1678, informs us that “The Gallæ is a wandering
nation of Africa, who, in their incursions into Abyssinia, are obliged
to traverse immense deserts, and being desirous of falling on the towns
and villages of that country without warning, carry nothing to eat with
them but the berries of the Coffee tree _roasted_ and _pulverized_,
which they mix with grease to a certain consistency that will permit of
its being rolled into masses about the size of billiard balls and then
put in leathern bags until required for use. One of these balls they
claim will support them for a whole day, when on a marauding incursion
or in active war, better than a loaf of bread or a meal of meat,
because it cheers their spirits as well as feeds them.”

From Ethiopia, the Coffee-plant is claimed to have been introduced
into Abyssinia as early as A. D. 875, while, according to Lagrenie,
Coffee has been known and used in Abyssinia, from the very earliest
times, quoting the Abbé Raynal, a missionary to that country in the
latter part of the sixteenth century, to that effect, stating that “he
procured some of the berries from cultivated plants, and made a trial
of them, finding them larger, rather longer and quite as fragrant as
those obtained from Arabia.” From Abyssinia it was evidently first
introduced into Arabia, but at what period of the world’s history,
or under what circumstances is also lost in doubt. Tradition--never
at a loss for some marvelous story--ascribes its first discovery in
the latter country to a Dervish, who in the year 1275 was driven
out of Moka, pursued and surrounded by his enemies in the adjacent
mountains. In the extremity of hunger he is said to have gathered some
Coffee-berries and eaten them, then, steeping some of the parched
berries in some water to allay his thirst, he accidentally discovered
their agreeable flavor and nutritious properties. While another Arabian
legend attributes its first discovery as an alimentary infusion in
that country to a Mollah named Chadeley, who on being informed by a
goat-herd of the peculiar and exciting effect produced on his goats,
whenever they happened to browse on the leaves and fruit of a certain
kind of tree, resolved to test their virtues on his monks, with whom
it is related he had considerable difficulty in keeping awake during
their nocturnal devotions. Preparing an infusion from the berries of
the plant indicated, he served it to them, the experiment proving a
complete success; the dervishes taking eagerly thereafter to the new
and exciting beverage. While, according to an Arabian manuscript,
now to be found in the Bibliotheque Nationale of Paris, the use of
Coffee was known in Arabia as early as the thirteenth century. This
coffee-colored document states that “a certain Mufti of Aden, on his
return from a journey to Persia, about the middle of the fifteenth
century, brought back with him some _roasted_ beans of Coffee.” While
in an old treatise upon Coffee, published in 1566 by an Arabian sheikh,
it is stated that the first knowledge of Coffee and its use was brought
from Abyssinia to Arabia about the beginning of the fifteenth century
by a learned and pious mollah named Djmaleddin Abou Elfager. According
to this document, the use of Coffee as a beverage was prevalent among
the Abyssinians from the most remote times, and that in Arabia, when
first introduced, it only supplanted a preparation made from the leaves
of the Celastrus in that country. The introduction and use of the
beverage by the Mufti gave reputation to the practice, his example soon
rendering the new luxury popular among his countrymen, “first among
lawyers and professional men, then with students and those who learned
reading, the custom eventually spreading to artisans and others who
worked in the night, and finally by travelers, who journeyed in the
night to avoid the heat of the day.” In a short time it was declared
in Aden “that this liquor purified the blood, by a gentle agitation,
dissipated the ill condition of the stomach and aroused the spirits.”
As a result of this high extolation it was quickly adopted by those
who had no occasion to keep awake at night, and in a brief space of
time, says M. Galland, “the whole inhabitants of Aden became inveterate
coffee-drinkers.” Its peculiar property of dissipating drowsiness
and preventing sleep was taken advantage of in connection with the
prolonged religious services of the Mahometans, and its use as a
devotional anti-soporific stirred up a fierce opposition on the part
of the strictly orthodox and conservative section of the priesthood.
Coffee being held by them to be an intoxicant beverage, and therefore
prohibited by the Koran, and the dreadful penalties of an outraged
sacred law were held over the heads of all who became addicted to its
use in any form. But notwithstanding the threats of divine retribution,
and though all manner of devices were adopted in order to check its
growth, the coffee-drinking habit spread rapidly among the Arabian
Mahometans, and the growth of coffee, as well as its use as a national
beverage, became as inseparably associated with Arabia as tea has with
China.

From Aden, the use of coffee extended to Mecca, Medina and other cities
and towns of Arabia, the knowledge and taste for it rapidly spreading
outwards from that country to Syria and Persia. Public coffee-houses
being everywhere established, also in many of the other countries in
western Asia, affording, according to one authority, “a lounge for the
idle and a relaxation for the man of business, where the politician
retailed the news of the state; the poet recited his verses, and the
Mollahs delivered their sermons to the frequenters.” But the mania for
coffee becoming so great about this period, particularly in Syria, that
an effort was made by authority of the government to check, if not to
entirely suppress, the further growth of its consumption among the
inhabitants, on the alleged ground of “its intoxicating properties,”
but in reality because of its use leading to social and festive
gatherings, incompatible with the strictness and teaching of the
Mahometan religion. From Syria the use of the “benign potation,” as it
was then termed, reached Cairo about 1510, being received with equal
avidity in that city, so much so that in that year its indiscriminate
use was prohibited on religious grounds, also by Khaine Beg, the
then governor of the city. In his proclamation forbidding the use of
coffee, it was assailed by him as “having an inebriating effect, and
of producing inclinations condemned by the Koran.” This edict was,
however, rescinded by his successor, Causin, soon after his assuming
the governorship. But another effort was made to suppress its use in
1523 by the chief priest, Abdallah Ibrahim, who denounced its use in a
sermon delivered in the mosque of Haffanaine, a violent commotion being
produced among the populace, the opposing factions coming to blows over
its use. The governor, Sheikh Obelek, a man wise in his generation and
time, then assembled the mollahs, doctors and others of the opponents
of coffee-drinking at his residence, and after listening patiently to
their tedious harangues against its use, treated them all to a cup of
coffee each, first setting the example by drinking one himself. Then
dismissing them, courteously withdrew from their presence without
uttering a single word. By this prudent conduct the public peace was
soon restored, and coffee was ever afterward allowed to be used in
Cairo.

Coffee continued its progress without further molestation through
Egypt, the beverage being received in Damascus in 1530, and in
Aleppo a few years later, without opposition, becoming known to the
inhabitants of Constantinople for the first time in 1554, in which
year two persons, named Schems and Heken, the former coming from
Damascus, and the latter from Aleppo, opened the first coffee-houses in
that city, where it soon became the favorite drink with all classes,
“the coffee-houses being thronged night and day, the poorer classes
actually begging money in the streets for the sole object of purchasing
coffee.” And in Constantinople, at this time, we are informed that “a
refusal to supply a wife with a specified quantity of coffee per diem
was admitted to be a valid cause for divorce.” But in Constantinople,
as in Cairo, the new habit excited considerable commotion among
the ecclesiastical authorities and political rulers, owing to the
popularity of the coffee-houses having a depressing influence on the
attendance at the mosques, on which account a fierce hostility was
excited among the religious orders against the new beverage. They laid
their grievances before the Sultan, who first prohibited and then
laid a heavy tax upon the coffee-houses, notwithstanding which they
continued to flourish and extend. A similar persecution to that in
Syria and Cairo soon attended its use in the Turkish capital, having
not only to contend there with religious but also with political
opposition, the religious, as usual, predominating in its severity.
The dervishes had the _sagacity_ to discover “that coffee when roasted
became a kind of coal, and coal being one of the substances which their
prophet had declared was not intended by Allah for human food,” they
therefore declaimed against it with unbounded fury. The mufti being of
their party, the coffee-houses were at once closed by a firman of the
Sultan, Amuret III. This prohibition was, however, found impossible
to maintain, as a few years later a more liberal governor succeeding,
he assured the faithful “that _roasted Coffee_ was not _coal_, and
had no relation to it.” The coffee-houses were immediately reopened,
and soon became as much patronized as before. But though religious
superstition thus readily gave way to the seductive influences of
sensitive enjoyment, a submission not at all uncommon, the political
objections were not so easily silenced. The government, first with that
instinctive faculty so natural to all despotic rulers of converting to
their own advantage the tastes and prejudices of their subjects, laid a
heavy tax on the sale and consumption of coffee, from which it derived
an enormous revenue. But the ever-trembling apprehensions of such forms
of government, not satisfied with this restriction, found, or rather
fancied it found, in the coffee-houses resorts for the disaffected
and nurseries of sedition. These “dangerous places” were consequently
regarded with a jealous eye, and again proclaimed against by the edict
of the Sultan. But not being deemed formidable beyond the precincts of
the city, and also being of too much importance to the public revenue,
they were suffered to remain open in all other parts of the empire.
Scruples of conscience and political objections, however, eventually
died out, religious superstition and political opposition being no
longer excited against the use of coffee as a beverage, so far as the
Turkish empire was concerned.


INTRODUCTION INTO EUROPE.

It is likewise very difficult to determine in what year and in what
exact manner coffee was first carried from Constantinople to western
Europe, but it is generally admitted that the Venetians, on account of
the proximity of their dominions and extensive trade with the Levant,
were the first Europeans to become acquainted with it. And it is a
noteworthy fact that the three principal dietical beverages of the
world were introduced into Europe within a few years of each other,
Cocoa being the first of the three which actually appeared there,
having been brought to Spain from South America. Coffee followed,
coming from Arabia, and Tea, the latest of the series, coming from
China by the hands of the Portuguese.

The first authentic mention made of Coffee or its use by a European
is probably that of Rauwolf, a German physician and traveler, upon
his return from an extended tour through Syria, in 1573. The first
scientific account of the plant being that given by Alpinus, an
Italian naturalist, in his _Medicina Egyptorium_, published in Venice
in 1591. Its use as a beverage is first referred to by two English
travelers--Biddulph and Finch--the former, in writing of it in 1603,
stating “that the Turks have for their most common drink Coffee--a
blackish drink made from a kind of pulse-like pease, and called by
them _Coava_.” In 1607 Finch relates that “the people of the island
Socotra have for their best entertainment a China dish called _Cobo_, a
black, bitterish drink, made of a berry very like a bay-berry, brought
from Moka, and supped off hot.” While Pietro Valla, a Venetian, in
a letter written from Constantinople, in 1615, states that upon his
return to Venice “he would bring back with him some coffee which he
believed was a thing heretofore unknown in his country,” and which he
subsequently did. It is also referred to, in 1621, by Burton in his
“Anatomy of Melancholy” as follows: “The Turks have a drink called
Coffee, so named from a berry, black as soot and as bitter, which they
sip up hot, because they find by experience that that kind of drink, so
used, helpeth digestion and promoteth alacrity.” And coffee in a liquid
state is said to have been sold in Rome as early as 1625. Some of the
prepared beans of Coffee were first carried from Turkey to France by
De la Haye, as early as 1644; “not only coffee, but also the proper
apparatus for preparing it.” In 1657 a small quantity was brought to
Paris by Thevenot, its use, however, being confined solely to his own
immediate family and a few friends. Up to this period, however, and
for many years after, it had never been seen and scarcely ever heard
of by the public at large in that country. But in 1660 “several bales
of coffee” were shipped from Alexandria to Marseillaise, and in 1671
the first coffee-house was opened in the latter city near the Exchange,
“where the merchants met to smoke, talk business and divert themselves
with play.” But it was not until the year 1669 that Coffee drinking
became popular in France, though infrequent travelers had brought with
them from the East a few pounds of the then curious berry. In that year
Solieman Aga was sent as Ambassador from Mahomet IV. to the court of
Louis XIV., where he soon became a “lion,” through the splendid and
unique entertainments at which he figured as host. On bended knees, the
black slaves of the Ambassador, arrayed in the most gorgeous Oriental
costumes, presented the choicest Moka, in tiny cups of egg-shell
porcelain, hot, strong and fragrant, poured out on saucers of gold and
silver, placed on embroidered silk napkins fringed with gold bullion,
to the grand dames who fluttered their fans with many grimaces, and
bent their piquant faces--berouged, bepowdered and bepatched--over
the new and steaming beverage. Such was the half-barbaric occasion by
which Coffee first became generally known to that nation, which is now
so largely dependent upon the “brown berry of Arabia.” The Parisians
immediately became quite enthusiastic over it, the aristocracy adopting
it as the fashionable beverage, it being recorded that the daughters
of Louis XIV. had Coffee imported expressly for the use of the royal
household, at a cost of $15,000 yearly.

The first Coffee-house was opened in Paris, in 1672, by an Armenian,
at the fair of St. Germaine. Meeting with considerable success, he
was encouraged to open another at the Quai d’Ecole, where he was
subsequently succeeded by another, but who, owing to a lack of address
and a proper place to serve it in, was soon compelled to relinquish
the business. About 1675 an enterprising Frenchman, Ettienne d’Alep,
fitted up spacious apartments in the Rue des Italienes, with Oriental
magnificence for the purpose of catering to the public taste for
coffee. This Café--as it was called--was the first of these now famous
institutions, was furnished in the most elegant and expensive manner,
ornamented with rich tapestries, mirrors, pictures, divans and costly
lustres, tea and chocolate being also sold in it. This style of
coffee-house multiplied in a very short time in the gay city, and were
regularly frequented by people of fashion, artists, men of letters
and politicians, the Café Procope in particular becoming immortalized
from its being patronized by Voltaire, Molière, Bolieau, Fontaine and
other Encyclopedists, while another, the Café de la Régence, became
the Mecca of chess players. In a brief period these coffee-houses had
increased to nearly three hundred in Paris alone, the Cafés eventually
becoming dangerous rivals to the Cabarets; finally becoming the cradle
of the modern clubs, it being in one of these coffee-houses--the Café
Procope--that Camille Desmoulins was wont to deliver his stirring
addresses. But, as in the East, at first, coffee here again met with
considerable opposition, Madame Sévigné presuming “that coffee and
other poisons would soon go out of fashion.”

The use of coffee as a beverage is claimed to have been known in
England prior to its introduction into France, and by some authorities
even before the return of Thevenot from the East. One account states
that it was first offered for sale there by a Jew named Jacobs at
Oxford, as early as 1640. And according to the journal of Thomas Rugg,
dated September 22, 1651, coffee was then sold in a liquid state at the
“Sultaness Head, a Cophee house by the Royal Exchange, London,” there
being also distinct evidence extant that for some years prior to that
date it was also offered for sale in many other parts of that city.
The first authentic account, however, states that coffee was first
introduced into England by a Turkey merchant named Daniel Edwards, who,
on his return from a trip to Smyrna, brought back with him a quantity
of it, and with it a Greek servant from Ragusa, named Pasquale Rossie,
who understood the Eastern method of roasting and preparing it. Edwards
had it prepared and served every day to his friends and visitors in
true Oriental style, but finding that the novelty began to attract
too many visitors, his house being thronged daily by those anxious to
taste the new beverage, he established Rossie, in company with another
named Bowman, in a tent for its sale in St. Michael’s Alley, Cornhill,
London, over which Rossie erected a sign with his own portrait, and
subsequently announcing himself to be “the first person who made
and publicly sold Coffee drink in England.” Bowman, later, opened a
coffee-house on his own account on Lombard street, his former partner,
Rossie, going to Holland, where, it is said, he was the first to
introduce coffee in the drink. At this time coffee sold for from twenty
to twenty-five dollars per pound, but soon became cheaper.

In 1657 many other houses were opened in London for the sale of coffee,
an excise tax of eight pence per gallon being paid on it, when made
and sold in the infusion at that time. The same year a newspaper
advertisement appeared, stating that “In Bartholomew Lane on the back
of the old Exchange the drink called _Cophee_ is sold in the morning
and at three o’clock in the afternoon.” The first mention of coffee on
the statute books was in 1660, when a duty of four pence was laid on
every gallon of coffee made and sold, to be paid by the maker thereof,
another particular statute, in 1663, directing that “all coffee-houses
should be licensed at the general quarter sessions of the peace for the
county in which they are kept.” While another advertisement in that
year says of coffee: “It much quickens the spirits, and makes the heart
lightsome, suppresseth the fumes exceedingly, and, therefore, is good
against headache, prevents cough and consumption, and is excellent for
the cure of gout, dropsy, scurvey, hypochondria and the like.”

In London, as in the other cities where Coffee was first introduced,
coffee-houses multiplied rapidly, not only in the capital, but in
all the larger cities of England, there being in 1688, according
to Ray, as many coffee-houses in London alone as in grand Cairo
itself, Coffee becoming a beverage of general consumption throughout
the entire country. Long antedating newspapers, the coffee-houses
became news-centres, where the intelligent men of the times gathered
to learn what was occurring in the literary and political world,
to discuss public affairs, governmental measures, and form public
opinion. Wits and poets, essayists and philosophers, daily gathered
in the coffee-houses of London, during several generations, to quote
from favorite authors. How faithfully they harangued and button-holed
each other in that fashion so common to all ages, and within their
precincts, what fear and folly, what foolishness and wisdom, have been
uttered over steaming cups of Mocha.

Many of these London coffee-houses afterwards became famous as the
resorts of celebrated men. It was at “Will’s Coffee-house,” in Covent
Garden, that Dryden and Addison, Steel and Davenant, Cary and Pope,
met with other luminaries, while others frequented “Buttons”; Garrick
sipping his Mocha at “Paine’s,” in Buchnal Lane. It being at the famous
coffee-houses of “Garraway,” “Coventrie,” and the “St. James,” that
the Whigs of that time “did most congregate,” and if it be proved that
other potations more fiery and deep mingled with those of the Arabian
product, it may be taken for granted that Coffee often supplied the
place of worse beverages, or, at least, mitigated their evil effects,
the “intellectual drink” gaining friends daily among the wits of the
reign of Queen Anne. It was in a London coffee-house that Pope found
the inspiration of “The Rape of the Lock,” if not the “Essay on Man,”
also, an inspiration, which he celebrated in the following lines:--

    “From silver spirits the grateful liquors glide,
    While China’s earth receives the smoking tide;
    At once they gratify their sense and taste,
    And frequent cups prolong the rich repast;
    Coffee! which makes the politician wise,
    And see through all things with half-closed eyes.”

The coffee-houses of London, as in other cities, eventually became
convenient and much frequented resorts of association and acquaintance
where politics, literature and business topics were freely discussed,
and it is also remarkable that the introduction of coffee into England
encountered the same hostility that it was fated to meet with in all
other countries where it was first introduced. Here also it had its
fanatical opponents, numerous pamphlets being published in favor of and
against its use. It was discussed from every point of view, medical,
moral, physical and political, at one time threatening to become a
_causus belli_ between the sexes. The “Women’s petition against coffee”
and the “Men’s answer” to the same have become a matter of history.
Among the men also the new beverage had its opponents, as in 1657 the
“Rainbow Coffee-house” kept by James Farr in Queen’s Temple was reputed
and persecuted by them as “a great nuisance, and a prejudice to the
neighborhood,” and as such was suppressed, but reopened in a short
time afterwards. In 1675 Charles II. for political reasons attempted
to suppress the coffee-houses by a royal proclamation, classing all of
them as “Seminaries of sedition,” and in which it was stated that “they
were the resort of disaffected persons who devised and spread abroad
divers false, malicious and scandalous reports to the defamation of His
Majesty’s Government, the disturbance of the peace and quiet of the
nation.” This proclamation caused so much excitement throughout the
city that it had to be rescinded in a few days on a petition from the
tea and coffee dealers. On the opinion of legal officials being taken
as to the legality of that step, an oracular deliverance was given to
the effect “that the retailing of coffee might be an innocent trade,
but as it was used to nourish sedition, spread lies and scandalize
great men, it might also prove a common nuisance.” Cromwell ordered
them closed again during the Protectorate for somewhat similar reasons,
but having become necessary to the people they could not be put down
for any length of time. But in England also, as in the other countries,
the most effective check on the increase of the consumption of coffee
was found to be a heavy tax, which, while restricting honest trade,
opened up a channel for extensive smuggling operations.

The London coffee-houses, however, soon assumed the additional
character of Taverns also, other liquors being added to the fare,
thereby losing their attraction for the temperately inclined, the Café
or coffee-house proper flourishing only for any length of time in
Paris alone. But while the people of London began to complain that the
company to be found in their coffee-houses was somewhat mixed, those
of the Parisians from the very first continued to be the most elegant
and select places of resort even to the present day. Before their doors
the equipages of the nobility stopped, while ladies of the highest
rank drank their coffee without alighting, and the Salons within were
crowded with nobles, philosophers, poets, artists and litterateurs.

The sale of Coffee in a liquid form is claimed to have been first
introduced to Holland by the aforementioned Rossie in 1664, from whence
its use soon spread throughout Germany and other parts of the continent
of Europe. While to Vienna the Turks themselves first introduced
coffee in 1683, under somewhat singular circumstances. In that year
the Moslems besieged that city with an enormous force, the siege being
raised, as history tells, by the Polish King, John Sobieski, and the
Moslem hordes completely routed. Large quantities of coffee were
found in their deserted camp, and presented to one Kolschutski as a
reward for the heroic services he had rendered during the investment
of the city, and utilized by him in the establishment of the first
Coffee-house in Vienna.

Coffee-houses have been known in the United States from an early period
in its history, but for a long time New Orleans was the only city where
they existed in their true character, the manner being learned from
Paris. Among the American people, however, the beverage has met from
the first with great favor, being at the present time more extensively
used here than in any country of the world, not excepting the countries
of original production.

Thus in a course of a few centuries has a berry, until then entirely
unknown as an article of diet, except to the semi-savage tribes of
Ethiopia and Abyssinia, made its way through the whole civilized world.
In the nations professing the religion of Mahomet it is drunk at all
hours of the day, and during the night by all ranks and classes of the
people, from the Sultan and the Mufti to the merchant, the artisan and
the peasant. While among the nations professing Christianity, by whom
it has been known for a couple of centuries, it is still regarded as a
luxury, but indulged in, more or less, by all classes and conditions of
society. In none of the states of Christendom was its use ever opposed
by religious fanaticism, nor had it to encounter much opposition from
political jealousy, except for a brief period in England, when its use
was interdicted by Charles II. But, like every other innovation which
has occupied the human mind, it could not fail to occasion a difference
of opinion among medical experts, social reformers and similar bodies.
Its history, at the present time, being only valuable as an example
of a commodity for which there is a universal craving amongst mankind
in general, civilized as well as savage, and to illustrate how it has
struggled successfully, and at length triumphantly, over religious
superstition, political opposition, physiological prejudice, fiscal
restrictions, exorbitant taxes, differential duties and an endless
accumulation of antiquated obstructions. Yet, still, in common with
other important necessaries of life, it has never attained to the
natural state of “unrestricted competition.”




CHAPTER II.

GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION


The Coffee plant, although now so widely and extensively grown and
cultivated in both hemispheres, and to be found in all the Botanic
gardens as well as in many of the private conservatories of the new and
old worlds, was entirely unknown outside of Abyssinia and Arabia up to
the close of the seventeenth century. Ray, in his “History of Plants,”
published in 1688, expresses his surprise “that the neighboring
countries of Europe should permit so rare a treasure to be confined
to a single province, and wonders what watchful dragon is employed by
the natives to prevent strangers from procuring either the plant or
its seed, which could be readily grown in similar climates and soil;”
adding, “It cannot be imagined how the enterprising commercial nations
of Europe, which founded colonies in the tropics can be so inattentive
to the value and importance of such an acquisition.” Whether acting on
this suggestion or not, the plant soon afterwards was introduced and
extensively cultivated in many of the countries colonized by Europeans.

Between well-recognized limits north and south of the equator Coffee is
found growing and bearing highly profitable crops in a wide range of
countries to attempt anything like an exhaustive account of which, is
impossible within the range of a single chapter. Originally a native
of Southeastern Africa the coffee plant has been widely distributed,
successfully cultivated and propagated in regions and countries
geographically apart and in districts widely differing in climatic and
topographic conditions, and as having been found to endure greater
extremes of climate, variations in soil and situation than any other
variety of plant of tropical origin. Its facility of propagation and
production under such extreme conditions is admitted by botanists as
most remarkable and equalled only by few members of the vegetable
kingdom, its cultivation at the present time extending over the entire
tropical belt of the globe.

It is practically indigenous to almost the whole of Africa, being one
of the few useful economic products that the African flora has as yet
given to the world. It is to be found growing there abundantly in
a wild state, particularly between the 5th and 15th parallels, and
in a state of cultivation on the west coast in Liberia, Loango and
northern Angola, as well as in many of the districts lying between the
lower Congo and the latter country, wherein no white man has as yet
penetrated, its planting and gathering being carried on by the natives,
who bring their harvests down to the coast at Ambrig and neighboring
settlements to sell to the white traders. The Portuguese colonists
of Principe and Sao Thorné, cultivate coffee extensively, their
products standing in high repute. It has been grown with success in
the Gaboon by French missionaries, and some desultory planting is also
being carried on in Senegal, St. Helena, Sierra Leone and the Gambia
colonies. It grows wild in the Congo region, the districts around
Glandypool being eminently adapted to its cultivation, but is as yet
not taken advantage of there, the natives of these countries, unlike
those further south, ignoring the properties of its fruit.

It is cultivated in Natal and on the Zambesi river as well as in
Usumbara, opposite to Zanzibar, which presents a splendid field for
Coffee planting, containing as it does admirable soil, cheap labor,
easy transport and land which is to be had for next to nothing, the
missionaries distributing the Coffee seed among the inhabitants to
induce them to cultivate it more extensively. While further into the
interior, towards Pare, Nyanza and Killimanjaro, there are increasingly
fine sites and suitable soil for successful and profitable Coffee
planting only owned as yet by the birds of the air and the beasts of
the field. It is to be found both in a wild state as well as in a
state of cultivation in Abyssinia and the Nyassa district, being also
cultivated for commercial purposes further north in lower Egypt, Nubia,
Somali and the Soudan, as well as in Mozambique, and the islands of
Madagascar, Bourbon and Mauritius. But the total yield of Africa so far
as its influence on the world’s supply is concerned is comparatively
insignificant, the export capacity of the latter countries not
exceeding 800 tons annually. The total product of the eastern provinces
of Africa taken in connection with the small quantities raised on the
west coast making Africa contribute only between 3,000 to 4,000 tons to
the world’s production, this amount including all the Coffee grown in
Egypt and the interior countries of that continent.

From Africa the coffee plant was undoubtedly carried to Arabia, but
at what period of the world’s history or under what circumstances is
not definitely known. It was introduced from Arabia to Java in 1690,
according to Boerhave, who tells us that “Nicholas Wilser, Burgomaster
of Amsterdam and Governor of the Dutch East India Company, in that
year instructed Van Horn, the then Governor of Batavia, to procure
some plants or seeds of the Coffee tree from Arabia and endeavor to
cultivate them in that settlement.” Although its introduction into
Java is placed later by Stavornius, who claims that the plant was
first carried from Mocha to Batavia as late as 1722 by Zwardekiom, the
governor of the colony in that year, other authorities claiming that
Zwardekiom only helped to extend its cultivation on that island. The
latter account is probably the most correct one, as it is recorded
that coffee in the bean, grown in Java, was offered for sale in the
Amsterdam market the exact year that Stavornius states that it was
first introduced into that island. Be this as it may, the undertaking
was successful from the beginning, many plants being propagated there,
one of which, the first seen in Europe, was sent to the botanic garden
in Amsterdam, where it in due time bore fruit. Many young trees were
subsequently propagated from this plant and distributed among the
gardens and conservatories of Europe, one of these being sent as a
rare present to the king of France. The Dutch later extending the
cultivation of coffee to Sumatra, Celebes, Bali, Timour and many other
of the smaller islands of the Malay archipelago.

The Coffee plant was introduced into India, on the Malabar coast, about
the year 1700, from Aden, although it is claimed to have been grown in
that country, in the province of Mysore, long anterior to that year,
tradition, relating that the plant was first introduced by Baba Booden,
a Musselman pilgrim, who brought “seven berries” with him from Arabia
about the year 1600, which he is said to have planted around his hut in
the hills of Mysore, near which coffee trees over one hundred years old
are yet to be seen. The earliest written account of the cultivation of
the coffee plant in India is that contained in a Dutch work, entitled
“Letters from Malabar,” by Jacob Visscher, chaplain at Cochin, in one
of which he states that “the Coffee shrub is planted in gardens there
for pleasure, and yields plenty of fruit, which attains a proper degree
of ripeness, but has not the refined taste of Mocha coffee.” The exact
year in which these letters were written is not known, but the Dutch
editor’s preface is dated 1743, so that it may be concluded that the
plant must have been introduced and known in India prior to that year,
although there is no official record made of the plant or its product
in that country further back than 1822, and though undoubtedly grown
there at an early period, does not seem to have met with much attention
there up to the close of the last century, no allusion being made to
it in any Indian work until we come to “Heynes’ Tracts,” published in
1800, in one of which we are merely told that coffee was then being
sold in the bazaars of Bangalore and Seringapatam. At the present time
Coffee is grown all along India from the northern limits of Mysore
and south to the summits and slopes of the western Ghauts in British
Cape Comorin, Coorg and Travancore, in the Wynaad and Neilgherry
mountains, as well as in the slopes of the Shevany and Pulney hills.
In 1880 over 500,000 acres had been taken up for Coffee culture in the
Cochin, Madras, Mysore, Travancore, Belgaum and Bengal presidences,
of which nearly 200,000 acres have now maturing plants. A very large
portion of the surface of Burmah which still remains in its primeval
state of unproductive jungle--owing to the almost total absence of
natural energy on the part of the natives--is admirably adapted to the
successful and profitable cultivation of Coffee. While in the hilly
districts of the east coast of the Gulf of Siam, Cochin-China and the
Straits settlements, the cultivation of Coffee is carried on to a
limited extent, some fine samples being shown at the Exhibition of 1862.

The Coffee plant was introduced from Java into the island of Ceylon
by the Dutch in 1720, where they began to cultivate it without any
successful results, their efforts being confined to the lowlands in
the districts of Galle and Negonogo, the location proving unfavorable
in soil and temperature, the natives being also opposed to the
innovation. But although some coffee of excellent quality was produced,
notwithstanding these obstacles, it was found that it could not be
cultivated there to advantage, when compared with the Java product.
Yet though suspended for a time by the Dutch, it was not entirely
abandoned by the native Cingalhese, who having, in the meantime,
learned the commercial value of the article, continued to grow it in
small quantities, so that after the British obtained possession of
the island the Moors, who collected it in the villages, brought the
hulled beans to Galle and Colombo, to barter them for cutlery, cotton
and trinkets. It is claimed, on the other hand, to have been grown in
Ceylon long before the arrival of the Dutch, and even the Portuguese,
but that the preparation of a beverage from its fruit was unheard of
by the natives, who only employed its tender leaves for their curries,
and its delicate, jassamine-like flowers for ornamenting their shrines
and temples. On the occupation of Ceylon, after its concession to the
British in 1825, however, the English troops found the coffee tree
growning in profusion in the vicinity of the temples in Kandy, and also
large coffee gardens, highly cultivated, were found on the banks of the
river Mahawelli and close to the palace of Hangaurau.

The coffee plant was introduced into the Phillipine Islands by Spanish
missionaries from Java about 1740, but a species of wild coffee
trees have been found on the island of Luzon, the berries being left
ungathered, the natives being ignorant of their use or preparation,
there being well-authentic instances of the same kind at the present
day where the natives wonder what is done with the berries when hulled
and cleaned, whether it is eaten or for what purpose intended. It was
first introduced into the islands of Bourbon and Mauritius by the
French through Du Fougerais Grenier in 1717, from Arabia and from
Mozambique to Madagascar by natives about the same period.

The island of Borneo grows good Coffee, and since the country has
been opened up to settlers some 200,000 acres of forest lands have
been selected by Cantonese, European and Australian planters for this
purpose, the gardens around Silam particularly being very encouraging
as regards the new product. With the splendid and well-proportioned
rain-fall Coffee grows extremely well, especially Liberian Coffee,
for which the soil and climate of that island seems well adapted.
Coffee cultivation is carried on there in the gardens of the Europeans
and thrives remarkably well, while the Malays state that it is grown
extensively by the Dyaks of the Pontianak river for the use of that
settlement, but its cultivation on an extensive or systematic scale has
not been encouraged, the government not wishing to create a competition
with Java. The hills on the mainland opposite Lubuhan are well adapted
for its successful cultivation, since there Coffee can be grown without
the trouble and expense of raising trees amongst the plantations to
protect the plants from the sun, as has to be done in so many other
countries. It is also systematically cultivated in the islands of
Guinea, Fiji, the Friendly and Hawaiian Islands, as well as in many
others of the South Pacific ocean. The Coffee plant having been in
existence in Samoa and other islands of that group for some years past
where it is found to flourish luxuriantly, proving the suitability of
the soil and climate, but in consequence of never being scientifically
treated there it has not as yet become an article of commerce from
these islands. Coffee cultivation has been successfully introduced into
Caledonia and other groups in the South Pacific, which, in the course
of a few years, will probably form an important export, the trees
raised there from seed bearing fruit in the fourth year. In Honolulu
its cultivation is also progressing, large plantations having been laid
out with a view to supplying the markets of Chili, Peru, Sydney and
California.

The mountain ranges on the northern coast of Australia from Moreton bay
to Torres straits, and other parts of that section, are recommended
for Coffee cultivation, while in Queensland the plant has long been
successfully grown, but it has not as yet become an article of export
there, the plantations having recently suffered much from disease. It
has been found to thrive well, however, in the vicinity of Brisbane,
Cardwell and other northern districts, especially among the sheltered
ridges of the Herbert and Endeavor rivers, these sites offering the
most favorable conditions, the smaller farmers finding that Coffee pays
them better than corn or potatoes, several of them having recently
sold to the merchants of Brisbane some of their product as high as 20
cents per pound. This list does not by any means exhaust the possible
sections in the South Pacific where Coffee cultivation has been tried
with great advantage, but simply touches upon some of the chief centres
adapted to the enterprise.


INTRODUCTION OF THE COFFEE PLANT INTO AMERICA.

The history of the first introduction of the coffee plant into the
new world is as romantic as it is interesting. In the year 1714 the
French king, Louis XIV, was presented by the magistrates of Amsterdam
with a fine specimen of the Coffee plant, almost five feet high and
in full foliage, from the botanic garden of that city. This plant was
carefully nursed, and from it some sprouts were sent to Martinique
in 1717, being committed to the care of De Clieux, an officer in
the French naval service, who subsequently proved himself worthy
of the trust reposed in him. The voyage being long and the weather
unfavorable, the whole ship’s crew were at length reduced to a short
allowance of water, all the young plants dying except one for lack
of nourishment. It was at this juncture that this zealous patriot
divided his own scanty allowance with the plant committed to his care,
happily succeeding in bringing it safe to Martinique uninjured, where
it afterwards flourished and from which was propagated sufficient to
supply the adjacent islands, De Tour claiming that from this single
plant was produced the almost innumerable varieties now to be found on
the American continent.

In 1718, however, the Dutch colony of Surinam began to introduce
and cultivate Coffee, from plants received from Java. In 1722 the
French governor of the adjoining colony of Cayenne, having business
in Surinam, contrived, by an artifice, to bring away with him from
there a small Coffee plant, which, in the year 1725, had produced many
thousands, which were distributed among all the French colonies on the
mainland, its cultivation being extended to Para from Cayenne, by the
French, in 1732; the first Coffee plantation opened in Brazil being
commenced in that province a few years later. Its cultivation, however,
made little or no progress in that now world-famous Coffee-growing
country until 1767, when its cultivation was still further extended to
the province of Maranhao, where it soon increased rapidly under careful
and judicious management.

In 1774 a Belgian monk, named Molke, procured some plants from one of
the prosperous Maranhao estates, and carried them to Rio de Janeiro,
the first one being planted in the garden of the Capuchin monastery
of Adjuda, then situated in the suburbs, but now almost in the centre
of that city. This plant prospered so well under his care, and he,
becoming convinced of its future importance as a valuable acquisition
to the industries of the country, that a few years later he cleared a
plantation for its systematic and more extensive cultivation. Joachim
Bruno, the then Bishop of Rio de Janeiro, also perceiving the valuable
benefits to be derived by the country from Coffee cultivation, and to
whom Brazil is indebted for the introduction and cultivation of many
of its now valuable trees and plants, was accustomed to distribute
the seeds of the coffee produced on Molke’s plantation and the garden
of the monastery among the religious institutions of his diocese,
personally recommending and encouraging its cultivation by them, at
the same time presenting many specimens to the laity. From this simple
and unostentatious beginning, has grown the extensive coffee-lands of
to-day in Brazil, hundreds of thousands of acres of land being devoted
to its culture at the present day, over $100,000,000 being invested in
the industry.

From Brazil the coffee plant was later carried to Peru, Chili, Paraguay
and other South American countries, while from Martinique it was first
introduced into Jamaica by Sir Nicholas Lawes in 1732, a special act
of Parliament being passed in that year to encourage and foster its
cultivation on that island. Coffee culture is claimed to have been
first introduced into San Domingo by wild fowl who carried the seeds
in their craws from one of the neighboring islands about 1735, being
later introduced to the smaller islands of the Antilles by the French
themselves.

The Spaniards procured some plants from Martinique, and undertook its
cultivation in Cuba, Porto Rico and others of their possessions in the
West Indies about 1750, its culture prospering well in these islands
until replaced later by the less expensive and more profitable sugar
industry, but it was not until 1784 that they undertook its cultivation
in their possessions on the mainland. In that year Bartholemew Blandin
started a plantation in the Chacao valley, situated about a league from
the now famous coffee-growing district of Caracas, a Dr. Sligo, soon
afterwards, following Blandin’s example in the equally famous district
of Maracaibo, the new branch of industry being soon generally adopted
throughout Venezuela, Columbo, Ecuador and Bolivia, where several
varieties are grown, particularly throughout the Yungas district, the
best product being valued as not inferior to the far-famed Mocha itself.

In 1818 the profitableness of coffee culture in the West Indies led to
the establishment of extensive plantations in Mexico in the cantons of
Orizaba and Cordova, which in 1825 were in a most flourishing state,
its cultivation in that country being still further extended to the
valleys of the interior, in 1826 there being in Cuentla and Cuenmarca
alone estates containing as many as 500,000 coffee trees. Elsewhere
in Mexico at the time much attention was bestowed in extending its
cultivation, great hopes being entertained that every available
spot would be occupied in its cultivation and that its people would
be largely engaged in its cultivation and exportation to foreign
countries. But the civil disorders which begun so soon after its
introduction to that country and which continued for so long a time
after paralyzed the industry in its infancy, disappointing these hopes
so much so that the production of coffee in Mexico has been almost
limited to supplying the home demand. Now, however, a brighter era has
arrived, more attention being given to its cultivation in that country,
her coffee product steadily increasing and improving from year to
year. From Mexico the cultivation of the coffee plant spread through
Guatemala to Nicaragua, Honduras, Salvador and Costa Rica, until it
is or will be grown throughout all the Central and South American
countries.

Efforts have been made from time to time during the past twenty years
to introduce the cultivation of coffee into the United States, many
thousands of plants being distributed throughout Florida, Texas and
Lower California with that object in view. Reported results to the
Agricultural Department in Washington from these distributions lead
to the belief that the climate is too cold for its production for
commercial purposes. Some years ago the department received a sample
of coffee berries which had been gathered from plants said to have
been grown in the open air near the Manatee river in Florida. It was
afterwards learned upon investigation that these plants had been
protected during the coldest nights by canvas coverings, and in some
instances with blankets, yet it is admitted that while it is more than
likely that in the extreme southern parts of Florida the coffee plant
would thrive without protection and in the open air, the topographical
conformation of that part of the State is most unfavorable for its
commercial cultivation. Again, in the extreme southern part of
California climatic conditions favorable to its production have
been found, but so far little encouragement has been received from
the efforts to cultivate the plant in that section. Some years ago
Liberian coffee-plants were introduced by the Agricultural Department,
this species being hardier and needing less care and attention when
transplanted to other countries. But, contrary to all precedent and
expectations, they were found to require a warmer climate and more
congenial topographic conditions than the Arabian species already
tried. Here it is a fact worthy of note, that in many of the countries
into which the coffee plant has been introduced, indigenous varieties
were subsequently discovered. This is more particularly true of
Liberia, Mauritius, Malabar and Manilla in the Eastern Hemisphere, and
in Mexico, Costa Rica, Bolivia, Peru and Brazil in the Western. No less
than sixteen different species being claimed to have been discovered in
the latter country alone.




CHAPTER III.

BOTANICAL CHARACTERISTICS AND FORM.


This now important and valuable article of food was known to the early
inhabitants of Ethiopia, where its virtues were first discovered and
used, as _Bun_, signifying “brown” or “roasted.” In Arabia it is
termed _Kawah_, meaning “strength” or “vigor,” the infusion being
called _Quahouch_; while to the Turks it is known as _Chaube_ in the
bean, and _Kahve_ in the liquid state; to Persians, _Karweh_; to the
natives of the Malay Archipelago as _Kopi_, and finally _Kaffa_ or
_Caffia_ by the inhabitants of that district, situated in the Province
of Narca, in southeastern Abyssinia, where it is to be found growing
in wild abundance, even at the present day, whence its botanical name,
_Coffea_, adopted by Linnæus and others.

The genus known as _Coffea_ is divided by botanists into some sixty
species, of which fifteen are referred to Africa, seven to Asia and
about twenty-two to America; but there is abundant reason for supposing
that the majority of these so-called _species_ are but mere varieties,
a single _genus_, due to different conditions of soil, climate and
cultivation, three of which it will be sufficient for all practical
purposes to distinguish in this work. It is classed botanically as
a species coming under the head of the _Pentandria_ of Linnæus and
the family _Rubiceæ_, although by others it is placed among the
_Cinchonaceæs_ family of plants which comprise numerous species of
tropical berry-bearing shrubs, one of which only is known to possess
valuable properties celebrated for the agreeable and stimulating
effect of an infusion made from its roasted albumen.

The common Coffee shrub is an evergreen plant, which, under natural
conditions, grows to a height of from eighteen to twenty feet, having
the appearance of an upright, slender tree, with main stem very erect,
and free from branches for the greater part of its height, but opening
at the top into drooping branches, few but long, with an abundance
of fine fibrous roots under ground, and an all-important top-root.
But in a state of cultivation it is a shrub of close and systematic
growth of low-standing, and averaging only from four to six feet in
height, its upward growth being checked by the pruning-knife of the
cultivator, and also trained by frequent cutting and topping so as to
assume a pyramidal form for the purpose of increasing the quantity
and improving the quality of its product as well as to facilitate the
picking of its crop. The branches are bracheate, horizontal, simple and
opposite, growing regularly from the ground up, but trailing towards
the top, cylindrical in form, flexible, loose and expanding out and
downwards like those of the apple tree, and extremely pleasing in
general appearance. The leaves are from five to six inches in length,
and from two to three wide in the middle when full grown, oblong-ovate,
accuminate, smooth, and of a dark, shiny-green color on the upper
surface, but pale underneath, firm and leathery in texture, closely
resembling those of the Portuguese laurel, continuing three years, and
possessing slightly tonic and stimulating properties. The flowers,
which are produced in dense clusters in the axils of the leaves fitting
close to the axils, are funnel-shaped and small but numerous, having a
five-toothed calyx, a tubular five-parted corolla, five stamens and a
single bifid style, snow-white in color, possessing a rich, fragrant
odor, approaching that of the jessamine, the plants in blossom having
a peculiarly rich and attractive appearance, the bloom being very
evanescent and of short duration, but are quickly followed by fruit,
there being generally two, sometimes three, relays of blossoms before
all the buds mature, until after a day or two, when they gradually
turn brown and fade away; the slower and more gradual this process the
better for the crop, which is always estimated by the abundance of the
blossoms. The fruit, which quickly follows in the hollow of the leaves,
is a fleshy or “pulpy” berry, at first greenish and hard to the touch,
assumes a yellowish hue as it continues to ripen under the meridian
sun, the color deepening not regularly but by crimson or scarlet shades
and tints which spread over the surface, having at this stage the size
and appearance of a small cherry, assuming a dark-red or deep, glossy
purple black color with a smooth and bloomless cuticle as it matures.
In both states of flower and fruit nature is nowhere so profuse and
beautiful in the variety of its colors and forms. The plant, being an
evergreen, the foliage is always fresh, and, though, in the autumn
season, the blossoms appear scattered among the dark-green leaves,
resembling flakes of snow, they are hardly ever absent from the tree.
It continues to put forth fruit, while the blossoms are arriving at
maturity, and nothing is more singular or striking of its kind than its
producing capabilities, as at all seasons, leaves, blossoms and ripe
fruit are to be seen on the same tree at the same time, and the fruit
may be gathered at any period, but the regular harvests are usually two
in the course of a year.

Each fruit contains two seeds embedded in a yellowish pulp, the seeds
being again enclosed in a thin membraneous parchment. The _Epicarp_ or
outer-skin of the berry is at first dark-green in color, but assumes
a yellow and finally a bright-scarlet color as it ripens, becoming
dark-purple as it dries, having a little circular area at the summit
and a callous point through it. In this condition it contains a
mucilaginous, saccharine, glutinous substance, technically termed the
“pulp,” a succulent, sweet and palatable matter, closely enveloping
the seeds, frequently eaten by the pickers. Another substance, known
as the _Mesocarp_, secures and separates the _Pyrenes_ or seeds, and
as the fruit dries this mesocarp hardens and becomes part of the shell
or hull surrounding the seeds, which it becomes necessary to remove by
a milling or hulling process in order to free them from this covering.
These pyrenes or seeds are again invested by a cartilaginous membrane
termed the _Endocarp_, but commonly known as the “parchment,” a
papery, elastic substance, loosely but completely enveloping them. On
removing this parchment we have exposed two small, oval seeds facing
each other, though sometimes there is but one called from its shape
male or “pea-berry.” These seeds, which constitute the raw Coffee of
commerce, are plano-convex in form, the flat surfaces which are laid
against each other within the berry, having a longitudinal furrow or
groove extending their entire length. When first exposed they are of a
soft, semi-translucent bluish or greenish color, afterwards becoming
hard, tough or flinty in texture, in which state it is known as “rice
coffee,” the bulk of which forms the Coffees of commerce. This seed or
“bean” as it is called in trade is still incased in what is known as
the _Testa_, another covering which forms an integument of the seed
and which is known to commerce as the “silver-skin,” the mass of the
coffee beneath this testa being termed the _Albumen_. Contained in this
albumen and embedded near its base is to be found the _Embryo_. The
first of these structures, that is, the epicarp, mesocarp and endocarp,
belong to the fruit or berry, the other three, that is, the testa,
albumen and embryo, being essentially parts of the seed or bean. The
uses of these various structures surrounding the embryo are to protect
it from injury and at the same time supply it with proper nourishment
until such time as it is enabled to take care of itself. The testa
or silver-skin enveloping every part of the albumen, following and
dipping into the furrow on the face of the Coffee bean by its tough,
leatherly nature, acts as an effectual protection to the delicate
structures contained within. The albumen, bearing the same relation to
the bean that flour does to wheat, the white-meat to cocoanut, and the
aromatic, ruminated secretion to the nutmeg. It is a secretion, found
in the _internal_ of the seed, enveloping the embryo plant, and for the
support of which it is destined when it first begins to germinate. Each
perfect Coffee berry should contain two such oval seeds, placed facing
each other, the flat sides opposite; but it frequently occurs that
only one seed forms, the other becoming abortive, and variously known
as “virgin” “male” or “pea-berry.” Coffee seeds are generally termed
“beans” in commerce, a term not derived from any resemblance they may
have to a bean; while, again, they are termed by many as “berries,” the
latter term being applicable only to the fruit or pod, the term “bean”
being more appropriate to the seed.


SUB-VARIETIES.

According to some botanists, there is but one genus of the Coffee
plant,--_Coffea Arabica_,--others, again, contending that there are two
separate and distinct species, classified as _Coffea Orientalis_ and
_Coffea Occidentalis_. While admitting but one genus, the difference in
size, appearance and product being attributed by them to a variation
in soil, climate and methods of cultivation, there are three principal
varieties, however, readily distinguished and recognized by those who
have much to do with it, and are known to commerce as _Coffea Arabica_,
_Coffea Liberica_ and _Coffea Maragogipe_, lately discovered in Brazil,
all of which or their transplants furnish the Coffees of commerce.

[Illustration: COFFEE HACIENDA AND GROWER.]

[Illustration: _Coffea Arabica_,]

Or “Arabian Coffee plant,” is the best-known species, being an
evergreen, partaking more of the nature of a shrub, which, in a
state of cultivation, varies in height from four to six feet, its
foliage resembling that of Portuguese laurel. The trunk is erect
and slender, averaging about three inches in diameter and covered
with a whitish-brown bark, rather rough in appearance. The branches
are numerous, ordinarily bending downwards when the plant begins to
grow old, but when young and vigorous extend in a round form like
an umbrella. The wood is very limber and pliable, so much so that
the ends of the longest branches may be bent down to within three
inches of the ground without snapping. The leaves are oval in form,
dark green in color, shiny and sharp pointed as those of the citron
tree, ranged on the branches opposite, but at a little distance from
each other. The flowers or blossoms are also numerous, clustering
with projecting antlers, snowy-white and very fragrant, but of short
duration, disappearing quick, but rapidly followed by the fruit
springing apparently from them. The fruit is a small berry, green at
first, but assuming a rich scarlet as it ripens. From this species has
been propagated the numerous varieties now known to commerce. The range
of this species is at elevations of from 1,000 to 4,000 feet above
sea-level between the latitudes of 15° north and 15° south, but its
cultivation may be extended for commercial purposes to 36° north and
30° south in latitudes where the temperature does not fall below 55°;
still the most favorable climate for it would be where the temperature
does not fall below 60° to 80° in the shade, and as to humidity there
should be no month in the year entirely devoid of rain, the total
of which should range from 100 to 150 inches per annum, that is, an
absence of extremes of temperature with a constant supply of moisture.
This species is cultivated chiefly in Arabia, India, Ceylon, Natal,
Java, Sumatra and other islands in the Malay Archipelago, as well as
in Mexico, the West Indies, Central and South America and recently in
Australasia, furnishing almost the whole of the coffees of commerce.

[Illustration: _Coffea Liberica_,]

Or “Liberian Coffee plant,” which has recently been brought forward
as a rival to the Arabian variety, is an indigenous species found
both in a wild and cultivated state on the west coast of Africa, and
which in an adult cultivated state ranges in height from fifteen to
twenty feet, being of tree-like habits. The trunk is thick, very erect,
and covered with a dark-brown bark of a downy texture. The branches
also differ from those of the Arabian species insomuch as they do
not possess the horizontal, drooping tendency so characteristic of
the latter, being also hardier and more prolific. The leaves are
proportionately large, varying in length from eight to fifteen inches
and in many instances from four to five inches in width at their widest
part. They are dark-green in color, leathery in texture, and instead
of the wedge-shaped base, narrowing as it approaches the petitole or
stalk; it more resembles the continuation of the extremity of the leaf
itself. The flowers are also fewer, never more than six to eight in a
cluster, are much larger, but devoid of fragrance. The fruit, as may be
inferred from the tree-like habits of this species, is extremely large,
averaging an inch to an inch and a quarter in length, ellipsoidal in
form, and characteristically pointed at both ends. It lacks the bright
red color of the Arabian variety, when ripe, being commonly of a dull
red, approaching brown, becoming black as it dries. The pulp is also
thicker, fibrous and more fleshy, but lacking in succulence, and cannot
be eaten; the parchment being hard and brittle, dark-brown in color
and never clear. The testa, or silver-skin, is much stronger, tougher,
and more tightly rolled into the deep, narrow furrow on the face. The
seed or bean is also extremely large in size, peculiar in form, what is
known as “male” or “pea-berry” in form is dark-brown in color, solid
and heavy in weight and exceedingly strong in flavor. Taken altogether,
the wide divergence in the general appearance and habits of this
variety, the culture of the leaves, lesser number of flowers, size,
weight, color, peculiar formation, and other characteristics, stamp it
as a distinct species of the genus _Coffea_.

