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diff --git a/79274-0.txt b/79274-0.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..efb8ee0 --- /dev/null +++ b/79274-0.txt @@ -0,0 +1,8808 @@ +*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 79274 *** + + + Transcriber’s Notes + + Texts printed in italics, bold face and small capitals have been + transcribed between _underscores_, =equal signs= and as ALL CAPITALS + respectively. + + More Transcriber’s Notes may be found at the end of this text. + + +[Illustration: COFFEE TREE AND BERRIES.] + + + + + COFFEE + --ITS-- + HISTORY, + CLASSIFICATION AND DESCRIPTION + + --BY-- + + JOSEPH M. WALSH, + + AUTHOR OF + “TEA: ITS HISTORY AND MYSTERY.” + + THE JOHN C. WINSTON CO., + PHILADELPHIA, + CHICAGO, TORONTO. + + + + + COPYRIGHTED, 1894, + BY + JOSEPH M. WALSH. + + _All Rights Reserved._ + + + + +CHAPTER I. + +EARLY HISTORY. + + +The gigantic extent to which the production and consumption of Coffee +has been carried of late years, the vast number of hands employed +in its cultivation and preparation for market, including the great +quantity of shipping necessary for its transportation, and the enormous +amount of capital invested in its production and trade, naturally +invest the commodity, not only from a commercial but also from a moral +and social standpoint, with great importance, creating as it does +an industry of almost fabulous proportions and capital, rendering +it second to no other article of food or drink in the world. The +early history of Coffee, however, like that of Tea, is involved in +considerable obscurity, the almost total absence of any historical +fact being only compensated for by an unusual profusion of legendary +and conjectural statements, or by purely mythical stories. As far +as can be ascertained, it was not known to the ancients, although +one writer claims that it is mentioned in the Bible, making the bold +assertion that the potion offered to King David on a certain occasion, +at the hands of the fair Abigail, to calm the temper of the excited +monarch, must have been Coffee, basing his argument on the untenable +grounds that the beverage, whatever it may have been, was prepared from +_something roasted_. Yet no mention of the plant or its product is to +be found among the Egyptians in the time of the Pharaohs, although +their trade at their period, as in the present, lay up the valley of +the Nile toward Berber, its reputed birthplace. It was unknown to the +Greeks and Romans in any form, and though claimed to have been in use +among the Arabs at a very remote time, no reference is made to it by +Mohamet or his followers up to the seventh century. No account of its +use is to be found during the first Moslem invasion of southern Europe +by Abdulrahman in the ninth century, although large quantities of the +commodity were captured in their camp before Vienna during their second +invasion of eastern Europe in the seventeenth century, and it is not +even alluded to by any of the writers who accompanied the Crusaders +into Syria during the thirteenth century. + +To the Ethiopians its use is said to have been known from time +immemorial, and that the plant and its virtues were first discovered +in that country is now generally admitted by all authorities on +the subject. The first human beings who appear to have used the +Coffee-berry in any form being the semi-savage tribes inhabiting higher +Ethiopia, to which country the Coffee-plant is indigenous, and where it +is to be found at the present time, growing abundantly both in a wild +and cultivated state. Bruce, in his Travels to Discover the Source of +the Nile, published in 1678, informs us that “The Gallæ is a wandering +nation of Africa, who, in their incursions into Abyssinia, are obliged +to traverse immense deserts, and being desirous of falling on the towns +and villages of that country without warning, carry nothing to eat with +them but the berries of the Coffee tree _roasted_ and _pulverized_, +which they mix with grease to a certain consistency that will permit of +its being rolled into masses about the size of billiard balls and then +put in leathern bags until required for use. One of these balls they +claim will support them for a whole day, when on a marauding incursion +or in active war, better than a loaf of bread or a meal of meat, +because it cheers their spirits as well as feeds them.” + +From Ethiopia, the Coffee-plant is claimed to have been introduced +into Abyssinia as early as A. D. 875, while, according to Lagrenie, +Coffee has been known and used in Abyssinia, from the very earliest +times, quoting the Abbé Raynal, a missionary to that country in the +latter part of the sixteenth century, to that effect, stating that “he +procured some of the berries from cultivated plants, and made a trial +of them, finding them larger, rather longer and quite as fragrant as +those obtained from Arabia.” From Abyssinia it was evidently first +introduced into Arabia, but at what period of the world’s history, +or under what circumstances is also lost in doubt. Tradition--never +at a loss for some marvelous story--ascribes its first discovery in +the latter country to a Dervish, who in the year 1275 was driven +out of Moka, pursued and surrounded by his enemies in the adjacent +mountains. In the extremity of hunger he is said to have gathered some +Coffee-berries and eaten them, then, steeping some of the parched +berries in some water to allay his thirst, he accidentally discovered +their agreeable flavor and nutritious properties. While another Arabian +legend attributes its first discovery as an alimentary infusion in +that country to a Mollah named Chadeley, who on being informed by a +goat-herd of the peculiar and exciting effect produced on his goats, +whenever they happened to browse on the leaves and fruit of a certain +kind of tree, resolved to test their virtues on his monks, with whom +it is related he had considerable difficulty in keeping awake during +their nocturnal devotions. Preparing an infusion from the berries of +the plant indicated, he served it to them, the experiment proving a +complete success; the dervishes taking eagerly thereafter to the new +and exciting beverage. While, according to an Arabian manuscript, +now to be found in the Bibliotheque Nationale of Paris, the use of +Coffee was known in Arabia as early as the thirteenth century. This +coffee-colored document states that “a certain Mufti of Aden, on his +return from a journey to Persia, about the middle of the fifteenth +century, brought back with him some _roasted_ beans of Coffee.” While +in an old treatise upon Coffee, published in 1566 by an Arabian sheikh, +it is stated that the first knowledge of Coffee and its use was brought +from Abyssinia to Arabia about the beginning of the fifteenth century +by a learned and pious mollah named Djmaleddin Abou Elfager. According +to this document, the use of Coffee as a beverage was prevalent among +the Abyssinians from the most remote times, and that in Arabia, when +first introduced, it only supplanted a preparation made from the leaves +of the Celastrus in that country. The introduction and use of the +beverage by the Mufti gave reputation to the practice, his example soon +rendering the new luxury popular among his countrymen, “first among +lawyers and professional men, then with students and those who learned +reading, the custom eventually spreading to artisans and others who +worked in the night, and finally by travelers, who journeyed in the +night to avoid the heat of the day.” In a short time it was declared +in Aden “that this liquor purified the blood, by a gentle agitation, +dissipated the ill condition of the stomach and aroused the spirits.” +As a result of this high extolation it was quickly adopted by those +who had no occasion to keep awake at night, and in a brief space of +time, says M. Galland, “the whole inhabitants of Aden became inveterate +coffee-drinkers.” Its peculiar property of dissipating drowsiness +and preventing sleep was taken advantage of in connection with the +prolonged religious services of the Mahometans, and its use as a +devotional anti-soporific stirred up a fierce opposition on the part +of the strictly orthodox and conservative section of the priesthood. +Coffee being held by them to be an intoxicant beverage, and therefore +prohibited by the Koran, and the dreadful penalties of an outraged +sacred law were held over the heads of all who became addicted to its +use in any form. But notwithstanding the threats of divine retribution, +and though all manner of devices were adopted in order to check its +growth, the coffee-drinking habit spread rapidly among the Arabian +Mahometans, and the growth of coffee, as well as its use as a national +beverage, became as inseparably associated with Arabia as tea has with +China. + +From Aden, the use of coffee extended to Mecca, Medina and other cities +and towns of Arabia, the knowledge and taste for it rapidly spreading +outwards from that country to Syria and Persia. Public coffee-houses +being everywhere established, also in many of the other countries in +western Asia, affording, according to one authority, “a lounge for the +idle and a relaxation for the man of business, where the politician +retailed the news of the state; the poet recited his verses, and the +Mollahs delivered their sermons to the frequenters.” But the mania for +coffee becoming so great about this period, particularly in Syria, that +an effort was made by authority of the government to check, if not to +entirely suppress, the further growth of its consumption among the +inhabitants, on the alleged ground of “its intoxicating properties,” +but in reality because of its use leading to social and festive +gatherings, incompatible with the strictness and teaching of the +Mahometan religion. From Syria the use of the “benign potation,” as it +was then termed, reached Cairo about 1510, being received with equal +avidity in that city, so much so that in that year its indiscriminate +use was prohibited on religious grounds, also by Khaine Beg, the +then governor of the city. In his proclamation forbidding the use of +coffee, it was assailed by him as “having an inebriating effect, and +of producing inclinations condemned by the Koran.” This edict was, +however, rescinded by his successor, Causin, soon after his assuming +the governorship. But another effort was made to suppress its use in +1523 by the chief priest, Abdallah Ibrahim, who denounced its use in a +sermon delivered in the mosque of Haffanaine, a violent commotion being +produced among the populace, the opposing factions coming to blows over +its use. The governor, Sheikh Obelek, a man wise in his generation and +time, then assembled the mollahs, doctors and others of the opponents +of coffee-drinking at his residence, and after listening patiently to +their tedious harangues against its use, treated them all to a cup of +coffee each, first setting the example by drinking one himself. Then +dismissing them, courteously withdrew from their presence without +uttering a single word. By this prudent conduct the public peace was +soon restored, and coffee was ever afterward allowed to be used in +Cairo. + +Coffee continued its progress without further molestation through +Egypt, the beverage being received in Damascus in 1530, and in +Aleppo a few years later, without opposition, becoming known to the +inhabitants of Constantinople for the first time in 1554, in which +year two persons, named Schems and Heken, the former coming from +Damascus, and the latter from Aleppo, opened the first coffee-houses in +that city, where it soon became the favorite drink with all classes, +“the coffee-houses being thronged night and day, the poorer classes +actually begging money in the streets for the sole object of purchasing +coffee.” And in Constantinople, at this time, we are informed that “a +refusal to supply a wife with a specified quantity of coffee per diem +was admitted to be a valid cause for divorce.” But in Constantinople, +as in Cairo, the new habit excited considerable commotion among +the ecclesiastical authorities and political rulers, owing to the +popularity of the coffee-houses having a depressing influence on the +attendance at the mosques, on which account a fierce hostility was +excited among the religious orders against the new beverage. They laid +their grievances before the Sultan, who first prohibited and then +laid a heavy tax upon the coffee-houses, notwithstanding which they +continued to flourish and extend. A similar persecution to that in +Syria and Cairo soon attended its use in the Turkish capital, having +not only to contend there with religious but also with political +opposition, the religious, as usual, predominating in its severity. +The dervishes had the _sagacity_ to discover “that coffee when roasted +became a kind of coal, and coal being one of the substances which their +prophet had declared was not intended by Allah for human food,” they +therefore declaimed against it with unbounded fury. The mufti being of +their party, the coffee-houses were at once closed by a firman of the +Sultan, Amuret III. This prohibition was, however, found impossible +to maintain, as a few years later a more liberal governor succeeding, +he assured the faithful “that _roasted Coffee_ was not _coal_, and +had no relation to it.” The coffee-houses were immediately reopened, +and soon became as much patronized as before. But though religious +superstition thus readily gave way to the seductive influences of +sensitive enjoyment, a submission not at all uncommon, the political +objections were not so easily silenced. The government, first with that +instinctive faculty so natural to all despotic rulers of converting to +their own advantage the tastes and prejudices of their subjects, laid a +heavy tax on the sale and consumption of coffee, from which it derived +an enormous revenue. But the ever-trembling apprehensions of such forms +of government, not satisfied with this restriction, found, or rather +fancied it found, in the coffee-houses resorts for the disaffected +and nurseries of sedition. These “dangerous places” were consequently +regarded with a jealous eye, and again proclaimed against by the edict +of the Sultan. But not being deemed formidable beyond the precincts of +the city, and also being of too much importance to the public revenue, +they were suffered to remain open in all other parts of the empire. +Scruples of conscience and political objections, however, eventually +died out, religious superstition and political opposition being no +longer excited against the use of coffee as a beverage, so far as the +Turkish empire was concerned. + + +INTRODUCTION INTO EUROPE. + +It is likewise very difficult to determine in what year and in what +exact manner coffee was first carried from Constantinople to western +Europe, but it is generally admitted that the Venetians, on account of +the proximity of their dominions and extensive trade with the Levant, +were the first Europeans to become acquainted with it. And it is a +noteworthy fact that the three principal dietical beverages of the +world were introduced into Europe within a few years of each other, +Cocoa being the first of the three which actually appeared there, +having been brought to Spain from South America. Coffee followed, +coming from Arabia, and Tea, the latest of the series, coming from +China by the hands of the Portuguese. + +The first authentic mention made of Coffee or its use by a European +is probably that of Rauwolf, a German physician and traveler, upon +his return from an extended tour through Syria, in 1573. The first +scientific account of the plant being that given by Alpinus, an +Italian naturalist, in his _Medicina Egyptorium_, published in Venice +in 1591. Its use as a beverage is first referred to by two English +travelers--Biddulph and Finch--the former, in writing of it in 1603, +stating “that the Turks have for their most common drink Coffee--a +blackish drink made from a kind of pulse-like pease, and called by +them _Coava_.” In 1607 Finch relates that “the people of the island +Socotra have for their best entertainment a China dish called _Cobo_, a +black, bitterish drink, made of a berry very like a bay-berry, brought +from Moka, and supped off hot.” While Pietro Valla, a Venetian, in +a letter written from Constantinople, in 1615, states that upon his +return to Venice “he would bring back with him some coffee which he +believed was a thing heretofore unknown in his country,” and which he +subsequently did. It is also referred to, in 1621, by Burton in his +“Anatomy of Melancholy” as follows: “The Turks have a drink called +Coffee, so named from a berry, black as soot and as bitter, which they +sip up hot, because they find by experience that that kind of drink, so +used, helpeth digestion and promoteth alacrity.” And coffee in a liquid +state is said to have been sold in Rome as early as 1625. Some of the +prepared beans of Coffee were first carried from Turkey to France by +De la Haye, as early as 1644; “not only coffee, but also the proper +apparatus for preparing it.” In 1657 a small quantity was brought to +Paris by Thevenot, its use, however, being confined solely to his own +immediate family and a few friends. Up to this period, however, and +for many years after, it had never been seen and scarcely ever heard +of by the public at large in that country. But in 1660 “several bales +of coffee” were shipped from Alexandria to Marseillaise, and in 1671 +the first coffee-house was opened in the latter city near the Exchange, +“where the merchants met to smoke, talk business and divert themselves +with play.” But it was not until the year 1669 that Coffee drinking +became popular in France, though infrequent travelers had brought with +them from the East a few pounds of the then curious berry. In that year +Solieman Aga was sent as Ambassador from Mahomet IV. to the court of +Louis XIV., where he soon became a “lion,” through the splendid and +unique entertainments at which he figured as host. On bended knees, the +black slaves of the Ambassador, arrayed in the most gorgeous Oriental +costumes, presented the choicest Moka, in tiny cups of egg-shell +porcelain, hot, strong and fragrant, poured out on saucers of gold and +silver, placed on embroidered silk napkins fringed with gold bullion, +to the grand dames who fluttered their fans with many grimaces, and +bent their piquant faces--berouged, bepowdered and bepatched--over +the new and steaming beverage. Such was the half-barbaric occasion by +which Coffee first became generally known to that nation, which is now +so largely dependent upon the “brown berry of Arabia.” The Parisians +immediately became quite enthusiastic over it, the aristocracy adopting +it as the fashionable beverage, it being recorded that the daughters +of Louis XIV. had Coffee imported expressly for the use of the royal +household, at a cost of $15,000 yearly. + +The first Coffee-house was opened in Paris, in 1672, by an Armenian, +at the fair of St. Germaine. Meeting with considerable success, he +was encouraged to open another at the Quai d’Ecole, where he was +subsequently succeeded by another, but who, owing to a lack of address +and a proper place to serve it in, was soon compelled to relinquish +the business. About 1675 an enterprising Frenchman, Ettienne d’Alep, +fitted up spacious apartments in the Rue des Italienes, with Oriental +magnificence for the purpose of catering to the public taste for +coffee. This Café--as it was called--was the first of these now famous +institutions, was furnished in the most elegant and expensive manner, +ornamented with rich tapestries, mirrors, pictures, divans and costly +lustres, tea and chocolate being also sold in it. This style of +coffee-house multiplied in a very short time in the gay city, and were +regularly frequented by people of fashion, artists, men of letters +and politicians, the Café Procope in particular becoming immortalized +from its being patronized by Voltaire, Molière, Bolieau, Fontaine and +other Encyclopedists, while another, the Café de la Régence, became +the Mecca of chess players. In a brief period these coffee-houses had +increased to nearly three hundred in Paris alone, the Cafés eventually +becoming dangerous rivals to the Cabarets; finally becoming the cradle +of the modern clubs, it being in one of these coffee-houses--the Café +Procope--that Camille Desmoulins was wont to deliver his stirring +addresses. But, as in the East, at first, coffee here again met with +considerable opposition, Madame Sévigné presuming “that coffee and +other poisons would soon go out of fashion.” + +The use of coffee as a beverage is claimed to have been known in +England prior to its introduction into France, and by some authorities +even before the return of Thevenot from the East. One account states +that it was first offered for sale there by a Jew named Jacobs at +Oxford, as early as 1640. And according to the journal of Thomas Rugg, +dated September 22, 1651, coffee was then sold in a liquid state at the +“Sultaness Head, a Cophee house by the Royal Exchange, London,” there +being also distinct evidence extant that for some years prior to that +date it was also offered for sale in many other parts of that city. +The first authentic account, however, states that coffee was first +introduced into England by a Turkey merchant named Daniel Edwards, who, +on his return from a trip to Smyrna, brought back with him a quantity +of it, and with it a Greek servant from Ragusa, named Pasquale Rossie, +who understood the Eastern method of roasting and preparing it. Edwards +had it prepared and served every day to his friends and visitors in +true Oriental style, but finding that the novelty began to attract +too many visitors, his house being thronged daily by those anxious to +taste the new beverage, he established Rossie, in company with another +named Bowman, in a tent for its sale in St. Michael’s Alley, Cornhill, +London, over which Rossie erected a sign with his own portrait, and +subsequently announcing himself to be “the first person who made +and publicly sold Coffee drink in England.” Bowman, later, opened a +coffee-house on his own account on Lombard street, his former partner, +Rossie, going to Holland, where, it is said, he was the first to +introduce coffee in the drink. At this time coffee sold for from twenty +to twenty-five dollars per pound, but soon became cheaper. + +In 1657 many other houses were opened in London for the sale of coffee, +an excise tax of eight pence per gallon being paid on it, when made +and sold in the infusion at that time. The same year a newspaper +advertisement appeared, stating that “In Bartholomew Lane on the back +of the old Exchange the drink called _Cophee_ is sold in the morning +and at three o’clock in the afternoon.” The first mention of coffee on +the statute books was in 1660, when a duty of four pence was laid on +every gallon of coffee made and sold, to be paid by the maker thereof, +another particular statute, in 1663, directing that “all coffee-houses +should be licensed at the general quarter sessions of the peace for the +county in which they are kept.” While another advertisement in that +year says of coffee: “It much quickens the spirits, and makes the heart +lightsome, suppresseth the fumes exceedingly, and, therefore, is good +against headache, prevents cough and consumption, and is excellent for +the cure of gout, dropsy, scurvey, hypochondria and the like.” + +In London, as in the other cities where Coffee was first introduced, +coffee-houses multiplied rapidly, not only in the capital, but in +all the larger cities of England, there being in 1688, according +to Ray, as many coffee-houses in London alone as in grand Cairo +itself, Coffee becoming a beverage of general consumption throughout +the entire country. Long antedating newspapers, the coffee-houses +became news-centres, where the intelligent men of the times gathered +to learn what was occurring in the literary and political world, +to discuss public affairs, governmental measures, and form public +opinion. Wits and poets, essayists and philosophers, daily gathered +in the coffee-houses of London, during several generations, to quote +from favorite authors. How faithfully they harangued and button-holed +each other in that fashion so common to all ages, and within their +precincts, what fear and folly, what foolishness and wisdom, have been +uttered over steaming cups of Mocha. + +Many of these London coffee-houses afterwards became famous as the +resorts of celebrated men. It was at “Will’s Coffee-house,” in Covent +Garden, that Dryden and Addison, Steel and Davenant, Cary and Pope, +met with other luminaries, while others frequented “Buttons”; Garrick +sipping his Mocha at “Paine’s,” in Buchnal Lane. It being at the famous +coffee-houses of “Garraway,” “Coventrie,” and the “St. James,” that +the Whigs of that time “did most congregate,” and if it be proved that +other potations more fiery and deep mingled with those of the Arabian +product, it may be taken for granted that Coffee often supplied the +place of worse beverages, or, at least, mitigated their evil effects, +the “intellectual drink” gaining friends daily among the wits of the +reign of Queen Anne. It was in a London coffee-house that Pope found +the inspiration of “The Rape of the Lock,” if not the “Essay on Man,” +also, an inspiration, which he celebrated in the following lines:-- + + “From silver spirits the grateful liquors glide, + While China’s earth receives the smoking tide; + At once they gratify their sense and taste, + And frequent cups prolong the rich repast; + Coffee! which makes the politician wise, + And see through all things with half-closed eyes.” + +The coffee-houses of London, as in other cities, eventually became +convenient and much frequented resorts of association and acquaintance +where politics, literature and business topics were freely discussed, +and it is also remarkable that the introduction of coffee into England +encountered the same hostility that it was fated to meet with in all +other countries where it was first introduced. Here also it had its +fanatical opponents, numerous pamphlets being published in favor of and +against its use. It was discussed from every point of view, medical, +moral, physical and political, at one time threatening to become a +_causus belli_ between the sexes. The “Women’s petition against coffee” +and the “Men’s answer” to the same have become a matter of history. +Among the men also the new beverage had its opponents, as in 1657 the +“Rainbow Coffee-house” kept by James Farr in Queen’s Temple was reputed +and persecuted by them as “a great nuisance, and a prejudice to the +neighborhood,” and as such was suppressed, but reopened in a short +time afterwards. In 1675 Charles II. for political reasons attempted +to suppress the coffee-houses by a royal proclamation, classing all of +them as “Seminaries of sedition,” and in which it was stated that “they +were the resort of disaffected persons who devised and spread abroad +divers false, malicious and scandalous reports to the defamation of His +Majesty’s Government, the disturbance of the peace and quiet of the +nation.” This proclamation caused so much excitement throughout the +city that it had to be rescinded in a few days on a petition from the +tea and coffee dealers. On the opinion of legal officials being taken +as to the legality of that step, an oracular deliverance was given to +the effect “that the retailing of coffee might be an innocent trade, +but as it was used to nourish sedition, spread lies and scandalize +great men, it might also prove a common nuisance.” Cromwell ordered +them closed again during the Protectorate for somewhat similar reasons, +but having become necessary to the people they could not be put down +for any length of time. But in England also, as in the other countries, +the most effective check on the increase of the consumption of coffee +was found to be a heavy tax, which, while restricting honest trade, +opened up a channel for extensive smuggling operations. + +The London coffee-houses, however, soon assumed the additional +character of Taverns also, other liquors being added to the fare, +thereby losing their attraction for the temperately inclined, the Café +or coffee-house proper flourishing only for any length of time in +Paris alone. But while the people of London began to complain that the +company to be found in their coffee-houses was somewhat mixed, those +of the Parisians from the very first continued to be the most elegant +and select places of resort even to the present day. Before their doors +the equipages of the nobility stopped, while ladies of the highest +rank drank their coffee without alighting, and the Salons within were +crowded with nobles, philosophers, poets, artists and litterateurs. + +The sale of Coffee in a liquid form is claimed to have been first +introduced to Holland by the aforementioned Rossie in 1664, from whence +its use soon spread throughout Germany and other parts of the continent +of Europe. While to Vienna the Turks themselves first introduced +coffee in 1683, under somewhat singular circumstances. In that year +the Moslems besieged that city with an enormous force, the siege being +raised, as history tells, by the Polish King, John Sobieski, and the +Moslem hordes completely routed. Large quantities of coffee were +found in their deserted camp, and presented to one Kolschutski as a +reward for the heroic services he had rendered during the investment +of the city, and utilized by him in the establishment of the first +Coffee-house in Vienna. + +Coffee-houses have been known in the United States from an early period +in its history, but for a long time New Orleans was the only city where +they existed in their true character, the manner being learned from +Paris. Among the American people, however, the beverage has met from +the first with great favor, being at the present time more extensively +used here than in any country of the world, not excepting the countries +of original production. + +Thus in a course of a few centuries has a berry, until then entirely +unknown as an article of diet, except to the semi-savage tribes of +Ethiopia and Abyssinia, made its way through the whole civilized world. +In the nations professing the religion of Mahomet it is drunk at all +hours of the day, and during the night by all ranks and classes of the +people, from the Sultan and the Mufti to the merchant, the artisan and +the peasant. While among the nations professing Christianity, by whom +it has been known for a couple of centuries, it is still regarded as a +luxury, but indulged in, more or less, by all classes and conditions of +society. In none of the states of Christendom was its use ever opposed +by religious fanaticism, nor had it to encounter much opposition from +political jealousy, except for a brief period in England, when its use +was interdicted by Charles II. But, like every other innovation which +has occupied the human mind, it could not fail to occasion a difference +of opinion among medical experts, social reformers and similar bodies. +Its history, at the present time, being only valuable as an example +of a commodity for which there is a universal craving amongst mankind +in general, civilized as well as savage, and to illustrate how it has +struggled successfully, and at length triumphantly, over religious +superstition, political opposition, physiological prejudice, fiscal +restrictions, exorbitant taxes, differential duties and an endless +accumulation of antiquated obstructions. Yet, still, in common with +other important necessaries of life, it has never attained to the +natural state of “unrestricted competition.” + + + + +CHAPTER II. + +GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION + + +The Coffee plant, although now so widely and extensively grown and +cultivated in both hemispheres, and to be found in all the Botanic +gardens as well as in many of the private conservatories of the new and +old worlds, was entirely unknown outside of Abyssinia and Arabia up to +the close of the seventeenth century. Ray, in his “History of Plants,” +published in 1688, expresses his surprise “that the neighboring +countries of Europe should permit so rare a treasure to be confined +to a single province, and wonders what watchful dragon is employed by +the natives to prevent strangers from procuring either the plant or +its seed, which could be readily grown in similar climates and soil;” +adding, “It cannot be imagined how the enterprising commercial nations +of Europe, which founded colonies in the tropics can be so inattentive +to the value and importance of such an acquisition.” Whether acting on +this suggestion or not, the plant soon afterwards was introduced and +extensively cultivated in many of the countries colonized by Europeans. + +Between well-recognized limits north and south of the equator Coffee is +found growing and bearing highly profitable crops in a wide range of +countries to attempt anything like an exhaustive account of which, is +impossible within the range of a single chapter. Originally a native +of Southeastern Africa the coffee plant has been widely distributed, +successfully cultivated and propagated in regions and countries +geographically apart and in districts widely differing in climatic and +topographic conditions, and as having been found to endure greater +extremes of climate, variations in soil and situation than any other +variety of plant of tropical origin. Its facility of propagation and +production under such extreme conditions is admitted by botanists as +most remarkable and equalled only by few members of the vegetable +kingdom, its cultivation at the present time extending over the entire +tropical belt of the globe. + +It is practically indigenous to almost the whole of Africa, being one +of the few useful economic products that the African flora has as yet +given to the world. It is to be found growing there abundantly in +a wild state, particularly between the 5th and 15th parallels, and +in a state of cultivation on the west coast in Liberia, Loango and +northern Angola, as well as in many of the districts lying between the +lower Congo and the latter country, wherein no white man has as yet +penetrated, its planting and gathering being carried on by the natives, +who bring their harvests down to the coast at Ambrig and neighboring +settlements to sell to the white traders. The Portuguese colonists +of Principe and Sao Thorné, cultivate coffee extensively, their +products standing in high repute. It has been grown with success in +the Gaboon by French missionaries, and some desultory planting is also +being carried on in Senegal, St. Helena, Sierra Leone and the Gambia +colonies. It grows wild in the Congo region, the districts around +Glandypool being eminently adapted to its cultivation, but is as yet +not taken advantage of there, the natives of these countries, unlike +those further south, ignoring the properties of its fruit. + +It is cultivated in Natal and on the Zambesi river as well as in +Usumbara, opposite to Zanzibar, which presents a splendid field for +Coffee planting, containing as it does admirable soil, cheap labor, +easy transport and land which is to be had for next to nothing, the +missionaries distributing the Coffee seed among the inhabitants to +induce them to cultivate it more extensively. While further into the +interior, towards Pare, Nyanza and Killimanjaro, there are increasingly +fine sites and suitable soil for successful and profitable Coffee +planting only owned as yet by the birds of the air and the beasts of +the field. It is to be found both in a wild state as well as in a +state of cultivation in Abyssinia and the Nyassa district, being also +cultivated for commercial purposes further north in lower Egypt, Nubia, +Somali and the Soudan, as well as in Mozambique, and the islands of +Madagascar, Bourbon and Mauritius. But the total yield of Africa so far +as its influence on the world’s supply is concerned is comparatively +insignificant, the export capacity of the latter countries not +exceeding 800 tons annually. The total product of the eastern provinces +of Africa taken in connection with the small quantities raised on the +west coast making Africa contribute only between 3,000 to 4,000 tons to +the world’s production, this amount including all the Coffee grown in +Egypt and the interior countries of that continent. + +From Africa the coffee plant was undoubtedly carried to Arabia, but +at what period of the world’s history or under what circumstances is +not definitely known. It was introduced from Arabia to Java in 1690, +according to Boerhave, who tells us that “Nicholas Wilser, Burgomaster +of Amsterdam and Governor of the Dutch East India Company, in that +year instructed Van Horn, the then Governor of Batavia, to procure +some plants or seeds of the Coffee tree from Arabia and endeavor to +cultivate them in that settlement.” Although its introduction into +Java is placed later by Stavornius, who claims that the plant was +first carried from Mocha to Batavia as late as 1722 by Zwardekiom, the +governor of the colony in that year, other authorities claiming that +Zwardekiom only helped to extend its cultivation on that island. The +latter account is probably the most correct one, as it is recorded +that coffee in the bean, grown in Java, was offered for sale in the +Amsterdam market the exact year that Stavornius states that it was +first introduced into that island. Be this as it may, the undertaking +was successful from the beginning, many plants being propagated there, +one of which, the first seen in Europe, was sent to the botanic garden +in Amsterdam, where it in due time bore fruit. Many young trees were +subsequently propagated from this plant and distributed among the +gardens and conservatories of Europe, one of these being sent as a +rare present to the king of France. The Dutch later extending the +cultivation of coffee to Sumatra, Celebes, Bali, Timour and many other +of the smaller islands of the Malay archipelago. + +The Coffee plant was introduced into India, on the Malabar coast, about +the year 1700, from Aden, although it is claimed to have been grown in +that country, in the province of Mysore, long anterior to that year, +tradition, relating that the plant was first introduced by Baba Booden, +a Musselman pilgrim, who brought “seven berries” with him from Arabia +about the year 1600, which he is said to have planted around his hut in +the hills of Mysore, near which coffee trees over one hundred years old +are yet to be seen. The earliest written account of the cultivation of +the coffee plant in India is that contained in a Dutch work, entitled +“Letters from Malabar,” by Jacob Visscher, chaplain at Cochin, in one +of which he states that “the Coffee shrub is planted in gardens there +for pleasure, and yields plenty of fruit, which attains a proper degree +of ripeness, but has not the refined taste of Mocha coffee.” The exact +year in which these letters were written is not known, but the Dutch +editor’s preface is dated 1743, so that it may be concluded that the +plant must have been introduced and known in India prior to that year, +although there is no official record made of the plant or its product +in that country further back than 1822, and though undoubtedly grown +there at an early period, does not seem to have met with much attention +there up to the close of the last century, no allusion being made to +it in any Indian work until we come to “Heynes’ Tracts,” published in +1800, in one of which we are merely told that coffee was then being +sold in the bazaars of Bangalore and Seringapatam. At the present time +Coffee is grown all along India from the northern limits of Mysore +and south to the summits and slopes of the western Ghauts in British +Cape Comorin, Coorg and Travancore, in the Wynaad and Neilgherry +mountains, as well as in the slopes of the Shevany and Pulney hills. +In 1880 over 500,000 acres had been taken up for Coffee culture in the +Cochin, Madras, Mysore, Travancore, Belgaum and Bengal presidences, +of which nearly 200,000 acres have now maturing plants. A very large +portion of the surface of Burmah which still remains in its primeval +state of unproductive jungle--owing to the almost total absence of +natural energy on the part of the natives--is admirably adapted to the +successful and profitable cultivation of Coffee. While in the hilly +districts of the east coast of the Gulf of Siam, Cochin-China and the +Straits settlements, the cultivation of Coffee is carried on to a +limited extent, some fine samples being shown at the Exhibition of 1862. + +The Coffee plant was introduced from Java into the island of Ceylon +by the Dutch in 1720, where they began to cultivate it without any +successful results, their efforts being confined to the lowlands in +the districts of Galle and Negonogo, the location proving unfavorable +in soil and temperature, the natives being also opposed to the +innovation. But although some coffee of excellent quality was produced, +notwithstanding these obstacles, it was found that it could not be +cultivated there to advantage, when compared with the Java product. +Yet though suspended for a time by the Dutch, it was not entirely +abandoned by the native Cingalhese, who having, in the meantime, +learned the commercial value of the article, continued to grow it in +small quantities, so that after the British obtained possession of +the island the Moors, who collected it in the villages, brought the +hulled beans to Galle and Colombo, to barter them for cutlery, cotton +and trinkets. It is claimed, on the other hand, to have been grown in +Ceylon long before the arrival of the Dutch, and even the Portuguese, +but that the preparation of a beverage from its fruit was unheard of +by the natives, who only employed its tender leaves for their curries, +and its delicate, jassamine-like flowers for ornamenting their shrines +and temples. On the occupation of Ceylon, after its concession to the +British in 1825, however, the English troops found the coffee tree +growning in profusion in the vicinity of the temples in Kandy, and also +large coffee gardens, highly cultivated, were found on the banks of the +river Mahawelli and close to the palace of Hangaurau. + +The coffee plant was introduced into the Phillipine Islands by Spanish +missionaries from Java about 1740, but a species of wild coffee +trees have been found on the island of Luzon, the berries being left +ungathered, the natives being ignorant of their use or preparation, +there being well-authentic instances of the same kind at the present +day where the natives wonder what is done with the berries when hulled +and cleaned, whether it is eaten or for what purpose intended. It was +first introduced into the islands of Bourbon and Mauritius by the +French through Du Fougerais Grenier in 1717, from Arabia and from +Mozambique to Madagascar by natives about the same period. + +The island of Borneo grows good Coffee, and since the country has +been opened up to settlers some 200,000 acres of forest lands have +been selected by Cantonese, European and Australian planters for this +purpose, the gardens around Silam particularly being very encouraging +as regards the new product. With the splendid and well-proportioned +rain-fall Coffee grows extremely well, especially Liberian Coffee, +for which the soil and climate of that island seems well adapted. +Coffee cultivation is carried on there in the gardens of the Europeans +and thrives remarkably well, while the Malays state that it is grown +extensively by the Dyaks of the Pontianak river for the use of that +settlement, but its cultivation on an extensive or systematic scale has +not been encouraged, the government not wishing to create a competition +with Java. The hills on the mainland opposite Lubuhan are well adapted +for its successful cultivation, since there Coffee can be grown without +the trouble and expense of raising trees amongst the plantations to +protect the plants from the sun, as has to be done in so many other +countries. It is also systematically cultivated in the islands of +Guinea, Fiji, the Friendly and Hawaiian Islands, as well as in many +others of the South Pacific ocean. The Coffee plant having been in +existence in Samoa and other islands of that group for some years past +where it is found to flourish luxuriantly, proving the suitability of +the soil and climate, but in consequence of never being scientifically +treated there it has not as yet become an article of commerce from +these islands. Coffee cultivation has been successfully introduced into +Caledonia and other groups in the South Pacific, which, in the course +of a few years, will probably form an important export, the trees +raised there from seed bearing fruit in the fourth year. In Honolulu +its cultivation is also progressing, large plantations having been laid +out with a view to supplying the markets of Chili, Peru, Sydney and +California. + +The mountain ranges on the northern coast of Australia from Moreton bay +to Torres straits, and other parts of that section, are recommended +for Coffee cultivation, while in Queensland the plant has long been +successfully grown, but it has not as yet become an article of export +there, the plantations having recently suffered much from disease. It +has been found to thrive well, however, in the vicinity of Brisbane, +Cardwell and other northern districts, especially among the sheltered +ridges of the Herbert and Endeavor rivers, these sites offering the +most favorable conditions, the smaller farmers finding that Coffee pays +them better than corn or potatoes, several of them having recently +sold to the merchants of Brisbane some of their product as high as 20 +cents per pound. This list does not by any means exhaust the possible +sections in the South Pacific where Coffee cultivation has been tried +with great advantage, but simply touches upon some of the chief centres +adapted to the enterprise. + + +INTRODUCTION OF THE COFFEE PLANT INTO AMERICA. + +The history of the first introduction of the coffee plant into the +new world is as romantic as it is interesting. In the year 1714 the +French king, Louis XIV, was presented by the magistrates of Amsterdam +with a fine specimen of the Coffee plant, almost five feet high and +in full foliage, from the botanic garden of that city. This plant was +carefully nursed, and from it some sprouts were sent to Martinique +in 1717, being committed to the care of De Clieux, an officer in +the French naval