Increasing attention is lately being devoted to this species. It is a
native of Liberia, and is to be found growing wild in great abundance
along the whole of the Guinea coast and is to be distinguished from
the ordinary shrub by much more vigorous growth, by affecting flat,
low and coast lands as well as hill sides, by attaining greater size
and withstanding greater extremes of climate. It also possesses
the additional advantage in that it is capable of improvement by
cultivation, and though as liable to disease as the Arabian plant,
appears to be affected only in a minor degree, while on the other hand
the product is much coarser flavored, which is considered no drawback
to its being used for admixture with better sorts, by which means it
yields a cheap, yet genuine beverage. Experiments have been lately
tried in Ceylon of grafting the finer flavored Arabian on the stocks
of this species, thus producing a hybrid from which great benefits are
anticipated in the future. It is a species, moreover, which grows well
in low altitudes, and would probably flourish is situations that have
proved unsuitable for the Arabian plant, and should it come up to the
sanguine expectations of the Java, Ceylon, Mexican, South American and
other planters, to whom it has been submitted for experiment, there is
no doubt but that it will prove a formidable rival to the species which
have hitherto received the exclusive attention of planters generally.

[Illustration: _Coffea Maragogipe_,]

Or “Brazilian Coffee plant,” is a new and indigenous variety, recently
discovered in the province of that name, in Brazil, much larger than
the Arabian, but smaller than the Liberian. It grows with extraordinary
vigor, coming into full bearing much sooner than either of the
foregoing varieties, trees of two to three years attaining a height
of eight to ten feet, being full of fruit at that age, the berry and
product per acre being also larger. Planters who have adopted this
variety are so well pleased with the results obtained that they are
replacing the regular species with it, all agreeing that in size of
berry, style of bean, strength and flavor, it is a species to be
recommended.


OTHER VARIETIES.

There are numerous other varieties of the Coffee plant, closely allied,
but still markedly distinct from the foregoing species, inasmuch
as they do not possess any valuable or intrinsic properties, being
cultivated only for the sake of their foliage or flowers. Among which
is that of:--

=Coffea Mauritiana.=--Found on the island of Mauritius, and evidently
belonging to the Arabian species, yet claimed by La Marche to be
specifically distinct from it, on account of the difference in the
size and form of its fruit. This eminent botanist must have been
unaccountably negligent with respect to its specific character, having
retained the description given by Linnæus of the Arabian plant, which
is in the Plantarium described as entirely opposite to it.

=Coffea Guinensis.=--A native of Guinea, on the west coast of Africa,
and a shrub from one to two feet high, with flowers quadrified, berries
small and violet-colored, seeds two in number, cartilaginous and
pointed at the ends; but found to be entirely devoid of the valuable or
stimulating properties so characteristic of those of the true Coffee
plant.

=Coffea Panenlato.=--Another species, also found on the Guinea
coast, being a shrub having a large trunk, from seven to eight feet
high, covered with a gray, cracked bark and yielding a fruit totally
different from that of Coffee.

=Coffea Racemora.=--A species found in a wild state on the east coast
of Africa, and in a state of cultivation in the vicinity of Zanzibar.
It is a small, upright, tree-like plant about six feet high, heavy in
foliage and flowering, but devoid of fragrance and barren of fruit.

=Coffea Trifora.=--A shrub of about six feet high, found in Othahetai,
foliaceous and flowery, but producing no fruit. This particular variety
is also to be found in Jamaica, San Domingo, Martinique and other
islands of the West Indies. Many other species such as the _Coffea
Fambasena_, a native of the Friendly Islands, _Coffea Ghengalensis_,
grown in Nepaul, _Coffea Opulina_ and the _Cirdorata_, the latter being
claimed to be analogous to the true Coffee plant, and is extensively
grown on the island of Tamai, and many others cultivated principally
for their seeds.




CHAPTER IV.

CULTIVATION AND PREPARATION.


The principal points which determine the value of a location for the
successful and profitable cultivation of Coffee are:--(1) Soil and
climate; (2) Situation and aspect; (3) Temperature and rainfall;
(4) Proximity to a river, and (5) Shelter from wind and wash. Most
of which are necessarily subject to variation, according to country
and locality, shelter from wind being perhaps of the most paramount
importance, and which should not be sacrificed for a richer soil, as
the latter can be artificially supplied much quicker than the former.


SOIL AND CLIMATE.

Soil and climate are subjects of primitive importance in the
cultivation of Coffee. The soil of Coffee lands varies as widely almost
as the different countries in which it is grown. In Africa, where the
plant is indigenous, it is chiefly composed of a reddish clay on the
West Coast, with a hard sandy subsoil, while on the East Coast it is
found to be composed chiefly of a dark loamy earth. The Arabian soil,
where the plant is exotic and where the finest Coffee is produced, is
purely an artificial one, while in India it is successfully grown in
five different kinds of soil, ranging from a dark chocolate clay to
a deep jungle mould. The soil of Ceylon consisting of a rich, dark
earth, friable and mixed with blocks and small stones. On the island of
Java, to the contrary, where some of the finest varieties are produced,
the soil is principally composed of a black leaf-mould, intermixed with
fine sand and small stones, whereas in the principal Coffee-growing
countries of the American continent the best crops produced, as a
general rule, are raised on rich, dark loamy lands, the subsoil of
which are too rocky to be worked with a plow. The only exception to
the rule being Brazil, where the soil varies to a great extent, a clay
of _terra rocha_ forming the chief upper and lower subsoil. The most
suitable soil for Coffee cultivation, however, is that which grows
soft timber, to be found on high quartzy ridges, where the land is
of a dark chocolate color, mixed with small stones, and overspread
here and there with boulders of granite, as where the soil is dark,
loose and full of roots, it is sure to be rich in organic matter, and
therefore good for Coffee, which is a hardy plant and not on the whole
difficult to please in this matter; such a soil generally contains
about 5 per cent. of its weight of organic matter in combination with
other fertilizing substances. Looking at Coffee soil from an analyst’s
standpoint, it consists of an _organic_ part, which when placed in the
fire will burn away, and an _inorganic_ or mineral part which will
not burn. The constitution of the first is well known to planters,
being formed of the remains of animals, insects, or minute visible
and invisible organisms of various kinds, from the dung of animals,
birds, caterpillars and worms, to that of roots, stems and leaves of
decayed vegetable matter. The inorganic part, consisting of sand,
clay, lime, magnesia and the oxides of soda, potash and manganese,
including carbonic, sulphuric and phosphoric acids. The preponderance
of one or more of these natural divisions, making the soil productive
or unproductive as the case may be, while certain plants make certain
calls upon one or more of these substances, and, consequently, such
must be present and available in a soil that is to suit them. A
rich soil for Coffee generally contains about five per cent., or
one-twentieth of its weight, of organic matter in combination with
other fertilizing substances. But as to the _best_ soil for Coffee in
particular the leading authorities differ, so that as a broad principle
it may be laid down that the best soil is the _richest_, no matter what
its color, whether it be the valley silt of Arabia, the volcanic mould
of Java, the jungle soil of India and Ceylon, or the rich red earth
of Brazil. But the deeper, freer and richer the soil, whatever it may
be, the better as long as it is specially tested for phosphoric acid
and potash. The latter is found in abundance wherever a large forest
has been felled, burned grass-land being also considered good for this
purpose, as it also contains those very requisite properties of Coffee
soil.

If the soil be naturally light and poor and washed by every shower,
the more soluble portions, together with the salts of the manure
applied to the trees, is generally robbed by the heavy rains. In such
a case it is next to impossible to keep a plantation in a high state
of cultivation without an enormous expense in the constant application
of manure. Many plantations are again subject to landslips, which are
likewise produced by the violence of the rains; in such cases the
destruction is most disastrous, and whenever landslips are frequent
they may be taken as an evidence of a poor clay subsoil. The rain soaks
through the surface, and not being able to percolate through the clay
with sufficient rapidity, it lodges between the two strata, loosening
the upper surface, which slides from the greasy clay, launched, as it
were, by its own gravity, into the valley below. This is the worst
kind of soil for the coffee tree, whose long tap-root is ever seeking
nourishment from beneath. On such a soil it is very common to see
a young plantation giving great promise, but as the trees increase
in growth the tap-root reaches the clay subsoil, and the plantation
immediately falls off. The subsoil is of far more importance to the
coffee tree than the upper surface, as the latter may be improved by
manure, while if the former is bad there is no remedy. The first thing
to be considered being the soil, and the planter being satisfied with
its quality, there is another item of equal importance to be taken into
consideration when choosing a locality for a coffee plantation. This is
an extent of grazing land sufficient for the support of cattle that may
be required for producing manure. In countries with large proportions
of forests this is, however, not always practicable, the planter having
recourse to artificial manure.

The subject of climate, though quite as important as that of soil,
can yet be described with more accuracy. The extreme limits of coffee
cultivation lie between the isothermal lines of the 25° north and the
30° south of the equator, but the best zone of latitude is that lying
between the 20° north and south of the equator, one having a mean
temperature of 65° to 75° Fahrenheit. A constant and uniform moisture,
either natural or artificial, is especially requisite and indispensable
to the free development of the trees, together with a rainfall of from
75 to 150 inches per annum, falling early in the season, but must be
well distributed at the same time. The regions, however, found to be
best adapted for the most successful and profitable cultivation of
Coffee, are well-watered mountain slopes at an elevation ranging from
1,000 to 4,000 feet above sea-level, in latitudes lying between 15°
north and 15° south of the equator, although it is profitably grown at
the present time from 25° north to 30° south of that line, but only in
situations where the temperature does not fall below 55° at any time.


SELECTING LAND.

As a general rule, virgin forest land has been found the most suitable
to break up for Coffee plantations, it having become naturally enriched
by decayed vegetable matters, and the burning, to which it must first
be subjected, frees it from all weeds and insects. But exceptional
tracts of land, that have been once under cultivation and then allowed
to run wild, also form good properties, and although the soil is
rarely rich, it is generally exposed, and always entails great trouble
and expense to keep down the weeds. A temperate climate within the
tropics is to be preferred at all times, a certain degree of warmth
and humidity combined being essential--in other words, an atmosphere
resembling that of a northern hot-house produces the finest crops
of Coffee, but, unfortunately, it is inimical to the unacclimated
planter and favorable to weeds. The most suitable climate, under these
circumstances, is precisely that which Americans prefer; frost, even
though it be only at night and for a short period, is fatal, while the
presence of water, preferably a running stream, is most essential for
watering the young plants, as well as for the “pulping” process. In a
wooded country the plantation may be laid out in blocks of fifty acres,
encircled by natural belts of forest; but flat land must be avoided, as
a wet soil is fatal to profitable coffee-growing, and flat lands also
would entail great expenditure for drainage, while steep slopes, on the
other hand, are also objectionable on account of the wash occasioned by
rains carrying away both soil and manure, thus exposing the roots of
the shrubs. The top or surface-soil must be fairly good in all cases,
the subsoil may be, but must never be, composed of stiff clay, the
shrub being essentially a lateral feeder.

In opening a plantation, which is in all cases to be shaded by
preserving a portion of the original forest trees, the first thing to
be done is--after having ascertained the amount of land that can be
conveniently planted in one season--to clear a wide road through the
underwood from one end of the block of forest to the other, and as many
at right angles to the line as may facilitate easy examination and of
thoroughly inspecting the land to be cleared. The next thing to be done
is to cut another wide line round the entire portion to be cleared,
leaving a belt of from fifteen to twenty yards wide as a margin which
is always to be kept uncleared, as this marginal belt will be found
useful for shelter. The amount of shade must be regulated according
to the value of the exposure as shown in the aspect. A great deal of
shade being required on southern slopes, very little on northern ones,
and only a moderate degree of shade being required for eastern and
western slopes. The preliminary lines having been cleared, the whole
of the underwood should then be cut down from one end to the other,
and while it is yet green such portions of the larger trees as it may
be difficult to remove by carting or dragging along the ground, should
be cut up in pieces, but never burned, as is frequently the custom.
This work should be completed by the end of December. The land being
thus thoroughly cleared, lines of road should be laid out and the
usual linings and pit diggings carried out, and the plants put down
immediately after. The next point to be attended to is to plant out
such trees as are particularly suited to coffee shading, and to remove
any kinds which experience has proved to be injurious; these latter
vary in the different countries. As the shade trees grow up, the same
care must be taken of them as of the coffee tree, as regards pruning
or topping, the lower branches being judiciously removed, the object
being to grow a tree not only luxuriant but lofty, in order that it
may throw a long shadow and so afford greater protection to the plants
in its vicinity. Another point to be considered in the location of a
successful Coffee plantation is situation, as regards shade, sun and
wind, as a location and method of cultivation suited to one climate
may be entirely unsuited to another. In sea-coast or moist climates
planting without shade is generally the custom, while in dry arid
climates shade is indispensable, as in wet or damp districts Coffee
cannot be grown to advantage under the shade of the largest trees; the
methods of cultivation therefore should be entirely different in the
differing districts or localities. To be emphatic, _climate should
regulate shade, that is, shade plantations thrive best in hot, dry
climates, and unshaded in moist or humid ones_.


SITUATION AND ASPECT.

The Coffee-plant in most countries has been found to flourish best,
and produce more abundantly, and reach a greater longevity on upland
or mountain situations at altitudes ranging from one to four thousand
feet above sea-level; but a mean elevation of three thousand feet has
been found by experience to be best adapted for its most profitable
culture. In the selection of a site for the establishment of a coffee
plantation the same general rules are observed throughout all the
coffee-growing countries; and, while an eastern or southern exposure
is preferable at all times, it is not essential under all conditions,
this general principle being subject to modifications from such causes
as local peculiarities of climate, abundance of forest shade and
methods of special cultivation. Many plantations situated at sea-level
are generally overshadowed by thickets of dense foliage, while those
situated on mountain slopes are usually much exposed to winds and wash.
In the older coffee-growing countries of the East an eastern aspect
is considered the most desirable, a western exposure being generally
selected on the American continent, as it loses less of its moisture.
The opposite slope being more exposed to the vertical rays of the sun
thereby preserves a more equal temperature.

Before clearing and burning the planter should take considerable pains
to ascertain the values of the different aspects as regards sun and
wind with the view of regulating the amount of shade accordingly, as it
is impossible to exaggerate the importance of the various exposures.
For the effects the sun’s rays have on certain aspects in heating the
soil and drying up the plant are such as would be extremely difficult
to believe had the effects not been verified by competent observers
and with the aid of a thermometer. And as regards sites, northern and
southern slopes in particular, the difference between the one exposure
and the other is just what constitutes the difference between green
and dried grass, and between leaves luxuriously green and leaves
dried and withered. The grass on the northern aspects being green and
comparatively fresh, while even in a valley sheltered from drying
winds the grass on the southern slopes is completely withered. An
equally striking difference is observable in the coffee plants grown on
these situations, those on the northern slopes being full of health
and life, while those situated on the southern are yellow, drooping
and sickly; even in districts where coffee will not thrive without a
considerable amount of shade the plants thrive well with little or even
none on a northern bank, and look better than on a moderately shaded
southern aspect. Nor in the nursery is the effect less of aspect, less
striking, a nursery situated on a northern slope requiring less water
and far less shade over the young plants than in a nursery sloping
towards the south.

With regard to the aspect of wind the subject is an infinitely more
difficult one than aspect as regards the sun’s rays, the value of the
latter being mathematically ascertained, for in countries full of hills
and ravines one is constantly liable to be deceived as to the points
that are exposed and those that are sheltered from the force of the
wind; what is the right side of the hill for one planter is often the
wrong side for another, whose plantation is perhaps only a few miles
distant. While one planter may rail against the east wind, another will
be equally loud against a west. The winds, however, that are most to
be dreaded as being absolutely fatal to a coffee plantation are the
fierce gales accompanied by torrents of rain. These winds are injurious
in two ways: first, the plants are blown about, their hold on the soil
weakened and the tender rootlets broken as fast as they are formed, and
in the second case, the rain which accompanies such winds is driven
into the hillsides with such force as to occasion a certain amount of
wash, the particles of soil being lifted and valuable top soil swept
away and utterly lost. The southwest winds are only fatally injurious
on the first barrier; further inland their force is greatly modified,
and to such an extent that little or no injury results from them.

In estimating the value and importance of exposures, planters and
others of experience are frequently deceived; as aspects that one would
naturally conclude are very much exposed often remain untouched by the
wind, while on others apparently sheltered it has been known to burst
with tremendous force. Of aspects as regards wind there are two points
that may fairly be relied upon. The first is the appearance of the soil
on the slopes, and the second the inclination of the forest trees. The
soils on windy slopes will be found invariably to present a hardened
and washed appearance, and are deficient in decayed vegetable matter
on the surface. The inclination of the trees, also, and especially the
extent to which their heads are bent, denotes how forcibly the wind
strikes on these sites. In summing up on these important points of
aspect it may be observed, as regards the sun’s rays, it is patent that
a northern aspect is the best, and a southern one the worst, because
the latter is exactly twice as hot as the former. And as regards the
eastern and western aspects there is not, as regards heat arising from
the sun’s rays, much to choose between them.


SHELTER AND SHADE.

The worst enemy of the Coffee shrub is wind, its effects becoming
apparent in pinched and stunted growth or in lack of foliage. In
situations where the soil is soft and yielding it does equal mischief
by working the stems in the ground, so that in a short time a funnel
is formed round the neck of the plant, and this being continually
chafed the bark is worn off, the roots are loosened, and the plant
dies of what is called “wind-wrung.” Should it be rescued before the
bark is entirely worn off the plant may live, but it will be extremely
liable to attacks from “lug worm” or any other blight that may be
prevalent in the locality. Belts of jungle or forest land are sometimes
left standing as a protection from wind, but opinions differ as to
the advantage of this plan, some planters holding that more harm is
likely to result from the wind being concentrated into eddies instead
of taking its natural and more equitable course. This question can
only be decided by the local surroundings in each case. Such belts
being sure to form nurseries for weeds and vermin are not intended to
be permanent, and should gradually give way to fruit or other useful
trees. Sometimes artificial shelter is erected, but is considered
too costly to find general favor; indeed, in moderately sheltered
situations, staking, combined with low topping, ought to be sufficient
to secure the stability of the plant. Where they are not, the situation
has little to recommend it for successful Coffee culture.

Shade is also a consideration of great importance, and the opinion now
generally adopted is that the wholesale felling of the forest in some
sections has been altogether a mistake, and that plantations which are
now extinct might still be flourishing had the forest shade been at
least partially retained. The history of Coffee cultivation in the East
proves that in hot climates, and where prolonged periods of drought
may recur, Coffee will not flourish permanently, except under shade.
In a state of nature the Coffee plant universally affects shade. This
is the more remarkable, though the seeds are deposited by wild animals
and birds as freely on open grass-lands as in forests. The suspicion
that the “bover leaf disease,” and other immediate causes of decay,
are only induced by weakened state of the shrubs consequent upon their
exposure to light and periods of drought, is supported by the fact that
where shade trees are found standing upon an abandoned plantation,
they are still surrounded by a surviving remnant of Coffee bushes. The
question as to where shade is necessary is, however, one of climate,
as it has been proved that it is not universally beneficial. The
advantages to be derived from it in very hot climates being: diminished
exhaustion and consequently increased longevity of the plant, reduced
cost of cultivation, a conservation of the nutritious properties of
the soil, and an actual increase of them, as the cover given to the
ground causes the surface vegetable matter to decay more rapidly. And
provided the tree be a subsoil feeder, the shedding of the leaves will
yield a positive gain of surface matter which the roots of the Coffee
plant would otherwise never have reached. In addition to these there is
the direct value of the timber grown on the estate. The only serious
drawback to shade would seem to be a diminished yield of Coffee, but
this is fully atoned for by the increased longevity of the plant.


CLEANING AND BURNING.

When forest land is taken for cultivation the first step is to
effectually clear it of all timber and underwood, the latter being
first cut by means of a “cattie” or machete, the large trees being
felled from the top, and their branches lopped off so as to compact
the pile, as otherwise the “burn” will only be partial. A fine day,
after the night’s dew has evaporated, is best for setting fire to the
prostrate mass, the advantages of a thorough burn being that subsequent
operations are greatly facilitated, and that the weeds and insects are
thoroughly destroyed, while the disadvantage is that the upper soil
is burnt and rendered unfit for filling into the holes. That injury
may, to a great extent, be obviated by “lining and pitting” the land
beforehand, by which means the surface soil would be mostly covered
over with the earth taken out of the pits, and thus be protected from
the fire. On the other hand, the “lines” could not be marked out with
accuracy or with any regularity, so that the estate would subsequently
suffer to some extent in appearance, though it is an open question how
far this drawback is worth considering in comparison with the other
advantages gained. When there is not sufficient timber to make a good
burn, the brush is felled and burnt in heaps, after which the ground is
carefully gone over for the purpose of rooting up the tree stumps which
remain, but these are sometimes so difficult to eradicate that they are
left to decay, care being taken, however, to knock off shoots as fast
as they appear. It is, however, a bad method and one seldom followed,
as the rotting stumps harbor vermin of all kinds. After burning the
wood the ashes should be scattered evenly over the ground as manure to
enrich the soil.


LINING AND MARKING.

Immediately after the burn the plantation is “lined and marked out”
for the reception of the plants, the two following methods being most
in vogue among old and experienced planters: (1) A base line is laid
down as nearly as possible straight up and down the slope, and a cross
line is set off exactly at right angles to it; on this line stakes
are driven into the ground at the distances determined upon for the
final position of the young plants, to each stake a rope is fixed and
stretched parallel with the base line, and as straight as possible,
smaller stakes being provided along these lines, a rope is then finally
held across them at succeeding stages of equal width as guided by
measuring poles and the small stakes, and the small stakes are put in
where the movable rope crosses the fixed ones, each stake indicating
the site of the plant. (2) A rope is furnished with bits of scarlet rag
or flannel at the distances decided on between the plants and stretched
across the plot, stakes being inserted at each rag, the rope is then
moved forward a stage at a time, gauged by measuring rods. The first
plan is the better, especially in broken ground, but is more laborious,
the second being best available in even grass-land, but the stretch of
the rope must be estimated and allowed for, the great object being to
have the lines perfectly regular, and instead of making any deviation
where stumps or other obstacles occur, the rope is laid over them and
the corresponding plant omitted.


ROADING AND DRAINING.

Efficient roads not only greatly facilitate the making of a Coffee
plantation, but they should be so laid out as to serve the additional
purpose of drainage. A cart road should pass through the centre of the
plantation wherever it is possible to avoid a steeper gradient than
one in fifteen, emerging upon the main highway. From this branch roads
should be cut at right angles with as easy gradients as possible, and
not more than from one hundred to one hundred and fifty feet apart;
these branch roads should cross the lay of the ground so as to check,
to the fullest extent, the effects of waste, and a boundary path
encircling the estate is also useful for many reasons, but the main
central road should be set out before pitting and planting. An excess
of road accommodation as regards both the number and width of the paths
is far preferable to insufficient roadway, despite the extra first
outlay, and if the ground be such, it may cost a great deal to keep
the roads clean and free from weeds. This, however, may be greatly
lessened by plowing them up and planting them with an annual crop until
the land is exhausted, as not only will the roads be bounded by the
plowing but weeds will not so readily grow.

Nothing is more important than the thorough drainage of a Coffee
plantation, in order to carry away the excess of moisture during heavy
rains without allowing the surface soil to be washed away. For this
purpose continuous open trenches are cut in parallel lines across
the face of the slope and at from ten to fifteen yards apart; their
gradient, however, should never exceed one in twelve, one in twenty
or even one in thirty will be still better, their width may be from
fifteen to eighteen inches and their depth not less than one foot
on the lower side. They will need constant cleaning out and repair,
especially after a heavy shower, and must in all cases empty into a
natural or artificial channel amply capable of carrying off the water;
if furnished with breaks to catch the suspended or detached soil so
much the better, as the latter can be collected and returned to the
plantation as a dressing.


LAYING OUT THE NURSERY.

The Coffee plant is propagated in three different ways, by “Seeds,”
“Buddings,” and “Cuttings,” the two last being the most troublesome
and objectionable, there being at the same time no branch of Coffee
cultivation of more importance and none so frequently mismanaged or
neglected as that of the production of the plant in the nursery, the
greatest care and most constant watching being absolutely necessary to
the attainment of success.

For this purpose should be selected a patch of gently sloping virgin
soil, warm and dry, soft in nature and not richer than that to which
the plants are to be subsequently transferred, but close to water,
running water, if possible. The seed-beds must be somewhat shaded, but
not so as to entirely exclude the sun nor so that the shading plant
may gather rain and send it in streams upon the beds; it must also be
cleared of all the largest stumps and thoroughly dug to a depth of
from nine to twelve inches and made very friable and at the same time
slightly raised to promote drainage, and divided by paths into narrow
strips. A deep trench is cut above the bed in an oblique direction to
prevent damage by rain and wash. The seeds are sown in rows six to nine
inches apart and about two feet deep and strewn about one inch apart in
the holes, after which they are lightly covered with mould and shaded.
A cheap and efficient shading may be secured by laying branches across
a light framework of poles. All watering must be done in the morning
or toward sunset. A bushel of coffee-seed should yield from 20,000
to 30,000 plants, the best seed being what is known as “parchment”
coffee, picked when fully ripe, pulped by hand, unfermented, unwashed
and dried in the shade. When the plants produce from two to four
leaves, exclusive of the seed-leaves, they are carefully loosened
and transferred, in damp, cloudy weather, from the seed-beds to the
nurseries and placed there from nine to twelve inches apart. Great
care must be taken meantime not to double up the tender tap-roots,
but if the tap-root is very long, it is best shortened by an oblique
cut, which soon shoots again. But when transplanting from seed-beds to
nurseries is not practiced the plants are left in the seed-beds until
they grow larger. Many planters, however, strongly recommend the former
plan, as by checking the growth of the plants the young roots become
hardened and better able, when finally planted out in the field, to
resist insects, disease and unfavorable weather. A practical suggestion
for preventing young seedlings from being eaten off at the surface of
the ground by grubs is to lightly wrap them with a piece of paper about
three inches broad where the stem joins the roots when planting. The
risk of having the young seedlings burnt up just after planting is best
guarded against by various simple measures for shading them. In about
a year, or when the plants have attained the height of about eighteen
inches, they are ready for transfer to the permanent positions on the
plantation which has been meantime prepared for their reception.

In selecting a plot for a nursery such a command of water as will
facilitate the flooding of every bed so as to thoroughly saturate the
soil, will be found indispensable, as it has been found by experience
that it is much cheaper to carry soil to water than water to soil. If
a good supply of water cannot be conveniently had on forest land by
erecting a tank or directing a stream, the cheapest plan will be found
to be to transport the soil already prepared and lay it down to the
depth of a foot to eighteen inches on any land that has a good command
of water. A couple of boys can effectually irrigate a large nursery by
this means if the water be conducted to each bed, while twenty men will
be required to carry water as many yards to a nursery of the same size,
and even then the beds will be but one-half watered. But economy alone
is not the only advantage to be gained by this method of flooding the
beds, as this process can be carried on at any time of the day, while
watering-pots cannot be used except early in the morning or late in the
afternoon without scorching the leaves.

If the nursery is formed on forest land as, if possible, it should be,
the timber should be felled, cut up and carried or rolled off the
ground--and not, as is too commonly the case, burnt on it--to obtain
the best results. The former plan is the most expensive but will be
found to pay better in the end, as the surface mould is not injured and
the friable nature of the soil is preserved intact, whereas burning
by consuming the vegetable matter on the surface renders the soil
more tenacious and less suitable to the springing of the seed. The
beds should never exceed five feet in breadth, and each bed should be
sixteen in length. Between each row of beds shallow channels should be
cut along which the water may be conducted to the head of each bed,
and in these channels during the dry season water should be allowed
to run continuously, penetrating by this means gradually into the
land, keeping it cool and moist. During the extreme hot weather the
longitudinal division between the beds should consist of earth heaped
up to the height of three inches, which will not only render the
flooding of the beds more complete, but will also prevent them drying
up as rapidly as they otherwise would. But during any storm these
divisions should be removed and each converted into a channel to convey
away the superfluous rain-water.

As regards seed there is very little to be said, except that it should,
as a matter of importance, be selected from the finest and healthiest
trees, and consist only of the ripest and finest berries to be had.
These precautions are seldom attended to, however, as it has never
been ascertained definitely that plants from carefully selected seeds
are any better than from those grown at random. Seeds have been sown
from trees both native and imported--on some plantations, of all ages
and in every kind of way--pulped by hand, pulped by machinery, and
not pulped at all, sometimes fresh and as frequently six months old.
Yet no difference could be perceived in the way the seeds come up, or
in the plants produced from them, but, as a matter of convenience, it
is much preferable to separate the seeds from the pulp and put them
down in drills. In the drills the seed should be planted at least a
quarter of an inch apart, and between each drill should be left a space
of from four to five inches. The seed should be planted in March or
April, except where a crop of plants has been previously taken from
the soil, when the seed should be put down a month earlier; in from
fourteen to eighteen months excellent plants ought to be had, if the
soil consists of virgin land. Many planters put down nursery seedlings
that have sprung up under the old coffee trees, but this plan is not to
be adopted when seed can be procured, and especially where the water is
good.

An excellent soil for sowing the seed is prepared from an admixture
of loam and leaf-mould, obtained from the decayed leaves of trees
and vegetable matter, ground fine, well sifted and then mixed with
an equal quantity of sand; while for the successful propagation of
the young plants a manure composed of finest soil, cattle and sheep
dung, dried, pulverized, sifted and then blended with proportionate
quantities of a fine sandy loam has been found specially adapted for
the purpose. The tap-roots of the young plants being extremely long
and tender, an abundant supply of the latter will be found requisite,
a good depth being very necessary to nourish and maintain them during
the early period of growth. During the hot weather the young plants
should be shaded, the most approved method of shading being to place
posts about four feet high, with forked heads, driven into the ground
at the corner of each bed, long sticks being then laid across them from
post to post, resting in the forks and also laterally, the whole being
then covered with grass, reeds or other material. Some months before
the plants are required this shade should be judiciously thinned, and
ultimately removed altogether, in order to harden the plants gradually
by exposure to the sun and air. The plants, too, at this period, should
be allowed to grow nearly to the required size, stinted of water and
brought to a stand-still, in order that the heads of the plants and the
extremities of them may solidify, for if the plants be transferred to
the plantation with newly-formed and tender shoots they run great risk
of being nipped off by the scorching rays of the sun, which frequently
makes its appearance when least expected in rainy or cloudy weather.
And when the nursery is at all exposed to dry, east winds the rows
and divisions between the row of beds should be thickly planted with
rose and fruit trees, as these not only add to the appearance of the
nursery, but are also extremely valuable as shelters.

The next branch of planting that demands special attention is that of
transferring or transplanting the young shrubs or plants at the best
possible distance from one another. Distances should be altered in
accordance with the poorness or richness of the soil; the richer and
stronger the land, the greater distance should they be planted apart;
and the poorer the soil and more exposed the location, the closer and
more thickly they should be grown. If roads are made across the slopes
and about midway up them, it may be laid down as a general rule that
the plants above the roads should be planted far closer than those
in the richer soil below. Thus, if six feet by six feet be found a
convenient distance in the best land, four and a half feet by five
and a half feet will be found the best distance in the poorer and
more exposed positions. One prime object must always be borne in
mind, _i.e._, to cover the soil, in order the better to shade it, to
keep down weeds, and at the same time leave sufficient room between
the rows to allow of passing up and down the lines with ease, and for
the pickers to get about without forcing their way and breaking the
branches. Bearing these objects in mind, a planter should regulate his
distances carefully in accordance with his soil, situation and climate.
But on these points a planter must, in a great measure, rely upon his
own judgment, and these suggestions are mainly intended to caution the
planter against fixing on any arbitrary distance as being the best.


DISTANCES OF PLANTS.

Scarcely any two planters are agreed as to the best distances to allow
between the plants, the question being governed to a great extent by
the richness of the soil, as well as by climate and situation, the
object in view must be that with the greatest convenient number of
trees in a given space none shall interfere with or incommode its
neighbor. In cold or exposed situations where the plants cannot obtain
any great size, close planting is necessary, the reverse being the
case where the climate is warm and humid and the soil is productive,
and consequently likely to produce large bushes. In Java and the West
Indies the space is often 10 × 12 feet, but other crops are there
usually planted between the Coffee rows, while in India and Ceylon
distances vary from four feet each way to eight feet, the best being
perhaps seven feet between the rows and six feet between the plants.
The number of trees contained in an acre planted 6 × 7 feet will be
about 1,000; 6 × 6, 1,200; 6 × 5, 1,450; 5 × 5, 1,750; 5 × 4, 2,150;
and 4 × 5, 2,700. The advantages to be gained in wide planting are
that field labor is facilitated and the shrubs grow larger, the
disadvantage being that more room is left for weeds.


HOLING AND PITTING.

Around or beside each stake a hole is next dug, its size depending
much upon the kind of soil; in stiff or poor land two feet each way is
not too large, but in good light ground eighteen inches will suffice,
but they had better be too deep than not deep enough. The implement
commonly used for this purpose is a kind of grubbing-hoe or spade-bar.
The earth thrown out is usually left to mellow until just before
planting, after which the hole is filled in with the best of the mould,
which must have been previously carefully freed from stones, roots and
other extraneous matter, and mixed with a little manure. The filling-in
must be done very lightly and the loose earth should rise in a heap
above the hole. This operation is best performed while the ground is
moist, but it is also a good plan to break down the sides somewhat,
more especially if they are hardened.


PLANTING AND PICKING.

When the holes have been duly prepared the young plants are removed
from the nursery with the same care as they are transplanted to the
nursery from the seed-beds; for taking up the young plants an ordinary
prong is much superior to the spade-bar, but hand-pulling must be
rigidly guarded against. The fibrous roots of each plant as taken up
are carefully pruned off to about four inches so that they may not be
doubled up in the planting, the tap-root being also shortened to about
nine inches by a clean sloping cut for the same reason, and a ball of
earth should surround the roots and if the plants are exposed to the
air for more than a few minutes, the roots should be covered with wet
moss or some other damp material. A dull, cloudy day should be chosen
for this operation whenever possible, as in bright sunshine the plants
would be all burnt up. The plants are carried in batches in wicker
trays or baskets to the plantation and are placed in the ready prepared
holes by hand, great care being taken that no roots are doubled up,
that the plants are upright and that they are placed no deeper in the
ground than they were before, and in treading the earth down around
the plant every precaution is necessary to prevent leaving holes for
the accumulation of water around the roots. The surface must also be
made firm and level as possible, but on a steep slope the outer edge
may be slightly higher than the inner, to check the effect of any wash
that may occur, but in subsequent weeding it will be necessary to guard
against exposing the lateral roots. There is some diversity of opinion
as to the size and age most suitable for putting out nursery plants,
but when dull, rainy weather can be depended on for some little time,
nursery plants of the second year are the most satisfactory, plants of
one season only being too tender for the operation, but under ordinary
conditions and with due care no serious loss of plants should be
incurred in this way. A novel plan, one which may be advantageously
adopted on small plantations, is the one resembling the method of
planting Cinchona. A number of calabashes are deprived of their small
end and emptied of their contents, into these the seedlings are placed
and gradually exposed to the sun as they grow and finally planted in
the calabashes; the latter soon rot and form manure for the plants. A
new plan that has been much followed is the substitution of “stumps”
for nursery plants--that is, plants that have been in the nursery for
about three years are dug up and pruned back leaving only about six
to eight inches of stem; they are hardier and safer in a general way
than whole plants, more especially in uncertain weather, as they will
strike readily, even without rainfall for some little time after being
put in, provided the ground has become sufficiently moist to prevent
their being burnt up, but they cannot be used in districts where a
long period of drought may be expected to succeed to a wet season. The
planting of stumps is performed in the usual way, the plants send up
several shoots from the parent stem of these, the finest are retained
to form the future tree and the rest are pulled off carefully. The
shoot that is left grows rapidly, but from the way it springs from the
stem it is liable to be accidentally broken off either by a high wind
or by the weeders. The crookedness of the stump from native-grown seed
renders them very inferior; the best size for stumps is the thickness
of a common pencil.


DIBBLING AND STAKING.

When the land is very rich and friable holing may be replaced by
the less expensive plan known as “dibbling,” which is performed in
two ways: (1) by the aid of the spade-bar is made a sufficiently
deep hole into which the plant is dropped, and secured by treading
the earth lightly around; (2) a patch of ground measuring about one
foot each way is thoroughly loosened without the soil being taken
out, in the disturbed earth a hole is made with the hand, the plant
is then inserted and trodden around as before; the latter method is
preferable. Dibbling is only practicable in exceptionable cases, and
is, moreover, open to objection, as a hole is often left in which
water may accumulate and rot the plant, and the roots are more liable
to injury than in ordinary planting, but, on the other hand, much
labor is saved. When the plants are exposed to the wind they should
be provided with supports as soon as they are ten to twelve inches
high, and present a resisting surface. For the first season’s plants
lining pegs may be used, but larger plants will need strong, inflexible
stakes, three to four feet long, entering the ground on the windward
side at about six inches distant from the plant, and at such an angle
as to meet the stem at about its middle. The plant is attached to the
stake by a broad loop of some vegetable fibre, firmly tied to the stake
but loose around the stem of the plant. If the plants have already
been worked round by the wind they will need earthing up to five or
six inches as well. The ties should be brushed with coal-tar, as a
protection against theft, insects and decay.


SUPPLYING VACANCIES.

Every precaution should be taken to guard against failures, as
“supplies,” as they are called, will seldom, if ever, do as well as
young plants put into virgin soil, but in new land failures can be
entirely guarded against by care, and their number may subsequently be
limited by keeping the ground free from weeds, and by good draining,
manuring and pruning. A certain number of vacancies, however, will
occur from time to time. And they must be filled up in the following
manner: The original pit having been re-emptied should be enlarged an
inch or two all around, but especially in depth, and this should be
done in dry weather, the pit being left open for some time, and only
filled in when the time for planting has arrived, but in most cases it
will be desirable to refill the pit with the soil which has been taken
out of it. Where the vacancy is in the midst of old trees a large pit
is necessary to protect the new plant from being interfered with by
these roots, and it will be also well to isolate the young plant by
surrounding it with a ring trench, six to eight inches wide and one
foot deep. It is also desirable to put a basketful or so of new soil
from the first into the pit near the top, but where this cannot be
managed a few handfuls of manure should be mixed with surface mould,
for only strong, healthy plants must be used for this purpose. Stumps
are, by some planters, considered more suitable than nursery plants for
supplying vacancies, as, being hardier, they throw out from three to
four “suckers,” the best of which are selected when they have attained
a height of from six to nine inches, the others being carefully pulled
off. Well-formed nursery plants, with three or four pairs of primaries
and about twelve to fifteen inches high, put in just as they come from
the beds with a good ball around the roots, are to be preferred when
steady wet weather can be calculated on for some time, but in any case
supplies ought to be put in early in the wet season, so as to give them
every advantage; they should also be marked by a tall stake, and should
be allowed to bear a maiden crop before being topped or pruned.


CATCH-CROPS.

Much has been said for and against the growing of other crops on the
plantation among the Coffee shrubs. In Java and other Coffee-growing
countries of the East it is grown between the rows. In Ceylon two
catch-crops were long in vogue, but they appear now to have gone
out of fashion, it being claimed that they exhausted the soil and
produced too much there. While in Mexico, the West Indies, Central
and South America, the culture of plantains, yams, cocoa and bananas
was carried to such an extreme on many plantations that the Coffee
became, in fact, of only secondary importance, or was even entirely
killed out. There is nothing, however, to object to in the simultaneous
cultivation of several crops, so long as each has proper space and
sufficient manure, and the plants are not antagonistic to each other,
as many claim, and the failure of one crop may be compensated for by
the success of the other. Rice and tobacco have been found to yield
good returns as catch-crops, but they possess a disadvantage, in not
affording any shade to the young Coffee plants. Cocoa, yams, bananas
and plantains are perhaps even less advisable, and similar attempts
with cotton have proved altogether failures, while maize, on the other
hand, is highly recommended from experiences in Brazil and other
countries. When adopted, it should be planted thinly in three rows,
eighteen inches apart between the Coffee rows, and two plants apart
in the Coffee rows between the Coffee plants. The seed should be sown
immediately after the Coffee is planted. It grows very quickly and
should early be thinned out to eighteen inches apart in the rows, and
will soon be high enough to completely shelter and partially shade
the Coffee, which will grow all the faster in consequence, the latter
being also greatly benefited by the extra working of the ground. In the
fall a dressing of manure--the same manure will suit both Coffee and
maize--is applied and the ground plowed or deeply hoed, preferably the
former. The crops may also be repeated the following spring, reducing
it, however, to two rows and one Coffee plant and repeating the
manuring and plowing or hoeing, but this time the choice between the
plow and hoe must be governed by the size of the Coffee shrubs; if too
high, the latter is best.


MANURES AND MANURING.

It is commonly said that Coffee is an unusually exhaustive crop, but
the exhaustion of the soil consequent upon Coffee culture is only
the result of the peculiar conditions under which the industry is
prosecuted rather than of the nature of the plant itself. Better than
any amount of artificial manuring is the retention of the naturally
rich surface soil by the effective prevention of wash as a secondary
adjunct; however, judicious manuring will prove highly beneficial, and
even necessary in almost all cases after the first or two. But it is
impossible to lay down any hard and fast rule for manuring, the most
that can be done is to indicate the essential elements of coffee soils,
the best artificial substitutes and the best methods of applying these
substitutes. The best coffee soils appear to contain about 15 per cent.
of combined iron and alumnia, the iron, if as red oxide may amount to
about 20 or even 30 per cent. being a good absorbent of fertilizing
constituents, but the alumnia should not exceed 10 per cent. Lime is
also an essential, which must be supplied, if wanting in the soil;
this is too often overlooked in the anxiety to furnish stimulants.
The percentage of organic matter may be too high, it should represent
only about 0.2 to 0.3 per cent. of nitrogen, so that the best average
manure for supplying nitrogen and potash is well-rotted dung, but its
frequent application should be accompanied by a little lime unless
the soil is already very rich in that constituent, for, without the
presence of lime, the shrubs will not receive the full benefit of
the nitrogenous principles, but its use in a tropical climate must
be governed by caution. Thoroughly fermented coffee pulp is also a
useful manure, but it is only half as valuable as dung and costs more
to apply, it should be kept covered as it is produced, and is best
mixed with fermented dung, failing which it should be well-limed, while
alone is of small benefit, but forms a good vehicle for concentrated
fertilizers. Almost all coffee soils requires a constant renewal of
phosphoric acid and lime, which are not supplied by the dung alone;
these constituents are best furnished in the form of bones steamed
and ground or by concentrated superphosphate containing from 40 to 45
per cent., while phosphate of lime. Nitrogenous manures alone are too
stimulating and help only to produce premature exhaustion, therefore
bones may with great advantage be added to the dung. Composts of pulp
and cake are useful nitrogenous manures, but they must be accompanied
by phosphates and lime. Potash seldom requires to be directly applied,
but is very advantageous after attacks of leaf-disease, while magnesia
seems to be a necessary constituent of all good coffee soils in the
proportion of 0.5 to 2 per cent., but when wanting dolomite may be
applied in its place. The great object of manuring is to apply all
the constituents required and in a soluble form, but for coffee the
nitrogen is better applied in an insoluble form--as in dung, cake and
fish manure--than in a soluble form--as in guano, nitrate of soda or
sulphate of ammonia. Phosphates are best supplied in bones, when a
lasting effect is required, but high-grade superphosphates are always
preferable for immediate effect as in cases of leaf-disease. Again in
tropical countries, all manures are best applied frequently and in
small quantities. Regular manuring after each crop would doubtless be
most generally economical and advantageous, the quantity depending
in local conditions, but should always be extra liberal after a full
harvest. Artificial manures should be put out only in damp weather,
dung may be applied at almost any time, while lime must never be in a
caustic state; when applied its best forms are gas-lime and gypsum.

The manure most freely applied and most relied on in countries where
it is available, is cattle dung, and with the view of keeping up a
regular supply of it, many estates keep a considerable stock of cattle
for this purpose alone, and which are, in many instances, stall-fed
with grass and oil-cake. But in many of the coffee-growing countries
this form, owing to a fatal obstacle in climate is not obtainable,
for while, in some countries, grass can be readily grown all the year
round, in others it is found impossible to provide any quantity of
grass for even any part of the year, and cattle have to be grazed
all day to support them at all. Besides the fatal objections to the
foregoing kind of manure, there are others which serve to show that it
is only under very favorable circumstances that cattle manure could be
used with advantage. The first is the bulky nature of the manure and
the consequent cost and labor of application, and the second, and by
no means the least, is the great risk run of losing stock by disease.
The latter consideration should be sufficient to deter the planter from
depending on a manurial source which is liable to be suddenly cut off
at any moment.

Another form of manure in use among planters is bone manure, the value
of which for all crops and in all countries, combined with its extreme
portability and cheapness of application, renders it by far the most
important of fertilizers for coffee. This form, mixed with the pulp
of the coffee is a popular one on many plantations. The pulp being
moist prevents the bone dust from being blown away, and when heaped up
before using, the heat that is thereby generated seems to exercise a
considerable effect upon the bone dust. Still another excellent manure
is made from alternate layers of farm yard manure and bone dust,
making a splendid compost. The former is generally composed of horse,
cattle and sheep manure, wood ashes and general sweepings. The best
results have been obtained from this latter form, and if sufficient
quantities of the first substance could always be obtainable, readily
and cheaply, it is without exception, the best yet discovered for
coffee manure. Bone dust, when used alone fails, though valuable as a
berry producer, to give that dark green leaf and growth of strong young
wood which is absolutely necessary to produce abundantly.

The manner of applying manure is not the same in all countries or cases
and no manure should be put more than one foot below the surface of
the ground, nor less than eighteen inches from the stem of the coffee
bush. On flat land, where there is no danger of wash, the manure may be
spread over the surface and hoed into a depth of from nine to twelve
inches, or, better still, a square hole may be cut between each four
shrubs and the manure buried in it; while on slopes it is customary to
dig a hole above each bush. For bulky manures it may be two feet long
by one and a half feet wide and one foot deep, but for concentrated
manures these dimensions must be considerably reduced. The holes should
be filled up with any prunings of other vegetable matter at hand and
then covered down firmly with the loose top-soil and the new earth from
the hole should be spread around the stem of the neighboring tree to
protect its roots. Ordinary manuring is sometimes supplemented by other
methods of improving the soil, one of which is to loosen it by driving
a long bar or a manure-fork deeply into the ground and then prying up
the earth without turning it over. Another operation is that known as
“mulching” or “ground thatching,” which consists in simply covering
the ground under the bushes with a layer of long, hard grass six to
nine inches thick, the effect of which in cold, wet soils is to keep
the ground warm and throw off excessive moisture, while in hot, dry
situations it is equally useful to retain moisture. But in any case
weeds are kept down and wash is quite prevented, and when rotten the
grass may be hoed or dug in as manure; this thatching has been found
a perfect cure for black bug. A third operation, termed “trenching”
or “water hoeing,” is where trenches are made across the slope, which
may be either opened or closed. In the former case holes three to four
feet long, twelve to fifteen inches broad and from fifteen to eighteen
inches deep are cut between each four trees, the soil taken from them
is spread over the roots of the trees, while the holes are left open to
act as catch drains and receptacles for wash, weeds, prunings and other
vegetable refuse, being emptied twice a year and their contents spread
around the roots of the shrubs. Closed trenches are ditches cut across
the entire length of the coffee rows two feet wide and deep and filled
with any vegetable rubbish at hand, they are then covered with earth
and well trodden down, while the remaining soil is spread under the
trees. The benefit of trenching is greatest in stiff soils. The refuse
matter in the trenches should be well limed in all cases, in order to
kill the grubs and other vermin for which it will otherwise form a
nursery.


WEEDING AND PRUNING.

By “weeding,” on a Coffee plantation, is meant the eradication of
_every plant_ which is not being intentionally cultivated. The
operation is performed in different ways, according to the nature of
the soil. On light soils and sloping situations hand-weeding is much
the best. The laborer is provided with a pointed stick to help in
getting up obstinate roots, and carries at his waist a small bag, into
which the weeds are at once thrust, and afterwards turned out of the
bags into pits dug at convenient intervals, or are heaped up on the
roads and finally buried or burned, the latter being the surer method
of effectually destroying them. By weeding early and repeating the
operation as often as necessary, the ground may be kept clean by hand
alone. But when hand-weeding will not suffice, recourse must be had
to “scraping” the ground, which is, however, attended with a serious
drawback--the first inch or more of the best surface-mould is removed,
at the same time thus robbing the plants of nourishment and exposing
the earth to the full effects of the wash. On stiff clay soils, on
level plantations and in damp, cool climates on the other hand, hoeing
is not only necessary for the perfect eradication of the weeds, but is
of itself exceedingly beneficial to the soil, and except during the
dry season should be regularly done, whether weeds are present or not.
When scraping or hoeing it is imperative that the operation should be
conducted from the outside towards the trees, so that the roots may be
kept well covered and the wash easily escape into the drains.

The coffee tree, if allowed to grow to its natural height, will
commonly be found to measure from twelve to fifteen feet. But the most
experienced planters reduce their shrubs to at the most four and a half
feet, and sometimes as little as three feet, and in windy and exposed
situations two and a half feet in some countries have been adopted
as the best height. And here, as in distance, the planter should be
guided by the nature of the soil and partly by the aspect as regards
wind. In thoroughly sheltered situations and in the finest land a tree
may be allowed four and a half to five feet with advantage, but in all
medium situations, as regards soil and exposure, four feet should be
the limit, or even a few inches less; in very poor and much exposed
situations three feet will be found ample for all purposes. The height
being determined on the next point is to consider the best time for
topping or pruning them. By many planters the safest and most sensible
time for performing this operation is considered to be when the tree
has exceeded the height it is intended to keep it at, and when the bark
has become brown and fully developed. Pruning should, if possible, be
all completed before blossoming season, except when it is confined
to the removal of plainly superfluous wood that is past bearing, or
has, perhaps, only a berry or two on it, when pruning may be continued
without injury or inconvenience until up to the commencement of May.
When all these are removed it will generally be found that sufficient
has been done; but on very luxuriant trees the shoots growing in the
right direction will be still too numerous, and will require further
thinning so as to reduce the number to two shoots at every point of the
branch. If this process of handling be fully and regularly attended to
there will be very little and very simple work for the knife to do,
and the pruner will merely have to remove the very driest and oldest
secondaries and shorten back such primaries as may be too long and
whippy.

[Illustration: FERMENTING COFFEE.]

In the old neglected trees the process is more difficult, but may, with
a little patience, be got into good order easy and cheaply. The first
thing to be done with them is to cut out all secondary and tertiary
branches that are past bearing, and to clear out the centre of the head
on the trees. The removal of this superfluous wood will be followed by
a sufficiently rapid growth of young wood which should be carefully
handled, and after the next crop a fair proportion of cross branches
may be cut out, but only to a slight extent, so as not to diminish
the crop prospect. Others, again, contending that the proper time is
immediately before or after the first blossoming season. In the former
case it is claimed that topping before the blossoming season has a
tendency to turn out a heavy crop on the pruning branches, while in
the latter instance other planters boldly sacrifice the heavy yield
in order to add to the permanent strength of the tree, invariably
refraining from topping the plant until just after the blossoming
period. By this latter method several pairs of branches, with their
blossoms, are cut off and lost, but the sacrifice will be amply repaid
by the increased strength added to the young tree, and also by the
advantage of having a small crop on the primary branches below.

The style of pruning first required by Coffee bushes is that known as
“topping,” the age and height at which this operation is performed
depending in a great measure upon local circumstances, this question
also being a much-debated one. The object of “topping,” or removing the
top of the bush, is to restrain its upward growth within convenient
limits, and, as a natural consequence, to strengthen and concentrate
its lateral growth. In some countries of the East topping is commenced
at the age of twelve to eighteen months, the maximum ordinary height
being four feet, which is sometimes reduced to two feet, the operation
being postponed until the shrubs have borne their maiden crop, even
though extra staking is required to withstand the wind; the best
plan being to remove the two primaries at the required height by a
sloping outward cut close to the stem, and then to remove the top
by an oblique cut so that the stumps resemble a cross, and a firm,
natural knot remains to guard against the stem splitting down. But
some planters contend that the plants should be topped as soon as
they have reached the required height, when the soft wood is easily
severed by a pinch between the finger and thumb, as in the case of
tea. In other countries the shrubs are topped either at their full
height--four and one-half to five feet--or at three feet, allowing
a “sucker” to grow up on the weather side, the latter plan being
preferred. There is much advantage gained in limiting the height to
five feet, as not only is the crop gathered more easily, and without
damage to the tree, but it is actually heavier, and the shrubs are more
readily made to cover the ground. The first result of “topping” is to
induce the growth of a number of shoots, the removal of which is termed
“handling” or “searching.” The first to appear are vertical “suckers”
or “gormandizers,” from under the primary boughs; these are immediately
rubbed off without injuring the bark. From the primaries spring
secondary branches in pairs, and at very short intervals. All such
appearing within six inches of the stem are removed at once, so that a
passage of at least a foot high is left in the centre of the tree for
the admission of the air and sun. The object of pruning is to divert
the energies of the tree from forming _wood_, and to concentrate them
upon forming _fruit_. The fruit of the Coffee tree is borne by young
wood, and as the secondaries are reproduced when they are removed,
they are cut off as soon as they have borne. A constant succession of
young wood is thus secured. In order that this may be regular, and to
avoid weakening the shrub, the secondaries that grow outside of the
foot space are left on alternate sides of the primary, their opposites
being removed each year in turn; thus one is growing while the other
is bearing. The one point in view must be the equal development of the
tree and the yearly growth of as much as it will bear, but no more.
Branches must not be allowed to grow into or cross each other, and if
two or more secondaries spring from one spot the strongest only must
be retained; where a gap occurs tertiaries may be trained to free it
in the same way. When practicable, the bushes should be handled twice
before the crop, and the pruning should be commenced immediately after
the crop and finished before the blossom comes out, but should this
be impossible, it must be suspended during the three or four days of
blossom-time, and then be carried to completion. When it is evident
that the crop on a tree will exhaust it if allowed to mature, a portion
of it must be sacrificed by pruning. The loss thus occasioned is more
apparent than real, as in every prolific season much fruit is wasted
for lack of labor, and the trees are unreasonably overtaxed and bear
poorly for some time afterwards. Everything should be done to insure
regular and even crops; the cuttings should be trenched in among the
plants as manure, and no branch should be allowed to bear more than two
or three crops before removal. Regular and systematic pruning is one of
the first essentials to successful and profitable Coffee culture. Where
Coffee plantations have been neglected on this score they must be very
gradually reduced to proper condition by sawing out the branches and
opening up the centre of the trees in the first year, and trimming out
about half the remaining wood in the second year.


ENEMIES AND REMEDIES.

The profits derived from healthy Coffee growing are so large that were
it not for the many enemies which hamper the planter’s struggles and
stultify his best efforts, his occupation would be one of the most
profitable in the world. But as it is he has to contend with numerous
foes, and the more lowly and minute forms have proved themselves the
most difficult to combat in these long struggles which have been waged
since Coffee cultivation first rose to its present importance in the
various countries in which it is grown. From the mammalian kingdom he
has not much to fear or is generally able to devise efficient remedies
against their ravages. But besides the peculiar conditions of climate,
aspect, drainage, shade, shelter and the many other drawbacks already
alluded to, particular attention must be paid to the prevention or cure
of certain maladies to which the Coffee shrub is specially liable.
The number of these insect forms and fungoid pests is considerable,
but the only ones of sufficient importance to merit description are
leaf-blight, fly, bug, borer and canker.

=Leaf-blight.=--Is a fungus known as _Homilica Vasatux_, allied to
the moulds, and is present in some form or other all the year round,
first attacking the under side of the leaves causing spots or blotches,
at first yellow, but subsequently turning black. These blotches are
covered with a pale orange-colored dust or powder, which easily rubs
off; they gradually grow in size until at last they have one part of
the former with three parts of the latter, thoroughly incubating them
before use. A disease known as leaf-rot, rather prevalent in some
countries, is distinguished from the above, and which is referred to
as a fungus named _Pelicaalana Kolorga_, sometimes appears when the
leaves of affected shrubs become covered with slimy, gelatinous matter,
turn black and drop off, the clusters of berries also rotting and
falling. There is every probability, however, that the sulphur and lime
treatment will be effective in this case also, but the shed leaves and
fruit should be collected and burned as a precaution.

=The Coffee Borer.=--This pest, formerly known as the “worm” and
“coffee-fly,” is most troublesome in the East, where in former years it
destroyed whole plantations. It has been identified as the _Xycotrechen
quadmepes_, and in its complete stage the insect appears as a winged
beetle, having from one-half to three-quarters of an inch in length,
rather finer in shape than a wasp, with hard, shiny coat, red and black
in color, but in some cases yellow and black in alternate transverse
lines, boring a passage into the stem of the coffee tree usually a few
inches above the ground.

=The Coffee-fly.=--This disease has been known for many years in San
Domingo and Brazil, having also spread to Venezuela, the Antilles,
Porto Rico, Martinique, Mexico, and all down the Atlantic coast of
South America. It is caused by the larvæ of a moth scarcely half an
inch long, named _Comistana coffcalaun_, the color of the insect being
dull-white or pale-gray, with a bar across the posterior end when
quiet. Its motions are very active and it readily takes alarm. This
insect prefers young and delicate leaves, and is most active about the
commencement of the wet season, when demolition spread over the leaves,
which then drop off, leaving the trees unable to produce any crop, or
to bring to maturity that which may have already been produced. In
districts affected by the northwest winds, the fungus generally exists
as an external parasite, in the form of long, filamentous threads,
covering every part of the back of the leaves, but so minute as to be
invisible to the naked eye. Of the many remedies experimented with for
the suppression of this disease, one only is invariably effective--that
is a mixture of the best quality of flowers of sulphur and caustic lime.

The majority of the eggs are deposited, but are dormant during the wet
season--that is, from March to May. The disease manifests itself by
the appearance of large, discolored blotches on the leaves, causing
their decay and fall. As a remedy, it has been stated that by picking
the leaves at such a time, as to take the greatest number of the larvæ
when about two weeks old, it would be easy to destroy the pest, as
the size of the blotches would then easily distinguish the diseased
foliage. Again, each of these contains several hundred eggs undergoing
incubation, and in a short time the whole of the green wood of the
tree will become covered with the young insects and coated with a
black, soot-like powder, which renders the tree easily discernible at a
distance. The bug will soon spread over the whole plantation, entirely
checking the growth of the trees, the fresh, young shoots being always
first attacked, and such wood as is allowed to mature, produces hardly
any crops; the berries, moreover, are in the earliest stages destroyed
by these insects, which cut them off with the stalk. The measures
recommended for checking this scourge are to dust the bushes with a
mixture of powdered saltpetre and quicklime in equal parts, or to brush
or sponge the affected parts with a mixture of soft-soap, tar, tobacco
and spirits of turpentine, in about equal quantities. The white bug is
a distinct species of insect, known as _Psedococcus adombrum_, and is a
small, flat, oval inspect, about one-sixteenth of an inch long, covered
with a white down or fur, having parallel ridges running across its
back from side to side, like the wood-louse, though on a much smaller
scale. It is found in various stages of development all the year round,
and takes up its quarters on the roots of the Coffee trees, to start
one part beneath the surface, at the axils of the leaves, and among
the stalks of the crop-clusters, which it cuts off wholesale, either
during the blossoms’ stage or just after the young berries have formed.
In the latter case, its operations may be easily recognized by the
large quantities of young, green berries with which the ground beneath
the trees will be strewn, and is also discerned by a white, flour-like
excretion, which it deposits around the axil-works where it has made
its abode. The prescription alike recommended for black-bug will be
here found equally efficacious, but in either case probably a decoction
of common tobacco might be sufficient when much more evenly prepared.

=The Coffee-bug.=--The Coffee tree is attacked by various species of
_coccida_ in most countries, where they are known by different names,
but careful cultivation has greatly reduced the evil. There are two
distinct species of bug found in the Coffee-growing countries, called
respectively the “black” or “scaling,” and the “white” or “mealy.”
The former, _Lecumimum Coffea_, is a minute insect which attaches
itself to the tenderest shoots of the plant, the females having the
appearance of small scallop-shells, of a brown color, and adhering to
the leaf or twig in the same manner as the scallop-shell to a rock; at
first horizontal, soon takes an upward, spiral direction, and proceeds
until a safe shoot is found in which the larvæ may be deposited. The
tree soon droops and dies down to the point at which the entry has
been effected, and where it can be easily broken off by a sharp pull
at the upper part. The only course in this case is to break off the
tree in this manner, and then burn the stem with the larvæ secreted
in its centre. Young shoots will proceed from the stump, and one of
these may be trained to succeed the original stem. The insect is very
susceptible to the effects of wood smoke, and may be easily driven off
or destroyed by the smoke of ordinary wood or grass fires.

=Canker, or Bark Disease.=--Is a disease of the Coffee plant which
has created great havoc in Africa and other countries of the East,
and which causes an annual loss of about one per cent. of the trees
of Jamaica and other West India Islands. The first symptoms is the
withering of a secondary or tertiary branch, when it will be found
that the bark under the primary branches is decayed and blue-mouldy,
the blue mould gradually extending downwards over the whole stem; a
tree once attacked never recovering, but dying in a few months. All
soils and situations seem liable to this disease, the trees beginning
to suffer when about six years old. Though the mould is the proximate
cause of death, the ultimate cause is undoubtedly due to some
unfavorable external condition.

The opinions of experienced planters as to what this may be are
various, being generally attributed to neglect of cultivation, to
unstability of climate and to a want of sufficient depth of soil.
All may be practically right, but the last seems the most probable,
and is the reason given for it in many countries. Rot, grubs, rats
and squirrels are accounted for in the following manner: “Rot,” or
the blacking and withering of the young leaves and shoots, is due to
wet and cold, and may be cured by good drainage and mulching. Grubs
of a large and yellow kind, destroy the tap-roots of the plants,
cattle-manure being a fertile source of them, must be well-limed. Rats,
squirrels, grasshoppers, ants and spiders collectively do considerable
mischief, and should be exterminated whenever possible.


GATHERING AND HARVESTING.

The cluster of buds which duly make their appearance are at first
little dark-green spikes, but as they grow they become straw-colored,
then, under the influence of a few showers, almost white, and finally
burst into snowy blossoms, and after a day or two the flowers turn
brown and fade away, the more gradually the better; when the bloom
is out, the rainfall is unwelcome, but after it is “set” the shower
is beneficial. The pistils of the flowers now assume the form of
berries, gradually growing and changing their color from dark-green to
light-yellow, which finally drys out to red or crimson. As soon as a
sprinkling of red berries is seen, picking should begin and continue as
long as any berries ripen, that is to say, from one to three months,
but the berries or “cherries” as they are more frequently called, must
not be picked until they are fully ripe, which is best indicated by a
deep, purplish-crimson color, and as the crop rarely or never ripens
all at once, two to three pickings are required, the second being
the principal one, the others being rather gleanings than pickings.
Each mature berry should be picked separately off its stalk and never
stripped off; the cherries as picked are dropped into a small bag about
eighteen inches square, suspended from the neck of the picker, and the
bags are then emptied into one or two bushel sacks or hampers placed
at intervals on the paths of the pickers. If the berries are allowed
to get over-ripe in wet weather, they will be liable to burst and drop
the beans, or to fall off bodily, but if on clean ground much of them
may be recovered, while in very hot weather they are more likely to
dry up and hold on to trees. In order to convey the berries to the
curing-houses in some countries a great saving is effected in long
distances, by running them with water down galvanized iron spouting,
made in 8-inch lengths, laid with even gradients and curves duly
secured. The berries are then despatched from the cisterns, to which
a due proportion of water has been admitted, provision being made for
collecting and utilizing the latter at the mills.


PULPING AND PREPARING.

The preparation of Coffee for market necessitates the erection of
extensive buildings and machinery on large estates, for which no
specific plans can be given, because much depends upon the size and
situation of the estate, and as much upon the kind and degree of the
preparation contemplated. But the site selected for the works should
be as near the centre of the plantation as is compatible with securing
a patch of open, airy ground to which a good stream of water can be
brought. The first requisite building should be the “pulping-house,”
comprising three floors--the berry loft, the pulping platform and the
cistern floor--and whenever possible it should be built against a
shallow cliff or embankment, so that the berry coffee may be delivered
into the loft without being hauled upstairs by hand, while the berry
loft is usually placed immediately over the pulping platform.

The operation known as “pulping” consists in clearing the coffee
“beans” from the pulp in which they are enveloped, which with ripe
berries is most easily and effectively accomplished immediately after
picking, efforts being usually made to complete the pulping of a day’s
picking during the same evening. If over-ripe or shriveled, but still
comparatively moist inside, the berries should first be soaked in water
for a few hours previous. A number of machines have been invented for
this purpose, the chief objects in all cases being to pulp rapidly,
thoroughly and without injury to the bean, for if the inner or
“silver-skin” of the bean be broken the latter is wasted.

But the latest and most simple form of “pulping”-machine is what is
known as the “Disc Pulper,” in which the separation of the bean and the
pulp is effected by means of rotating discs, covered with a thin sheet
of copper, whose surface has been “knobbed,” is raised into sort of
oval knobs by the application of a blend punch. Pulpers of this class
being portable and cheap, are most frequently used in the opening of
distant estates. The “single” form is very light, and when driven by
three plantation hands, it will pulp all the way from 20 to 25 bushels
of berries an hour. The “double” form, which has two discs and which
is furnished with a feeding-roller inside the hopper, requires from
four to six hands to pulp 40 bushels an hour, but when driven by power,
it will hull from 70 to 80 bushels in the same time. In the machine
the discs are placed between “cushions” of smooth iron, set at such
a distance that the berries cannot pass without being bruised. The
cushions rest in a movable bed of iron, set so that no bean can pass
downwards. When the disc revolves, the berries are driven forward and
squeezed, the corrugations then catch the skins and drag them between
the disc and bed. These small pulpers have an advantage over the
larger ones, in that each can be set to suit the size of a portion of
the crop--which always varies in size--and in that, with two or more
machines, there is less likelihood of complete stoppage in case of
accident. One disc pulper to every 30 or 40 acres--that is, about three
to every 100 acres, two to be set alike for large size and one for
smaller berries--should be ample in a fair-sized estate.

There are times, however, when it is impossible to pulp Coffee; the
pulpers may get out of repair, or the weather may be so untoward that
the berry does not ripen sufficiently, or become too dry for pulping.
In these cases the berries must first be fermented. The best way to do
this is to place them in one of the tanks, or if the quantity is too
small to nearly fill a tank, in an old box or cask, and cover it with
sacks or grass, and let it remain until it acquires a good warmth;
then, when the berries in squeezing are no longer slippery, they may be
taken out and spread in the sun to dry. For two or three nights it need
not be housed, nor will rain hurt it. When dry, it may be stored for
curing like parchment Coffee, but must not be mixed with it. To ferment
the berries by leaving them in a heap on the ground is a bad plan for
two reasons: First, when fermented in this manner it becomes very wet
and collects dirt, which, in the after treatment, will affect the color
of the Coffee. Second, because in a heap the fermentation cannot be
equalized throughout the Coffee. Pulping may be performed whenever
possible, as the increased trouble entailed by the latter process is
not compensated for by the alleged improvement of the flavor and no
better price is received for it.


FERMENTING AND DRYING.

The “parchment” coffee as it comes from the pulper is next submitted
to a fermentation process for the purpose of removing the saccharine
matter, without which the beans would not dry. This operation is
performed in a series of tanks, whose capacity varies with the size
of the estate, and which may be arranged in squares. The pulpers are
placed on a platform above the tanks and in such a position that the
pulped coffee can be run by water into the tanks, which must also be
so situated that the coffee will always advance by the aid of running
water and may finally be conveniently conveyed to the drying ground,
while the water and refuse run off. The amount of cistern accommodation
necessary for a plantation maybe based on the allowance of one cubic
foot for each bushel of berries picked in one day. The tanks are seldom
less than three in number--two receiving cisterns, each large enough
for the greatest possible daily picking and a third for washing the
parchment, nearly as large superficially, as the two others combined,
that is, the “washing” tanks from twelve to fifteen feet long, two
feet deep and separated by a causeway three and one-half feet wide,
and the “fermenting” tanks eight by eighteen feet long and two and
one-half feet deep. These tanks are usually made of brick-work, lined
with cement or asphalt, but wood is much better because less cold, but
all should have a slight incline in order to assist the drainage. The
receiving tanks are provided at the lowest corner with a good-sized
outlet, fitted with a plug and with a movable sieve of perforated
zinc or woven-wire, fine enough to keep back the coffee when draining
off the water, but not so fine as to choke with saccharine scum; the
receiving cisterns being used alternately. All the coffee pulped in
one day is allowed to remain in the receiving cistern until a slight
fermentation has set in; this occurs in from twelve to eighteen hours
in mild weather, but in cold weather it may take from thirty to forty
hours and even more. There are two ways of conducting fermentation--the
dry and the wet--the former consists in allowing the berries to be
without water, the bottom of the tank being perforated so as to draw
off the liquid, but by the latter process the tank remains full of
water. The dry system, however, is the better as long as care is taken
to turn the mass so that the fermentation shall be equal throughout;
the presence of water equalizes the fermentation but retards it and
slightly injures the quality of the coffee. When fermentation is not
sufficiently prolonged, the beans will assume a yellowish color--called
“blankety”--and will be difficult to dry, becoming liable to absorb
moisture at the same time. But when properly fermented the separation
of the saccharine matters is easily effected in the washing tanks, to
which the pulped beans and a good supply of water is admitted. The
washing cistern is provided with a sluice door at the lowest corner,
this door commonly measuring six inches wide by three inches deep. The
coffee is meanwhile constantly agitated by a wooden scraper or rake,
by which the light coffee and refuse matter float and may be skimmed
off, the dirty water flowing off through a tall cistern provided with a
grating to catch the skins and stray parchment, while the sound berries
are placed in draining boxes to remove the excess of moisture and are
then transferred to the drying ground with the least possible delay.
But should the climate be uncertain it will be necessary to provide
for the emergency of a succession of wet days, when drying cannot be
proceeded with. Parchment coffee may be kept in the undried state
for two weeks without injury by placing it in a cistern exposed to a
continuous flow of cold water.

In drying, the berries to be dried are first spread out on a flat
surface exposed to the heat of the sun. The material forming the
_terrcino_ (terrace) or drying ground varies greatly in the different
coffee-producing countries, but most commonly the ground is leveled
and then covered with a kind of concrete, sometimes asphalt is laid
down, but, besides being expensive it is not sure in hot climates to
withstand the heat, and such a surface is liable to crack and give
way if not carefully drained. A very good and much better plan is to
lay down coir-matting on ground which has simply been made smooth and
hard; the advantages of this plan are its cheapness, the ease with
which extra ground can be requisitioned in case of need, and the use
of the matting as a temporary covering in case of a sudden shower;
modifications of this method are to stretch coir or gunny cloth
across modern frames, or across trays with or without wheels. Shed
accommodations must always be provided ready for the reception of the
coffee at any moment, and the beans must be constantly turned over
and over, either by light rakes or shovels. The drying must also be
rendered equable and must not proceed too rapidly so as not to crack
the parchment before the bean is quite dry, for this reason also, the
coffee should not be exposed too long to a strong sun for the first
day or so. During the drying it is gathered in each day when the sun
is hot, but will then continue to dry under cover. Every care must be
taken to prevent overheating, which may happen by prolonged drying in
mild weather; rather than permit this the coffee should be returned to
a tank, and kept washed with running water.

A new method, known as “artificial drying,” has recently been adopted
in Brazil and other countries, being much quicker and cheaper. An easy
means of applying artificial heat is by passing an iron pipe, open
at both ends, through a fire outside the stove and below the level
of the floor, continuing it into the stove just beneath the floor;
the heated air, by passing upwards through the coffee, will carry off
much of the damp. Revolving drying machines are also in use; one of
the best of these is one introduced originally for drying corn. It
consists of cylinders into which steam enters and agitators arranged
so that the coffee is impelled forwards and caught up and rained down
as the cylinder revolves. The central cylinder works in a steam packet,
outside which is a light casing of sheet iron, perforated at one end so
that the air may be drawn through by a fan to assist in the drying and
carry off the liberated moisture; this machine obviates the necessity
for respreading the coffee in the terraces before hulling. Three days’
thorough sunning usually suffices to render the coffee quite dry and
brittle, in which condition it is known as “parchment coffee,” in which
state, in many countries, it is sent to port, its further curing being
left to the shippers, for not only is considerable expenditure in
buildings and machinery necessary for the purpose, but the experience
gained by manipulating various lots of coffee will enable those
who make the subject a special study to bring the sample up to the
best standard of appearance and keeping properties, but the coffee
retains its color better if allowed to remain for several weeks in the
parchment, and its quality continues to improve for months, even years,
the process being known as “curing;” as, however, protracted curing
causes great subsequent difficulty in removing, the “silver-skin”
coffee is never kept in the parchment longer than is compulsory.


HULLING AND PEELING.

This operation consists in the removal of the “parchment” and the
“silver-skin,” after which the beans are again exposed to the sun for
a period which is difficult to define. Some planters say that they
should be dried till they resist pressure of the thumb-nail, but there
is really no infallible test, as no two samples are exactly alike. It
needs much experience to prevent loss of weight by over-drying, or of
color by under-drying, but they peel best while still warm. A variety
of hullers have been tried, but preference is commonly given to the
old-fashioned edge-runner mill, composed of a circular trough with
two large wheels revolving in it and suspended about two inches from
the bottom. The trough is one-half to two-thirds filled with beans,
which remain until the grinding action of the revolving-wheels has
separated their skins, when they are let out by a lateral aperture.
A trough fifteen feet in diameter should turn out at least 1,200
pounds of marketable coffee an hour, four bushels of good parchment
coffee yielding 100 pounds clean coffee. The appearance of the coffee
immediately after hulling is very light colored, but it soon assumes a
fern-green hue, which it will retain unless exposed to damp, when it
becomes dingy or mottled-gray, and is classed as “country damaged.”


WINNOWING AND SIZING.

The peeled Coffee as it comes from the huller in company with the
detached skins is submitted to the influence of a fan whose force
must be so adjusted that it will effectually remove the skins without
carrying off the Coffee. When the Coffee has been cleaned from
the skins, it is necessary to separate it into various sizes for
market, chiefly with the object of rendering the subsequent roasting
process more equable in effect. Formerly the sizing was performed by
hand-picking, but it is now the custom to employ a machine called a
“separator,” which consists of an inclined, revolving cylindrical
sieve formed of perforated sheet-iron or steel wires, and divided into
sections of different meshes. The Coffee is fed in at the hopper, which
is furnished with a regulator and an internal worm for the purpose of
distributing it equally, while a revolving brush prevents the meshes
from being choked. Sand and dust pass through the first section and
fall into the space while the small and broken beans are delivered
below, the best and largest beans are caught up and the peaberry rolls
freely out at the end.


BUILDINGS AND STORES.

Though there is no necessity for curing the Coffee, and it may be
hulled at once if desired, the exigencies of climate render a properly
constructed warehouse one of greatest _desiderata_. The characteristics
of structure must be, first, dryness combined with security; hence,
galvanized iron forms the best material. It is generally of two
stories, the lower floor being sometimes boarded or asphalted, but the
upper must always be so made so as to admit of free circulation of air
through the Coffee placed in it. This object may best be obtained by
laying wire gauze or coir matting over reapers about one inch apart.
Abundant ventilation must also be provided, and it will be necessary
to watch for any signs of heating. Immediately on its appearance
the Coffee must be turned over rapidly. An improved form of Coffee
structure is that built on what is termed the Clerichew principle, in
which the floor of the upper story is constructed as in the former
case, resting on joists running lengthwise in the building. A ceiling
is provided for the lower story by tacking to the joists cloth which
has been well soaked in boiled rice water and lime, to render it
air-tight. Continuous air-passages are thus made beneath the floor.
About ten feet of one end of the lower apartment are partitioned off,
and its sides are made as nearly air-tight as possible, and it has no
ceiling other than the floor above, so that the passages all open into
it. In an opening in the wall of this chamber a pair of large revolving
fans are placed, their rapid vibrations drawing a continuous current
of air from the inside, and therefore through the Coffee itself. In
this manner dried parchment Coffee can be kept in perfect condition
without any turning over, and by using heated air on the same principle
as before Coffee may be housed while still only partially dry and yet
not suffer from fermentation.


PACKING AND SHIPPING.

As soon as the Coffee is sized and graded it is ready for the market.
Bags are most commonly used, but it is best packed in air-tight casks,
made from wood, which is not likely to taint the Coffee in any way.
In shipping Coffee great care is required to prevent its coming in
contact with any merchandise that may communicate to it a foreign
flavor or odor. Vessels engaged in the Coffee trade should have
perforated ventilating tubes from the bottom of the hold, passing
through the cargo, so as to allow the escape of all steam and gases
generated during transit; without such an appliance the beans will be
discolored and classed as “damaged,” an injury which cannot be covered
by insurance. In well-ventilated ships Coffee loses about one-half per
cent. in weight but gains in quality during transit; while under bad
ventilation there will be a gain of one-half per cent. in weight but a
loss of color, and consequent depreciation in value.


COST AND PROFIT.

Here a few remarks on the cost, prospects and profits of coffee
planting may not be out of place. How much does it require to start on
safely is frequently asked. From ten to twenty thousand dollars may be
considered a fair capital. As to what kind of a plantation that can
be had for these sums is a question that from the shifting nature of
prices, and the varieties of climates, soils and situations, cannot
be accurately answered, or with even an approximation to accuracy.
With regard to the profits of coffee planting the investor may get a
very large return, a moderate or a small one, and he may even suffer,
as many who have tried it have done, a considerable loss. No reliance
whatever can be placed on the estimates so often published, and though
many of them may be accurate enough as far as they go, assuming that
everything goes well, good soil, climate, cheap labor, good health,
and good seasons must be taken into account, in the brilliant reports
of the returns to be expected in the first few bearing years, usually
terminating with the assertion that “the profits subsequently to be
derived will be something fabulous.”

Transport facilities are another important factor and deserving of
much consideration. In many countries they exceed the cost of growing
and preparing the crops for market, and it frequently occurs in the
interior of Brazil, Mexico and other countries, that it does not
pay to forward the coffee to the markets at the ports of shipment.
But whatever may be the ascertained advantages in point of soil,
temperature, moisture and situation, and however bountiful may be
the yield of the plants, the speculation must always be estimated in
connection with the cost and vicissitudes with which coffee planting as
a business is unhappily associated. Anxiety must be inseparable from
an undertaking exclusively dependent on native labor, and liable to
be affected at the most critical moment by its capricious commercial
fluctuations. The crops in most of the coffee-growing countries, when
saved on the plantation, has either to encounter the risk incident
to transportation by hand through mountain districts as yet unopened
by roads, or the chances of deterioration to which it is exposed in
bullock carts during long journeys to the coast. The real facts being
that the difficulties in the way of forming accurate agricultural
statistics are in the coffee-producing countries almost insuperable,
there being either a tendency to exaggerate or depreciate the yield,
as it best serves the interests of the cultivators. And again as
regards coffee in particular, there is no means whatever of estimating
the product. A great deal being said, but very little known in the
way a man generally requires to know that he may wish to publish as
reasonably near the truth. So in going into coffee planting in any
country it signifies little whether you know what certain plantations
_have_ yielded or what amount of profits _may_ be expected. One fact
may be relied on, however, that is, if an estate frequently changes
hands, it is certainly a bad or indifferent one, if seldom it is sure
the coffee growing pays well, and further it is not necessary to
inquire, for hardly any landed investment pays so well as good sound
coffee property, and the owners are therefore seldom inclined to part
with it.

The extent of coffee plantations varies from 100 to 300 acres, the
annual product ranging from 500 to 1,000 pounds per acre of prepared
coffee, according to location and care bestowed on the plantation.
The profits also vary with the ruling market price of the coffee at
time of sale, of labor, transportation and the inscrutable effects
of the season. But a cost of from $350 to $500 per 100 pounds may be
considered a fair average; any yield under 300 per acre scarcely paying
expenses, any over 700 paying a handsome profit.




CHAPTER V.

COMMERCIAL CLASSIFICATION AND DESCRIPTION.


Coffee in commerce is the seed which grows in the pod or fruit of
the coffee plant, like the pea or the bean. Geographically, it is
divided into African, Asian, American and Polynesian coffees, and,
topographically, into “Mountain,” or upland, and “Plaingrown,” or
lowland Coffees, while commercially they are generally classified as
“Mild” and “Strong,” the former comprising in trade the product of all
countries, with the exception of Brazil. Grown in so many different and
widely separated countries, provinces, districts and situations, it is
but natural that the different products should vary materially in size,
style, color, form, flavor and character, and which also accounts for
the almost innumerable commercial divisions and subdivisions of names,
grades and values.


AFRICAN COFFEES.

Africa is the original home of coffee, it being indigenous to almost
the entire Continent; but while it is to be found growing in a wild
state almost all over the entire of tropical Africa, more particularly
between the fifth and fifteenth parallels, its cultivation for
commercial purposes on the “Dark Continent” is very light and partial
at the present time, although it affords a field of boundless
development in the future. African Coffees are divided into West and
East Coast, the former comprising Liberian, Loango, Angola, Benguelan,
Congo and Natal; the latter including Abyssinian, Egyptian, Zanzibar,
Mozambique, Nubian, Madagascar, Bourbon and Mauritius.

=Liberian=--Is produced in the Americanized colony known as the
“Black Republic,” and is principally cultivated in the district
of Mesurado, on the St. Paul river. It is an extremely large
dark-brown bean, possessing very marked peculiarities, being
“concave-convex”--technically termed “Male or pea-berry”--in form; that
is, round on top, with long, deep furrow extending longitudinally down
the face, tightly rolled or “folded” in appearance and very hard and
solid in texture. When roasted and infused the liquor is dark in color,
heavy in body and from 30 to 40 per cent. stronger in flavor than that
of any other variety grown, and is considered too strong to use alone,
but when blended in the proportion of about one to three parts of
some of the milder growths it makes a fairly smooth and rich drinking
coffee. The annual production is limited--about 10,000,000 pounds--put
up in large, coarse bags, averaging 200 pounds, and is principally
exported to England and the continent of Europe, where it is used
principally, on account of its ultra strength, for mixing with chicory,
and sold chiefly in the form of ground coffee.

=Loango=--Also an indigenous variety, is grown in the interior province
of Encougé, deriving its trade name from the port of shipment. It
closely resembles Liberian in form and color, but is much smaller in
size and greatly inferior in quality, and is sometimes termed “African
pea-berry.” The raw or natural bean is dark-brown in color, light or
“chaffy” in weight, very brittle and poorly prepared, while the liquor
is almost black and insipid, if not actually rank or nauseous, in
flavor, the decoction tasting more like an infusion of char-bones than
anything else it may be likened to. It is principally shipped to Spain,
Portugal and other European countries, very little, fortunately, ever
reaching the United States.

=Angola=--Produced in the Portuguese colony of that name, is medium
in size, concave in form, light-brown in color, strong and pungent
in flavor, but lacking in smoothness and aroma. Not being regularly
cultivated, its production is limited, that grown by the settlers on
the uplands of the interior being much superior to the wild or native
sorts.

=Benguelan=--Is another variety of Angola, grown in the adjoining
province to the south and closely resembles it in size, color and
general character. Being also limited in supply, it is rarely if ever
shipped to this country, what is not retained for home consumption
being forwarded to Lisbon, Madrid and the Canaries.

=Congo=--Is a medium-sized, heavy bean, strong and rich in the cup,
and, taken altogether, a desirable sort.

=Natal Coffee=--Is a large light-brown bean, closely resembling the
Liberian product, being grown from that species, but greatly modified
in body and strength. Coffee culture in Natal is struggling against
adverse conditions, owing to the spread of the bark disease in that
colony and for which no cure has been found. This is much to be
regretted, as the quality of the product is very fair, the demand for
the article continually growing. Some Coffees are also grown in the
States of Senegal, Gambia, Sierra Leone, St. Helena and the Cape of
Good Hope, but, being limited in supply and unknown to commerce, do not
need description here.

=Abyssinian.=--The Coffee plant and its product have been known
in Abyssinia from time immemorial, its fruit being used there in
a _roasted state_, but in _solid form_, for centuries before its
introduction to the civilized world, receiving its now universal
name from the district of Kaffa or Caffa, in the southeastern part
of that country, and becoming the parent-plant of all the numerous
varieties now to be found on the Red Sea littoral. At the present
time it is grown there in all its native luxuriance and primitive
abundance, from the borders of Narla to the banks of the Nile, forming
the chief wood of the country. It is also cultivated there in almost
all situations, on plateaus and table-lands, mountain and valley,
hill and plain, growing as luxuriantly and producing as prolifically
on low as on upland sites. The bean is small in comparison with the
average coffee of commerce, but long and narrow in shape, hard and
“flinty” in texture, and varying in color from a translucent green to a
yellowish hue, according to its age. In body and flavor it ranks next
to Mocha, to which coffee it is analogous, and is by many connoisseurs
preferred to it as being smoother and less heating in effect. It
is little known to commerce under its true name, being principally
shipped from Massowah to Aden and Alexandria, where it loses its
identity, masquerading under the head of “Long-berry Mocha,” and going
principally to the Mediterranean and other European markets. The annual
crop is large and the yield excellent, but communication and transport
facilities being difficult and crude, the bulk of the product does not
reach the outside world. It is to be hoped, however, that whenever
this rich country which produces coffee in such wild abundance shall
be permitted, by civilized man, to enjoy its fertility it will rapidly
become an article of extensive cultivation and commerce.

=Egyptian=--Comprises the product of the Upper Nile region, and that
grown around Berber and the Soudan, very little being produced in the
country itself. Being the product of different districts, they vary
in size and quality, ranging from small to medium, are palish-green
in color, flat or regular in shape, and possess superior drinking
properties; so much so that many of the smaller bean varieties are put
up in Mocha bales at Alexandria and sold under the name of “Short-berry
Mocha,” being shipped principally to France and England, where they are
known to the initiated as “Alexandrian or Egyptian Mochas.”

=Nubian=--Is a small-bean coffee, hard and flinty in texture, oval
in shape, pale-green in color, heavy in body, and unusually rich in
flavor. This variety is usually forwarded to Alexandria for conversion
into a so-called Mocha, seldom finding its way into the American or
European markets under its legitimate name.

=Zanzibar=--Is medium in size, regular in appearance, full in body and
pleasing in flavor, but also very limited in quantity. Increased effort
is now being made, however, by the French, German and Italian colonists
to increase and extend its cultivation in that country.

=Mozambique=--The product is fairly good, ranking with the average of
mild coffees, medium in size, greenish in color, heavy and mellow in
the cup.

=Madagascar=--Grown on the immense island of that name, to the east,
is a small-bean variety, solid and firm, but shorter and rounder than
the latter. It is of a pea-green color when first picked, but gradually
assumes that of a silver-gray as it matures; in body it is round and
full, in flavor rich and fragrant. The supply of this variety is very
small when compared with the extent of area that may be utilized for
its profitable culture in that island, the entire product being chiefly
retained for home consumption, only small lots occasionally reaching
the outer world.

=Bourbon=--Is a small, hard and flinty bean, being chiefly mountain
grown, pale-yellow in color and closely resembling the Arabian product,
for which coffee it is extensively substituted, large quantities of
the smaller beans being annually shipped to Aden to be repacked in the
inimitable Mocha bales and sold as “genuine Aden Mocha.” The larger
beans are usually exported to France and the continent, where it is
held in high esteem for its rich, fragrant flavor and aroma, but rarely
found in the American market unless specially ordered.

=Mauritius=--Like Bourbon is also an island coffee, the average bean
being medium-sized, heavy and well developed, light-green in color,
full in body and mellow in flavor, the liquor, in general, comparing
favorably with that of finest of the mild grades. The smaller beans
are separated and sold for shipment to Aden for the purpose of
adulterating, or, what is worse, substituting for Mocha, where it sinks
its identity, reappearing in the European market as “Short-berry” Mocha
coffee.

More or less Coffee is also produced in Sofala, Somali, and the Soudan,
in Usumbara, the Zambesi, Nyassa, Nyanza, and other districts as
far west as the base of the Kilimanjaro mountains, the total yield
of which, however, so far as its influence on the world’s supply is
considered, is insignificant, the export capacity of the whole not
exceeding 150,000 pounds annually. The entire product of the Eastern
provinces of Africa taken in connection with the comparatively
small crops raised on the West coast makes that country contribute
only between 5,000 to 6,000 tons to the world’s supply, this amount
including all coffees grown in Egypt and the interior countries of the
continent of Africa.


ASIAN COFFEES

Comprise Arabian, East Indian, Ceylon, Malayan and all coffees grown in
the Straits Settlements.


ARABIAN COFFEE

Is universally but erroneously known to trade as the far-famed
“Mocha,” as no coffee is or ever was grown there. Mocha itself,
being comparatively a modern town, which rose with the coffee trade
to a short-lived prosperity, the term “Mocha” as applied to Arabian
coffee, being derived solely from the shipment of its product from
there in former times. The internal disorders of Arabia and the
efforts of Mohamed Ali to make the coffee trade pass through India
accelerated its decline, the place being now nothing more than a mere
village. The shipment of coffee is no longer carried on there, being
transferred further south to the ports of Aden and Hodeida, yet,
although, still known to trade as “Mocha,” and notwithstanding the
fact that Arabian coffee has been popularly and commercially known
for centuries as Mocha, it never produced any coffee, being situated
as it is in a sterile plain. Seeing that Arabia is the parent soil
of most of the coffees of commerce, and comparatively little known
as a coffee-producing country, it may be interesting to transcribe
some particulars of the cultivation and trade in the article in
that country. The Coffee plant is claimed by some authorities to be
indigenous to Arabia, and by others to be simply exotic, and as having
been introduced there from Abyssinia, but at what period of the world’s
history has never been definitely decided. The plant or its product
is not mentioned in the Koran, was certainly unknown to Mahomet, and
his contemporaries make no reference to it up to the seventh century,
although the many commodities and beverages in use among his followers
in Mecca and Medina during his Calyphate are accurately and minutely
detailed by his biographers, both Arab and Christian. But while to
Abyssinia belongs the honor of its first discovery, it is to Arabia
that the civilized world is indebted, not only for the first knowledge
of the plant and its virtues, but also for the first plants from which
it is now so extensively propagated as well as for the first knowledge
of preparing it in liquid form. Yet, although exotic to Arabia, it
has been cultivated there for centuries, attaining its most extensive
distribution and highest standard of production in the province of
Yemen, a highland country formed by a labyrinth of precipitant hills
and fertile valleys, the air being pure, and even cold in some parts.
These mountains are well supplied with water, but no considerable
rivers find their way from them to the sea, tropical evaporation,
coupled with the light and porous quality of the soil, drying up the
torrent beds: nor do any natural lakes exist there. Artificial pools
and reservoirs have, however, been constructed, in which water is
preserved all the year round, and are numerous in the district.

In the province of Yemen, where the best Mocha coffees are produced,
the plant is cultivated in both situations, upland and lowland, that
raised on the latter being greatly inferior to that cultivated on the
former sites. The best being that grown on the mountain slopes under
the greatest difficulties and natural disadvantages of climate, soil
and site, the small gardens, for they cannot be called plantations,
being situated on terraces ranged one above the other, forming an
amphitheatre on the mountain slope and literally covering its sides
from almost base to apex. The plant is cultivated throughout more than
half these upland districts, the finest qualities of the berry being
produced on the western slopes of the mountains in the neighborhood
of Bulgosa and Sanaar, the capital of the province, at elevations
estimated at 5,000 feet above sea-level. The soil in these situations
is composed chiefly of basaltic columns, the detached rocks forming
grand objects of landscape, especially where cascades of water rush
from their summits. Indications of volcanic action, long since extant,
abound; basalt formations comprising a considerable portion of the soil
in the most favored gardens of the coffee-bearing districts, while in
others it is composed of jurassic rock, basalt-granite patches also
occurring in many of them. The basalts are of great utility to the
inhabitants of this region, the columns, which are usually separated,
serving as steps where the ascent is difficult, and as walls to
support the gardens of coffee trees, which are principally situated on
the steep declivities of the mountain sides, and although requiring
the well-diffused heat of an equatorial climate and a rich soil for
its most successful and profitable growth, it is in this region and
under these great disadvantages and peculiarities of soil, climate
and situation--hot, sandy and stony--that the far-famed Mocha coffee
obtains its finest, richest and most valuable developments, and to
which its superior excellence is attributed.

The gardens are arranged on rocky terraces, situated one above the
other, the slopes being densely covered and close together and are
watered from large reservoirs built upon the heights above them, into
which spring water is collected and sprinkled in a novel and ingenious
manner, being first conducted to the top terrace and then allowed to
fall gradually from one terrace to another, where the plant and shade
grow so thick together that the sun’s rays can hardly penetrate among
the branches. The plants yield ripe fruit twice a year and frequently a
third crop is gathered; the produce of the latter is, however, greatly
inferior to that of the previous ones. The cultivation and preparation
of coffee in Arabia are also of the simplest and most primitive kind.
When the berries have been gathered they are carefully and assiduously
picked over and separated by hand by experienced pickers and sorters.
So constant and frequent is this selecting and separating process
carried on, that a graduation almost as regular as the degrees upon a
map may be discerned in the grades and qualities of Mocha coffee. The
operations of hulling and cleaning being performed with the utmost
seriousness and scrupulous exactness, reminding one of the diligence
ascribed to diamond searchers and gold hunters, when sorting the
torrent sands for the minute but precious treasure.

The coffee is dispatched by caravan from the interior to the ports of
Aden and Hodeida at almost every season of the year, but principally
in February, March and April, the export consisting of crude and
prepared beans; the former is dried in the husk, and is termed by the
Arabs “Jaffal coffee.” The dealers are chiefly Arabs, who frequently
barter English manufactured goods for the article, the producers
seldom attending the seaport markets. The principal coffee dealers at
the shipping ports being Arabs from Hadramant, Syrians, Armenians,
Bhuddists, Brahmins and Musselmans from Hindustan, who also trade
in drapery and other English goods, which they send through their
agents in the interior to pursue the aforesaid system of barter for
the coffee. There are, however, three or four Anglo-Indian firms in
Hodeida, and one or two American houses in Aden, who deal in coffee
on their own account. Before reaching the harbor of Aden, from which
port the coffee intended for the aristocracy of Alexandria and
Constantinople is chiefly shipped, the beans are sifted and re-sifted
by the Arab merchants _en route_, the best being retained for their
own use; the less generous, flattened, opaque and whitish beans alone
reaching their destination, the last stage seldom conveying the
genuine article except on rare occasions, and only then by previous
arrangement, personal influence or interest. That intended for the
Syrian and Persian markets is forwarded by caravan from Jaffa and
Beyrouth under the same conditions, as whenever mere sale and traffic
is concerned, substitution of an inferior quality or an adulteration
equivalent to a substitution is frequently resorted to in the
storehouses of Aden, and the other points from which it is forwarded,
until whatever Mocha coffee intended for the general European or
American markets is no more the real offspring of the Yemen plant than
the logwood preparations of a fourth-rate wine resembles the pure
libation of an Oporto vineyard.

Arabian coffee, like that of all other countries, though one in name
is manifold in fact. Geographically they are classified as Yemen and
Tehama, but are known to trade almost universally as “Mocha” coffee,
from being at one time all shipped from that port; but since the
opening of the Suez Canal, the bulk of the crop is now shipped from the
ports of Aden and Hodeida.

=Yemen Mocha=--Is grown on the mountain slopes surrounding the towns
of Bulgosa, Sanaar and the valley of the Oudien, and constitutes the
true Mocha coffee, which is rarely if ever exported, being consumed
chiefly within the limits of Arabia itself; very little, so little,
indeed, of this variety finds its way west of Constantinople that it is
almost inappreciable. Nor, indeed, do the latter always get the best or
purest, Arabia, Syria, Persia and Egypt consuming over two-thirds of
the limited product of the Yemen hills, the remainder being reserved
for the Turkish and Armenian æosophagi, from which fact it is sometimes
termed the “Aristocrat of Coffees.”

The true “Mocha” or Yemen bean is exceedingly small, hard, round,
and symmetrical in form, regular and uniform in general appearance,
of a translucent, olive-green color when new, but assuming a rich
semi-transparent yellowish hue with age. It is perfectly clean, being
entirely free from stems, stones, chaff and all other extraneous
matter. When fresh roasted it exhales a pleasing if not delicious odor,
not even approached by that of any other variety grown or known; the
liquor is heavier in body than that of Java, but creamy and rich, and
the flavor fragrant and aromatic to an eminent degree. The superior
excellence attributed to this particular variety of Mocha coffee is
said to be due to two causes, first to the extreme dryness of the
climate, hard granitic nature of the soil, and second to the fact that
the berries are never picked, but allowed to fall from the trees of
their own accord when ripe, and then allowed to dry naturally, after
which they are gathered and hulled by the simplest and most primitive
methods, which process of drying cannot be pursued in countries where
the rainfall is great, as sudden showers spoil the crop if left
unprotected. While others claim that the high reputation which it so
long held in the European markets, is not to be ascribed to either
superior cultivation or improved stock, but to the fact that the
coffee was formerly shipped to India, and thence by circuitous routes
to Europe, so that it was generally two to three years old when it
reached its destination, all coffees improving with age and keeping.
Still growing as it does high up on the sandy terraces of the Yemen
hills, sparse of leaves, gaunt and stunted, as becomes a plant of the
desert as well as from its condensed vitality, it appears difficult
to understand the aromatic pungency of its small berries, a quality
that has never been even approached by any achievement of scientific
cultivation.

=Tehama Coffee=--Is grown in the low, level sandy plain of that name,
extending from the Red sea littoral to the base of the Yemen hills,
formed by the arc of their curve, and reaching from the province of
Hejaz in the north down as far as Aden on the southern extremity of the
peninsula. As might be expected from its geographical situation towards
the coast, it is an exceedingly hot, dry and sandy region, being only
of moderate fertility, the soil being composed of an agglomeration
of coral debris. The rains are periodical, sometimes flooding the
plantations, and hardly drying up through the year, the coast being
indented with several small harbors. The coffee produced in this
district--like all plain-grown or lowland coffees--is greatly inferior
to the mountain product of Yemen. The bean is small, irregular,
immature and chaffy, having a gnarled or shriveled appearance, greenish
in color when new but assuming a yellowish hue as it dries. Being only
imperfectly cured it frequently contains fragments of hull, fibre and
small stones. It is invariably “quakery” when roasted, and in body and
flavor is inferior to the average run of what are known in trade as
“mild coffees.” Yet, though not a palatable coffee when drunk alone,
it makes a fairly fragrant infusion when combined with a Preanger
or other good Java. It is principally shipped from Hodeida, now the
second considerable port in the Red sea, from which it is known to
trade as “Hodeida Mocha,” and in contradistinction to that shipped
from Aden, and known as “Aden Mocha.” At Hodeida the coffee is sold in
the custom house, whither it is brought from the interior. The Hodeida
dealers also receiving large quantities of Malabar, Bourbon and other
small-bean varieties to mix with or substitute for the original sort.


OTHER VARIETIES.

There are several other varieties known to trade and sold as Mocha
coffee, but having little or no relation to it. Among these are:--

=Lechia.=--Shipped from a small port to the north of Hodeida and from
which it derives its trade name. It is very inferior in quality,
roasting and drinking poorly, and on the whole not a desirable sort.

=Djebelli.=--Which is imported into Aden from the African coast, and is
a mountain-grown coffee possessing valuable cup qualities.

=Berberah.=--Also an African coffee recognized by its large and
tapering bean, heavy body and rich infusion, and used principally for
mixing with or substituting for genuine Mocha coffee.

=Havar.=--Another variety of Mocha coffee known to trade as “Havar”
or “Hazar,” which comes from the south African coast of the Red sea,
is being recently shipped from Aden. The bean is long and pointed,
greenish in cast, and solid in structure; it roasts and drinks
exceedingly well, being preferred by many connoisseurs to the true
Mocha bean.

=Mussowah=--Is an Abyssinian variety, previously described, deriving
its trade name from being shipped from that port on the African coast
of the Red sea.

=Egyptian Mocha.=--In Alexandria, Mocha coffee is imitated by the
substitution of small-bean African varieties, principally produced
in Berber, Nubia, Somali and the interior of the Soudan, which
are carefully picked over and assorted by hand, the larger beans
being separated from the smaller, the better to adapt them to their
respective markets, being usually shipped to France and other
continental European countries.

Arabian or “Mocha” Coffee is put up in large grass-mat
bales--containing two smaller packages termed “quarters” or four
termed “eights”--distinctive in shape and material, being made of a
coarse, grassy substance and sewn with a fibrous ligature that becomes
excessively hard and tough as it seasons. The exports, the amount of
which it is difficult to determine owing to the fact that there is no
real custom-house control in the country, consists of about 8,000,000
to 10,000,000 pounds only, about half of which only is pure Mocha, the
product being so badly manipulated and so extensively substituted with
other coffees of foreign origin and inferior quality.


EAST-INDIAN COFFEES.

Unlike tea, coffee was not introduced into India by European
enterprise, and even in the present day its cultivation there is
largely followed by the natives only. The Malabar coast has always
enjoyed a direct commerce with Arabia, and at an early date in the
world’s history gave many converts to Islam, one of whom, Baba Bouden
by name, is said to have gone on a pilgrimage to Mecca and to have
brought back with him “seven coffee-berries,” which he planted on the
hill range of Mysore and which is still called after him, and which,
according to local tradition, occurred about two centuries ago. The
shrubs thus said to be sown lived on, but their systematic cultivation
did not spread until the beginning of the present century. While
another account states that the coffee-plant was first introduced into
India, on the Malabar coast, by the Arabs themselves, as far back as
1740, yet no official mention is made of the plant or its product
in that country up to 1822, when its cultivation as a curiosity was
first began in the Wynaad district, another plantation being formed
later in the adjoining district of Manjarabad. The Baba Bouden
range, in the State of Mysore, also witnessed the first opening of
a coffee plantation by an English planter in 1840, the success of
this experiment leading to the extension of coffee cultivation in the
neighboring districts of Madras and Malabar. In 1840, a plantation
was also started in Manautoddy, and in 1842 it was found growing well
in Belgaum. From 1842 to 1860, however, the enterprise made but slow
progress, but since the latter date it has spread with great rapidity
along the whole line of the Western Ghauts, clearing away the primeval
forest and opening up a new era of prosperity to the laboring classes
in that country, its cultivation for commercial uses increasing at a
most remarkable rate.