service, who subsequently proved himself worthy +of the trust reposed in him. The voyage being long and the weather +unfavorable, the whole ship’s crew were at length reduced to a short +allowance of water, all the young plants dying except one for lack +of nourishment. It was at this juncture that this zealous patriot +divided his own scanty allowance with the plant committed to his care, +happily succeeding in bringing it safe to Martinique uninjured, where +it afterwards flourished and from which was propagated sufficient to +supply the adjacent islands, De Tour claiming that from this single +plant was produced the almost innumerable varieties now to be found on +the American continent. + +In 1718, however, the Dutch colony of Surinam began to introduce +and cultivate Coffee, from plants received from Java. In 1722 the +French governor of the adjoining colony of Cayenne, having business +in Surinam, contrived, by an artifice, to bring away with him from +there a small Coffee plant, which, in the year 1725, had produced many +thousands, which were distributed among all the French colonies on the +mainland, its cultivation being extended to Para from Cayenne, by the +French, in 1732; the first Coffee plantation opened in Brazil being +commenced in that province a few years later. Its cultivation, however, +made little or no progress in that now world-famous Coffee-growing +country until 1767, when its cultivation was still further extended to +the province of Maranhao, where it soon increased rapidly under careful +and judicious management. + +In 1774 a Belgian monk, named Molke, procured some plants from one of +the prosperous Maranhao estates, and carried them to Rio de Janeiro, +the first one being planted in the garden of the Capuchin monastery +of Adjuda, then situated in the suburbs, but now almost in the centre +of that city. This plant prospered so well under his care, and he, +becoming convinced of its future importance as a valuable acquisition +to the industries of the country, that a few years later he cleared a +plantation for its systematic and more extensive cultivation. Joachim +Bruno, the then Bishop of Rio de Janeiro, also perceiving the valuable +benefits to be derived by the country from Coffee cultivation, and to +whom Brazil is indebted for the introduction and cultivation of many +of its now valuable trees and plants, was accustomed to distribute +the seeds of the coffee produced on Molke’s plantation and the garden +of the monastery among the religious institutions of his diocese, +personally recommending and encouraging its cultivation by them, at +the same time presenting many specimens to the laity. From this simple +and unostentatious beginning, has grown the extensive coffee-lands of +to-day in Brazil, hundreds of thousands of acres of land being devoted +to its culture at the present day, over $100,000,000 being invested in +the industry. + +From Brazil the coffee plant was later carried to Peru, Chili, Paraguay +and other South American countries, while from Martinique it was first +introduced into Jamaica by Sir Nicholas Lawes in 1732, a special act +of Parliament being passed in that year to encourage and foster its +cultivation on that island. Coffee culture is claimed to have been +first introduced into San Domingo by wild fowl who carried the seeds +in their craws from one of the neighboring islands about 1735, being +later introduced to the smaller islands of the Antilles by the French +themselves. + +The Spaniards procured some plants from Martinique, and undertook its +cultivation in Cuba, Porto Rico and others of their possessions in the +West Indies about 1750, its culture prospering well in these islands +until replaced later by the less expensive and more profitable sugar +industry, but it was not until 1784 that they undertook its cultivation +in their possessions on the mainland. In that year Bartholemew Blandin +started a plantation in the Chacao valley, situated about a league from +the now famous coffee-growing district of Caracas, a Dr. Sligo, soon +afterwards, following Blandin’s example in the equally famous district +of Maracaibo, the new branch of industry being soon generally adopted +throughout Venezuela, Columbo, Ecuador and Bolivia, where several +varieties are grown, particularly throughout the Yungas district, the +best product being valued as not inferior to the far-famed Mocha itself. + +In 1818 the profitableness of coffee culture in the West Indies led to +the establishment of extensive plantations in Mexico in the cantons of +Orizaba and Cordova, which in 1825 were in a most flourishing state, +its cultivation in that country being still further extended to the +valleys of the interior, in 1826 there being in Cuentla and Cuenmarca +alone estates containing as many as 500,000 coffee trees. Elsewhere +in Mexico at the time much attention was bestowed in extending its +cultivation, great hopes being entertained that every available +spot would be occupied in its cultivation and that its people would +be largely engaged in its cultivation and exportation to foreign +countries. But the civil disorders which begun so soon after its +introduction to that country and which continued for so long a time +after paralyzed the industry in its infancy, disappointing these hopes +so much so that the production of coffee in Mexico has been almost +limited to supplying the home demand. Now, however, a brighter era has +arrived, more attention being given to its cultivation in that country, +her coffee product steadily increasing and improving from year to +year. From Mexico the cultivation of the coffee plant spread through +Guatemala to Nicaragua, Honduras, Salvador and Costa Rica, until it +is or will be grown throughout all the Central and South American +countries. + +Efforts have been made from time to time during the past twenty years +to introduce the cultivation of coffee into the United States, many +thousands of plants being distributed throughout Florida, Texas and +Lower California with that object in view. Reported results to the +Agricultural Department in Washington from these distributions lead +to the belief that the climate is too cold for its production for +commercial purposes. Some years ago the department received a sample +of coffee berries which had been gathered from plants said to have +been grown in the open air near the Manatee river in Florida. It was +afterwards learned upon investigation that these plants had been +protected during the coldest nights by canvas coverings, and in some +instances with blankets, yet it is admitted that while it is more than +likely that in the extreme southern parts of Florida the coffee plant +would thrive without protection and in the open air, the topographical +conformation of that part of the State is most unfavorable for its +commercial cultivation. Again, in the extreme southern part of +California climatic conditions favorable to its production have +been found, but so far little encouragement has been received from +the efforts to cultivate the plant in that section. Some years ago +Liberian coffee-plants were introduced by the Agricultural Department, +this species being hardier and needing less care and attention when +transplanted to other countries. But, contrary to all precedent and +expectations, they were found to require a warmer climate and more +congenial topographic conditions than the Arabian species already +tried. Here it is a fact worthy of note, that in many of the countries +into which the coffee plant has been introduced, indigenous varieties +were subsequently discovered. This is more particularly true of +Liberia, Mauritius, Malabar and Manilla in the Eastern Hemisphere, and +in Mexico, Costa Rica, Bolivia, Peru and Brazil in the Western. No less +than sixteen different species being claimed to have been discovered in +the latter country alone. + + + + +CHAPTER III. + +BOTANICAL CHARACTERISTICS AND FORM. + + +This now important and valuable article of food was known to the early +inhabitants of Ethiopia, where its virtues were first discovered and +used, as _Bun_, signifying “brown” or “roasted.” In Arabia it is +termed _Kawah_, meaning “strength” or “vigor,” the infusion being +called _Quahouch_; while to the Turks it is known as _Chaube_ in the +bean, and _Kahve_ in the liquid state; to Persians, _Karweh_; to the +natives of the Malay Archipelago as _Kopi_, and finally _Kaffa_ or +_Caffia_ by the inhabitants of that district, situated in the Province +of Narca, in southeastern Abyssinia, where it is to be found growing +in wild abundance, even at the present day, whence its botanical name, +_Coffea_, adopted by Linnæus and others. + +The genus known as _Coffea_ is divided by botanists into some sixty +species, of which fifteen are referred to Africa, seven to Asia and +about twenty-two to America; but there is abundant reason for supposing +that the majority of these so-called _species_ are but mere varieties, +a single _genus_, due to different conditions of soil, climate and +cultivation, three of which it will be sufficient for all practical +purposes to distinguish in this work. It is classed botanically as +a species coming under the head of the _Pentandria_ of Linnæus and +the family _Rubiceæ_, although by others it is placed among the +_Cinchonaceæs_ family of plants which comprise numerous species of +tropical berry-bearing shrubs, one of which only is known to possess +valuable properties celebrated for the agreeable and stimulating +effect of an infusion made from its roasted albumen. + +The common Coffee shrub is an evergreen plant, which, under natural +conditions, grows to a height of from eighteen to twenty feet, having +the appearance of an upright, slender tree, with main stem very erect, +and free from branches for the greater part of its height, but opening +at the top into drooping branches, few but long, with an abundance +of fine fibrous roots under ground, and an all-important top-root. +But in a state of cultivation it is a shrub of close and systematic +growth of low-standing, and averaging only from four to six feet in +height, its upward growth being checked by the pruning-knife of the +cultivator, and also trained by frequent cutting and topping so as to +assume a pyramidal form for the purpose of increasing the quantity +and improving the quality of its product as well as to facilitate the +picking of its crop. The branches are bracheate, horizontal, simple and +opposite, growing regularly from the ground up, but trailing towards +the top, cylindrical in form, flexible, loose and expanding out and +downwards like those of the apple tree, and extremely pleasing in +general appearance. The leaves are from five to six inches in length, +and from two to three wide in the middle when full grown, oblong-ovate, +accuminate, smooth, and of a dark, shiny-green color on the upper +surface, but pale underneath, firm and leathery in texture, closely +resembling those of the Portuguese laurel, continuing three years, and +possessing slightly tonic and stimulating properties. The flowers, +which are produced in dense clusters in the axils of the leaves fitting +close to the axils, are funnel-shaped and small but numerous, having a +five-toothed calyx, a tubular five-parted corolla, five stamens and a +single bifid style, snow-white in color, possessing a rich, fragrant +odor, approaching that of the jessamine, the plants in blossom having +a peculiarly rich and attractive appearance, the bloom being very +evanescent and of short duration, but are quickly followed by fruit, +there being generally two, sometimes three, relays of blossoms before +all the buds mature, until after a day or two, when they gradually +turn brown and fade away; the slower and more gradual this process the +better for the crop, which is always estimated by the abundance of the +blossoms. The fruit, which quickly follows in the hollow of the leaves, +is a fleshy or “pulpy” berry, at first greenish and hard to the touch, +assumes a yellowish hue as it continues to ripen under the meridian +sun, the color deepening not regularly but by crimson or scarlet shades +and tints which spread over the surface, having at this stage the size +and appearance of a small cherry, assuming a dark-red or deep, glossy +purple black color with a smooth and bloomless cuticle as it matures. +In both states of flower and fruit nature is nowhere so profuse and +beautiful in the variety of its colors and forms. The plant, being an +evergreen, the foliage is always fresh, and, though, in the autumn +season, the blossoms appear scattered among the dark-green leaves, +resembling flakes of snow, they are hardly ever absent from the tree. +It continues to put forth fruit, while the blossoms are arriving at +maturity, and nothing is more singular or striking of its kind than its +producing capabilities, as at all seasons, leaves, blossoms and ripe +fruit are to be seen on the same tree at the same time, and the fruit +may be gathered at any period, but the regular harvests are usually two +in the course of a year. + +Each fruit contains two seeds embedded in a yellowish pulp, the seeds +being again enclosed in a thin membraneous parchment. The _Epicarp_ or +outer-skin of the berry is at first dark-green in color, but assumes +a yellow and finally a bright-scarlet color as it ripens, becoming +dark-purple as it dries, having a little circular area at the summit +and a callous point through it. In this condition it contains a +mucilaginous, saccharine, glutinous substance, technically termed the +“pulp,” a succulent, sweet and palatable matter, closely enveloping +the seeds, frequently eaten by the pickers. Another substance, known +as the _Mesocarp_, secures and separates the _Pyrenes_ or seeds, and +as the fruit dries this mesocarp hardens and becomes part of the shell +or hull surrounding the seeds, which it becomes necessary to remove by +a milling or hulling process in order to free them from this covering. +These pyrenes or seeds are again invested by a cartilaginous membrane +termed the _Endocarp_, but commonly known as the “parchment,” a +papery, elastic substance, loosely but completely enveloping them. On +removing this parchment we have exposed two small, oval seeds facing +each other, though sometimes there is but one called from its shape +male or “pea-berry.” These seeds, which constitute the raw Coffee of +commerce, are plano-convex in form, the flat surfaces which are laid +against each other within the berry, having a longitudinal furrow or +groove extending their entire length. When first exposed they are of a +soft, semi-translucent bluish or greenish color, afterwards becoming +hard, tough or flinty in texture, in which state it is known as “rice +coffee,” the bulk of which forms the Coffees of commerce. This seed or +“bean” as it is called in trade is still incased in what is known as +the _Testa_, another covering which forms an integument of the seed +and which is known to commerce as the “silver-skin,” the mass of the +coffee beneath this testa being termed the _Albumen_. Contained in this +albumen and embedded near its base is to be found the _Embryo_. The +first of these structures, that is, the epicarp, mesocarp and endocarp, +belong to the fruit or berry, the other three, that is, the testa, +albumen and embryo, being essentially parts of the seed or bean. The +uses of these various structures surrounding the embryo are to protect +it from injury and at the same time supply it with proper nourishment +until such time as it is enabled to take care of itself. The testa +or silver-skin enveloping every part of the albumen, following and +dipping into the furrow on the face of the Coffee bean by its tough, +leatherly nature, acts as an effectual protection to the delicate +structures contained within. The albumen, bearing the same relation to +the bean that flour does to wheat, the white-meat to cocoanut, and the +aromatic, ruminated secretion to the nutmeg. It is a secretion, found +in the _internal_ of the seed, enveloping the embryo plant, and for the +support of which it is destined when it first begins to germinate. Each +perfect Coffee berry should contain two such oval seeds, placed facing +each other, the flat sides opposite; but it frequently occurs that +only one seed forms, the other becoming abortive, and variously known +as “virgin” “male” or “pea-berry.” Coffee seeds are generally termed +“beans” in commerce, a term not derived from any resemblance they may +have to a bean; while, again, they are termed by many as “berries,” the +latter term being applicable only to the fruit or pod, the term “bean” +being more appropriate to the seed. + + +SUB-VARIETIES. + +According to some botanists, there is but one genus of the Coffee +plant,--_Coffea Arabica_,--others, again, contending that there are two +separate and distinct species, classified as _Coffea Orientalis_ and +_Coffea Occidentalis_. While admitting but one genus, the difference in +size, appearance and product being attributed by them to a variation +in soil, climate and methods of cultivation, there are three principal +varieties, however, readily distinguished and recognized by those who +have much to do with it, and are known to commerce as _Coffea Arabica_, +_Coffea Liberica_ and _Coffea Maragogipe_, lately discovered in Brazil, +all of which or their transplants furnish the Coffees of commerce. + +[Illustration: COFFEE HACIENDA AND GROWER.] + +[Illustration: _Coffea Arabica_,] + +Or “Arabian Coffee plant,” is the best-known species, being an +evergreen, partaking more of the nature of a shrub, which, in a +state of cultivation, varies in height from four to six feet, its +foliage resembling that of Portuguese laurel. The trunk is erect +and slender, averaging about three inches in diameter and covered +with a whitish-brown bark, rather rough in appearance. The branches +are numerous, ordinarily bending downwards when the plant begins to +grow old, but when young and vigorous extend in a round form like +an umbrella. The wood is very limber and pliable, so much so that +the ends of the longest branches may be bent down to within three +inches of the ground without snapping. The leaves are oval in form, +dark green in color, shiny and sharp pointed as those of the citron +tree, ranged on the branches opposite, but at a little distance from +each other. The flowers or blossoms are also numerous, clustering +with projecting antlers, snowy-white and very fragrant, but of short +duration, disappearing quick, but rapidly followed by the fruit +springing apparently from them. The fruit is a small berry, green at +first, but assuming a rich scarlet as it ripens. From this species has +been propagated the numerous varieties now known to commerce. The range +of this species is at elevations of from 1,000 to 4,000 feet above +sea-level between the latitudes of 15° north and 15° south, but its +cultivation may be extended for commercial purposes to 36° north and +30° south in latitudes where the temperature does not fall below 55°; +still the most favorable climate for it would be where the temperature +does not fall below 60° to 80° in the shade, and as to humidity there +should be no month in the year entirely devoid of rain, the total +of which should range from 100 to 150 inches per annum, that is, an +absence of extremes of temperature with a constant supply of moisture. +This species is cultivated chiefly in Arabia, India, Ceylon, Natal, +Java, Sumatra and other islands in the Malay Archipelago, as well as +in Mexico, the West Indies, Central and South America and recently in +Australasia, furnishing almost the whole of the coffees of commerce. + +[Illustration: _Coffea Liberica_,] + +Or “Liberian Coffee plant,” which has recently been brought forward +as a rival to the Arabian variety, is an indigenous species found +both in a wild and cultivated state on the west coast of Africa, and +which in an adult cultivated state ranges in height from fifteen to +twenty feet, being of tree-like habits. The trunk is thick, very erect, +and covered with a dark-brown bark of a downy texture. The branches +also differ from those of the Arabian species insomuch as they do +not possess the horizontal, drooping tendency so characteristic of +the latter, being also hardier and more prolific. The leaves are +proportionately large, varying in length from eight to fifteen inches +and in many instances from four to five inches in width at their widest +part. They are dark-green in color, leathery in texture, and instead +of the wedge-shaped base, narrowing as it approaches the petitole or +stalk; it more resembles the continuation of the extremity of the leaf +itself. The flowers are also fewer, never more than six to eight in a +cluster, are much larger, but devoid of fragrance. The fruit, as may be +inferred from the tree-like habits of this species, is extremely large, +averaging an inch to an inch and a quarter in length, ellipsoidal in +form, and characteristically pointed at both ends. It lacks the bright +red color of the Arabian variety, when ripe, being commonly of a dull +red, approaching brown, becoming black as it dries. The pulp is also +thicker, fibrous and more fleshy, but lacking in succulence, and cannot +be eaten; the parchment being hard and brittle, dark-brown in color +and never clear. The testa, or silver-skin, is much stronger, tougher, +and more tightly rolled into the deep, narrow furrow on the face. The +seed or bean is also extremely large in size, peculiar in form, what is +known as “male” or “pea-berry” in form is dark-brown in color, solid +and heavy in weight and exceedingly strong in flavor. Taken altogether, +the wide divergence in the general appearance and habits of this +variety, the culture of the leaves, lesser number of flowers, size, +weight, color, peculiar formation, and other characteristics, stamp it +as a distinct species of the genus _Coffea_. + +Increasing attention is lately being devoted to this species. It is a +native of Liberia, and is to be found growing wild in great abundance +along the whole of the Guinea coast and is to be distinguished from +the ordinary shrub by much more vigorous growth, by affecting flat, +low and coast lands as well as hill sides, by attaining greater size +and withstanding greater extremes of climate. It also possesses +the additional advantage in that it is capable of improvement by +cultivation, and though as liable to disease as the Arabian plant, +appears to be affected only in a minor degree, while on the other hand +the product is much coarser flavored, which is considered no drawback +to its being used for admixture with better sorts, by which means it +yields a cheap, yet genuine beverage. Experiments have been lately +tried in Ceylon of grafting the finer flavored Arabian on the stocks +of this species, thus producing a hybrid from which great benefits are +anticipated in the future. It is a species, moreover, which grows well +in low altitudes, and would probably flourish is situations that have +proved unsuitable for the Arabian plant, and should it come up to the +sanguine expectations of the Java, Ceylon, Mexican, South American and +other planters, to whom it has been submitted for experiment, there is +no doubt but that it will prove a formidable rival to the species which +have hitherto received the exclusive attention of planters generally. + +[Illustration: _Coffea Maragogipe_,] + +Or “Brazilian Coffee plant,” is a new and indigenous variety, recently +discovered in the province of that name, in Brazil, much larger than +the Arabian, but smaller than the Liberian. It grows with extraordinary +vigor, coming into full bearing much sooner than either of the +foregoing varieties, trees of two to three years attaining a height +of eight to ten feet, being full of fruit at that age, the berry and +product per acre being also larger. Planters who have adopted this +variety are so well pleased with the results obtained that they are +replacing the regular species with it, all agreeing that in size of +berry, style of bean, strength and flavor, it is a species to be +recommended. + + +OTHER VARIETIES. + +There are numerous other varieties of the Coffee plant, closely allied, +but still markedly distinct from the foregoing species, inasmuch +as they do not possess any valuable or intrinsic properties, being +cultivated only for the sake of their foliage or flowers. Among which +is that of:-- + +=Coffea Mauritiana.=--Found on the island of Mauritius, and evidently +belonging to the Arabian species, yet claimed by La Marche to be +specifically distinct from it, on account of the difference in the +size and form of its fruit. This eminent botanist must have been +unaccountably negligent with respect to its specific character, having +retained the description given by Linnæus of the Arabian plant, which +is in the Plantarium described as entirely opposite to it. + +=Coffea Guinensis.=--A native of Guinea, on the west coast of Africa, +and a shrub from one to two feet high, with flowers quadrified, berries +small and violet-colored, seeds two in number, cartilaginous and +pointed at the ends; but found to be entirely devoid of the valuable or +stimulating properties so characteristic of those of the true Coffee +plant. + +=Coffea Panenlato.=--Another species, also found on the Guinea +coast, being a shrub having a large trunk, from seven to eight feet +high, covered with a gray, cracked bark and yielding a fruit totally +different from that of Coffee. + +=Coffea Racemora.=--A species found in a wild state on the east coast +of Africa, and in a state of cultivation in the vicinity of Zanzibar. +It is a small, upright, tree-like plant about six feet high, heavy in +foliage and flowering, but devoid of fragrance and barren of fruit. + +=Coffea Trifora.=--A shrub of about six feet high, found in Othahetai, +foliaceous and flowery, but producing no fruit. This particular variety +is also to be found in Jamaica, San Domingo, Martinique and other +islands of the West Indies. Many other species such as the _Coffea +Fambasena_, a native of the Friendly Islands, _Coffea Ghengalensis_, +grown in Nepaul, _Coffea Opulina_ and the _Cirdorata_, the latter being +claimed to be analogous to the true Coffee plant, and is extensively +grown on the island of Tamai, and many others cultivated principally +for their seeds. + + + + +CHAPTER IV. + +CULTIVATION AND PREPARATION. + + +The principal points which determine the value of a location for the +successful and profitable cultivation of Coffee are:--(1) Soil and +climate; (2) Situation and aspect; (3) Temperature and rainfall; +(4) Proximity to a river, and (5) Shelter from wind and wash. Most +of which are necessarily subject to variation, according to country +and locality, shelter from wind being perhaps of the most paramount +importance, and which should not be sacrificed for a richer soil, as +the latter can be artificially supplied much quicker than the former. + + +SOIL AND CLIMATE. + +Soil and climate are subjects of primitive importance in the +cultivation of Coffee. The soil of Coffee lands varies as widely almost +as the different countries in which it is grown. In Africa, where the +plant is indigenous, it is chiefly composed of a reddish clay on the +West Coast, with a hard sandy subsoil, while on the East Coast it is +found to be composed chiefly of a dark loamy earth. The Arabian soil, +where the plant is exotic and where the finest Coffee is produced, is +purely an artificial one, while in India it is successfully grown in +five different kinds of soil, ranging from a dark chocolate clay to +a deep jungle mould. The soil of Ceylon consisting of a rich, dark +earth, friable and mixed with blocks and small stones. On the island of +Java, to the contrary, where some of the finest varieties are produced, +the soil is principally composed of a black leaf-mould, intermixed with +fine sand and small stones, whereas in the principal Coffee-growing +countries of the American continent the best crops produced, as a +general rule, are raised on rich, dark loamy lands, the subsoil of +which are too rocky to be worked with a plow. The only exception to +the rule being Brazil, where the soil varies to a great extent, a clay +of _terra rocha_ forming the chief upper and lower subsoil. The most +suitable soil for Coffee cultivation, however, is that which grows +soft timber, to be found on high quartzy ridges, where the land is +of a dark chocolate color, mixed with small stones, and overspread +here and there with boulders of granite, as where the soil is dark, +loose and full of roots, it is sure to be rich in organic matter, and +therefore good for Coffee, which is a hardy plant and not on the whole +difficult to please in this matter; such a soil generally contains +about 5 per cent. of its weight of organic matter in combination with +other fertilizing substances. Looking at Coffee soil from an analyst’s +standpoint, it consists of an _organic_ part, which when placed in the +fire will burn away, and an _inorganic_ or mineral part which will +not burn. The constitution of the first is well known to planters, +being formed of the remains of animals, insects, or minute visible +and invisible organisms of various kinds, from the dung of animals, +birds, caterpillars and worms, to that of roots, stems and leaves of +decayed vegetable matter. The inorganic part, consisting of sand, +clay, lime, magnesia and the oxides of soda, potash and manganese, +including carbonic, sulphuric and phosphoric acids. The preponderance +of one or more of these natural divisions, making the soil productive +or unproductive as the case may be, while certain plants make certain +calls upon one or more of these substances, and, consequently, such +must be present and available in a soil that is to suit them. A +rich soil for Coffee generally contains about five per cent., or +one-twentieth of its weight, of organic matter in combination with +other fertilizing substances. But as to the _best_ soil for Coffee in +particular the leading authorities differ, so that as a broad principle +it may be laid down that the best soil is the _richest_, no matter what +its color, whether it be the valley silt of Arabia, the volcanic mould +of Java, the jungle soil of India and Ceylon, or the rich red earth +of Brazil. But the deeper, freer and richer the soil, whatever it may +be, the better as long as it is specially tested for phosphoric acid +and potash. The latter is found in abundance wherever a large forest +has been felled, burned grass-land being also considered good for this +purpose, as it also contains those very requisite properties of Coffee +soil. + +If the soil be naturally light and poor and washed by every shower, +the more soluble portions, together with the salts of the manure +applied to the trees, is generally robbed by the heavy rains. In such +a case it is next to impossible to keep a plantation in a high state +of cultivation without an enormous expense in the constant application +of manure. Many plantations are again subject to landslips, which are +likewise produced by the violence of the rains; in such cases the +destruction is most disastrous, and whenever landslips are frequent +they may be taken as an evidence of a poor clay subsoil. The rain soaks +through the surface, and not being able to percolate through the clay +with sufficient rapidity, it lodges between the two strata, loosening +the upper surface, which slides from the greasy clay, launched, as it +were, by its own gravity, into the valley below. This is the worst +kind of soil for the coffee tree, whose long tap-root is ever seeking +nourishment from beneath. On such a soil it is very common to see +a young plantation giving great promise, but as the trees increase +in growth the tap-root reaches the clay subsoil, and the plantation +immediately falls off. The subsoil is of far more importance to the +coffee tree than the upper surface, as the latter may be improved by +manure, while if the former is bad there is no remedy. The first thing +to be considered being the soil, and the planter being satisfied with +its quality, there is another item of equal importance to be taken into +consideration when choosing a locality for a coffee plantation. This is +an extent of grazing land sufficient for the support of cattle that may +be required for producing manure. In countries with large proportions +of forests this is, however, not always practicable, the planter having +recourse to artificial manure. + +The subject of climate, though quite as important as that of soil, +can yet be described with more accuracy. The extreme limits of coffee +cultivation lie between the isothermal lines of the 25° north and the +30° south of the equator, but the best zone of latitude is that lying +between the 20° north and south of the equator, one having a mean +temperature of 65° to 75° Fahrenheit. A constant and uniform moisture, +either natural or artificial, is especially requisite and indispensable +to the free development of the trees, together with a rainfall of from +75 to 150 inches per annum, falling early in the season, but must be +well distributed at the same time. The regions, however, found to be +best adapted for the most successful and profitable cultivation of +Coffee, are well-watered mountain slopes at an elevation ranging from +1,000 to 4,000 feet above sea-level, in latitudes lying between 15° +north and 15° south of the equator, although it is profitably grown at +the present time from 25° north to 30° south of that line, but only in +situations where the temperature does not fall below 55° at any time. + + +SELECTING LAND. + +As a general rule, virgin forest land has been found the most suitable +to break up for Coffee plantations, it having become naturally enriched +by decayed vegetable matters, and the burning, to which it must first +be subjected, frees it from all weeds and insects. But exceptional +tracts of land, that have been once under cultivation and then allowed +to run wild, also form good properties, and although the soil is +rarely rich, it is generally exposed, and always entails great trouble +and expense to keep down the weeds. A temperate climate within the +tropics is to be preferred at all times, a certain degree of warmth +and humidity combined being essential--in other words, an atmosphere +resembling that of a northern hot-house produces the finest crops +of Coffee, but, unfortunately, it is inimical to the unacclimated +planter and favorable to weeds. The most suitable climate, under these +circumstances, is precisely that which Americans prefer; frost, even +though it be only at night and for a short period, is fatal, while the +presence of water, preferably a running stream, is most essential for +watering the young plants, as well as for the “pulping” process. In a +wooded country the plantation may be laid out in blocks of fifty acres, +encircled by natural belts of forest; but flat land must be avoided, as +a wet soil is fatal to profitable coffee-growing, and flat lands also +would entail great expenditure for drainage, while steep slopes, on the +other hand, are also objectionable on account of the wash occasioned by +rains carrying away both soil and manure, thus exposing the roots of +the shrubs. The top or surface-soil must be fairly good in all cases, +the subsoil may be, but must never be, composed of stiff clay, the +shrub being essentially a lateral feeder. + +In opening a plantation, which is in all cases to be shaded by +preserving a portion of the original forest trees, the first thing to +be done is--after having ascertained the amount of land that can be +conveniently planted in one season--to clear a wide road through the +underwood from one end of the block of forest to the other, and as many +at right angles to the line as may facilitate easy examination and of +thoroughly inspecting the land to be cleared. The next thing to be done +is to cut another wide line round the entire portion to be cleared, +leaving a belt of from fifteen to twenty yards wide as a margin which +is always to be kept uncleared, as this marginal belt will be found +useful for shelter. The amount of shade must be regulated according +to the value of the exposure as shown in the aspect. A great deal of +shade being required on southern slopes, very little on northern ones, +and only a moderate degree of shade being required for eastern and +western slopes. The preliminary lines having been cleared, the whole +of the underwood should then be cut down from one end to the other, +and while it is yet green such portions of the larger trees as it may +be difficult to remove by carting or dragging along the ground, should +be cut up in pieces, but never burned, as is frequently the custom. +This work should be completed by the end of December. The land being +thus thoroughly cleared, lines of road should be laid out and the +usual linings and pit diggings carried out, and the plants put down +immediately after. The next point to be attended to is to plant out +such trees as are particularly suited to coffee shading, and to remove +any kinds which experience has proved to be injurious; these latter +vary in the different countries. As the shade trees grow up, the same +care must be taken of them as of the coffee tree, as regards pruning +or topping, the lower branches being judiciously removed, the object +being to grow a tree not only luxuriant but lofty, in order that it +may throw a long shadow and so afford greater protection to the plants +in its vicinity. Another point to be considered in the location of a +successful Coffee plantation is situation, as regards shade, sun and +wind, as a location and method of cultivation suited to one climate +may be entirely unsuited to another. In sea-coast or moist climates +planting without shade is generally the custom, while in dry arid +climates shade is indispensable, as in wet or damp districts Coffee +cannot be grown to advantage under the shade of the largest trees; the +methods of cultivation therefore should be entirely different in the +differing districts or localities. To be emphatic, _climate should +regulate shade, that is, shade plantations thrive best in hot, dry +climates, and unshaded in moist or humid ones_. + + +SITUATION AND ASPECT. + +The Coffee-plant in most countries has been found to flourish best, +and produce more abundantly, and reach a greater longevity on upland +or mountain situations at altitudes ranging from one to four thousand +feet above sea-level; but a mean elevation of three thousand feet has +been found by experience to be best adapted for its most profitable +culture. In the selection of a site for the establishment of a coffee +plantation the same general rules are observed throughout all the +coffee-growing countries; and, while an eastern or southern exposure +is preferable at all times, it is not essential under all conditions, +this general principle being subject to modifications from such causes +as local peculiarities of climate, abundance of forest shade and +methods of special cultivation. Many plantations situated at sea-level +are generally overshadowed by thickets of dense foliage, while those +situated on mountain slopes are usually much exposed to winds and wash. +In the older coffee-growing countries of the East an eastern aspect +is considered the most desirable, a western exposure being generally +selected on the American continent, as it loses less of its moisture. +The opposite slope being more exposed to the vertical rays of the sun +thereby preserves a more equal temperature. + +Before clearing and burning the planter should take considerable pains +to ascertain the values of the different aspects as regards sun and +wind with the view of regulating the amount of shade accordingly, as it +is impossible to exaggerate the importance of the various exposures. +For the effects the sun’s rays have on certain aspects in heating the +soil and drying up the plant are such as would be extremely difficult +to believe had the effects not been verified by competent observers +and with the aid of a thermometer. And as regards sites, northern and +southern slopes in particular, the difference between the one exposure +and the other is just what constitutes the difference between green +and dried grass, and between leaves luxuriously green and leaves +dried and withered. The grass on the northern aspects being green and +comparatively fresh, while even in a valley sheltered from drying +winds the grass on the southern slopes is completely withered. An +equally striking difference is observable in the coffee plants grown on +these situations, those on the northern slopes being full of health +and life, while those situated on the southern are yellow, drooping +and sickly; even in districts where coffee will not thrive without a +considerable amount of shade the plants thrive well with little or even +none on a northern bank, and look better than on a moderately shaded +southern aspect. Nor in the nursery is the effect less of aspect, less +striking, a nursery situated on a northern slope requiring less water +and far less shade over the young plants than in a nursery sloping +towards the south. + +With regard to the aspect of wind the subject is an infinitely more +difficult one than aspect as regards the sun’s rays, the value of the +latter being mathematically ascertained, for in countries full of hills +and ravines one is constantly liable to be deceived as to the points +that are exposed and those that are sheltered from the force of the +wind; what is the right side of the hill for one planter is often the +wrong side for another, whose plantation is perhaps only a few miles +distant. While one planter may rail against the east wind, another will +be equally loud against a west. The winds, however, that are most to +be dreaded as being absolutely fatal to a coffee plantation are the +fierce gales accompanied by torrents of rain. These winds are injurious +in two ways: first, the plants are blown about, their hold on the soil +weakened and the tender rootlets broken as fast as they are formed, and +in the second case, the rain which accompanies such winds is driven +into the hillsides with such force as to occasion a certain amount of +wash, the particles of soil being lifted and valuable top soil swept +away and utterly lost. The southwest winds are only fatally injurious +on the first barrier; further inland their force is greatly modified, +and to such an extent that little or no injury results from them. + +In estimating the value and importance of exposures, planters and +others of experience are frequently deceived; as aspects that one would +naturally conclude are very much exposed often remain untouched by the +wind, while on others apparently sheltered it has been known to burst +with tremendous force. Of aspects as regards wind there are two points +that may fairly be relied upon. The first is the appearance of the soil +on the slopes, and the second the inclination of the forest trees. The +soils on windy slopes will be found invariably to present a hardened +and washed appearance, and are deficient in decayed vegetable matter +on the surface. The inclination of the trees, also, and especially the +extent to which their heads are bent, denotes how forcibly the wind +strikes on these sites. In summing up on these important points of +aspect it may be observed, as regards the sun’s rays, it is patent that +a northern aspect is the best, and a southern one the worst, because +the latter is exactly twice as hot as the former. And as regards the +eastern and western aspects there is not, as regards heat arising from +the sun’s rays, much to choose between them. + + +SHELTER AND SHADE. + +The worst enemy of the Coffee shrub is wind, its effects becoming +apparent in pinched and stunted growth or in lack of foliage. In +situations where the soil is soft and yielding it does equal mischief +by working the stems in the ground, so that in a short time a funnel +is formed round the neck of the plant, and this being continually +chafed the bark is worn off, the roots are loosened, and the plant +dies of what is called “wind-wrung.” Should it be rescued before the +bark is entirely worn off the plant may live, but it will be extremely +liable to attacks from “lug worm” or any other blight that may be +prevalent in the locality. Belts of jungle or forest land are sometimes +left standing as a protection from wind, but opinions differ as to +the advantage of this plan, some planters holding that more harm is +likely to result from the wind being concentrated into eddies instead +of taking its natural and more equitable course. This question can +only be decided by the local surroundings in each case. Such belts +being sure to form nurseries for weeds and vermin are not intended to +be permanent, and should gradually give way to fruit or other useful +trees. Sometimes artificial shelter is erected, but is considered +too costly to find general favor; indeed, in moderately sheltered +situations, staking, combined with low topping, ought to be sufficient +to secure the stability of the plant. Where they are not, the situation +has little to recommend it for successful Coffee culture. + +Shade is also a consideration of great importance, and the opinion now +generally adopted is that the wholesale felling of the forest in some +sections has been altogether a mistake, and that plantations which are +now extinct might still be flourishing had the forest shade been at +least partially retained. The history of Coffee cultivation in the East +proves that in hot climates, and where prolonged periods of drought +may recur, Coffee will not flourish permanently, except under shade. +In a state of nature the Coffee plant universally affects shade. This +is the more remarkable, though the seeds are deposited by wild animals +and birds as freely on open grass-lands as in forests. The suspicion +that the “bover leaf disease,” and other immediate causes of decay, +are only induced by weakened state of the shrubs consequent upon their +exposure to light and periods of drought, is supported by the fact that +where shade trees are found standing upon an abandoned plantation, +they are still surrounded by a surviving remnant of Coffee bushes. The +question as to where shade is necessary is, however, one of climate, +as it has been proved that it is not universally beneficial. The +advantages to be derived from it in very hot climates being: diminished +exhaustion and consequently increased longevity of the plant, reduced +cost of cultivation, a conservation of the nutritious properties of +the soil, and an actual increase of them, as the cover given to the +ground causes the surface vegetable matter to decay more rapidly. And +provided the tree be a subsoil feeder, the shedding of the leaves will +yield a positive gain of surface matter which the roots of the Coffee +plant would otherwise never have reached. In addition to these there is +the direct value of the timber grown on the estate. The only serious +drawback to shade would seem to be a diminished yield of Coffee, but +this is fully atoned for by the increased longevity of the plant. + + +CLEANING AND BURNING. + +When forest land is taken for cultivation the first step is to +effectually clear it of all timber and underwood, the latter being +first cut by means of a “cattie” or machete, the large trees being +felled from the top, and their branches lopped off so as to compact +the pile, as otherwise the “burn” will only be partial. A fine day, +after the night’s dew has evaporated, is best for setting fire to the +prostrate mass, the advantages of a thorough burn being that subsequent +operations are greatly facilitated, and that the weeds and insects are +thoroughly destroyed, while the disadvantage is that the upper soil +is burnt and rendered unfit for filling into the holes. That injury +may, to a great extent, be obviated by “lining and pitting” the land +beforehand, by which means the surface soil would be mostly covered +over with the earth taken out of the pits, and thus be protected from +the fire. On the other hand, the “lines” could not be marked out with +accuracy or with any regularity, so that the estate would subsequently +suffer to some extent in appearance, though it is an open question how +far this drawback is worth considering in comparison with the other +advantages gained. When there is not sufficient timber to make a good +burn, the brush is felled and burnt in heaps, after which the ground is +carefully gone over for the purpose of rooting up the tree stumps which +remain, but these are sometimes so difficult to eradicate that they are +left to decay, care being taken, however, to knock off shoots as fast +as they appear. It is, however, a bad method and one seldom followed, +as the rotting stumps harbor vermin of all kinds. After burning the +wood the ashes should be scattered evenly over the ground as manure to +enrich the soil. + + +LINING AND MARKING. + +Immediately after the burn the plantation is “lined and marked out” +for the reception of the plants, the two following methods being most +in vogue among old and experienced planters: (1) A base line is laid +down as nearly as possible straight up and down the slope, and a cross +line is set off exactly at right angles to it; on this line stakes +are driven into the ground at the distances determined upon for the +final position of the young plants, to each stake a rope is fixed and +stretched parallel with the base line, and as straight as possible, +smaller stakes being provided along these lines, a rope is then finally +held across them at succeeding stages of equal width as guided by +measuring poles and the small stakes, and the small stakes are put in +where the movable rope crosses the fixed ones, each stake indicating +the site of the plant. (2) A rope is furnished with bits of scarlet rag +or flannel at the distances decided on between the plants and stretched +across the plot, stakes being inserted at each rag, the rope is then +moved forward a stage at a time, gauged by measuring rods. The first +plan is the better, especially in broken ground, but is more laborious, +the second being best available in even grass-land, but the stretch of +the rope must be estimated and allowed for, the great object being to +have the lines perfectly regular, and instead of making any deviation +where stumps or other obstacles occur, the rope is laid over them and +the corresponding plant omitted. + + +ROADING AND DRAINING. + +Efficient roads not only greatly facilitate the making of a Coffee +plantation, but they should be so laid out as to serve the additional +purpose of drainage. A cart road should pass through the centre of the +plantation wherever it is possible to avoid a steeper gradient than +one in fifteen, emerging upon the main highway. From this branch roads +should be cut at right angles with as easy gradients as possible, and +not more than from one hundred to one hundred and fifty feet apart; +these branch roads should cross the lay of the ground so as to check, +to the fullest extent, the effects of waste, and a boundary path +encircling the estate is also useful for many reasons, but the main +central road should be set out before pitting and planting. An excess +of road accommodation as regards both the number and width of the paths +is far preferable to insufficient roadway, despite the extra first +outlay, and if the ground be such, it may cost a great deal to keep +the roads clean and free from weeds. This, however, may be greatly +lessened by plowing them up and planting them with an annual crop until +the land is exhausted, as not only will the roads be bounded by the +plowing but weeds will not so readily grow. + +Nothing is more important than the thorough drainage of a Coffee +plantation, in order to carry away the excess of moisture during heavy +rains without allowing the surface soil to be washed away. For this +purpose continuous open trenches are cut in parallel lines across +the face of the slope and at from ten to fifteen yards apart; their +gradient, however, should never exceed one in twelve, one in twenty +or even one in thirty will be still better, their width may be from +fifteen to eighteen inches and their depth not less than one foot +on the lower side. They will need constant cleaning out and repair, +especially after a heavy shower, and must in all cases empty into a +natural or artificial channel amply capable of carrying off the water; +if furnished with breaks to catch the suspended or detached soil so +much the better, as the latter can be collected and returned to the +plantation as a dressing. + + +LAYING OUT THE NURSERY. + +The Coffee plant is propagated in three different ways, by “Seeds,” +“Buddings,” and “Cuttings,” the two last being the most troublesome +and objectionable, there being at the same time no branch of Coffee +cultivation of more importance and none so frequently mismanaged or +neglected as that of the production of the plant in the nursery, the +greatest care and most constant watching being absolutely necessary to +the attainment of success. + +For this purpose should be selected a patch of gently sloping virgin +soil, warm and dry, soft in nature and not richer than that to which +the plants are to be subsequently transferred, but close to water, +running water, if possible. The seed-beds must be somewhat shaded, but +not so as to entirely exclude the sun nor so that the shading plant +may gather rain and send it in streams upon the beds; it must also be +cleared of all the largest stumps and thoroughly dug to a depth of +from nine to twelve inches and made very friable and at the same time +slightly raised to promote drainage, and divided by paths into narrow +strips. A deep trench is cut above the bed in an oblique direction to +prevent damage by rain and wash. The seeds are sown in rows six to nine +inches apart and about two feet deep and strewn about one inch apart in +the holes, after which they are lightly covered with mould and shaded. +A cheap and efficient shading may be secured by laying branches across +a light framework of poles. All watering must be done in the morning +or toward sunset. A bushel of coffee-seed should yield from 20,000 +to 30,000 plants, the best seed being what is known as “parchment” +coffee, picked when fully ripe, pulped by hand, unfermented, unwashed +and dried in the shade. When the plants produce from two to four +leaves, exclusive of the seed-leaves, they are carefully loosened +and transferred, in damp, cloudy weather, from the seed-beds to the +nurseries and placed there from nine to twelve inches apart. Great +care must be taken meantime not to double up the tender tap-roots, +but if the tap-root is very long, it is best shortened by an oblique +cut, which soon shoots again. But when transplanting from seed-beds to +nurseries is not practiced the plants are left in the seed-beds until +they grow larger. Many planters, however, strongly recommend the former +plan, as by checking the growth of the plants the young roots become +hardened and better able, when finally planted out in the field, to +resist insects, disease and unfavorable weather. A practical suggestion +for preventing young seedlings from being eaten off at the surface of +the ground by grubs is to lightly wrap them with a piece of paper about +three inches broad where the stem joins the roots when planting. The +risk of having the young seedlings burnt up just after planting is best +guarded against by various simple measures for shading them. In about +a year, or when the plants have attained the height of about eighteen +inches, they are ready for transfer to the permanent positions on the +plantation which has been meantime prepared for their reception. + +In selecting a plot for a nursery such a command of water as will +facilitate the flooding of every bed so as to thoroughly saturate the +soil, will be found indispensable, as it has been found by experience +that it is much cheaper to carry soil to water than water to soil. If +a good supply of water cannot be conveniently had on forest land by +erecting a tank or directing a stream, the cheapest plan will be found +to be to transport the soil already prepared and lay it down to the +depth of a foot to eighteen inches on any land that has a good command +of water. A couple of boys can effectually irrigate a large nursery by +this means if the water be conducted to each bed, while twenty men will +be required to carry water as many yards to a nursery of the same size, +and even then the beds will be but one-half watered. But economy alone +is not the only advantage to be gained by this method of flooding the +beds, as this process can be carried on at any time of the day, while +watering-pots cannot be used except early in the morning or late in the +afternoon without scorching the leaves. + +If the nursery is formed on forest land as, if possible, it should be, +the timber should be felled, cut up and carried or rolled off the +ground--and not, as is too commonly the case, burnt on it--to obtain +the best results. The former plan is the most expensive but will be +found to pay better in the end, as the surface mould is not injured and +the friable nature of the soil is preserved intact, whereas burning +by consuming the vegetable matter on the surface renders the soil +more tenacious and less suitable to the springing of the seed. The +beds should never exceed five feet in breadth, and each bed should be +sixteen in length. Between each row of beds shallow channels should be +cut along which the water may be conducted to the head of each bed, +and in these channels during the dry season water should be allowed +to run continuously, penetrating by this means gradually into the +land, keeping it cool and moist. During the extreme hot weather the +longitudinal division between the beds should consist of earth heaped +up to the height of three inches, which will not only render the +flooding of the beds more complete, but will also prevent them drying +up as rapidly as they otherwise would. But during any storm these +divisions should be removed and each converted into a channel to convey +away the superfluous rain-water. + +As regards seed there is very little to be said, except that it should, +as a matter of importance, be selected from the finest and healthiest +trees, and consist only of the ripest and finest berries to be had. +These precautions are seldom attended to, however, as it has never +been ascertained definitely that plants from carefully selected seeds +are any better than from those grown at random. Seeds have been sown +from trees both native and imported--on some plantations, of all ages +and in every kind of way--pulped by hand, pulped by machinery, and +not pulped at all, sometimes fresh and as frequently six months old. +Yet no difference could be perceived in the way the seeds come up, or +in the plants produced from them, but, as a matter of convenience, it +is much preferable to separate the seeds from the pulp and put them +down in drills. In the drills the seed should be planted at least a +quarter of an inch apart, and between each drill should be left a space +of from four to five inches. The seed should be planted in March or +April, except where a crop of plants has been previously taken from +the soil, when the seed should be put down a month earlier; in from +fourteen to eighteen months excellent plants ought to be had, if the +soil consists of virgin land. Many planters put down nursery seedlings +that have sprung up under the old coffee trees, but this plan is not to +be adopted when seed can be procured, and especially where the water is +good. + +An excellent soil for sowing the seed is prepared from an admixture +of loam and leaf-mould, obtained from the decayed leaves of trees +and vegetable matter, ground fine, well sifted and then mixed with +an equal quantity of sand; while for the successful propagation of +the young plants a manure composed of finest soil, cattle and sheep +dung, dried, pulverized, sifted and then blended with proportionate +quantities of a fine sandy loam has been found specially adapted for +the purpose. The tap-roots of the young plants being extremely long +and tender, an abundant supply of the latter will be found requisite, +a good depth being very necessary to nourish and maintain them during +the early period of growth. During the hot weather the young plants +should be shaded, the most approved method of shading being to place +posts about four feet high, with forked heads, driven into the ground +at the corner of each bed, long sticks being then laid across them from +post to post, resting in the forks and also laterally, the whole being +then covered with grass, reeds or other material. Some months before +the plants are required this shade should be judiciously thinned, and +ultimately removed altogether, in order to harden the plants gradually +by exposure to the sun and air. The plants, too, at this period, should +be allowed to grow nearly to the required size, stinted of water and +brought to a stand-still, in order that the heads of the plants and the +extremities of them may solidify, for if the plants be transferred to +the plantation with newly-formed and tender shoots they run great risk +of being nipped off by the scorching rays of the sun, which frequently +makes its appearance when least expected in rainy or cloudy weather. +And when the nursery is at all exposed to dry, east winds the rows +and divisions between the row of beds should be thickly planted with +rose and fruit trees, as these not only add to the appearance of the +nursery, but are also extremely valuable as shelters. + +The next branch of planting that demands special attention is that of +transferring or transplanting the young shrubs or plants at the best +possible distance from one another. Distances should be altered in +accordance with the poorness or richness of the soil; the richer and +stronger the land, the greater distance should they be planted apart; +and the poorer the soil and more exposed the location, the closer and +more thickly they should be grown. If roads are made across the slopes +and about midway up them, it may be laid down as a general rule that +the plants above the roads should be planted far closer than those +in the richer soil below. Thus, if six feet by six feet be found a +convenient distance in the best land, four and a half feet by five +and a half feet will be found the best distance in the poorer and +more exposed positions. One prime object must always be borne in +mind, _i.e._, to cover the soil, in order the better to shade it, to +keep down weeds, and at the same time leave sufficient room between +the rows to allow of passing up and down the lines with ease, and for +the pickers to get about without forcing their way and breaking the +branches. Bearing these objects in mind, a planter should regulate his +distances carefully in accordance with his soil, situation and climate. +But on these points a planter must, in a great measure, rely upon his +own judgment, and these suggestions are mainly intended to caution the +planter against fixing on any arbitrary distance as being the best. + + +DISTANCES OF PLANTS. + +Scarcely any two planters are agreed as to the best distances to allow +between the plants, the question being governed to a great extent by +the richness of the soil, as well as by climate and situation, the +object in view must be that with the greatest convenient number of +trees in a given space none shall interfere with or incommode its +neighbor. In cold or exposed situations where the plants cannot obtain +any great size, close planting is necessary, the reverse being the +case where the climate is warm and humid and the soil is productive, +and consequently likely to produce large bushes. In Java and the West +Indies the space is often 10 × 12 feet, but other crops are there +usually planted between the Coffee rows, while in India and Ceylon +distances vary from four feet each way to eight feet, the best being +perhaps seven feet between the rows and six feet between the plants. +The number of trees contained in an acre planted 6 × 7 feet will be +about 1,000; 6 × 6, 1,200; 6 × 5, 1,450; 5 × 5, 1,750; 5 × 4, 2,150; +and 4 × 5, 2,700. The advantages to be gained in wide planting are +that field labor is facilitated and the shrubs grow larger, the +disadvantage being that more room is left for weeds. + + +HOLING AND PITTING. + +Around or beside each stake a hole is next dug, its size depending +much upon the kind of soil; in stiff or poor land two feet each way is +not too large, but in good light ground eighteen inches will suffice, +but they had better be too deep than not deep enough. The implement +commonly used for this purpose is a kind of grubbing-hoe or spade-bar. +The earth thrown out is usually left to mellow until just before +planting, after which the hole is filled in with the best of the mould, +which must have been previously carefully freed from stones, roots and +other extraneous matter, and mixed with a little manure. The filling-in +must be done very lightly and the loose earth should rise in a heap +above the hole. This operation is best performed while the ground is +moist, but it is also a good plan to break down the sides somewhat, +more especially if they are hardened. + + +PLANTING AND PICKING. + +When the holes have been duly prepared the young plants are removed +from the nursery with the same care as they are transplanted to the +nursery from the seed-beds; for taking up the young plants an ordinary +prong is much superior to the spade-bar, but hand-pulling must be +rigidly guarded against. The fibrous roots of each plant as taken up +are carefully pruned off to about four inches so that they may not be +doubled up in the planting, the tap-root being also shortened to about +nine inches by a clean sloping cut for the same reason, and a ball of +earth should surround the roots and if the plants are exposed to the +air for more than a few minutes, the roots should be covered with wet +moss or some other damp material. A dull, cloudy day should be chosen +for this operation whenever possible, as in bright sunshine the plants +would be all burnt up. The plants are carried in batches in wicker +trays or baskets to the plantation and are placed in the ready prepared +holes by hand, great care being taken that no roots are doubled up, +that the plants are upright and that they are placed no deeper in the +ground than they were before, and in treading the earth down around +the plant every precaution is necessary to prevent leaving holes for +the accumulation of water around the roots. The surface must also be +made firm and level as possible, but on a steep slope the outer edge +may be slightly higher than the inner, to check the effect of any wash +that may occur, but in subsequent weeding it will be necessary to guard +against exposing the lateral roots. There is some diversity of opinion +as to the size and age most suitable for putting out nursery plants, +but when dull, rainy weather can be depended on for some little time, +nursery plants of the second year are the most satisfactory, plants of +one season only being too tender for the operation, but under ordinary +conditions and with due care no serious loss of plants should be +incurred in this way. A novel plan, one which may be advantageously +adopted on small plantations, is the one resembling the method of +planting Cinchona. A number of calabashes are deprived of their small +end and emptied of their contents, into these the seedlings are placed +and gradually exposed to the sun as they grow and finally planted in +the calabashes; the latter soon rot and form manure for the plants. A +new plan that has been much followed is the substitution of “stumps” +for nursery plants--that is, plants that have been in the nursery for +about three years are dug up and pruned back leaving only about six +to eight inches of stem; they are hardier and safer in a general way +than whole plants, more especially in uncertain weather, as they will +strike readily, even without rainfall for some little time after being +put in, provided the ground has become sufficiently moist to prevent +their being burnt up, but they cannot be used in districts where a +long period of drought may be expected to succeed to a wet season. The +planting of stumps is performed in the usual way, the plants send up +several shoots from the parent stem of these, the finest are retained +to form the future tree and the rest are pulled off carefully. The +shoot that is left grows rapidly, but from the way it springs from the +stem it is liable to be accidentally broken off either by a high wind +or by the weeders. The crookedness of the stump from native-grown seed +renders them very inferior; the best size for stumps is the thickness +of a common pencil. + + +DIBBLING AND STAKING. + +When the land is very rich and friable holing may be replaced by +the less expensive plan known as “dibbling,” which is performed in +two ways: (1) by the aid of the spade-bar is made a sufficiently +deep hole into which the plant is dropped, and secured by treading +the earth lightly around; (2) a patch of ground measuring about one +foot each way is thoroughly loosened without the soil being taken +out, in the disturbed earth a hole is made with the hand, the plant +is then inserted and trodden around as before; the latter method is +preferable. Dibbling is only practicable in exceptionable cases, and +is, moreover, open to objection, as a hole is often left in which +water may accumulate and rot the plant, and the roots are more liable +to injury than in ordinary planting, but, on the other hand, much +labor is saved. When the plants are exposed to the wind they should +be provided with supports as soon as they are ten to twelve inches +high, and present a resisting surface. For the first season’s plants +lining pegs may be used, but larger plants will need strong, inflexible +stakes, three to four feet long, entering the ground on the windward +side at about six inches distant from the plant, and at such an angle +as to meet the stem at about its middle. The plant is attached to the +stake by a broad loop of some vegetable fibre, firmly tied to the stake +but loose around the stem of the plant. If the plants have already +been worked round by the wind they will need earthing up to five or +six inches as well. The ties should be brushed with coal-tar, as a +protection against theft, insects and decay. + + +SUPPLYING VACANCIES. + +Every precaution should be taken to guard against failures, as +“supplies,” as they are called, will seldom, if ever, do as well as +young plants put into virgin soil, but in new land failures can be +entirely guarded against by care, and their number may subsequently be +limited by keeping the ground free from weeds, and by good draining, +manuring and pruning. A certain number of vacancies, however, will +occur from time to time. And they must be filled up in the following +manner: The original pit having been re-emptied should be enlarged an +inch or two all around, but especially in depth, and this should be +done in dry weather, the pit being left open for some time, and only +filled in when the time for planting has arrived, but in most cases it +will be desirable to refill the pit with the soil which has been taken +out of it. Where the vacancy is in the midst of old trees a large pit +is necessary to protect the new plant from being interfered with by +these roots, and it will be also well to isolate the young plant by +surrounding it with a ring trench, six to eight inches wide and one +foot deep. It is also desirable to put a basketful or so of new soil +from the first into the pit near the top, but where this cannot be +managed a few handfuls of manure should be mixed with surface mould, +for only strong, healthy plants must be used for this purpose. Stumps +are, by some planters, considered more suitable than nursery plants for +supplying vacancies, as, being hardier, they throw out from three to +four “suckers,” the best of which are selected when they have attained +a height of from six to nine inches, the others being carefully pulled +off. Well-formed nursery plants, with three or four pairs of primaries +and about twelve to fifteen inches high, put in just as they come from +the beds with a good ball around the roots, are to be preferred when +steady wet weather can be calculated on for some time, but in any case +supplies ought to be put in early in the wet season, so as to give them +every advantage; they should also be marked by a tall stake, and should +be allowed to bear a maiden crop before being topped or pruned. + + +CATCH-CROPS. + +Much has been said for and against the growing of other crops on the +plantation among the Coffee shrubs. In Java and other Coffee-growing +countries of the East it is grown between the rows. In Ceylon two +catch-crops were long in vogue, but they appear now to have gone +out of fashion, it being claimed that they exhausted the soil and +produced too much there. While in Mexico, the West Indies, Central +and South America, the culture of plantains, yams, cocoa and bananas +was carried to such an extreme on many plantations that the Coffee +became, in fact, of only secondary importance, or was even entirely +killed out. There is nothing, however, to object to in the simultaneous +cultivation of several crops, so long as each has proper space and +sufficient manure, and the plants are not antagonistic to each other, +as many claim, and the failure of one crop may be compensated for by +the success of the other. Rice and tobacco have been found to yield +good returns as catch-crops, but they possess a disadvantage, in not +affording any shade to the young Coffee plants. Cocoa, yams, bananas +and plantains are perhaps even less advisable, and similar attempts +with cotton have proved altogether failures, while maize, on the other +hand, is highly recommended from experiences in Brazil and other +countries. When adopted, it should be planted thinly in three rows, +eighteen inches apart between the Coffee rows, and two plants apart +in the Coffee rows between the Coffee plants. The seed should be sown +immediately after the Coffee is planted. It grows very quickly and +should early be thinned out to eighteen inches apart in the rows, and +will soon be high enough to completely shelter and partially shade +the Coffee, which will grow all the faster in consequence, the latter +being also greatly benefited by the extra working of the ground. In the +fall a dressing of manure--the same manure will suit both Coffee and +maize--is applied and the ground plowed or deeply hoed, preferably the +former. The crops may also be repeated the following spring, reducing +it, however, to two rows and one Coffee plant and repeating the +manuring and plowing or hoeing, but this time the choice between the +plow and hoe must be governed by the size of the Coffee shrubs; if too +high, the latter is best. + + +MANURES AND MANURING. + +It is commonly said that Coffee is an unusually exhaustive crop, but +the exhaustion of the soil consequent upon Coffee culture is only +the result of the peculiar conditions under which the industry is +prosecuted rather than of the nature of the plant itself. Better than +any amount of artificial manuring is the retention of the naturally +rich surface soil by the effective prevention of wash as a secondary +adjunct; however, judicious manuring will prove highly beneficial, and +even necessary in almost all cases after the first or two. But it is +impossible to lay down any hard and fast rule for manuring, the most +that can be done is to indicate the essential elements of coffee soils, +the best artificial substitutes and the best methods of applying these +substitutes. The best coffee soils appear to contain about 15 per cent. +of combined iron and alumnia, the iron, if as red oxide may amount to +about 20 or even 30 per cent. being a good absorbent of fertilizing +constituents, but the alumnia should not exceed 10 per cent. Lime is +also an essential, which must be supplied, if wanting in the soil; +this is too often overlooked in the anxiety to furnish stimulants. +The percentage of organic matter may be too high, it should represent +only about 0.2 to 0.3 per cent. of nitrogen, so that the best average +manure for supplying nitrogen and potash is well-rotted dung, but its +frequent application should be accompanied by a little lime unless +the soil is already very rich in that constituent, for, without the +presence of lime, the shrubs will not receive the full benefit of +the nitrogenous principles, but its use in a tropical climate must +be governed by caution. Thoroughly fermented coffee pulp is also a +useful manure, but it is only half as valuable as dung and costs more +to apply, it should be kept covered as it is produced, and is best +mixed with fermented dung, failing which it should be well-limed, while +alone is of small benefit, but forms a good vehicle for concentrated +fertilizers. Almost all coffee soils requires a constant renewal of +phosphoric acid and lime, which are not supplied by the dung alone; +these constituents are best furnished in the form of bones steamed +and ground or by concentrated superphosphate containing from 40 to 45 +per cent., while phosphate of lime. Nitrogenous manures alone are too +stimulating and help only to produce premature exhaustion, therefore +bones may with great advantage be added to the dung. Composts of pulp +and cake are useful nitrogenous manures, but they must be accompanied +by phosphates and lime. Potash seldom requires to be directly applied, +but is very advantageous after attacks of leaf-disease, while magnesia +seems to be a necessary constituent of all good coffee soils in the +proportion of 0.5 to 2 per cent., but when wanting dolomite may be +applied in its place. The great object of manuring is to apply all +the constituents required and in a soluble form, but for coffee the +nitrogen is better applied in an insoluble form--as in dung, cake and +fish manure--than in a soluble form--as in guano, nitrate of soda or +sulphate of ammonia. Phosphates are best supplied in bones, when a +lasting effect is required, but high-grade superphosphates are always +preferable for immediate effect as in cases of leaf-disease. Again in +tropical countries, all manures are best applied frequently and in +small quantities. Regular manuring after each crop would doubtless be +most generally economical and advantageous, the quantity depending +in local conditions, but should always be extra liberal after a full +harvest. Artificial manures should be put out only in damp weather, +dung may be applied at almost any time, while lime must never be in a +caustic state; when applied its best forms are gas-lime and gypsum. + +The manure most freely applied and most relied on in countries where +it is available, is cattle dung, and with the view of keeping up a +regular supply of it, many estates keep a considerable stock of cattle +for this purpose alone, and which are, in many instances, stall-fed +with grass and oil-cake. But in many of the coffee-growing countries +this form, owing to a fatal obstacle in climate is not obtainable, +for while, in some countries, grass can be readily grown all the year +round, in others it is found impossible to provide any quantity of +grass for even any part of the year, and cattle have to be grazed +all day to support them at all. Besides the fatal objections to the +foregoing kind of manure, there are others which serve to show that it +is only under very favorable circumstances that cattle manure could be +used with advantage. The first is the bulky nature of the manure and +the consequent cost and labor of application, and the second, and by +no means the least, is the great risk run of losing stock by disease. +The latter consideration should be sufficient to deter the planter from +depending on a manurial source which is liable to be suddenly cut off +at any moment. + +Another form of manure in use among planters is bone manure, the value +of which for all crops and in all countries, combined with its extreme +portability and cheapness of application, renders it by far the most +important of fertilizers for coffee. This form, mixed with the pulp +of the coffee is a popular one on many plantations. The pulp being +moist prevents the bone dust from being blown away, and when heaped up +before using, the heat that is thereby generated seems to exercise a +considerable effect upon the bone dust. Still another excellent manure +is made from alternate layers of farm yard manure and bone dust, +making a splendid compost. The former is generally composed of horse, +cattle and sheep manure, wood ashes and general sweepings. The best +results have been obtained from this latter form, and if sufficient +quantities of the first substance could always be obtainable, readily +and cheaply, it is without exception, the best yet discovered for +coffee manure. Bone dust, when used alone fails, though valuable as a +berry producer, to give that dark green leaf and growth of strong young +wood which is absolutely necessary to produce abundantly. + +The manner of applying manure is not the same in all countries or cases +and no manure should be put more than one foot below the surface of +the ground, nor less than eighteen inches from the stem of the coffee +bush. On flat land, where there is no danger of wash, the manure may be +spread over the surface and hoed into a depth of from nine to twelve +inches, or, better still, a square hole may be cut between each four +shrubs and the manure buried in it; while on slopes it is customary to +dig a hole above each bush. For bulky manures it may be two feet long +by one and a half feet wide and one foot deep, but for concentrated +manures these dimensions must be considerably reduced. The holes should +be filled up with any prunings of other vegetable matter at hand and +then covered down firmly with the loose top-soil and the new earth from +the hole should be spread around the stem of the neighboring tree to +protect its roots. Ordinary manuring is sometimes supplemented by other +methods of improving the soil, one of which is to loosen it by driving +a long bar or a manure-fork deeply into the ground and then prying up +the earth without turning it over. Another operation is that known as +“mulching” or “ground thatching,” which consists in simply covering +the ground under the bushes with a layer of long, hard grass six to +nine inches thick, the effect of which in cold, wet soils is to keep +the ground warm and throw off excessive moisture, while in hot, dry +situations it is equally useful to retain moisture. But in any case +weeds are kept down and wash is quite prevented, and when rotten the +grass may be hoed or dug in as manure; this thatching has been found +a perfect cure for black bug. A third operation, termed “trenching” +or “water hoeing,” is where trenches are made across the slope, which +may be either opened or closed. In the former case holes three to four +feet long, twelve to fifteen inches broad and from fifteen to eighteen +inches deep are cut between each four trees, the soil taken from them +is spread over the roots of the trees, while the holes are left open to +act as catch drains and receptacles for wash, weeds, prunings and other +vegetable refuse, being emptied twice a year and their contents spread +around the roots of the shrubs. Closed trenches are ditches cut across +the entire length of the coffee rows two feet wide and deep and filled +with any vegetable rubbish at hand, they are then covered with earth +and well trodden down, while the remaining soil is spread under the +trees. The benefit of trenching is greatest in stiff soils. The refuse +matter in the trenches should be well limed in all cases, in order to +kill the grubs and other vermin for which it will otherwise form a +nursery. + + +WEEDING AND PRUNING. + +By “weeding,” on a Coffee plantation, is meant the eradication of +_every plant_ which is not being intentionally cultivated. The +operation is performed in different ways, according to the nature of +the soil. On light soils and sloping situations hand-weeding is much +the best. The laborer is provided with a pointed stick to help in +getting up obstinate roots, and carries at his waist a small bag, into +which the weeds are at once thrust, and afterwards turned out of the +bags into pits dug at convenient intervals, or are heaped up on the +roads and finally buried or burned, the latter being the surer method +of effectually destroying them. By weeding early and repeating the +operation as often as necessary, the ground may be kept clean by hand +alone. But when hand-weeding will not suffice, recourse must be had +to “scraping” the ground, which is, however, attended with a serious +drawback--the first inch or more of the best surface-mould is removed, +at the same time thus robbing the plants of nourishment and exposing +the earth to the full effects of the wash. On stiff clay soils, on +level plantations and in damp, cool climates on the other hand, hoeing +is not only necessary for the perfect eradication of the weeds, but is +of itself exceedingly beneficial to the soil, and except during the +dry season should be regularly done, whether weeds are present or not. +When scraping or hoeing it is imperative that the operation should be +conducted from the outside towards the trees, so that the roots may be +kept well covered and the wash easily escape into the drains. + +The coffee tree, if allowed to grow to its natural height, will +commonly be found to measure from twelve to fifteen feet. But the most +experienced planters reduce their shrubs to at the most four and a half +feet, and sometimes as little as three feet, and in windy and exposed +situations two and a half feet in some countries have been adopted +as the best height. And here, as in distance, the planter should be +guided by the nature of the soil and partly by the aspect as regards +wind. In thoroughly sheltered situations and in the finest land a tree +may be allowed four and a half to five feet with advantage, but in all +medium situations, as regards soil and exposure, four feet should be +the limit, or even a few inches less; in very poor and much exposed +situations three feet will be found ample for all purposes. The height +being determined on the next point is to consider the best time for +topping or pruning them. By many planters the safest and most sensible +time for performing this operation is considered to be when the tree +has exceeded the height it is intended to keep it at, and when the bark +has become brown and fully developed. Pruning should, if possible, be +all completed before blossoming season, except when it is confined +to the removal of plainly superfluous wood that is past bearing, or +has, perhaps, only a berry or two on it, when pruning may be continued +without injury or inconvenience until up to the commencement of May. +When all these are removed it will generally be found that sufficient +has been done; but on very luxuriant trees the shoots growing in the +right direction will be still too numerous, and will require further +thinning so as to reduce the number to two shoots at every point of the +branch. If this process of handling be fully and regularly attended to +there will be very little and very simple work for the knife to do, +and the pruner will merely have to remove the very driest and oldest +secondaries and shorten back such primaries as may be too long and +whippy. + +[Illustration: FERMENTING COFFEE.] + +In the old neglected trees the process is more difficult, but may, with +a little patience, be got into good order easy and cheaply. The first +thing to be done with them is to cut out all secondary and tertiary +branches that are past bearing, and to clear out the centre of the head +on the trees. The removal of this superfluous wood will be followed by +a sufficiently rapid growth of young wood which should be carefully +handled, and after the next crop a fair proportion of cross branches +may be cut out, but only to a slight extent, so as not to diminish +the crop prospect. Others, again, contending that the proper time is +immediately before or after the first blossoming season. In the former +case it is claimed that topping before the blossoming season has a +tendency to turn out a heavy crop on the pruning branches, while in +the latter instance other planters boldly sacrifice the heavy yield +in order to add to the permanent strength of the tree, invariably +refraining from topping the plant until just after the blossoming +period. By this latter method several pairs of branches, with their +blossoms, are cut off and lost, but the sacrifice will be amply repaid +by the increased strength added to the young tree, and also by the +advantage of having a small crop on the primary branches below. + +The style of pruning first required by Coffee bushes is that known as +“topping,” the age and height at which this operation is performed +depending in a great measure upon local circumstances, this question +also being a much-debated one. The object of “topping,” or removing the +top of the bush, is to restrain its upward growth within convenient +limits, and, as a natural consequence, to strengthen and concentrate +its lateral growth. In some countries of the East topping is commenced +at the age of twelve to eighteen months, the maximum ordinary height +being four feet, which is sometimes reduced to two feet, the operation +being postponed until the shrubs have borne their maiden crop, even +though extra staking is required to withstand the wind; the best +plan being to remove the two primaries at the required height by a +sloping outward cut close to the stem, and then to remove the top +by an oblique cut so that the stumps resemble a cross, and a firm, +natural knot remains to guard against the stem splitting down. But +some planters contend that the plants should be topped as soon as +they have reached the required height, when the soft wood is easily +severed by a pinch between the finger and thumb, as in the case of +tea. In other countries the shrubs are topped either at their full +height--four and one-half to five feet--or at three feet, allowing +a “sucker” to grow up on the weather side, the latter plan being +preferred. There is much advantage gained in limiting the height to +five feet, as not only is the crop gathered more easily, and without +damage to the tree, but it is actually heavier, and the shrubs are more +readily made to cover the ground. The first result of “topping” is to +induce the growth of a number of shoots, the removal of which is termed +“handling” or “searching.” The first to appear are vertical “suckers” +or “gormandizers,” from under the primary boughs; these are immediately +rubbed off without injuring the bark. From the primaries spring +secondary branches in pairs, and at very short intervals. All such +appearing within six inches of the stem are removed at once, so that a +passage of at least a foot high is left in the centre of the tree for +the admission of the air and sun. The object of pruning is to divert +the energies of the tree from forming _wood_, and to concentrate them +upon forming _fruit_. The fruit of the Coffee tree is borne by young +wood, and as the secondaries are reproduced when they are removed, +they are cut off as soon as they have borne. A constant succession of +young wood is thus secured. In order that this may be regular, and to +avoid weakening the shrub, the secondaries that grow outside of the +foot space are left on alternate sides of the primary, their opposites +being removed each year in turn; thus one is growing while the other +is bearing. The one point in view must be the equal development of the +tree and the yearly growth of as much as it will bear, but no more. +Branches must not be allowed to grow into or cross each other, and if +two or more secondaries spring from one spot the strongest only must +be retained; where a gap occurs tertiaries may be trained to free it +in the same way. When practicable, the bushes should be handled twice +before the crop, and the pruning should be commenced immediately after +the crop and finished before the blossom comes out, but should this +be impossible, it must be suspended during the three or four days of +blossom-time, and then be carried to completion. When it is evident +that the crop on a tree will exhaust it if allowed to mature, a portion +of it must be sacrificed by pruning. The loss thus occasioned is more +apparent than real, as in every prolific season much fruit is wasted +for lack of labor, and the trees are unreasonably overtaxed and bear +poorly for some time afterwards. Everything should be done to insure +regular and even crops; the cuttings should be trenched in among the +plants as manure, and no branch should be allowed to bear more than two +or three crops before removal. Regular and systematic pruning is one of +the first essentials to successful and profitable Coffee culture. Where +Coffee plantations have been neglected on this score they must be very +gradually reduced to proper condition by sawing out the branches and +opening up the centre of the trees in the first year, and trimming out +about half the remaining wood in the second year. + + +ENEMIES AND REMEDIES. + +The profits derived from healthy Coffee growing are so large that were +it not for the many enemies which hamper the planter’s struggles and +stultify his best efforts, his occupation would be one of the most +profitable in the world. But as it is he has to contend with numerous +foes, and the more lowly and minute forms have proved themselves the +most difficult to combat in these long struggles which have been waged +since Coffee cultivation first rose to its present importance in the +various countries in which it is grown. From the mammalian kingdom he +has not much to fear or is generally able to devise efficient remedies +against their ravages. But besides the peculiar conditions of climate, +aspect, drainage, shade, shelter and the many other drawbacks already +alluded to, particular attention must be paid to the prevention or cure +of certain maladies to which the Coffee shrub is specially liable. +The number of these insect forms and fungoid pests is considerable, +but the only ones of sufficient importance to merit description are +leaf-blight, fly, bug, borer and canker. + +=Leaf-blight.