Coffee at the present time in India is grown all along the summits and
slopes of the Western Ghauts from the northern limits of Kanura south
to Cape Comorin, the chief centres of production being located in the
Presidencies of Madras, Mysore, Malabar, Coorg and Travancore, attempts
being also made to introduce the plant into the Bengal district of
Chittagong and the northern districts of Nepaul, the Punjaub and
British Burmah, the cultivation extending within the past few years to
the Shevaroy hills in the Salem district as well as to the Neilgherry
and Pulmey mountains in Madras, the slopes adjacent to Octacamund being
literally covered with coffee plantations on every side. In India,
after the berries, or “cherries,” as they are called there, have been
harvested, they are cured in one of two ways, one of which is to pulp
them in the soft state, the coffee being known as “Cherry-dried,” while
by the other they are dried first and the pulp removed by a huller.
Where the latter method is adopted, they are spread upon terraces
and there kept until complete desiccation takes place, the coffee
prepared in this manner being known as “thick-hull” or “sun-dried”
coffee. They are classified in trade as “Malabar,” “Mysore,” “Wynaad,”
“Tellicherry,” “Coorg,” “Neilgherry” and “Travancore,” grading
commercially in the order named.

=Malabar=--Produced on the western slopes of the Ghaut mountains,
is a small, hard, whitish bean, closely resembling a Bourbon, being
frequently shipped to Aden for substitution or conversion into Mocha
coffee. It is full in body, high in color and rich in flavor,
particularly when old, ranking high commercially in the European
markets, where it is principally disposed of.

=Mysore=--Is a mountain coffee grown on the slopes of the Eastern
Ghauts, and, like all mountain-grown coffees, is large or bold in
style, bluish-green in color, hard and solid in texture, heavy in
body, but apt to be somewhat “grassy” in flavor when new, mellowing
considerably, however, with age. It commands a higher price in the
English market than Java, not on account of its intrinsic worth, but
from the fact that English merchants favor the products of their own
colonies to the prejudice of all others.

=Wynaad=--Is simply a Malabar coffee, grown in the interior of that
province, and deriving its trade-name from the district of growth, and
possessing the same intrinsic qualities of body, color and flavor,
being heavy, rich and fragrant in the cup.

=Tellicherry=--Is another variety of Malabar, deriving its commercial
cognomen from the port of shipment, but is generally conveyed to the
coast for curing, and is classed commercially with it, being used for
the same purpose of mixing or substituting for Mocha.

=Coorg=--Is a plain-grown or lowland coffee, large and flat in
appearance, dark-greenish when new, but becoming a dull-white with
age, and while regular and uniform in the roasted state is apt to be
“quakery.” The liquor is thin and flat in the cup, while the flavor is
somewhat “mawkish” to the taste.

=Neilgherry=--Although a mountain coffee, seems to be an exception to
the general character of this variety, for while the bean is fairly
large in size and uniform in appearance, it is usually moist and soft
in substance, losing heavily in the roast, and yielding a flat, almost
insipid liquor.

=Travancore=--Grown in the extreme South, is a lowland variety having
an average-sized, flat, but whitish bean, soft or “spongy” when new,
but becoming light and brittle as it dries. It is invariably “quakery”
in the roast, thin and watery in the cup, and lacking in even an
approach to fragrance.

=Burmah Coffee=--Is a comparatively new variety to commerce, being only
recently introduced, and very limited in supply to the present. The
bean is fairly large and regular in form, greenish in color and soft
in texture in the natural state, tough or “leathery” when roasted, and
wild or “grassy” in the infusion--defects due to its newness, which
may, however disappear in the later crops. A very large portion of the
surface of Burmah is admirably adapted for the cultivation of fine
coffees, but it still remains in its primeval state of unproductive
jungle, owing to the entire absence of natural energy on the part of
the natives, who have been described as the laziest under the sun. At
the present time, however, the government is making liberal offers
to Europeans and others who understand the art of coffee-planting in
order to develop the industry in that country; such settlers being
offered free grants of land in the celebrated Tavoy district, the only
conditions being the cost of survey and demarcation.

India coffees are classed in the English market as “Bold,” “Middling”
and “Small,” the bulk of the small-bean Mysore, Malabar and Wynaad
being shipped to Aden and Alexandria, where they are repacked and sold
as Mocha. The average quantity and value of the coffee product of India
is about 40,000,000 pounds, valued at $75,000,000, fully one-half of
which is retained for home consumption, the balance being shipped to
England and France, which are the two next largest consumers of India
coffee, although in both countries it is subject to excessively heavy
duties. The average product per acre is only about 350 pounds, but the
drought having affected the plantations would of itself sufficiently
account for the diminished exports if the leaf disease and borer did
not also help to keep down the yield.


CEYLON COFFEES.

The history of coffee cultivation in the island of Ceylon is one
fraught with interest and full of instructive lessons, which, since
the year 1845, has assumed a position of great and ever-increasing
importance. Although coffee is claimed to have been an article of
growth and export from Ceylon even as far back as the time of the
Portuguese, it only grew wild there without any attempt at cultivation.
Small patches of it were to be found around the Kandyan villages,
growing in wild luxuriance, the berries being gathered before they
were ripe and imperfectly cured, seldom possessed much flavor, they
were but lightly esteemed as an article of commerce. Its systematic
cultivation was first commenced in 1824, by Sir E. Barnes, the then
governor, who hoped by his example to introduce coffee planting by
Europeans into the island. Up to 1834, however, public attention does
not seem to have been occupied with the industry, but in that year
the falling off in supplies from other countries brought capitalists
into the field, and when, in 1836, the duty in England was reduced to
six pence per pound, a great impulse was given to coffee planting in
Ceylon. During that and the following year about 7,000 acres of the
finest lands were purchased for the purpose, until, at the end of a
few years, it became a matter of notoriety that the soil and climate of
Ceylon were capable of producing coffee equal in value to most kinds
then grown, when the influx of capital from England for investment in
this new branch of industry became simply enormous. In 1840, nearly
10,000 acres of mountain forest were felled and planted in coffee,
and in an exceedingly short space of time the sale of crown-lands for
coffee culture averaged 40,000 acres per annum. The mountain ranges
on all sides of the district of Kandy became speedily covered with
plantations, the great valleys of Ambogamoa, Doombera, Kotmalie and
Pusilawa were occupied by speculators, others settling in the steep
passes of Neurailla and penetrating the Ouvah and Badulla districts,
coffee-trees quickly blooming on every solitary hill, even up to and
around the very base of Adam’s peak. The first ardent adventurers
pioneering their way through pathless woods, living in log-cabins
whilst felling the forest and making their preliminary preparations
for planting, until, in a few years, the paths by which they came
were converted into roadways and their cabins replaced by comfortable
“bungalows.” The coffee cultivation mania in Ceylon, however, reached
its climax in 1845, when the governor, council, military, judges,
civil servants, and even the clergy penetrated the hills in their mad
haste to become purchasers of crown lands for coffee growing. The East
India Company’s officers crowded to Ceylon to invest their savings in
coffee lands, capitalists from England at the same time arriving by
every vessel, the bulk of the emigrants as a class being more than
ordinarily aristocratic, and who, if not already opulent, were still in
haste to become more so. So dazzling was the prospect that expenditure
was unlimited, its profusion being only equalled by the ignorance
and inexperience of those to whom it was intrusted; five millions
sterling being sunk in the “Coffee craze” in less than as many years.
The rush for coffee lands at this period in Ceylon was only paralleled
by the movement towards the gold mines of California and Australia,
but with this painful difference, that the wild enthusiasts in Ceylon
instead of thronging to disinter were hurrying to bury their gold, for
in the very midst of their visions of riches a crash suddenly came
which awakened the victims to the reality of their ruin. The financial
panic of 1845 in England rapidly extended its destructive influences
to Ceylon; remittances ceased, credit failed, prices fell, and the
first announcement on the subsidence of the turmoil was the doom of
protection and the withdrawal of the distinctive duty which had so
long screened the British coffee plantations from competition with
those of Java and Brazil. The consternation thus produced in Ceylon
was proportionate to the extravagance and hopes that were blasted,
coffee plantations being forced into the market, and many sold off for
a twentieth part of the outlay incurred in forming them, while others
that could not be sacrificed at any price were abandoned and allowed
to return to their natural jungle. For over three years the enterprise
appeared paralyzed, the ruined disappeared and the timid retreated,
but those who, combining judgment with capital, persevered, succeeded
eventually, not alone in restoring energy to the enterprise, but in
imparting to it the prudence and experience gleaned from former similar
disasters. Still, the crisis, had it not been precipitated by the
calamities of 1845, must have ensued eventually, from the indiscretion
of the previous period; and the healthy condition which coffee planting
appears to have attained at the present day in Ceylon results from
the correction of the errors then committed; and it is no exaggeration
to state that there is not a single well-established principle now
governing the management of the plantations and the conduct of the
proprietors that was not preceded by a directly opposite policy in 1845.

Since the explosion of this second edition of the “South-sea bubble”
in Ceylon, the island has made rapid strides in coffee growing, the
mountain forests have been replaced by extensive plantations, of which
there are at the present day no less than 1,000 under cultivation,
yielding an average annual crop of nearly 80,000,000 pounds exclusive
of that raised by the natives. Observation has also since discerned
the true tests of soil, climate and aspect, former delusions as to
high altitudes have been exploded, unprofitable districts avoided
and unproductive localities abandoned. And in lieu of the belief
that the coffee tree, once rooted, would continue ever after to bear
crops without further attention or manure, and flourish perennially
in defiance of weeds and neglect, every plantation is now tended like
a garden, and the soil enriched artificially in proportion to the
produce it bears, expenditures also being reduced within the bounds of
discretion. An acre of forest land can now be purchased for one-tenth
of what it cost in 1844, and though the extravagant prices and the
still more extravagant expectations of that period have been entirely
dissipated, coffee planting at the present day in Ceylon under careful
supervision, promises as sound an investment as moderate enterprise can
hope for. Systematic coffee cultivation is almost exclusively confined
to the hill region, which embraces the districts of Kandy, Pusilawa,
Doombera, Kotmalie and Ambogama, although irregular native gardens are
to be found everywhere in the southwestern portion of the island, even
close to the seashore. The favorite and most productive elevation is,
however, between 3,000 and 4,000 feet above sea-level, but in a few
exceptional cases plantations descend almost to the foot of the hills,
others being situated nearly 6,000 feet above. While native gardens,
sometimes bearing good crops, may be met with along the coast actually
at sea-level; in such instances, however, the gardens are limited in
extent, and are generally richly manured and well watered during the
dry season.

The principal coffee-producing zone of Ceylon of the present day is
chiefly situated in what is known as the Gampola district, in which the
scientific cultivation of coffee was first attempted, and the point at
which the great roads converge connecting the rich coffee districts of
Doombera, Kotmalie and Pusilawa with the ports of Kandy and Colombo.
The soil and situation of the Gampola district have proved so favorable
to the growth of the coffee-plant that there is hardly one of the
magnificent hills seen from it that has not been taken possession of
by planters, the plantations being situated chiefly in the mountain
ranges on all sides of it. Ceylon coffees are classified commercially
as “Native,” “Plantation,” “Liberian” and “Mountain” or “Mocha,” the
latter being nothing more than a small-bean plantation coffee usually
separated.

=Native.=--What is known to commerce as “Native Ceylon” is principally
produced in the district of Ouvah by native growers, from which fact it
derives its trade-name. Being a plain-grown or lowland coffee, the bean
is large and flat in style, greenish, moist and “flabby” when first
picked, but becoming almost white, broken and “chaffy” as it dries. It
is a poor “roaster,” being invariably “quakery,” weak and thin in the
infusion, and devoid of any distinctive flavor or aroma in the cup.

[Illustration: DRYING COFFEE ON THE PATIO OR TERRACE.]

=Plantation=--Derives its trade-name from its being systematically
cultivated in regularly-laid-out plantations, by scientific methods
under intelligent management, and is without doubt one of the finest
varieties grown, ranking high commercially for its intrinsic value. The
raw or natural bean is large, bold, symmetrical and exceedingly well
developed, of a light bluish or translucent-green tint or cast, very
regular and invariably uniform in general appearance. It roasts even
and handsomely, as fine, if not more so, than any variety known, while
in the infusion it is rich and strong, but smooth and creamy in body,
fragrant and aromatic in flavor; an equal quantity of this variety
yielding a heavier-bodied and richer liquor than that of the finest
Java, but will not be quite as high in flavor.

=Liberian-Ceylon=--Is produced from a transplant of the Liberian
species, which, owing to the destruction caused by the “leaf disease”
on the Ceylon plantations, has been introduced to that island, on
account of its being considered much stronger, hardier and better able
to withstand disease than the native trees, but while it was found
specially adapted to the plains and low-lying situations, it would
not bear so well on the upland or mountain slopes. A hybrid species
was at length evolved, the product of which is known to trade as
“Ceylon-Liberian,” the bean of which in the natural state is not quite
as large as that of the parent plant, not as convex in shape, the
color being paler, bordering on a rich yellow instead of brown, while
the infusion though not as heavy in body or dark in color, is much
smoother and more palatable, the too-heavy properties of the original
being greatly modified by climatic and other causes.

=Ceylon-Mocha=--Is a small bean, mountain-grown, coffee, very even
and uniform, usually separated from the regular plantation variety.
The raw or unroasted bean is of a steel-blue or silvery-grey color,
according to age, exceedingly rich in liquor and fragrant in flavor,
and considered by some experts to be equal in drinking qualities to any
variety grown, being frequently shipped to Aden for substitution or
mixing with Mocha coffee.

Ceylon coffees are usually packed in casks and in hogsheads (except
Native, which is put up in bags), the former weighing 400 and the
latter 1,000 pounds, and shipped to England, where it commands a high
price, relatively, and where they are graded as No. 1 (largest);
2 (medium); 3 (small), and “Triage,” or common, but generally as
“Plantation” and “Native” in the American market. In 1880 it was
estimated that the capital invested in coffee culture amounted to over
$70,000,000, a notable increase having taken place since that year,
there being at the present time some forty districts on the island
in which coffee culture is carried on for commercial uses. While the
native product is usually calculated to extend over 50,000 acres,
which, however, varies very much, according to the character of the
season, the prices obtained, and the cheapness of money. The annual
exports are about 80,000,000 pounds, giving an average yield from old
and new plantations of a little over 400 pounds per acre.


MALAYAN COFFEES

Include the products of the islands of Java, Sumatra, Celebes, the
Sunda and many other of the smaller islands of the Malayan Archipelago.


JAVA COFFEES.

Java is a generic term applied to all coffees grown in the Eastern
Archipelago, and is almost a synonym for coffee. While the coffee
plant, which is only known in Java by its European appellation and
its intimate relation with European despotism, was first introduced
into that island by the Dutch at the close of the seventeenth century,
and has ever since remained one of their chief articles of exclusive
monopoly. The labor by which it is planted and its produce collected
is included among the oppressions or “forced services” of the natives
at inadequate rates. Previous to the year 1808 the cultivation of
coffee in Java was principally confined to the Sunda districts, there
being, up to that year, but few plantations comparatively in the
eastern districts, the product of which they were capable of yielding
not amounting to one-tenth of the whole. But under the rapacious
administration of the Dutch East India Company and government the
cultivation of coffee has usurped the soil of almost the entire island,
otherwise destined for yielding the subsistence of the people, the
cultivation of all other products being made subservient to it and the
withering effects of a government monopoly, extending their influence
indiscriminately throughout every province and district in the island.
In the Sunda districts particularly each native family is compelled
to care for 1,000 coffee plants, and in the eastern districts, where
new and extensive plantations are being formed from time to time
in soils and situations in many instances by no means favorable to
its profitable culture, 650 plants is the prescribed allotment. No
negligence can be practised in the performance of this duty, the
whole operations of planting, picking and pulping being conducted
under the immediate superintendence of the government officials, who
select the sites where the new plantations are to be formed, seeing
that they are preserved from weeds and rank grasses and overseeing its
selection and removal to the “go-downs” or warehouses when prepared.
Under this system the Sunda districts are estimated to yield an
annual produce of 100,000 piculs, and it was at one time calculated
that the young plantations of the eastern districts, when they should
come into full bearing, would produce an equal quantity, but in the
latter section many of the plantations had been formed on ill-judged
sites, the natives being also averse to the new and additional burden
which this increase of cultivation imposed upon their labor. Had the
system been persevered in or enforced by a despotic authority, it is
questionable whether the quantity anticipated in the above estimate,
or even one-half of it, would have been obtained from the eastern
districts. The Sundas living in an island and mountainous country,
and having been long accustomed to the hardships of coffee culture,
are less sensible of its pressure than the rest of their countrymen,
time and habit having reconciled them to a system of servitude, which
was at first revolting to them, and a state of slavery, which the
philanthropist laments as degrading, is scarcely felt to be even a
grievance by themselves. Instances, however, are not wanting in which
the usual measure of exaction having been surpassed they have been
awakened to a sense of their wretchedness, a government of colonial
monopolists, eager only for profit, and heedless of the sources from
which it is derived, subjecting its native subjects to privations and
distresses, the recital of which shock the ear of humanity. In brief,
the system of coffee culture in the island of Java has sometimes been
so severely exacted that, together with the other constant and heavy
demands made upon them by the government authority on the native labor
of the country, that they deprived the unfortunate peasants of the time
necessary to raise food for their own support, many thus perishing by
famine, while others fled to the mountains, where, raising a scanty
subsistence in patches, or often dependent for it upon the roots of the
forest, they congratulated themselves on their escape from the reach
of their oppressors; numbers of these people, with their descendants,
remaining in these haunts to the present time. In their annual
migrations they frequently pass over the richest lands, which still
remain uncultivated, awaiting their return to till it, but they prefer
their wild independence and precarious subsistence to the horrors of
being again subjected to forced servitude and forced deliveries at
inadequate compensation.

In the Java highlands the tree yields fruit for a period of twenty
years, while on the plains or lowlands it seldom attains a greater age
than nine or ten, bearing only during six or seven of these, the fruit
being larger comparatively, but the flavor less as a general rule.
About the end of the rainy season such plants as have not thriven are
replaced by others and the plantations cleared, this latter operation
in well-managed plantations being generally performed from three to
four times in the year, the tree being never topped or pruned, but
universally allowed to grow in all its native luxuriance. In this state
it often, in favored situations, reaches a height of sixteen feet,
and plants eight inches broad have been frequently procured from the
trunks. The average product of a coffee tree in Java is not estimated
at much more than 1¹⁄₄ pounds, but there are instances on record where
as much as from twenty to thirty pounds have been yielded by a single
plant in a season. Again, in Java there does not appear to be any
fixed or certain season for the plant to arrive at maturity, as in the
Western countries, the gathering usually commencing in June or July,
and it is not until late in the following April that the entire crop
is delivered to the go-downs. The picking season in general, however,
consists of three pickings or crops of which the first or “roor-pluk,”
which is small, begins in February, the second or “main-pluk” in May
or June, when the heaviest portion is gathered. It is also termed the
“full-pluk,” from being the most abundant of the season the third
or “after-pluk,” being what is left to open on the trees, may be
considered more of a gleaning, as it is merely a general sweep of
the fallen berries. When the berries become of a dark crimson color
they are plucked off one by one with the assistance of a light bamboo
ladder, the greatest care being taken not to shake off the blossoms
which still remain on the tree or to pluck the unripe fruit. The women
and children of the country usually do the picking, the men attending
to the heavier work around the plantations. Attached to every village
near which there are coffee plantations of any extent, there is a
“drying-house,” to which the newly-gathered coffee is carried and where
it is placed on hurdles about four feet from the floor, under which a
slow wood-fire is kept up during the night; the roof is opened in the
mornings and evenings to admit the air, the berries being frequently
stirred meanwhile to prevent fermentation. As the excessive heat of
the sun is considered prejudicial, the roof of the “drying-house” is
closed during mid-day, this operation being continued until the husk is
thoroughly dried. The coffee dried in this manner is generally small,
sea-green or grayish in color and is supposed to acquire a peculiar
flavor from the smoke, although it does not appear that any particular
kind of wood is used as fuel. On the other hand, when the coffee is
dried in the sun the bean becomes of a pale yellowish color, is larger
in size, specifically lighter in weight and more pungent in flavor than
the former. The most common method of pulping in Java among the natives
is to pound the berries when dried in a bag made of buffalo hide, care
being taken not to break or mutilate the beans. A mill of the most
elementary construction is, however, sometimes used for the purpose,
but is said not to answer as well. When the operations of pulping and
cleaning are completed the coffee is then put in bags and baskets and
stood on raised platforms until the period of delivery arrives, when it
is carried to the “go-downs” or storehouses, sometimes by men but more
generally on the backs of buffaloes and mules in strings of from 1,500
to 2,000 at a time. In the Sunda district there are three principal
depots for receiving the coffee from the cultivators--Chikan, Karang
and Buitzenorg. From Buitzenorg it is either sent direct to Batavia by
land in carts or by way of Linkong, whence it is forwarded in boats by
the Chidana river, while from Chikan the coffee is sent in boats down
the river Chitaram and thence along the sea-coast to Batavia, where
it is received into extensive warehouses and from which it is in turn
generally exported to the European and American markets.

Up to a very recent period almost all coffee in Java was cultivated
by the natives under supervision of the Dutch government, which had
a monopoly of the product, deriving an enormous revenue from its
cultivation. Under this system, each family was compelled to cultivate,
pick, dry, hull and deliver the coffee at the nearest government
warehouse for transport to the port of shipment, the natives being
allowed but a small percentage of the crop as compensation for their
labor in many instances, but more generally the government placing a
figure so low as to enable it to sell the coffee at an enormous profit,
and also deducting again a heavy duty from the gross price paid to the
growers, thereby deriving an almost fabulous revenue from this system
of cultivation.

It is difficult to state what recompense the native cultivator
of coffee receives in Java for his services and his product, the
complicated system of accounts which prevails there seem only
calculated to puzzle or mystify the investigator and allow the Dutch
commissary to derive an income of from eighty to one hundred thousand
dollars per annum at the expense of the government by whom he is
employed, on the one hand, and that of the natives whom he oppresses,
on the other. Latterly, however, it has been directed that the
cultivators should receive, on delivery at the government storehouses,
“three rix-dollars (copper) for each “mountain” picul (225 pounds) of
coffee, being very little more than one dollar per hundred, while this
same coffee has frequently been sold in Batavia, within fifty miles
of the spot where it was raised, at twenty dollars per hundred, and
has been seldom sold in the European or American markets at less than
twenty cents per pound. It is, also, difficult to fix the exact rate at
which the coffee might be produced under the free system, but that it
can be raised for exportation at ten dollars per hundred with profit is
beyond doubt. The price paid the natives, however, is deemed liberal
by the Dutch government, though in many cases it has to be transported
over sixty miles of an almost impassible country, where two men are
required to carry a hundred pounds of coffee on their shoulders and
at an expense of labor which one would suppose at least equal to the
remuneration.

All the available mountain slopes on the island of Java are literally
covered with coffee plantations, owned and operated by the Dutch
government, which assigns to each Javanese family the cultivation
and care of from 600 to 1,000 trees under severe penalties, the
natives being compelled to deliver their crops, hulled and cleaned,
to the nearest government stores at the end of the harvest, accepting
in return whatever price the government is pleased to put on it.
Considerable coffee is, however, cultivated by the natives themselves,
independently of that raised directly for the government, being chiefly
grown along the borders of the government plantations and other
unused patches, as well as along the fences around their farms, being
generally raised in the shade; the berry of some of this coffee attains
a high excellence rivalling if not actually excelling the government
product in many instances.

A considerable portion of the peasantry having--as already
observed--been long accustomed to the cultivation of coffee, it is
owing to their skill and experience that the coffee owes its excellence
as much as to any direct knowledge, superintendence or interference of
the Dutch officials, who derive their information from the natives,
having little more to do than occasionally ride around the plantations
with a pompous suite, keep the accounts and examine the coffee, as it
is received from the cultivators. The plantations are generally laid
out in squares, the distances between the plants varying according to
the fertility of the soil, that is, in a soil not considered fertile,
a distance of six feet is preserved, and in each interval is planted a
“dadap” tree for the purpose of affording shade to the plants; while in
a rich soil where the plant grows more luxuriantly, fewer shade trees
are required and the plants are placed at greater distances from each
other. But in Java, a certain degree of shade appears to be necessary
at all times to the health of the coffee plant, especially during its
earlier stages, and in low situations, for which purpose the dadap tree
is found to be better calculated for affording this protection than any
other kind in the country, it being a common saying on that island that
“where the dadap flourishes, there also will flourish coffee.” But it
must not be inferred from this that they are always constant or even
necessary companions, for in the highlands many of the most flourishing
plantations are to be observed with but very few dadaps in the vicinity.

Coffee is cultivated for commercial use in all of the twenty-two
residencies into which the island is divided, including Bantam,
Batavia, Bezoeki, Bagelen, Banjoewanjie and Banjoemas, Cheribon,
Japara, Kadoe, Kediri and Krawang, Madioen, Rembang, Preanger,
Probolingo, Passoeren and Pekalongan, Soerabaya, Soerakarta and
Djokjakarta, Bali, Timour, Malang and Samarang, each of which
residencies or districts containing from five to fifty plantations,
by which they are further distinguished. In trade they are generally
divided into “Government” and “Free Coffees,” the free cultivation
being now permitted in the residencies of Bantam, Cheribon and many
other of the Eastern districts. And, as with the coffees of all other
countries, the product of the different districts of Java varies
considerably in quality and value, many of them possessing a richness
and mellowness not approached by that of any other country; others,
again, being so inferior that were it not for the fact of being grown
on that island they would not be deserving of the name.

=Bantam and Batavia=--Are medium-sized, yellowish in color, regular
and uniform in appearance, roasting and drinking exceeding well, being
generally clean and free from quakers.

=Bagalen and Bezoeki=--Are rather bold and plump in style, rich yellow
in color, solid and compact in form, full in body and fragrant in
flavor, ranking with the best of the Java growths.

=Banjoewanjie and Banjoemas=--While not plentiful sorts, rarely coming
to this market, being principally shipped to Holland, where they
are much appreciated for their great strength and rich flavor, are
medium-sized, heavy and round in body, creamy and fragrant in the cup.

=Cheribon and Japara=--Are rather light in weight and color, inclined
to be “chaffy” in the natural state and “quakery” in the roasted, but
nevertheless yield a pleasing and palatable liquor on infusion.

=Kadoe and Kediri=--Are small, hard-bean coffees, approaching brown,
and usually good drinkers, being a favorite in the European market,
where they rank high commercially.

=Rembang and Krawang=--Rank next to Kadoe in general cup qualities, but
are somewhat irregular in the raw state, roasting and drinking well,
however.

=Preanger and Probolingo=--The soil of these districts being
pre-eminently adapted for the cultivation of fine coffees, they are
noted for their products. The bean is round, full and well developed,
high-yellow in color, but assuming a rich-brown with age, firm and
regular in style, rich, mellow and creamy in liquor, fragrant and
aromatic in flavor, rivalling the best product of Arabia itself.

=Passoeren and Pekalongen=--Rank next to Preanger, being usually brown,
regular and uniform, full in body, round in flavor and as a general
rule very fragrant, particularly when the crop is good.

=Madioen and Soerabaya=--Belong to the yellow-bean class, and are
rather light in weight and body but pleasing and agreeable in the cup,
approximating to a fine Cucuta Maracaibo in form, liquor and general
characteristics.

=Soerakarta and Djokjakarta=--Are among the best of the Java growths,
large, heavy and well-developed in bean, handsome and attractive in the
roasted state, yielding a rich golden-yellow liquor, creamy in body and
aromatic in flavor.

=Bali and Timoor=--Are grown on the small islands to the south of Java,
and though fair in size and quite brown in color, are nevertheless
deceptive in roasting and drinking qualities.

=Malang and Samarang=--Are light in weight and in color, somewhat
chaffy in the natural state and “quakery” in the roasted, thin, flat
and flavorless in liquor.


OTHER VARIETIES.

=Old Government Java=--Is a trade term applied to coffee grown and
stored under the supervision of the officers of the Dutch government,
and in contradistinction to that raised by the natives, but is now
an almost obsolete term. It is produced principally in the Preanger
district, where the greatest care and attention is bestowed on its
cultivation and curing, its cultivation never being entirely entrusted
to the natives; the primary object of the government officials being
to improve the berry and enhance its value to the exclusion of
increased quantity. After being picked and cured, it is stored in
“go-downs” or storehouses for a number of years, frequently seven,
before being offered for sale, the go-downs being erected expressly
for the purpose, being open at the sides so as to admit the sun and
air in order to mature and season the coffee, which, like wine,
improves with age, the bean assuming with time a dark-brown color and
the flavor becoming richer and more mellow by the development of the
volatile or essential oil contained in the beans. By prolonged keeping
in the raw state it is found that the richness of any seeds in this
peculiar oil is increased, and with increased aroma the coffee yields
a blander and more mellow beverage. Stored coffees, for this reason,
lose weight at first with great rapidity, sometimes as much as 8 per
cent. having been found to dissipate in the first year of keeping, 5
per cent. in the second and 2 per cent. in the third; but such loss
of weight is more than compensated for by the improvement in quality
and consequent enhancement of value. Old Government Java is for this
reason celebrated for its superior excellence, and justly deserving of
its high repute. Latterly, however, the term has been indiscriminately
used and applied to all Java coffees of a brown color, irrespective of
age, grade or district of production and has thereby ceased to possess
any real significance as implying any extra merit or superiority over
the average run of Java coffees. The natural bean of the true Old
Government Java Coffee is large, round and well developed, of a rich
brown color, exceedingly regular and uniform in general appearance and
entirely free from defects of any kind, while the infusion is round and
heavy in body, creamy, mellow and fragrant in flavor, surpassing in
general “cup qualities” that of any other variety grown. All coffees
raised under the supervision of the government are disposed of through
the agency of the “Netherlands’ Maatschappy,” or Trading Company, at
the periodical (quarterly) auction sales held in Batavia or Amsterdam,
the sales occurring in the months of March, June, September and
December. It is offered for sale only in limited quantities--from one
to two hundred picul lots--no purchaser being permitted to buy more at
a single bidding, the prices varying at each sale, being regulated by
the quantity offered and the number of orders received by the agents
or brokers to buy, so that parties purchasing two or more lots cannot
calculate what the average cost will be until the sale is ended.

=Plantation=--Or “Private Growth Javas,” are so termed from being grown
on plantations owned and operated by private or individual planters,
and in contradistinction to that raised under government supervision.
Being grown from selected seed, under the best agricultural conditions
and scientific cultivation, it produces a quality of coffee that cannot
be surpassed for size, style, color, regularity and general intrinsic
merit. It is also marketed differently from the government system,
being disposed of by contract or tender, that is, as soon as the
quantity and quality of the crop can be estimated, the planters issue
a circular letter or note to the principal firms of Batavia and to the
representatives of European and American houses, informing them of the
facts and soliciting bids for the entire crop. Proposals are received
and the coffee sold to the highest bidder; but if, according to the
planter’s views, the offers are too low, he claims the right to reject
them and hold the coffee for a better market. If accepted the coffee is
carefully picked over, assorted and transported to the shipping port
by the planter and delivered in bulk, the purchaser furnishing his
own bags and marks, the coffees being of such high repute and quality
they sell high, there being great competition to obtain them. Many
of these plantations were in existence prior to the introduction of
the government monopoly system, or are situated on the estates of the
native princes, who have been permitted to retain some portion of their
sovereign privileges.

=Liberian-Java=--Is the product of a transplant of the Liberian species
introduced into the island about ten years ago, where it was found to
prosper well and vigorously; a great demand springing up for its seed,
the cultivation increasing and yielding a bean much larger than that
produced by the parent plant, full and well developed, yellow to brown
in color, concave in form and closely resembling “Padang” in liquor and
flavor.

=W.I.P.=--Or “West India Prepared” Java is so termed from being
pulped and prepared by the “Washed” or West India process, being also
known to trade as “Blue-bean Java.” The raw bean is bold, regular and
bluish-green in color, hard and solid in substance, heavy, rich and
flavory in liquor. Some authorities, however, contend that this new
process is detrimental to the coffee, claiming that by the old or
“dry-hulled” method the bean retained all the properties of the coffee
to a much greater degree, whereas by the new process, considerable of
the active principle (caffeine) is carried off in the washing.

=Loeke or “Tiger-cat Java”=--Is a variety of Java coffee highly prized
for the intrinsic merits imparted to it by a peculiar process. It is
composed simply of the undigested beans which have passed through the
intestinal canal of the “Loeke,” a small species of tiger found in
Java, which, climbing the trees, selects the ripest and richest of the
berries, feeds on them, swallowing both pulp and beans, the latter
being left in the jungle and afterwards collected by the natives. It
is analogous to the “Monkey coffee” of Brazil and the “Jackal coffee”
of India, the excellent qualities of which is due to the chemical
process which the beans undergo in the stomach of the animal that has
stolen them, the appreciation of such stercoraceously deposited beans
by the natives being an undoubted fact. The bean is large and bold, but
whitish in color, heavy, round and creamy in body, exceedingly fragrant
and aromatic in flavor and not excelled by that of any coffee grown or
known to commerce.

At the time of shipment all Java coffees are of a light-green shade
unless--as in the case of government and other coffees--they have been
previously stored for the purpose of seasoning or to await a better
market. During the long voyage through the tropics the bean gradually
changes to a deep-yellow, and finally to a dark-brown, particularly
if the voyage be materially lengthened, as it frequently is; the
darker the color becomes the more valuable the coffee on arrival. This
distinctive feature being characteristic of Java coffees only, no
other variety acquiring this color except by artificial means. Color
is the standard of value and the principal consideration in appraising
its price in the American market, there being a wide difference made
in the values of “Pale,” “Yellow” and “Brown” Java coffees in favor
of the latter. As stated before, by being stored for a certain length
of time, Java coffees improve in quality, the bean becoming browner
and the flavor more mellow, probably in the same manner as wine. The
moisture evaporates from the bean and the aciduous, astringent taste,
of the young, new bean is entirely dissipated and lost by the process,
which, by becoming thoroughly dry and seasoned, enhances its value
commercially. Yet color cannot always be taken as an indication of
age or genuineness, as much of the coffee offered under the head of
Brown Java at the present time is nothing more than Malang and other
varieties “sweated,” and colored by a steaming process or artificially
faced with a preparation of kaolin or soapstone. Again if this feature
of turning brown with time, were always an indication of age, it may
be taken for granted that “Brown Javas,” possessed finer roasting and
drinking qualities, than the “Light” or Yellow-bean varieties, but
it is an acknowledged fact that this brown color, even when natural,
neither adds or detracts from its value in the cup. Practically the
demand for “Brown Java” coffee is but an American caprice, enhancing
its commercial value from two to three cents per pound beyond its
intrinsic worth; this caprice being also directly responsible for
the immense amount of other so-called Java coffees that are annually
sweated and colored to imitate or counterfeit the naturally colored and
genuine kinds. While in Europe the yellow-colored coffees are preferred
to the brown, being quite as good, if not superior, to them, and less
liable to manipulation.

Java coffees are packed for export in bags containing one picul
(133 pounds) when intended for the European markets, and in mats of
one-half picul for the American, the latter style being preferred in
this country. In the European markets they are classed as “Green,”
“Pale-green,” “Greenish” and “Extra-green” when new, but as “Yellow,”
“Dark-yellow,” “Light-brown” and “Brown” when old, grading in the
order named. While in the United States they are generally classed as
“Light,” “Yellow” and “Brown,” according to color, the packages being
usually marked with the initials of the importer, underneath which is
a letter or letters denoting the district or plantation where grown.
The average annual production is about 100,000,000 pounds, of which
30,000,000 pounds is produced on private plantations.


SUMATRA COFFEES.

Sumatra known to the Arabians as _Srimata_ (“the happy”), lies to the
northwest of Java, being separated only from it by the narrow Sunda
strait, and is much richer in products than the latter island. The
coffee-plant was first introduced into Sumatra from Java, by the Dutch,
in the latter part of the eighteenth century, but its cultivation made
little or no progress on that island until about the year 1800, when
measures were taken by the government to promote and stimulate its
production there, since which period there has been a rapid increase
in its output. The system of coffee cultivation is nearly identical
with that in Java, each native family being furnished with seed by
the government on condition that they keep in good bearing order not
less than 650 trees, the crop, “if up to standard,” being purchased
by the government, that is, _taken_, at an arbitrarily _fixed_ price.
The coffee, after being inspected and accepted, is stored in go-downs
or warehouses adjacent to the districts of growth, until a sufficient
quantity has been collected, when it is transported to the ports of
Padang or Benkoolen, where, after being duly advertised, it is sold
at auction, under the immediate supervision of the officers of the
Dutch government, the sales being held quarterly during the months
of March, June, September and December, as in Batavia and Amsterdam.
Latterly, however, the cultivation of coffee in Sumatra has been
further encouraged by the government leasing or selling coffee-lands
to independent planters, the product of such plantations being termed
“Free coffee,” in contradistinction to that raised with restrictions by
the natives, such coffees being sold only by tenders, as in Java.

Like Java, Sumatra is geographically divided into a number of
districts politically termed “Residencies,” under Dutch control, the
coffee-producing districts comprising Painan, Padang, Palembang,
Ankola, Ayerbanjies and Mandheling, grading relatively in the order
named.

=Painan=--Is a medium-sized bean brownish in color, hard, solid and
regular in appearance, generally clean and well prepared, and though
fairly heavy in body and pungent in flavor is yet devoid of the
mellowness and fragrance which characterize Sumatra sorts in general,
but is still superior in many respects to a number of the Java growths.

=Padang=--Known to trade generally as “Interior” from being raised in
a somewhat desultory manner by the natives on government lands, in
the Padang plateau or highlands of the interior, which furnishes the
largest quantity. Padang or Interior coffees are not, as a rule, as
stylish or uniform as the other district growths, owing to careless
cultivation and the primitive methods of preparation in use by the
natives. Yet, notwithstanding these drawbacks, Interior coffees
frequently comprise invoices rivalling in roasting and drinking
qualities many of the regularly cultivated district coffees, and at all
times far outrank the average of the Java product. The raw bean as a
rule is of fair proportions, but very irregular in general appearance,
fairly uniform, and though lacking in the style and finer qualities of
the plantation grades, is nevertheless strong, rich and fragrant in the
cup, possessing a characteristic flavor entirely their own.

=Palembang=--Differs from Padang both in size, style, color and drink,
being smaller in bean, lighter in color, but stronger and more pungent
in liquor, and not, as a general rule, as highly valued, except when
the crop is good.

=Ankola=--Ranks among the finest of the Sumatra sorts in point of size,
color and general character, the natural bean being round, full and
firm, rich dark-brown in color, bright and mellow in liquor, and very
fragrant if not aromatic in flavor, and much superior in every respect
to the best of the Java growths, excepting alone that produced in the
Preanger district.

=Ayerbanjies=--Is closely allied to Ankola in all its leading features
of size, color, structure and character, being classed commercially as
on an entire parity with it, commanding the same price, and frequently
substituted for it when the former is scarce or difficult to obtain.

=Mandheling=--Is without exception the finest of the Sumatra products,
and is valued high commercially, not alone for its undisputed intrinsic
merits, but also on account of the comparatively small amount produced,
forming only about ten per cent. of the entire product of the island.
The bean is much larger, almost as large as Liberian, of a rich dark,
natural-brown color, round, full, well developed and symmetrical in
form, very stylish and attractive in the roasted state, and equalling,
if not positively surpassing, the much-vaunted Old Government Java
itself.

=Lahat=--Is another of the Sumatra varieties, but not deserving of
being classed with them. Being of lowland growth, the bean, while
large, is flat in shape, whitish in color, and chaffy in substance,
approaching a Malang in general contour. It is invariably “quakery” in
the roast, flat in liquor, insipid in flavor, or more correctly, almost
devoid of “cup” qualities.

Sumatra coffees, in general, possess a peculiarly characteristic flavor
in the raw or natural state, described by some dealers as “musty,”
but claimed to be acquired in transit through the tropics, the coffee
sweating in the hold of the vessel during the long voyage. Certain
it is, however, that this mustiness, or whatever it may be termed,
enhances rather than detracts from the value or flavor of the coffee.
And, more singular to add, Sumatra forms nine-tenths of the coffee
imported and sold in the United States under the head of Java, being
preferred to the latter by the American dealers in general, on account
of its usually dark-brown color and distinctive “musty” flavor. The
annual product, like that of all other countries, varies materially
from various and obvious causes, both in quantity and quality, the
average annual export being about 20,000,000 pounds, of which the
United States takes upwards of 75 per cent., the product of “Free” or
private plantation coffee forming about one-fifth of the annual yield.
It is packed in grass mats, and shipped from the port of Padang, when
purchased for account in the United States, and from Benkoolen, in the
north, when intended for the European market.


CELEBES COFFEES

Are grown in the Dutch island of that name, situated to the northeast
of Java, the coffee plant being introduced there from Java as far
back as 1750, but except where Dutch influence was felt little or no
attention was paid to it by the native races until about 1822, when
it was discovered by the Dutch rulers that the soil of the mountain
sides was admirably adapted to the cultivation of fine coffees and a
system established which stimulated the native chiefs to foster the
industry and undertake the management of coffee plantations. A law was
subsequently enacted by the Dutch government, however, compelling the
native princes to direct the total annihilation of the cultivation
of coffee in their dominions and to secure by treaty with them the
destruction and confiscation of all coffee found in the hands of the
natives. The island is divided into thirteen districts, in nearly all
of which more or less coffee is produced. The principal coffees being
known to commerce as Menado, Bonthyne and Macassar.

=Menado=--Produced in the district of Minnahassa situated in the
extreme north of the island, is not only the finest grown on that
island, but, also excels the best products of both Java and Sumatra.
The bean is uniformly large and regular, of a rich dark-yellow color,
solid and heavy in weight, magnificent in the roast, creamy and
aromatic to a high degree in the cup. It is claimed to possess the
“highest standard of excellence,” no other variety containing the same
all-round qualities of size, style, color, liquor, flavor and aroma to
the same extent. The supply, however, is very limited, and is generally
shipped to Holland, where it commands a price in accordance with its
merits, but rarely reaching the United States.

=Bonthyne=--Is medium in size, flat in form, reddish in color, inferior
in roast and flavor, and not a desirable sort by any means.

=Macassar=--Is the poorest of the Celebes sorts, closely resembling
Lahat and Malang, and on a parity with them in appearance, character
and value.

=Singapore Javas.=--What are known to commerce as “Singapore Java
Coffees” are not produced on that island, which, although lying
directly in the coffee zone, produces little or no coffee, except
small quantities of the Liberian species, which has recently been
introduced there. 90 per cent. of the coffee shipped from Singapore
is chiefly composed of the products of Bali, Timour, the Mollucas and
smaller Sunda islands, its position making it the only _entrepot_
for the commerce of the entire archipelago. The coffees are usually
small in size, reddish in color, irregular in grade and inferior in
quality, being generally produced from wild or carelessly cultivated
plants, and also possessing a peculiar spicy or “peppery” flavor, said
to be contracted from being imported with cargoes of pepper, but more
probably from being grown in the vicinity of pepper plantations in the
Spice islands. Formerly these coffees were marketed under their true
titles, but as their character became known they were palmed off as
Padang and other district Javas, to the detriment of the latter.

The systematic cultivation of the Liberian species of coffee was
commenced about ten years ago in Siam, Malacca and many of the smaller
islands of Malaysia, where it was found to prosper so well at first
that the demand for Liberian seed became very great. But after a
fair trial it does not seem to have been a great success, what little
is produced in these new districts being generally classed as “Jahore
Liberian” coffee.


POLYNESIAN COFFEES

Embrace Phillipine, Borneo, Guinea, Fijian, Samoan, Hawaiian,
Australian, New Zealand, and other islands in the South Pacific Ocean.

=Phillipine Coffees.=--Opinions differ as to whether the coffee plant
is indigenous to the Phillipine Islands or only exotic there, some
authorities declaring that it was first brought there by Spanish
priests from the Malay. Others again claiming that the plant was found
in a wild state in the island of Luzon prior to its introduction,
but that the natives, being ignorant of its properties, allowed the
fruit to decay on the trees. Be this as it may, coffee thrives there
remarkably well, the product possessing a peculiarly rich flavor, for
which it is highly esteemed on the continent of Europe, and, although
it is by no means well prepared or uniform, the worst grades bring
a higher price there than the Java growths, the value on the spot
exceeding the current rates for the latter in the foreign markets, and
is generally classed as “Luzon,” “Manilla” and “Zamboango,” from the
ports of shipment.

=Luzon=--Is a small-bean variety, hard and flinty in texture, rich
and aromatic in the infusion, but poorly or indifferently cleaned or
prepared, for which causes it is not as well appreciated as it deserves.

=Manilla=--Is principally produced on the islands of Indan, Laguna,
Batangas and Cavité, its price on the spot varying from twenty to
twenty-two dollars per picul. The bean is medium in size, regular in
form, and pale-green in color, perfect in roast and aromatic in flavor.

=Zamboango=--Comes chiefly from Mindano and the southern islands
generally. The bean is much larger than that of Manilla,
yellowish-white in color, but somewhat flabby in texture, and
containing much extraneous matter, being poorly prepared, while the
liquor is thin, flat and apt to be wild or “grassy” in flavor.

Recently the natives have planted patches of coffee in the islands
of Cebu and Bohol, small quantities of which have appeared in the
European markets, some also being secured from the islands of Yligan
and Amboyana. The area of land under coffee cultivation in the
Phillipines, and the amount of coffee raised annually is not definitely
known, as the plantations are widely scattered over the islands of the
archipelago, but is usually estimated at about 10,000,000 pounds. The
largest plantations are situated in the province of Batangas in the
island of Luzon, but considerable coffee is also produced independently
by the natives in small plots which they sell to speculators, who hold
it until they make up a fair-sized shipment, collected in this manner,
from the neighboring islands. The increase in production, however, has
been marked during the past five years, from about 10,000,000 pounds in
1888, to over 16,000,000 pounds in 1893, about 6,000,000 pounds coming
direct to this country, the remainder being taken by Spain, France and
Continental Europe generally.

=Borneo Coffee.=--The Liberian plant has been recently introduced
into Borneo on a small scale, where it has been found to thrive well
but producing a bean greatly modified in size, color and flavor of
the original species. It is much smaller, not as convex or brown, but
smoother and more pleasing, if anything, in the drink.

=Guinea Coffee.=--Rapid strides are being made in the cultivation of
coffee in New Guinea, the product ranking with the average of the mild
grades of the older countries.

=Samoan Coffee.=--The coffee plant has been in existence here for some
years, and though thriving luxuriantly, and the soil and climate being
well adapted, it has never been scientifically treated, and as a
consequence is not as yet an article of commerce.

=Fijian Coffee.=--Some coffee of fair quality was exported from these
islands as early as 1877, the industry making but little progress there
since that time, notwithstanding the fact that the islands possess
abundant facilities for the production of a superior variety. Several
of the most wealthy and enterprising planters are now, however, engaged
in its cultivation, and it is expected soon to become one of the chief
exports of those islands. The bean is medium sized, green in color, as
with all new coffees, and, owing to improper curing, somewhat grassy in
flavor.

=Hawaiian Coffee.=--Coffee has been cultivated in Hawaii and other
islands of that group with considerable success for many years
past, although the production has varied greatly there. The first
plantations formed in the island were only a few feet above sea-level,
to which fact is attributed the failure or rather slow progress of the
industry there. New plantations at higher elevations have recently
been established, from which better returns are expected. They are
classified, and known to trade as Puna, Hilo, Kona and Hamakua, of
which Kona is the finest, the others varying in size, color and flavor.
The exports have declined from 415,000 pounds in 1870, which in 1885
fell to as low as 1,675 pounds, but for 1892 it had again increased to
13,000 pounds, the total exports since 1881 amounting to 215,782 pounds.

=Australian Coffee.=--Coffee has been found to prosper well in
Queensland, a yield of over 600 pounds per acre being obtained there
so far and selling in Brisbane at twenty cents per pound, the smaller
farmers finding it paying better than corn or potatoes. Efforts are
also being made to introduce the industry into New Zealand and other of
the Antipodean colonies. This list does not by any means exhaust the
possible spots or sections in Polynesia where coffee is or may be grown
with the greatest advantage, touching only the chief centres of the
industry, and as suggesting some eligible sites for the extension of
the planting enterprise. Fair quantities of coffee being also produced
in the Hebrides, Society, Friendly and many other of the island groups
in the South Pacific Ocean.


AMERICAN COFFEES.

As previously stated, the history of the first introduction of the
coffee plant into the American continent is as romantic as it is
interesting. In 1714 the magistrates of Amsterdam presented to Louis
XIV a specimen of the coffee tree, which was carefully nursed in one
of the botanic gardens of Paris, until it eventually yielded fruit. In
1717 the French king sent several of the shoots from it to the island
of Martinique in care of one De Clieux, an officer in the French naval
service. The voyage being long and stormy, the ship’s crew were reduced
to a short allowance of water; for lack of which essential all but one
of the young plants died. De Clieux to save this remaining slip shared
with it his own scanty allowance, eventually succeeding in bringing
it safely to its destination. From this single plant thus heroically
preserved, according to De Tour, was propagated the numerous varieties
now to be found in the West Indies, Mexico, Central, and the northern
countries of South America. And where, notwithstanding the fact that
Coffee is indigenous to the Old World it has evidently found its true
habitat in the New, its production at the present being many times
greater than in the East; its cultivation also constantly and immensely
increasing there.

The climatic and topographic conditions of the American continent are
pre-eminently adapted to the cultivation of fine coffees, the great
mass of coffee lands, consisting of an elevated plateau formed by an
expansion of the Cordilleras from which terraced slopes descend with a
more or less rapid inclination towards both the Atlantic and Pacific
oceans. This vast tract comprises one of the richest and most varied
zones of the world, for while its geographical position secures to
it a tropical vegetation, the rapid differences of elevation which
characterize it afford it the advantages of more temperate climates,
thus combining within its borders an almost unparalleled exuberance and
multiplicity of natural products, lands favorable to the cultivation
of coffee being found not only on the entire Andean range but also on
its sea and land slopes from Mexico to Paraguay. While in addition to
these immense stretches of mountain range, the plant is also found to
flourish in the numerous valleys and plains of the interior of the
continent, and wherever the great tablelands of the Cordilleras are
sufficiently depressed to reach the level of tropical vegetation.

American Coffees are geographically divided into Mexican, West Indian,
Central and South American, and, as with the products of the Old World,
the commercial divisions and subdivisions of the numerous varieties are
based rather on the districts of production and the ports of export
than upon any great material difference in the appearance or even
quality of the various kinds produced.


MEXICAN COFFEES.

It is also a fact not generally known to Americans that at our very
doors there exists the climatic conditions and capacity for the
production of all the coffee that is required for consumption in
the United States, the area adapted to the cultivation of coffee in
Mexico being almost illimitable, and bounded only by the extent of
land brought under cultivation. Its suitability as a coffee-producing
country has been tested by more than fifty years of experience, and
that it has not heretofore assumed first place in point of production,
exportation, and the rank to which the merit of its product entitles
it, is to be attributed to the same causes that have so long retarded
its other agricultural and commercial developments. But while coffee is
chiefly produced for export only in the States of Vera Cruz, Oaxaca,
Michacoan, Colima, Chiapas, Jalisco and Tabasco, excellent coffee is
also grown on the plains of the interior as far north as Sinaloa,
as well as in the coast States from Yucatan to Tamaulipas. They are
commercially classified as Oaxaca, Cordova, Urupuan, Tepic, Tabasco,
Soconusco and Caracolillo, varying materially in size, style and
quality.

=Oaxaca=--Is a “Sierra,” or mountain coffee, large, bold and blue when
new, but bleaching with time. It is one of the best of the Mexican
varieties, being regular in roast, heavy in body, strong and rich in
flavor and aroma.

=Cordova.=--Grown in the State of Vera Cruz, is usually a large
yellow-bean coffee, from which fact it is sometimes termed “Mexican
Java.” It makes a handsome roast, yielding a round, full liquor,
approaching to that of a fine Maracaibo or medium Java.

=Urupuan=--Produced in the State of Michacoan is also a mountain grade,
rather small in size, greenish-blue in color but somewhat irregular in
appearance, not being well prepared. In flavor it is, however, high
and fragrant, approximating most to that of a Plantation Ceylon.

=Tepic=,--or “Mexican Mocha,” grown in the State of Jalisco is claimed
to be a transplant of the Arabian berry, which has by careful and
scientific cultivation been so improved in flavor and aroma as to
rival, if not actually excel, the product of the parent plant. The
natural bean is exceedingly small, hard and “flinty” in texture,
steel-blue in color, faultless in roast, rich and creamy in body and
highly aromatic in flavor. The supply being limited it is rarely
exported, being principally consumed in the district of production,
where it commands a very high price, selling on the spot for as much as
one dollar per pound.

=Tabasco=--Is a coast-grown coffee cultivated in the hot, moist
low-lands of the Campeachy gulf, and is the poorest of the Mexican
varieties. The bean is of a sickly-green hue, medium in size, and moist
or “spongy” in substance, bitter and astringent in flavor, and taken
altogether a most undesirable sort for any purpose.

=Soconusco=--Produced in Chiapas, close to the rich coffee lands of
Guatemala is another high-grade coffee, ranking among the finest of
the Mexican varieties. It is a large, mature bean, varying in color,
according to age, from a bluish-green to a pale-yellow, full and round
in body, ripe and mellow in flavor as a rule.

=Colima=--Raised on the west coast is a medium-sized bean, flat in
form, fairly solid, but varying in color from greenish to pale, even
in roast, rather round in liquor and pleasing in flavor, and generally
shipped to the Pacific States.

=Caracolillo=--or “Mexican pea-berry,” is a concave-convex bean, grown
on the new wood at the end of branches of trees that are pruned year
after year; but though not confined to any particular species, such
trees yield almost entirely male or pea-berry coffee, being the only
instance on record, and is considered the fanciest grade grown in
Mexico.

Mexico possesses more and better coffee lands than many other countries
where it is now extensively grown, a small proportion of which only
are under cultivation. The popularity of the product increases as it
becomes better known, besides being the nearest and most accessible
coffee producing country to the United States, the largest and best
coffee market in the world. More attention is now being directed to
the cultivation of coffee in Mexico, however, by both natives and
foreigners than has ever before been given to the industry in that
country. Native Mexicans are quietly, but steadily laying out new
coffee plantations or enlarging and reviving old ones and many large
tracts of land adapted to the growth of coffee have recently been
purchased there by foreigners with that object. But while Mexico
practically has no limit to her production of coffee, yet the average
annual exports amounts only to about 10,000,000 pounds, the bulk of
which is shipped to France, where it is graded as “Verde,” or Green,
and “Blanco,” or White, the United States receiving the largest
proportion of the remainder.


WEST INDIAN COFFEES.

The West India Islands at the beginning of the present century were
noted for the extensive quantity and excellent quality of their coffee
product, ranking at that period with the largest coffee-growing
countries of the world. Its cultivation has rapidly and materially
declined there in recent years, still continuing to do so at a
disproportionate rate; the decrease since the emancipation of the
negroes almost amounting to abandonment. But while commonly attributed
in a great measure to the ravages of the blight, already described, it
is more evidently traceable to social influences and a faulty system of
cultivation. Latterly, however, attempts are being made to restore the
industry to something like its former importance by new and improved
methods of culture, so that it remains to be seen what art can do to
combat the difficulty. They are classified in trade as Cuban, Jamaica,
Haytian, San Domingo, Porto Rico, Trinidad, Dominica, Martinique and
Guadeloupe.

=Cuban=--Though at one period one of the largest coffee-producing
countries in proportion to its size, yielding nearly 50,000,000 pounds
annually, Cuba now ranks lowest in the scale, not raising sufficient to
supply the home demand, its cultivation being replaced in that island
by that of sugar and tobacco. The districts most noted for the richness
and excellence of their coffees are situated on the Sierra Maistra
range, in the vicinity of Vuelta Abajo, as well as in the districts
of Alquizar and San Marcos, and from the fact that these latter are
among the oldest coffee-producing sections on the island, their product
bears a high reputation for fragrance and excellence. But the coffee
grown in the mountain district of Guantanamo is now considered the
finest, its cultivation there being on the increase, while decreasing
rapidly in the former districts. The bean of what little is produced on
that island is large in size, whitish in color and peculiar in form,
somewhat resembling a “male” or pea-berry. In roast and drink it is
superior to many of the mild grades, with which it is usually ranked.

=Jamaica=--The coffee plant was first introduced into Jamaica in 1730,
a special act of Parliament being passed in that year to encourage
and foster its cultivation. The island is famous for the production
of fine coffees, those grown on the regularly conducted plantations
rivalling the best products of any country. It is divided into two
kinds, “Blue Mountain” and “Plain-grown,” the latter being graded
commercially as “Ordinary” in contradistinction to the former, which
is always choice. “Blue Mountain Jamaica” is a bold, well-developed
bean, bluish almost translucent in cast, very solid and attractive in
style and appearance, and developing a characteristic peculiarity, that
of opening and exposing a whitish hull or silver-skin down the furrow
when roasted, while the liquor is heavy, round, full and rich, fragrant
and aromatic to a high degree. It is packed for export in barrels and
large casks, the bulk of the choicer grades being compulsorily exported
to England, where it commands a higher figure relatively than Java and
other equally fine coffees. Nearly all the coffee plantations on the
Island of Jamaica being mortgaged to London brokers and dealers, the
contracts containing a clause or stipulation compelling the planter to
dispose of their crops through the holders, who, by the harsh terms of
the contract, not only secure the best of the product and the interest
on the money advanced but also the commissions or profits on its sale.

“Ordinary” or plain-grown Jamaica is a large, whitish, flat and
broken-bean coffee, moist or spongy in the raw state, and invariably
stony and hully, being imperfectly cleaned. The roast is usually either
“quakery” or “niggery,” the liquor is strong, almost to rankness, and
apt to be “wild” or “grassy” in flavor, more particularly when new,
approximating close to a Travancore or Native Ceylon, to which coffees
it bears a striking resemblance in character and value. It is put up in
large coarse bags, averaging about 200 pounds, and shipped principally
to the United States.

=Haytian Coffees.=--Coffee is claimed to have been first introduced
into this island by wild fowl, being steriocaceously deposited
there after the manner of Monkey, Jackal and Tiger-cat coffees. Its
systematic cultivation was first begun there about 1740 by the French,
the industry flourishing during the French _régime_, but rapidly
declining after the island passed under native rule. It is cultivated
there now by natives exclusively, principally in the districts of
Jeremie, Jacmel and Gonaives, by which terms it is more familiarly
known to commerce. They are generally large, flat, white and broken in
appearance, invariably stony and stemy, being but crudely cultivated
and prepared for market. Yet, notwithstanding these defects, they are
elegant roasters, yielding an excellent liquor, full of snap and rich
in flavor, but owing to its indifferent treatment its commercial value
is reduced far below its intrinsic worth. The coffee itself being
mild and pleasant, added to its low price, would commend it to many
consumers were it but properly cleaned and graded. Usually all of it
received into this country is reshipped to France, Belgium and Germany,
where it is picked over by hand, the consumers in these countries not
being as exacting as regards cleaning and grading as in this country.
The production of coffee in Hayti has fallen from over 80,000,000
pounds in 1789 to less than 50,000,000 at the present time, although
the island offers an excellent and extensive field for the industry,
which, it is hoped, will be taken advantage of as soon as the country
devotes its energies more closely to the improvement of its internal
affairs and the encouragement of capital.

[Illustration: HULLING COFFEE.]

=San Domingo=--Known to trade as “Cape,” is grown on the same island
to the west of Hayti, and approximates very closely in size, style
and color to ordinary Jamaica--so much so that it is frequently
substituted and sold in lieu of it. Its cultivation being also
principally conducted by natives, who are so indifferent to its proper
preparation for market--machinery being employed only to a very limited
extent--that most of the product is shipped in a stony and otherwise
dirty condition, thus reducing its value commercially far below its
intrinsic worth.

=Porto Rico=--Is grown chiefly in the province of Ponce, small
quantities being also produced in the districts of Arecibo, Mayaguez
and Aguadilla. The bean is regular and well formed, but varying in
color from yellow to greenish, the quality is fairly good, and though,
not well known in the American market is much valued in Spain and the
European markets generally.

=Dominica=--Known to trade as “Souffriere,” from the district of
growth, is a peculiarly shaped bean, said to be produced from Mocha
seed, but much inferior to the product of the parent plant. From
the effects of Negro emancipation and the coffee blight, the annual
production of Dominica has fallen from over 2,000,000 pounds to almost
nominal.

=Trinidad=--The coffee export from Trinidad is only about 25,000 pounds
yearly, yet there is scarcely any part of the island where coffee
culture may not be profitably undertaken, particularly in the districts
of Aripo and Maracas, where the conditions are unsurpassed. Both
the Arabian and Liberian species are grown there, the product being
commercially divided into “Large” and “Small” and generally shipped to
Spain.

=Martinique.=--Although originally introduced into the New World
through Martinique, which island was for a long time celebrated for
the quantity and quality of its coffee, it produces very little
comparatively at the present day. In fact, barely sufficient to supply
the home demand, the excess going to France, where it is highly
esteemed for its intrinsic merits. The bean is exceedingly small, hard
and flinty, somewhat resembling that of a Mocha, bluish-gray in color,
heavy and round in body, pungent and piquant in flavor, and grading
with the finest of the milder sorts.

=Guadeloupe.=--More or less coffee is produced in Guadeloupe and
other of the smaller islands of the Antilles, but chiefly to supply
the home demand, and, with the exception of the former, are almost
entirely unknown to commerce. It is grown principally in the districts
of Bonfleur and Hatrant, what little is exported being shipped to
France, where it is valued high commercially for its superior drinking
qualities. A century ago the island exported nearly 8,000,000 pounds,
being now reduced to less than 500,000. The total annual production
of the entire West India Islands not exceeding 90,000,000 pounds at
the present time, but strenuous efforts are being made to increase the
product.


CENTRAL AMERICAN COFFEES.

Coffee forms the principal staple of the Central American States, the
soil and climate being eminently adapted to the cultivation of fine
coffees, but, as in all other countries, the best grades are produced
on the upland or mountain slopes. In some of these countries, however,
the most primitive system of cultivation and elementary methods of
preparing are still in use, while in others, notably Guatemala, the
most improved modern machinery is employed. They embrace Guatemala,
Nicaragua, San Salvador, Honduras and Costa Rica coffees.

=Guatemala=--Produces the finest, ranking in intrinsic merit with
that of any variety grown--more particularly that grown in the now
famous Coban district, in Vera Paz, which rivals, if it does not
actually excel, all other varieties in size, style, roasting and
drinking qualities. The average bean is large, bold and symmetrical
in form, of a translucent blue cast, and exceedingly handsome in
general appearance, making a perfect roast, yielding a rich brown
liquor, sparkling and aromatic in the cup. The next best coffees in
Guatemala are those grown in the “Costa Chica” and “Costa Grande,” a
prolongation of the chain of mountains crossing the southern boundary
of Mexico. The production of coffee has more than doubled in Guatemala
in the past ten years, the price during the same period being more
than quadrupled. The total product for 1892 was over 700,000 quintals,
representing a total value of 16,000,000 dollars. The extraordinary
high price of coffee now ruling has led to a transformation of the
country, small land-owners who heretofore realized from their crops
scarcely sufficient for working expenses, now find themselves with
considerable capital, with which they improve and enlarge their
plantations. These results have led to unbridled speculation, large
companies being formed there for still increasing the area and yield of
coffee, every speculator and small trader who has been enabled to save
a little money, abandoning his former occupation, turning his attention
to coffee growing. This condition may last as long as the present high
prices of coffee continues, but a reaction may occur at any time,
when complete ruin will be the natural consequence to the suddenly
increased number of producers, of which the reflex cannot be but felt
in the economic conditions of the country. Land which was but a few
years ago uninhabited, has been suddenly converted into smiling and
well-cultivated coffee plantations, towns and villages long in decay
have risen around them as if by magic and are steadily increasing in
wealth. New roads to facilitate transportation to the ports are being
constructed, commercial transactions are multiplied, the revenue of
the country is increasing, public credits re-established on a sounder
basis, and what was but a short time ago a poor, declining and almost
ruined State has been suddenly, by the cultivation of coffee, converted
into a rich and prosperous commonwealth.

=Nicaragua=--Is a medium-sized regular-formed bean, solid and heavy
in the hand, greyish-yellow in color, what is technically termed
“foxy,” and a smooth roaster. The drinking qualities, however, are only
fair, the liquor, while heavy, being devoid of snap and fragrance,
approximating more to a Rio in flavor.

=Salvador=--Is allied to Nicaragua in appearance and character, and
classed the same, but possesses much finer roasting and drinking
properties. The natural bean of the finer grades is, if anything,
better developed and more uniform, while the poorer ones are very
uneven, broken and “mottled” in appearance; the liquor thin in body and
lacking aroma.

=Honduras=--Is a yellowish, heavy-bean coffee, assuming a rich straw
color with age, and having an attractive appearance in the hand. As a
general rule it roasts even and smooth, becoming a rich brown color
when parched; the liquor, while thin, gives out a pleasant odor,
resembling that exhaled by cocoa or chocolate, said to be acquired from
being grown in close proximity to cocoa plantations.

=Costa Rica=--Is one of the most deceptive coffees grown, the raw bean
being large and bold in style, a rich pea-green in color, uniform and
shapely; but is invariably what is termed “hidey,” which is in reality
due to the soil in which it is grown, and, while it makes an almost
perfect roast, is “grassy” and bitter in the infusion, particularly
when roasted for any length of time, it becomes sour and unpalatable,
making its purchase at all times risky.


SOUTH AMERICAN COFFEES

Comprise Venezuelan, Colombian, Equador, Bolivian, Guiana, Peruvian,
Paraguayan and Brazilian, small quantities being also produced in Chili
and Argentina.


VENEZUELAN COFFEES.

The chief coffee-producing districts of Venezuela lie in a central
division, having Caracas and Valencia as a base, with the ports of La
Guayra and Puerto Cabello as shipping points, the district surrounding
the Lake of Valencia being one of the most productive coffee countries
in the world in the quantity and quality of its product. They include
La Guayra, Caracas, Maracaibo, Curaçoa and Angostura coffees.

=La Guayra=--Also known as “Coro” and “Port,” or Puerto Cabello, from
the ports of shipment, varies in size from small to medium, and from a
pale to a dark-green in color. It is usually graded on a parity with
Rio, to which coffee it most approximates in roast and drink, it being
frequently polished and sold as such, particularly when Rios are
scarce, and, although classed as a “Mild coffee,” develops more or less
of a Rio flavor in the cup.

=Caracas=--Is of two kinds--_Trilliado_ Milled or “dry-hulled” and
_Descerazado_ (Washed) or “wet-hulled”--from the different methods
employed in pulping and preparing for market. The former is a
yellowish, medium-sized bean, regular and uniform in the natural state,
but apt to be “quakery” in the roasted, and only fair in the drink.
While “Washed Caracas,” on the other hand, is bold and bluish in
color, opening at the furrow when roasted like a Mountain Jamaica or
Plantation Ceylon, exceedingly heavy and rich in body and fragrant in
flavor, and may be classed as one of the best varieties grown.

=Maracaibos=--Consist of five different varieties or grades--Cucuta,
Merida, Bocono, Tovar and Trujillo--district terms, ranking in the
order named, “Cucuta” being, when the season is favorable, one of the
best coffees grown, grading with many of the products of Java itself.
The raw or natural bean of the finer grades is large, round and solid
in substance, deep, rich-yellow in color, approximating to that of
the best yellow-bean Java sorts in style, appearance and drink. While
“Merida” is a mountain-grown coffee, large, bold and bluish in color,
frequently excelling “Cucuta,” particularly when the crop is good, and
possessing a full ripe liquor with round full body and distinctive
flavor very pleasing to the average consumer.

“Bocono,” “Tovar” and “Trujillo,” are inferior grades to the above,
small and gnarled in the natural state, generally stony and broken,
“quakery” and shriveled when roasted, light in liquor, but smooth and
pleasing in flavor withal, making good useful coffees for blending
purposes. Maracaibo coffees are packed in Sisal-hemp bags averaging 130
pounds, and principally shipped to the United States, where they are
held in high esteem for their many excellent qualities, the regular
grades of Cucuta being marked “C” under the importers’ initials, and
the choicer grades “C C.” Merida is indicated by the letter “M” in the
same manner, Bocono by “B,” Tovar by “T” and Trujillo by “To.” But
owing to the too common practice of substituting and repacking indulged
in by unscrupulous dealers, these distinguishing marks cannot always be
relied on with any certainty.

=Curaçoa=--Is a small, yellowish, shriveled or shrunken bean coffee,
evidently immature or blighted in growth from some unknown cause. It is
generally “quakery” in the roast, but yields a not disagreeable liquor
in the cup, making a valuable variety in combination to reduce cost.

=Angostura=--Is a large, flabby, yellowish bean variety, shapely in
form but light and “chaffy” in substance, and invariably “quakery” when
roasted, the liquor being thin, watery and almost flavorless.

Venezuela supplies about one-tenth of all the coffee consumed in
the United States, the total imports being in round numbers about
60,000,000 pounds per annum, and growing steadily.


COLOMBIAN COFFEES.

The coffee-producing districts in Colombia are situated chiefly in
the departments of Boyaca, Santander and Cundamarca, these three
departments having an area of over 160,000 square miles, of which
nearly one-half is adapted to the cultivation of some of the finest
varieties of coffee grown. The possibility of this extensive area
promises a future supply of almost six times the amount consumed in the
United States; in fact, coffee-growing in Colombia, like Mexico, has
no limit except that caused by the lack of labor and capital to work
it. They are known in trade as Ocana, Bogota, Panama, Savanilla and
Bucaramanga.

=Ocana.=--While bold in bean and regular in form, inclining to a
yellowish in color, is still light in weight and thin in body,
approaching that of a Trujillo Maracaibo in flavor, with which coffee
it is usually graded.

=Bogota=--Is a mountain-grown coffee, raised on the western slopes of
the Andes. It is usually a large and well-developed bean, bluish-green
and very uniform in general appearance, solid, compact, and faultless
in the roast. The liquor is heavy, full, round and fragrant in flavor,
comparing favorably with Caracas, Jamaica, Guatemala and Plantation
Ceylon in general style and character.

=Savanilla=--Is a large, light and “spongy” bean coffee, brittle
and chaffy in the roast, devoid of body and almost flavorless. It
closely approximates to a Native Ceylon or Angostura in appearance and
character, with which coffees it is commercially classed.

=Panama=--Is comparatively a new variety, recently produced on the
isthmus, and like all new productions immature in appearance. It is
of the average size, greenish in color, but moist and spongy in the
natural state, and as yet but poorly prepared. The liquor is heavy
and strong almost to rankness, possessing a grassy or uncooked taste,
defects, it is claimed, that will be overcome in time when its
cultivation and preparation is better understood there.

=Bucaramanga=--Known to trade as “Bucaramanga Maracaibo,” ranks among
the finest of the South American varieties, being large and bold in
style, solid and weighty in substance, perfect in roast, heavy, round
and full in liquor, fragrant and aromatic in flavor, the finest grades
being superior to many of the Java sorts. The department of Chinqui in
the interior of Colombia also offers a good field for coffee culture,
the fine lands along the slopes of the mountain ranges being admirably
adapted for the purpose. The annual product is about 20,000,000 pounds,
going chiefly to the United States and France.

=Equador Coffees=--Include Cuenca, Tacunga and Machala, but are
generally classed under the name of “Guayquil,” being shipped from that
port and consumed principally on the Pacific coast, but are limited in
production, little being left for export after the home demand has been
supplied. They range from medium to large in size, are somewhat bold
in style, hard and flinty in texture, pale to greenish in color, and
only fairly uniform, being rather imperfectly prepared, but roast and
drink well, nevertheless, yielding a light-brown liquor, full in body
and fairly fragrant in flavor. Increasing attention is being given to
coffee cultivation in Equador, the produce of the new districts being
of good quality. The exports from Guayquil average about 1,000,000
pounds per annum, but in some years the crop is entirely spoilt by
heavy rains, the yield being inferior in quality and so low in quantity
as not to suffice for local needs.

=Bolivian Coffees=--Are comparatively new to commerce and bid fair
to become popular sorts in time, when their cultivation and methods
of properly preparing are better understood in that country. They
are produced principally in the provinces of Yungas and Mapin, small
quantities being also grown in the other provinces. The finest kind is
that cultivated in the valley of Yungas, which though small in size
and pale in color possesses a peculiarly rich and delicate flavor,
commanding a very high price relatively. The product, however, is
limited, only about 300,000 pounds per annum, or equal to one-fourth
the entire supply. The product of Mapin is much larger in size,
greenish in color, but not near as rich in flavor, bringing a much
less price, the annual product being three times greater. Bolivian
coffees in general produce an intoxicating effect, this peculiar action
being as yet unaccounted for, but is claimed by some authorities to
be acquired from being grown in the immediate vicinity of the cactus
plant, from which _pulque_ is distilled, the coffee plant being of such
a sensitive and absorbent nature that it readily acquires any foreign
flavor within range. Whether this claim is correct or not has not as
yet been ascertained, but certain it is that what is known as Singapore
coffee usually tastes of spices, Honduras of cocoa and Costa Rica of
what is called, for want of a more applicable term, “hide,” but which
is in reality due to the presence of oxide of iron in the soil.

=Guiana Coffees.=--Known to trade as “Surinam,” “Demerara” and
“Cayenne,” from the ports of shipment, are produced in the French
and Dutch colonies of South America. But although the cultivation of
coffee was introduced into these countries about the same period as to
Martinique, its cultivation there has made but little progress, the
total production being limited in supply, and going chiefly to the
mother countries.

=Peruvian Coffee.=--Coffee grows luxuriantly on the mountain slopes
of Peru, the crops often being so heavy as to necessitate artificial
support for the branches, yet the export from Mollendo, the shipping
port, amounts only to about 16,000 pounds per annum. It ranges in size
from medium to bold, varying in color from bluish to yellow, roasting
and drinking with the average of other South American sorts.

=Paraguayan Coffee.=--The total production of coffee in Paraguay is
exceedingly small in comparison with what might be grown there under
more favorable circumstances, little or no attention being given to its
cultivation, owing to lack of labor and capital, and notwithstanding
that it offers a fine field for its more extensive growth.


BRAZILIAN COFFEES.

Brazil being the most extensive coffee-growing country in South
America and the largest producer of coffee in point of quantity of
any country in the world needs more than a passing notice in this
work. The gigantic extent to which its production has been carried
there, the enormous, almost fabulous, amount of capital invested in
its cultivation, the multitude of people employed in its preparation
and handling, including the quantity of shipping employed in its
transportation invests it with great importance. One must have been
an eye-witness of the immense bustle occasioned by the coffee trade
of Rio and Santos, must have observed the feverish excitement and the
unprecedented rapidity with which it is prepared, transported, bagged,
unbagged, mixed, rebagged, loaded, marketed and shipped before he can
form any conception of the extent of the coffee industry in Brazil.

In 1718 the Dutch colony of Surinam began to introduce and cultivate
coffee in Guiana from plants received from Java, and in 1722 De la
Motte, the French Governor of the adjoining colony of Cayenne, having
business in Surinam, contrived by an artifice to bring away with him
from there a small coffee plant, which in 1725 had produced many
thousands which were distributed among all the French colonies on the
mainland, its propagation extending to Para in 1732, the first coffee
plantation formed in Brazil being commenced in that province a few
years later. Its cultivation, however, made but little progress there
until about 1767, when its cultivation was still further extended to
the province of Maranhao, where it soon increased rapidly under a more
careful and systematic management. In 1774 a Belgian monk named Molke
procured some coffee plants from a prosperous plantation in Maranhao,
which had previously been obtained from Surinam, and planted them in
the garden of the Capucin monastery of Adjuda, then situated in what
is now the centre of the city of Rio de Janeiro. The plants prospered
so well, and he becoming convinced of their importance as a valuable
acquisition to the industries of the country that he established a
plantation in the vicinity for its more systematic cultivation. Joachim
Bruneo, the then Bishop of Rio de Janeiro, perceiving the valuable
benefits that would result from its more extensive cultivation,
distributed seeds and plants raised on Molke’s plantation among the
religious institutions and planters of the country, recommending and
encouraging its cultivation among them, but it was not until 1800
that Brazilian coffee came to be so highly valued in the markets of
the world. In that year a planter named Dr. Lecesne, expelled by the
revolution from San Domingo, settled near Rio and introduced the
latest improved methods of cultivating the coffee plant into that
country. From these simple and unostentatious beginnings has grown the
now enormous coffee industry of Brazil, which at present produces
more coffee than all the other countries in the world combined; it
being calculated that upwards of 1,500,000 acres of land are under
coffee culture there, containing nearly 600,000,000 trees, hundreds of
millions of dollars of capital being invested in its culture, sale and
transport. The cultivation of coffee in Brazil now extends from the
banks of the Amazon to the southern province of Sao Paulo, and from the
coast to the western limits of the country, the plant seeming to find
the requisite conditions of soil and climate in almost every part of
this vast region, and nearly everywhere giving an abundant yield. Its
chief zone of production for commercial purposes, however, is chiefly
confined to the coast provinces of Bahia, Ceara, Rio Janeiro, Sao
Paulo, Minas Geraes and Espiritu Santo.

In Brazil it was formerly the custom to propagate the coffee plant
by slips or “shoots” cut from the older plants on the plantations,
but at present it is more generally grown from the seed, as in the
Eastern countries. The seeds are sown in nurseries planted with
advanced stalks of the mandioca, which serve to shade the sprints
while young and tender from the extremes of heat and cold alike, but
are gradually thinned out as the growth of the young plants advance,
the nursery at this period resembling a young plum thicket. When the
plants have reached a height of from eighteen to twenty-four inches,
they are transferred to the plantations and planted from six to ten
feet apart, according to the district and conditions. As a general
rule a crop is not expected until four years after setting out the
young plants, unless when the plants are from eighteen months to
two years old before transplanting, in which case a partial crop is
obtained at the end of the third year. Nearly all over the Brazilian
coffee zone the plantations extend with the greatest regularity, as
far as the eye can reach, presenting a most attractive and pleasing
effect, some _fazendas_ (plantations) having as many as 350,000 trees,
others again having as low as 30,000, but all averaging from 500 to
800 trees to the half _fanegada_ (acre), the average annual produce
of each tree ranging from one to seven pounds of prepared coffee, or
about one to one and a half pounds per picking of cleaned coffee. The
plantations situated on high lands and exposed to the east being the
most productive, but prospering equally well in the lowland districts,
although the product is much inferior in quality and flavor. The
trees are grown in lines and squares, the face of the country in the
coffee-growing districts being undulating and hilly, a plantation
of coffee being at every season of the year an object of beauty and
interest. The leaves are perennially bright and polished, resembling
those of the laurel when in full bloom, but of a much darker green in
color, the flowers or blossoms of the purest white, growing in tufts
along the top of the branches, and blooming so suddenly that in the
morning the trees look as if snow had fallen on them in flaky wreaths
during the night, their jasmine-like perfume being powerful enough
to be oppressive, but lasting only for a single day, being succeeded
immediately by branches of immature green and the dark-crimson hull of
the ripe berries--resembling cherries in their brilliancy and size--and
following each other in quick succession, which added to the thick
foliage of the trees presents altogether a magnificent spectacle.

In Brazil the coffee trees continue to bear from fifteen to twenty
years, but it is found necessary to the healthy development of the
plants to keep the ground in good condition, and when the interspaces
are not cultivated with other plants--principally corn and beans--as
is usually the custom, it is annually cleared around the roots, a
compost of dead leaves and coffee-hulls being placed about them.
In some districts--notably Sao Paulo--many of the trees have been
producing continuously for twenty-five years, still presenting a
vigorous appearance and yielding an average each year, while others
that had attained an age of thirty-five years were cut off within
eighteen inches of the ground, and two years later put forth new
branches, presenting all the appearance of thriving trees, bearing
fruit like much younger trees. This is a new and interesting feature
in the management of the old trunks of coffee trees, one having the
advantage of new growth being secured in one-half the time it could
be obtained from seedlings, as even should these stumps require to
be dug around and manured frequently, it is much more preferable
and profitable to the trouble, expense and uncertainty connected
with the raising of new plants from seed, and certainly presents
greater advantages over the latter method. In Brazil the picking is
latterly--since the abolishment of slavery--done by contract with
the _fazendon_, or proprietor, who only requires the services of the
pickers to gather the berries from the trees, for which labor they are
paid what is considered to be one-half the value of the crude coffee
that is gathered by them. The estimate placed upon an _alquerie_
(bushel) of crude berries being about seventy-five cents, which, unless
the crop is good, ordinary hands do not gather more than two bushels
per diem; yet, again, when the crops are large, an industrious and
skillful picker can average from five to eight bushels without effort.
The berries are picked by hand, the ground being raked clean under
the trees previous to picking, an immense, broad, flat receptacle
of bamboo being placed underneath the trees, the berries that fail
to fall into this being carefully swept up from the clean, smooth
ground and emptied into it until filled, when it is carried to a point
convenient to the roadside and emptied in piles, from which the coffee
is afterwards hauled in ox-carts to a large building known as the
_terreiro_ or drying-yard. Picking commences in April, and is continued
almost uninterruptedly until November, and after the coffee is gathered
it is carted just as it comes from the plantations, mixed with leaves,
stalks and stones to the drying-house and spread out on the terraces,
large smooth, concrete pavements, to dry in the sun until the berries
become black and crisp, after which they are “hulled” or cleaned by one
of two methods: one the old or “Monjola process,” and the other the new
or “Despolpodor” process.

Brazilian coffees are known to commerce as Bahia, Ceara, Capatinea,
Rios, Santos and Maragogipi.

=Bahia=--Is a small, uneven greenish bean, very inferior in style and
appearance, usually “stemmy” and stony and thickly interspersed with
black or immature beans, and is usually branded “S” or “S S.” The roast
is poor, irregular and quakery, the liquor thin and grassy or unripe in
flavor.

=Ceara=--Resembles Bahia somewhat in general character, being poorly
prepared and very unsightly in the natural state, the body and flavor
being still more inferior.

=Capatinea=--Grown in the province of Espiritu Santo, but also known to
trade as “Victoria” from the port of shipment, is a large whitish, soft
and flabby bean coffee, quakery in the roast and watery and flavorless
in the cup.

=Rio Coffees=--Are almost too well known to need description; the bean,
however, varies widely in size and color, ranging from small to large,
and from dark green to light yellow, being known to trade as “Light,”
“Dark” and “Golden.” They are heavy in body, possessing a flavor and
aroma peculiarly distinct from that of all other coffees, and which is
so marked in degree as to be readily detected by the most inexpert,
excepting “Golden Rio” which, aside from its rich color, possesses a
markedly pungent liquor and pleasing flavor.

=Pole-cat Rio=--Is a very dark, almost black bean coffee, which,
although muddy and dark in liquor, is nevertheless much appreciated by
many coffee drinkers.

=Liberian Rio=--Grown from Liberian plants in Brazil, is little thought
of, producing little, and that irregularly. The fruit also requires
special machinery to prepare it, the husk being too thick and leathery
to pass through the regular machines.

=Rio Hache=--Though frequently classed with Rio coffees, as a matter
of fact is not grown in that country, but in Colombia. The bean is
yellowish-brown in color, light in weight and liquor, and somewhat
mawkish in flavor. Like all other coffees, Rios improve with age, and
with time lose their harsh flavor, which becomes greatly modified
by storing, disappearing altogether in from three to four years,
particularly when kept in an even temperature.

=Santos Coffees=--Produced in the adjoining province of Sao Paulo,
but deriving its trade-name from the port of shipment, ranges from
small to large in size and from green and yellow to a full white in
color according to its maturity, it is an immensely popular sort among
American consumers as well as in Europe, having more than doubled in
consumption in recent years. It is fast supplanting the milder growths
of other countries, the finer grades being frequently substituted for
Maracaibo, and even Java, by unprincipled dealers. While many of them
roast “quakery,” they are nevertheless almost invariably smooth and
pleasing in liquor and flavor.

=Red-bean Santos=--Grown in the Campinas district, is medium in size
and reddish in color--a peculiarity derived from the soil, which is
composed of _terra rocha_ (red earth)--and is claimed to be richer and
more flavory than either the white or yellow bean varieties.

=Mocha-seed Santos=--Is a small-bean variety, grown from Bourbon seed
or transplants, and is fast becoming a very popular sort. It is shipped
principally to France, where it masquerades under the name of Mocha,
thereby diminishing the demand for this favorite sort in proportion to
the amount distributed.

=Maragogipi=--Which was discovered in the province of Bahia some years
since, is claimed to be an indigenous variety and is called after the
district where it was first found. The bean is as large as Liberian,
but flat in form and varies in color from a very light to a dark-green,
but while heavy and full in body and fair in quality, it is yet lacking
in all the essentials of a fine coffee, disappointing the great
expectations at one time formed of it.


OTHER BRAZILIAN VARIETIES.

=Cafe des Aguas=--Is so termed from blossoming in the rainy season, and
which has the effect of stunting and deforming the beans. The bean is
oblong in shape and imperfectly formed, while the liquor is thin and
watery and devoid of flavor.

=Cafe Vermelho=--Is the regular “Red-berry” species, and is so named to
distinguish it from a new variety said to have been recently discovered
and termed

=Cafe Amarello=--Or “Yellow-berry,” recently found in the district of
Botucatu, and is so called because the ripe berry is yellow instead
of red. It is superior to the ordinary sort, not on account of any
difference in the size of the bean, but according to the chemical
analysis of experts, who claim that it is much richer in caffeine.

=Brazilian Java.=--Extensive plantations of Java coffee plants have
lately been formed in Brazil as an experiment, but does not produce
such heavy and regular crops as in the original soil.

=Goyaz Coffee=--Is a wild species, discovered a few years ago in the
province of Goyaz, but is little thought of by planters or dealers,
being wild and grassy in flavor.

In Brazil the planters generally forward their crops to a _Commissario_
or factor at the shipping port, who acts as their agent, the coffee
being received in varying lots and conditions from different growers,
no uniformity being observed in the kind of bag or quantity. The
commissarios again disposes of it to the _Ensaccaderes_, who are the
actual buyers at first hands, and who store it in large warehouses,
where it is graded and bagged, and stored until required for shipment
to the foreign markets. The sacks of coffee being piled on either side,
each being numbered and further distinguished by some special mark or
brand. At the present time many commissarios have the coffee weighed
as they sell it, but sales between the commissarios and ensaccaderes
are never concluded in Rio without the assistance of a _Corretor_ or
broker, while in Santos, where the exporter buys his coffee direct
from the commissario, it is sold mostly without the intervention of a
broker, the terms of payment being fixed at thirty days.

Brazilian coffees are generically classed in the Rio and Santos markets
as “Highland” and “Lowland” and are graded as Superior or “Choice,”
Primera or “First,” Primera boa or “Good first,” Primera regular or
“Regular first,” Primera ordinaria or “Ordinary first,” Segunda or
“Second,” Segunda boa or “Good second,” and Segunda ordinaria or
“Ordinary second.” Importations are generally in “Cargoes” divided into
“Invoices” or “Lines,” designated by letters. An invoice consisting
of a number of “Chops” denoted by figures, each chop varying from the
other in quality, size and color. In the American market the coffee
is subdivided into six grades, known to trade as “Fancy,” “Choice,”
“Prime,” “Good,” “Fair,” “Ordinary” and “Common,” the first four grades
being further distinguished by the terms “Light,” “Medium” and “Dark,”
and by prefixing the term “Strict” or “Strictly” correct selections of
each grade may be secured.

There is no standard grade, nor is it possible to establish one,
owing to the changes made by time in the appearance of the coffee,
which causes the different grades to vary with the size, color and
quality of the coffee and the condition of the market on arrival. On
an active and rising market the coffee that on a steady market would
be denominated only “Fair,” suddenly becomes “Prime” or “Good,” and on
a dull or declining market may be classed as “Ordinary.” The following
constitutes the different grades as they are generally accepted on this
market:--

=Fancy Rio or Santos=--Is large, bold and uniform in size and color,
free from all imperfections, and attractive in style and appearance.

=Prime=--Is very clean and regular in size and color, but deficient in
the rich, pleasing appearance of the former.

=Good=--Is acknowledged as the average or “Standard” grade, and ranges
from clean to strictly clean, and is uniform in bean and color.

=Fair=--Is only moderately clean, containing some black or broken beans
and other slight imperfections.

=Ordinary=--Is irregular in size and color, and unsightly in
appearance, containing much black beans and other extraneous matter.

=Common=--Is the poorest grade, and is generally full of black and
broken beans, stems, hulls and chaff, having no definite color, and
very unsightly in general appearance. On the Coffee Exchanges they are
graded numerically from No. 1 to No. 10, No. 7, or “Low ordinary,”
being adopted as the “Standard grade,” upon which all transactions are
based. In point of quantity Brazil heads the list of coffee-producing
countries, its annual product ranging from 7,000,000 to 8,000,000 bags
of 130 pounds each, 75 per cent. of which is exported to the United
States, the remainder going chiefly to Europe.


OTHER VARIETIES.

=Pea-berry Coffees=,--Also known to trade as “Male-berry” and
“Pearl-bean,” are concave-convex in form and may belong to any
variety, from Rio to Java. Their peculiar shape being accounted for as
follows: Each _perfect_ coffee _berry should_ contain two oval seeds
or _beans_ placed facing each other in the fruit or pod, but it most
frequently occurs that only one _seed_ will form in it, the other
becoming abortive. The _one_ forming receiving all the nourishment of
the investing coats, forces itself against the dividing membranes and
encountering no opposition naturally develops into a larger bean, which
in the process of growth assumes a shape different from that of the
regular or “flat bean” of commerce.

=Cherry-dried Coffee=--Is a term applied in the East to coffees cured
by the old or sun-dried process. After the berries have been harvested
they are spread out on “patios” or terraces exposed to the sun’s rays
for a period covering from six to eight weeks, or until they are
thoroughly dried, before being pulped and hulled. Meanwhile they are
raked and turned over once a day during the drying period, in order to
prevent heating and fermentation, and at night heaped up and covered
over with matting or other material to protect them in case of rain,
and from the heavy dews, until the process is completed, after which
they are pulped and hulled by crushing in a mill.

=Washed Coffees=--Are so termed from being prepared by the new or West
India process, by which the coffee is pulped immediately after being
picked, the berries being placed in a large vat and the pulp soaked
off. The coffee in the parchment left in the vat is kept in constant
motion by agitation with a kind of rake or shovel to wash it well, the
water being constantly changed also while the washing continues, to
remove the _débris_ with which the coffee charges the water, the coffee
sinking, while the pulp, blighted berries and other extraneous matter
such as stems and leaves are floated off by the water, after which the
beans are again washed and spread out on mats to dry. By this method
the coffee must be crushed the same day, otherwise it will ferment and
the flavor be greatly injured.

=Triage=--Is composed chiefly of dead or decayed beans, which are
invariably sour, bitter and black, being entirely destitute of the
active principle of coffee, containing no aroma and invariably injuring
and detracting from any coffee in which they may be mixed--as they
usually are--no matter how small the quantity used.

=Screenings=--Are composed of the dust, chaff and mutilated beans
separated from the regular grades of coffee in the process of milling,
and drink well according to the variety or grade from which they are
obtained, but are generally roasted, ground and mixed with chicory, and
sold in package form.

=Skimmings=--Are usually composed of that portion of the cargo stowed
in the bottom or sides of the vessels in which it is imported, or of
the storehouse sweepings after the regular coffee has been delivered.
A greater or less portion of all cargoes are found damaged by dampness
or bilge-water during the voyage, thus staining and discoloring the
coffee, rendering it mouldy or musty. The strained and damaged bags
are emptied and the tainted coffee “skimmed” off, milled, rebagged and
sold under the head of “Skimmings.” They are generally branded “G. S.”
(Good skimmings), “G. L. S.” (Good light skimmings), “G. D. S.” (Good
dark skimmings), “F. S.” (Fair skimmings), and “S. S.” (Store or ship
sweepings). Notwithstanding their origin many of those coffees roast
and drink exceedingly well, but great care must be exercised by the
dealer in selecting them, as they may taste of the bilge-water or be
mixed with coal, iron, chips and other extraneous substances.

=United States Coffee=--The Department of Agriculture at Washington
has recently issued a circular relative to the possibility of coffee
culture in some of the Southern States, in which it is led to believe
that the soil and climatic conditions of Texas, Florida and Lower
California will be found suitable to the profitable cultivation of
coffee. It is also claimed that a species of wild coffee has been
discovered in the two latter States, and that in California seed has
been planted obtained from Costa Rica with satisfactory results. A
coffee planter from Guatemala has recently been investigating the soil
and climate of San Bernardino in Lower California with a view to the
introduction of coffee culture in that section. The conditions there,
it is stated, are very favorable for its profitable production, and he
has offered to invest capital in a company to be organized to start the
industry.




CHAPTER VI.

ROASTING AND GLAZING.


Coffee undergoes essential chemical changes in the process of roasting.
In the raw or natural state the coffee-bean is tough and horny in
structure and entirely devoid of the appearance, character and peculiar
aroma that so distinguishes it in the roasted condition, and by which
it is best known to the public. The testa or investing membrane of the
raw bean has a layer of long cells with a peculiar pitted structure,
containing a crystaline substance chemically termed _Caffeine_, and
another known as _Caffeic_, or tannic acid, while the inner substance
consists of an assemblage of vesicles of an angular form, the cavities
of which include in the form of little drops a considerable quantity of
a highly aromatic oil technically termed _Caffeone_, on the presence
and amount of which the fragrance and active principles of the coffee
depends, and by which its commercial value in the roasted state is
estimated. The existence of this “coffee oil” makes itself known in
a striking manner by roasting; being driven out of the beans by the
intense heat, it is partially volatilized and, together with other
products of the roasting, produces the characteristic aroma peculiar
to roasted coffee, an odor possessed by no other known substance. In
the operation of roasting the beans swell up and open at the furrow
by the liberation of the gases within their substance, their weight
decreasing, but volume increasing in proportion to the extent to which
the operation is carried, developing the aromatic oil and liberating
at the same time a portion of the caffeine from its combination with
the caffeic or tannic acid. The amount of this aromatic oil contained
in coffee varies from 8 to 13 per cent. at least, one-half of which is
lost by evaporation during the roasting process, so that it may prove
a paying experiment to attempt to collect it, especially in large
establishments where large quantities of coffee are roasted and several
pounds of this valuable oil are dissipated daily, which would no doubt
find a ready market at a good profit for the making of liqueurs, or
medicinal use.

Before being roasted coffee also contains from 6 to 8 per cent. of
sugar, which after roasting is reduced to as low as 1 per cent. and
sometimes even to zero, from which it would appear that the description
of sugar (cane) present in the raw coffee suffers destruction during
roasting, which, however, is not the case, as in the process of
roasting the saccharine matter in the raw bean is converted into
caramel. A change in the fat of the raw coffee is also brought about by
the roasting, for where ether extracts only some four to five parts of
fat from the raw coffee beans, it readily extracts double that quantity
from the roasted beans. So striking is this fact that Von Bibra has
even credited the roasting process with the production of fat, whereas
the action is only mechanical in bursting the fat-cells of the raw
bean, thereby rendering the fat accessible to the solvent action of the
ether.

The operation of roasting also tends to make coffee soluble in boiling
water, as when raw coffee is perfectly exhausted by means of boiling
water, it yields up only 25 per cent. which passes into solution, while
roasted coffee, on the other hand, when completely exhausted by means
of boiling water yields readily upwards of 40 per cent. of soluble
matter, proving that in actually using coffee as a beverage, we are not
in the habit of making anything like a complete extraction, as only
some 10 to 12 per cent. of the active principles of the coffee passes
into the liquid.

The modern appliances for the roasting of coffee are numerous and
labor-saving to a great extent, many of them are, however, calculated
only to enhance the appearance of the bean, while others enable the
roaster to obtain almost to perfection the full development of the
aromatic properties of the coffee. Coffee is roasted for commercial
purposes and domestic use in a large sheet-steel or malleable-iron
cylinder mounted on a hollow axle, so as to revolve over a brisk fire
and allow the gases generated during the torrefaction to escape. The
surface of the cylinder is perforated with a number of small holes
for the purpose of allowing the vapor arising from the coffee in the
process of roasting to pass off readily, and through the interior runs
laterally four ridges, the object of which is to toss it about in all
directions, causing it to pass from end to end, and diffuse a uniform
heat to every part of the coffee in order to make the “roast” even
and regular in appearance. This cylinder is again encased in a frame
brick-work at the bottom of which is built a coal fire well distributed
so as to heat all portions of the cylinder at the same time during
the operation. On the outer head it has a small opening through which
the operator occasionally inserts a “tryer” to enable him to note the
progress made as the process advances, the cylinder being also so
arranged that it can be drawn from over the fire when it is required to
either fill or empty it through a slide or hopper in the centre. It is
operated by steam-power, revolving slowly but regularly, and having a
capacity of from 25 to 300 pounds.

After roasting, the coffee is run off into a large wire-bottomed box
termed a “cooler,” to the end of which is fitted a powerful fan or
“blower” used for forcing cold air through the hot beans and preventing
the volatile oil from exuding, the coffee being thoroughly agitated
during the process, the hulls, chaff and stems being removed meantime
to a large extent by the fan and sieve. Thirty-five to forty-five
minutes is usually the time consumed in the operation, the former
for a “Light” and the latter for a high or “Dark” roast, the entire
process of roasting, cooling and rebagging occupying about one hour.
In roasting, coffee loses in weight from 12 to 16 per cent., according
to the age and nature of the coffee under treatment and the extent
to which the operation is carried, the average, however, being 14
per cent. for old and well-seasoned coffee, which accounts for the
relatively higher price--three to six cents per pound--of roasted
coffees, according to the price green and the loss per cent. in
roasting. But, it at the same time increases in bulk--100 volumes of
raw coffee yielding from 150 to 160 volumes of roasted--that is, two
pints of raw beans will yield three pints roasted. It also loses from
1 to 2 per cent. more in the warm months of summer than in the damp
months of winter, for which reason it should not be roasted as high
in the former season as in the latter, owing to its greater tendency
to sweat and absorb the higher temperature, thus causing the volatile
oil to exude, and dissipate and impart an astringent taste to the
infusion. When coffee is roasted light-brown, or until it assumes a
pale-chestnut color, the loss is from 13 to 14 per cent. the quantity
of extract obtained from such roast by means of boiling water ranging
from 20 to 21 per cent. of the weight, while the loss in weight of the
extract will be much larger if the roasting process is continued until
the color becomes dark-brown or black by over-roasting. New, moist
and light coffees lose a larger percentage than old, dry and solid
ones, the average being about 14 per cent. The operation of roasting
coffee is one of the greatest exactness, amounting almost to an art,
perfect roasting requiring not alone skill and judgment but experience
and constant practice, as not only the style, strength and flavor but
also the commercial value of the coffee depends upon the operator
deciding when it is properly parched or roasted. It is also one of a
crucial nature, for equally by insufficient as well as by excessive
roasting, much of the aroma of the infusion is lost, the beverage under
either of these circumstances being neither agreeable to the palate or
exhilarating in its influence. The operator, for these reasons, must
judge of the exact amount of heat required for the adequate roasting of
the different varieties, which, while variable, the range of roasting
temperature proper for roasting the various grades is only very narrow.
In a modern, well-equipped coffee-roasting establishment, the coffee is
handled almost exclusively by machinery, being fed into the cylinder
from hoppers, emptied into the cooler from the cylinder and from thence
into the bins by drafts of air through tubes or pocket-elevators, so
that the coffee is scarcely once handled during the entire process.

The entire art of coffee roasting may be summed up in the following
sequence: (1) Starting the machinery in motion. (2) Starting a brisk
fire with enough coal for a single roast. (3) Putting in the coffee
before the cylinder becomes too hot. (4) Opening the draft and keeping
up a brisk fire during what is termed the steaming period. (5) When the
beans begin to crackle and the steam changes into an aromatic vapor,
rake the fire well, put on sufficient coal to make the next roast and
shut off the draft. (6) Empty the coffee from the cylinder into the
cooler and cool off rapidly, then sift and pack. If a light color is
required roast quickly, if a dark, slowly. The exact time for a perfect
roast under these rules depend to a great extent on the size of the
cylinder, the quantity of coffee to be roasted, the amount of heat
and the color desired, the average ranging from 30 to 40 minutes. The
addition of a little water to the coffee when it begins to crackle in
the cylinder, will cause the beans to swell up, liberate the chaff and
make the process safer by extinguishing any sparks that may by accident
occur in the cylinder. It also preserves the aroma longer to some
extent when used in moderation, but will not, as is sometimes claimed,
protect it from atmospheric influences, but on the contrary makes it
more liable to such influences, particularly when used in excess.

When the beans begin to crackle the revolutions of the cylinder are
increased for a short time in order to prevent them from scorching or
burning, a bluish vapor is emitted at the same time, which indicates
that the coffee is nearly if not quite roasted. At this stage the
operator pours on the coffee a quantity of water to prevent it from
burning, the rapid evaporation from which reduces the intense heat and
causes the beans to burst open and swell up to about double in size.
The use of a little lard at this juncture will impart to the beans a
smoother, glossier and more attractive appearance. The addition of
water in the roasting of coffee is not, as is generally supposed,
intended to increase its weight--unless when used to excess--as the
intense heat converts it into steam which rapidly passes off in the
air, many old roasters contending that coffee cannot be properly
roasted without the use of some water. In the proper roasting of
coffee a strong, well-distributed heat extending the entire length of
the cylinder is imperative. The cylinder should never be allowed to lie
empty over the fire for any length of time or become too hot before
the coffee is put in, as the beans will become mottled or “specked” if
poured in while in that condition, thus detracting from the appearance
and value of the roasted coffee.

An experienced roaster can readily discern when the coffee is properly
roasted, by the light bluish vapor arising from the coffee, as well
as by the smell of the aromatic principle developed as it evaporates
from the cylinder at this stage of the operation, without even once
examining it during the process. A perfect “light roast” should be
free from specks and other blemishes, of a cinnamon-brown color,
even, uniform and oily in appearance, much depending on the amount of
this latter property developed in the process, imparting as it does
a pleasanter and more agreeable aroma as the quantity is increased,
making the liquor blander and more mellow in the cup. While a perfect
high or “dark roast” when required should be of a deep chestnut or
chocolate-brown color, oily and free from all burnt or scorched beans,
as the latter, no matter how few the number, invariably spoil the
flavor of the coffee in the infusion, irrespective of its fineness or
value. Over-roasting dissipates the active principle (Caffeine) to
which the coffee owes its refreshing and stimulating properties while
under-roasting imparts to the infusion a raw, uncooked, grassy or
astringent flavor by not properly developing it. So that the finest
grades of coffee when imperfectly roasted--that is, be under or
overdone--yield an inferior liquor to the poorer grades when properly
roasted. As stated before, coffee contains a crystaline substance
termed caffeine (identical with the theine of tea), which is volatile
in its nature, and every care must be taken to retain this principle
in the coffee, for which reason the beans should be roasted only until
they are of a pale-brown color; again, if they are roasted too dark
this essential property is destroyed.