=--Is a fungus known as _Homilica Vasatux_, allied to +the moulds, and is present in some form or other all the year round, +first attacking the under side of the leaves causing spots or blotches, +at first yellow, but subsequently turning black. These blotches are +covered with a pale orange-colored dust or powder, which easily rubs +off; they gradually grow in size until at last they have one part of +the former with three parts of the latter, thoroughly incubating them +before use. A disease known as leaf-rot, rather prevalent in some +countries, is distinguished from the above, and which is referred to +as a fungus named _Pelicaalana Kolorga_, sometimes appears when the +leaves of affected shrubs become covered with slimy, gelatinous matter, +turn black and drop off, the clusters of berries also rotting and +falling. There is every probability, however, that the sulphur and lime +treatment will be effective in this case also, but the shed leaves and +fruit should be collected and burned as a precaution. + +=The Coffee Borer.=--This pest, formerly known as the “worm” and +“coffee-fly,” is most troublesome in the East, where in former years it +destroyed whole plantations. It has been identified as the _Xycotrechen +quadmepes_, and in its complete stage the insect appears as a winged +beetle, having from one-half to three-quarters of an inch in length, +rather finer in shape than a wasp, with hard, shiny coat, red and black +in color, but in some cases yellow and black in alternate transverse +lines, boring a passage into the stem of the coffee tree usually a few +inches above the ground. + +=The Coffee-fly.=--This disease has been known for many years in San +Domingo and Brazil, having also spread to Venezuela, the Antilles, +Porto Rico, Martinique, Mexico, and all down the Atlantic coast of +South America. It is caused by the larvæ of a moth scarcely half an +inch long, named _Comistana coffcalaun_, the color of the insect being +dull-white or pale-gray, with a bar across the posterior end when +quiet. Its motions are very active and it readily takes alarm. This +insect prefers young and delicate leaves, and is most active about the +commencement of the wet season, when demolition spread over the leaves, +which then drop off, leaving the trees unable to produce any crop, or +to bring to maturity that which may have already been produced. In +districts affected by the northwest winds, the fungus generally exists +as an external parasite, in the form of long, filamentous threads, +covering every part of the back of the leaves, but so minute as to be +invisible to the naked eye. Of the many remedies experimented with for +the suppression of this disease, one only is invariably effective--that +is a mixture of the best quality of flowers of sulphur and caustic lime. + +The majority of the eggs are deposited, but are dormant during the wet +season--that is, from March to May. The disease manifests itself by +the appearance of large, discolored blotches on the leaves, causing +their decay and fall. As a remedy, it has been stated that by picking +the leaves at such a time, as to take the greatest number of the larvæ +when about two weeks old, it would be easy to destroy the pest, as +the size of the blotches would then easily distinguish the diseased +foliage. Again, each of these contains several hundred eggs undergoing +incubation, and in a short time the whole of the green wood of the +tree will become covered with the young insects and coated with a +black, soot-like powder, which renders the tree easily discernible at a +distance. The bug will soon spread over the whole plantation, entirely +checking the growth of the trees, the fresh, young shoots being always +first attacked, and such wood as is allowed to mature, produces hardly +any crops; the berries, moreover, are in the earliest stages destroyed +by these insects, which cut them off with the stalk. The measures +recommended for checking this scourge are to dust the bushes with a +mixture of powdered saltpetre and quicklime in equal parts, or to brush +or sponge the affected parts with a mixture of soft-soap, tar, tobacco +and spirits of turpentine, in about equal quantities. The white bug is +a distinct species of insect, known as _Psedococcus adombrum_, and is a +small, flat, oval inspect, about one-sixteenth of an inch long, covered +with a white down or fur, having parallel ridges running across its +back from side to side, like the wood-louse, though on a much smaller +scale. It is found in various stages of development all the year round, +and takes up its quarters on the roots of the Coffee trees, to start +one part beneath the surface, at the axils of the leaves, and among +the stalks of the crop-clusters, which it cuts off wholesale, either +during the blossoms’ stage or just after the young berries have formed. +In the latter case, its operations may be easily recognized by the +large quantities of young, green berries with which the ground beneath +the trees will be strewn, and is also discerned by a white, flour-like +excretion, which it deposits around the axil-works where it has made +its abode. The prescription alike recommended for black-bug will be +here found equally efficacious, but in either case probably a decoction +of common tobacco might be sufficient when much more evenly prepared. + +=The Coffee-bug.=--The Coffee tree is attacked by various species of +_coccida_ in most countries, where they are known by different names, +but careful cultivation has greatly reduced the evil. There are two +distinct species of bug found in the Coffee-growing countries, called +respectively the “black” or “scaling,” and the “white” or “mealy.” +The former, _Lecumimum Coffea_, is a minute insect which attaches +itself to the tenderest shoots of the plant, the females having the +appearance of small scallop-shells, of a brown color, and adhering to +the leaf or twig in the same manner as the scallop-shell to a rock; at +first horizontal, soon takes an upward, spiral direction, and proceeds +until a safe shoot is found in which the larvæ may be deposited. The +tree soon droops and dies down to the point at which the entry has +been effected, and where it can be easily broken off by a sharp pull +at the upper part. The only course in this case is to break off the +tree in this manner, and then burn the stem with the larvæ secreted +in its centre. Young shoots will proceed from the stump, and one of +these may be trained to succeed the original stem. The insect is very +susceptible to the effects of wood smoke, and may be easily driven off +or destroyed by the smoke of ordinary wood or grass fires. + +=Canker, or Bark Disease.=--Is a disease of the Coffee plant which +has created great havoc in Africa and other countries of the East, +and which causes an annual loss of about one per cent. of the trees +of Jamaica and other West India Islands. The first symptoms is the +withering of a secondary or tertiary branch, when it will be found +that the bark under the primary branches is decayed and blue-mouldy, +the blue mould gradually extending downwards over the whole stem; a +tree once attacked never recovering, but dying in a few months. All +soils and situations seem liable to this disease, the trees beginning +to suffer when about six years old. Though the mould is the proximate +cause of death, the ultimate cause is undoubtedly due to some +unfavorable external condition. + +The opinions of experienced planters as to what this may be are +various, being generally attributed to neglect of cultivation, to +unstability of climate and to a want of sufficient depth of soil. +All may be practically right, but the last seems the most probable, +and is the reason given for it in many countries. Rot, grubs, rats +and squirrels are accounted for in the following manner: “Rot,” or +the blacking and withering of the young leaves and shoots, is due to +wet and cold, and may be cured by good drainage and mulching. Grubs +of a large and yellow kind, destroy the tap-roots of the plants, +cattle-manure being a fertile source of them, must be well-limed. Rats, +squirrels, grasshoppers, ants and spiders collectively do considerable +mischief, and should be exterminated whenever possible. + + +GATHERING AND HARVESTING. + +The cluster of buds which duly make their appearance are at first +little dark-green spikes, but as they grow they become straw-colored, +then, under the influence of a few showers, almost white, and finally +burst into snowy blossoms, and after a day or two the flowers turn +brown and fade away, the more gradually the better; when the bloom +is out, the rainfall is unwelcome, but after it is “set” the shower +is beneficial. The pistils of the flowers now assume the form of +berries, gradually growing and changing their color from dark-green to +light-yellow, which finally drys out to red or crimson. As soon as a +sprinkling of red berries is seen, picking should begin and continue as +long as any berries ripen, that is to say, from one to three months, +but the berries or “cherries” as they are more frequently called, must +not be picked until they are fully ripe, which is best indicated by a +deep, purplish-crimson color, and as the crop rarely or never ripens +all at once, two to three pickings are required, the second being +the principal one, the others being rather gleanings than pickings. +Each mature berry should be picked separately off its stalk and never +stripped off; the cherries as picked are dropped into a small bag about +eighteen inches square, suspended from the neck of the picker, and the +bags are then emptied into one or two bushel sacks or hampers placed +at intervals on the paths of the pickers. If the berries are allowed +to get over-ripe in wet weather, they will be liable to burst and drop +the beans, or to fall off bodily, but if on clean ground much of them +may be recovered, while in very hot weather they are more likely to +dry up and hold on to trees. In order to convey the berries to the +curing-houses in some countries a great saving is effected in long +distances, by running them with water down galvanized iron spouting, +made in 8-inch lengths, laid with even gradients and curves duly +secured. The berries are then despatched from the cisterns, to which +a due proportion of water has been admitted, provision being made for +collecting and utilizing the latter at the mills. + + +PULPING AND PREPARING. + +The preparation of Coffee for market necessitates the erection of +extensive buildings and machinery on large estates, for which no +specific plans can be given, because much depends upon the size and +situation of the estate, and as much upon the kind and degree of the +preparation contemplated. But the site selected for the works should +be as near the centre of the plantation as is compatible with securing +a patch of open, airy ground to which a good stream of water can be +brought. The first requisite building should be the “pulping-house,” +comprising three floors--the berry loft, the pulping platform and the +cistern floor--and whenever possible it should be built against a +shallow cliff or embankment, so that the berry coffee may be delivered +into the loft without being hauled upstairs by hand, while the berry +loft is usually placed immediately over the pulping platform. + +The operation known as “pulping” consists in clearing the coffee +“beans” from the pulp in which they are enveloped, which with ripe +berries is most easily and effectively accomplished immediately after +picking, efforts being usually made to complete the pulping of a day’s +picking during the same evening. If over-ripe or shriveled, but still +comparatively moist inside, the berries should first be soaked in water +for a few hours previous. A number of machines have been invented for +this purpose, the chief objects in all cases being to pulp rapidly, +thoroughly and without injury to the bean, for if the inner or +“silver-skin” of the bean be broken the latter is wasted. + +But the latest and most simple form of “pulping”-machine is what is +known as the “Disc Pulper,” in which the separation of the bean and the +pulp is effected by means of rotating discs, covered with a thin sheet +of copper, whose surface has been “knobbed,” is raised into sort of +oval knobs by the application of a blend punch. Pulpers of this class +being portable and cheap, are most frequently used in the opening of +distant estates. The “single” form is very light, and when driven by +three plantation hands, it will pulp all the way from 20 to 25 bushels +of berries an hour. The “double” form, which has two discs and which +is furnished with a feeding-roller inside the hopper, requires from +four to six hands to pulp 40 bushels an hour, but when driven by power, +it will hull from 70 to 80 bushels in the same time. In the machine +the discs are placed between “cushions” of smooth iron, set at such +a distance that the berries cannot pass without being bruised. The +cushions rest in a movable bed of iron, set so that no bean can pass +downwards. When the disc revolves, the berries are driven forward and +squeezed, the corrugations then catch the skins and drag them between +the disc and bed. These small pulpers have an advantage over the +larger ones, in that each can be set to suit the size of a portion of +the crop--which always varies in size--and in that, with two or more +machines, there is less likelihood of complete stoppage in case of +accident. One disc pulper to every 30 or 40 acres--that is, about three +to every 100 acres, two to be set alike for large size and one for +smaller berries--should be ample in a fair-sized estate. + +There are times, however, when it is impossible to pulp Coffee; the +pulpers may get out of repair, or the weather may be so untoward that +the berry does not ripen sufficiently, or become too dry for pulping. +In these cases the berries must first be fermented. The best way to do +this is to place them in one of the tanks, or if the quantity is too +small to nearly fill a tank, in an old box or cask, and cover it with +sacks or grass, and let it remain until it acquires a good warmth; +then, when the berries in squeezing are no longer slippery, they may be +taken out and spread in the sun to dry. For two or three nights it need +not be housed, nor will rain hurt it. When dry, it may be stored for +curing like parchment Coffee, but must not be mixed with it. To ferment +the berries by leaving them in a heap on the ground is a bad plan for +two reasons: First, when fermented in this manner it becomes very wet +and collects dirt, which, in the after treatment, will affect the color +of the Coffee. Second, because in a heap the fermentation cannot be +equalized throughout the Coffee. Pulping may be performed whenever +possible, as the increased trouble entailed by the latter process is +not compensated for by the alleged improvement of the flavor and no +better price is received for it. + + +FERMENTING AND DRYING. + +The “parchment” coffee as it comes from the pulper is next submitted +to a fermentation process for the purpose of removing the saccharine +matter, without which the beans would not dry. This operation is +performed in a series of tanks, whose capacity varies with the size +of the estate, and which may be arranged in squares. The pulpers are +placed on a platform above the tanks and in such a position that the +pulped coffee can be run by water into the tanks, which must also be +so situated that the coffee will always advance by the aid of running +water and may finally be conveniently conveyed to the drying ground, +while the water and refuse run off. The amount of cistern accommodation +necessary for a plantation maybe based on the allowance of one cubic +foot for each bushel of berries picked in one day. The tanks are seldom +less than three in number--two receiving cisterns, each large enough +for the greatest possible daily picking and a third for washing the +parchment, nearly as large superficially, as the two others combined, +that is, the “washing” tanks from twelve to fifteen feet long, two +feet deep and separated by a causeway three and one-half feet wide, +and the “fermenting” tanks eight by eighteen feet long and two and +one-half feet deep. These tanks are usually made of brick-work, lined +with cement or asphalt, but wood is much better because less cold, but +all should have a slight incline in order to assist the drainage. The +receiving tanks are provided at the lowest corner with a good-sized +outlet, fitted with a plug and with a movable sieve of perforated +zinc or woven-wire, fine enough to keep back the coffee when draining +off the water, but not so fine as to choke with saccharine scum; the +receiving cisterns being used alternately. All the coffee pulped in +one day is allowed to remain in the receiving cistern until a slight +fermentation has set in; this occurs in from twelve to eighteen hours +in mild weather, but in cold weather it may take from thirty to forty +hours and even more. There are two ways of conducting fermentation--the +dry and the wet--the former consists in allowing the berries to be +without water, the bottom of the tank being perforated so as to draw +off the liquid, but by the latter process the tank remains full of +water. The dry system, however, is the better as long as care is taken +to turn the mass so that the fermentation shall be equal throughout; +the presence of water equalizes the fermentation but retards it and +slightly injures the quality of the coffee. When fermentation is not +sufficiently prolonged, the beans will assume a yellowish color--called +“blankety”--and will be difficult to dry, becoming liable to absorb +moisture at the same time. But when properly fermented the separation +of the saccharine matters is easily effected in the washing tanks, to +which the pulped beans and a good supply of water is admitted. The +washing cistern is provided with a sluice door at the lowest corner, +this door commonly measuring six inches wide by three inches deep. The +coffee is meanwhile constantly agitated by a wooden scraper or rake, +by which the light coffee and refuse matter float and may be skimmed +off, the dirty water flowing off through a tall cistern provided with a +grating to catch the skins and stray parchment, while the sound berries +are placed in draining boxes to remove the excess of moisture and are +then transferred to the drying ground with the least possible delay. +But should the climate be uncertain it will be necessary to provide +for the emergency of a succession of wet days, when drying cannot be +proceeded with. Parchment coffee may be kept in the undried state +for two weeks without injury by placing it in a cistern exposed to a +continuous flow of cold water. + +In drying, the berries to be dried are first spread out on a flat +surface exposed to the heat of the sun. The material forming the +_terrcino_ (terrace) or drying ground varies greatly in the different +coffee-producing countries, but most commonly the ground is leveled +and then covered with a kind of concrete, sometimes asphalt is laid +down, but, besides being expensive it is not sure in hot climates to +withstand the heat, and such a surface is liable to crack and give +way if not carefully drained. A very good and much better plan is to +lay down coir-matting on ground which has simply been made smooth and +hard; the advantages of this plan are its cheapness, the ease with +which extra ground can be requisitioned in case of need, and the use +of the matting as a temporary covering in case of a sudden shower; +modifications of this method are to stretch coir or gunny cloth +across modern frames, or across trays with or without wheels. Shed +accommodations must always be provided ready for the reception of the +coffee at any moment, and the beans must be constantly turned over +and over, either by light rakes or shovels. The drying must also be +rendered equable and must not proceed too rapidly so as not to crack +the parchment before the bean is quite dry, for this reason also, the +coffee should not be exposed too long to a strong sun for the first +day or so. During the drying it is gathered in each day when the sun +is hot, but will then continue to dry under cover. Every care must be +taken to prevent overheating, which may happen by prolonged drying in +mild weather; rather than permit this the coffee should be returned to +a tank, and kept washed with running water. + +A new method, known as “artificial drying,” has recently been adopted +in Brazil and other countries, being much quicker and cheaper. An easy +means of applying artificial heat is by passing an iron pipe, open +at both ends, through a fire outside the stove and below the level +of the floor, continuing it into the stove just beneath the floor; +the heated air, by passing upwards through the coffee, will carry off +much of the damp. Revolving drying machines are also in use; one of +the best of these is one introduced originally for drying corn. It +consists of cylinders into which steam enters and agitators arranged +so that the coffee is impelled forwards and caught up and rained down +as the cylinder revolves. The central cylinder works in a steam packet, +outside which is a light casing of sheet iron, perforated at one end so +that the air may be drawn through by a fan to assist in the drying and +carry off the liberated moisture; this machine obviates the necessity +for respreading the coffee in the terraces before hulling. Three days’ +thorough sunning usually suffices to render the coffee quite dry and +brittle, in which condition it is known as “parchment coffee,” in which +state, in many countries, it is sent to port, its further curing being +left to the shippers, for not only is considerable expenditure in +buildings and machinery necessary for the purpose, but the experience +gained by manipulating various lots of coffee will enable those +who make the subject a special study to bring the sample up to the +best standard of appearance and keeping properties, but the coffee +retains its color better if allowed to remain for several weeks in the +parchment, and its quality continues to improve for months, even years, +the process being known as “curing;” as, however, protracted curing +causes great subsequent difficulty in removing, the “silver-skin” +coffee is never kept in the parchment longer than is compulsory. + + +HULLING AND PEELING. + +This operation consists in the removal of the “parchment” and the +“silver-skin,” after which the beans are again exposed to the sun for +a period which is difficult to define. Some planters say that they +should be dried till they resist pressure of the thumb-nail, but there +is really no infallible test, as no two samples are exactly alike. It +needs much experience to prevent loss of weight by over-drying, or of +color by under-drying, but they peel best while still warm. A variety +of hullers have been tried, but preference is commonly given to the +old-fashioned edge-runner mill, composed of a circular trough with +two large wheels revolving in it and suspended about two inches from +the bottom. The trough is one-half to two-thirds filled with beans, +which remain until the grinding action of the revolving-wheels has +separated their skins, when they are let out by a lateral aperture. +A trough fifteen feet in diameter should turn out at least 1,200 +pounds of marketable coffee an hour, four bushels of good parchment +coffee yielding 100 pounds clean coffee. The appearance of the coffee +immediately after hulling is very light colored, but it soon assumes a +fern-green hue, which it will retain unless exposed to damp, when it +becomes dingy or mottled-gray, and is classed as “country damaged.” + + +WINNOWING AND SIZING. + +The peeled Coffee as it comes from the huller in company with the +detached skins is submitted to the influence of a fan whose force +must be so adjusted that it will effectually remove the skins without +carrying off the Coffee. When the Coffee has been cleaned from +the skins, it is necessary to separate it into various sizes for +market, chiefly with the object of rendering the subsequent roasting +process more equable in effect. Formerly the sizing was performed by +hand-picking, but it is now the custom to employ a machine called a +“separator,” which consists of an inclined, revolving cylindrical +sieve formed of perforated sheet-iron or steel wires, and divided into +sections of different meshes. The Coffee is fed in at the hopper, which +is furnished with a regulator and an internal worm for the purpose of +distributing it equally, while a revolving brush prevents the meshes +from being choked. Sand and dust pass through the first section and +fall into the space while the small and broken beans are delivered +below, the best and largest beans are caught up and the peaberry rolls +freely out at the end. + + +BUILDINGS AND STORES. + +Though there is no necessity for curing the Coffee, and it may be +hulled at once if desired, the exigencies of climate render a properly +constructed warehouse one of greatest _desiderata_. The characteristics +of structure must be, first, dryness combined with security; hence, +galvanized iron forms the best material. It is generally of two +stories, the lower floor being sometimes boarded or asphalted, but the +upper must always be so made so as to admit of free circulation of air +through the Coffee placed in it. This object may best be obtained by +laying wire gauze or coir matting over reapers about one inch apart. +Abundant ventilation must also be provided, and it will be necessary +to watch for any signs of heating. Immediately on its appearance +the Coffee must be turned over rapidly. An improved form of Coffee +structure is that built on what is termed the Clerichew principle, in +which the floor of the upper story is constructed as in the former +case, resting on joists running lengthwise in the building. A ceiling +is provided for the lower story by tacking to the joists cloth which +has been well soaked in boiled rice water and lime, to render it +air-tight. Continuous air-passages are thus made beneath the floor. +About ten feet of one end of the lower apartment are partitioned off, +and its sides are made as nearly air-tight as possible, and it has no +ceiling other than the floor above, so that the passages all open into +it. In an opening in the wall of this chamber a pair of large revolving +fans are placed, their rapid vibrations drawing a continuous current +of air from the inside, and therefore through the Coffee itself. In +this manner dried parchment Coffee can be kept in perfect condition +without any turning over, and by using heated air on the same principle +as before Coffee may be housed while still only partially dry and yet +not suffer from fermentation. + + +PACKING AND SHIPPING. + +As soon as the Coffee is sized and graded it is ready for the market. +Bags are most commonly used, but it is best packed in air-tight casks, +made from wood, which is not likely to taint the Coffee in any way. +In shipping Coffee great care is required to prevent its coming in +contact with any merchandise that may communicate to it a foreign +flavor or odor. Vessels engaged in the Coffee trade should have +perforated ventilating tubes from the bottom of the hold, passing +through the cargo, so as to allow the escape of all steam and gases +generated during transit; without such an appliance the beans will be +discolored and classed as “damaged,” an injury which cannot be covered +by insurance. In well-ventilated ships Coffee loses about one-half per +cent. in weight but gains in quality during transit; while under bad +ventilation there will be a gain of one-half per cent. in weight but a +loss of color, and consequent depreciation in value. + + +COST AND PROFIT. + +Here a few remarks on the cost, prospects and profits of coffee +planting may not be out of place. How much does it require to start on +safely is frequently asked. From ten to twenty thousand dollars may be +considered a fair capital. As to what kind of a plantation that can +be had for these sums is a question that from the shifting nature of +prices, and the varieties of climates, soils and situations, cannot +be accurately answered, or with even an approximation to accuracy. +With regard to the profits of coffee planting the investor may get a +very large return, a moderate or a small one, and he may even suffer, +as many who have tried it have done, a considerable loss. No reliance +whatever can be placed on the estimates so often published, and though +many of them may be accurate enough as far as they go, assuming that +everything goes well, good soil, climate, cheap labor, good health, +and good seasons must be taken into account, in the brilliant reports +of the returns to be expected in the first few bearing years, usually +terminating with the assertion that “the profits subsequently to be +derived will be something fabulous.” + +Transport facilities are another important factor and deserving of +much consideration. In many countries they exceed the cost of growing +and preparing the crops for market, and it frequently occurs in the +interior of Brazil, Mexico and other countries, that it does not +pay to forward the coffee to the markets at the ports of shipment. +But whatever may be the ascertained advantages in point of soil, +temperature, moisture and situation, and however bountiful may be +the yield of the plants, the speculation must always be estimated in +connection with the cost and vicissitudes with which coffee planting as +a business is unhappily associated. Anxiety must be inseparable from +an undertaking exclusively dependent on native labor, and liable to +be affected at the most critical moment by its capricious commercial +fluctuations. The crops in most of the coffee-growing countries, when +saved on the plantation, has either to encounter the risk incident +to transportation by hand through mountain districts as yet unopened +by roads, or the chances of deterioration to which it is exposed in +bullock carts during long journeys to the coast. The real facts being +that the difficulties in the way of forming accurate agricultural +statistics are in the coffee-producing countries almost insuperable, +there being either a tendency to exaggerate or depreciate the yield, +as it best serves the interests of the cultivators. And again as +regards coffee in particular, there is no means whatever of estimating +the product. A great deal being said, but very little known in the +way a man generally requires to know that he may wish to publish as +reasonably near the truth. So in going into coffee planting in any +country it signifies little whether you know what certain plantations +_have_ yielded or what amount of profits _may_ be expected. One fact +may be relied on, however, that is, if an estate frequently changes +hands, it is certainly a bad or indifferent one, if seldom it is sure +the coffee growing pays well, and further it is not necessary to +inquire, for hardly any landed investment pays so well as good sound +coffee property, and the owners are therefore seldom inclined to part +with it. + +The extent of coffee plantations varies from 100 to 300 acres, the +annual product ranging from 500 to 1,000 pounds per acre of prepared +coffee, according to location and care bestowed on the plantation. +The profits also vary with the ruling market price of the coffee at +time of sale, of labor, transportation and the inscrutable effects +of the season. But a cost of from $350 to $500 per 100 pounds may be +considered a fair average; any yield under 300 per acre scarcely paying +expenses, any over 700 paying a handsome profit. + + + + +CHAPTER V. + +COMMERCIAL CLASSIFICATION AND DESCRIPTION. + + +Coffee in commerce is the seed which grows in the pod or fruit of +the coffee plant, like the pea or the bean. Geographically, it is +divided into African, Asian, American and Polynesian coffees, and, +topographically, into “Mountain,” or upland, and “Plaingrown,” or +lowland Coffees, while commercially they are generally classified as +“Mild” and “Strong,” the former comprising in trade the product of all +countries, with the exception of Brazil. Grown in so many different and +widely separated countries, provinces, districts and situations, it is +but natural that the different products should vary materially in size, +style, color, form, flavor and character, and which also accounts for +the almost innumerable commercial divisions and subdivisions of names, +grades and values. + + +AFRICAN COFFEES. + +Africa is the original home of coffee, it being indigenous to almost +the entire Continent; but while it is to be found growing in a wild +state almost all over the entire of tropical Africa, more particularly +between the fifth and fifteenth parallels, its cultivation for +commercial purposes on the “Dark Continent” is very light and partial +at the present time, although it affords a field of boundless +development in the future. African Coffees are divided into West and +East Coast, the former comprising Liberian, Loango, Angola, Benguelan, +Congo and Natal; the latter including Abyssinian, Egyptian, Zanzibar, +Mozambique, Nubian, Madagascar, Bourbon and Mauritius. + +=Liberian=--Is produced in the Americanized colony known as the +“Black Republic,” and is principally cultivated in the district +of Mesurado, on the St. Paul river. It is an extremely large +dark-brown bean, possessing very marked peculiarities, being +“concave-convex”--technically termed “Male or pea-berry”--in form; that +is, round on top, with long, deep furrow extending longitudinally down +the face, tightly rolled or “folded” in appearance and very hard and +solid in texture. When roasted and infused the liquor is dark in color, +heavy in body and from 30 to 40 per cent. stronger in flavor than that +of any other variety grown, and is considered too strong to use alone, +but when blended in the proportion of about one to three parts of +some of the milder growths it makes a fairly smooth and rich drinking +coffee. The annual production is limited--about 10,000,000 pounds--put +up in large, coarse bags, averaging 200 pounds, and is principally +exported to England and the continent of Europe, where it is used +principally, on account of its ultra strength, for mixing with chicory, +and sold chiefly in the form of ground coffee. + +=Loango=--Also an indigenous variety, is grown in the interior province +of Encougé, deriving its trade name from the port of shipment. It +closely resembles Liberian in form and color, but is much smaller in +size and greatly inferior in quality, and is sometimes termed “African +pea-berry.” The raw or natural bean is dark-brown in color, light or +“chaffy” in weight, very brittle and poorly prepared, while the liquor +is almost black and insipid, if not actually rank or nauseous, in +flavor, the decoction tasting more like an infusion of char-bones than +anything else it may be likened to. It is principally shipped to Spain, +Portugal and other European countries, very little, fortunately, ever +reaching the United States. + +=Angola=--Produced in the Portuguese colony of that name, is medium +in size, concave in form, light-brown in color, strong and pungent +in flavor, but lacking in smoothness and aroma. Not being regularly +cultivated, its production is limited, that grown by the settlers on +the uplands of the interior being much superior to the wild or native +sorts. + +=Benguelan=--Is another variety of Angola, grown in the adjoining +province to the south and closely resembles it in size, color and +general character. Being also limited in supply, it is rarely if ever +shipped to this country, what is not retained for home consumption +being forwarded to Lisbon, Madrid and the Canaries. + +=Congo=--Is a medium-sized, heavy bean, strong and rich in the cup, +and, taken altogether, a desirable sort. + +=Natal Coffee=--Is a large light-brown bean, closely resembling the +Liberian product, being grown from that species, but greatly modified +in body and strength. Coffee culture in Natal is struggling against +adverse conditions, owing to the spread of the bark disease in that +colony and for which no cure has been found. This is much to be +regretted, as the quality of the product is very fair, the demand for +the article continually growing. Some Coffees are also grown in the +States of Senegal, Gambia, Sierra Leone, St. Helena and the Cape of +Good Hope, but, being limited in supply and unknown to commerce, do not +need description here. + +=Abyssinian.=--The Coffee plant and its product have been known +in Abyssinia from time immemorial, its fruit being used there in +a _roasted state_, but in _solid form_, for centuries before its +introduction to the civilized world, receiving its now universal +name from the district of Kaffa or Caffa, in the southeastern part +of that country, and becoming the parent-plant of all the numerous +varieties now to be found on the Red Sea littoral. At the present +time it is grown there in all its native luxuriance and primitive +abundance, from the borders of Narla to the banks of the Nile, forming +the chief wood of the country. It is also cultivated there in almost +all situations, on plateaus and table-lands, mountain and valley, +hill and plain, growing as luxuriantly and producing as prolifically +on low as on upland sites. The bean is small in comparison with the +average coffee of commerce, but long and narrow in shape, hard and +“flinty” in texture, and varying in color from a translucent green to a +yellowish hue, according to its age. In body and flavor it ranks next +to Mocha, to which coffee it is analogous, and is by many connoisseurs +preferred to it as being smoother and less heating in effect. It +is little known to commerce under its true name, being principally +shipped from Massowah to Aden and Alexandria, where it loses its +identity, masquerading under the head of “Long-berry Mocha,” and going +principally to the Mediterranean and other European markets. The annual +crop is large and the yield excellent, but communication and transport +facilities being difficult and crude, the bulk of the product does not +reach the outside world. It is to be hoped, however, that whenever +this rich country which produces coffee in such wild abundance shall +be permitted, by civilized man, to enjoy its fertility it will rapidly +become an article of extensive cultivation and commerce. + +=Egyptian=--Comprises the product of the Upper Nile region, and that +grown around Berber and the Soudan, very little being produced in the +country itself. Being the product of different districts, they vary +in size and quality, ranging from small to medium, are palish-green +in color, flat or regular in shape, and possess superior drinking +properties; so much so that many of the smaller bean varieties are put +up in Mocha bales at Alexandria and sold under the name of “Short-berry +Mocha,” being shipped principally to France and England, where they are +known to the initiated as “Alexandrian or Egyptian Mochas.” + +=Nubian=--Is a small-bean coffee, hard and flinty in texture, oval +in shape, pale-green in color, heavy in body, and unusually rich in +flavor. This variety is usually forwarded to Alexandria for conversion +into a so-called Mocha, seldom finding its way into the American or +European markets under its legitimate name. + +=Zanzibar=--Is medium in size, regular in appearance, full in body and +pleasing in flavor, but also very limited in quantity. Increased effort +is now being made, however, by the French, German and Italian colonists +to increase and extend its cultivation in that country. + +=Mozambique=--The product is fairly good, ranking with the average of +mild coffees, medium in size, greenish in color, heavy and mellow in +the cup. + +=Madagascar=--Grown on the immense island of that name, to the east, +is a small-bean variety, solid and firm, but shorter and rounder than +the latter. It is of a pea-green color when first picked, but gradually +assumes that of a silver-gray as it matures; in body it is round and +full, in flavor rich and fragrant. The supply of this variety is very +small when compared with the extent of area that may be utilized for +its profitable culture in that island, the entire product being chiefly +retained for home consumption, only small lots occasionally reaching +the outer world. + +=Bourbon=--Is a small, hard and flinty bean, being chiefly mountain +grown, pale-yellow in color and closely resembling the Arabian product, +for which coffee it is extensively substituted, large quantities of +the smaller beans being annually shipped to Aden to be repacked in the +inimitable Mocha bales and sold as “genuine Aden Mocha.” The larger +beans are usually exported to France and the continent, where it is +held in high esteem for its rich, fragrant flavor and aroma, but rarely +found in the American market unless specially ordered. + +=Mauritius=--Like Bourbon is also an island coffee, the average bean +being medium-sized, heavy and well developed, light-green in color, +full in body and mellow in flavor, the liquor, in general, comparing +favorably with that of finest of the mild grades. The smaller beans +are separated and sold for shipment to Aden for the purpose of +adulterating, or, what is worse, substituting for Mocha, where it sinks +its identity, reappearing in the European market as “Short-berry” Mocha +coffee. + +More or less Coffee is also produced in Sofala, Somali, and the Soudan, +in Usumbara, the Zambesi, Nyassa, Nyanza, and other districts as +far west as the base of the Kilimanjaro mountains, the total yield +of which, however, so far as its influence on the world’s supply is +considered, is insignificant, the export capacity of the whole not +exceeding 150,000 pounds annually. The entire product of the Eastern +provinces of Africa taken in connection with the comparatively +small crops raised on the West coast makes that country contribute +only between 5,000 to 6,000 tons to the world’s supply, this amount +including all coffees grown in Egypt and the interior countries of the +continent of Africa. + + +ASIAN COFFEES + +Comprise Arabian, East Indian, Ceylon, Malayan and all coffees grown in +the Straits Settlements. + + +ARABIAN COFFEE + +Is universally but erroneously known to trade as the far-famed +“Mocha,” as no coffee is or ever was grown there. Mocha itself, +being comparatively a modern town, which rose with the coffee trade +to a short-lived prosperity, the term “Mocha” as applied to Arabian +coffee, being derived solely from the shipment of its product from +there in former times. The internal disorders of Arabia and the +efforts of Mohamed Ali to make the coffee trade pass through India +accelerated its decline, the place being now nothing more than a mere +village. The shipment of coffee is no longer carried on there, being +transferred further south to the ports of Aden and Hodeida, yet, +although, still known to trade as “Mocha,” and notwithstanding the +fact that Arabian coffee has been popularly and commercially known +for centuries as Mocha, it never produced any coffee, being situated +as it is in a sterile plain. Seeing that Arabia is the parent soil +of most of the coffees of commerce, and comparatively little known +as a coffee-producing country, it may be interesting to transcribe +some particulars of the cultivation and trade in the article in +that country. The Coffee plant is claimed by some authorities to be +indigenous to Arabia, and by others to be simply exotic, and as having +been introduced there from Abyssinia, but at what period of the world’s +history has never been definitely decided. The plant or its product +is not mentioned in the Koran, was certainly unknown to Mahomet, and +his contemporaries make no reference to it up to the seventh century, +although the many commodities and beverages in use among his followers +in Mecca and Medina during his Calyphate are accurately and minutely +detailed by his biographers, both Arab and Christian. But while to +Abyssinia belongs the honor of its first discovery, it is to Arabia +that the civilized world is indebted, not only for the first knowledge +of the plant and its virtues, but also for the first plants from which +it is now so extensively propagated as well as for the first knowledge +of preparing it in liquid form. Yet, although exotic to Arabia, it +has been cultivated there for centuries, attaining its most extensive +distribution and highest standard of production in the province of +Yemen, a highland country formed by a labyrinth of precipitant hills +and fertile valleys, the air being pure, and even cold in some parts. +These mountains are well supplied with water, but no considerable +rivers find their way from them to the sea, tropical evaporation, +coupled with the light and porous quality of the soil, drying up the +torrent beds: nor do any natural lakes exist there. Artificial pools +and reservoirs have, however, been constructed, in which water is +preserved all the year round, and are numerous in the district. + +In the province of Yemen, where the best Mocha coffees are produced, +the plant is cultivated in both situations, upland and lowland, that +raised on the latter being greatly inferior to that cultivated on the +former sites. The best being that grown on the mountain slopes under +the greatest difficulties and natural disadvantages of climate, soil +and site, the small gardens, for they cannot be called plantations, +being situated on terraces ranged one above the other, forming an +amphitheatre on the mountain slope and literally covering its sides +from almost base to apex. The plant is cultivated throughout more than +half these upland districts, the finest qualities of the berry being +produced on the western slopes of the mountains in the neighborhood +of Bulgosa and Sanaar, the capital of the province, at elevations +estimated at 5,000 feet above sea-level. The soil in these situations +is composed chiefly of basaltic columns, the detached rocks forming +grand objects of landscape, especially where cascades of water rush +from their summits. Indications of volcanic action, long since extant, +abound; basalt formations comprising a considerable portion of the soil +in the most favored gardens of the coffee-bearing districts, while in +others it is composed of jurassic rock, basalt-granite patches also +occurring in many of them. The basalts are of great utility to the +inhabitants of this region, the columns, which are usually separated, +serving as steps where the ascent is difficult, and as walls to +support the gardens of coffee trees, which are principally situated on +the steep declivities of the mountain sides, and although requiring +the well-diffused heat of an equatorial climate and a rich soil for +its most successful and profitable growth, it is in this region and +under these great disadvantages and peculiarities of soil, climate +and situation--hot, sandy and stony--that the far-famed Mocha coffee +obtains its finest, richest and most valuable developments, and to +which its superior excellence is attributed. + +The gardens are arranged on rocky terraces, situated one above the +other, the slopes being densely covered and close together and are +watered from large reservoirs built upon the heights above them, into +which spring water is collected and sprinkled in a novel and ingenious +manner, being first conducted to the top terrace and then allowed to +fall gradually from one terrace to another, where the plant and shade +grow so thick together that the sun’s rays can hardly penetrate among +the branches. The plants yield ripe fruit twice a year and frequently a +third crop is gathered; the produce of the latter is, however, greatly +inferior to that of the previous ones. The cultivation and preparation +of coffee in Arabia are also of the simplest and most primitive kind. +When the berries have been gathered they are carefully and assiduously +picked over and separated by hand by experienced pickers and sorters. +So constant and frequent is this selecting and separating process +carried on, that a graduation almost as regular as the degrees upon a +map may be discerned in the grades and qualities of Mocha coffee. The +operations of hulling and cleaning being performed with the utmost +seriousness and scrupulous exactness, reminding one of the diligence +ascribed to diamond searchers and gold hunters, when sorting the +torrent sands for the minute but precious treasure. + +The coffee is dispatched by caravan from the interior to the ports of +Aden and Hodeida at almost every season of the year, but principally +in February, March and April, the export consisting of crude and +prepared beans; the former is dried in the husk, and is termed by the +Arabs “Jaffal coffee.” The dealers are chiefly Arabs, who frequently +barter English manufactured goods for the article, the producers +seldom attending the seaport markets. The principal coffee dealers at +the shipping ports being Arabs from Hadramant, Syrians, Armenians, +Bhuddists, Brahmins and Musselmans from Hindustan, who also trade +in drapery and other English goods, which they send through their +agents in the interior to pursue the aforesaid system of barter for +the coffee. There are, however, three or four Anglo-Indian firms in +Hodeida, and one or two American houses in Aden, who deal in coffee +on their own account. Before reaching the harbor of Aden, from which +port the coffee intended for the aristocracy of Alexandria and +Constantinople is chiefly shipped, the beans are sifted and re-sifted +by the Arab merchants _en route_, the best being retained for their +own use; the less generous, flattened, opaque and whitish beans alone +reaching their destination, the last stage seldom conveying the +genuine article except on rare occasions, and only then by previous +arrangement, personal influence or interest. That intended for the +Syrian and Persian markets is forwarded by caravan from Jaffa and +Beyrouth under the same conditions, as whenever mere sale and traffic +is concerned, substitution of an inferior quality or an adulteration +equivalent to a substitution is frequently resorted to in the +storehouses of Aden, and the other points from which it is forwarded, +until whatever Mocha coffee intended for the general European or +American markets is no more the real offspring of the Yemen plant than +the logwood preparations of a fourth-rate wine resembles the pure +libation of an Oporto vineyard. + +Arabian coffee, like that of all other countries, though one in name +is manifold in fact. Geographically they are classified as Yemen and +Tehama, but are known to trade almost universally as “Mocha” coffee, +from being at one time all shipped from that port; but since the +opening of the Suez Canal, the bulk of the crop is now shipped from the +ports of Aden and Hodeida. + +=Yemen Mocha=--Is grown on the mountain slopes surrounding the towns +of Bulgosa, Sanaar and the valley of the Oudien, and constitutes the +true Mocha coffee, which is rarely if ever exported, being consumed +chiefly within the limits of Arabia itself; very little, so little, +indeed, of this variety finds its way west of Constantinople that it is +almost inappreciable. Nor, indeed, do the latter always get the best or +purest, Arabia, Syria, Persia and Egypt consuming over two-thirds of +the limited product of the Yemen hills, the remainder being reserved +for the Turkish and Armenian æosophagi, from which fact it is sometimes +termed the “Aristocrat of Coffees.” + +The true “Mocha” or Yemen bean is exceedingly small, hard, round, +and symmetrical in form, regular and uniform in general appearance, +of a translucent, olive-green color when new, but assuming a rich +semi-transparent yellowish hue with age. It is perfectly clean, being +entirely free from stems, stones, chaff and all other extraneous +matter. When fresh roasted it exhales a pleasing if not delicious odor, +not even approached by that of any other variety grown or known; the +liquor is heavier in body than that of Java, but creamy and rich, and +the flavor fragrant and aromatic to an eminent degree. The superior +excellence attributed to this particular variety of Mocha coffee is +said to be due to two causes, first to the extreme dryness of the +climate, hard granitic nature of the soil, and second to the fact that +the berries are never picked, but allowed to fall from the trees of +their own accord when ripe, and then allowed to dry naturally, after +which they are gathered and hulled by the simplest and most primitive +methods, which process of drying cannot be pursued in countries where +the rainfall is great, as sudden showers spoil the crop if left +unprotected. While others claim that the high reputation which it so +long held in the European markets, is not to be ascribed to either +superior cultivation or improved stock, but to the fact that the +coffee was formerly shipped to India, and thence by circuitous routes +to Europe, so that it was generally two to three years old when it +reached its destination, all coffees improving with age and keeping. +Still growing as it does high up on the sandy terraces of the Yemen +hills, sparse of leaves, gaunt and stunted, as becomes a plant of the +desert as well as from its condensed vitality, it appears difficult +to understand the aromatic pungency of its small berries, a quality +that has never been even approached by any achievement of scientific +cultivation. + +=Tehama Coffee=--Is grown in the low, level sandy plain of that name, +extending from the Red sea littoral to the base of the Yemen hills, +formed by the arc of their curve, and reaching from the province of +Hejaz in the north down as far as Aden on the southern extremity of the +peninsula. As might be expected from its geographical situation towards +the coast, it is an exceedingly hot, dry and sandy region, being only +of moderate fertility, the soil being composed of an agglomeration +of coral debris. The rains are periodical, sometimes flooding the +plantations, and hardly drying up through the year, the coast being +indented with several small harbors. The coffee produced in this +district--like all plain-grown or lowland coffees--is greatly inferior +to the mountain product of Yemen. The bean is small, irregular, +immature and chaffy, having a gnarled or shriveled appearance, greenish +in color when new but assuming a yellowish hue as it dries. Being only +imperfectly cured it frequently contains fragments of hull, fibre and +small stones. It is invariably “quakery” when roasted, and in body and +flavor is inferior to the average run of what are known in trade as +“mild coffees.” Yet, though not a palatable coffee when drunk alone, +it makes a fairly fragrant infusion when combined with a Preanger +or other good Java. It is principally shipped from Hodeida, now the +second considerable port in the Red sea, from which it is known to +trade as “Hodeida Mocha,” and in contradistinction to that shipped +from Aden, and known as “Aden Mocha.” At Hodeida the coffee is sold in +the custom house, whither it is brought from the interior. The Hodeida +dealers also receiving large quantities of Malabar, Bourbon and other +small-bean varieties to mix with or substitute for the original sort. + + +OTHER VARIETIES. + +There are several other varieties known to trade and sold as Mocha +coffee, but having little or no relation to it. Among these are:-- + +=Lechia.=--Shipped from a small port to the north of Hodeida and from +which it derives its trade name. It is very inferior in quality, +roasting and drinking poorly, and on the whole not a desirable sort. + +=Djebelli.=--Which is imported into Aden from the African coast, and is +a mountain-grown coffee possessing valuable cup qualities. + +=Berberah.=--Also an African coffee recognized by its large and +tapering bean, heavy body and rich infusion, and used principally for +mixing with or substituting for genuine Mocha coffee. + +=Havar.=--Another variety of Mocha coffee known to trade as “Havar” +or “Hazar,” which comes from the south African coast of the Red sea, +is being recently shipped from Aden. The bean is long and pointed, +greenish in cast, and solid in structure; it roasts and drinks +exceedingly well, being preferred by many connoisseurs to the true +Mocha bean. + +=Mussowah=--Is an Abyssinian variety, previously described, deriving +its trade name from being shipped from that port on the African coast +of the Red sea. + +=Egyptian Mocha.=--In Alexandria, Mocha coffee is imitated by the +substitution of small-bean African varieties, principally produced +in Berber, Nubia, Somali and the interior of the Soudan, which +are carefully picked over and assorted by hand, the larger beans +being separated from the smaller, the better to adapt them to their +respective markets, being usually shipped to France and other +continental European countries. + +Arabian or “Mocha” Coffee is put up in large grass-mat +bales--containing two smaller packages termed “quarters” or four +termed “eights”--distinctive in shape and material, being made of a +coarse, grassy substance and sewn with a fibrous ligature that becomes +excessively hard and tough as it seasons. The exports, the amount of +which it is difficult to determine owing to the fact that there is no +real custom-house control in the country, consists of about 8,000,000 +to 10,000,000 pounds only, about half of which only is pure Mocha, the +product being so badly manipulated and so extensively substituted with +other coffees of foreign origin and inferior quality. + + +EAST-INDIAN COFFEES. + +Unlike tea, coffee was not introduced into India by European +enterprise, and even in the present day its cultivation there is +largely followed by the natives only. The Malabar coast has always +enjoyed a direct commerce with Arabia, and at an early date in the +world’s history gave many converts to Islam, one of whom, Baba Bouden +by name, is said to have gone on a pilgrimage to Mecca and to have +brought back with him “seven coffee-berries,” which he planted on the +hill range of Mysore and which is still called after him, and which, +according to local tradition, occurred about two centuries ago. The +shrubs thus said to be sown lived on, but their systematic cultivation +did not spread until the beginning of the present century. While +another account states that the coffee-plant was first introduced into +India, on the Malabar coast, by the Arabs themselves, as far back as +1740, yet no official mention is made of the plant or its product +in that country up to 1822, when its cultivation as a curiosity was +first began in the Wynaad district, another plantation being formed +later in the adjoining district of Manjarabad. The Baba Bouden +range, in the State of Mysore, also witnessed the first opening of +a coffee plantation by an English planter in 1840, the success of +this experiment leading to the extension of coffee cultivation in the +neighboring districts of Madras and Malabar. In 1840, a plantation +was also started in Manautoddy, and in 1842 it was found growing well +in Belgaum. From 1842 to 1860, however, the enterprise made but slow +progress, but since the latter date it has spread with great rapidity +along the whole line of the Western Ghauts, clearing away the primeval +forest and opening up a new era of prosperity to the laboring classes +in that country, its cultivation for commercial uses increasing at a +most remarkable rate. + +Coffee at the present time in India is grown all along the summits and +slopes of the Western Ghauts from the northern limits of Kanura south +to Cape Comorin, the chief centres of production being located in the +Presidencies of Madras, Mysore, Malabar, Coorg and Travancore, attempts +being also made to introduce the plant into the Bengal district of +Chittagong and the northern districts of Nepaul, the Punjaub and +British Burmah, the cultivation extending within the past few years to +the Shevaroy hills in the Salem district as well as to the Neilgherry +and Pulmey mountains in Madras, the slopes adjacent to Octacamund being +literally covered with coffee plantations on every side. In India, +after the berries, or “cherries,” as they are called there, have been +harvested, they are cured in one of two ways, one of which is to pulp +them in the soft state, the coffee being known as “Cherry-dried,” while +by the other they are dried first and the pulp removed by a huller. +Where the latter method is adopted, they are spread upon terraces +and there kept until complete desiccation takes place, the coffee +prepared in this manner being known as “thick-hull” or “sun-dried” +coffee. They are classified in trade as “Malabar,” “Mysore,” “Wynaad,” +“Tellicherry,” “Coorg,” “Neilgherry” and “Travancore,” grading +commercially in the order named. + +=Malabar=--Produced on the western slopes of the Ghaut mountains, +is a small, hard, whitish bean, closely resembling a Bourbon, being +frequently shipped to Aden for substitution or conversion into Mocha +coffee. It is full in body, high in color and rich in flavor, +particularly when old, ranking high commercially in the European +markets, where it is principally disposed of. + +=Mysore=--Is a mountain coffee grown on the slopes of the Eastern +Ghauts, and, like all mountain-grown coffees, is large or bold in +style, bluish-green in color, hard and solid in texture, heavy in +body, but apt to be somewhat “grassy” in flavor when new, mellowing +considerably, however, with age. It commands a higher price in the +English market than Java, not on account of its intrinsic worth, but +from the fact that English merchants favor the products of their own +colonies to the prejudice of all others. + +=Wynaad=--Is simply a Malabar coffee, grown in the interior of that +province, and deriving its trade-name from the district of growth, and +possessing the same intrinsic qualities of body, color and flavor, +being heavy, rich and fragrant in the cup. + +=Tellicherry=--Is another variety of Malabar, deriving its commercial +cognomen from the port of shipment, but is generally conveyed to the +coast for curing, and is classed commercially with it, being used for +the same purpose of mixing or substituting for Mocha. + +=Coorg=--Is a plain-grown or lowland coffee, large and flat in +appearance, dark-greenish when new, but becoming a dull-white with +age, and while regular and uniform in the roasted state is apt to be +“quakery.” The liquor is thin and flat in the cup, while the flavor is +somewhat “mawkish” to the taste. + +=Neilgherry=--Although a mountain coffee, seems to be an exception to +the general character of this variety, for while the bean is fairly +large in size and uniform in appearance, it is usually moist and soft +in substance, losing heavily in the roast, and yielding a flat, almost +insipid liquor. + +=Travancore=--Grown in the extreme South, is a lowland variety having +an average-sized, flat, but whitish bean, soft or “spongy” when new, +but becoming light and brittle as it dries. It is invariably “quakery” +in the roast, thin and watery in the cup, and lacking in even an +approach to fragrance. + +=Burmah Coffee=--Is a comparatively new variety to commerce, being only +recently introduced, and very limited in supply to the present. The +bean is fairly large and regular in form, greenish in color and soft +in texture in the natural state, tough or “leathery” when roasted, and +wild or “grassy” in the infusion--defects due to its newness, which +may, however disappear in the later crops. A very large portion of the +surface of Burmah is admirably adapted for the cultivation of fine +coffees, but it still remains in its primeval state of unproductive +jungle, owing to the entire absence of natural energy on the part of +the natives, who have been described as the laziest under the sun. At +the present time, however, the government is making liberal offers +to Europeans and others who understand the art of coffee-planting in +order to develop the industry in that country; such settlers being +offered free grants of land in the celebrated Tavoy district, the only +conditions being the cost of survey and demarcation. + +India coffees are classed in the English market as “Bold,” “Middling” +and “Small,” the bulk of the small-bean Mysore, Malabar and Wynaad +being shipped to Aden and Alexandria, where they are repacked and sold +as Mocha. The average quantity and value of the coffee product of India +is about 40,000,000 pounds, valued at $75,000,000, fully one-half of +which is retained for home consumption, the balance being shipped to +England and France, which are the two next largest consumers of India +coffee, although in both countries it is subject to excessively heavy +duties. The average product per acre is only about 350 pounds, but the +drought having affected the plantations would of itself sufficiently +account for the diminished exports if the leaf disease and borer did +not also help to keep down the yield. + + +CEYLON COFFEES. + +The history of coffee cultivation in the island of Ceylon is one +fraught with interest and full of instructive lessons, which, since +the year 1845, has assumed a position of great and ever-increasing +importance. Although coffee is claimed to have been an article of +growth and export from Ceylon even as far back as the time of the +Portuguese, it only grew wild there without any attempt at cultivation. +Small patches of it were to be found around the Kandyan villages, +growing in wild luxuriance, the berries being gathered before they +were ripe and imperfectly cured, seldom possessed much flavor, they +were but lightly esteemed as an article of commerce. Its systematic +cultivation was first commenced in 1824, by Sir E. Barnes, the then +governor, who hoped by his example to introduce coffee planting by +Europeans into the island. Up to 1834, however, public attention does +not seem to have been occupied with the industry, but in that year +the falling off in supplies from other countries brought capitalists +into the field, and when, in 1836, the duty in England was reduced to +six pence per pound, a great impulse was given to coffee planting in +Ceylon. During that and the following year about 7,000 acres of the +finest lands were purchased for the purpose, until, at the end of a +few years, it became a matter of notoriety that the soil and climate of +Ceylon were capable of producing coffee equal in value to most kinds +then grown, when the influx of capital from England for investment in +this new branch of industry became simply enormous. In 1840, nearly +10,000 acres of mountain forest were felled and planted in coffee, +and in an exceedingly short space of time the sale of crown-lands for +coffee culture averaged 40,000 acres per annum. The mountain ranges +on all sides of the district of Kandy became speedily covered with +plantations, the great valleys of Ambogamoa, Doombera, Kotmalie and +Pusilawa were occupied by speculators, others settling in the steep +passes of Neurailla and penetrating the Ouvah and Badulla districts, +coffee-trees quickly blooming on every solitary hill, even up to and +around the very base of Adam’s peak. The first ardent adventurers +pioneering their way through pathless woods, living in log-cabins +whilst felling the forest and making their preliminary preparations +for planting, until, in a few years, the paths by which they came +were converted into roadways and their cabins replaced by comfortable +“bungalows.” The coffee cultivation mania in Ceylon, however, reached +its climax in 1845, when the governor, council, military, judges, +civil servants, and even the clergy penetrated the hills in their mad +haste to become purchasers of crown lands for coffee growing. The East +India Company’s officers crowded to Ceylon to invest their savings in +coffee lands, capitalists from England at the same time arriving by +every vessel, the bulk of the emigrants as a class being more than +ordinarily aristocratic, and who, if not already opulent, were still in +haste to become more so. So dazzling was the prospect that expenditure +was unlimited, its profusion being only equalled by the ignorance +and inexperience of those to whom it was intrusted; five millions +sterling being sunk in the “Coffee craze” in less than as many years. +The rush for coffee lands at this period in Ceylon was only paralleled +by the movement towards the gold mines of California and Australia, +but with this painful difference, that the wild enthusiasts in Ceylon +instead of thronging to disinter were hurrying to bury their gold, for +in the very midst of their visions of riches a crash suddenly came +which awakened the victims to the reality of their ruin. The financial +panic of 1845 in England rapidly extended its destructive influences +to Ceylon; remittances ceased, credit failed, prices fell, and the +first announcement on the subsidence of the turmoil was the doom of +protection and the withdrawal of the distinctive duty which had so +long screened the British coffee plantations from competition with +those of Java and Brazil. The consternation thus produced in Ceylon +was proportionate to the extravagance and hopes that were blasted, +coffee plantations being forced into the market, and many sold off for +a twentieth part of the outlay incurred in forming them, while others +that could not be sacrificed at any price were abandoned and allowed +to return to their natural jungle. For over three years the enterprise +appeared paralyzed, the ruined disappeared and the timid retreated, +but those who, combining judgment with capital, persevered, succeeded +eventually, not alone in restoring energy to the enterprise, but in +imparting to it the prudence and experience gleaned from former similar +disasters. Still, the crisis, had it not been precipitated by the +calamities of 1845, must have ensued eventually, from the indiscretion +of the previous period; and the healthy condition which coffee planting +appears to have attained at the present day in Ceylon results from +the correction of the errors then committed; and it is no exaggeration +to state that there is not a single well-established principle now +governing the management of the plantations and the conduct of the +proprietors that was not preceded by a directly opposite policy in 1845. + +Since the explosion of this second edition of the “South-sea bubble” +in Ceylon, the island has made rapid strides in coffee growing, the +mountain forests have been replaced by extensive plantations, of which +there are at the present day no less than 1,000 under cultivation, +yielding an average annual crop of nearly 80,000,000 pounds exclusive +of that raised by the natives. Observation has also since discerned +the true tests of soil, climate and aspect, former delusions as to +high altitudes have been exploded, unprofitable districts avoided +and unproductive localities abandoned. And in lieu of the belief +that the coffee tree, once rooted, would continue ever after to bear +crops without further attention or manure, and flourish perennially +in defiance of weeds and neglect, every plantation is now tended like +a garden, and the soil enriched artificially in proportion to the +produce it bears, expenditures also being reduced within the bounds of +discretion. An acre of forest land can now be purchased for one-tenth +of what it cost in 1844, and though the extravagant prices and the +still more extravagant expectations of that period have been entirely +dissipated, coffee planting at the present day in Ceylon under careful +supervision, promises as sound an investment as moderate enterprise can +hope for. Systematic coffee cultivation is almost exclusively confined +to the hill region, which embraces the districts of Kandy, Pusilawa, +Doombera, Kotmalie and Ambogama, although irregular native gardens are +to be found everywhere in the southwestern portion of the island, even +close to the seashore. The favorite and most productive elevation is, +however, between 3,000 and 4,000 feet above sea-level, but in a few +exceptional cases plantations descend almost to the foot of the hills, +others being situated nearly 6,000 feet above. While native gardens, +sometimes bearing good crops, may be met with along the coast actually +at sea-level; in such instances, however, the gardens are limited in +extent, and are generally richly manured and well watered during the +dry season. + +The principal coffee-producing zone of Ceylon of the present day is +chiefly situated in what is known as the Gampola district, in which the +scientific cultivation of coffee was first attempted, and the point at +which the great roads converge connecting the rich coffee districts of +Doombera, Kotmalie and Pusilawa with the ports of Kandy and Colombo. +The soil and situation of the Gampola district have proved so favorable +to the growth of the coffee-plant that there is hardly one of the +magnificent hills seen from it that has not been taken possession of +by planters, the plantations being situated chiefly in the mountain +ranges on all sides of it. Ceylon coffees are classified commercially +as “Native,” “Plantation,” “Liberian” and “Mountain” or “Mocha,” the +latter being nothing more than a small-bean plantation coffee usually +separated. + +=Native.=--What is known to commerce as “Native Ceylon” is principally +produced in the district of Ouvah by native growers, from which fact it +derives its trade-name. Being a plain-grown or lowland coffee, the bean +is large and flat in style, greenish, moist and “flabby” when first +picked, but becoming almost white, broken and “chaffy” as it dries. It +is a poor “roaster,” being invariably “quakery,” weak and thin in the +infusion, and devoid of any distinctive flavor or aroma in the cup. + +[Illustration: DRYING COFFEE ON THE PATIO OR TERRACE.] + +=Plantation=--Derives its trade-name from its being systematically +cultivated in regularly-laid-out plantations, by scientific methods +under intelligent management, and is without doubt one of the finest +varieties grown, ranking high commercially for its intrinsic value. The +raw or natural bean is large, bold, symmetrical and exceedingly well +developed, of a light bluish or translucent-green tint or cast, very +regular and invariably uniform in general appearance. It roasts even +and handsomely, as fine, if not more so, than any variety known, while +in the infusion it is rich and strong, but smooth and creamy in body, +fragrant and aromatic in flavor; an equal quantity of this variety +yielding a heavier-bodied and richer liquor than that of the finest +Java, but will not be quite as high in flavor. + +=Liberian-Ceylon=--Is produced from a transplant of the Liberian +species, which, owing to the destruction caused by the “leaf disease” +on the Ceylon plantations, has been introduced to that island, on +account of its being considered much stronger, hardier and better able +to withstand disease than the native trees, but while it was found +specially adapted to the plains and low-lying situations, it would +not bear so well on the upland or mountain slopes. A hybrid species +was at length evolved, the product of which is known to trade as +“Ceylon-Liberian,” the bean of which in the natural state is not quite +as large as that of the parent plant, not as convex in shape, the +color being paler, bordering on a rich yellow instead of brown, while +the infusion though not as heavy in body or dark in color, is much +smoother and more palatable, the too-heavy properties of the original +being greatly modified by climatic and other causes. + +=Ceylon-Mocha=--Is a small bean, mountain-grown, coffee, very even +and uniform, usually separated from the regular plantation variety. +The raw or unroasted bean is of a steel-blue or silvery-grey color, +according to age, exceedingly rich in liquor and fragrant in flavor, +and considered by some experts to be equal in drinking qualities to any +variety grown, being frequently shipped to Aden for substitution or +mixing with Mocha coffee. + +Ceylon coffees are usually packed in casks and in hogsheads (except +Native, which is put up in bags), the former weighing 400 and the +latter 1,000 pounds, and shipped to England, where it commands a high +price, relatively, and where they are graded as No. 1 (largest); +2 (medium); 3 (small), and “Triage,” or common, but generally as +“Plantation” and “Native” in the American market. In 1880 it was +estimated that the capital invested in coffee culture amounted to over +$70,000,000, a notable increase having taken place since that year, +there being at the present time some forty districts on the island +in which coffee culture is carried on for commercial uses. While the +native product is usually calculated to extend over 50,000 acres, +which, however, varies very much, according to the character of the +season, the prices obtained, and the cheapness of money. The annual +exports are about 80,000,000 pounds, giving an average yield from old +and new plantations of a little over 400 pounds per acre. + + +MALAYAN COFFEES + +Include the products of the islands of Java, Sumatra, Celebes, the +Sunda and many other of the smaller islands of the Malayan Archipelago. + + +JAVA COFFEES. + +Java is a generic term applied to all coffees grown in the Eastern +Archipelago, and is almost a synonym for coffee. While the coffee +plant, which is only known in Java by its European appellation and +its intimate relation with European despotism, was first introduced +into that island by the Dutch at the close of the seventeenth century, +and has ever since remained one of their chief articles of exclusive +monopoly. The labor by which it is planted and its produce collected +is included among the oppressions or “forced services” of the natives +at inadequate rates. Previous to the year 1808 the cultivation of +coffee in Java was principally confined to the Sunda districts, there +being, up to that year, but few plantations comparatively in the +eastern districts, the product of which they were capable of yielding +not amounting to one-tenth of the whole. But under the rapacious +administration of the Dutch East India Company and government the +cultivation of coffee has usurped the soil of almost the entire island, +otherwise destined for yielding the subsistence of the people, the +cultivation of all other products being made subservient to it and the +withering effects of a government monopoly, extending their influence +indiscriminately throughout every province and district in the island. +In the Sunda districts particularly each native family is compelled +to care for 1,000 coffee plants, and in the eastern districts, where +new and extensive plantations are being formed from time to time +in soils and situations in many instances by no means favorable to +its profitable culture, 650 plants is the prescribed allotment. No +negligence can be practised in the performance of this duty, the +whole operations of planting, picking and pulping being conducted +under the immediate superintendence of the government officials, who +select the sites where the new plantations are to be formed, seeing +that they are preserved from weeds and rank grasses and overseeing its +selection and removal to the “go-downs” or warehouses when prepared. +Under this system the Sunda districts are estimated to yield an +annual produce of 100,000 piculs, and it was at one time calculated +that the young plantations of the eastern districts, when they should +come into full bearing, would produce an equal quantity, but in the +latter section many of the plantations had been formed on ill-judged +sites, the natives being also averse to the new and additional burden +which this increase of cultivation imposed upon their labor. Had the +system been persevered in or enforced by a despotic authority, it is +questionable whether the quantity anticipated in the above estimate, +or even one-half of it, would have been obtained from the eastern +districts. The Sundas living in an island and mountainous country, +and having been long accustomed to the hardships of coffee culture, +are less sensible of its pressure than the rest of their countrymen, +time and habit having reconciled them to a system of servitude, which +was at first revolting to them, and a state of slavery, which the +philanthropist laments as degrading, is scarcely felt to be even a +grievance by themselves. Instances, however, are not wanting in which +the usual measure of exaction having been surpassed they have been +awakened to a sense of their wretchedness, a government of colonial +monopolists, eager only for profit, and heedless of the sources from +which it is derived, subjecting its native subjects to privations and +distresses, the recital of which shock the ear of humanity. In brief, +the system of coffee culture in the island of Java has sometimes been +so severely exacted that, together with the other constant and heavy +demands made upon them by the government authority on the native labor +of the country, that they deprived the unfortunate peasants of the time +necessary to raise food for their own support, many thus perishing by +famine, while others fled to the mountains, where, raising a scanty +subsistence in patches, or often dependent for it upon the roots of the +forest, they congratulated themselves on their escape from the reach +of their oppressors; numbers of these people, with their descendants, +remaining in these haunts to the present time. In their annual +migrations they frequently pass over the richest lands, which still +remain uncultivated, awaiting their return to till it, but they prefer +their wild independence and precarious subsistence to the horrors of +being again subjected to forced servitude and forced deliveries at +inadequate compensation. + +In the Java highlands the tree yields fruit for a period of twenty +years, while on the plains or lowlands it seldom attains a greater age +than nine or ten, bearing only during six or seven of these, the fruit +being larger comparatively, but the flavor less as a general rule. +About the end of the rainy season such plants as have not thriven are +replaced by others and the plantations cleared, this latter operation +in well-managed plantations being generally performed from three to +four times in the year, the tree being never topped or pruned, but +universally allowed to grow in all its native luxuriance. In this state +it often, in favored situations, reaches a height of sixteen feet, +and plants eight inches broad have been frequently procured from the +trunks. The average product of a coffee tree in Java is not estimated +at much more than 1¹⁄₄ pounds, but there are instances on record where +as much as from twenty to thirty pounds have been yielded by a single +plant in a season. Again, in Java there does not appear to be any +fixed or certain season for the plant to arrive at maturity, as in the +Western countries, the gathering usually commencing in June or July, +and it is not until late in the following April that the entire crop +is delivered to the go-downs. The picking season in general, however, +consists of three pickings or crops of which the first or “roor-pluk,” +which is small, begins in February, the second or “main-pluk” in May +or June, when the heaviest portion is gathered. It is also termed the +“full-pluk,” from being the most abundant of the season the third +or “after-pluk,” being what is left to open on the trees, may be +considered more of a gleaning, as it is merely a general sweep of +the fallen berries. When the berries become of a dark crimson color +they are plucked off one by one with the assistance of a light bamboo +ladder, the greatest care being taken not to shake off the blossoms +which still remain on the tree or to pluck the unripe fruit. The women +and children of the country usually do the picking, the men attending +to the heavier work around the plantations. Attached to every village +near which there are coffee plantations of any extent, there is a +“drying-house,” to which the newly-gathered coffee is carried and where +it is placed on hurdles about four feet from the floor, under which a +slow wood-fire is kept up during the night; the roof is opened in the +mornings and evenings to admit the air, the berries being frequently +stirred meanwhile to prevent fermentation. As the excessive heat of +the sun is considered prejudicial, the roof of the “drying-house” is +closed during mid-day, this operation being continued until the husk is +thoroughly dried. The coffee dried in this manner is generally small, +sea-green or grayish in color and is supposed to acquire a peculiar +flavor from the smoke, although it does not appear that any particular +kind of wood is used as fuel. On the other hand, when the coffee is +dried in the sun the bean becomes of a pale yellowish color, is larger +in size, specifically lighter in weight and more pungent in flavor than +the former. The most common method of pulping in Java among the natives +is to pound the berries when dried in a bag made of buffalo hide, care +being taken not to break or mutilate the beans. A mill of the most +elementary construction is, however, sometimes used for the purpose, +but is said not to answer as well. When the operations of pulping and +cleaning are completed the coffee is then put in bags and baskets and +stood on raised platforms until the period of delivery arrives, when it +is carried to the “go-downs” or storehouses, sometimes by men but more +generally on the backs of buffaloes and mules in strings of from 1,500 +to 2,000 at a time. In the Sunda district there are three principal +depots for receiving the coffee from the cultivators--Chikan, Karang +and Buitzenorg. From Buitzenorg it is either sent direct to Batavia by +land in carts or by way of Linkong, whence it is forwarded in boats by +the Chidana river, while from Chikan the coffee is sent in boats down +the river Chitaram and thence along the sea-coast to Batavia, where +it is received into extensive warehouses and from which it is in turn +generally exported to the European and American markets. + +Up to a very recent period almost all coffee in Java was cultivated +by the natives under supervision of the Dutch government, which had +a monopoly of the product, deriving an enormous revenue from its +cultivation. Under this system, each family was compelled to cultivate, +pick, dry, hull and deliver the coffee at the nearest government +warehouse for transport to the port of shipment, the natives being +allowed but a small percentage of the crop as compensation for their +labor in many instances, but more generally the government placing a +figure so low as to enable it to sell the coffee at an enormous profit, +and also deducting again a heavy duty from the gross price paid to the +growers, thereby deriving an almost fabulous revenue from this system +of cultivation. + +It is difficult to state what recompense the native cultivator +of coffee receives in Java for his services and his product, the +complicated system of accounts which prevails there seem only +calculated to puzzle or mystify the investigator and allow the Dutch +commissary to derive an income of from eighty to one hundred thousand +dollars per annum at the expense of the government by whom he is +employed, on the one hand, and that of the natives whom he oppresses, +on the other. Latterly, however, it has been directed that the +cultivators should receive, on delivery at the government storehouses, +“three rix-dollars (copper) for each “mountain” picul (225 pounds) of +coffee, being very little more than one dollar per hundred, while this +same coffee has frequently been sold in Batavia, within fifty miles +of the spot where it was raised, at twenty dollars per hundred, and +has been seldom sold in the European or American markets at less than +twenty cents per pound. It is, also, difficult to fix the exact rate at +which the coffee might be produced under the free system, but that it +can be raised for exportation at ten dollars per hundred with profit is +beyond doubt. The price paid the natives, however, is deemed liberal +by the Dutch government, though in many cases it has to be transported +over sixty miles of an almost impassible country, where two men are +required to carry a hundred pounds of coffee on their shoulders and +at an expense of labor which one would suppose at least equal to the +remuneration. + +All the available mountain slopes on the island of Java are literally +covered with coffee plantations, owned and operated by the Dutch +government, which assigns to each Javanese family the cultivation +and care of from 600 to 1,000 trees under severe penalties, the +natives being compelled to deliver their crops, hulled and cleaned, +to the nearest government stores at the end of the harvest, accepting +in return whatever price the government is pleased to put on it. +Considerable coffee is, however, cultivated by the natives themselves, +independently of that raised directly for the government, being chiefly +grown along the borders of the government plantations and other +unused patches, as well as along the fences around their farms, being +generally raised in the shade; the berry of some of this coffee attains +a high excellence rivalling if not actually excelling the government +product in many instances. + +A considerable portion of the peasantry having--as already +observed--been long accustomed to the cultivation of coffee, it is +owing to their skill and experience that the coffee owes its excellence +as much as to any direct knowledge, superintendence or interference of +the Dutch officials, who derive their information from the natives, +having little more to do than occasionally ride around the plantations +with a pompous suite, keep the accounts and examine the coffee, as it +is received from the cultivators. The plantations are generally laid +out in squares, the distances between the plants varying according to +the fertility of the soil, that is, in a soil not considered fertile, +a distance of six feet is preserved, and in each interval is planted a +“dadap” tree for the purpose of affording shade to the plants; while in +a rich soil where the plant grows more luxuriantly, fewer shade trees +are required and the plants are placed at greater distances from each +other. But in Java, a certain degree of shade appears to be necessary +at all times to the health of the coffee plant, especially during its +earlier stages, and in low situations, for which purpose the dadap tree +is found to be better calculated for affording this protection than any +other kind in the country, it being a common saying on that island that +“where the dadap flourishes, there also will flourish coffee.” But it +must not be inferred from this that they are always constant or even +necessary companions, for in the highlands many of the most flourishing +plantations are to be observed with but very few dadaps in the vicinity. + +Coffee is cultivated for commercial use in all of the twenty-two +residencies into which the island is divided, including Bantam, +Batavia, Bezoeki, Bagelen, Banjoewanjie and Banjoemas, Cheribon, +Japara, Kadoe, Kediri and Krawang, Madioen, Rembang, Preanger, +Probolingo, Passoeren and Pekalongan, Soerabaya, Soerakarta and +Djokjakarta, Bali, Timour, Malang and Samarang, each of which +residencies or districts containing from five to fifty plantations, +by which they are further distinguished. In trade they are generally +divided into “Government” and “Free Coffees,” the free cultivation +being now permitted in the residencies of Bantam, Cheribon and many +other of the Eastern districts. And, as with the coffees of all other +countries, the product of the different districts of Java varies +considerably in quality and value, many of them possessing a richness +and mellowness not approached by that of any other country; others, +again, being so inferior that were it not for the fact of being grown +on that island they would not be deserving of the name. + +=Bantam and Batavia=--Are medium-sized, yellowish in