The proper cooling of coffee after roasting is also an operation of
great importance. If the coffee has been properly roasted and the
beans well developed, it must be cooled quickly to prevent them from
becoming too dark-colored or mottled in appearance. When the coffee has
been cooled and cleaned it is then packed, the operations of roasting,
cooling and rebagging occupying altogether about one hour.

In France and other European countries it is the custom to roast
coffee in small quantities, so that the whole “charge” is well under
the control of the operator during the process, while in this country
large roasts are the rule, in dealing with which much difficulty is
experienced in producing uniform torrefaction as well as in stopping
the process at the proper moment. A novel method for roasting coffee
in use in France is to put it in an iron globe, suspended over a brisk
fire, and containing a tubular shaft perforated with holes smaller than
the beans, through which passes the vapor generated from the coffee in
the process of roasting and issuing out of either end of the shaft or
axis of the globe. As these openings are small, but a limited amount
of the vapor escapes, thus confining the aroma within the globe and
securing the retention of the volatile or essential element of the
coffee to a greater degree than is possible by the cylindrical method
of roasting. When the globe is filled and suspended over the fire
an iron cap is placed over it so as to completely surround it, but
leaving an intervening space between it of about three inches, the
object of which is to secure the full power of the heat, which being so
confined circulates completely around the globe, the retention of the
vapor under this high pressure preserving to a still greater degree the
aroma of the coffee. The application of the heat by this method is very
uniform, while the motion of the globe distributes the beans equally
about the interior and thus removes any possible chance of scorching.

The roasting process also usually develops in many coffees more or
less whitish beans, technically termed “quakers” but more properly
“blights,” being in reality blighted or immature beans, which, having
ripened to an extent on the tree and after obtaining a certain growth
cease to draw further nutriment from it, thus failing to develop into
healthy fruit. These peculiar beans detract considerably from the
value of the coffee, and cannot always be detected in the natural
state except by experts and others accustomed to the constant handling
of raw coffee, but in the roasted condition their real character is
unmistakably shown, presenting as they do a yellowish-white color,
totally devoid of the moisture, oil and flavor so characteristic of the
healthy bean. They exist to a much greater extent in some varieties
more than others, most notably in lowland and coast-grown coffees--in
mild grades more than strong--the only kinds most unaffected being
mountain-grown and “washed” coffees, the blighted beans in the latter
rising to the surface in the process of washing and carried off by the
water. Some authorities contend that these “blights” or “quakers” in
coffee instead of being, as might be naturally expected, detrimental
or injurious to its drinking qualities really improve it by softening
or mellowing what may otherwise prove to be a harsh or astringent
flavor, thereby rendering it smoother and more palatable. Such a claim
is simply preposterous, as the said beans are entirely devoid of any
of the properties distinguishing coffee, possessing neither caffeine
or caffeone, the two principal constituents of coffee, and an infusion
prepared exclusively of “quakers” will be found to resemble more
closely, in flavor and aroma, a decoction made from roasted peanuts
than anything else it may be likened to.

Raw coffees are distinguished in commerce by the names of the
countries, districts, localities, plantations in which they are grown
or from the ports of export, and it is found that the produce of each
particular country and respective district maintains a fairly constant
and distinctive flavor and character of its own. While in the roasted
state this distinctive character disappears, the process of roasting
largely destroying these distinguishing features of raw or green
coffee, making it very difficult for any but experts to determine from
its appearance when once roasted its kind or origin. After coffee has
been once roasted it should be kept in air-tight bins and sold or used
as fresh-roasted as possible, as after the process the aroma constantly
escapes, thereby losing its strength and fragrance rapidly on exposure
to the oxydizing influences of the atmosphere. Neither should it be
exposed in damp or humid weather, as it constantly absorbs moisture
which makes it tough and difficult to grind, or placed in the vicinity
of any foul or foreign odors, the porous and sensitive nature of the
roasted bean making it liable to absorb such flavors, for which reason
wooden and freshly-painted bins should never be used to hold roasted
coffee, as it readily absorbs the wood and paint flavors, which become
very pronounced in the infusion.


GLAZING.

It has been the custom for some years back to coat or glaze coffee
with certain gluey or starchy compounds, ostensibly to protect the
beans from the oxydizing influences of the atmosphere, preserve the
aroma and clarify the liquor in preparation, each roaster and dealer
having a different compound for the purpose. It is most generally
composed of various glues, moss and other starchy substances and is
usually prepared by placing the materials composing the compound in a
cask, vat or tank filled with boiling water conveyed through pipes or
by injecting steam, thoroughly stirring it at the same time until it
is mixed to the requisite consistency. After the solution is prepared
it is applied to the coffee while hot, generally in the cylinder
while revolving, which diffuses the material and imparts an even and
uniform coating to the coffee, adhering and hardening as it cools.
But the claims made by roasters and others who coat or glaze coffee,
that large quantities of eggs are used exclusively in the preparation
of the glazing compound is simply absurd, as is also the claim that
it is resorted to for the purpose of closing the pores, to protect
and retain the aroma and for self-settling purposes. The real object
being to conceal defects, disguise low grades and damaged coffees,
as well as to add weight and color to light, chaffy and “quakery”
coffees, the process adding all the way from 5 to 10 per cent. to the
weight, according to the nature of the coffee and the character of
the substance used; light, chaffy-bean coffees absorbing more of the
material than the hard and solid ones, while the softer and rougher the
bean the more it improves in appearance by the process.

What is known as the “Egg-glaze” is prepared from eggs alone, mashed
and applied after the coffee has been first cooled, and then baked
on by means of a hot blast, when it forms a hard, transparent shell,
protecting the coffee until it is ground and ready for use; and also
serving to clarify the liquor in the pot after infusion. Another
composed of one part gum arabic dissolved in water, to which is
added four parts starch, with sufficient water to make it limped,
the whole being boiled for upwards of twenty minutes, and which is
best accomplished by inserting a small pipe of live steam from the
boiler into the compound until it is reduced to the consistency of
cream; then, after stirring well, it is poured on the coffee while
in the cylinder as it revolves, or it may be spread over it while in
the cooler, if proper care be taken to diffuse it well. Still another
excellent compound for glazing coffee is prepared from one part Irish
moss, one part gelatine, one part isinglass, one ounce sugar and two
dozen eggs, the first three ingredients being first boiled in water,
then strained and applied as in foregoing formula. For the purpose of
imparting a lustrous aspect to roasted coffee, a liquid has recently
been invented, the composition of which is so far unknown. It has a
specific gravity of 0.868 at 15 degrees, burning with a sooty flame and
leaving no fixed residue. It absorbs no iodine when treated, and is but
little affected by chromic acid or concentrated sulphuric acid, taking
only a slight color when treated with the latter. It is clear and oily
in appearance, but entirely free from color, taste, or smell, and mixes
in all proportions with petroleum, from which fact it would appear to
be nothing more than a highly purified petroleum oil, in which case it
must be classed among the illegitimate additions to roasted coffee.


GRINDING.

The process of grinding the roasted bean is also one that requires
more attention than is generally bestowed on it. Coarse-ground coffees
require protracted boiling in order to extract its full strength, and
too much boiling is fatal to the production of good coffee in the cup.
But, on the other hand, it may be ground too fine, so that just to what
degree of fineness it should be ground depends in a great measure on
the method of preparing it for use.




CHAPTER VII.

ADULTERATION AND DETECTION.


In commerce coffee is to be met with in three conditions--Raw or
unroasted, Roasted and Ground--and, as may be inferred, it is in the
latter condition that it is most liable to the chief adulterations,
so that with the raw and simply roasted coffee the public analyst
will have very little to do, his services being principally required
in dealing with ground coffee alone. But at the same time it is also
subject to much manipulation and sophistication in the two first
conditions also, scarcely any dietic article being so persistently
adulterated. From the time of picking and preparing coffee for market
until it finally reaches the table of the consumer, there is probably
no article of diet subjected to more or as many forms of manipulation,
sophistication, substitution and adulteration as coffee. The producer
mixes one variety with another, the refuse of the old and inferior with
the new and choice, while the commission agent at the shipping ports
manipulates it again by changing the grade or altering the quality by
running one grade with another in order to complete his consignment.
Again, on its arrival in the consuming countries it is frequently
emptied out of the original packages, separated or run together as
required, the bags turned inside out, and the marks altered in order
to conceal any stained or damaged in transit. All “bilge-water”
or otherwise damaged coffee being picked over, the musty beans set
aside, milled or cleaned, rematted or rebagged as the case may be, and
eventually sold as sound, but which no process of roasting or glazing
can eradicate. But while almost all varieties pass through more or
less manipulation or substitution, from the producing to the consuming
countries, it does not always follow that it is detrimental to the
coffee.


RAW OR GREEN COFFEES.

=Rios=--Are most subject to sophistication by altering the color
from light to green and dark to meet the demand for each particular
kind, the light Rios being converted into dark by the application
of a preparation of “bone black,” and into yellow or golden by the
use of chromate of lead, or into green by a combination composed of
both compounds. This dangerous and iniquitous practice is resorted to
in order to cater to the prejudices of dealers and consumers in the
different sections of the country for “Light,” “Dark,” “Green” and
“Golden Rios,” as the case may be. The cosmetic is best detected by the
simple process of washing in a little warm water and rubbing with a dry
towel, exposing the natural color of the bean, whatever the original
may be, or by cutting the bean in half and seeing if the color runs
through.

=Maracaibos=--In the raw or natural state are principally substituted
with large, white-bean Santos, Savanilla, San Domingo, Mexican,
Salvador or other Central American coffees as well as by transferring
the lower into high-grade bags. While La Guayras are usually polished
or “soapstoned,” and converted into Rios when the finer grades of the
latter are scarce or high.

=Javas=--Are generally either substituted, mixed, sweated or colored
artificially. In the first case any large, whitish, yellowish or
brownish variety, such as Maracaibo, Savanilla and Santos is used
for the purpose or mixed with it in the natural state, and can only
be detected by a familiar knowledge of the genuine bean. The lower
and paler grades of Java, such as Lahats and Maccassars are usually
“colored” or “sweated” for the purpose of imparting an aged appearance
or the so much desired brown color, other spongy-bean coffees that
easily absorb, and retain the coloring matter being frequently
subjected to the same processes. While the higher grades are more often
substituted one for the other by changing the mats, such as replacing
a Preanger with a Timour, an Ankola with Padang or Singapore. When
simply colored as before described the washing it with a little water
and rubbing with a dry towel will expose the cosmetic, or better still
by cutting the suspected bean open with a sharp pocket-knife, examining
it through; if not of the same color to the core it is undoubtedly
doctored. Another method, when the coffee is mixed with Savanilla or
other light bean coffee, is to place a sample of the suspected coffee
on top a vessel of water, in which case the hard, solid-bean Java
will sink to the bottom and the light-bean substitute float on top.
“Sweated” Javas are browned by placing any fair-sized, light-colored
variety such as Lahat, Maccassar, ordinary Jamaica or Savanilla in
a zinc or iron-lined room or case surrounded on all sides by pipes,
through which steam passes and subjecting them to an intense heat,
the process causing the--whatever little volatile oil this class
of coffee contains--to exude and impart a dark, muddy-red color to
the beans. This sophistication is best detected by the unnatural,
repulsively reddish color produced by the process, by their light
weight and irregular, unsightly appearance in the hand as well as by
their nauseous, almost sickening flavor, developed by the volatile oil
and the zinc, and which is evidently prejudicial to the health of the
consumer.

=Mocha Coffee.=--Probably there is no single variety of coffee grown
more generally counterfeited or adulterated than Mocha in the raw or
unroasted state, owing to its limited supply and high commercial value.
In addition to the manipulation and substitution which it undergoes
at the ports of export, by the addition or substitution of small-bean
Wynaad, Malabar, Ceylon, Bourbon and other African varieties annually
shipped to Aden for the specific purpose of conversion into Mocha,
that it has become a difficult matter to determine what is true Mocha
and what is not. The substitutes are first separated from the regular
crops and then carefully picked over and assorted by hand, the better
to adapt them to their respective markets, and then packed in the
unique and peculiar packages which distinguish the true article from
all others. It had at one time been considered as next to impossible to
tamper with or imitate these packages without detection, composed as
they are of a coarse vegetable material, sewed with a fibrous substance
that becomes excessively hard and tough by age; but modern ingenuity
has found a way in the countries of consumption to cut this “Gordian
knot,” first by a process known to the initiated as “stove-piping,”
by which a portion of the genuine coffee is run out of the original
package with an iron tube resembling a “coffee tryer,” inserted at one
end of the bale and a spurious article composed of some small-bean
variety, such as Santos, Maracaibo or Guatemala, poured in its place
and the puncture closed up. Another ingenious method is to soften the
fibrous cord of which the withes are made, and with which the bales
are sewn, by a process known as “steaming,” by which they are softened
and drawn out, the bales being easily opened entire and the contents
substituted by the introduction of one or other of the same class of
coffees already mentioned, and even by small-bean Rios, particularly
when the former kinds are high or difficult to procure. These glaring
forms of adulteration and substitutions practiced in Mocha coffee may
be readily detected by a comparison of the mixture or contents with a
sample of the genuine bean, which is invariably small, round, uniform
and symmetrical, varying in color from a rich olive-green cast, almost
translucent when new, and a bright-yellowish hue when old, being at the
same very clean, and attractive in the hand. While the adulterants and
substitutes are much larger, more irregular and varying in size, style,
form and color, from a dark or grass-green to a pale white, according
to the age and nature of the coffee used.

There has recently been discovered another and very ingenious coffee
fraud, in which the raw beans look quite natural, but yield no coffee
liquor on infusion. On close inspection these spent or exhausted beans
resemble artificial coffee beans composed of baked dough colored, but
a microscopical examination disproves this supposition. The beans are
genuine coffee beans, but the cells show a remarkable freedom from
caffeine and the oil of coffee, indicating that they had been steeped
in water, so that on the microscopical examination being supplemented
by a chemical analysis, the result showed that almost every valuable
property of the coffee had been removed from the beans, evidently for
medicinal purposes or the manufacture of some extract of coffee, after
which they are re-dried and disposed of to roasters and unscrupulous
dealers as sound coffee. The beans of such coffee look quite natural,
but on close inspection are found to be tough and light, yielding
a watery and flavorless liquid on infusion. A patent has also been
recently obtained the purpose of which is to impart to coffee beans
by a summary operation the properties and characteristics possessed
by coffee which has been stored and kept under favorable conditions
for a comparatively long period of time. The process of maturing or
“aging” the coffee consisting in spreading out the raw beans in a thin
layer between alternate layers of damp bags or other textile material
first by sprinkling a number of bags with water, and piling them one on
top of the other until they have all become uniformly moistened, then
spreading out one of the bags and laying on it a dry bag upon which is
placed a layer of green coffee, another dry bag being placed over it
and a damp bag on that again, and so on to any desired height. The pile
of bags and coffee thus formed is then compressed in order that the dry
bags may absorb the moisture from the damp bags and also become damp,
thus maintaining the coffee beans in their confined space until the
desired maturing or aging effect has been produced.


ROASTED COFFEES

Are chiefly sophisticated by mixing or substituting lower with
high-grade coffees, and by coating or glazing the beans with some
obnoxious compounds as previously described. Many of the so-called
Javas and other high-sounding-name coffees now in the market so
much vaunted and extolled being nothing more than combinations of
Santos, Maracaibo and other medium grades, some of the most reputable
consisting merely of Santos and Java in the proportions of 40 per
cent. of the former to 60 per cent. of the latter. The distinguishing
features of the raw or natural bean being largely altered in the
process of roasting, making it a difficult matter for any but experts
to detect this most common form of adulteration, an acquaintance with
the original flavors of the different varieties being the only sure
means of detection.

[Illustration: WASHING COFFEE.]

Some years since, there was invented a bean resembling that of roasted
coffee, made from dyed plaster of paris, which was intended for
admixture with coffee, and at the present time a far more dangerous
fraud is being perpetrated in the already too wide field of coffee
adulteration. It is that of a bogus or artificial bean, resembling
that of whole roasted coffee, which, on analysis, proves to be largely
composed of wheat flour, mixed with a glutinous compound of cracker
dust, paste and molasses, moulded in the form of the true coffee bean
of commerce and flavored with a weak solution of caramel or chocolate.
These spurious coffee beans are not, however, intended to supply in
themselves a beverage which from any similarity of appearance, taste
or effect might form a substitute for coffee and cannot therefore be
regarded as such, but are intended solely as an adulterant of whole
roasted coffee. It is readily detected by close inspection in the hand,
but still more so in the cup, tasting as it does more like a decoction
made from burnt dough and molasses. When dissolved in boiling water
it yields a blackish, muddy liquor akin to slop, leaving a thick,
greasy residue in the bottom of the vessel. The custom of coating or
“glazing,” now so much in vogue among roasters and dealers, may also
be classed among the many, but milder forms of adulteration, which,
though ostensibly claimed to protect the pores of the coffee from the
oxydizing influences of the atmosphere, preserve its aroma, and at the
same time clarify the infusion, is in reality, in nearly all cases,
resorted to for the purpose of disguising or concealing the defects
of artificially-colored, stained, damaged and immature or “quakery”
coffees, or for adding an extra weight of from 5 to 6 per cent. to it.


GROUND COFFEES

Are subject to the most extensive adulterations, all being more or less
sophisticated or adulterated in one form or another, chief among which
is that of the admixture of the roasted and ground roots of Chicory,
Dandelion, Carrot, Parsnip, Beet and other leguminous vegetables.
Peas, Beans, Rye, Rice, Wheat, Barley and various other cereal grains,
including the seeds of the broom, fenugreek, iris and acorn. These
various roots and seeds, with many more similar substances, have
not only been used as adulterants, but under various high-sounding
names several of them have been introduced as substitutes for coffee.
But so far not a single one of them have either merited or obtained
any success as such, their sole effect being to bring coffee into
undeserved disrepute as a pleasing and agreeable beverage with the
public.


SUBSTITUTES AND ADULTERANTS.

Among the numerous substitutes and adulterants in use for coffee may be
mentioned first:--

=Rye Coffee.=--Prepared from roasted rye and a little butter ground
fine, and put up in packages.

=Rice Coffee.=--Made from roasted rice in the same manner as the former
and considered a very good substitute.

=Malt Coffee.=--A preparation made from malt, which is first soaked
in water at 40 degrees and dried in a coffee roaster until the grains
assume a glossy-brown color is used as a substitute for the coffee of
commerce, the finished product, when ground and infused, is claimed to
be a passable coffee substitute.

=Currant Coffee.=--Manufactured from the seeds of that fruit, washed
out of the cake left in making currant wine, then roasted and ground,
but principally used as an adulterant.

=Gooseberry Coffee.=--Prepared from the seeds of that fruit in the same
manner and used as an adulterant also.

=Holly Coffee=--Is made from the berries of the common holly, roasted
and moistened with a little lemon juice.

=Acorn Coffee=--Is prepared from acorns, deprived of their shells,
husked, dried and roasted in the same manner as regular coffee.

=Sassafras Coffee.=--Manufactured from the fruit or root of that plant,
or from the bark, cut up, dried and roasted, the decoction being very
wholesome, and a specific for skin diseases.

=Beechmast Coffee.=--Made from the roasted and ground roots of the
beechmast, and also claimed to be very wholesome.

=Beet-root Coffee.=--Principally used as an adulterant; is prepared
from the yellow beet-root, sliced, dried in an oven and ground with
genuine coffee.

=Almond Coffee=--Is made from either rye or wheat, roasted with almonds
and a very small quantity of cassia buds, making a very good substitute.

=Bean Coffee=--Is prepared from ordinary horse-beans, roasted along
with a little honey and burnt sugar, a small quantity of cassia buds
being frequently added when removed from the fire, the whole being
stirred until cold.

=German Coffee=--Is chiefly made from chicory roasted and ground fine,
and used either as a substitute or an adulterant of the regular coffee
of commerce.

=Coffee-pulp Coffee.=--In Arabia the pulp of the berries, which
constitutes about twenty per cent. of the prepared coffee, is dried
and shriveled up by a method peculiar to Arabia. This product is known
by the distinct name of _Kishr_, a decoction of which forms the common
beverage of the poorer Arabs.

=French Coffee.=--What is known and celebrated as “French Coffee” is
made from a mixture of coffee and caramel, which must be packed in
tins, as otherwise the hygroscopic properties of the caramel will cause
it to absorb moisture, and thereby run to decomposition.

=Pelotas Coffee=--Is also prepared from ground acorns and sold under
the name of Pelotas, but is exceedingly dark in liquor, wild and
insipid in flavor.

=Corsican Coffee=--Is made from the roasted seeds of the Knee-holly,
and used extensively on that island as a substitute for the regular
coffee of commerce.

=Egyptian Coffee=--Is prepared from the common Chick-pea roasted,
ground and mixed with genuine coffee in equal parts, being more of an
adulterant than a substitute.

=Mesquite Coffee.=--It has been recently claimed that a species of
coffee may be produced from the “Mesquite plant” found growing in wild
abundance in Texas, Arizona and New Mexico, but so far no positive
results have been reported.

=Dandelion Coffee.=--The root of the Dandelion, first dried, roasted
and ground, is also extensively used as a substitute for coffee, and is
claimed by many physicians to be much preferable to chicory for that
purpose, its infusion, decoction and extract being frequently employed
as a tonic and aperient, especially in disorders of the liver and
digestive organs.

=Spent Coffee=--Prepared from “exhausted” coffee grounds which are
dried and re-atomized by the transforming hand of modern chemistry, put
up in shiny packages under seductive titles, and from which the deluded
and over-confiding consumer endeavors to extract a desired beverage.

=Mussenda Coffee.=--A patent has recently been granted in France, the
object of which is to substitute the berry of the _Mussenda_ plant
for the various substances now used for mixing with ground coffees,
by which the berries are roasted with the coffee in any desired
proportions, usually from ¹⁄₃ to ²⁄₃ Mussenda, or ³⁄₄ coffee to ¹⁄₄
Mussenda. During the roasting process a small quantity of Caramel is
added to improve the flavor, the compound being then ground and put
up in cans, possessing at least one good recommendation, that of not
containing any injurious properties.

=Canada Peas=--Which is the most extensive form of adulteration, are
first roasted in the same manner as coffee, but requiring a much
longer time and more care, as the shell of the pea does not assume a
coffee-color until the inside is overdone, and must be judged by the
inside appearance, being brittle and a little darker when broken than
coffee, but when ground they are dry and dusty, on which account they
make an excellent compound with chicory, keeping it from forming into
lumps and making it assume a uniform color. Wheat, rye or barley may be
substituted or added to this compound without affecting it, the method
of treatment being identical. There being but little aroma to protect
and none to save, the virtue of this compound lies altogether in the
healthy properties of the cereal used, not in the flavor of the liquid.

=Essence of Coffee=--Is simply an article of manufacture, containing
no coffee, but intended for use with coffee for the purpose of
imparting color and as a clarifying agent. It may be prepared at will
from any cereal before named, bread raspings or burnt cracker dust,
but is chiefly composed of carbonized corn, that is, corn roasted
to blackness. The material from which it may be prepared is first
roasted, ground fine and spread out thinly over a large surface, and
then covered with burnt sugar or molasses while boiling hot, the whole
forming a large cake, which when thoroughly cooled is broken into
pieces and reground in an iron mill until reduced to a dust, after
which it is put up in packages or barrels for use in coffee. It is also
used extensively as an adulterant in ground coffee, and when made from
good stock it is not objectionable, possessing excellent coloring,
sweetening and clarifying properties.

=Coffee-leaf Coffee.=--A decoction made from the leaves of the coffee
shrub has long been used in the Eastern Archipelago, and has more
recently been introduced among the coolies of southern India, and a few
years since attracted considerable notice, being recommended as a new
article of import to become a cheap substitute for tea. There seems
to be no doubt that coffee leaves contain the principle caffeine in
sufficient abundance for the making of a valuable beverage, but the
presence of an unpleasant senna-like odor militates greatly against its
popularity as a regular drink, and there exists also the difficulty
that of depriving the tree of its foliage damages the crop of berries
and injures the tree itself. On berry-producing trees therefore only
the leaves obtained in the ordinary pruning operations would be
available, and these would seem to yield so small a supply as not to be
worth the cost of collection, while growing the shrubs for the leaves
alone would be a very questionable undertaking. Yet there appears to be
no valid reason why in the event of the berry crop failing a portion at
least of the leaves might not be gathered and prepared in the form of
coffee if any means can be invented for removing the objectionable odor.

=Whey Coffee=--Another very novel substitute for coffee is prepared
of whey from milk, which is evaporated down in open vessels or vacuum
pans until most of the water is driven off and a thick paste remains.
During the process the whey is kept constantly stirred, the stirring
being continued until the pasty mass becomes cold, when it is rolled
into cakes and dried at a temperature of boiling water, after which it
is broken up and moulded into pieces about the size and form of coffee
beans. The next operation is that of roasting, which is more preferably
performed by first mixing them with an equal quantity of raw coffee,
the roasting process thus turning the whey-paste beans into a rich
brown color, which on cooling are ground with another percentage of
coffee. The compound yields a pleasant and agreeable beverage and may
find some use as a harmless if not really nutritious ingredient in the
lower priced coffee preparations.

In Brazil and other South American countries the fruit of the Wax
palm is used extensively as a substitute for coffee, being very rich
in caffeine and possessing nutritious properties, while recently a
substitute for coffee has been introduced to England and the continent
of Europe under the name of “Mochara,” which is simply a preparation
made from ripe figs, roasted and pulverized, which is sold at about
half the price of coffee. Another illustration of the modern craze
for replacing every genuine article by an inferior substitute is to
be found in the announcement of a company to work a recent patent
for making coffee out of dates. In New Zealand the berries of the
_Coprosma_ have been proposed as a coffee substitute, while the seeds
of the _Cassia_ have been lately imported into England from the river
Gambia and sold there under the name of “Negro Coffee.” But although
such substitutes and admixture are demanded, yet it appears to be
impossible to replace coffee altogether, all the elaborate attempts
made by the French chemists during the wars in the early part of this
century being unsuccessful in providing any approximate substitute for
coffee.

=Kola-nut Coffee.=--The diminishing production of coffee in Java,
Ceylon, and other countries of East Indies has given rise to the
suggestion that the cultivation of the Kola-nut as substitute for
coffee should be undertaken, which not only as a stimulant, but as an
article of food, possesses the essential properties of coffee, and is
even said to be richer in the active principle, _caffeine_. Heretofore
this product has been raised chiefly for medicinal purposes only, but
its acceptability as a stimulating and nutritious beverage is rapidly
growing, possessing as it does a high value, because of its power of
enabling men to sustain great effort as well as to endure long fasting.
It is fast finding a place in commerce in the same order as that
held by coffee, the beverage being called at the present “Kola-nut
Coffee,” but the term “Kolatina,” has recently been proposed as more
appropriate for the decoction, and to which there can be no reasonable
objection. The beverage prepared from the Kola nut resembles that
made from coffee, and is both pleasant and agreeable, and for persons
troubled with weak indigestion “Kolatina” is found to be better adapted
than either tea or cocoa. This is the bean which Stanley speaks in
several of his works on African exploration as possessing much greater
sustaining power than either tea, coffee, or cocoa; the natives, he
states, carry these beans in their pockets and eat them during long
marches. The beans are first ground and put up in packages, with
directions for making the infusion, one teaspoonful being sufficient
for a cup of Kolatina. A concentrated essence is also made from the
beans, and an acerated drink called “Kola champagne,” very agreeable to
the taste and recommended by physicians.

=Chicory=--The common root of the Endive or “Succory” plant, as used
along with coffee was originally a Dutch practice dating back to over
a century ago, but for many years after the nature of Chicoried coffee
was kept a profound secret by the Dutch dealers until 1801, when the
secret was first disclosed. The fact that for over a hundred years it
has been successfully used as a substitute for and recognized addition
to coffee, while in the meantime innumerable other substances have been
tried for the same purpose and abandoned indicates that it must be
agreeable, if not beneficial, to many constitutions besides imparting
to coffee additional color, body and pungency, and may, by acting as
a sedative, tonic and diuretic, modify its stimulating and exciting
effects, and is at least in very general, almost universal, use at
the present time. It is extensively cultivated in Belgium, Holland,
France, Germany and other European countries, being principally
prepared from the old, stout and white roots of the plant, which
after washing are sliced into small pieces, and kiln-dried, in which
condition it is usually sold to the chicory roasters, by whom it is
parched or burned, until it assumes a deep-brown color, after which it
is ground, the fine dust being separated from the coarse and granulated
parts. In its external characteristics it closely resembles ground
coffee, but is entirely destitute of its pleasing and aromatic odor,
neither does it possess any trace of the alkaloid--caffeine--which
give their peculiar virtues to coffee, tea and other diet drinks. It
occupies a peculiar position, however, since very many coffee consumers
deliberately prefer an admixture of chicory with coffee to the pure
article alone, notwithstanding that it is entirely devoid of the
essential oil for which coffee is so valued. Differing diametrically
in their botanical nature and chemical composition as well as in their
physiological properties and action. Again, coffee is the fruit of a
tree, while chicory is the root of a herbaceous plant, and it is a
well-established fact that of all parts of either vegetables or plants
the fruit and seeds possess the most active and nutritious properties.
This is no doubt due to their being freely exposed to the influence
of light and air--agencies which invariably promote chemical changes
in the plant itself and so effect the elaboration of those complex
organic substances on which the activity of all plants depends. While
on the other hand it is manifest that, as roots are concealed from
these powerful agencies, they cannot be richly endowed with active
properties, there being but few roots containing either alkaloid or
volatile oil--the properties which give to coffee its unique virtues.
The distinction therefore between the properties of the seeds and
roots of plants in general is very important, and especially so in
the case of coffee and chicory, the infusion of the latter being
heavy, black, mawkish and entirely destitute of aroma; that of the
former being light, rich, fragrant and refreshing. Coffee containing
three active principles: caffeine, volatile oil and tannin, chicory
possessing no such analogous constituents. Coffee exerting very marked
and highly important physiological effects of a beneficial character in
the human system, while there is not a single proof that chicory exerts
any one of these effects, it being very questionable, in the contrary,
whether the properties it does possess are not really injurious.
None of these or analogous principles are to be found in any of the
substitutes or adulterants of coffee, so that the latter cannot possess
a single one of the peculiar and beneficial properties of coffee, being
simply a deception on the stomach of the consumer.

Chicory contains neither _caffeine_ nor essential oil like coffee, and
is neither exhilarating nor pleasant in taste, while on some persons
it acts as an irritant and purgative. Some so-called coffees contain
large quantities of it, even to the extent of 95 per cent., which it
would be more correct to call such a mixture “adulterated chicory,”
rather than coffee, which term it seems entitled to only as a matter
of courtesy, chicory being in its turn also subject to adulteration
in many forms, two very common adulterants being beet-root and
mangel-wurzel. As to the nutrition possessed by chicory, it contains
only about one-half the nitrogenous substances of coffee and even that
quantity in no way benefits the consumer, as these substances are
insoluble in water and are wasted in the infusion. It has been proved
also that even the chicory itself is extensively adulterated, as all of
the substances found in adulterated coffee have also been discovered
in ground chicory. Viewed under a magnifying glass the component
fibres and elementary structures of the different substances used in
the adulteration of coffee present peculiarities and characteristics
that enables the experienced observer to identify without difficulty
the particular substitute or adulterant employed. The principal
adulterant, chicory, being readily distinguished by the size, form,
and ready separation of the component cells of the nut, as well as by
the presence of an abundance of spiral vessels of a dotted form. Whole
roasted beans, peas and cereals may be best detected by the respective
size, form, texture and other characteristics of the starchy granule,
of which such substances are chiefly composed.

In minute structure true coffee is so distinct from all other vegetable
substances that it is readily recognizable by means of the microscope,
and as the roasting process does not destroy its distinguishing
peculiarities, microscopic examination forms the readiest method of
determining the genuineness of any suspected sample. The true coffee
bean consists of an assemblage of vesicles or cells, angular in
form, which adhere so firmly together that they break up into pieces
rather than separate into distinct and perfect cells. And, again, by
microscopical, physical and chemical tests the purity of coffee can
be still further determined with perfect certainty. The mixture of
chicory with coffee is best detected by the aid of the microscope,
the structure of both which they retain after torrefaction being very
characteristic and distinct. The granules of coffee remain hard and
angular when steeped in water, to which they communicate but little
color, while chicory on the other hand by swelling up and softening
imparts a deep brown color to the water, the specific gravity of
chicory being also much lighter than that of coffee.

All of the pseudo patent or proprietary ground coffees, put up in
bulk or packages, and recommended to the consumer by high-sounding,
seductive names and attractive labels, which are annually palmed off
in such vast quantities, consist of nothing more than a combination of
these adulterants with genuine coffee. So much so that it may be safely
said that wherever grinding is done it may be safely set down that
more or less adulteration is practised, the ground coffee being put up
in packages or in bulk form. The average basis for the compound being
composed of the following proportions to every 1,000 pounds: chicory,
100; rye, 200; peas, 400; coffee, 200, and other substances 100 pounds.

According to some English chemists, coffee is adulterated in that
country, outside of chicory, with such substances as roasted peas,
beans, carrots, turnips, parsnips, potatoes, acorns, beets, lupins
and even fragments of the baked livers of oxen and horses. To such an
extent is the practice carried there, that it is next to impossible to
procure a pound of pure coffee there at almost any price. The evil also
flourishes to a great extent in this country, but with the exception
that nothing worse than roasted rye, peas, beans and cereal grains are
chiefly used for its adulteration. With regard to the propriety of
selling chicory with coffee, it may be stated that while it certainly
is not right to sell a mixture of coffee with chicory under the name
of pure coffee, and unreasonable to compel the manufacturer or vender
to specify approximately the proportion of chicory contained in the
mixture, this latter is especially desirable, inasmuch as chicory
is far cheaper than coffee, and it is, therefore, necessary to
protect the public against having chicory palmed off on it for pure
coffee. According to the best authorities, coffee, when pure, is a
most valuable ingredient of our food, owing to its agreeable flavor,
pleasing odor and refreshing and gently stimulating properties, which,
if not absolutely necessary, is at least a most desirable constituent
of our daily dietary, and any one that deprives it of its true
qualities by adulteration or substitution inflicts an injury more or
less grave on the public health, because the adulterants are _claimed_
not to be poisonous--that is, directly--but only indirectly injurious.
The offense is thought little of, and never punished in this country,
with the result that the nefarious practice is rather encouraged
than repressed. So that, in considering the many evils of coffee
adulteration, we must not overlook the fact that coffee is not only
a beverage, but also a drug, antagonistic in action to the _alkaloid
morphia_, as well as to other alkaloids of like nature, so that in
cases of poisoning its adulteration may lead to the failure of medical
treatment, even to the extent of the loss of life.

The operation of roasting also tends to make coffee soluble in boiling
water, as when Raw coffee is perfectly exhausted by means of boiling
water it yields up 25 per cent. which passes into solution, while
Roasted coffee, on the other hand, when completely exhausted by means
of boiling water, yields up 39 per cent. of soluble matter. These
figures appear rather high, as in actually using coffee as a beverage
we are not in the habit of making anything like a complete extraction,
only some 10 to 12 per cent. of the coffee passing into the liquid.
From these the facts it will be perceived that the chemical character
of coffee provide fairly satisfactory criteria for the recognition of
many species of adulteration, the absence of starch alone in genuine
coffee offering in itself a character which enables the analyst to
at once deal with the whole class of possible adulterants, including
many species of grain, while the absence of more than traces of sugar
in Roasted coffee can likewise be turned to excellent account inasmuch
as Chicory contains no starch, but is highly saccharine even after
roasting, the percentage of sugar in Roasted coffee ranging from 0.0
to 1.1, while in Roasted chicory the quantity of sugar ranges from 12
to 18 per cent. The proof of this character is best made by the aid of
the copper-reduction test, for which purpose a standard solution of
copper is required, which may be prepared by dissolving 34.65 grams
of crystalized sulphate of copper in 200 C.C. of water and adding to
it 173 grams of double tartrate of potash and soda, with 400 C. C.
of a solution of caustic soda, the whole being subsequently diluted
with water so as to occupy a litre. The standard solution of copper
made in this manner is of such a strength that 10 C. C. are reduced
by .050 grams of grape sugar, the best method of using this solution
being to take a known volume of it, say 10 C. C. accurately measured
out, and dilute it with three or four times its volume of boiling
water and then dropping into the boiling copper solution, which is to
be added, until the point is just reached when the copper solution is
exhausted, and as the reduction of the copper-salt to the state of
red sub-oxide of copper progresses, the precipitate will accumulate,
and at the same time the blue color will fade from the solution. The
last delicate reading is finally effected by half of the reduction
between the ferro-cyanide of potassium and copper solutions, for which
purpose a little of the liquid is filtered, acidified slightly with
acetic acid and tested with a drop of the solution of the ferro-cyanide
of potassium. In this triturate, as in all like cases, a rough and
rapid estimation is first made, and then a second operation when
the quantity is approximately known to make a delicate and careful
reading of the exact point. Thus if 100 parts of coffee when infused
yield sensibly more than 1 per cent. of sugar, then the presence of
chicory or other adulterant may be strongly suspected and a rough
calculation of the quantity made. The fact that coffee extract is
devoid or almost devoid of sugar, while many of the other natural
products yield saccharine extracts, makes itself manifest in many ways,
and the specific gravity also of equal quantities of an infusion of
coffee being very much lower than the specific gravity of an infusion
of chicory and the other principal substances used in the adulteration
of ground coffee. Chicory also possessing greater coloring power than
coffee, for which reason this character may be rendered available in
the testing of coffee, as not only does chicory color water more deeply
than coffee, but it colors it with greater rapidity, the oil contained
in the coffee hindering the solution of the coloring matter by the
water, whereas chicory, which contains no oil, imparts its coloring
matter to water with great readiness. All of which tends to render the
color-test, when properly applied, the easiest and most available for
the detection of chicory or other substances in coffee.

What is known as the “Ash test,” is as follows: Pure coffee when
incinerated or burned, yields about 4 per cent. of ash on an average,
while the ash of chicory and other adulterants used in coffee amounts
to between 5 and 6 per cent. of the residue, the ratio of soluble to
insoluble ash being inverted when dissolved in water thus:--

    Ash of Coffee.      Ash of Chicory.
  Soluble,      3.24  Soluble,      1.74
  Insoluble,    0.76  Insoluble,    3.52

From this analysis it will be observed that the average ash of coffee
when incinerated is about 4 per cent., 3.24 of which is soluble in
water, and 0.76 insoluble, more than half of the entire ash consisting
of potash in combination with carbonic and phosphoric acids. Magnesia
amounting to about 8 and lime to about 4 per cent. of the whole, while
it is claimed that soda and silica are entirely absent from coffee ash,
great stress being laid on this circumstance. The ash of chicory, on
the other hand, which is the main adulterant of coffee, amounts to 5.06
when incinerated, 1.74 per cent. of which only is soluble in water, and
3.32 insoluble, being almost an inversion of figures and from which it
may be easily understood why the examination of the ash alone would
suffice to distinguish between coffee and chicory, and from which
it may readily be determined, an examination of the ash test alone
sufficing to distinguish pure coffee from the adulterated compounds.

Another unerring test, known as the “Color test,” is to prepare a
saturated solution of common salt and mix a small quantity of the
coffee to be tested with ten times its weight of the solution in a
test-tube at least three quarters of an inch in diameter, shaking it
repeatedly so that the coffee may be thoroughly wetted, and then allow
the tube to stand for half an hour. Next, closely observe the color of
the liquid and the quantity of coffee floating on the surface as well
as the amount deposited in the tube. If the color be a very pale amber
and almost all of the coffee floats on top, the sample may be assumed
to be pure, but if of a decidedly dark-yellow or brownish hue, it
clearly indicates the admixture of chicory or some similar adulterant,
in which case there is also a larger deposit for the reasons already
stated. This deposit increases and the color of the brine grows darker
in proportion to the extent of the impurity in the coffee, as with
the addition of only 30 per cent. of chicory the brown color is very
marked, so that with a still larger percentage of the adulterant it
becomes correspondingly darker.




CHAPTER VIII.

BLENDING AND PREPARING.


By the combination of different varieties of coffee much better results
are sometimes obtainable than when one variety is used alone, but in
the mixing or blending of two or more kinds together, several points
have to be studied, such as the age, grade, body, flavor, appearance,
and affinity of the coffees to be combined. The public taste for
certain flavored coffees, like that of tea, being an acquired one, it
behooves the dealer to first study and learn the taste of his customers
before catering to it.

The successful blending of coffees may be easily accomplished if only
a fair knowledge of the merits and general character of the coffees be
possessed by the dealer; but tastes differ so widely that it is next to
impossible to give any fixed formulas for any specific combinations.
For this reason the following blends are only given for the purpose of
conveying some idea as to what coffees assimilate best in combination
and also ascertain what body, strength and flavor is required by the
customer or customers before preparing the combination; but a taste
for any fairly good blend of coffees may be cultivated in the customer
with time. And as no definite formulas can be given for combining
two or more varieties of coffee, the dealer must study the taste and
requirements of his trade, noting its peculiarities and experimenting
with it until he has discovered a combination that will suit or please
a majority of his customers which, having once found, he should adhere
to strictly, by being always careful to select, as nearly as possible,
the same grades of coffee, and keeping them up to the same high and
uniform standard.

Though not generally admitted, the testing of coffee is much more
difficult and requires more experience than that of tea, inasmuch as
the sample of tea is all ready to have the water applied to it, while
the sample of coffee is presented in the raw or natural state and
must not only be roasted properly and ground before being tested, but
must also be roasted as precisely as the other samples with which it
is to be compared, in order to determine its exact value. To smell
or taste correctly requires a knowledge of all the properties and
characteristics of the article under consideration, as these senses
convey to the mind their impressions, so that if the mind can analyze
the cause and effect, the senses of smell and taste act in consonance
with the sense of reason. It is thus obvious that to be an expert
judge of either tea or coffee requires a thorough knowledge of the
different varieties and grades of both, and what the most desirable
qualities of each are. It is also further necessary that the dealer
should be well aware of what characteristics and blending of flavors
his customers prefer. Having carefully selected, tested, and purchased
his coffee, the next important thing is to so roast or have it roasted
as to best develop the drinking qualities, which, as stated before, is
a more important and essential process than the hulling and curing of
it, though frequently underestimated by the average dealer, as many
otherwise good coffees are injured irreparably by improper roasting.

Owing to the wide difference in the age, weight and texture of coffees
they should never be blended in the raw or natural state, as old
and dry coffees require a shorter time to roast than new and moist
ones, the same rule applying to what are known in trade as “mild” and
“strong” coffees, as one will be but half roasted or roasted only when
the former is roasted or burned, thus imparting to the combination
a raw, uncooked or burned flavor, as the case may be. The best way
is to roast or have roasted the coffee intended for the blend in
different cylinders, then mix and cover them up tightly immediately
after roasting, in order that the differing characters and flavors
may exchange and assimilate freely while the pores are still open to
receive them.


ROASTED COFFEE BLENDS.

=No. 1.=--(Low-priced). May be made from a fair Rio and Santos,
low-grade Maracaibo or other mild sort, in the proportions of half and
half, or, when three or more varieties are used, in equal quantities.

=No. 2.=--(Medium). Is composed of equal quantities of a large
white-bean Santos and Cucuta Maracaibo or other standard mild growth,
the whole being strengthened by the addition of one part choice Rio, if
considered too weak in body.

=No. 3.=--(Choice). When a really rich, smooth, mellow beverage
is desired a combination, composed of one-third Arabian Mocha and
two-thirds Preanger Java will yield the desired results. While a liquor
equally as good, if not more popular, may be obtained from equal
parts of Cucuta or Merida, Maracaibo, Aden, Mocha and Preanger Java,
particularly when fresh roasted.

For a good coffee the most common practice is to blend a Padang Java
and a Cucuta Maracaibo, or large, yellow, old-bean Santos in the
proportions of 40 pounds of the former to 60 of either, or both the two
latter, the combination answering well for a straight coffee, and for
which it may be safely sold. In fact, one of the most popular so-called
finest Javas in the market to-day is composed of these three varieties,
the addition of the Santos improving the combination, as it lends to it
the essential quality which is lacking.


GROUND COFFEE BLENDS.

In ground coffees the appended specimen blends are given to illustrate
how they are mixed, rather than as laying down any fixed formulas, and
are recommended as being at least non-injurious, if not positively
wholesome.

=No. 1.=--Composed of 20 pounds roasted rye, 20 pounds chicory and 20
pounds ground coffee makes a fairly drinkable compound, when a cheap
coffee is required.

=No. 2.=--A good medium grade may be prepared of 10 pounds rye, 20
pounds chicory and 20 pounds coffee. These proportions may be altered
at pleasure, but care must be taken to at all times have the rye in
excess of the chicory and to thoroughly mix and grind the component
parts together. The dry dust of the rye quickly absorbs the moisture
of the chicory and will also prevent the mill from becoming clogged in
grinding.

=No. 3.=--Better still in the proportions of 15 pounds rye, 10 pounds
chicory and 10 pounds good, mild coffee, the component parts of which
may be still further varied to suit the price and taste of the customer
and to which may be added any of the other ingredients with which
coffees are mixed, except corn or beans, but it must be borne in mind
that only the best grade of coffee must be used in the blend, as what
may otherwise be a good combination may be utterly spoiled by the
introduction of a tainted, stained, damaged or hidey coffee.

But the best and safest of all substances for mixing or blending
with coffee with the object of reducing its cost is chicory and rye,
containing as they do a large percentage of saccharine, which in the
process of roasting becomes carameled, thus imparting to the compound
the flavor of coffee to a much greater extent than any other substitute
known and for which reason it lends itself to the purpose more readily
than any other vegetable substance. Again, it is not injurious to
health, while at the same time it gives up its extractive matter
easily, thus improving the extract yielded by poor coffee and imparting
a dark color to the decoction such as can only be produced by three
times the weight of pure coffee. It has one great defect, however, that
of easily absorbing moisture, becoming hard and lumpy on exposure to
the atmosphere, more particularly when ground fine.


PREPARING FOR USE.

The methods of preparing for the table are almost as numerous as the
countries in which it is grown, and as much of the beneficial influence
which it undoubtedly exerts depends in a great measure on its proper
preparation. This question has given rise to such a maze of psuedo
chemical subtleties and mechanical devices that it is difficult to
arrive at any fundamental common-sense rule for its most perfect
production in the cup. The two principal objects to be sought for in
the proper preparation of coffee as a beverage are: (1) To obtain the
greatest amount of strength and aroma, without extracting any of
its astringent properties, and (2) to produce a rich, transparent,
nut-brown liquor, free from all cloudiness and grounds. The first
requisite in securing these results is that the article be purchased
_pure_ and _fresh roasted_ in the bean and ground personally a short
time previous to preparing for the table, for if roasted too long
prior to its use the beans lose much of their strength and aroma,
becoming tough and difficult to grind. This latter defect, however,
may be remedied in part by reheating in a pan or oven for some minutes
previous to being ground and infused.

The usual methods of preparing coffee for use as a beverage are: (1) By
Infusion or drawing; (2) By Decoction or boiling, and (3) By Filtration
or distillation.

=Infusion=--or “drawing”--is accomplished by first making the
water boil and then putting in the ground coffee, the vessel being
immediately removed off the fire and allowed to stand quietly, in the
same manner as tea, on the stove or range for about ten minutes, in
order to more fully extract its properties. The coffee is ready for use
by this method when the powder swimming on the surface sinks to the
bottom on slightly stirring it. This process yields a very aromatic
beverage, but one containing very little of the extract or stimulating
properties.

=Decoction=--or “boiling”--is the custom in the East, and generally
yields an excellent coffee. The ground coffee is put in the vessel with
cold water and placed on the fire, where it is allowed to boil for a
few seconds, care being taken not to allow it to overboil. If boiled
too long by this method the aromatic properties are volatilized, and
while the coffee will be rich in extract it will be poor in aroma.

=Filtration=--or “distilling”.--By this process the coffee is prepared
in a “percolator,” in which the ground coffee is compressed between
two metallic diaphragms, so arranged as to permit the water to filter
through it slowly. This method often, but not always, yields a cup of
good coffee, as when the pouring of the boiling water over the ground
coffee is done slowly the drops in passing come in contact with too
much air, the oxygen of which makes a change in the aromatic particles,
often destroying them entirely. The extraction also is incomplete, for,
instead of 20 per cent. the water by this process dissolves only from
10 to 15 per cent., the balance being lost by evaporation, while by the
other methods more than half the valuable parts of the coffee remain in
the grounds and is entirely lost.

It is contended by many experts and connoisseurs that to obtain the
full aroma of coffee without extracting its astringent properties, it
must in all cases be prepared as an infusion with boiling water, that
is, “drawn” in the same manner as tea, or simply allowed to reach the
boiling point after infusion, but no more. While others, among whom
is Baron Liebig, maintain that by simple infusion alone much of the
valuable soluble principle in the coffee remains unextracted, being
eventually thrown out with the grounds. To avoid this unnecessary
waste, it is suggested that the grounds of the coffee once used by
infusion should be preserved, boiled and the liquor resulting therefrom
be used for infusing a fresh supply. By this method it is claimed that
the substantial properties of the previously infused coffee, and the
aroma of the new are obtained together in the fresh infusion. In many
French households the coffee grounds are utilized by distillation for
economy’s sake, hot water being poured over them, which, after passing
through, is preserved in a bottle and used as an extract. In fact,
this is claimed to be the method adopted in making the finest French
coffee.

The best method under these circumstances is a combination of the
second and third, in which the usual quantities of both coffee and
water are to be retained, a tin measure containing half an ounce of
roasted coffee beans being generally sufficient for two small cups
(or one large breakfast cup) of coffee of moderate strength, or four
ounces for eight small cups or four large ones. With three-quarters
of the coffee to be prepared after being ground, the water is made
to boil in ten or fifteen minutes, after which the other quarter is
put in, and the vessel immediately withdrawn from the fire, tightly
covered over and allowed to stand for five or six minutes. In order
that the powder on the surface may fall to the bottom more readily,
it is meantime stirred round, and after the deposit takes place the
coffee may be poured off, being then ready for use. But in order to
separate the grounds more completely, the coffee may be passed through
a clean muslin cloth, but generally this operation is not necessary,
being frequently prejudical to the pure flavor of the beverage.
By this process the first boiling gives the strength, the second
adding to the flavor without extracting its astringent properties,
it does not, however, dissolve more than one-fourth of the aromatic
substances contained in the roasted coffee. The beverage, when ready
for use by this process, ought to be of a rich brownish-black color,
semi-transparent, somewhat resembling chocolate thinned with water.

Coffee may be prepared in any kind of vessel, tin cup, iron pot,
earthen pitcher or regular coffee-pot, but the utensil, whatever it
may be, must be thoroughly clean before using. When prepared in a tin
cup or iron pot first heat the ground coffee in the vessel and pour
on boiling water or milk when the coffee is sufficiently heated, and
stir with a spoon for one minute, then allow to stand by the fire where
it will keep hot, without boiling, for another minute and stir again
and then let stand to settle for two minutes, after which it is ready
for use, care being taken when pouring out not to disturb the grounds.
But, if a pitcher be used, it must be first heated with boiling water
and allowed to stand in a warm place to infuse for at least ten minutes
before serving.