color, regular +and uniform in appearance, roasting and drinking exceeding well, being +generally clean and free from quakers. + +=Bagalen and Bezoeki=--Are rather bold and plump in style, rich yellow +in color, solid and compact in form, full in body and fragrant in +flavor, ranking with the best of the Java growths. + +=Banjoewanjie and Banjoemas=--While not plentiful sorts, rarely coming +to this market, being principally shipped to Holland, where they +are much appreciated for their great strength and rich flavor, are +medium-sized, heavy and round in body, creamy and fragrant in the cup. + +=Cheribon and Japara=--Are rather light in weight and color, inclined +to be “chaffy” in the natural state and “quakery” in the roasted, but +nevertheless yield a pleasing and palatable liquor on infusion. + +=Kadoe and Kediri=--Are small, hard-bean coffees, approaching brown, +and usually good drinkers, being a favorite in the European market, +where they rank high commercially. + +=Rembang and Krawang=--Rank next to Kadoe in general cup qualities, but +are somewhat irregular in the raw state, roasting and drinking well, +however. + +=Preanger and Probolingo=--The soil of these districts being +pre-eminently adapted for the cultivation of fine coffees, they are +noted for their products. The bean is round, full and well developed, +high-yellow in color, but assuming a rich-brown with age, firm and +regular in style, rich, mellow and creamy in liquor, fragrant and +aromatic in flavor, rivalling the best product of Arabia itself. + +=Passoeren and Pekalongen=--Rank next to Preanger, being usually brown, +regular and uniform, full in body, round in flavor and as a general +rule very fragrant, particularly when the crop is good. + +=Madioen and Soerabaya=--Belong to the yellow-bean class, and are +rather light in weight and body but pleasing and agreeable in the cup, +approximating to a fine Cucuta Maracaibo in form, liquor and general +characteristics. + +=Soerakarta and Djokjakarta=--Are among the best of the Java growths, +large, heavy and well-developed in bean, handsome and attractive in the +roasted state, yielding a rich golden-yellow liquor, creamy in body and +aromatic in flavor. + +=Bali and Timoor=--Are grown on the small islands to the south of Java, +and though fair in size and quite brown in color, are nevertheless +deceptive in roasting and drinking qualities. + +=Malang and Samarang=--Are light in weight and in color, somewhat +chaffy in the natural state and “quakery” in the roasted, thin, flat +and flavorless in liquor. + + +OTHER VARIETIES. + +=Old Government Java=--Is a trade term applied to coffee grown and +stored under the supervision of the officers of the Dutch government, +and in contradistinction to that raised by the natives, but is now +an almost obsolete term. It is produced principally in the Preanger +district, where the greatest care and attention is bestowed on its +cultivation and curing, its cultivation never being entirely entrusted +to the natives; the primary object of the government officials being +to improve the berry and enhance its value to the exclusion of +increased quantity. After being picked and cured, it is stored in +“go-downs” or storehouses for a number of years, frequently seven, +before being offered for sale, the go-downs being erected expressly +for the purpose, being open at the sides so as to admit the sun and +air in order to mature and season the coffee, which, like wine, +improves with age, the bean assuming with time a dark-brown color and +the flavor becoming richer and more mellow by the development of the +volatile or essential oil contained in the beans. By prolonged keeping +in the raw state it is found that the richness of any seeds in this +peculiar oil is increased, and with increased aroma the coffee yields +a blander and more mellow beverage. Stored coffees, for this reason, +lose weight at first with great rapidity, sometimes as much as 8 per +cent. having been found to dissipate in the first year of keeping, 5 +per cent. in the second and 2 per cent. in the third; but such loss +of weight is more than compensated for by the improvement in quality +and consequent enhancement of value. Old Government Java is for this +reason celebrated for its superior excellence, and justly deserving of +its high repute. Latterly, however, the term has been indiscriminately +used and applied to all Java coffees of a brown color, irrespective of +age, grade or district of production and has thereby ceased to possess +any real significance as implying any extra merit or superiority over +the average run of Java coffees. The natural bean of the true Old +Government Java Coffee is large, round and well developed, of a rich +brown color, exceedingly regular and uniform in general appearance and +entirely free from defects of any kind, while the infusion is round and +heavy in body, creamy, mellow and fragrant in flavor, surpassing in +general “cup qualities” that of any other variety grown. All coffees +raised under the supervision of the government are disposed of through +the agency of the “Netherlands’ Maatschappy,” or Trading Company, at +the periodical (quarterly) auction sales held in Batavia or Amsterdam, +the sales occurring in the months of March, June, September and +December. It is offered for sale only in limited quantities--from one +to two hundred picul lots--no purchaser being permitted to buy more at +a single bidding, the prices varying at each sale, being regulated by +the quantity offered and the number of orders received by the agents +or brokers to buy, so that parties purchasing two or more lots cannot +calculate what the average cost will be until the sale is ended. + +=Plantation=--Or “Private Growth Javas,” are so termed from being grown +on plantations owned and operated by private or individual planters, +and in contradistinction to that raised under government supervision. +Being grown from selected seed, under the best agricultural conditions +and scientific cultivation, it produces a quality of coffee that cannot +be surpassed for size, style, color, regularity and general intrinsic +merit. It is also marketed differently from the government system, +being disposed of by contract or tender, that is, as soon as the +quantity and quality of the crop can be estimated, the planters issue +a circular letter or note to the principal firms of Batavia and to the +representatives of European and American houses, informing them of the +facts and soliciting bids for the entire crop. Proposals are received +and the coffee sold to the highest bidder; but if, according to the +planter’s views, the offers are too low, he claims the right to reject +them and hold the coffee for a better market. If accepted the coffee is +carefully picked over, assorted and transported to the shipping port +by the planter and delivered in bulk, the purchaser furnishing his +own bags and marks, the coffees being of such high repute and quality +they sell high, there being great competition to obtain them. Many +of these plantations were in existence prior to the introduction of +the government monopoly system, or are situated on the estates of the +native princes, who have been permitted to retain some portion of their +sovereign privileges. + +=Liberian-Java=--Is the product of a transplant of the Liberian species +introduced into the island about ten years ago, where it was found to +prosper well and vigorously; a great demand springing up for its seed, +the cultivation increasing and yielding a bean much larger than that +produced by the parent plant, full and well developed, yellow to brown +in color, concave in form and closely resembling “Padang” in liquor and +flavor. + +=W.I.P.=--Or “West India Prepared” Java is so termed from being +pulped and prepared by the “Washed” or West India process, being also +known to trade as “Blue-bean Java.” The raw bean is bold, regular and +bluish-green in color, hard and solid in substance, heavy, rich and +flavory in liquor. Some authorities, however, contend that this new +process is detrimental to the coffee, claiming that by the old or +“dry-hulled” method the bean retained all the properties of the coffee +to a much greater degree, whereas by the new process, considerable of +the active principle (caffeine) is carried off in the washing. + +=Loeke or “Tiger-cat Java”=--Is a variety of Java coffee highly prized +for the intrinsic merits imparted to it by a peculiar process. It is +composed simply of the undigested beans which have passed through the +intestinal canal of the “Loeke,” a small species of tiger found in +Java, which, climbing the trees, selects the ripest and richest of the +berries, feeds on them, swallowing both pulp and beans, the latter +being left in the jungle and afterwards collected by the natives. It +is analogous to the “Monkey coffee” of Brazil and the “Jackal coffee” +of India, the excellent qualities of which is due to the chemical +process which the beans undergo in the stomach of the animal that has +stolen them, the appreciation of such stercoraceously deposited beans +by the natives being an undoubted fact. The bean is large and bold, but +whitish in color, heavy, round and creamy in body, exceedingly fragrant +and aromatic in flavor and not excelled by that of any coffee grown or +known to commerce. + +At the time of shipment all Java coffees are of a light-green shade +unless--as in the case of government and other coffees--they have been +previously stored for the purpose of seasoning or to await a better +market. During the long voyage through the tropics the bean gradually +changes to a deep-yellow, and finally to a dark-brown, particularly +if the voyage be materially lengthened, as it frequently is; the +darker the color becomes the more valuable the coffee on arrival. This +distinctive feature being characteristic of Java coffees only, no +other variety acquiring this color except by artificial means. Color +is the standard of value and the principal consideration in appraising +its price in the American market, there being a wide difference made +in the values of “Pale,” “Yellow” and “Brown” Java coffees in favor +of the latter. As stated before, by being stored for a certain length +of time, Java coffees improve in quality, the bean becoming browner +and the flavor more mellow, probably in the same manner as wine. The +moisture evaporates from the bean and the aciduous, astringent taste, +of the young, new bean is entirely dissipated and lost by the process, +which, by becoming thoroughly dry and seasoned, enhances its value +commercially. Yet color cannot always be taken as an indication of +age or genuineness, as much of the coffee offered under the head of +Brown Java at the present time is nothing more than Malang and other +varieties “sweated,” and colored by a steaming process or artificially +faced with a preparation of kaolin or soapstone. Again if this feature +of turning brown with time, were always an indication of age, it may +be taken for granted that “Brown Javas,” possessed finer roasting and +drinking qualities, than the “Light” or Yellow-bean varieties, but +it is an acknowledged fact that this brown color, even when natural, +neither adds or detracts from its value in the cup. Practically the +demand for “Brown Java” coffee is but an American caprice, enhancing +its commercial value from two to three cents per pound beyond its +intrinsic worth; this caprice being also directly responsible for +the immense amount of other so-called Java coffees that are annually +sweated and colored to imitate or counterfeit the naturally colored and +genuine kinds. While in Europe the yellow-colored coffees are preferred +to the brown, being quite as good, if not superior, to them, and less +liable to manipulation. + +Java coffees are packed for export in bags containing one picul +(133 pounds) when intended for the European markets, and in mats of +one-half picul for the American, the latter style being preferred in +this country. In the European markets they are classed as “Green,” +“Pale-green,” “Greenish” and “Extra-green” when new, but as “Yellow,” +“Dark-yellow,” “Light-brown” and “Brown” when old, grading in the +order named. While in the United States they are generally classed as +“Light,” “Yellow” and “Brown,” according to color, the packages being +usually marked with the initials of the importer, underneath which is +a letter or letters denoting the district or plantation where grown. +The average annual production is about 100,000,000 pounds, of which +30,000,000 pounds is produced on private plantations. + + +SUMATRA COFFEES. + +Sumatra known to the Arabians as _Srimata_ (“the happy”), lies to the +northwest of Java, being separated only from it by the narrow Sunda +strait, and is much richer in products than the latter island. The +coffee-plant was first introduced into Sumatra from Java, by the Dutch, +in the latter part of the eighteenth century, but its cultivation made +little or no progress on that island until about the year 1800, when +measures were taken by the government to promote and stimulate its +production there, since which period there has been a rapid increase +in its output. The system of coffee cultivation is nearly identical +with that in Java, each native family being furnished with seed by +the government on condition that they keep in good bearing order not +less than 650 trees, the crop, “if up to standard,” being purchased +by the government, that is, _taken_, at an arbitrarily _fixed_ price. +The coffee, after being inspected and accepted, is stored in go-downs +or warehouses adjacent to the districts of growth, until a sufficient +quantity has been collected, when it is transported to the ports of +Padang or Benkoolen, where, after being duly advertised, it is sold +at auction, under the immediate supervision of the officers of the +Dutch government, the sales being held quarterly during the months +of March, June, September and December, as in Batavia and Amsterdam. +Latterly, however, the cultivation of coffee in Sumatra has been +further encouraged by the government leasing or selling coffee-lands +to independent planters, the product of such plantations being termed +“Free coffee,” in contradistinction to that raised with restrictions by +the natives, such coffees being sold only by tenders, as in Java. + +Like Java, Sumatra is geographically divided into a number of +districts politically termed “Residencies,” under Dutch control, the +coffee-producing districts comprising Painan, Padang, Palembang, +Ankola, Ayerbanjies and Mandheling, grading relatively in the order +named. + +=Painan=--Is a medium-sized bean brownish in color, hard, solid and +regular in appearance, generally clean and well prepared, and though +fairly heavy in body and pungent in flavor is yet devoid of the +mellowness and fragrance which characterize Sumatra sorts in general, +but is still superior in many respects to a number of the Java growths. + +=Padang=--Known to trade generally as “Interior” from being raised in +a somewhat desultory manner by the natives on government lands, in +the Padang plateau or highlands of the interior, which furnishes the +largest quantity. Padang or Interior coffees are not, as a rule, as +stylish or uniform as the other district growths, owing to careless +cultivation and the primitive methods of preparation in use by the +natives. Yet, notwithstanding these drawbacks, Interior coffees +frequently comprise invoices rivalling in roasting and drinking +qualities many of the regularly cultivated district coffees, and at all +times far outrank the average of the Java product. The raw bean as a +rule is of fair proportions, but very irregular in general appearance, +fairly uniform, and though lacking in the style and finer qualities of +the plantation grades, is nevertheless strong, rich and fragrant in the +cup, possessing a characteristic flavor entirely their own. + +=Palembang=--Differs from Padang both in size, style, color and drink, +being smaller in bean, lighter in color, but stronger and more pungent +in liquor, and not, as a general rule, as highly valued, except when +the crop is good. + +=Ankola=--Ranks among the finest of the Sumatra sorts in point of size, +color and general character, the natural bean being round, full and +firm, rich dark-brown in color, bright and mellow in liquor, and very +fragrant if not aromatic in flavor, and much superior in every respect +to the best of the Java growths, excepting alone that produced in the +Preanger district. + +=Ayerbanjies=--Is closely allied to Ankola in all its leading features +of size, color, structure and character, being classed commercially as +on an entire parity with it, commanding the same price, and frequently +substituted for it when the former is scarce or difficult to obtain. + +=Mandheling=--Is without exception the finest of the Sumatra products, +and is valued high commercially, not alone for its undisputed intrinsic +merits, but also on account of the comparatively small amount produced, +forming only about ten per cent. of the entire product of the island. +The bean is much larger, almost as large as Liberian, of a rich dark, +natural-brown color, round, full, well developed and symmetrical in +form, very stylish and attractive in the roasted state, and equalling, +if not positively surpassing, the much-vaunted Old Government Java +itself. + +=Lahat=--Is another of the Sumatra varieties, but not deserving of +being classed with them. Being of lowland growth, the bean, while +large, is flat in shape, whitish in color, and chaffy in substance, +approaching a Malang in general contour. It is invariably “quakery” in +the roast, flat in liquor, insipid in flavor, or more correctly, almost +devoid of “cup” qualities. + +Sumatra coffees, in general, possess a peculiarly characteristic flavor +in the raw or natural state, described by some dealers as “musty,” +but claimed to be acquired in transit through the tropics, the coffee +sweating in the hold of the vessel during the long voyage. Certain +it is, however, that this mustiness, or whatever it may be termed, +enhances rather than detracts from the value or flavor of the coffee. +And, more singular to add, Sumatra forms nine-tenths of the coffee +imported and sold in the United States under the head of Java, being +preferred to the latter by the American dealers in general, on account +of its usually dark-brown color and distinctive “musty” flavor. The +annual product, like that of all other countries, varies materially +from various and obvious causes, both in quantity and quality, the +average annual export being about 20,000,000 pounds, of which the +United States takes upwards of 75 per cent., the product of “Free” or +private plantation coffee forming about one-fifth of the annual yield. +It is packed in grass mats, and shipped from the port of Padang, when +purchased for account in the United States, and from Benkoolen, in the +north, when intended for the European market. + + +CELEBES COFFEES + +Are grown in the Dutch island of that name, situated to the northeast +of Java, the coffee plant being introduced there from Java as far +back as 1750, but except where Dutch influence was felt little or no +attention was paid to it by the native races until about 1822, when +it was discovered by the Dutch rulers that the soil of the mountain +sides was admirably adapted to the cultivation of fine coffees and a +system established which stimulated the native chiefs to foster the +industry and undertake the management of coffee plantations. A law was +subsequently enacted by the Dutch government, however, compelling the +native princes to direct the total annihilation of the cultivation +of coffee in their dominions and to secure by treaty with them the +destruction and confiscation of all coffee found in the hands of the +natives. The island is divided into thirteen districts, in nearly all +of which more or less coffee is produced. The principal coffees being +known to commerce as Menado, Bonthyne and Macassar. + +=Menado=--Produced in the district of Minnahassa situated in the +extreme north of the island, is not only the finest grown on that +island, but, also excels the best products of both Java and Sumatra. +The bean is uniformly large and regular, of a rich dark-yellow color, +solid and heavy in weight, magnificent in the roast, creamy and +aromatic to a high degree in the cup. It is claimed to possess the +“highest standard of excellence,” no other variety containing the same +all-round qualities of size, style, color, liquor, flavor and aroma to +the same extent. The supply, however, is very limited, and is generally +shipped to Holland, where it commands a price in accordance with its +merits, but rarely reaching the United States. + +=Bonthyne=--Is medium in size, flat in form, reddish in color, inferior +in roast and flavor, and not a desirable sort by any means. + +=Macassar=--Is the poorest of the Celebes sorts, closely resembling +Lahat and Malang, and on a parity with them in appearance, character +and value. + +=Singapore Javas.=--What are known to commerce as “Singapore Java +Coffees” are not produced on that island, which, although lying +directly in the coffee zone, produces little or no coffee, except +small quantities of the Liberian species, which has recently been +introduced there. 90 per cent. of the coffee shipped from Singapore +is chiefly composed of the products of Bali, Timour, the Mollucas and +smaller Sunda islands, its position making it the only _entrepot_ +for the commerce of the entire archipelago. The coffees are usually +small in size, reddish in color, irregular in grade and inferior in +quality, being generally produced from wild or carelessly cultivated +plants, and also possessing a peculiar spicy or “peppery” flavor, said +to be contracted from being imported with cargoes of pepper, but more +probably from being grown in the vicinity of pepper plantations in the +Spice islands. Formerly these coffees were marketed under their true +titles, but as their character became known they were palmed off as +Padang and other district Javas, to the detriment of the latter. + +The systematic cultivation of the Liberian species of coffee was +commenced about ten years ago in Siam, Malacca and many of the smaller +islands of Malaysia, where it was found to prosper so well at first +that the demand for Liberian seed became very great. But after a +fair trial it does not seem to have been a great success, what little +is produced in these new districts being generally classed as “Jahore +Liberian” coffee. + + +POLYNESIAN COFFEES + +Embrace Phillipine, Borneo, Guinea, Fijian, Samoan, Hawaiian, +Australian, New Zealand, and other islands in the South Pacific Ocean. + +=Phillipine Coffees.=--Opinions differ as to whether the coffee plant +is indigenous to the Phillipine Islands or only exotic there, some +authorities declaring that it was first brought there by Spanish +priests from the Malay. Others again claiming that the plant was found +in a wild state in the island of Luzon prior to its introduction, +but that the natives, being ignorant of its properties, allowed the +fruit to decay on the trees. Be this as it may, coffee thrives there +remarkably well, the product possessing a peculiarly rich flavor, for +which it is highly esteemed on the continent of Europe, and, although +it is by no means well prepared or uniform, the worst grades bring +a higher price there than the Java growths, the value on the spot +exceeding the current rates for the latter in the foreign markets, and +is generally classed as “Luzon,” “Manilla” and “Zamboango,” from the +ports of shipment. + +=Luzon=--Is a small-bean variety, hard and flinty in texture, rich +and aromatic in the infusion, but poorly or indifferently cleaned or +prepared, for which causes it is not as well appreciated as it deserves. + +=Manilla=--Is principally produced on the islands of Indan, Laguna, +Batangas and Cavité, its price on the spot varying from twenty to +twenty-two dollars per picul. The bean is medium in size, regular in +form, and pale-green in color, perfect in roast and aromatic in flavor. + +=Zamboango=--Comes chiefly from Mindano and the southern islands +generally. The bean is much larger than that of Manilla, +yellowish-white in color, but somewhat flabby in texture, and +containing much extraneous matter, being poorly prepared, while the +liquor is thin, flat and apt to be wild or “grassy” in flavor. + +Recently the natives have planted patches of coffee in the islands +of Cebu and Bohol, small quantities of which have appeared in the +European markets, some also being secured from the islands of Yligan +and Amboyana. The area of land under coffee cultivation in the +Phillipines, and the amount of coffee raised annually is not definitely +known, as the plantations are widely scattered over the islands of the +archipelago, but is usually estimated at about 10,000,000 pounds. The +largest plantations are situated in the province of Batangas in the +island of Luzon, but considerable coffee is also produced independently +by the natives in small plots which they sell to speculators, who hold +it until they make up a fair-sized shipment, collected in this manner, +from the neighboring islands. The increase in production, however, has +been marked during the past five years, from about 10,000,000 pounds in +1888, to over 16,000,000 pounds in 1893, about 6,000,000 pounds coming +direct to this country, the remainder being taken by Spain, France and +Continental Europe generally. + +=Borneo Coffee.=--The Liberian plant has been recently introduced +into Borneo on a small scale, where it has been found to thrive well +but producing a bean greatly modified in size, color and flavor of +the original species. It is much smaller, not as convex or brown, but +smoother and more pleasing, if anything, in the drink. + +=Guinea Coffee.=--Rapid strides are being made in the cultivation of +coffee in New Guinea, the product ranking with the average of the mild +grades of the older countries. + +=Samoan Coffee.=--The coffee plant has been in existence here for some +years, and though thriving luxuriantly, and the soil and climate being +well adapted, it has never been scientifically treated, and as a +consequence is not as yet an article of commerce. + +=Fijian Coffee.=--Some coffee of fair quality was exported from these +islands as early as 1877, the industry making but little progress there +since that time, notwithstanding the fact that the islands possess +abundant facilities for the production of a superior variety. Several +of the most wealthy and enterprising planters are now, however, engaged +in its cultivation, and it is expected soon to become one of the chief +exports of those islands. The bean is medium sized, green in color, as +with all new coffees, and, owing to improper curing, somewhat grassy in +flavor. + +=Hawaiian Coffee.=--Coffee has been cultivated in Hawaii and other +islands of that group with considerable success for many years +past, although the production has varied greatly there. The first +plantations formed in the island were only a few feet above sea-level, +to which fact is attributed the failure or rather slow progress of the +industry there. New plantations at higher elevations have recently +been established, from which better returns are expected. They are +classified, and known to trade as Puna, Hilo, Kona and Hamakua, of +which Kona is the finest, the others varying in size, color and flavor. +The exports have declined from 415,000 pounds in 1870, which in 1885 +fell to as low as 1,675 pounds, but for 1892 it had again increased to +13,000 pounds, the total exports since 1881 amounting to 215,782 pounds. + +=Australian Coffee.=--Coffee has been found to prosper well in +Queensland, a yield of over 600 pounds per acre being obtained there +so far and selling in Brisbane at twenty cents per pound, the smaller +farmers finding it paying better than corn or potatoes. Efforts are +also being made to introduce the industry into New Zealand and other of +the Antipodean colonies. This list does not by any means exhaust the +possible spots or sections in Polynesia where coffee is or may be grown +with the greatest advantage, touching only the chief centres of the +industry, and as suggesting some eligible sites for the extension of +the planting enterprise. Fair quantities of coffee being also produced +in the Hebrides, Society, Friendly and many other of the island groups +in the South Pacific Ocean. + + +AMERICAN COFFEES. + +As previously stated, the history of the first introduction of the +coffee plant into the American continent is as romantic as it is +interesting. In 1714 the magistrates of Amsterdam presented to Louis +XIV a specimen of the coffee tree, which was carefully nursed in one +of the botanic gardens of Paris, until it eventually yielded fruit. In +1717 the French king sent several of the shoots from it to the island +of Martinique in care of one De Clieux, an officer in the French naval +service. The voyage being long and stormy, the ship’s crew were reduced +to a short allowance of water; for lack of which essential all but one +of the young plants died. De Clieux to save this remaining slip shared +with it his own scanty allowance, eventually succeeding in bringing +it safely to its destination. From this single plant thus heroically +preserved, according to De Tour, was propagated the numerous varieties +now to be found in the West Indies, Mexico, Central, and the northern +countries of South America. And where, notwithstanding the fact that +Coffee is indigenous to the Old World it has evidently found its true +habitat in the New, its production at the present being many times +greater than in the East; its cultivation also constantly and immensely +increasing there. + +The climatic and topographic conditions of the American continent are +pre-eminently adapted to the cultivation of fine coffees, the great +mass of coffee lands, consisting of an elevated plateau formed by an +expansion of the Cordilleras from which terraced slopes descend with a +more or less rapid inclination towards both the Atlantic and Pacific +oceans. This vast tract comprises one of the richest and most varied +zones of the world, for while its geographical position secures to +it a tropical vegetation, the rapid differences of elevation which +characterize it afford it the advantages of more temperate climates, +thus combining within its borders an almost unparalleled exuberance and +multiplicity of natural products, lands favorable to the cultivation +of coffee being found not only on the entire Andean range but also on +its sea and land slopes from Mexico to Paraguay. While in addition to +these immense stretches of mountain range, the plant is also found to +flourish in the numerous valleys and plains of the interior of the +continent, and wherever the great tablelands of the Cordilleras are +sufficiently depressed to reach the level of tropical vegetation. + +American Coffees are geographically divided into Mexican, West Indian, +Central and South American, and, as with the products of the Old World, +the commercial divisions and subdivisions of the numerous varieties are +based rather on the districts of production and the ports of export +than upon any great material difference in the appearance or even +quality of the various kinds produced. + + +MEXICAN COFFEES. + +It is also a fact not generally known to Americans that at our very +doors there exists the climatic conditions and capacity for the +production of all the coffee that is required for consumption in +the United States, the area adapted to the cultivation of coffee in +Mexico being almost illimitable, and bounded only by the extent of +land brought under cultivation. Its suitability as a coffee-producing +country has been tested by more than fifty years of experience, and +that it has not heretofore assumed first place in point of production, +exportation, and the rank to which the merit of its product entitles +it, is to be attributed to the same causes that have so long retarded +its other agricultural and commercial developments. But while coffee is +chiefly produced for export only in the States of Vera Cruz, Oaxaca, +Michacoan, Colima, Chiapas, Jalisco and Tabasco, excellent coffee is +also grown on the plains of the interior as far north as Sinaloa, +as well as in the coast States from Yucatan to Tamaulipas. They are +commercially classified as Oaxaca, Cordova, Urupuan, Tepic, Tabasco, +Soconusco and Caracolillo, varying materially in size, style and +quality. + +=Oaxaca=--Is a “Sierra,” or mountain coffee, large, bold and blue when +new, but bleaching with time. It is one of the best of the Mexican +varieties, being regular in roast, heavy in body, strong and rich in +flavor and aroma. + +=Cordova.=--Grown in the State of Vera Cruz, is usually a large +yellow-bean coffee, from which fact it is sometimes termed “Mexican +Java.” It makes a handsome roast, yielding a round, full liquor, +approaching to that of a fine Maracaibo or medium Java. + +=Urupuan=--Produced in the State of Michacoan is also a mountain grade, +rather small in size, greenish-blue in color but somewhat irregular in +appearance, not being well prepared. In flavor it is, however, high +and fragrant, approximating most to that of a Plantation Ceylon. + +=Tepic=,--or “Mexican Mocha,” grown in the State of Jalisco is claimed +to be a transplant of the Arabian berry, which has by careful and +scientific cultivation been so improved in flavor and aroma as to +rival, if not actually excel, the product of the parent plant. The +natural bean is exceedingly small, hard and “flinty” in texture, +steel-blue in color, faultless in roast, rich and creamy in body and +highly aromatic in flavor. The supply being limited it is rarely +exported, being principally consumed in the district of production, +where it commands a very high price, selling on the spot for as much as +one dollar per pound. + +=Tabasco=--Is a coast-grown coffee cultivated in the hot, moist +low-lands of the Campeachy gulf, and is the poorest of the Mexican +varieties. The bean is of a sickly-green hue, medium in size, and moist +or “spongy” in substance, bitter and astringent in flavor, and taken +altogether a most undesirable sort for any purpose. + +=Soconusco=--Produced in Chiapas, close to the rich coffee lands of +Guatemala is another high-grade coffee, ranking among the finest of +the Mexican varieties. It is a large, mature bean, varying in color, +according to age, from a bluish-green to a pale-yellow, full and round +in body, ripe and mellow in flavor as a rule. + +=Colima=--Raised on the west coast is a medium-sized bean, flat in +form, fairly solid, but varying in color from greenish to pale, even +in roast, rather round in liquor and pleasing in flavor, and generally +shipped to the Pacific States. + +=Caracolillo=--or “Mexican pea-berry,” is a concave-convex bean, grown +on the new wood at the end of branches of trees that are pruned year +after year; but though not confined to any particular species, such +trees yield almost entirely male or pea-berry coffee, being the only +instance on record, and is considered the fanciest grade grown in +Mexico. + +Mexico possesses more and better coffee lands than many other countries +where it is now extensively grown, a small proportion of which only +are under cultivation. The popularity of the product increases as it +becomes better known, besides being the nearest and most accessible +coffee producing country to the United States, the largest and best +coffee market in the world. More attention is now being directed to +the cultivation of coffee in Mexico, however, by both natives and +foreigners than has ever before been given to the industry in that +country. Native Mexicans are quietly, but steadily laying out new +coffee plantations or enlarging and reviving old ones and many large +tracts of land adapted to the growth of coffee have recently been +purchased there by foreigners with that object. But while Mexico +practically has no limit to her production of coffee, yet the average +annual exports amounts only to about 10,000,000 pounds, the bulk of +which is shipped to France, where it is graded as “Verde,” or Green, +and “Blanco,” or White, the United States receiving the largest +proportion of the remainder. + + +WEST INDIAN COFFEES. + +The West India Islands at the beginning of the present century were +noted for the extensive quantity and excellent quality of their coffee +product, ranking at that period with the largest coffee-growing +countries of the world. Its cultivation has rapidly and materially +declined there in recent years, still continuing to do so at a +disproportionate rate; the decrease since the emancipation of the +negroes almost amounting to abandonment. But while commonly attributed +in a great measure to the ravages of the blight, already described, it +is more evidently traceable to social influences and a faulty system of +cultivation. Latterly, however, attempts are being made to restore the +industry to something like its former importance by new and improved +methods of culture, so that it remains to be seen what art can do to +combat the difficulty. They are classified in trade as Cuban, Jamaica, +Haytian, San Domingo, Porto Rico, Trinidad, Dominica, Martinique and +Guadeloupe. + +=Cuban=--Though at one period one of the largest coffee-producing +countries in proportion to its size, yielding nearly 50,000,000 pounds +annually, Cuba now ranks lowest in the scale, not raising sufficient to +supply the home demand, its cultivation being replaced in that island +by that of sugar and tobacco. The districts most noted for the richness +and excellence of their coffees are situated on the Sierra Maistra +range, in the vicinity of Vuelta Abajo, as well as in the districts +of Alquizar and San Marcos, and from the fact that these latter are +among the oldest coffee-producing sections on the island, their product +bears a high reputation for fragrance and excellence. But the coffee +grown in the mountain district of Guantanamo is now considered the +finest, its cultivation there being on the increase, while decreasing +rapidly in the former districts. The bean of what little is produced on +that island is large in size, whitish in color and peculiar in form, +somewhat resembling a “male” or pea-berry. In roast and drink it is +superior to many of the mild grades, with which it is usually ranked. + +=Jamaica=--The coffee plant was first introduced into Jamaica in 1730, +a special act of Parliament being passed in that year to encourage +and foster its cultivation. The island is famous for the production +of fine coffees, those grown on the regularly conducted plantations +rivalling the best products of any country. It is divided into two +kinds, “Blue Mountain” and “Plain-grown,” the latter being graded +commercially as “Ordinary” in contradistinction to the former, which +is always choice. “Blue Mountain Jamaica” is a bold, well-developed +bean, bluish almost translucent in cast, very solid and attractive in +style and appearance, and developing a characteristic peculiarity, that +of opening and exposing a whitish hull or silver-skin down the furrow +when roasted, while the liquor is heavy, round, full and rich, fragrant +and aromatic to a high degree. It is packed for export in barrels and +large casks, the bulk of the choicer grades being compulsorily exported +to England, where it commands a higher figure relatively than Java and +other equally fine coffees. Nearly all the coffee plantations on the +Island of Jamaica being mortgaged to London brokers and dealers, the +contracts containing a clause or stipulation compelling the planter to +dispose of their crops through the holders, who, by the harsh terms of +the contract, not only secure the best of the product and the interest +on the money advanced but also the commissions or profits on its sale. + +“Ordinary” or plain-grown Jamaica is a large, whitish, flat and +broken-bean coffee, moist or spongy in the raw state, and invariably +stony and hully, being imperfectly cleaned. The roast is usually either +“quakery” or “niggery,” the liquor is strong, almost to rankness, and +apt to be “wild” or “grassy” in flavor, more particularly when new, +approximating close to a Travancore or Native Ceylon, to which coffees +it bears a striking resemblance in character and value. It is put up in +large coarse bags, averaging about 200 pounds, and shipped principally +to the United States. + +=Haytian Coffees.=--Coffee is claimed to have been first introduced +into this island by wild fowl, being steriocaceously deposited +there after the manner of Monkey, Jackal and Tiger-cat coffees. Its +systematic cultivation was first begun there about 1740 by the French, +the industry flourishing during the French _régime_, but rapidly +declining after the island passed under native rule. It is cultivated +there now by natives exclusively, principally in the districts of +Jeremie, Jacmel and Gonaives, by which terms it is more familiarly +known to commerce. They are generally large, flat, white and broken in +appearance, invariably stony and stemy, being but crudely cultivated +and prepared for market. Yet, notwithstanding these defects, they are +elegant roasters, yielding an excellent liquor, full of snap and rich +in flavor, but owing to its indifferent treatment its commercial value +is reduced far below its intrinsic worth. The coffee itself being +mild and pleasant, added to its low price, would commend it to many +consumers were it but properly cleaned and graded. Usually all of it +received into this country is reshipped to France, Belgium and Germany, +where it is picked over by hand, the consumers in these countries not +being as exacting as regards cleaning and grading as in this country. +The production of coffee in Hayti has fallen from over 80,000,000 +pounds in 1789 to less than 50,000,000 at the present time, although +the island offers an excellent and extensive field for the industry, +which, it is hoped, will be taken advantage of as soon as the country +devotes its energies more closely to the improvement of its internal +affairs and the encouragement of capital. + +[Illustration: HULLING COFFEE.] + +=San Domingo=--Known to trade as “Cape,” is grown on the same island +to the west of Hayti, and approximates very closely in size, style +and color to ordinary Jamaica--so much so that it is frequently +substituted and sold in lieu of it. Its cultivation being also +principally conducted by natives, who are so indifferent to its proper +preparation for market--machinery being employed only to a very limited +extent--that most of the product is shipped in a stony and otherwise +dirty condition, thus reducing its value commercially far below its +intrinsic worth. + +=Porto Rico=--Is grown chiefly in the province of Ponce, small +quantities being also produced in the districts of Arecibo, Mayaguez +and Aguadilla. The bean is regular and well formed, but varying in +color from yellow to greenish, the quality is fairly good, and though, +not well known in the American market is much valued in Spain and the +European markets generally. + +=Dominica=--Known to trade as “Souffriere,” from the district of +growth, is a peculiarly shaped bean, said to be produced from Mocha +seed, but much inferior to the product of the parent plant. From +the effects of Negro emancipation and the coffee blight, the annual +production of Dominica has fallen from over 2,000,000 pounds to almost +nominal. + +=Trinidad=--The coffee export from Trinidad is only about 25,000 pounds +yearly, yet there is scarcely any part of the island where coffee +culture may not be profitably undertaken, particularly in the districts +of Aripo and Maracas, where the conditions are unsurpassed. Both +the Arabian and Liberian species are grown there, the product being +commercially divided into “Large” and “Small” and generally shipped to +Spain. + +=Martinique.=--Although originally introduced into the New World +through Martinique, which island was for a long time celebrated for +the quantity and quality of its coffee, it produces very little +comparatively at the present day. In fact, barely sufficient to supply +the home demand, the excess going to France, where it is highly +esteemed for its intrinsic merits. The bean is exceedingly small, hard +and flinty, somewhat resembling that of a Mocha, bluish-gray in color, +heavy and round in body, pungent and piquant in flavor, and grading +with the finest of the milder sorts. + +=Guadeloupe.