There are so many different varieties of coffee and such a wide
dissimilarity of tastes, that it is almost next to impossible to
suggest the special kind of coffee to select for use, even for the
average consumer, the same difficulty also applying to what constitutes
the requisite quantity. Many old-time coffee-drinkers prefer a strong,
dark, or, as they term it, “an old-fashioned Rio.” Others like a good
Maracaibo, or other fine, mild grade, such as Ceylon, Jamaica and
Guatemala; in fact, these are the most popular grades and the choice
of the majority of consumers, not only on account of their intrinsic
merits, but also on account of price. For an exceedingly fine coffee,
however, the best results are obtained from a combination of true
Java and genuine Mocha, mixed in the proportions of two-thirds of
the former to one-third of the latter, _fresh roasted, fresh ground
and fresh made_; while, with regard to quantity, one, two and three
tablespoonfuls to each pint of water is recommended, according to the
number to be served and the strength required.

The degree of strength is altogether a matter of taste, two ounces,
or four heaping tablespoonfuls, of pure, ground coffee, made with
absolutely boiling water, will yield a full quart of average strength,
making a pleasant and well-flavored breakfast coffee. But for four
persons a tea-cup of finely-ground coffee--the finer, the better--will
be required, to be served as soon as made, as the infusion rapidly
deteriorates by standing too long.

       *       *       *       *       *

In Ethiopia and Southeastern Africa, where its virtues were first
discovered and where it has been in use for centuries prior to its
introduction to civilization, it is used in a _solid_ form, being first
roasted, crushed and mixed with fat or grease, rolled into balls and
eaten. The natives claiming that one of these balls will support them
for an entire day, and preferring it so prepared to a meal of bread or
meat.

       *       *       *       *       *

While the Arabs, to whom the civilized world is indebted not only for
the first knowledge of the plant and its product, but also for the
first knowledge of preparing it in liquid form, prepare it for use in a
porous earthenware pitcher first set in hot ashes until all moisture is
evaporated and the vessel is well heated, after which freshly roasted
and pounded coffee is put in and a little salt added, both being heated
thoroughly. Boiling water is then poured on, the vessel covered and
allowed to rest in the hot ashes until it settles before serving. A
decoction known as _Kishr_ is also made there from the dried pulp of
the berries, which is prepared by bruising or pounding the raw pulp
with stones and putting it in boiling water, contained in an earthen
pan placed over a slow fire. Ground cardamons and a little cinnamon or
ginger is next added to the decoction, after which it is allowed to
simmer for half an hour before using.

       *       *       *       *       *

In Turkey, where it is regarded as the national beverage, it is
prepared by first grinding the roasted beans exceedingly fine, almost
as fine as flour, and put in a pot in which cold water is poured
and placed on the fire until it heats up to almost the boiling point
and then, served without the addition of either milk or sugar. But
when only a single cup of coffee is wanted, the requisite quantity is
measured into a small, long-handled brass coffee pot, made expressly to
hold one or two cups, as the case may be, and water enough poured on
to fill the vessel, which is set on live coals until it heats up to,
but not beyond, the boiling point and then served in a tiny cup without
straining or otherwise settling the grounds.

       *       *       *       *       *

While in Egypt, which is also proverbial for the excellence of its
coffee, it is prepared by first grinding the beans fine, as in Turkey,
and adding an equal quantity of sugar to it, pouring on boiling water,
and placing the vessel over the fire until it is thoroughly boiled,
but removing and allowing it to cool occasionally between times until
it becomes black and rather thick, in which state it is served. Coffee
thus prepared will be found very rich and strong, too much so for
the average taste, but dark, frothy-tipped, and, taken altogether, a
delicious beverage.

       *       *       *       *       *

In Java, Sumatra and other Eastern coffee-growing countries the natives
make a beverage from the leaves of the coffee plant, the leaves
containing a large percentage of the active principle--caffeine. They
first roast and cure the leaves after the manner of tea, and prepare
them by infusion the same as tea, the natives preferring the liquor
from the leaves to that produced from the roasted beans.

       *       *       *       *       *

The Dutch settlers in South Africa not only use coffee at all meals
but at all times, the coffee-pot being always on the fire ready for
any visitors and friends who may call. In preparing it they use two
kettles, boiling the water in one and pouring it on the coffee which
has been previously placed in the other; the water is then poured back
and forth several times, a little cold water being finally added to
settle the grounds just before serving.

       *       *       *       *       *

In Mexico the coffee is roasted, ground and prepared at the same time;
the beans are roasted as required and pounded fine in a bag or coarse
cloth, and immediately transferred to the pot, boiling water is then
poured on and milk added to it, after which it is allowed to simmer or
boil slowly for about three minutes. But in some instances the milk is
added as served, a third of a cup of coffee, or less, and the balance
in hot milk being the customary proportions.

       *       *       *       *       *

In Cuba, where the most delicious coffee obtainable anywhere is to
be found, the beverage is prepared by first half filling a coarse
flannel bag with finely pulverized roasted coffee and suspending it
from a nail or hook over the pot or other vessel. Cold water is next
poured on the bag at intervals until the entire mass is well saturated,
when the first drippings which have fallen into the receptacle are
poured again over the bag until the liquid becomes almost thick and
very black. One teaspoonful of this novel extracted liquid placed in
a cup of boiling milk will yield a draught of coffee that is simply
deliciousness itself--a nectar fit for the gods. In Cuba this flannel
bag hangs day and night on the wall, the process of pouring on the cold
water and allowing it to drip being almost ceaseless in its operation,
all classes, ages and conditions offering and drinking coffee there as
freely as the Chinese do tea or as we do water.

       *       *       *       *       *

Coffee constitutes the almost exclusive or “national beverage” of
the people of Brazil, particularly in the regions where it is most
grown. It is made thereby first roasting, as in this country, in small
roasters, but more frequently in iron pans, very high and dark, and is
prepared for use by grinding or pulverizing the beans very fine, almost
as fine as flour, and putting it in a muslin or woolen bag placed in
a pot or other vessel upon which boiling water is poured, and allowed
to infuse for about fifteen minutes. The entire strength is thus
extracted, the Brazilians almost universally preferring their coffee
strong and “black,” that is, without milk, for which reason larger
quantities are also used.

Many connoisseurs maintain that the roasting of coffee is best done
at home, as no doubt it is, all risk of adulteration and stale coffee
being avoided by this method.

So to avoid all risks the consumer should purchase the coffee in a
whole state and grind it personally; but any suspected sample of ground
coffee may be tested by the following simple and practical experiments:
(1). Note whether the ground coffee hardens or “cakes” when pressed
between the fingers, if so, the coffee is evidently adulterated, most
probably with chicory; (2). Place a small sample of the suspected
coffee on top of water in a wineglass, and if part floats and part
sinks it is undoubtedly adulterated either with chicory, roasted
cereals or other analogous substances; (3). If the cold water in which
a sample of the ground coffee has been placed becomes deeply colored
it is an evidence of the presence of some roasted vegetable substance;
(4). But to more definitely detect the presence of chicory or other
foreign substances in ground coffee, put a teaspoonful of the suspected
sample on the surface of a glass of cold water. If it floats for some
time, scarcely coloring the water, it is _pure_ coffee, but if part
sinks and imparts a reddish-brown tint to the water as it falls to the
bottom of the glass, it is adulterated with either chicory, rye, peas
or other analogous matter. Or again, place a spoonful of the coffee
in a white bottle of cold water and shake well for a few moments,
and if the sample is pure it will rise to the top, scarcely coloring
the water, but if adulterated it will sink and discolor the fluid
for the following reason: The pure coffee being enveloped in an oily
substance prevents the grounds from absorbing the water, while the
adulterant being devoid of this feature quickly absorbs the water, and
thus becoming heavy sinks and discolors the fluid to a greater or less
extent according to the proportion used; (5). Spread out on a piece of
glass or other smooth surface a little ground coffee and moisten it
with a few drops of water, and pick out by means of a needle the small
particles. If these particles are of a soft consistence the coffee is
undoubtedly adulterated, as the particles of the coffee-seed or bean
are hard and resisting in nature and do not become soft or pliable even
after prolonged immersion in water. These simple methods will usually
suffice to detect the ordinary forms of adulteration, but to determine
the character and extent of the adulteration science and chemistry must
be resorted to, for which purpose the use of a microscope will prove
the most reliable and powerful auxiliary as a means of detection. The
appended formulas are given as showing the different methods by which
coffee is or may be prepared to suit the varying tastes of different
consumers, which after testing, one may be selected for permanent
adoption.

=1.= Put the requisite quantity of finely-ground coffee in a granitized
vessel and pour on sufficient cold water to just cover it and allow
to stand over night in a moderately warm position. Put it in the pot
next morning, pour in absolutely boiling water and allow to heat to
the boiling point and set back from the fire to prevent ebullition.
By this method the full strength of the coffee will be obtained and
the delicate aroma preserved without the extraction of its bitter and
astringent properties.

=2.= To prepare coffee by filtration without the aid of an urn or
French coffee-pot. Put finely-ground coffee in a thin muslin bag and
place in an ordinary utensil, first heating the vessel thoroughly and
pour on briskly boiling water slowly around the bag, so as to permit
it to absorb and saturate the coffee effectually and extract its full
strength, after which allow it to stand and settle without boiling.

=3.= Another excellent method, known as the “Cold-water process,” is to
mix the finely-ground coffee with the white of an egg and sufficient
cold water to just cover the mass, stirring it well meantime; next,
pour in about one-third of cold water required for the infusion and set
the vessel on the range where it will heat gradually to the boiling
point; just as soon as it approaches the boiling point add another
third of cold water and repeat until it again reaches the boiling
point, then pour on the balance of cold water and allow it to come to
the boiling point again. After which remove and let stand where it
will simmer for a few minutes and settle, which may be hastened by
the addition of a little more cold water; but if in a hurry, boiling
water may be used instead of cold by this method also, but the cold
water extracts more fully the active and refreshing principles of the
coffee without its deleterious properties making a stronger and richer
infusion than the boiling water, as more of the strength and aroma is
carried off in the vapor arising from the use of the latter.

=4.= A quick, convenient and economical method for producing a cup of
good coffee is to first heat some freshly-roasted and finely-ground
coffee--an ounce to each quart of water--in a pan over a brisk fire and
fill a muslin bag with it, then so arrange as to suspend it midway in
the pot, and pour on absolutely boiling water slowly, so as to allow it
to trickle through the bag. After which allow it to stand for about ten
minutes where it will keep hot without boiling, and serve with milk and
sugar. But the simplest, most rapid and effective method is to place
about two ounces of ground coffee in a stew or saucepan, and set it on
a bright fire, stirring the coffee meantime with a spoon until quite
hot, and then pouring over it a pint of briskly boiling water, covering
it over closely for five minutes and passing it through a thin muslin
cloth, warming the liquid again before serving.

=5.= For the “ideal cup of coffee,” take one part genuine Arabian
Mocha and two parts finest Java; roast each separately and blend well
together, and grind fine immediately before preparing. Fill an ordinary
tea-cup two-thirds full of the coffee, with one raw egg and shell.

Place the whole in a strainer or percolator and pour on one quart of
briskly boiling water, then let stand for about ten minutes where it
will keep hot without boiling, and serve with cream and sugar to suit,
or, better still, with hot milk. But should a vessel without a strainer
or percolator be used let the infusion boil up once, and pour in a
cup of cold water, after which let it stand for at least five minutes
to thoroughly settle, and you have a beverage brown, creamy, rich,
fragrant and delicious.

A most convenient, simple and inexpensive method of roasting coffee by
families, travelers or others desiring to roast their own coffee is to
put the requisite quantity--usually about a quarter of a pound--in a
thin glass flask or bottle placed over a charcoal fire and shaking it
well during the process until completed. The non-conducting power gives
this material an advantage over the metal, the coffee being less liable
to burn in it and the coffee can be better observed and regulated
during the progress of the process. But a simple iron pan may also be
used effectively for the purpose, if care be taken to keep the coffee
constantly agitated with a wooden knife or spoon, as a single burnt
bean will impair the aroma, and stopping the operation as soon as the
beans begin to crackle and assume a light-brown color. Before grinding
put the roasted beans in an iron pan or plate and place on the range to
heat until the aroma developed in the coffee by the roasting operation
perfumes the room, after which grind in an ordinary mill and prepare
according to any of the foregoing recipes.

Many consumers connect the idea of the strength of coffee with a dark
or black color and fancy their coffee to be thin and weak if it does
not possess such color. This is entirely erroneous, as good, pure
coffee is never so, the dark color being imparted by means of a little
burnt sugar or other ingredient. The true flavor of pure coffee is
so little known to some persons that many who drink it for the first
time doubt of its goodness because it tastes of the natural flavor,
forgetting that coffee which does not possess the flavor of coffee
is not coffee at all, but an artificial concoction, for which many
other things may be substituted at pleasure. Hence it is that if to
the vile decoctions made from chicory, carrots and beets be added the
slightest quantity of pure coffee, such persons fail to detect the
difference, and which also accounts for the enormous diffusion of such
substitutes and adulterants; such mixtures with an empirical taste
most people fancy to be coffee. Another error of frequent occurrence
in the preparation of coffee for the table, and which results probably
from the habit of tea-making, is that of using too little coffee in
proportion to the quantity of water. More coffee in proportion should
be used than tea, that is, for a full pint of the infusion an ounce to
an ounce and a half of coffee, that being about the proper proportions
for a beverage of average strength.

=Café de Paris=--Or “French Coffee” is most generally prepared by
mixing a cupful of finely-ground coffee with a raw egg and shell in a
quart of cold water and placing the pot over a brisk fire, occasionally
stirring it until the boiling point is reached, after which set the
vessel aside to simmer for a few minutes, then pour on a cupful of cold
water and allow to stand for eight or ten minutes before serving, using
cream and sugar to suit.

=Café au Lait=--or “French Breakfast Coffee” is made by grinding two
tablespoonfuls of coffee for each cup required, and packing solidly
in a regular French filtering coffee-pot, pouring on boiling water
and passing it from two to three times through the coffee-pot. When
serving, boiling milk in equal quantity or to suit the individual
taste is poured into the cup from a separate vessel, after which it is
sweetened to suit. The French usually mix chicory with their coffee,
particularly when used in the form of _café au lait_. For this form,
add half tablespoonful of powdered chicory to two tablespoonfuls of
ground coffee, and after thoroughly mixing, pour on boiling water and
pass twice through the coffee-pot before serving.

=Café Noir.=--A black “after-dinner coffee,” is prepared by adding four
ounces of freshly-ground strong coffee to a quart of absolutely boiling
water and allowing it to stand until it reaches the boiling point,
meantime passing it twice or thrice through the coffee-pot before
serving.

=Café au Crême=--Is prepared by the addition of boiled cream to clear,
strong, fresh-made coffee and allowing to infuse or draw together from
fifteen to twenty minutes.

=Café Glacé.=--To every six cups of freshly-made coffee add one egg
with cream, and sweeten well, then mix thoroughly and place in a
refrigerator until frozen to the consistency of cream.

=Café Demi-tasse=--Is a beverage prepared after the manner of _Café
Noir_, but sweetened to a much greater extent, and to which is added
Cognac, Kirsch, or some other liqueur, but when taken with a small
glass of liqueur it becomes a _Café Gloria_.

=Café Capucin=--Is merely another name for _Café au lait_, served in a
glass instead of a cup, while “Mazagran” is coffee served with water
instead of milk, the coffee which is prepared exactly the same as
Demi-tasse is served in a tall, narrow glass or goblet, a decanter of
cold water being served with it, the consumer diluting to suit.

=Café à la Russe=--Like “Tea à la Russe” is simply strong, black
coffee, prepared after the manner of _Café au lait_, to which a squeeze
or slice of lemon is added before drinking.

=Coffee à la Hollandaise=--Is prepared in a vessel composed of two
detached parts, the lower one answering as a reservoir and the upper
as a filter; the bottom being perforated with small holes, and over
which is placed a piece of flannel to cover it entirely. The requisite
quantity of finely-ground coffee is placed in the filter and firmly
pressed down, cold water being next slowly poured over it, after which
it is allowed to stand until all the water has percolated through it
into the reservoir beneath; the passing of the water occupying at least
four hours, extracting the full strength and flavor of the coffee in
that time. The vessel is high and narrow, so as to retard as much
as possible the passage of the liquid, but large enough to hold the
requisite quantities of both coffee and water at the same time and to
avoid the necessity of an additional supply of water.

=Vienna Coffee.=--The famous Vienna Coffee is prepared in a somewhat
complicated contrivance, resembling a cylinder or urn, fitted with
a coarse sieve, the water being boiled by means of an alcohol lamp
underneath. When the water boils the steam passes through a tube and at
the same time through the finely-ground coffee, which has previously
been placed loose on the top, but protected by several strainers. A
glass top attached to the urn enables the cook to observe when the
coffee is properly prepared, the process securing a perfect infusion of
the coffee, and at the same time preserving its full aroma and other
properties.

=Creole Coffee=--Is prepared by distillation, the coffee being first
roasted until it has assumed a uniformly brown color, after which it
is covered up and allowed to cool. It is then ground and covered up
carefully again until ready for use, when the requisite quantity is put
in a filtered coffee-pot into which it is pressed compactly, a little
briskly boiling water is then poured on and allowed to filter through
the coffee, when more boiling water is poured on, the process being
repeated about every five minutes until ready to serve. The result
of this process is very strong and rich in extract, which is often
preserved in a perfectly air-tight jar or other vessel until again
required for use. A single teaspoonful of which is sufficient to yield
a rich and creamy cup of the beverage when desired.

=Extract of Coffee=--Is, properly speaking, the true “Essence of
Coffee.” It is best obtained by distilling one part of pure ground
coffee with five parts water and keeping them at a temperature of
209° C. in a very close vessel for about ten minutes, steaming and
evaporating it at a low temperature in a vacuum pan until reduced to
one part. Or it may be more conveniently obtained by the Cuban and
New Orleans methods already described, one spoonful of which yields a
delicious cup of coffee instantaneously as desired.

It is not too much to state that more than one half of the beverage
which masquerades and is sold under the name of coffee, is unworthy of
the appellation and that the majority of the people of this country
live and die without ever knowing even the true taste of that delicious
and exhilarating beverage; people being prone to think that they know
all about coffee without ever studying what special qualities the
different varieties possess, or the best methods of preparing it. As
a nation, the American people want the best of everything and expect
to get it, and a country which expends so many millions of dollars
annually for coffee, can well afford to study the best methods of
selecting and properly preparing it. But what avails the best material
if it be not prepared in such a manner as to develop and extract its
most volatile, delicate, subtle and refreshing properties, as the
same properties may be depressing and injurious, or exhilarating and
beneficial proportionately as they are treated?

A large proportion of housekeepers purchase their coffee already
roasted, and many more buy it ground, but if bought whole while still
hot and kept in an air-tight can until required and then ground, the
improvement in the liquor would amply repay for the trouble expended,
as much of the fragrance and aroma of the roasted coffee is lost by
laying too long, there being even a greater loss when the coffee is
ground for too long a time. But, on the other hand, unless the roasting
is done very carefully at home, the coffee will not be good, either, as
a few burnt beans in the roast will invariably spoil the drink. So that
when careful attention cannot be given to the proper roasting of coffee
at home, it will be better to purchase it in the whole bean already
roasted but never ground, using a small mill which can be regulated to
grind coarse or fine as needed.

To roast coffee at home, put the raw beans about an inch deep in an
ordinary dripping-pan, which must be perfectly clean, and hold over
a brisk fire and stir frequently until the beans are sufficiently
browned. When the coffee becomes a cinnamon-brown, and begin to
crackle, add one tablespoonful of fresh butter, stirring well at the
same time, after which remove and place while hot in a can, and cover
closely, again heating the coffee before or after grinding prior to
preparing. Or place one pound of raw beans in a broad dripping-pan,
shaking and stirring it until they begin to brown and crackle, then
turn the pan from end to end rapidly, until they are evenly colored
to a cinnamon or chocolate shade. Then place the pan on a table to
rest, and stir into the coffee the beaten whites of two eggs and a
tablespoonful of fresh butter, glazing every bean, as this preserves
the aroma until ground. When cool shake the beans in a small sieve, so
that they may not stick together, and put them in an air-tight canister
until required.

[Illustration: SORTING COFFEE.]

A combination of one part Mocha, one part Rio and two parts Java or
Maracaibo will yield a heavy, rich, strong-flavored coffee, but not
as smooth and pleasing as if the Rio were omitted, unless for those
preferring it. In other words, when a smooth and delicate flavored
beverage is required, use one-third Mocha and two-thirds Java. When
strong and heavy is desired, use Rio and Maracaibo or temper the former
by combining it with some of the milder kinds. When a rich, smooth
beverage is desired, a combination of one-third Mocha and two-thirds
Java; if a medium, Java and Maracaibo or some other good, mild grade.
But when a heavy body and strong flavor is required, a blend of Rio
or Santos and Maracaibo in equal proportions should be made. Good
Maracaibo being equal to many Javas and is constantly substituted for
it by unprincipled dealers, both wholesale and retail.

A combination consisting of one-third Mocha and two-thirds Java
fresh roasted and fresh ground makes an ideal cup of coffee. Two
tablespoonfuls or one ounce of this blend to each pint of boiling water
produces a beverage that cannot fail to suit the average taste. But for
consumers who prefer a heavy-bodied beverage a combination of equal
proportions of Santos, Caracas and Maracaibo, will be found to yield a
rich, heavy, pungent and fragrant liquor. These quantities are intended
for a strong beverage, but where only a moderate degree of strength is
desired it is best to use only half these quantities of coffee to the
same quantity of water.

Some recent experiments in Germany confirm the opinion that coffee,
which is an aid to digestion, should be an infusion and not a
decoction, for which particular reason alone the after-dinner coffee
especially should be an infusion, as the _caffeine_ of coffee, which
is the element most stimulating, is best drawn out by keeping the
coffee at the boiling point, but without boiling, for a few minutes
before serving, as prolonged boiling extracts the astringent property,
tannin. There seems to be, however, a general tendency in favor of the
filtering process, by which the use of all foreign substances, such as
eggs, isinglass, hartshorn, codfish and sole-skins, to clear and settle
it, may be dispensed with altogether.

To make filtered coffee with cold water, put one teacupful of
finely-ground coffee in a small pan and heat over the fire. Stir
constantly until hot and then put the hot coffee in the filter of the
coffee-pot, placing the coarse strainer on top and pour in a cupful of
cold water by degrees, then cover and let stand for half an hour. Next
add three cupfuls of cold water, a cupful at a time, and when all the
water has passed through the filter, pour it out, and pass it again
through the filter, cover closely and heat it to the boiling point
before serving. The coffee prepared in this manner will be perfectly
clear and sparkling in liquor, smooth, rich and fragrant in flavor, or
mix the coffee with the white of an egg together, then pour one-third
of the requisite quantity of cold water and set the pot on the range
where it will heat up gradually until it begins to boil; then add
another third of cold water, and when it again begins to boil add the
balance of cold water and allow it to again reach the boiling point;
remove and let stand for a few minutes to settle before serving. By
this method boiling water may be used instead of cold if so desired,
but the use of cold water makes a richer and stronger infusion, as none
of the aroma of the coffee is lost by evaporation, and the refreshing
properties are better extracted by the slower process.

Filtered coffee should never be boiled; so that by placing the
coffee-pot in a vessel of boiling water it keeps the coffee at the
boiling point, but prevents it from boiling. Coffee made by the
cold-water process is invariably stronger than when made with boiling
water, and is, in the opinion of many connoisseurs, much better, so
that a reduced quantity of coffee will answer. Another advantage of
using cold water in the filtering process is that the coffee may be
prepared from it at any time and heated as required; but if to be
served after dinner it will be better if made with three cupfuls of
water instead of four.

But no matter what method of preparing is adopted, or what kind of
vessel the beverage is prepared in, the result will be satisfactory if
the coffee be pure, good and _fresh roasted_, _fresh ground_ and _fresh
made_ with _fresh water_, _fresh boiled_ and _fresh served_. But always
serve with whipped cream or hot milk, heating the milk to the boiling
point, _but never allow it to boil_.




CHAPTER IX.

CHEMICAL, MEDICAL AND DIETICAL.


In chemical composition the seeds or beans of coffee are complex,
containing as they do variable proportions of proximate principles. The
appended analysis represents the average constitution of raw coffee,
according to M. Payen, and which is accepted as the standard:--

  Constituents.                                 Parts.

  Fat,                                        10 to 13
  Water,                                            12
  Caffeine,                                        0.8
  Cellulose,                                        34
  Legumen and caseine,                              10
  Glucose, dextrine and organic acid,               15
  Caffeone and aromatic oils,                     .002
  Caffetannate and potassium,                   3 to 5
  Viscid essential oil (insoluble in water),      .001
  Ash and other mineral matter,                      6
  Other nitrogeneous substances,                     3

In addition to the foregoing, Payen also describes some 0.8 per cent.
of free Caffeine and very small quantities of essential and aromatic
oils, amounting to about 0.003 per cent. of the coffee, in addition to
other azotized and saline matter.

In the process of roasting, coffee undergoes certain chemical changes,
as before roasting it contains from 5.7 to 7.8 per cent. of sugar,
which is reduced to 1.1, and sometimes even to zero, after being
roasted, and from which, it would appear, that the description of sugar
contained in the raw coffee is destroyed by the roasting process to
which it is subjected previous to using.


COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF RAW AND ROASTED COFFEES.

  Constituents.        Raw.  Roasted.
  Ash,                 3.97      5.17
  Fat,                11.42      8.30
  Water,               8.26      0.36
  Sugar,               8.18      1.84
  Gluten,             10.68     12.03
  Caffeine,            1.10      1.06
  Cellulose,          42.36     44.96
  Extractive matter,  14.03     26.28
                      -----     -----
    Total parts,        100       100

In the operation of roasting, the saccharine matter is converted
into caramel, and a portion of the caffeine is liberated from its
combination with the caffeic acid, the latter still retaining its
astringent properties and developing into a bitter, soluble principle.
A change in the fat of coffee is also undergone in the roasting, as
ether will extract only from 4 to 5 per cent. of fat from the raw
bean, while it readily extracts double that quantity from the roasted
bean. So striking is this fact that Von Bibra goes so far as to claim
that the roasting process produces fat, but most probably the process
is only mechanical and not chemical in its action in bursting the
“fat cells,” and thereby rendering the fat accessible to the solvent
action of the ether. Roasted coffee is also tolerably rich in nitrogen,
containing from 2.5 to 3 per cent., but is found to be quite devoid of
starch. The operation of roasting, in addition, tends to make coffee
soluble in boiling water, as, when raw coffee is perfectly exhausted
in boiling water, it will yield only some 25 per cent. of soluble
matter, while roasted coffee, on the other hand, when completely
exhausted by means of boiling water, yields as high as 40 per cent. in
some instances. A chemical analysis of the bean after being roasted
also shows that it contains 20 per cent. of water and about 60 per
cent. of cellulose, a substance resembling starch or grape sugar. But
the agents that especially distinguish coffee from all other substances
are the Caffeine, Caffeone and Caffeic, each of which constituents
possess virtues and effects peculiar to itself, and produce, by acting
in combination, the general effect of coffee.

=Caffeine=--Is the principle to which coffee owes its refreshing and
agreeable properties. It is an inodorous agent, having a slightly
bitter taste, and belonging to that group of chemical agents known as
alkaloids. It is identical with the _theine_ of tea, and also forms
the characteristic principle of cocoa, maté, the guarana and many
other plants used by the inhabitants of widely-separated countries,
on account of their yielding a slightly exciting and refreshing
beverage and apparently forming a necessary diet for mankind in
general. Its quantity varies from 0.8 to 1 per cent. in the different
kinds of coffee, being greatest in Martinique and smallest in San
Domingo. According to Chandler, pure Caffeine appears in white silky
needles, having no odor, and containing about 8 per cent. of water
of crystalization, which it parts with at 150° C., being apparently
soluble in cold water, but much more so in hot, still less so in
alcohol and still less in ether, acting as a weak base and dissolving
in acids from which it may be crystalized by evaporation. When boiled
with fixed caustic alkalies it decomposes and yields methlamine,
while heating with basic-hydrates alters it to a stronger base,
termed Caffeidine, but when boiled with an excess of nitric acid and
evaporated at a gentle heat gives it a reddish color resembling that
obtained from minoxide; the addition of a little ammonia making it
again quite characteristic. Administered in strong doses it causes
trembling and a kind of intoxication not unlike that resulting from
alcoholic stimulants, but diminishes the work of organic tissue at the
same time.

=Caffeone.=--Besides Caffeine coffee contains a volatile or essential
oil chemically termed Caffeone which, according to some authorities, is
not present in the raw bean, but is the result of an essential change
produced in the coffee by the roasting process. It is to this subtle
and fugitive principle, however, that roasted coffee owes its peculiar
and fragrant aroma, an odor possessed by no other known substance.
When chemically separated by ether from the coffee it presents the
appearance and consistency of cocoa-butter, which in roasting permeates
the entire bean, but if the heat be too intense or the roasting
prolonged beyond the proper time, it is entirely dissipated and lost,
the result being to seriously injure the coffee. And although coffee
forms part of the daily food of more than half the nations of the
world, we are still uncertain of the chemical nature, composition and
effects of these products of roasted coffee, and particularly of this
“oil of coffee,” one of the most important characteristic constituents
of the bean. The existence of this coffee oil makes itself known in a
striking manner by its roasting; being forced out of the bean by the
intense heat, it is partially volatilized, and together with the other
products of the roasting, produces the characteristic effects and aroma
of roasted coffee. In very strong black coffee it is found in oil-like
drops floating on the surface, the amount in the raw bean varying from
8 to 13 per cent., at least one-half of which is dissipated and lost
in the roasting, so that it might prove a paying experiment to attempt
to collect this oil, especially in large establishments where much
coffee is roasted, several pounds of this oil being wasted daily which
might find a ready market at a handsome profit in the manufacture of
liqueurs. It is best obtained by crushing about 50 pounds of roasted
coffee in a mortar and then extracting with the aid of ether and
alcohol. The oil of coffee obtained in this manner is a thick, green,
almost transparent substance, which deposits after a time a few long
needles of caffeine, proving that since caffeine is not extracted
from the exhausted beans by ether, and very little is taken up by the
alcohol employed, the coffee from which the oil has been extracted
may be again used for the manufacture of caffeine. The oil becomes
turbid in about six months from the time of extraction, although
preserved in hermetically-sealed bottles small groups of crystals
forming in the middle of the liquid, but slowly settling in the bottom,
forming a precipitate, which in time forms a cloudy mass of crystals,
consisting of the solid fatty acids, but the upper layer remaining
clear and transparent for years, and of a beautiful green color,
proving that a portion of the coffee oil consists of liquid oleic
acid. Taken alone, this “oil of coffee” is found to produce a gentle
perspiration and exhilaration, as well as to stimulate the mental
faculties, but is claimed to retard, in a marked degree, the process
of food assimilation, and consequently the waste of tissue matter. It
also produces an aperient effect on the bowels, while overdoses cause
sleeplessness and symptoms of sthenic excitement, a condition clearly
bordering on inflammation.

Experiments made with Caffeine and Caffeone prove that they produce
different effects on the animal economy, the former exercising a
sedative and tranquilizing action, being more prolonged in its effect
than the latter, which acts strongly as a transient stimulant and
exhilarant. But in the drinking of an ordinary cup of coffee both these
actions are obtained, the stimulation and exhilaration preceding the
state of sedation and repose. The essential principle of the coffee,
however, is the alkaloid caffeine and not the volatile oil caffeone,
the effects of both constituents being different in time and character.
The former slows the heart’s action and expends its main force on the
spinal cord, to which effect is due the shaking hand of the inveterate
coffee-drinker and the marked tremor which sometimes follows a copious
drink of coffee when taken on an empty stomach, while the latter
reduces the arterial tension, thereby allowing a freer flow of blood
and a more rapid action of the heart, at the same time stimulating the
brain, rendering the mind clear and promoting wakefulness, being also
speedier and more transient in effect.

=Caffeic.=--Caffetannate, or “tannic acid,” as it exists in the raw
bean of coffee possesses an astringent action, which is greatly
modified in the roasting and neutralized by the aperient properties
of the Caffeone. A great deal of doubt still exists as to the exact
agency of this property in coffee, many chemists contending that to it
the flavor and other properties of the coffee as a beverage is due.
It is a powerful astringent principle, puckering up the mouth when
chewed, and is the property to which coffee owes its bitterness when
boiled or over-infused, but whether it contributes in any degree to
the exhilarating, satisfying or narcotic action of the coffee has not
yet been definitely determined. But united, their specific properties
modified by combination and acting and reacting upon each other, these
three constituents give to coffee its peculiar properties and effects
on the human system.

To the chemist, coffee and tea are much the same, their two alkaloids,
_caffeine_ and _theine_, being to them undistinguishable one from the
other, each also containing a volatile or essential oil, the difference
in the taste of which is doubtless due to subtle properties which the
chemist is so far unable to detect. For this reason the following
comparative analysis of coffee and tea may be found interesting, as
showing how closely they are chemically allied:--

  Constituents.     Coffee.  Tea.
  Water,              12.0    5.0
  Theine,              0.75   0.5
  Tannin,              5.    15.0
  Gluten,             13.0   25.0
  Wood fibre,         34.0   24.0
  Volatile oil,       13.0    4.0
  Gum and sugar,      15.0   21.0
  Ash or residue,      7.0    5.0

From recent experiments it appears that the quantity of tannin in the
coffee bean is not over about one-third of that contained in the tea
leaf and frequently is considerably less, six samples of coffee being
tested in the same manner as tea for the amount of soluble tannin, and
steeped in fifty parts of water. Equal quantities of coffee and tea
were also analyzed and the amount of tannin estimated with the result
that, on an average, tea yielded nearly four times as much tannin
than the coffee, which proves that in case of poisoning by alkaloids
strong tea is better than coffee as an antidote. When used in equal
quantities tea yields about twice the amount of theine that coffee does
to the water in which it is infused, but as we use a greater weight
of coffee than we do of tea in preparing the beverage, a cup of coffee
of ordinary strength will contain as much theine as a cup of ordinary
strong tea. While, however, coffee checks waste and is naturally a
food, the same cannot be said of tea, the specific effect of which is
to quicken respiration and the vital functions generally.


MEDICINAL EFFECTS.

Coffee belongs to the medicinal or auxiliary class of food substances,
being solely valuable for its stimulating and exhilarating effect upon
the nervous and vascular system. It produces a feeling of buoyancy and
exhilaration comparable to a certain stage of alcoholic intoxication,
but which does not end in the depression and collapse produced by
the latter. It increases the frequency of the pulse, lightens the
sensations of fatigue and sustains the strength under prolonged
and severe muscular exertion. It also contains valuable medicinal
properties, among which is that of being an anti-soporific, and hence
most useful in narcotic poisoning. It has also been found to be the
best stimulant for administration to persons rescued from starvation or
perishing from intense cold, as ardent spirits when given under these
conditions often prove fatal. It dispels languor, stupor and lethargy
and as an antidote is a specific in cases of poisoning by opium and
morphine.

The early history of coffee informs us of its use among the Arabians
for its exhilarating as well as its curative powers, being used in
Mecca and Medina originally for the purpose of overcoming torpor and
drowsiness by the Mohamedan monks, its exciting and sleep-dispelling
power tending much to bring it into popular favor in these cities as
a medicine as well as a beverage. At this early period it was claimed
that “this liquor purified the blood by gentle agitation, dissipated
the ill-condition of the stomach and aroused the spirits.” In the
treatment of spasmodic asthma its utility is well established as
well as in the cure of whooping cough, cholera infantum and similar
complaints, being also an excellent preventative against all infectious
and epidemical diseases. While in hysterical attacks, for which, in
many instances, the physician can find no diagnosis, coffee has proven
to be one of the greatest helps.

Fresh-roasted coffee has proven to be an effective dispeller of foul
gases as well as a valuable disinfectant in the sick-room, or any
enclosed space where the fumes can penetrate. As an instantaneous
deodorizer, particularly in the sick-room, where it has no equal,
possessing wonderful, almost magical power, all foul and noxious
exhalations being immediately neutralized or dispelled by simply
passing a chafing-dish of fresh-roasted coffee through the room. As a
disinfectant fresh-roasted coffee has been invaluable as an absorbing
agent in purifying the atmosphere of all foul-smelling and offensive
odors, especially when roasted in the vicinity of the room or place
to be fumigated. When roasted, and while still hot, if placed on a
tray or other open vessel in the centre of the apartment, by the time
it has cooled the surrounding atmosphere will be rendered thoroughly
pure and sweet. Or, better and more advantageous still, by heating an
iron fire-shovel red hot and placing a handful of ground coffee on it
and carrying it around the room or house to be disinfected in this
condition until it cools. The vapor arising from the coffee so heated
will meantime have destroyed all disagreeable and noxious odors.

Experiments recently made with roasted coffee in France prove it to be
one of the most powerful deodorizers yet discovered for the dissipation
of all noxious odors. As an instance of its great worth in this case, a
quantity of decomposing meat was hung up in a tightly-closed room and
a tin pan containing a few handfuls of fresh-roasted and ground coffee
was placed over a spirit lamp, as the pan became hot and the vapor from
the coffee filled the room, it was found that the foul smell of the
decomposed meat was entirely removed, even when standing close up to
it. While Professor Beer, an eminent Vienna oculist, maintains that the
vapor arising from pure, hot and fresh-made coffee is very invigorating
to the eyes, but at the same time attributing many frequent occurring
cases of affections to the sight to the constant use of chicory,
as well as to the habitual use of the decoctions prepared from the
admixtures of chicory and coffee.

Coffee and pepper are highly recommended as a certain specific for
rheumatism, as well as in many forms of gout. In such cases the proper
proportions consist of a pint of hot, strong, black coffee, which must
be perfectly pure, and seasoned with a teaspoonful of _pure_ black
pepper, thoroughly mixed before drinking, and the preparation taken
just before retiring. Quite a number of chronic cases of rheumatism
are reputed on excellent authority to have been cured by a single
dose of this simple remedy. The greatest care has to be exercised,
however, that cold is not contracted through the free perspiration
that follows its use, yet severe colds may also be broken up and
cured by its administration. Such a simple and convenient remedy is
certainly worth a trial, as it is, at least, perfectly harmless, and
makes no demand on the doctor or druggist. Another use for coffee
medicinally, is in nausea and violent retching, for which purpose a
strong infusion is prepared and “sipped” slowly while very hot. This
oftentimes acts effectively alone, but is much more so if a strong
mustard plaster is applied to the pit of the stomach at the same time.
Its beneficial effects in extreme alcoholism is already too well
known for description, but is as yet not fully appreciated in such
cases, nor as to what extent this otherwise exhilarating and potent
beverage may be substituted in lieu of spirituous and malt liquors. It
is positively asserted by men of high professional ability that when
the system requires a good stimulant, nothing equals a cup of good,
strong, fresh-made coffee for the purpose, so that those who may desire
to rescue a drunkard from his bane will find no better substitute for
alcoholic spirits or malt liquors than strong, fresh-made coffee,
in the proportions of two ounces of good, pure coffee to one part
of boiling water, making an excellent tonic beverage, but must be
administered without the addition of either milk or sugar in these
particular cases.

It is also positively asserted by those who have tried it that malarial
and other miasmatic complaints are prevented by drinking a cup of
hot coffee before venturing out into the morning air, and by many
eminent physicians it is regarded as almost a specific in typhoid and
other endemic fevers, so much so that in malarial and intermittent
fevers it has been used by the best physicians with the happiest
results, coffee being opposed to malarial and all noxious vapors,
particularly in alienating and reducing the earlier attacks, and, when
properly administered in such complaints, it is found superior to the
sulphate of quinine in many extreme cases, while in that low state of
intermittent fever as found on the Mississippi and the banks of all
large rivers, accompanied with torpid liver and enlarged spleen, when
judiciously prepared and administered it has been found one of the
safest and most effective remedies. In districts rife with malarial
and other low fevers the drinking of hot coffee before passing into the
infected districts will enable persons living in such regions to escape
all contagion, the nervous system being aroused and the fever germs
thereby rendered innocuous by the coffee. It is also almost a specific
for the disease after being contracted when used with lemon juice,
and is found to be of sovereign efficacy in tiding over any attacks
of the nervous system in a number of emergencies from whatever cause;
and in answer to the query so often put, “Does coffee facilitate or
retard digestion?” it may be observed that it contains several active
principles, each of which exercises a specific influence on the human
system, the first and most important of these being the caffeine,
which raises the activity of the heart, operating in small doses as a
wholesome stimulus. The second, the caffeone or volatile substance,
which operates chiefly on the nerves and acting in moderate quantities
as an agreeable exhilarant, but to which is also attributable the
fantasies and intoxicant effects so frequently experienced as a result
of excessive coffee drinking. The third being the caffeic or tannin,
to which coffee owes its bitter taste when boiled or over-infused and
which, as is well known, enters into combination with the albumen,
thereby materially prejudicing its digestibility. These three principal
properties vary greatly in the quantities extracted according to the
methods of preparation, so much so that if the coffee be simply infused
in water at the boiling point and allowed to cool rapidly we get but
little of the caffeine in the extract, a good deal of the aromatic
principle and scarcely a trace of the tannin, but by over-boiling and
prolonged infusion the aroma is dissipated by passing off with the
steam or vapor arising from it in the process of preparation, more
caffeine being also extracted, and the longer it is infused or boiled
the more tannin is dissolved in the liquid. These facts serve to
confirm the views generally expressed by physicians, that coffee boiled
or over-infused prejudices its digestibility, while simple infusions
facilitate it, but its beneficial action in the latter case is now
proved to be due not to any direct chemical action on the albumen
present, but indirectly to its action on the nerve-centres of the
stomach by promoting the secretion of the gastric juices, such action
being, in other words, physiological and not chemical, as heretofore
supposed.

With regard to the anti-bilious properties of coffee Dr. Elliott
states that “We speedily found that patients in hospitals and all
persons leading sedentary lives must avoid too concentrated food and
drink abundantly of diluent fluids, that coffee acted on the liver and
was altogether the best remedy for constipation and what is commonly
termed a bilious condition, that tea acted in a precisely opposite
direction, and that not poppies, mandragora nor all the drowsy syrups
of the East could bring the peace to a sufferer from malarial chill
that would come of strong coffee, with a little lemon juice added, and
that strong tea was almost a specific for neuralgia in its simplest and
most uncomplicated form.” Liebig also calls attention to the fact that
coffee contains many of the elements which stimulate the flow of bile,
being a decided laxative, as well as a pronounced diuretic, which is
confirmed by the fact that the “coffee belt” of the world is also the
“bilious belt” and the “malarial belt,” as well as the regions where
noxious germs and suppurative processes most abound. Ample evidence of
“the fitness of things” in nature, no people understanding better than
the inhabitants of these tropical countries the value of coffee to
open the secretions which have been checked by the heat or miasmatic
influences of such climates. Knowing this, they take full advantage of
the well-known antiseptic properties of coffee.

It is now more than thirty years since Landarabilco called attention
to the great value of raw or unroasted coffee in hepatic and nephritic
diseases; who, after having continued to use the remedy for over a
third of a century in many hundreds of almost hopeless cases, still
continues to use it with marked success in the treatment of liver and
kidney troubles which have persistently resisted all other treatment.
For such cases, 3 drams (¹⁄₄ oz.) of raw coffee beans are placed
in a tumbler of cold water--the best results being obtained from a
combination of Mocha, Bourbon and Martinique coffees in equal parts of
1 dram each. The infusion is allowed to stand over night, and after
being properly strained or filtered must be taken on an empty stomach
the first thing on rising in the morning. This simple remedy has been
found a sovereign remedy in numerous cases of renal and hepatic colics,
as well as in diabetes and migraine or nervous headache, which, while
rebellious to all other treatment for years, readily yielded to the raw
coffee infusion. It may be here remarked that Bourbon and Martinique
coffees cannot be had in this country, going exclusively to France, but
may be substituted by what is known in trade as Bourbon or Mocha-seed,
Santos, Jamaica and Mocha or almost any other fine mild coffee.

Coffee, like tea, acts powerfully on the respiratory organs, but
increases the rate of respiration more than tea and also the pulsation;
while tea, on the other hand, increases the action of the skin, and,
by lessening the force of the circulation, cools the body, and does
not cause congestion of any of the mucous membranes, particularly
that of the bowels. But coffee, by diminishing the action of the skin,
lessens also the heat of the body, but increases the _vis-a-tergo_, and
therefore the heart’s action and fulness of pulse, thus exciting the
mucous membranes. The conditions, therefore, under which coffee may be
used are different from those suited to the use of tea, and under these
circumstances better adapted for use among the poor and feeble as a
dietecal beverage. But, besides accelerating the action of the bowels,
and, according to Liebig, aiding in the secretion of the bile, it also
invigorates to a very high degree the ganglionic system of the brain,
soothing the painful feeling of fatigue and exhaustion, stimulating to
renewed mental exertion, for which reasons it always has been highly
appreciated by students and literary people generally. The exhilarating
and stimulating effect which coffee has on the human organization is
due chiefly to the characteristic principles which it contains. It
excites the heart’s action, and, as that organ is feeble in the morning
and the skin is active, it is best adapted for use at the morning
meal, its action upon the nervous system being less exciting than
that of tea. Very strong coffee, however, produces sleeplessness in
many persons when taken at night, owing to its effects on the heart’s
action, by retarding that full action of this organ, which is natural
at night, and so requisite to permit sound sleep, while if only a light
infusion be prepared and taken at night, these effects are not likely
to be experienced.

In typhoid and other fevers its action is frequently very prompt
and efficacious, particularly in the early stages before local
complications set in. Dr. Guillasse, of the French navy, in a recent
paper on typhoid fever, states that “Coffee has given us unhoped-for
satisfaction, for, after having dispensed it, we found, to our great
surprise, that its action was as prompt as it was decisive. No sooner
had our patients taken a few tablespoonfuls of it than their features
became relaxed, and came immediately to their senses, while the next
day the improvement was such that we are tempted to look upon it as
a specific against typhoid fever. Under its influence the stupor is
dispelled and the patient arises from the state of somnolency in which
he has lain since the invasion of the disease; soon all the functions
take their natural course, and he enters on convalescence.” His formula
is to give to an adult two to three tablespoonfuls of strong, black
coffee every two hours, alternately with one to two tablespoonfuls of
claret or burgundy wine, a little lemonade or citrate of magnesia, to
be taken daily, and after a few days quinine in small doses. From the
fact that malaise or cerebral symptoms appear first, the doctor regards
typhoid as a nervous disease, and the coffee, acting on the nerves, is
peculiarly indicated in the early stages, before local complications
arise. While in extreme cases of yellow fever it has been used
effectively by many doctors as the main reliance after all the other
well-known remedies had been administered and failed. In such cases it
acts by retarding the tissue change, that becoming a conservator of
force, especially in that state in which the nervous system tends to
collapse, owing to the blood becoming impure. In such a condition it
sustains the nervous power until the depuration and reorganization of
the blood are accomplished, possessing the advantage over all other
stimulants of inducing to no secondary ill-effects.

As early as 1835, during the cholera epidemic, the physicians of New
York issued a public manifesto urging the people to abstain from
beer and other liquors and confine themselves to the exclusive use
of pure, strong coffee as a beverage, in order to keep the system
healthy and render it less liable to an attack of the disease, with
the most beneficial and gratifying results. That they “builded better
than they knew” has since been conclusively proven by Sudentz, who
in detailing a series of experiments in which he has determined the
powerful influence of coffee infusions of varying strength upon
the growth of the different forms of pathogenic and non-pathogenic
micro-organisms. The variety of coffee used in these experiments was
the finest Java--although good and bad coffee was afterwards found to
effect precisely similar results--the infusions being made by adding
from 10 to 30 parts of coffee to from 70 to 90 parts of boiling water.
The coffee was first _freshly_ roasted, ground fine and then covered
with the boiling water, the infusion thus prepared being placed in
a closed flask, put in a hot water bath for about ten minutes and
next filtered through a sterilized filter. The infusion thus produced
is used in the making of a gelatinous compound, both directly and
in part, until a nutrient gelatine was prepared from it. With this
as a “menstruum” the various forms of _fungi_ and other forms of
micro-organisms were inoculated with the object of determining the
possibility of their growth or propagation in such a medium, but in
other cases the organisms were added directly to the coffee alone in
infusions of varying strength and after different periods of time
inoculations were made from these infusions into other nutrient
_media_. By this method he found that the forms of _fungi_ experimented
with showed more or less growth in the coffee gelatine and that the
abundance of the growth was in many cases distinctly less than in the
former _media_. The other organisms which he used for his experiments
were the _phyogenes aureus_, _prodigiosus_, _erisipelous_, the germ of
_anthrax_ or splenic fever, the _bacilli_ of typhoid fever and the
_spirulum_ of Asiatic cholera, all of which and many other forms of
micro-organisms were greatly influenced in their life and growth by
exposure to the coffee infusions, some being far more susceptible than
others, however, the _bacillus prodigiosus_ and _proteus vulgaris_
being entirely destroyed only after an exposure of four days in a 10
per cent. infusion, while in a 30 per cent. infusion they were all
destroyed in one day. The spore of erysipelas was totally destroyed
after an exposure of one day in a 10 per cent. infusion, the germ of
splenic fever dying in from one to three hours in a 20 to 30 per cent.
infusion; while the typhoid _bacilli_ were completely destroyed in a
5 per cent. infusion after an exposure of three days and in a 30 per
cent. infusion in from one to two days. While _the microbe of Asiatic
cholera was easily destroyed in a 1 per cent. infusion after only
seven hours’ exposure, in a 5 per cent. infusion after four hours and
in a 30 per cent. infusion after two hours_; the cholera _spirulum_
being by far the most susceptible of the numerous organisms used in
the experiments, next to which was the _anthrax bacilli_, except the
young forms or spores of the latter germs, which perish only in from
three to four weeks’ exposure. These latter results speak volumes for
“coffee as a germicide” for anthrax or splenic fever, as the spores
of this disease are by no means easy to scotch or kill, and after
these revelations _coffee administered internally or hypodermically
in some new form or combination of forms, may be eventually used as
a remedy for all germ-produced diseases_. It must be borne in mind
by the student or chemist, however, that the antiseptic effects of
coffee do not depend on its _Caffeine_ so much as on its _Caffeone_ or
essential oil developed in the roasting of the beans. But aside from
these experiments, others were also made with decomposing meat soups,
which were actually swarming with various forms of micro-organisms, the
results obtained showing that the vitality of the spores contained in
the fluid was greatly diminished after a short exposure, but was not
completely destroyed until after an exposure of many days.

It may at first sight seem irrational that a substance which restricts
tissue-waste should be used for the purpose of quickening certain
other functions, more especially those of the brain, yet the physical
activity, mental exhilaration and wakefulness it causes explains the
liking for it shown by so many men of science, poets, scholars and
others devoted to thinking. But all of these occupations involve
increased waste of tissue in the brain as well as of the spinal marrow,
the very action which coffee is said to restrain, so much so that
to reconcile these apparent incongruities, it has been maintained
that coffee does not act primarily as a cerebral stimulant, but only
secondarily by removing the vascular plenitude occasioned by prolonged
study, by a full meal, and especially by opium, alcohol, or other
agents which directly tend to load the brain with blood, so that
when taken on an empty stomach it does not quicken the functions of
the brain, but on the contrary renders it dull and inapt for steady
thought, creating nervousness and general debility and frequently
causing hemicrania.