=--More or less coffee is produced in Guadeloupe and +other of the smaller islands of the Antilles, but chiefly to supply +the home demand, and, with the exception of the former, are almost +entirely unknown to commerce. It is grown principally in the districts +of Bonfleur and Hatrant, what little is exported being shipped to +France, where it is valued high commercially for its superior drinking +qualities. A century ago the island exported nearly 8,000,000 pounds, +being now reduced to less than 500,000. The total annual production +of the entire West India Islands not exceeding 90,000,000 pounds at +the present time, but strenuous efforts are being made to increase the +product. + + +CENTRAL AMERICAN COFFEES. + +Coffee forms the principal staple of the Central American States, the +soil and climate being eminently adapted to the cultivation of fine +coffees, but, as in all other countries, the best grades are produced +on the upland or mountain slopes. In some of these countries, however, +the most primitive system of cultivation and elementary methods of +preparing are still in use, while in others, notably Guatemala, the +most improved modern machinery is employed. They embrace Guatemala, +Nicaragua, San Salvador, Honduras and Costa Rica coffees. + +=Guatemala=--Produces the finest, ranking in intrinsic merit with +that of any variety grown--more particularly that grown in the now +famous Coban district, in Vera Paz, which rivals, if it does not +actually excel, all other varieties in size, style, roasting and +drinking qualities. The average bean is large, bold and symmetrical +in form, of a translucent blue cast, and exceedingly handsome in +general appearance, making a perfect roast, yielding a rich brown +liquor, sparkling and aromatic in the cup. The next best coffees in +Guatemala are those grown in the “Costa Chica” and “Costa Grande,” a +prolongation of the chain of mountains crossing the southern boundary +of Mexico. The production of coffee has more than doubled in Guatemala +in the past ten years, the price during the same period being more +than quadrupled. The total product for 1892 was over 700,000 quintals, +representing a total value of 16,000,000 dollars. The extraordinary +high price of coffee now ruling has led to a transformation of the +country, small land-owners who heretofore realized from their crops +scarcely sufficient for working expenses, now find themselves with +considerable capital, with which they improve and enlarge their +plantations. These results have led to unbridled speculation, large +companies being formed there for still increasing the area and yield of +coffee, every speculator and small trader who has been enabled to save +a little money, abandoning his former occupation, turning his attention +to coffee growing. This condition may last as long as the present high +prices of coffee continues, but a reaction may occur at any time, +when complete ruin will be the natural consequence to the suddenly +increased number of producers, of which the reflex cannot be but felt +in the economic conditions of the country. Land which was but a few +years ago uninhabited, has been suddenly converted into smiling and +well-cultivated coffee plantations, towns and villages long in decay +have risen around them as if by magic and are steadily increasing in +wealth. New roads to facilitate transportation to the ports are being +constructed, commercial transactions are multiplied, the revenue of +the country is increasing, public credits re-established on a sounder +basis, and what was but a short time ago a poor, declining and almost +ruined State has been suddenly, by the cultivation of coffee, converted +into a rich and prosperous commonwealth. + +=Nicaragua=--Is a medium-sized regular-formed bean, solid and heavy +in the hand, greyish-yellow in color, what is technically termed +“foxy,” and a smooth roaster. The drinking qualities, however, are only +fair, the liquor, while heavy, being devoid of snap and fragrance, +approximating more to a Rio in flavor. + +=Salvador=--Is allied to Nicaragua in appearance and character, and +classed the same, but possesses much finer roasting and drinking +properties. The natural bean of the finer grades is, if anything, +better developed and more uniform, while the poorer ones are very +uneven, broken and “mottled” in appearance; the liquor thin in body and +lacking aroma. + +=Honduras=--Is a yellowish, heavy-bean coffee, assuming a rich straw +color with age, and having an attractive appearance in the hand. As a +general rule it roasts even and smooth, becoming a rich brown color +when parched; the liquor, while thin, gives out a pleasant odor, +resembling that exhaled by cocoa or chocolate, said to be acquired from +being grown in close proximity to cocoa plantations. + +=Costa Rica=--Is one of the most deceptive coffees grown, the raw bean +being large and bold in style, a rich pea-green in color, uniform and +shapely; but is invariably what is termed “hidey,” which is in reality +due to the soil in which it is grown, and, while it makes an almost +perfect roast, is “grassy” and bitter in the infusion, particularly +when roasted for any length of time, it becomes sour and unpalatable, +making its purchase at all times risky. + + +SOUTH AMERICAN COFFEES + +Comprise Venezuelan, Colombian, Equador, Bolivian, Guiana, Peruvian, +Paraguayan and Brazilian, small quantities being also produced in Chili +and Argentina. + + +VENEZUELAN COFFEES. + +The chief coffee-producing districts of Venezuela lie in a central +division, having Caracas and Valencia as a base, with the ports of La +Guayra and Puerto Cabello as shipping points, the district surrounding +the Lake of Valencia being one of the most productive coffee countries +in the world in the quantity and quality of its product. They include +La Guayra, Caracas, Maracaibo, Curaçoa and Angostura coffees. + +=La Guayra=--Also known as “Coro” and “Port,” or Puerto Cabello, from +the ports of shipment, varies in size from small to medium, and from a +pale to a dark-green in color. It is usually graded on a parity with +Rio, to which coffee it most approximates in roast and drink, it being +frequently polished and sold as such, particularly when Rios are +scarce, and, although classed as a “Mild coffee,” develops more or less +of a Rio flavor in the cup. + +=Caracas=--Is of two kinds--_Trilliado_ Milled or “dry-hulled” and +_Descerazado_ (Washed) or “wet-hulled”--from the different methods +employed in pulping and preparing for market. The former is a +yellowish, medium-sized bean, regular and uniform in the natural state, +but apt to be “quakery” in the roasted, and only fair in the drink. +While “Washed Caracas,” on the other hand, is bold and bluish in +color, opening at the furrow when roasted like a Mountain Jamaica or +Plantation Ceylon, exceedingly heavy and rich in body and fragrant in +flavor, and may be classed as one of the best varieties grown. + +=Maracaibos=--Consist of five different varieties or grades--Cucuta, +Merida, Bocono, Tovar and Trujillo--district terms, ranking in the +order named, “Cucuta” being, when the season is favorable, one of the +best coffees grown, grading with many of the products of Java itself. +The raw or natural bean of the finer grades is large, round and solid +in substance, deep, rich-yellow in color, approximating to that of +the best yellow-bean Java sorts in style, appearance and drink. While +“Merida” is a mountain-grown coffee, large, bold and bluish in color, +frequently excelling “Cucuta,” particularly when the crop is good, and +possessing a full ripe liquor with round full body and distinctive +flavor very pleasing to the average consumer. + +“Bocono,” “Tovar” and “Trujillo,” are inferior grades to the above, +small and gnarled in the natural state, generally stony and broken, +“quakery” and shriveled when roasted, light in liquor, but smooth and +pleasing in flavor withal, making good useful coffees for blending +purposes. Maracaibo coffees are packed in Sisal-hemp bags averaging 130 +pounds, and principally shipped to the United States, where they are +held in high esteem for their many excellent qualities, the regular +grades of Cucuta being marked “C” under the importers’ initials, and +the choicer grades “C C.” Merida is indicated by the letter “M” in the +same manner, Bocono by “B,” Tovar by “T” and Trujillo by “To.” But +owing to the too common practice of substituting and repacking indulged +in by unscrupulous dealers, these distinguishing marks cannot always be +relied on with any certainty. + +=Curaçoa=--Is a small, yellowish, shriveled or shrunken bean coffee, +evidently immature or blighted in growth from some unknown cause. It is +generally “quakery” in the roast, but yields a not disagreeable liquor +in the cup, making a valuable variety in combination to reduce cost. + +=Angostura=--Is a large, flabby, yellowish bean variety, shapely in +form but light and “chaffy” in substance, and invariably “quakery” when +roasted, the liquor being thin, watery and almost flavorless. + +Venezuela supplies about one-tenth of all the coffee consumed in +the United States, the total imports being in round numbers about +60,000,000 pounds per annum, and growing steadily. + + +COLOMBIAN COFFEES. + +The coffee-producing districts in Colombia are situated chiefly in +the departments of Boyaca, Santander and Cundamarca, these three +departments having an area of over 160,000 square miles, of which +nearly one-half is adapted to the cultivation of some of the finest +varieties of coffee grown. The possibility of this extensive area +promises a future supply of almost six times the amount consumed in the +United States; in fact, coffee-growing in Colombia, like Mexico, has +no limit except that caused by the lack of labor and capital to work +it. They are known in trade as Ocana, Bogota, Panama, Savanilla and +Bucaramanga. + +=Ocana.=--While bold in bean and regular in form, inclining to a +yellowish in color, is still light in weight and thin in body, +approaching that of a Trujillo Maracaibo in flavor, with which coffee +it is usually graded. + +=Bogota=--Is a mountain-grown coffee, raised on the western slopes of +the Andes. It is usually a large and well-developed bean, bluish-green +and very uniform in general appearance, solid, compact, and faultless +in the roast. The liquor is heavy, full, round and fragrant in flavor, +comparing favorably with Caracas, Jamaica, Guatemala and Plantation +Ceylon in general style and character. + +=Savanilla=--Is a large, light and “spongy” bean coffee, brittle +and chaffy in the roast, devoid of body and almost flavorless. It +closely approximates to a Native Ceylon or Angostura in appearance and +character, with which coffees it is commercially classed. + +=Panama=--Is comparatively a new variety, recently produced on the +isthmus, and like all new productions immature in appearance. It is +of the average size, greenish in color, but moist and spongy in the +natural state, and as yet but poorly prepared. The liquor is heavy +and strong almost to rankness, possessing a grassy or uncooked taste, +defects, it is claimed, that will be overcome in time when its +cultivation and preparation is better understood there. + +=Bucaramanga=--Known to trade as “Bucaramanga Maracaibo,” ranks among +the finest of the South American varieties, being large and bold in +style, solid and weighty in substance, perfect in roast, heavy, round +and full in liquor, fragrant and aromatic in flavor, the finest grades +being superior to many of the Java sorts. The department of Chinqui in +the interior of Colombia also offers a good field for coffee culture, +the fine lands along the slopes of the mountain ranges being admirably +adapted for the purpose. The annual product is about 20,000,000 pounds, +going chiefly to the United States and France. + +=Equador Coffees=--Include Cuenca, Tacunga and Machala, but are +generally classed under the name of “Guayquil,” being shipped from that +port and consumed principally on the Pacific coast, but are limited in +production, little being left for export after the home demand has been +supplied. They range from medium to large in size, are somewhat bold +in style, hard and flinty in texture, pale to greenish in color, and +only fairly uniform, being rather imperfectly prepared, but roast and +drink well, nevertheless, yielding a light-brown liquor, full in body +and fairly fragrant in flavor. Increasing attention is being given to +coffee cultivation in Equador, the produce of the new districts being +of good quality. The exports from Guayquil average about 1,000,000 +pounds per annum, but in some years the crop is entirely spoilt by +heavy rains, the yield being inferior in quality and so low in quantity +as not to suffice for local needs. + +=Bolivian Coffees=--Are comparatively new to commerce and bid fair +to become popular sorts in time, when their cultivation and methods +of properly preparing are better understood in that country. They +are produced principally in the provinces of Yungas and Mapin, small +quantities being also grown in the other provinces. The finest kind is +that cultivated in the valley of Yungas, which though small in size +and pale in color possesses a peculiarly rich and delicate flavor, +commanding a very high price relatively. The product, however, is +limited, only about 300,000 pounds per annum, or equal to one-fourth +the entire supply. The product of Mapin is much larger in size, +greenish in color, but not near as rich in flavor, bringing a much +less price, the annual product being three times greater. Bolivian +coffees in general produce an intoxicating effect, this peculiar action +being as yet unaccounted for, but is claimed by some authorities to +be acquired from being grown in the immediate vicinity of the cactus +plant, from which _pulque_ is distilled, the coffee plant being of such +a sensitive and absorbent nature that it readily acquires any foreign +flavor within range. Whether this claim is correct or not has not as +yet been ascertained, but certain it is that what is known as Singapore +coffee usually tastes of spices, Honduras of cocoa and Costa Rica of +what is called, for want of a more applicable term, “hide,” but which +is in reality due to the presence of oxide of iron in the soil. + +=Guiana Coffees.=--Known to trade as “Surinam,” “Demerara” and +“Cayenne,” from the ports of shipment, are produced in the French +and Dutch colonies of South America. But although the cultivation of +coffee was introduced into these countries about the same period as to +Martinique, its cultivation there has made but little progress, the +total production being limited in supply, and going chiefly to the +mother countries. + +=Peruvian Coffee.=--Coffee grows luxuriantly on the mountain slopes +of Peru, the crops often being so heavy as to necessitate artificial +support for the branches, yet the export from Mollendo, the shipping +port, amounts only to about 16,000 pounds per annum. It ranges in size +from medium to bold, varying in color from bluish to yellow, roasting +and drinking with the average of other South American sorts. + +=Paraguayan Coffee.=--The total production of coffee in Paraguay is +exceedingly small in comparison with what might be grown there under +more favorable circumstances, little or no attention being given to its +cultivation, owing to lack of labor and capital, and notwithstanding +that it offers a fine field for its more extensive growth. + + +BRAZILIAN COFFEES. + +Brazil being the most extensive coffee-growing country in South +America and the largest producer of coffee in point of quantity of +any country in the world needs more than a passing notice in this +work. The gigantic extent to which its production has been carried +there, the enormous, almost fabulous, amount of capital invested in +its cultivation, the multitude of people employed in its preparation +and handling, including the quantity of shipping employed in its +transportation invests it with great importance. One must have been +an eye-witness of the immense bustle occasioned by the coffee trade +of Rio and Santos, must have observed the feverish excitement and the +unprecedented rapidity with which it is prepared, transported, bagged, +unbagged, mixed, rebagged, loaded, marketed and shipped before he can +form any conception of the extent of the coffee industry in Brazil. + +In 1718 the Dutch colony of Surinam began to introduce and cultivate +coffee in Guiana from plants received from Java, and in 1722 De la +Motte, the French Governor of the adjoining colony of Cayenne, having +business in Surinam, contrived by an artifice to bring away with him +from there a small coffee plant, which in 1725 had produced many +thousands which were distributed among all the French colonies on the +mainland, its propagation extending to Para in 1732, the first coffee +plantation formed in Brazil being commenced in that province a few +years later. Its cultivation, however, made but little progress there +until about 1767, when its cultivation was still further extended to +the province of Maranhao, where it soon increased rapidly under a more +careful and systematic management. In 1774 a Belgian monk named Molke +procured some coffee plants from a prosperous plantation in Maranhao, +which had previously been obtained from Surinam, and planted them in +the garden of the Capucin monastery of Adjuda, then situated in what +is now the centre of the city of Rio de Janeiro. The plants prospered +so well, and he becoming convinced of their importance as a valuable +acquisition to the industries of the country that he established a +plantation in the vicinity for its more systematic cultivation. Joachim +Bruneo, the then Bishop of Rio de Janeiro, perceiving the valuable +benefits that would result from its more extensive cultivation, +distributed seeds and plants raised on Molke’s plantation among the +religious institutions and planters of the country, recommending and +encouraging its cultivation among them, but it was not until 1800 +that Brazilian coffee came to be so highly valued in the markets of +the world. In that year a planter named Dr. Lecesne, expelled by the +revolution from San Domingo, settled near Rio and introduced the +latest improved methods of cultivating the coffee plant into that +country. From these simple and unostentatious beginnings has grown the +now enormous coffee industry of Brazil, which at present produces +more coffee than all the other countries in the world combined; it +being calculated that upwards of 1,500,000 acres of land are under +coffee culture there, containing nearly 600,000,000 trees, hundreds of +millions of dollars of capital being invested in its culture, sale and +transport. The cultivation of coffee in Brazil now extends from the +banks of the Amazon to the southern province of Sao Paulo, and from the +coast to the western limits of the country, the plant seeming to find +the requisite conditions of soil and climate in almost every part of +this vast region, and nearly everywhere giving an abundant yield. Its +chief zone of production for commercial purposes, however, is chiefly +confined to the coast provinces of Bahia, Ceara, Rio Janeiro, Sao +Paulo, Minas Geraes and Espiritu Santo. + +In Brazil it was formerly the custom to propagate the coffee plant +by slips or “shoots” cut from the older plants on the plantations, +but at present it is more generally grown from the seed, as in the +Eastern countries. The seeds are sown in nurseries planted with +advanced stalks of the mandioca, which serve to shade the sprints +while young and tender from the extremes of heat and cold alike, but +are gradually thinned out as the growth of the young plants advance, +the nursery at this period resembling a young plum thicket. When the +plants have reached a height of from eighteen to twenty-four inches, +they are transferred to the plantations and planted from six to ten +feet apart, according to the district and conditions. As a general +rule a crop is not expected until four years after setting out the +young plants, unless when the plants are from eighteen months to +two years old before transplanting, in which case a partial crop is +obtained at the end of the third year. Nearly all over the Brazilian +coffee zone the plantations extend with the greatest regularity, as +far as the eye can reach, presenting a most attractive and pleasing +effect, some _fazendas_ (plantations) having as many as 350,000 trees, +others again having as low as 30,000, but all averaging from 500 to +800 trees to the half _fanegada_ (acre), the average annual produce +of each tree ranging from one to seven pounds of prepared coffee, or +about one to one and a half pounds per picking of cleaned coffee. The +plantations situated on high lands and exposed to the east being the +most productive, but prospering equally well in the lowland districts, +although the product is much inferior in quality and flavor. The +trees are grown in lines and squares, the face of the country in the +coffee-growing districts being undulating and hilly, a plantation +of coffee being at every season of the year an object of beauty and +interest. The leaves are perennially bright and polished, resembling +those of the laurel when in full bloom, but of a much darker green in +color, the flowers or blossoms of the purest white, growing in tufts +along the top of the branches, and blooming so suddenly that in the +morning the trees look as if snow had fallen on them in flaky wreaths +during the night, their jasmine-like perfume being powerful enough +to be oppressive, but lasting only for a single day, being succeeded +immediately by branches of immature green and the dark-crimson hull of +the ripe berries--resembling cherries in their brilliancy and size--and +following each other in quick succession, which added to the thick +foliage of the trees presents altogether a magnificent spectacle. + +In Brazil the coffee trees continue to bear from fifteen to twenty +years, but it is found necessary to the healthy development of the +plants to keep the ground in good condition, and when the interspaces +are not cultivated with other plants--principally corn and beans--as +is usually the custom, it is annually cleared around the roots, a +compost of dead leaves and coffee-hulls being placed about them. +In some districts--notably Sao Paulo--many of the trees have been +producing continuously for twenty-five years, still presenting a +vigorous appearance and yielding an average each year, while others +that had attained an age of thirty-five years were cut off within +eighteen inches of the ground, and two years later put forth new +branches, presenting all the appearance of thriving trees, bearing +fruit like much younger trees. This is a new and interesting feature +in the management of the old trunks of coffee trees, one having the +advantage of new growth being secured in one-half the time it could +be obtained from seedlings, as even should these stumps require to +be dug around and manured frequently, it is much more preferable +and profitable to the trouble, expense and uncertainty connected +with the raising of new plants from seed, and certainly presents +greater advantages over the latter method. In Brazil the picking is +latterly--since the abolishment of slavery--done by contract with +the _fazendon_, or proprietor, who only requires the services of the +pickers to gather the berries from the trees, for which labor they are +paid what is considered to be one-half the value of the crude coffee +that is gathered by them. The estimate placed upon an _alquerie_ +(bushel) of crude berries being about seventy-five cents, which, unless +the crop is good, ordinary hands do not gather more than two bushels +per diem; yet, again, when the crops are large, an industrious and +skillful picker can average from five to eight bushels without effort. +The berries are picked by hand, the ground being raked clean under +the trees previous to picking, an immense, broad, flat receptacle +of bamboo being placed underneath the trees, the berries that fail +to fall into this being carefully swept up from the clean, smooth +ground and emptied into it until filled, when it is carried to a point +convenient to the roadside and emptied in piles, from which the coffee +is afterwards hauled in ox-carts to a large building known as the +_terreiro_ or drying-yard. Picking commences in April, and is continued +almost uninterruptedly until November, and after the coffee is gathered +it is carted just as it comes from the plantations, mixed with leaves, +stalks and stones to the drying-house and spread out on the terraces, +large smooth, concrete pavements, to dry in the sun until the berries +become black and crisp, after which they are “hulled” or cleaned by one +of two methods: one the old or “Monjola process,” and the other the new +or “Despolpodor” process. + +Brazilian coffees are known to commerce as Bahia, Ceara, Capatinea, +Rios, Santos and Maragogipi. + +=Bahia=--Is a small, uneven greenish bean, very inferior in style and +appearance, usually “stemmy” and stony and thickly interspersed with +black or immature beans, and is usually branded “S” or “S S.” The roast +is poor, irregular and quakery, the liquor thin and grassy or unripe in +flavor. + +=Ceara=--Resembles Bahia somewhat in general character, being poorly +prepared and very unsightly in the natural state, the body and flavor +being still more inferior. + +=Capatinea=--Grown in the province of Espiritu Santo, but also known to +trade as “Victoria” from the port of shipment, is a large whitish, soft +and flabby bean coffee, quakery in the roast and watery and flavorless +in the cup. + +=Rio Coffees=--Are almost too well known to need description; the bean, +however, varies widely in size and color, ranging from small to large, +and from dark green to light yellow, being known to trade as “Light,” +“Dark” and “Golden.” They are heavy in body, possessing a flavor and +aroma peculiarly distinct from that of all other coffees, and which is +so marked in degree as to be readily detected by the most inexpert, +excepting “Golden Rio” which, aside from its rich color, possesses a +markedly pungent liquor and pleasing flavor. + +=Pole-cat Rio=--Is a very dark, almost black bean coffee, which, +although muddy and dark in liquor, is nevertheless much appreciated by +many coffee drinkers. + +=Liberian Rio=--Grown from Liberian plants in Brazil, is little thought +of, producing little, and that irregularly. The fruit also requires +special machinery to prepare it, the husk being too thick and leathery +to pass through the regular machines. + +=Rio Hache=--Though frequently classed with Rio coffees, as a matter +of fact is not grown in that country, but in Colombia. The bean is +yellowish-brown in color, light in weight and liquor, and somewhat +mawkish in flavor. Like all other coffees, Rios improve with age, and +with time lose their harsh flavor, which becomes greatly modified +by storing, disappearing altogether in from three to four years, +particularly when kept in an even temperature. + +=Santos Coffees=--Produced in the adjoining province of Sao Paulo, +but deriving its trade-name from the port of shipment, ranges from +small to large in size and from green and yellow to a full white in +color according to its maturity, it is an immensely popular sort among +American consumers as well as in Europe, having more than doubled in +consumption in recent years. It is fast supplanting the milder growths +of other countries, the finer grades being frequently substituted for +Maracaibo, and even Java, by unprincipled dealers. While many of them +roast “quakery,” they are nevertheless almost invariably smooth and +pleasing in liquor and flavor. + +=Red-bean Santos=--Grown in the Campinas district, is medium in size +and reddish in color--a peculiarity derived from the soil, which is +composed of _terra rocha_ (red earth)--and is claimed to be richer and +more flavory than either the white or yellow bean varieties. + +=Mocha-seed Santos=--Is a small-bean variety, grown from Bourbon seed +or transplants, and is fast becoming a very popular sort. It is shipped +principally to France, where it masquerades under the name of Mocha, +thereby diminishing the demand for this favorite sort in proportion to +the amount distributed. + +=Maragogipi=--Which was discovered in the province of Bahia some years +since, is claimed to be an indigenous variety and is called after the +district where it was first found. The bean is as large as Liberian, +but flat in form and varies in color from a very light to a dark-green, +but while heavy and full in body and fair in quality, it is yet lacking +in all the essentials of a fine coffee, disappointing the great +expectations at one time formed of it. + + +OTHER BRAZILIAN VARIETIES. + +=Cafe des Aguas=--Is so termed from blossoming in the rainy season, and +which has the effect of stunting and deforming the beans. The bean is +oblong in shape and imperfectly formed, while the liquor is thin and +watery and devoid of flavor. + +=Cafe Vermelho=--Is the regular “Red-berry” species, and is so named to +distinguish it from a new variety said to have been recently discovered +and termed + +=Cafe Amarello=--Or “Yellow-berry,” recently found in the district of +Botucatu, and is so called because the ripe berry is yellow instead +of red. It is superior to the ordinary sort, not on account of any +difference in the size of the bean, but according to the chemical +analysis of experts, who claim that it is much richer in caffeine. + +=Brazilian Java.=--Extensive plantations of Java coffee plants have +lately been formed in Brazil as an experiment, but does not produce +such heavy and regular crops as in the original soil. + +=Goyaz Coffee=--Is a wild species, discovered a few years ago in the +province of Goyaz, but is little thought of by planters or dealers, +being wild and grassy in flavor. + +In Brazil the planters generally forward their crops to a _Commissario_ +or factor at the shipping port, who acts as their agent, the coffee +being received in varying lots and conditions from different growers, +no uniformity being observed in the kind of bag or quantity. The +commissarios again disposes of it to the _Ensaccaderes_, who are the +actual buyers at first hands, and who store it in large warehouses, +where it is graded and bagged, and stored until required for shipment +to the foreign markets. The sacks of coffee being piled on either side, +each being numbered and further distinguished by some special mark or +brand. At the present time many commissarios have the coffee weighed +as they sell it, but sales between the commissarios and ensaccaderes +are never concluded in Rio without the assistance of a _Corretor_ or +broker, while in Santos, where the exporter buys his coffee direct +from the commissario, it is sold mostly without the intervention of a +broker, the terms of payment being fixed at thirty days. + +Brazilian coffees are generically classed in the Rio and Santos markets +as “Highland” and “Lowland” and are graded as Superior or “Choice,” +Primera or “First,” Primera boa or “Good first,” Primera regular or +“Regular first,” Primera ordinaria or “Ordinary first,” Segunda or +“Second,” Segunda boa or “Good second,” and Segunda ordinaria or +“Ordinary second.” Importations are generally in “Cargoes” divided into +“Invoices” or “Lines,” designated by letters. An invoice consisting +of a number of “Chops” denoted by figures, each chop varying from the +other in quality, size and color. In the American market the coffee +is subdivided into six grades, known to trade as “Fancy,” “Choice,” +“Prime,” “Good,” “Fair,” “Ordinary” and “Common,” the first four grades +being further distinguished by the terms “Light,” “Medium” and “Dark,” +and by prefixing the term “Strict” or “Strictly” correct selections of +each grade may be secured. + +There is no standard grade, nor is it possible to establish one, +owing to the changes made by time in the appearance of the coffee, +which causes the different grades to vary with the size, color and +quality of the coffee and the condition of the market on arrival. On +an active and rising market the coffee that on a steady market would +be denominated only “Fair,” suddenly becomes “Prime” or “Good,” and on +a dull or declining market may be classed as “Ordinary.” The following +constitutes the different grades as they are generally accepted on this +market:-- + +=Fancy Rio or Santos=--Is large, bold and uniform in size and color, +free from all imperfections, and attractive in style and appearance. + +=Prime=--Is very clean and regular in size and color, but deficient in +the rich, pleasing appearance of the former. + +=Good=--Is acknowledged as the average or “Standard” grade, and ranges +from clean to strictly clean, and is uniform in bean and color. + +=Fair=--Is only moderately clean, containing some black or broken beans +and other slight imperfections. + +=Ordinary=--Is irregular in size and color, and unsightly in +appearance, containing much black beans and other extraneous matter. + +=Common=--Is the poorest grade, and is generally full of black and +broken beans, stems, hulls and chaff, having no definite color, and +very unsightly in general appearance. On the Coffee Exchanges they are +graded numerically from No. 1 to No. 10, No. 7, or “Low ordinary,” +being adopted as the “Standard grade,” upon which all transactions are +based. In point of quantity Brazil heads the list of coffee-producing +countries, its annual product ranging from 7,000,000 to 8,000,000 bags +of 130 pounds each, 75 per cent. of which is exported to the United +States, the remainder going chiefly to Europe. + + +OTHER VARIETIES. + +=Pea-berry Coffees=,--Also known to trade as “Male-berry” and +“Pearl-bean,” are concave-convex in form and may belong to any +variety, from Rio to Java. Their peculiar shape being accounted for as +follows: Each _perfect_ coffee _berry should_ contain two oval seeds +or _beans_ placed facing each other in the fruit or pod, but it most +frequently occurs that only one _seed_ will form in it, the other +becoming abortive. The _one_ forming receiving all the nourishment of +the investing coats, forces itself against the dividing membranes and +encountering no opposition naturally develops into a larger bean, which +in the process of growth assumes a shape different from that of the +regular or “flat bean” of commerce. + +=Cherry-dried Coffee=--Is a term applied in the East to coffees cured +by the old or sun-dried process. After the berries have been harvested +they are spread out on “patios” or terraces exposed to the sun’s rays +for a period covering from six to eight weeks, or until they are +thoroughly dried, before being pulped and hulled. Meanwhile they are +raked and turned over once a day during the drying period, in order to +prevent heating and fermentation, and at night heaped up and covered +over with matting or other material to protect them in case of rain, +and from the heavy dews, until the process is completed, after which +they are pulped and hulled by crushing in a mill. + +=Washed Coffees=--Are so termed from being prepared by the new or West +India process, by which the coffee is pulped immediately after being +picked, the berries being placed in a large vat and the pulp soaked +off. The coffee in the parchment left in the vat is kept in constant +motion by agitation with a kind of rake or shovel to wash it well, the +water being constantly changed also while the washing continues, to +remove the _débris_ with which the coffee charges the water, the coffee +sinking, while the pulp, blighted berries and other extraneous matter +such as stems and leaves are floated off by the water, after which the +beans are again washed and spread out on mats to dry. By this method +the coffee must be crushed the same day, otherwise it will ferment and +the flavor be greatly injured. + +=Triage=--Is composed chiefly of dead or decayed beans, which are +invariably sour, bitter and black, being entirely destitute of the +active principle of coffee, containing no aroma and invariably injuring +and detracting from any coffee in which they may be mixed--as they +usually are--no matter how small the quantity used. + +=Screenings=--Are composed of the dust, chaff and mutilated beans +separated from the regular grades of coffee in the process of milling, +and drink well according to the variety or grade from which they are +obtained, but are generally roasted, ground and mixed with chicory, and +sold in package form. + +=Skimmings=--Are usually composed of that portion of the cargo stowed +in the bottom or sides of the vessels in which it is imported, or of +the storehouse sweepings after the regular coffee has been delivered. +A greater or less portion of all cargoes are found damaged by dampness +or bilge-water during the voyage, thus staining and discoloring the +coffee, rendering it mouldy or musty. The strained and damaged bags +are emptied and the tainted coffee “skimmed” off, milled, rebagged and +sold under the head of “Skimmings.” They are generally branded “G. S.” +(Good skimmings), “G. L. S.” (Good light skimmings), “G. D. S.” (Good +dark skimmings), “F. S.” (Fair skimmings), and “S. S.” (Store or ship +sweepings). Notwithstanding their origin many of those coffees roast +and drink exceedingly well, but great care must be exercised by the +dealer in selecting them, as they may taste of the bilge-water or be +mixed with coal, iron, chips and other extraneous substances. + +=United States Coffee=--The Department of Agriculture at Washington +has recently issued a circular relative to the possibility of coffee +culture in some of the Southern States, in which it is led to believe +that the soil and climatic conditions of Texas, Florida and Lower +California will be found suitable to the profitable cultivation of +coffee. It is also claimed that a species of wild coffee has been +discovered in the two latter States, and that in California seed has +been planted obtained from Costa Rica with satisfactory results. A +coffee planter from Guatemala has recently been investigating the soil +and climate of San Bernardino in Lower California with a view to the +introduction of coffee culture in that section. The conditions there, +it is stated, are very favorable for its profitable production, and he +has offered to invest capital in a company to be organized to start the +industry. + + + + +CHAPTER VI. + +ROASTING AND GLAZING. + + +Coffee undergoes essential chemical changes in the process of roasting. +In the raw or natural state the coffee-bean is tough and horny in +structure and entirely devoid of the appearance, character and peculiar +aroma that so distinguishes it in the roasted condition, and by which +it is best known to the public. The testa or investing membrane of the +raw bean has a layer of long cells with a peculiar pitted structure, +containing a crystaline substance chemically termed _Caffeine_, and +another known as _Caffeic_, or tannic acid, while the inner substance +consists of an assemblage of vesicles of an angular form, the cavities +of which include in the form of little drops a considerable quantity of +a highly aromatic oil technically termed _Caffeone_, on the presence +and amount of which the fragrance and active principles of the coffee +depends, and by which its commercial value in the roasted state is +estimated. The existence of this “coffee oil” makes itself known in +a striking manner by roasting; being driven out of the beans by the +intense heat, it is partially volatilized and, together with other +products of the roasting, produces the characteristic aroma peculiar +to roasted coffee, an odor possessed by no other known substance. In +the operation of roasting the beans swell up and open at the furrow +by the liberation of the gases within their substance, their weight +decreasing, but volume increasing in proportion to the extent to which +the operation is carried, developing the aromatic oil and liberating +at the same time a portion of the caffeine from its combination with +the caffeic or tannic acid. The amount of this aromatic oil contained +in coffee varies from 8 to 13 per cent. at least, one-half of which is +lost by evaporation during the roasting process, so that it may prove +a paying experiment to attempt to collect it, especially in large +establishments where large quantities of coffee are roasted and several +pounds of this valuable oil are dissipated daily, which would no doubt +find a ready market at a good profit for the making of liqueurs, or +medicinal use. + +Before being roasted coffee also contains from 6 to 8 per cent. of +sugar, which after roasting is reduced to as low as 1 per cent. and +sometimes even to zero, from which it would appear that the description +of sugar (cane) present in the raw coffee suffers destruction during +roasting, which, however, is not the case, as in the process of +roasting the saccharine matter in the raw bean is converted into +caramel. A change in the fat of the raw coffee is also brought about by +the roasting, for where ether extracts only some four to five parts of +fat from the raw coffee beans, it readily extracts double that quantity +from the roasted beans. So striking is this fact that Von Bibra has +even credited the roasting process with the production of fat, whereas +the action is only mechanical in bursting the fat-cells of the raw +bean, thereby rendering the fat accessible to the solvent action of the +ether. + +The operation of roasting also tends to make coffee soluble in boiling +water, as when raw coffee is perfectly exhausted by means of boiling +water, it yields up only 25 per cent. which passes into solution, while +roasted coffee, on the other hand, when completely exhausted by means +of boiling water yields readily upwards of 40 per cent. of soluble +matter, proving that in actually using coffee as a beverage, we are not +in the habit of making anything like a complete extraction, as only +some 10 to 12 per cent. of the active principles of the coffee passes +into the liquid. + +The modern appliances for the roasting of coffee are numerous and +labor-saving to a great extent, many of them are, however, calculated +only to enhance the appearance of the bean, while others enable the +roaster to obtain almost to perfection the full development of the +aromatic properties of the coffee. Coffee is roasted for commercial +purposes and domestic use in a large sheet-steel or malleable-iron +cylinder mounted on a hollow axle, so as to revolve over a brisk fire +and allow the gases generated during the torrefaction to escape. The +surface of the cylinder is perforated with a number of small holes +for the purpose of allowing the vapor arising from the coffee in the +process of roasting to pass off readily, and through the interior runs +laterally four ridges, the object of which is to toss it about in all +directions, causing it to pass from end to end, and diffuse a uniform +heat to every part of the coffee in order to make the “roast” even +and regular in appearance. This cylinder is again encased in a frame +brick-work at the bottom of which is built a coal fire well distributed +so as to heat all portions of the cylinder at the same time during +the operation. On the outer head it has a small opening through which +the operator occasionally inserts a “tryer” to enable him to note the +progress made as the process advances, the cylinder being also so +arranged that it can be drawn from over the fire when it is required to +either fill or empty it through a slide or hopper in the centre. It is +operated by steam-power, revolving slowly but regularly, and having a +capacity of from 25 to 300 pounds. + +After roasting, the coffee is run off into a large wire-bottomed box +termed a “cooler,” to the end of which is fitted a powerful fan or +“blower” used for forcing cold air through the hot beans and preventing +the volatile oil from exuding, the coffee being thoroughly agitated +during the process, the hulls, chaff and stems being removed meantime +to a large extent by the fan and sieve. Thirty-five to forty-five +minutes is usually the time consumed in the operation, the former +for a “Light” and the latter for a high or “Dark” roast, the entire +process of roasting, cooling and rebagging occupying about one hour. +In roasting, coffee loses in weight from 12 to 16 per cent., according +to the age and nature of the coffee under treatment and the extent +to which the operation is carried, the average, however, being 14 +per cent. for old and well-seasoned coffee, which accounts for the +relatively higher price--three to six cents per pound--of roasted +coffees, according to the price green and the loss per cent. in +roasting. But, it at the same time increases in bulk--100 volumes of +raw coffee yielding from 150 to 160 volumes of roasted--that is, two +pints of raw beans will yield three pints roasted. It also loses from +1 to 2 per cent. more in the warm months of summer than in the damp +months of winter, for which reason it should not be roasted as high +in the former season as in the latter, owing to its greater tendency +to sweat and absorb the higher temperature, thus causing the volatile +oil to exude, and dissipate and impart an astringent taste to the +infusion. When coffee is roasted light-brown, or until it assumes a +pale-chestnut color, the loss is from 13 to 14 per cent. the quantity +of extract obtained from such roast by means of boiling water ranging +from 20 to 21 per cent. of the weight, while the loss in weight of the +extract will be much larger if the roasting process is continued until +the color becomes dark-brown or black by over-roasting. New, moist +and light coffees lose a larger percentage than old, dry and solid +ones, the average being about 14 per cent. The operation of roasting +coffee is one of the greatest exactness, amounting almost to an art, +perfect roasting requiring not alone skill and judgment but experience +and constant practice, as not only the style, strength and flavor but +also the commercial value of the coffee depends upon the operator +deciding when it is properly parched or roasted. It is also one of a +crucial nature, for equally by insufficient as well as by excessive +roasting, much of the aroma of the infusion is lost, the beverage under +either of these circumstances being neither agreeable to the palate or +exhilarating in its influence. The operator, for these reasons, must +judge of the exact amount of heat required for the adequate roasting of +the different varieties, which, while variable, the range of roasting +temperature proper for roasting the various grades is only very narrow. +In a modern, well-equipped coffee-roasting establishment, the coffee is +handled almost exclusively by machinery, being fed into the cylinder +from hoppers, emptied into the cooler from the cylinder and from thence +into the bins by drafts of air through tubes or pocket-elevators, so +that the coffee is scarcely once handled during the entire process. + +The entire art of coffee roasting may be summed up in the following +sequence: (1) Starting the machinery in motion. (2) Starting a brisk +fire with enough coal for a single roast. (3) Putting in the coffee +before the cylinder becomes too hot. (4) Opening the draft and keeping +up a brisk fire during what is termed the steaming period. (5) When the +beans begin to crackle and the steam changes into an aromatic vapor, +rake the fire well, put on sufficient coal to make the next roast and +shut off the draft. (6) Empty the coffee from the cylinder into the +cooler and cool off rapidly, then sift and pack. If a light color is +required roast quickly, if a dark, slowly. The exact time for a perfect +roast under these rules depend to a great extent on the size of the +cylinder, the quantity of coffee to be roasted, the amount of heat +and the color desired, the average ranging from 30 to 40 minutes. The +addition of a little water to the coffee when it begins to crackle in +the cylinder, will cause the beans to swell up, liberate the chaff and +make the process safer by extinguishing any sparks that may by accident +occur in the cylinder. It also preserves the aroma longer to some +extent when used in moderation, but will not, as is sometimes claimed, +protect it from atmospheric influences, but on the contrary makes it +more liable to such influences, particularly when used in excess. + +When the beans begin to crackle the revolutions of the cylinder are +increased for a short time in order to prevent them from scorching or +burning, a bluish vapor is emitted at the same time, which indicates +that the coffee is nearly if not quite