During digestion, however, the case is different, particularly if a
full and stimulating meal has been taken, the mind grows dull and
sluggish, a tendency to sleep arises, and everything indicates an
increased amount of blood on the brain, it being in like manner that
prolonged mental labor produces cerebral plenitude and drowsiness. It
is this condition apparently which coffee corrects by contracting
the blood-vessels and thereby relieving the brain of its oppressive
load of blood. The habit of using coffee at breakfast and after dinner
is thus explained by the stimulant action which it exerts, not only
upon the nervous system generally, but more especially on the stomach
and bowels, there being no doubt that it quickens gastric digestion
and relieves the sense of plenitude in the stomach, stimulating
the secretion of bile and augmenting the peristaltic action of the
intestine, and thereby promoting defecation. While it is quite as
certain that, used to excess, it paralyzes the digestive function in
all its stages and leads to further disorders, of which the chief are
constipation, hemorrhoids and congestion of the liver, but whether
these effects are to be ascribed to a power in coffee to produce
contraction of the capillary blood-vessels or not is uncertain, but
their reality is beyond dispute.

With regard to the injurious effects charged to the abuse of coffee by
some authorities, it may be said that the consequences of an abuse of
tea were declared to be similar to that of coffee long before chemistry
had demonstrated the identity of _theine_ with _caffeine_, when among
their evil effects were enumerated acidity, heartburn, indigestion,
tremors, wakefulness, irritability of disposition and depression of
spirits. Most of these ill-effects are more likely to follow the abuse
of tea than coffee, if at all, and the spinal symptoms, such as painful
muscular tension, cramp and persistent wakefulness, are also more apt
to be produced by tea. In experiments made with a number of selected
healthy persons, the operation of caffeine has been found to vary
exceedingly, some being scarcely affected at all, while others by the
same dose suffered from a full, frequent or irregular pulse, headache,
trembling limbs, palpitation of the heart, flashes before the eyes,
roaring in the ears, sleeplessness, phantasms, a sort of intoxication,
and a subsequent unfitness for all physical and mental labor when
very large doses were taken. These effects illustrate the danger of
exceeding due moderation in the use of coffee, showing that it may,
if abused, tend to develop a morbid condition of the nervous system,
rendering it peculiarly liable to disease, although in a much less
degree than either opium or alcohol, its excessive use being much more
injurious to the spinal than to the cerebral functions.

From these facts it may be advanced by some authorities that an article
possessing such great powers and capacity for such energetic action
must be injurious by habitual employment as an article of diet, or at
least not without some injurious or deleterious properties. But no
corresponding ill-results or nervous derangements are ever observed
after its effects have disappeared as are noticed in other narcotics
and stimulants, the action imparted to the nervous system by coffee
being natural and healthy in the extreme, in proof of which it has
been shown that habitual coffee-drinkers generally enjoy good health
and spirits, some of the longest-lived people having used coffee
continually from their earliest infancy without experiencing any
inconvenience, depressing reaction, or other ill-effects such as is
invariably produced by the use of alcoholic stimulants. There are,
on the other hand, systems with which it does not agree, as, being a
stimulant, it may be taken too freely; in such cases it undoubtedly
produces irregularities in the action of the heart and nervous system.
But generally it is an unmixed blessing, its beneficial influence
becoming more apparent as its use penetrates into the lower strata of
society, taking the place of the various debasing alcoholic beverages.

In addition to its many other virtues, coffee has been found to be an
excellent barometer, from the fact of its being such a great absorbent.
On the eve of a rain-storm grinding coffee will be found difficult,
the bean becoming damp and tough, while when dry weather is indicated
the process is quite easy. Another method of predicting the weather by
it is to drop a lump of sugar into a cup of coffee without stirring.
In a very short time the air contained in the sugar will rise to the
surface in the shape of bubbles. If the bubbles collect in the middle
of the cup a fair day will be sure to follow, but if they should
adhere to the side of the cup, forming a ring of bubbles with a clear
space in the centre, rain is certain to be near at hand, while if the
bubbles be neither of these, but scatter irregularly over the surface
of the liquid, variable weather is indicated by the movement. What
the scientific explanation of the action of the atmosphere on the
bubbles so found is not known, but that their indications curiously and
correctly agree with those of a barometer has been tested and proved.


DIETETICAL PROPERTIES.

The human family have, from time immemorial, been addicted to the use
of warm food and liquids in some form, infusions or decoctions of sage
and the leaves of other plants being used extensively in Europe for
the purpose prior to the introduction of tea and coffee. The human
body demands food or liquid when in an exhausted state, and if they be
not warm they make an immediate drain on the system for heat before
it can supply material for combustion, so that the body is taxed for
heat at a time when it is least fitted for the purpose. It is but
natural therefore that there should be a craving for warm food and
drink, and as liquid food, particularly in a cold state, is deficient
in heat-giving matter, the use of cold liquids is more injurious than
that of cold solids. The temperature of the human body being 98°, when
food is taken into the stomach at a lower temperature than that of the
body, it obstructs the heat from the stomach and surrounding tissues,
so that when the practice of taking cold food into the body becomes
habitual, depression occurs and the stomach is disordered. The system
must therefore make good the heat lost in raising the temperature of
the cold food--liquid or solid--or else suffer the consequences.

The action of coffee as a diet is directed chiefly to the nervous
system, producing a warming cordial impression on the stomach, which
is quickly followed by a diffused and agreeable nervous excitement
which extends itself to the cerebral function, giving rise to
increased vigor of the imagination and intellect, this too without any
subsequent reaction or stupor such as are characteristic of liquor and
other narcotics. It contains essential principles of nutrition far
exceeding in importance its exhilarating properties, and is one of the
most valuable articles of food for sustaining the system in certain
protracted and wasting diseases, and as compared even with the best
soups, coffee has a decided advantage and is to be preferred to them in
many cases. But to rightly understand its function as a food it should
be used chiefly as an accessory to food, as it aids in the digestion
and assimilation of the other foods when it is properly prepared--that
is, by protracted infusion--as when boiled too long the caffeic acid
or tannin is extracted. The action of this acid in combination with
the milk and cream being to harden the albumen into an indigestible
compound, which has been found exceedingly irritating to the delicate
membranes of the digestive organs and nervous system. Milk and coffee
act similarly upon the skin and other organs, its use with coffee
making it a more perfect food than when milk is used with tea. But
while, like tea, it increases the respiration, yet again, unlike it,
its effects are not lasting, as by the use of coffee the rate of the
pulse is increased, and the action of the skin’s pores diminished,
thereby lessening the quantity of the blood circulating in the organs
of the body, it distends the veins, but contracts the capillaries,
thus preventing a waste. According to Professor Johnstone, “Coffee
arouses, exhilarates and keeps awake, counteracts the stupor occasioned
by fatigue, disease or opium, allays hunger to a certain extent, gives
to the wearied increased strength and vigor, and imparts a feeling of
comfort and repose. Its physiological effects upon the human system
appear to be, that while it makes the brain more active, it soothes
the body generally, retards the change and waste of tissue, making the
demand for food consequently less.

The Gallæ, a wandering nation of Africa, during their incursions, are
obliged to travel over immense deserts, and being also desirous of
falling upon the towns and villages of their victims without warning,
carry nothing to eat with them but the roasted and pulverized beans
of coffee, which they mix with grease to a certain consistency,
that will permit of its being rolled into masses about the size of
billiard-balls, which they keep in leather-bags until required for use.
One of these balls so prepared supports them for an entire day when on
a marauding excursion or in active war better than a loaf of bread or a
meal of meat, claiming that they prefer it to grain or meat because it
cheered their spirits as well as fed them. Eaten in this manner, coffee
undoubtedly affords much nourishment, as, according to Payen, it
contains more than twice the nutriment of soup and three times as much
as tea. In the liquid state, however, the nitrogeneous or flesh-forming
properties, being mostly insoluble, they remain in the grounds. For
this reason coffees lightly roasted possesses the maximum of nutrition,
strength and aroma.

The Belgian coal miners live and work effectively on a ration of solid
food less than the French miners, yet perform more labor than the
latter, the only difference in their food consisting in the Belgians
receiving a ration of coffee instead of wine, to which is attributed
their greater endurance. While Jomand states that eight pints of an
infusion made with six ounces of different kinds of coffee enabled
him to live for five consecutive days without lessening his ordinary
occupations, as well as to use more and prolonged muscular exercise
than he was accustomed to without any other physical injury than a
slight degree of fatigue and a little loss of flesh. The value of
hot infusions of coffee under the rigors of an Arctic cold has been
demonstrated by the experience of all polar explorers, and it has been
found scarcely less useful in tropical regions, where it beneficially
stimulates the action of the skin. Captain Parry states that when
on his Arctic expedition he placed his starboard watch on a diet of
coffee and the port watch on that of rum, as an experiment, with the
result that the coffee watch was found to possess a vigor of health and
activity entirely wanting in that of the other. And many of our own
troops during the late war declared that they could march longer and
endure more hardship and exposure under the stimulus of a cup of warm
coffee--and they got far from the best or purest--than they could under
an equal quantity of liquor.

But there is still another effect of coffee--that of checking the
too rapid consumption of nitrogeneous matter in the system--which,
while not nutritious in itself, yet possesses an indirect nutritive
value; this result, added to its stimulating character, have made
it the chosen beverage for breakfast, and therefore the best staple
supply for both our army and navy. By taking a cup of strong, black
coffee, without milk or sugar, between two glasses of hot water before
rising in the morning and at least an hour before breakfast, the
various secretions are stimulated and the nervous force aroused, so
that an hour later a hearty meal is enjoyed and the day’s labor begun
favorably, no matter how the duties of the day and night preceding
may have drawn upon the system. While another cup at four in the
afternoon is sufficient to sustain the flagging energies for many
hours thereafter. In this manner its full effect is best secured,
but if along with this the proper diet is taken at the proper time,
the capacity for work will be almost unlimited. Its physiological
effects upon the human system, so far as they have been investigated,
appear to be that while it makes the brain more active it soothes
the body generally, making the waste and loss of tissue slower and
the demand for food less. It is a mental stimulus of a high order,
and therefore is as a beverage liable to be abused for that reason.
Through its influence the student burns the midnight oil to excess, and
consequently reduces his store of physical force.

The German naturalist Martin relates a case he met with of a horse
which owed its life to the use of coffee after being in a condition
considered as incurable. The animal was reduced to a mere skeleton and
so weak that it could scarcely walk, when infusions of coffee were
first given it as an experiment, and then some ground coffee mixed
with honey. In a short time the animal began to improve rapidly,
eventually becoming better than ever. The same treatment was afterwards
tried with like success in many similar cases where the horses had been
over-worked or lost their strength and appetite.

It has been affirmed that coffee and other substances containing the
alkaloid Caffeine have a direct influence in retarding the waste
of tissue matter in the human frame, a single cup of the liquid
prepared from a quarter ounce of coffee, containing from 1.5 to 1.9
grains of Caffeine in the infused state. The moderation of tissue
waste attributed to coffee in common with other articles having the
same general action and in use among different nations, is proven by
various well-established facts. In its primary operation it agrees with
those stimulants in exciting mental and muscular activity as well as
cheerfulness, while in its after effects it does not tend to produce
narcotism or stupor, only that unsteadiness of mind and of the spinal
functions which denotes exhaustion.


MORAL INFLUENCE.

It has been the custom at frequently-recurring periods for moralists
and scientists to claim that coffee is injurious to the health of its
votaries, and many coffee drinkers believing such statements give up
its use regretfully. That its use or rather its abuse may be injurious
in some instances cannot be denied, but of all beverages now in use
the facts and effects prove it to be the least injurious of any and
all when not indulged in immoderately. Taken in moderation it is both
a mental and physical stimulant of the most agreeable and pleasant
nature, being followed by no harmful reaction. It produces contentment
of mind, allays hunger and bodily weakness, increases the incentive
and capacity for work, enabling those who use it in bounds to remain
long without food or sleep, endure unusual fatigue, and preserve
their cheerfulness and composure, coffee-drinkers as a rule being
generally cheerful, active and persevering. The truth is that coffee,
if of a pure kind and properly prepared, is about the pleasantest
and most innocuous stimulant that can be resorted to, particularly
after a long worry or severe drain on the emotional or intellectual
forces. So that if it could be but made to take the place of absinthe,
champagne and other such beverages the coming race would be all the
better intellectually and physically for it. Habitual coffee-drinkers
generally enjoy good health, some of the longest-lived people have used
it from their earliest infancy without apparent injury or depressing
reaction, such as is invariably produced by alcoholic stimulants. The
physiological action of coffee is directed chiefly to the nervous
system, producing a warm, cordial feeling in the stomach, which is
quickly followed by a well-diffused and agreeable nervous excitement
extending itself to the cerebral functions, giving rise to increased
vigor to the imagination and intellect without causing any subsequent
stupor or confusion of ideas, such as are so characteristic of all
other narcotics. It produces contentment of mind, allays hunger, mental
and bodily weariness, increases the capacity for work, makes man forget
his troubles and anxieties, enabling those who use it judiciously to
endure unusual fatigue and remain a long time without food or sleep, as
well as to preserve their temper and cheerfulness.

The influence which the introduction of coffee has exercised on
modern morals is on account of its peculiar character, much easier to
understand than to prove. We know that the discovery of gunpowder
changed the entire art of war from the equipment of the individual
soldier to the alignment of an entire army, and thus its influence
became a palpable fact. But the changes in modern life effected
by the introduction of coffee belong to the general and concealed
springs of life; to its motives, rather than to any circumscribed set
of utterances regarding its facts, and an influence of this nature
requires the application of a peculiar instrument in order to in a
measure calculate or even demonstrate it. A doctor may be perfectly
correct in ascribing a fever to certain atmospheric conditions, but
without thermometer, barometer or microscope, he can prove absolutely
nothing. We may be perfectly certain then that the introduction of
coffee has altered the whole moral atmosphere in which we move,
but without statistics we are unable to demonstrate the legitimacy
or correctness of the assumption, and statistics is a scientific
instrument of much later date than the introduction of coffee.

Observations, however, which in some degree may be of some service
in arriving at exact figures, are not altogether wanting. It cannot
be contended that life has become more just and honest, which would
be the legitimate result of a better education, but it is certain
that it has become gentler, more uniform and pacific, two results
which essentially depend on food and occupation. Nor can it be denied
that it is the increasing demands of reason which awe, superstition,
bigotry and narrow fanaticism out of our educational system, and not
this system which spontaneously has endeavored to make everything else
subservient to reason, and what thus is dimly or vaguely indicated by
a general view of life, often becomes more striking in many individual
instances. It is a hazardous, but nevertheless felicitous expression,
that “if Queen Elizabeth had breakfasted upon coffee and hot rolls,
instead of beer and bacon, Queen Mary would never had been beheaded.”
We find in bygone ages a perversity of temper, an impetuosity of will,
a violence of the passions which has led some moralists to consider the
later generations of the human race as decreasing in vital force, while
indeed the phenomenon might be explained as the single result of an
over-stimulating and too exciting a diet and a lack of temperance. Let
the people begin to indulge once again in drinking wine, ale or other
intoxicating beverages at the morning meal instead of tea or coffee,
and we will soon have the same amount of vital force back again. It
is not the power of passion which has decreased, but the power of
restriction which has increased, and a comprehensive consideration of
historical facts seem to justify the conclusion that this increased
power of the reason is due as much to a more proper feeding of the body
as to a better system of education.

The mental exhilaration and physical activity and buoyancy which coffee
causes explains the fondness which has been shown for it by so many men
of science, poets, scholars and others devoted to writing or thinking
at all times, and for which reason it has been styled the “intellectual
beverage.” Preachers, orators, editors and lawyers finding a cup of
good coffee the gentlest, most harmless and effective of brain-bracers,
but it does not appear to be generally known that nearly all men of
literary habits who exhaust much nerve force use it constantly. It
supported Voltaire in his old age and enabled Fontenelle to pass his
hundred years. It was Voltaire who replied, on being informed by his
physician “that coffee was a _slow poison_,” “Yes, I know it is a _very
slow poison_; it has been poisoning me for over seventy years;” and
Sydney Smith who said, “If you want to improve your understanding
drink coffee; it is the intellectual beverage.” Brady terming it “The
sovereign drink of pleasure and of health,” and Pope eulogizing it in
the following lines:--

    “From silver spouts the grateful liquors slide
    While China’s earth receives the smoking tide,
    At once they gratify their sense and taste,
    And frequent cups prolong the rich repast;
    Coffee!----which makes the politician wise
    And see through all things with half-shut eyes.”

Howells paying his tribute to it when he says, “This coffee intoxicates
without exciting, soothes you softly out of dull sobriety, making you
think and talk of all the pleasant things that ever happened to you.”
But times have changed since Voltaire, Diderot, Pope and others wrote
and sang of coffee, jested, reasoned and made themselves immortal
under its influence; alimentary and not literary is the modern _café_,
though some can still boast of a _clientèle_ artistic, journalistic,
or scientific, the commercial element preponderating, but the old
historic _café_, the _café_ of tradition, where one was sure to find
some celebrity on exhibition--a poet or a philosopher--may be said to
be defunct.

From its cordial and gently stimulating effects we may well join in the
enthusiastic panegyric pronounced on it by an Arabian of old, of which
the following is a free, but condensed, translation: “O, coffee, thou
dispellest the cares of the great and bringest back those who wander
from the paths of knowledge! Coffee is our gold, and in the place of
its illusions we are in the enjoyment of the best and noblest society.
Every care vanishes when the cup-bearer presents the delicious chalice
to our lips. It circulates freely through our veins and will not rankle
there. Grief cannot exist where it grows and sorrow humbles itself
before its powers.”

  _Vive la café!_




CHAPTER X.

PRODUCTION AND CONSUMPTION.


Fifty years ago a supply of 150,000 tons of all kinds of coffee was
considered sufficient to meet the entire demand of Europe and America
combined. In 1848, however, these two continents alone consumed upwards
of 250,000 tons, which had increased in 1868 to 375,000 tons, and in
1888 to over 700,000 tons, or more than double that of fifty years
before.


TABLE I.

WORLD’S PRODUCTION (ESTIMATED).

                                                                  Weight
  Countries.                                                    in Tons.
  Liberia and all other Countries on the West Coast of Africa,    19,500
  Abyssinia and all other Countries on the East Coast of Africa,  20,000
  Natal and Cape of Good Hope,                                       300
  Arabia, Bourbon and Mauritius,                                  15,000
  British India and Ceylon,                                       30,500
  Java, Sumatra and Celebes,                                      60,000
  Bali, Timour and other Islands in the Malayan Archipelago,      10,000
  Philippine, Fiji and Samoa Islands,                             11,000
  Sandwich and all other Islands in the South Pacific Ocean,       1,200
  Cuba and Porto Rico,                                            25,000
  Hayti and San Domingo,                                          15,000
  Jamaica and other Islands in the West Indies,                   18,000
  Mexico and Central America,                                     80,000
  Venezuela and Colombia,                                         50,000
  Equador and Bolivia,                                            15,000
  Brazil and other Countries in South America,                   500,000
                                                                 -------
  Grand total,                                                   875,500

Or about 1,800,000,000 pounds per annum, the value of which averages
over $275,000,000 wholesale, according to its market price at time of
sale.


TABLE II.

WORLD’S CONSUMPTION (ESTIMATED).

                                         Weight
      Countries.                       in Tons.
  Asia,                                  40,000
  Africa,                                25,000
  Australia,                              5,000
  Continent of Europe,                  430,000
  Great Britain and Ireland,             15,000
  United States and Canada,             275,000
  Mexico and Central America,            20,000
  West India Islands,                    15,000
  Brazil and South American Countries,   40,000
                                        -------
    Total,                              865,000

Which shows that, in recent years, the world’s supply has not kept pace
with the growing demand throughout the civilized world.


TABLE III.

Showing the average annual consumption in the United States, imported
principally as follows:--

  Country.               Tons.  Per Cent.
  Brazil,              150,000      75.00
  Venezuela,            20,000       5.00
  Mexico,               10,000       4.00
  Central America,       5,000       2.00
  West India Islands,   10,000       4.00
  India and Ceylon,      1,000       1.00
  Arabia and Africa,    10,000       5.00
  Java and Sumatra,     10,000       4.00
                       -------     ------
    Total,             216,000     100.00

[Illustration: BAGGING COFFEE FOR SHIPMENT.]


TABLE IV.

Showing where United States receives supplies of coffee from in general
and the various kinds consumed:--

  Country.                                                  Pounds.
  Africa,                                                25,000,000
  Arabia,                                                10,000,000
  England,                                                5,000,000
  Holland,                                                5,000,000
  Germany,                                                  250,000
  Belgium,                                                   80,000
  Portugal and Spain,                                       150,000
  Brazil,                                               400,000,000
  Canada,                                                       500
  Mexico,                                                10,000,000
  Venezuela,                                             35,000,000
  Colombia,                                              15,000,000
  Equador and Bolivia,                                    1,000,000
  West India Islands,                                     5,000,000
  British and Dutch Guiana,                               1,500,000
  Malayan Archipelago,                                   25,000,000
  British India and Ceylon,                               5,000,000
  Philippine and Pacific Islands,                            10,000
  Sandwich and other Islands,                                75,000
  Azores and Cape Verde Islands,                              1,500
  French Possessions in Africa, Madagascar and Bourbon,       1,500
                                                         ----------
    Total importation,                                  600,000,000
    Total value,                                        $80,000,000

Which, according to the Bureau of Statistics, is about 9 pounds _per
capita_, valued at $1.15 per head, for every man, woman and child in
the United States, while it has been ascertained that the consumption
of coffee has declined in England in the past ten years to less than
one pound _per capita_ of the population as against an increase in the
consumption of tea from 6 to 8 pounds.


TABLE V.

Showing _per capita_ consumption of the principal countries of the
world in round numbers:--

  Countries.                    Consumption   Per Capita
                                  (Pounds).    (Pounds).
  Asia,                          80,000,000         ----
  Africa,                        50,000,000          1
  Australia,                     10,000,000          2
  Austria,                       10,000,000          2¹⁄₂
  Belgium,                       50,000,000         10
  Denmark,                       25,000,000          6
  France,                       100,000,000          2¹⁄₂
  Germany,                      180,000,000          5
  Greece,                         2,000,000          0¹⁄₂
  Holland,                       70,000,000         14
  Italy,                         30,000,000          1
  Switzerland,                   20,000,000          5
  Russia and Siberia,            15,000,000         ----
  Sweden and Norway,             35,000,000         10
  Great Britain and Ireland,     35,000,000          1
  United States and Canada,     600,000,000          6
  Mexico and Central America,    35,000,000          3
  West India Islands,            30,000,000          5
  South American States,        100,000,000          3

What tea is to the United Kingdom coffee is to the United States, the
consumption of the latter in this country increasing from 80,000,000
pounds in 1861 to 116,000,000 in 1871, and to over 400,000,000 pounds
in 1881, the consumption of coffee, at the present time in this
country, falling just short of the enormous figures of 600,000,000
pounds.

The use of coffee has been extending at an enormous rate for the past
150 years, until at the present day it is found in every civilized
country and almost every uncivilized country on the habitable globe. It
has become one of the corner-stones of civilization. As has been well
said by one writer, it smoothes the troubled soul, heals all family
feuds, fits one for the annoyances of business, and organizes a truce
between the man who drinks it and all the troubles and cares of life.
The United States is without doubt a nation of coffee-drinkers, the
average annual consumption reaching upwards of 600,000,000 pounds, or
nearly ten pounds _per capita_ of the entire population.

Up to 1860 there was a wide disparity between the production and
consumption of coffee throughout the civilized world, the former
remaining stationary while the latter continued to increase rapidly
until the civil war, which caused a reduction in this country of
nearly 200,000 tons per annum, thus re-establishing the relative
difference between the laws of supply and demand. With the close of the
rebellion, the United States, however, and a reduction of the duty,
the consumption again steadily increased, exceeding in a short time
the increase in the production, causing a steady advance in prices
from 1869 to 1880, the extreme advance in prices in the latter year
naturally stimulated and increased production until stocks accumulated
largely and prices again declined accordingly. During the period
from 1880-87, planters and dealers suffered greatly, many disastrous
failures among both classes following as a consequence. The consumption
meanwhile continued to increase steadily, as did also the production,
owing to the yield of new plantations previously opened under the
stimulus of the high prices prevailing in 1880, fair relations between
the production and consumption being to the present maintained.

The history of tariff legislation on coffee in the United States may
be summed up in the following sequence: The first duty on coffee was
levied in 1789, which was 2¹⁄₂ cents per pound. In 1790 this was
increased to 4 cents, and again to 5 cents in 1794, being retained at
the latter figure until 1812, when it was increased to 10 cents, owing
to the increased expenditures of the government, due to the war with
England. At the close of this war, in 1814, the duty was reduced to 5
cents per pound, remaining at the latter figure until 1828, when it was
still further reduced to 2 cents; in 1830, to 1 cent, being removed
altogether in 1832, and placed for the first time on the free list. No
tax was again placed on coffee until the beginning of the civil war
in 1861, when a duty of 4 cents per pound was levied on it, which was
shortly after increased to 5 cents, at which figure it remained until
1871, when it was reduced to 3 cents, the duty being entirely removed
from coffee in 1872, since which year it has remained uninterruptedly
on the free list.

During the years from 1832 to 1861, when coffee was entered free of
duty, it ruled lower in price and increased more in consumption than
it had at any previous period, the _per capita_ consumption increasing
from three pounds in 1830, to nearly six pounds in 1860, the quantity
imported into the United States in the latter year reaching nearly
236,000,000 pounds, being valued at $21,500,000, the three following
years showing an average annual importation of about 220,600,000
pounds, valued at $21,000,000. In 1855 fair Rio averaged 11 cents per
pound; Maracaibo, 12 cents, and Java, 14¹⁄₂ cents; these being the
three principal then in demand in the American market, while in 1860
the range was considerably higher and the consumption correspondingly
less, Rios averaging 13³⁄₄ cents; Maracaibos, 14¹⁄₂ cents; and Javas,
16¹⁄₂ cents. These prices continuing to advance until 1863-4, when the
prices of coffee ruled exceptionally high, owing to the war duty of
5 cents per pound; the figures averaging in 1863 31 cents for Rio, 32
cents for Maracaibo, and 37 cents for Java, increasing in 1864 to 42¹⁄₂
cents for Rio, 43 cents for Maracaibo, and 49 cents for Java. From 1864
to 1880, however, there was a steady decline in the prices of coffee,
there being at the same time a correspondingly steady increase in its
consumption. The prices ruling for the three leading kinds of coffee in
the American market, from 1880 to 1890, is as follows, per pound:--

          Rio.   Maracaibo.   Java.
  Year.  Cents.    Cents.    Cents.
  1880    16        16¹⁄₂     23¹⁄₂
  1881    12¹⁄₂     13        18
  1882     9³⁄₄     10¹⁄₂     16
  1883    10¹⁄₂     11        17¹⁄₂
  1884    11        11¹⁄₄     16¹⁄₂
  1885     9        10¹⁄₄     15¹⁄₂
  1886    10³⁄₄     10¹⁄₂     16³⁄₄
  1887     8¹⁄₂     10        16
  1888    16¹⁄₂     16¹⁄₂     20
  1889    19        20        22
  1890    18        20        22

In many of the years from 1870 to 1880, Java, which is regarded as
the standard coffee, sold less than Maracaibo; the latter frequently
selling for less than Rio, which is considered the lowest in the
scale during the same period. In 1875, however, the imports again
increased to 300,000,000 pounds, valued at $51,000,000. Taking the
population in 1856 at 27,000,000 and in 1875 at 42,000,000, it will
be noticed that the increase in quantity of imports was only 34 per
cent., 21 per cent. less than the increase of population for the
same period, while the increase in value was 146 per cent. meantime.
Figures which serve conclusively to prove that while low prices tend
to increase consumption, high prices only serve to retard it. About
1883 new factors in the buying and selling of coffee appeared, coffee
exchanges been opened in Havre, Hamburg and New York, which created
large transactions in “options,” some of them becoming enormous in
their magnitude, and against which considerable quantities of coffee
must be held, the operations for future deliveries reaching as high as
22,000,000 bags in 1887. This enormous increase in the transactions of
that year was due entirely to a short crop report and to the active
speculation based thereon. The continued increase in consumption and
the increased demand for stocks held against the trading in options not
being met by a corresponding increase in the production of the article,
added to the serious injury to the crops in Java by leaf disease and in
Brazil by blight, having still further disturbed the relations between
the established laws of supply and demand.




APPENDIX.




APPENDIX.


TABLE I.

Showing tares, style of package and average weight of the principal
coffees imported into the United States.

                Style     Average
                of         Weight
  Kind.         Package.  Pounds.  Tare.
  Mocha,        Bales,       160   Actual.
  Javas,        Mats,         66   1 per cent.
  India,        Bags,        140   2 per cent.
  Ceylon,       Bags,        140   2 per cent.
  Ceylon,       Casks,     1,000   Actual.
  Jamaica,      Bags,        200   2 per cent.
  Jamaica,      Barrels,     200   Actual.
  San Domingo,  Bags,        150   2 per cent.
  Hayti,        Bags,        150   2 per cent.
  Mexican,      Bales,       150   2 per cent.
  Guatemala,    Bags,        140   1 per cent.
  Nicaragua,    Bags,        140   1 per cent.
  Honduras,     Bags,        140   1 per cent.
  Costa Rica,   Bags,        140   1 per cent.
  Caracas,      Bags,        130   2 per cent.
  Maracaibo,    Bags,        130   1 per cent.
  Laguayra,     Bags,        130   1 per cent.
  Angostura,    Bags,        130   Actual.
  Colombo,      Bags,        230   1 per cent.
  Equador,      Bags,        130   1 per cent.
  Bolivian,     Bags,        130   1 per cent.
  Brazilian,    Bags,        130   1 per cent.

All other coffees in bags one per cent. and all others in bales and
barrels actual tare.


TABLE II.

Showing relative difference between cost of raw and roasted coffees,
including cost of roasting (¹⁄₂ cent per pound), and loss by shrinkage
(15 per cent).

   Raw.   Roasted.
  10       12 35
  10¹⁄₄    12 65
  10¹⁄₂    12 94
  10³⁄₄    13 24
  11       13 53
  11¹⁄₄    13 82
  11¹⁄₂    14 12
  11³⁄₄    14 41
  12       14 71
  12¹⁄₄    15 00
  12¹⁄₂    15 29
  12³⁄₄    15 59
  13       15 88
  13¹⁄₄    16 18
  13¹⁄₂    16 48
  13³⁄₄    16 67
  14       17 06
  14¹⁄₄    17 35
  14¹⁄₂    17 67
  14³⁄₄    17 94
  15       18 24
  15¹⁄₄    18 53
  15¹⁄₂    18 82
  15³⁄₄    19 13
  16       19 41
  16¹⁄₄    19 71
  16¹⁄₂    20 00
  16³⁄₄    20 30
  17       20 59
  17¹⁄₄    20 89
  17³⁄₄    21 47
  18       21 76
  18¹⁄₄    22 06
  18¹⁄₂    22 35
  18³⁄₄    22 64
  19       22 93
  19¹⁄₄    23 22
  19¹⁄₂    23 52
  19³⁄₄    23 82
  20       24 41
  20¹⁄₄    24 41
  20¹⁄₂    24 71
  20³⁄₄    25 00
  21       25 30
  21¹⁄₄    25 59
  21¹⁄₂    25 88
  21³⁄₄    26 19
  22       26 47
  22¹⁄₄    26 76
  22¹⁄₂    27 06
  22³⁄₄    27 35
  23       27 64
  23¹⁄₄    27 94
  23¹⁄₂    28 24
  23³⁄₄    28 53
  24       28 82
  24¹⁄₄    29 12
  24¹⁄₂    29 42
  24³⁄₄    29 71
  25       30 00

For each one-eighth of a cent Raw add one-fifteenth Roasted.


TABLE III.

Showing comparative loss in roasting coffee between Winter and Summer
months of the principal coffees:--

  Months.      Rio.       Java.     Mocha.    Maracaibo.
             Per cent.  Per cent.  Per cent.  Per cent.
  January,      14         16        15          16
  February,     14         16        15          16
  March,        14         16        15          16
  June,         13         15        14          15
  July,         13         15        14          15
  August,       13         15        14          15

From which it may be noted that Rio and Mocha lose on an average one
per cent. less than Java and Maracaibo in both seasons, which is
accounted for by the greater hardness and solidity of the bean of the
former over the latter, which are lighter and softer in texture, the
average loss being 15 per cent. on all coffees.


TABLE IV.

Showing comparative weights of Raw and Roasted coffees, after
sustaining a loss of from 12 to 16 per cent.:--

  Weight raw.                   Weight roasted.
      Net.     Per cent.  Per cent.  Per cent.  Per cent.  Per cent.
                  12         13         14         15         16
  -----------  ---------  ---------  ---------  ---------  ---------
    50 lbs.       44         43¹⁄₂      43         42¹⁄₂      42
    55  „         48¹⁄₂      48         47¹⁄₄      46³⁄₄      46
    60  „         52¹⁄₄      52         51¹⁄₂      51         50¹⁄₂
    65  „         57         56¹⁄₂      56         55¹⁄₄      54¹⁄₂
    70  „         61¹⁄₂      61         60         59¹⁄₂      58³⁄₄
    75  „         66         65¹⁄₄      64¹⁄₂      63³⁄₄      63
    80  „         70¹⁄₂      69¹⁄₂      68¹⁄₄      68         67
    85  „         74³⁄₄      74         73         72¹⁄₄      71¹⁄₂
    90  „         79         78³⁄₄      77¹⁄₂      76¹⁄₂      75¹⁄₂
    95  „         83¹⁄₂      82¹⁄₂      81¹⁄₂      80³⁄₄      79³⁄₄
   100  „         89         87         86         85         84
   105  „         92¹⁄₂      91¹⁄₂      90¹⁄₂      89¹⁄₄      88
   110  „         96³⁄₄      95¹⁄₂      94¹⁄₂      93¹⁄₂      91¹⁄₄
   115  „        102        100         99         98         96¹⁄₂
   120  „        105¹⁄₂     104¹⁄₂     103        102        101
   125  „        110        108³⁄₄     107¹⁄₂     106¹⁄₄     105
   130  „        114¹⁄₂     113        112        111        110¹⁄₄
   135  „        118³⁄₄     117¹⁄₂     116        114³⁄₄     113¹⁄₂
   140  „        124        121³⁄₄     120¹⁄₂     119        117¹⁄₂
   145  „        127¹⁄₂     126        124¹⁄₂     123¹⁄₄     121³⁄₄
   150  „        131¹⁄₄     129³⁄₄     128¹⁄₄     126³⁄₄     125¹⁄₄


TABLE V.

Showing cost of Roasted coffee after sustaining a loss of:--

  Cost Raw.  Per cent.  Per cent.  Per cent.  Per cent.  Per cent.
                12         13         14         15         16
  --------   ---------  ---------  ---------  ---------  ---------
  10            11³⁄₈      11¹⁄₂      11⁵⁄₈      11³⁄₄      11⁷⁄₈
  10¹⁄₂         12         12¹⁄₈      12¹⁄₄      12³⁄₈      12¹⁄₂
  11            12¹⁄₂      12⁵⁄₈      12³⁄₄      12⁷⁄₈      13
  11¹⁄₂         13         13¹⁄₄      13³⁄₈      13⁵⁄₈      13³⁄₄
  12            13⁵⁄₈      13³⁄₄      14         14¹⁄₈      14¹⁄₄
  12¹⁄₂         14¹⁄₄      14³⁄₈      14¹⁄₂      14³⁄₄      14⁷⁄₈
  13            14³⁄₄      15         15¹⁄₈      15³⁄₈      15¹⁄₂
  13¹⁄₂         15³⁄₈      15¹⁄₂      15⁵⁄₈      15³⁄₄      15⁷⁄₈
  14            15⁷⁄₈      16¹⁄₈      16¹⁄₄      16¹⁄₂      16⁵⁄₈
  14¹⁄₂         16¹⁄₂      16⁵⁄₈      16⁷⁄₈      17         17¹⁄₄
  15            17         17¹⁄₈      17³⁄₈      17⁵⁄₈      17⁷⁄₈
  15¹⁄₂         17⁵⁄₈      17⁷⁄₈      18         18¹⁄₄      18¹⁄₂
  16            18⁷⁄₈      18³⁄₈      18⁵⁄₈      18⁷⁄₈      19
  16¹⁄₂         18³⁄₄      19         19¹⁄₈      19³⁄₈      19⁵⁄₈
  17            19¹⁄₄      19¹⁄₂      19³⁄₄      20         20¹⁄₄
  17¹⁄₂         19⁷⁄₈      20¹⁄₂      20³⁄₈      20⁵⁄₈      20⁷⁄₈
  18            20³⁄₈      20⁵⁄₈      20⁷⁄₈      21¹⁄₈      21³⁄₈
  18¹⁄₂         21         21¹⁄₄      21¹⁄₂      21³⁄₄      22
  19            21⁵⁄₈      21⁷⁄₈      22¹⁄₈      22³⁄₈      22⁵⁄₈
  19¹⁄₂         22¹⁄₈      22³⁄₈      22⁵⁄₈      23         23¹⁄₄
  20            22³⁄₄      23         23¹⁄₄      23¹⁄₂      23³⁄₄
  20¹⁄₂         23¹⁄₄      23¹⁄₂      23⁷⁄₈      24¹⁄₈      24³⁄₈
  21            23³⁄₄      24         24³⁄₈      24³⁄₄      25
  21¹⁄₂         24¹⁄₂      24³⁄₄      25         25¹⁄₄      25⁵⁄₈
  22            25         25¹⁄₄      25⁵⁄₈      25⁷⁄₈      26¹⁄₈
  22¹⁄₂         25¹⁄₂      25⁷⁄₈      26¹⁄₈      26¹⁄₂      26³⁄₄
  23            26¹⁄₈      26³⁄₈      26³⁄₄      27         27³⁄₈
  23¹⁄₂         26³⁄₄      27         27³⁄₈      27⁵⁄₈      28
  24            27¹⁄₄      27⁵⁄₈      27⁷⁄₈      28¹⁄₂      28⁷⁄₈
  24¹⁄₂         27⁷⁄₈      28¹⁄₈      28¹⁄₂      28³⁄₄      29¹⁄₈
  25            28³⁄₈      28³⁄₄      29¹⁄₈      29³⁄₈      29³⁄₄

To which must be added cost of roasting, ¹⁄₂ cent per pound.


TABLE VI.

Showing New York Coffee Exchange point card, and giving decimal value
of 5 points to one cent per pound on 250 bags coffee (32,500 pounds),
which is the smallest transaction:--

  Points.           Difference.
  05,                 $16 25
  10,                  32 50
  15,                  48 75
  20,                  65 00
  25,                  81 25
  30,                  97 50
  35,                 113 75
  40,                 130 00
  45,                 146 25
  50,                 162 50
  55,                 178 75
  60,                 195 00
  65,                 211 25
  70,                 227 50
  75,                 243 75
  80,                 260 00
  85,                 276 25
  90,                 292 50
  95,                 308 75
  100 (one cent),     325 00
  105,                341 25
  110,                357 50
  115,                373 75
  120,                390 10
  125,                406 25
  130,                432 50
  135,                438 75
  140,                455 50
  145,                471 25
  150,                487 50
  155,                503 75
  160,                520 00
  165,                536 25
  170,                552 50
  175,                568 75
  180,                585 00
  185,                601 25
  190,                617 50
  195,                635 75
  200 (two cents),    650 50

No. 7 (low ordinary) is adopted as the “standard grade,” and is taken
as a basis for all operations, but a grade comparing with any of
the ten numbers may be substituted at their approximate values when
delivered is insisted on and No. 7 cannot be had. The brokerage for
buying and selling is 4 cents per bag, and the original margin $1.00
per bag, the smallest transaction allowed being 250 bags and the market
fluctuation ⁵⁄₁₀₀ cents per pound.


TABLE VII.

Showing method for converting Rio and Santos quotations into United
States currency, including freight charges at 40 cents and 5 per cent.
per bag marine insurance. One month’s charges in New York, at 2 per
cent. discount, $4.80, equaling the pound sterling at 60 days sight.

  Market Price   Rio Rates of Exchange on London
   in Rio per   (equivalent in cents per pound).
   10 Kilos.    21_d_      21¹⁄₂_d_    22_d_
     .000       12¹¹⁄₁₀₀   12³⁹⁄₁₀₀   12⁶⁷⁄₁₀₀
     .200       12⁵⁶⁄₁₀₀   12⁸⁵⁄₁₀₀   12¹⁴⁄₁₀₀
     .400       13⁰¹⁄₁₀₀   13³¹⁄₁₀₀   13⁶¹⁄₁₀₀
     .600       13⁴⁷⁄₁₀₀   13⁷⁷⁄₁₀₀   14⁸⁹⁄₁₀₀
     .800       13⁹²⁄₁₀₀   14⁴⁰⁄₁₀₀   14⁵⁶⁄₁₀₀
     .000       14³⁷⁄₁₀₀   14⁷⁰⁄₁₀₀   15⁰³⁄₁₀₀
     .200       14⁸²⁄₁₀₀   15¹⁶⁄₁₀₀   15⁵¹⁄₁₀₀
     .400       15²⁷⁄₁₀₀   16⁶²⁄₁₀₀   15⁹⁸⁄₁₀₀
     .600       15⁷²⁄₁₀₀   16⁰⁹⁄₁₀₀   16⁴⁵⁄₁₀₀
     .800       16¹⁸⁄₁₀₀   16⁵⁵⁄₁₀₀   16⁹²⁄₁₀₀
     .000       16⁶³⁄₁₀₀   17⁰¹⁄₁₀₀   17⁴⁰⁄₁₀₀

Fractional equivalents to be added if necessary, each ¹⁄₄ _d._ in
exchange being equivalent to about 1 per cent. Bases for freight
differences to be added or deducted at rate of 5 cents and 5 per cent.
per bag--.04 cents per pound, to which must be also added commission
for buying in Rio or Santos, but if the coffee should be wanted for
sale on the Exchange no addition need be made.


TABLE VIII.

For converting London quotations into U. S. currency, including cost,
insurance, freight, one month’s charges in New York and 2 per cent.
discount.

  Market Price in London  London Rates of Exchange at 60 days,
      per 112 pounds.        equivalent in cents per pound.

        Shillings.          $4 80        $4 85        $4 90

           50              $11 43       $11 54       $11 65
           51               11 63        11 78        11 89
           52               11 89        12 00        12 12
           53               12 11        12 23        12 35
           54               12 34        12 46        12 58
           55               12 53        12 69        12 81
           56               12 73        12 91        13 04
           57               13 02        13 14        13 27
           58               13 23        13 38        13 51
           59               13 48        13 60        13 75

The best and most rapid method of reducing the cost of coffee in Brazil
to United States currency is, however, to multiply the price by the
rate of exchange ruling at the time of purchase. The result will be in
English pence, which is converted into American gold in the regular
way at the existing rate of London exchange. Another method by which
a result accurate enough for all practical purposes may be obtained
is to multiply the price by the rate of exchange, and then deducting
one-fourth of the amount so obtained, first getting the free-on-board
charges in Rio or Santos, to which must be added the cost of freight
and other charges.


TABLE IX.

Showing the average value for each year from 1846 to 1878, inclusive,
for fair to prime Rio coffee, cargo price in gold, “in bond,” in New
York:--

  Year.  Value.
  1846    7.44
  1847    7.34
  1848    6.63
  1849    7.37
  1850   10.91
  1851    9.44
  1852    8.85
  1853    9.76
  1854   10.48
  1855   10.47
  1856   11.04
  1857   11.15
  1858   11.08
  1859   11.66
  1860   13.74
  1861   12.31
  1862   15.22
  1863   16.39
  1864   16.22
  1865   15.95
  1866   13.86
  1867   12.23
  1868   10.5
  1869   11.00
  1870   11.33
  1871   12.91
         16 48
  1872   -- --
         17 27
  1873   19.99
  1874   21.08
  1875   18.87
  1876   18.21
  1877   18.45
  1878   15.58
  1879   14.87
  1880   15.12
  1881   12.23
  1882    9.77
  1883   10.36
  1884   10.92
  1885    9.01
  1886   10.33

Coffee was admitted free up to the first of August, 1861, when an
import duty of four cents a pound was levied. In January, 1862, the
duty was raised to five cents a pound; and this continued to 1870, when
the duty was reduced to three cents a pound. On the first of July,
1872, the impost was removed, and coffee was admitted to duty free
once more. In the above table, it will be observed that the highest
point was in 1874, after the impost had been removed, when it was 21
cents. This was about the same as in 1863 and ’64, with the duty of 5
cents added; but this, it will be remembered, is an average for the
years alluded to for fair to prime, but during the year there was often
fluctuations, and prime, as circumstances demanded, brought a very high
price, as in some instances it touched at or near 25 cents, when of
course all other coffees were proportionally large.


TABLE X.

Showing fluctuations in the coffee market from 1850 to 1867, inclusive.

  Year.    Pounds.
  1850   131,640,000
  1851   177,760,000
  1852   291,344,000
  1853   172,898,000
  1854   175,780,000
  1855   206,250,000
  1856   214,104,000
  1857   168,916,000
  1858   246,510,000
  1859   219,010,000
  1860   173,844,000
  1861   194,656,000
  1862    87,406,000
  1863    78,562,000
  1864   107,052,900
  1865   125,708,000
  1866   157,146,000
  1867   199,760,000
  1868   219,212,400
  1869   238,653,800
  1870   275,895,400
  1871   310,956,800
  1872   266,866,600
  1873   264,666,600
  1874   272,608,600
  1875   301,727,800
  1876   295,039,800
  1877   297,523,600
  1878   213,830,000
  1879   396,391,600
  1880   390,188,500
  1881   411,633,200
  1882   467,504,400
  1883   449,002,400
  1884   490,468,000
  1885   530,127,400

It will be seen that the consumption increased to 1858, and gradually
declined to 1863, when it touched the lowest point. Since that time it
has increased nearly seven-fold, but while the quantity imported or
consumed has increased beyond our power to fully realize the amount in
figures, it is curious to consider the varied values of coffee under
the many peculiarities of circumstances for the past thirty-six years.


TABLE XI.

SHOWING HOW COFFEE IS IMPORTED.

_Pro Forma Invoice of 1,000 Bags of Coffee, of 60 Kilos. each, Shipped
from Rio de Janeiro or Santos to the United States._

  1,000 bags coffee of 60 kilos. each
  =net 10 kilos. 60,000, @ 6$350 per
  10 kilos.,                            [1]Rs. 38:100$000

  1,000 empty bags @ 700 reis,                    700$000
                                           -------------- Rs. 38:800$000

  Export duty on kilos. 60,000 @ 502
  rs. per kilo. = Rs. 30,120$000 @ 13
  per cent.,                               Reis 3:915$600

  Harbor-master (Capatazias) fees, 60
  rs. per bag,                                     60$000

  Brokerage, 50 rs. per bag,                       50$000

  Shipping expenses (at 220 rs. = Rs.
  220,000), sample, tins and box (Rs.
  25$000), freight on same (Rs. 2$000),
  consul’s certificate (included in
  sample, tins, etc.), cablegram (Rs.
  100$000), stamps, petties, etc.
  (included in sample, tins and box),             347$000
                                           --------------      4:372$600
                                                          --------------
                                                              43:172$600
  Commission for buying, 2 per cent.,                            863$450
                                                          --------------
                                                              44:036$050
  Bill brokerage and stamps, ³⁄₈ of 1 per cent.,                 165$760
                                                          --------------
                                                         Reis 44:201$810

[1] 1,000 réis = 1 mil-réis = 54¹⁄₂ cents, U. S.


TABLE XII.

SHOWING CONVERSION OF BRAZILIAN INTO AMERICAN CURRENCY.

  Amount of pro forma invoice,              Reis 44:201$810
      At 21¹⁄₂d. exchange at Rio,                  £3,959 15
      $4.84¹⁄₂--¹⁄₈ per £ sterling,                           $19,161 00

  Charges accruing in the United States:--

    Freight per steamer to New York,
    40c. per bag and 5 per cent.
    primage,                                        $420 00

    Marine insurance, 1 per cent. less
    30 per cent.--⁷⁄₁₀ net, on $21,672
    or invoice and £ value @ $5.50,                  151 70

    Banker’s commission for credit =
    ³⁄₄ of 1 per cent. on $19,161,                   143 72

  Bill stamps in London (nil).

    Labor at vessel, 4c. per bag;
    storage, one month, @ 4c.;
    weighing, 3¹⁄₄c.; fire insurance,
    1¹⁄₄c. per bag; delivery
    (lighterage), 4c. per bag = 16¹⁄₂c.
    per bag,                                         165 00

    Petty charges, _i. e._, sampling,
    sewing, custom fees, etc., on bags,
    per bag, 3¹⁄₂c.; approximate for
    skimming of quality,----bags
    @  ; furnishing new bags,                         35 00

    Cables at New York,                                5 00
                                                  ---------       920 42
                                                              ----------
        Cost of 1,000 in store,                               $20,081 42




  Transcriber’s Notes


  Unusual, inconsistent, erroneous and archaic spelling, hyphenation,
  punctuation, grammar, typography, etc. have been retained, except as
  mentioned under Changes below. Many non-English words and phrases
  and geographical, proper and scientific names in particular contain
  typographical or other errors.

  Page 74, alumnia (2x): possibly an error for aluminia.

  Page 132, ...crops of which the first or “roor-pluk,” which is
  small...: probably an error for “voor-pluk,” (pre-picking).

  Page 292, table: the entry for 17¹⁄₂ is not present in the source
  document.

  Page 296, table VII: presumably the bottom 6 rows in column 1 should
  read 1.000, 1.200, ..., 2.000.

  Page 297, Table IX: the values for 1872 may represent the two
  values 16.48 and 17.27 (before and after the removal of the impost
  respectively).

  Page 298, Showing fluctuations in the coffee market from 1850 to
  1867, inclusive: the data given continue through 1885.

  Page 300, table entry Petty charges ... bags @  ; furnishing new
  bags: the price per bag is missing in the source document.


  Changes made:

  Illustrations were moved out of text paragraphs.

  Minor obvious punctuation and typographical errors have been
  corrected silently.

  Page 31: ...climatic conditions favorable to its production has
  been found... changed to ...climatic conditions favorable to its
  production have been found....

  Page 46: ...the latter being claimed to be analagous... changed to
  ...the latter being claimed to be analogous....

  Page 86: ...when about two weeks’ old... changed to ...when about two
  weeks old....

  Page 95: An easy meany of applying artificial heat... changed to An
  easy means of applying artificial heat....

  Page 135: ...at least equal to the renumeration changed to ...at
  least equal to the remuneration.

  Page 139: Stored coffees, for this reason, loses weight... changed to
  Stored coffees, for this reason, lose weight....

  Page 142: ...the bean graduing changes to a deep-yellow... changed to
  ...the bean gradually changes to a deep-yellow....

  Page 143: ...by becoming throughly dry and seasoned... changed to
  ...by becoming thoroughly dry and seasoned....

  Page 177: ...Rios improve with age, and with time loses their harsh
  flavor... changed to ...Rios improve with age, and with time lose
  their harsh flavor....

  Page 210: ...coffee leaves contain the principle coffeine... changed
  to ...coffee leaves contain the principle caffeine....

  Page 213: ...innumerable other substances has been tried... changed
  to ...innumerable other substances have been tried....

  Page 217: ...patent or proprietory ground coffees... changed to
  ...patent or proprietary ground coffees....

  Page 232: A decoction known as Kishre... changed to A decoction known
  as Kishr... as elsewhere.

  Page 271: ...it should be used chiefly as an accessary to food...
  changed to ...it should be used chiefly as an accessory to food....

  Page 295, table: repeated entry 150, 487 50 deleted.

  Page 296, table VIII, bottom row: 1360 changed to 13 60.

*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 79274 ***