roasted. At this stage the +operator pours on the coffee a quantity of water to prevent it from +burning, the rapid evaporation from which reduces the intense heat and +causes the beans to burst open and swell up to about double in size. +The use of a little lard at this juncture will impart to the beans a +smoother, glossier and more attractive appearance. The addition of +water in the roasting of coffee is not, as is generally supposed, +intended to increase its weight--unless when used to excess--as the +intense heat converts it into steam which rapidly passes off in the +air, many old roasters contending that coffee cannot be properly +roasted without the use of some water. In the proper roasting of +coffee a strong, well-distributed heat extending the entire length of +the cylinder is imperative. The cylinder should never be allowed to lie +empty over the fire for any length of time or become too hot before +the coffee is put in, as the beans will become mottled or “specked” if +poured in while in that condition, thus detracting from the appearance +and value of the roasted coffee. + +An experienced roaster can readily discern when the coffee is properly +roasted, by the light bluish vapor arising from the coffee, as well +as by the smell of the aromatic principle developed as it evaporates +from the cylinder at this stage of the operation, without even once +examining it during the process. A perfect “light roast” should be +free from specks and other blemishes, of a cinnamon-brown color, +even, uniform and oily in appearance, much depending on the amount of +this latter property developed in the process, imparting as it does +a pleasanter and more agreeable aroma as the quantity is increased, +making the liquor blander and more mellow in the cup. While a perfect +high or “dark roast” when required should be of a deep chestnut or +chocolate-brown color, oily and free from all burnt or scorched beans, +as the latter, no matter how few the number, invariably spoil the +flavor of the coffee in the infusion, irrespective of its fineness or +value. Over-roasting dissipates the active principle (Caffeine) to +which the coffee owes its refreshing and stimulating properties while +under-roasting imparts to the infusion a raw, uncooked, grassy or +astringent flavor by not properly developing it. So that the finest +grades of coffee when imperfectly roasted--that is, be under or +overdone--yield an inferior liquor to the poorer grades when properly +roasted. As stated before, coffee contains a crystaline substance +termed caffeine (identical with the theine of tea), which is volatile +in its nature, and every care must be taken to retain this principle +in the coffee, for which reason the beans should be roasted only until +they are of a pale-brown color; again, if they are roasted too dark +this essential property is destroyed. + +The proper cooling of coffee after roasting is also an operation of +great importance. If the coffee has been properly roasted and the +beans well developed, it must be cooled quickly to prevent them from +becoming too dark-colored or mottled in appearance. When the coffee has +been cooled and cleaned it is then packed, the operations of roasting, +cooling and rebagging occupying altogether about one hour. + +In France and other European countries it is the custom to roast +coffee in small quantities, so that the whole “charge” is well under +the control of the operator during the process, while in this country +large roasts are the rule, in dealing with which much difficulty is +experienced in producing uniform torrefaction as well as in stopping +the process at the proper moment. A novel method for roasting coffee +in use in France is to put it in an iron globe, suspended over a brisk +fire, and containing a tubular shaft perforated with holes smaller than +the beans, through which passes the vapor generated from the coffee in +the process of roasting and issuing out of either end of the shaft or +axis of the globe. As these openings are small, but a limited amount +of the vapor escapes, thus confining the aroma within the globe and +securing the retention of the volatile or essential element of the +coffee to a greater degree than is possible by the cylindrical method +of roasting. When the globe is filled and suspended over the fire +an iron cap is placed over it so as to completely surround it, but +leaving an intervening space between it of about three inches, the +object of which is to secure the full power of the heat, which being so +confined circulates completely around the globe, the retention of the +vapor under this high pressure preserving to a still greater degree the +aroma of the coffee. The application of the heat by this method is very +uniform, while the motion of the globe distributes the beans equally +about the interior and thus removes any possible chance of scorching. + +The roasting process also usually develops in many coffees more or +less whitish beans, technically termed “quakers” but more properly +“blights,” being in reality blighted or immature beans, which, having +ripened to an extent on the tree and after obtaining a certain growth +cease to draw further nutriment from it, thus failing to develop into +healthy fruit. These peculiar beans detract considerably from the +value of the coffee, and cannot always be detected in the natural +state except by experts and others accustomed to the constant handling +of raw coffee, but in the roasted condition their real character is +unmistakably shown, presenting as they do a yellowish-white color, +totally devoid of the moisture, oil and flavor so characteristic of the +healthy bean. They exist to a much greater extent in some varieties +more than others, most notably in lowland and coast-grown coffees--in +mild grades more than strong--the only kinds most unaffected being +mountain-grown and “washed” coffees, the blighted beans in the latter +rising to the surface in the process of washing and carried off by the +water. Some authorities contend that these “blights” or “quakers” in +coffee instead of being, as might be naturally expected, detrimental +or injurious to its drinking qualities really improve it by softening +or mellowing what may otherwise prove to be a harsh or astringent +flavor, thereby rendering it smoother and more palatable. Such a claim +is simply preposterous, as the said beans are entirely devoid of any +of the properties distinguishing coffee, possessing neither caffeine +or caffeone, the two principal constituents of coffee, and an infusion +prepared exclusively of “quakers” will be found to resemble more +closely, in flavor and aroma, a decoction made from roasted peanuts +than anything else it may be likened to. + +Raw coffees are distinguished in commerce by the names of the +countries, districts, localities, plantations in which they are grown +or from the ports of export, and it is found that the produce of each +particular country and respective district maintains a fairly constant +and distinctive flavor and character of its own. While in the roasted +state this distinctive character disappears, the process of roasting +largely destroying these distinguishing features of raw or green +coffee, making it very difficult for any but experts to determine from +its appearance when once roasted its kind or origin. After coffee has +been once roasted it should be kept in air-tight bins and sold or used +as fresh-roasted as possible, as after the process the aroma constantly +escapes, thereby losing its strength and fragrance rapidly on exposure +to the oxydizing influences of the atmosphere. Neither should it be +exposed in damp or humid weather, as it constantly absorbs moisture +which makes it tough and difficult to grind, or placed in the vicinity +of any foul or foreign odors, the porous and sensitive nature of the +roasted bean making it liable to absorb such flavors, for which reason +wooden and freshly-painted bins should never be used to hold roasted +coffee, as it readily absorbs the wood and paint flavors, which become +very pronounced in the infusion. + + +GLAZING. + +It has been the custom for some years back to coat or glaze coffee +with certain gluey or starchy compounds, ostensibly to protect the +beans from the oxydizing influences of the atmosphere, preserve the +aroma and clarify the liquor in preparation, each roaster and dealer +having a different compound for the purpose. It is most generally +composed of various glues, moss and other starchy substances and is +usually prepared by placing the materials composing the compound in a +cask, vat or tank filled with boiling water conveyed through pipes or +by injecting steam, thoroughly stirring it at the same time until it +is mixed to the requisite consistency. After the solution is prepared +it is applied to the coffee while hot, generally in the cylinder +while revolving, which diffuses the material and imparts an even and +uniform coating to the coffee, adhering and hardening as it cools. +But the claims made by roasters and others who coat or glaze coffee, +that large quantities of eggs are used exclusively in the preparation +of the glazing compound is simply absurd, as is also the claim that +it is resorted to for the purpose of closing the pores, to protect +and retain the aroma and for self-settling purposes. The real object +being to conceal defects, disguise low grades and damaged coffees, +as well as to add weight and color to light, chaffy and “quakery” +coffees, the process adding all the way from 5 to 10 per cent. to the +weight, according to the nature of the coffee and the character of +the substance used; light, chaffy-bean coffees absorbing more of the +material than the hard and solid ones, while the softer and rougher the +bean the more it improves in appearance by the process. + +What is known as the “Egg-glaze” is prepared from eggs alone, mashed +and applied after the coffee has been first cooled, and then baked +on by means of a hot blast, when it forms a hard, transparent shell, +protecting the coffee until it is ground and ready for use; and also +serving to clarify the liquor in the pot after infusion. Another +composed of one part gum arabic dissolved in water, to which is +added four parts starch, with sufficient water to make it limped, +the whole being boiled for upwards of twenty minutes, and which is +best accomplished by inserting a small pipe of live steam from the +boiler into the compound until it is reduced to the consistency of +cream; then, after stirring well, it is poured on the coffee while +in the cylinder as it revolves, or it may be spread over it while in +the cooler, if proper care be taken to diffuse it well. Still another +excellent compound for glazing coffee is prepared from one part Irish +moss, one part gelatine, one part isinglass, one ounce sugar and two +dozen eggs, the first three ingredients being first boiled in water, +then strained and applied as in foregoing formula. For the purpose of +imparting a lustrous aspect to roasted coffee, a liquid has recently +been invented, the composition of which is so far unknown. It has a +specific gravity of 0.868 at 15 degrees, burning with a sooty flame and +leaving no fixed residue. It absorbs no iodine when treated, and is but +little affected by chromic acid or concentrated sulphuric acid, taking +only a slight color when treated with the latter. It is clear and oily +in appearance, but entirely free from color, taste, or smell, and mixes +in all proportions with petroleum, from which fact it would appear to +be nothing more than a highly purified petroleum oil, in which case it +must be classed among the illegitimate additions to roasted coffee. + + +GRINDING. + +The process of grinding the roasted bean is also one that requires +more attention than is generally bestowed on it. Coarse-ground coffees +require protracted boiling in order to extract its full strength, and +too much boiling is fatal to the production of good coffee in the cup. +But, on the other hand, it may be ground too fine, so that just to what +degree of fineness it should be ground depends in a great measure on +the method of preparing it for use. + + + + +CHAPTER VII. + +ADULTERATION AND DETECTION. + + +In commerce coffee is to be met with in three conditions--Raw or +unroasted, Roasted and Ground--and, as may be inferred, it is in the +latter condition that it is most liable to the chief adulterations, +so that with the raw and simply roasted coffee the public analyst +will have very little to do, his services being principally required +in dealing with ground coffee alone. But at the same time it is also +subject to much manipulation and sophistication in the two first +conditions also, scarcely any dietic article being so persistently +adulterated. From the time of picking and preparing coffee for market +until it finally reaches the table of the consumer, there is probably +no article of diet subjected to more or as many forms of manipulation, +sophistication, substitution and adulteration as coffee. The producer +mixes one variety with another, the refuse of the old and inferior with +the new and choice, while the commission agent at the shipping ports +manipulates it again by changing the grade or altering the quality by +running one grade with another in order to complete his consignment. +Again, on its arrival in the consuming countries it is frequently +emptied out of the original packages, separated or run together as +required, the bags turned inside out, and the marks altered in order +to conceal any stained or damaged in transit. All “bilge-water” +or otherwise damaged coffee being picked over, the musty beans set +aside, milled or cleaned, rematted or rebagged as the case may be, and +eventually sold as sound, but which no process of roasting or glazing +can eradicate. But while almost all varieties pass through more or +less manipulation or substitution, from the producing to the consuming +countries, it does not always follow that it is detrimental to the +coffee. + + +RAW OR GREEN COFFEES. + +=Rios=--Are most subject to sophistication by altering the color +from light to green and dark to meet the demand for each particular +kind, the light Rios being converted into dark by the application +of a preparation of “bone black,” and into yellow or golden by the +use of chromate of lead, or into green by a combination composed of +both compounds. This dangerous and iniquitous practice is resorted to +in order to cater to the prejudices of dealers and consumers in the +different sections of the country for “Light,” “Dark,” “Green” and +“Golden Rios,” as the case may be. The cosmetic is best detected by the +simple process of washing in a little warm water and rubbing with a dry +towel, exposing the natural color of the bean, whatever the original +may be, or by cutting the bean in half and seeing if the color runs +through. + +=Maracaibos=--In the raw or natural state are principally substituted +with large, white-bean Santos, Savanilla, San Domingo, Mexican, +Salvador or other Central American coffees as well as by transferring +the lower into high-grade bags. While La Guayras are usually polished +or “soapstoned,” and converted into Rios when the finer grades of the +latter are scarce or high. + +=Javas=--Are generally either substituted, mixed, sweated or colored +artificially. In the first case any large, whitish, yellowish or +brownish variety, such as Maracaibo, Savanilla and Santos is used +for the purpose or mixed with it in the natural state, and can only +be detected by a familiar knowledge of the genuine bean. The lower +and paler grades of Java, such as Lahats and Maccassars are usually +“colored” or “sweated” for the purpose of imparting an aged appearance +or the so much desired brown color, other spongy-bean coffees that +easily absorb, and retain the coloring matter being frequently +subjected to the same processes. While the higher grades are more often +substituted one for the other by changing the mats, such as replacing +a Preanger with a Timour, an Ankola with Padang or Singapore. When +simply colored as before described the washing it with a little water +and rubbing with a dry towel will expose the cosmetic, or better still +by cutting the suspected bean open with a sharp pocket-knife, examining +it through; if not of the same color to the core it is undoubtedly +doctored. Another method, when the coffee is mixed with Savanilla or +other light bean coffee, is to place a sample of the suspected coffee +on top a vessel of water, in which case the hard, solid-bean Java +will sink to the bottom and the light-bean substitute float on top. +“Sweated” Javas are browned by placing any fair-sized, light-colored +variety such as Lahat, Maccassar, ordinary Jamaica or Savanilla in +a zinc or iron-lined room or case surrounded on all sides by pipes, +through which steam passes and subjecting them to an intense heat, +the process causing the--whatever little volatile oil this class +of coffee contains--to exude and impart a dark, muddy-red color to +the beans. This sophistication is best detected by the unnatural, +repulsively reddish color produced by the process, by their light +weight and irregular, unsightly appearance in the hand as well as by +their nauseous, almost sickening flavor, developed by the volatile oil +and the zinc, and which is evidently prejudicial to the health of the +consumer. + +=Mocha Coffee.=--Probably there is no single variety of coffee grown +more generally counterfeited or adulterated than Mocha in the raw or +unroasted state, owing to its limited supply and high commercial value. +In addition to the manipulation and substitution which it undergoes +at the ports of export, by the addition or substitution of small-bean +Wynaad, Malabar, Ceylon, Bourbon and other African varieties annually +shipped to Aden for the specific purpose of conversion into Mocha, +that it has become a difficult matter to determine what is true Mocha +and what is not. The substitutes are first separated from the regular +crops and then carefully picked over and assorted by hand, the better +to adapt them to their respective markets, and then packed in the +unique and peculiar packages which distinguish the true article from +all others. It had at one time been considered as next to impossible to +tamper with or imitate these packages without detection, composed as +they are of a coarse vegetable material, sewed with a fibrous substance +that becomes excessively hard and tough by age; but modern ingenuity +has found a way in the countries of consumption to cut this “Gordian +knot,” first by a process known to the initiated as “stove-piping,” +by which a portion of the genuine coffee is run out of the original +package with an iron tube resembling a “coffee tryer,” inserted at one +end of the bale and a spurious article composed of some small-bean +variety, such as Santos, Maracaibo or Guatemala, poured in its place +and the puncture closed up. Another ingenious method is to soften the +fibrous cord of which the withes are made, and with which the bales +are sewn, by a process known as “steaming,” by which they are softened +and drawn out, the bales being easily opened entire and the contents +substituted by the introduction of one or other of the same class of +coffees already mentioned, and even by small-bean Rios, particularly +when the former kinds are high or difficult to procure. These glaring +forms of adulteration and substitutions practiced in Mocha coffee may +be readily detected by a comparison of the mixture or contents with a +sample of the genuine bean, which is invariably small, round, uniform +and symmetrical, varying in color from a rich olive-green cast, almost +translucent when new, and a bright-yellowish hue when old, being at the +same very clean, and attractive in the hand. While the adulterants and +substitutes are much larger, more irregular and varying in size, style, +form and color, from a dark or grass-green to a pale white, according +to the age and nature of the coffee used. + +There has recently been discovered another and very ingenious coffee +fraud, in which the raw beans look quite natural, but yield no coffee +liquor on infusion. On close inspection these spent or exhausted beans +resemble artificial coffee beans composed of baked dough colored, but +a microscopical examination disproves this supposition. The beans are +genuine coffee beans, but the cells show a remarkable freedom from +caffeine and the oil of coffee, indicating that they had been steeped +in water, so that on the microscopical examination being supplemented +by a chemical analysis, the result showed that almost every valuable +property of the coffee had been removed from the beans, evidently for +medicinal purposes or the manufacture of some extract of coffee, after +which they are re-dried and disposed of to roasters and unscrupulous +dealers as sound coffee. The beans of such coffee look quite natural, +but on close inspection are found to be tough and light, yielding +a watery and flavorless liquid on infusion. A patent has also been +recently obtained the purpose of which is to impart to coffee beans +by a summary operation the properties and characteristics possessed +by coffee which has been stored and kept under favorable conditions +for a comparatively long period of time. The process of maturing or +“aging” the coffee consisting in spreading out the raw beans in a thin +layer between alternate layers of damp bags or other textile material +first by sprinkling a number of bags with water, and piling them one on +top of the other until they have all become uniformly moistened, then +spreading out one of the bags and laying on it a dry bag upon which is +placed a layer of green coffee, another dry bag being placed over it +and a damp bag on that again, and so on to any desired height. The pile +of bags and coffee thus formed is then compressed in order that the dry +bags may absorb the moisture from the damp bags and also become damp, +thus maintaining the coffee beans in their confined space until the +desired maturing or aging effect has been produced. + + +ROASTED COFFEES + +Are chiefly sophisticated by mixing or substituting lower with +high-grade coffees, and by coating or glazing the beans with some +obnoxious compounds as previously described. Many of the so-called +Javas and other high-sounding-name coffees now in the market so +much vaunted and extolled being nothing more than combinations of +Santos, Maracaibo and other medium grades, some of the most reputable +consisting merely of Santos and Java in the proportions of 40 per +cent. of the former to 60 per cent. of the latter. The distinguishing +features of the raw or natural bean being largely altered in the +process of roasting, making it a difficult matter for any but experts +to detect this most common form of adulteration, an acquaintance with +the original flavors of the different varieties being the only sure +means of detection. + +[Illustration: WASHING COFFEE.] + +Some years since, there was invented a bean resembling that of roasted +coffee, made from dyed plaster of paris, which was intended for +admixture with coffee, and at the present time a far more dangerous +fraud is being perpetrated in the already too wide field of coffee +adulteration. It is that of a bogus or artificial bean, resembling +that of whole roasted coffee, which, on analysis, proves to be largely +composed of wheat flour, mixed with a glutinous compound of cracker +dust, paste and molasses, moulded in the form of the true coffee bean +of commerce and flavored with a weak solution of caramel or chocolate. +These spurious coffee beans are not, however, intended to supply in +themselves a beverage which from any similarity of appearance, taste +or effect might form a substitute for coffee and cannot therefore be +regarded as such, but are intended solely as an adulterant of whole +roasted coffee. It is readily detected by close inspection in the hand, +but still more so in the cup, tasting as it does more like a decoction +made from burnt dough and molasses. When dissolved in boiling water +it yields a blackish, muddy liquor akin to slop, leaving a thick, +greasy residue in the bottom of the vessel. The custom of coating or +“glazing,” now so much in vogue among roasters and dealers, may also +be classed among the many, but milder forms of adulteration, which, +though ostensibly claimed to protect the pores of the coffee from the +oxydizing influences of the atmosphere, preserve its aroma, and at the +same time clarify the infusion, is in reality, in nearly all cases, +resorted to for the purpose of disguising or concealing the defects +of artificially-colored, stained, damaged and immature or “quakery” +coffees, or for adding an extra weight of from 5 to 6 per cent. to it. + + +GROUND COFFEES + +Are subject to the most extensive adulterations, all being more or less +sophisticated or adulterated in one form or another, chief among which +is that of the admixture of the roasted and ground roots of Chicory, +Dandelion, Carrot, Parsnip, Beet and other leguminous vegetables. +Peas, Beans, Rye, Rice, Wheat, Barley and various other cereal grains, +including the seeds of the broom, fenugreek, iris and acorn. These +various roots and seeds, with many more similar substances, have +not only been used as adulterants, but under various high-sounding +names several of them have been introduced as substitutes for coffee. +But so far not a single one of them have either merited or obtained +any success as such, their sole effect being to bring coffee into +undeserved disrepute as a pleasing and agreeable beverage with the +public. + + +SUBSTITUTES AND ADULTERANTS. + +Among the numerous substitutes and adulterants in use for coffee may be +mentioned first:-- + +=Rye Coffee.=--Prepared from roasted rye and a little butter ground +fine, and put up in packages. + +=Rice Coffee.=--Made from roasted rice in the same manner as the former +and considered a very good substitute. + +=Malt Coffee.=--A preparation made from malt, which is first soaked +in water at 40 degrees and dried in a coffee roaster until the grains +assume a glossy-brown color is used as a substitute for the coffee of +commerce, the finished product, when ground and infused, is claimed to +be a passable coffee substitute. + +=Currant Coffee.=--Manufactured from the seeds of that fruit, washed +out of the cake left in making currant wine, then roasted and ground, +but principally used as an adulterant. + +=Gooseberry Coffee.=--Prepared from the seeds of that fruit in the same +manner and used as an adulterant also. + +=Holly Coffee=--Is made from the berries of the common holly, roasted +and moistened with a little lemon juice. + +=Acorn Coffee=--Is prepared from acorns, deprived of their shells, +husked, dried and roasted in the same manner as regular coffee. + +=Sassafras Coffee.=--Manufactured from the fruit or root of that plant, +or from the bark, cut up, dried and roasted, the decoction being very +wholesome, and a specific for skin diseases. + +=Beechmast Coffee.=--Made from the roasted and ground roots of the +beechmast, and also claimed to be very wholesome. + +=Beet-root Coffee.=--Principally used as an adulterant; is prepared +from the yellow beet-root, sliced, dried in an oven and ground with +genuine coffee. + +=Almond Coffee=--Is made from either rye or wheat, roasted with almonds +and a very small quantity of cassia buds, making a very good substitute. + +=Bean Coffee=--Is prepared from ordinary horse-beans, roasted along +with a little honey and burnt sugar, a small quantity of cassia buds +being frequently added when removed from the fire, the whole being +stirred until cold. + +=German Coffee=--Is chiefly made from chicory roasted and ground fine, +and used either as a substitute or an adulterant of the regular coffee +of commerce. + +=Coffee-pulp Coffee.=--In Arabia the pulp of the berries, which +constitutes about twenty per cent. of the prepared coffee, is dried +and shriveled up by a method peculiar to Arabia. This product is known +by the distinct name of _Kishr_, a decoction of which forms the common +beverage of the poorer Arabs. + +=French Coffee.=--What is known and celebrated as “French Coffee” is +made from a mixture of coffee and caramel, which must be packed in +tins, as otherwise the hygroscopic properties of the caramel will cause +it to absorb moisture, and thereby run to decomposition. + +=Pelotas Coffee=--Is also prepared from ground acorns and sold under +the name of Pelotas, but is exceedingly dark in liquor, wild and +insipid in flavor. + +=Corsican Coffee=--Is made from the roasted seeds of the Knee-holly, +and used extensively on that island as a substitute for the regular +coffee of commerce. + +=Egyptian Coffee=--Is prepared from the common Chick-pea roasted, +ground and mixed with genuine coffee in equal parts, being more of an +adulterant than a substitute. + +=Mesquite Coffee.=--It has been recently claimed that a species of +coffee may be produced from the “Mesquite plant” found growing in wild +abundance in Texas, Arizona and New Mexico, but so far no positive +results have been reported. + +=Dandelion Coffee.=--The root of the Dandelion, first dried, roasted +and ground, is also extensively used as a substitute for coffee, and is +claimed by many physicians to be much preferable to chicory for that +purpose, its infusion, decoction and extract being frequently employed +as a tonic and aperient, especially in disorders of the liver and +digestive organs. + +=Spent Coffee=--Prepared from “exhausted” coffee grounds which are +dried and re-atomized by the transforming hand of modern chemistry, put +up in shiny packages under seductive titles, and from which the deluded +and over-confiding consumer endeavors to extract a desired beverage. + +=Mussenda Coffee.=--A patent has recently been granted in France, the +object of which is to substitute the berry of the _Mussenda_ plant +for the various substances now used for mixing with ground coffees, +by which the berries are roasted with the coffee in any desired +proportions, usually from ¹⁄₃ to ²⁄₃ Mussenda, or ³⁄₄ coffee to ¹⁄₄ +Mussenda. During the roasting process a small quantity of Caramel is +added to improve the flavor, the compound being then ground and put +up in cans, possessing at least one good recommendation, that of not +containing any injurious properties. + +=Canada Peas=--Which is the most extensive form of adulteration, are +first roasted in the same manner as coffee, but requiring a much +longer time and more care, as the shell of the pea does not assume a +coffee-color until the inside is overdone, and must be judged by the +inside appearance, being brittle and a little darker when broken than +coffee, but when ground they are dry and dusty, on which account they +make an excellent compound with chicory, keeping it from forming into +lumps and making it assume a uniform color. Wheat, rye or barley may be +substituted or added to this compound without affecting it, the method +of treatment being identical. There being but little aroma to protect +and none to save, the virtue of this compound lies altogether in the +healthy properties of the cereal used, not in the flavor of the liquid. + +=Essence of Coffee=--Is simply an article of manufacture, containing +no coffee, but intended for use with coffee for the purpose of +imparting color and as a clarifying agent. It may be prepared at will +from any cereal before named, bread raspings or burnt cracker dust, +but is chiefly composed of carbonized corn, that is, corn roasted +to blackness. The material from which it may be prepared is first +roasted, ground fine and spread out thinly over a large surface, and +then covered with burnt sugar or molasses while boiling hot, the whole +forming a large cake, which when thoroughly cooled is broken into +pieces and reground in an iron mill until reduced to a dust, after +which it is put up in packages or barrels for use in coffee. It is also +used extensively as an adulterant in ground coffee, and when made from +good stock it is not objectionable, possessing excellent coloring, +sweetening and clarifying properties. + +=Coffee-leaf Coffee.=--A decoction made from the leaves of the coffee +shrub has long been used in the Eastern Archipelago, and has more +recently been introduced among the coolies of southern India, and a few +years since attracted considerable notice, being recommended as a new +article of import to become a cheap substitute for tea. There seems +to be no doubt that coffee leaves contain the principle caffeine in +sufficient abundance for the making of a valuable beverage, but the +presence of an unpleasant senna-like odor militates greatly against its +popularity as a regular drink, and there exists also the difficulty +that of depriving the tree of its foliage damages the crop of berries +and injures the tree itself. On berry-producing trees therefore only +the leaves obtained in the ordinary pruning operations would be +available, and these would seem to yield so small a supply as not to be +worth the cost of collection, while growing the shrubs for the leaves +alone would be a very questionable undertaking. Yet there appears to be +no valid reason why in the event of the berry crop failing a portion at +least of the leaves might not be gathered and prepared in the form of +coffee if any means can be invented for removing the objectionable odor. + +=Whey Coffee=--Another very novel substitute for coffee is prepared +of whey from milk, which is evaporated down in open vessels or vacuum +pans until most of the water is driven off and a thick paste remains. +During the process the whey is kept constantly stirred, the stirring +being continued until the pasty mass becomes cold, when it is rolled +into cakes and dried at a temperature of boiling water, after which it +is broken up and moulded into pieces about the size and form of coffee +beans. The next operation is that of roasting, which is more preferably +performed by first mixing them with an equal quantity of raw coffee, +the roasting process thus turning the whey-paste beans into a rich +brown color, which on cooling are ground with another percentage of +coffee. The compound yields a pleasant and agreeable beverage and may +find some use as a harmless if not really nutritious ingredient in the +lower priced coffee preparations. + +In Brazil and other South American countries the fruit of the Wax +palm is used extensively as a substitute for coffee, being very rich +in caffeine and possessing nutritious properties, while recently a +substitute for coffee has been introduced to England and the continent +of Europe under the name of “Mochara,” which is simply a preparation +made from ripe figs, roasted and pulverized, which is sold at about +half the price of coffee. Another illustration of the modern craze +for replacing every genuine article by an inferior substitute is to +be found in the announcement of a company to work a recent patent +for making coffee out of dates. In New Zealand the berries of the +_Coprosma_ have been proposed as a coffee substitute, while the seeds +of the _Cassia_ have been lately imported into England from the river +Gambia and sold there under the name of “Negro Coffee.” But although +such substitutes and admixture are demanded, yet it appears to be +impossible to replace coffee altogether, all the elaborate attempts +made by the French chemists during the wars in the early part of this +century being unsuccessful in providing any approximate substitute for +coffee. + +=Kola-nut Coffee.=--The diminishing production of coffee in Java, +Ceylon, and other countries of East Indies has given rise to the +suggestion that the cultivation of the Kola-nut as substitute for +coffee should be undertaken, which not only as a stimulant, but as an +article of food, possesses the essential properties of coffee, and is +even said to be richer in the active principle, _caffeine_. Heretofore +this product has been raised chiefly for medicinal purposes only, but +its acceptability as a stimulating and nutritious beverage is rapidly +growing, possessing as it does a high value, because of its power of +enabling men to sustain great effort as well as to endure long fasting. +It is fast finding a place in commerce in the same order as that +held by coffee, the beverage being called at the present “Kola-nut +Coffee,” but the term “Kolatina,” has recently been proposed as more +appropriate for the decoction, and to which there can be no reasonable +objection. The beverage prepared from the Kola nut resembles that +made from coffee, and is both pleasant and agreeable, and for persons +troubled with weak indigestion “Kolatina” is found to be better adapted +than either tea or cocoa. This is the bean which Stanley speaks in +several of his works on African exploration as possessing much greater +sustaining power than either tea, coffee, or cocoa; the natives, he +states, carry these beans in their pockets and eat them during long +marches. The beans are first ground and put up in packages, with +directions for making the infusion, one teaspoonful being sufficient +for a cup of Kolatina. A concentrated essence is also made from the +beans, and an acerated drink called “Kola champagne,” very agreeable to +the taste and recommended by physicians. + +=Chicory=--The common root of the Endive or “Succory” plant, as used +along with coffee was originally a Dutch practice dating back to over +a century ago, but for many years after the nature of Chicoried coffee +was kept a profound secret by the Dutch dealers until 1801, when the +secret was first disclosed. The fact that for over a hundred years it +has been successfully used as a substitute for and recognized addition +to coffee, while in the meantime innumerable other substances have been +tried for the same purpose and abandoned indicates that it must be +agreeable, if not beneficial, to many constitutions besides imparting +to coffee additional color, body and pungency, and may, by acting as +a sedative, tonic and diuretic, modify its stimulating and exciting +effects, and is at least in very general, almost universal, use at +the present time. It is extensively cultivated in Belgium, Holland, +France, Germany and other European countries, being principally +prepared from the old, stout and white roots of the plant, which +after washing are sliced into small pieces, and kiln-dried, in which +condition it is usually sold to the chicory roasters, by whom it is +parched or burned, until it assumes a deep-brown color, after which it +is ground, the fine dust being separated from the coarse and granulated +parts. In its external characteristics it closely resembles ground +coffee, but is entirely destitute of its pleasing and aromatic odor, +neither does it possess any trace of the alkaloid--caffeine--which +give their peculiar virtues to coffee, tea and other diet drinks. It +occupies a peculiar position, however, since very many coffee consumers +deliberately prefer an admixture of chicory with coffee to the pure +article alone, notwithstanding that it is entirely devoid of the +essential oil for which coffee is so valued. Differing diametrically +in their botanical nature and chemical composition as well as in their +physiological properties and action. Again, coffee is the fruit of a +tree, while chicory is the root of a herbaceous plant, and it is a +well-established fact that of all parts of either vegetables or plants +the fruit and seeds possess the most active and nutritious properties. +This is no doubt due to their being freely exposed to the influence +of light and air--agencies which invariably promote chemical changes +in the plant itself and so effect the elaboration of those complex +organic substances on which the activity of all plants depends. While +on the other hand it is manifest that, as roots are concealed from +these powerful agencies, they cannot be richly endowed with active +properties, there being but few roots containing either alkaloid or +volatile oil--the properties which give to coffee its unique virtues. +The distinction therefore between the properties of the seeds and +roots of plants in general is very important, and especially so in +the case of coffee and chicory, the infusion of the latter being +heavy, black, mawkish and entirely destitute of aroma; that of the +former being light, rich, fragrant and refreshing. Coffee containing +three active principles: caffeine, volatile oil and tannin, chicory +possessing no such analogous constituents. Coffee exerting very marked +and highly important physiological effects of a beneficial character in +the human system, while there is not a single proof that chicory exerts +any one of these effects, it being very questionable, in the contrary, +whether the properties it does possess are not really injurious. +None of these or analogous principles are to be found in any of the +substitutes or adulterants of coffee, so that the latter cannot possess +a single one of the peculiar and beneficial properties of coffee, being +simply a deception on the stomach of the consumer. + +Chicory contains neither _caffeine_ nor essential oil like coffee, and +is neither exhilarating nor pleasant in taste, while on some persons +it acts as an irritant and purgative. Some so-called coffees contain +large quantities of it, even to the extent of 95 per cent., which it +would be more correct to call such a mixture “adulterated chicory,” +rather than coffee, which term it seems entitled to only as a matter +of courtesy, chicory being in its turn also subject to adulteration +in many forms, two very common adulterants being beet-root and +mangel-wurzel. As to the nutrition possessed by chicory, it contains +only about one-half the nitrogenous substances of coffee and even that +quantity in no way benefits the consumer, as these substances are +insoluble in water and are wasted in the infusion. It has been proved +also that even the chicory itself is extensively adulterated, as all of +the substances found in adulterated coffee have also been discovered +in ground chicory. Viewed under a magnifying glass the component +fibres and elementary structures of the different substances used in +the adulteration of coffee present peculiarities and characteristics +that enables the experienced observer to identify without difficulty +the particular substitute or adulterant employed. The principal +adulterant, chicory, being readily distinguished by the size, form, +and ready separation of the component cells of the nut, as well as by +the presence of an abundance of spiral vessels of a dotted form. Whole +roasted beans, peas and cereals may be best detected by the respective +size, form, texture and other characteristics of the starchy granule, +of which such substances are chiefly composed. + +In minute structure true coffee is so distinct from all other vegetable +substances that it is readily recognizable by means of the microscope, +and as the roasting process does not destroy its distinguishing +peculiarities, microscopic examination forms the readiest method of +determining the genuineness of any suspected sample. The true coffee +bean consists of an assemblage of vesicles or cells, angular in +form, which adhere so firmly together that they break up into pieces +rather than separate into distinct and perfect cells. And, again, by +microscopical, physical and chemical tests the purity of coffee can +be still further determined with perfect certainty. The mixture of +chicory with coffee is best detected by the aid of the microscope, +the structure of both which they retain after torrefaction being very +characteristic and distinct. The granules of coffee remain hard and +angular when steeped in water, to which they communicate but little +color, while chicory on the other hand by swelling up and softening +imparts a deep brown color to the water, the specific gravity of +chicory being also much lighter than that of coffee. + +All of the pseudo patent or proprietary ground coffees, put up in +bulk or packages, and recommended to the consumer by high-sounding, +seductive names and attractive labels, which are annually palmed off +in such vast quantities, consist of nothing more than a combination of +these adulterants with genuine coffee. So much so that it may be safely +said that wherever grinding is done it may be safely set down that +more or less adulteration is practised, the ground coffee being put up +in packages or in bulk form. The average basis for the compound being +composed of the following proportions to every 1,000 pounds: chicory, +100; rye, 200; peas, 400; coffee, 200, and other substances 100 pounds. + +According to some English chemists, coffee is adulterated in that +country, outside of chicory, with such substances as roasted peas, +beans, carrots, turnips, parsnips, potatoes, acorns, beets, lupins +and even fragments of the baked livers of oxen and horses. To such an +extent is the practice carried there, that it is next to impossible to +procure a pound of pure coffee there at almost any price. The evil also +flourishes to a great extent in this country, but with the exception +that nothing worse than roasted rye, peas, beans and cereal grains are +chiefly used for its adulteration. With regard to the propriety of +selling chicory with coffee, it may be stated that while it certainly +is not right to sell a mixture of coffee with chicory under the name +of pure coffee, and unreasonable to compel the manufacturer or vender +to specify approximately the proportion of chicory contained in the +mixture, this latter is especially desirable, inasmuch as chicory +is far cheaper than coffee, and it is, therefore, necessary to +protect the public against having chicory palmed off on it for pure +coffee. According to the best authorities, coffee, when pure, is a +most valuable ingredient of our food, owing to its agreeable flavor, +pleasing odor and refreshing and gently stimulating properties, which, +if not absolutely necessary, is at least a most desirable constituent +of our daily dietary, and any one that deprives it of its true +qualities by adulteration or substitution inflicts an injury more or +less grave on the public health, because the adulterants are _claimed_ +not to be poisonous--that is, directly--but only indirectly injurious. +The offense is thought little of, and never punished in this country, +with the result that the nefarious practice is rather encouraged +than repressed. So that, in considering the many evils of coffee +adulteration, we must not overlook the fact that coffee is not only +a beverage, but also a drug, antagonistic in action to the _alkaloid +morphia_, as well as to other alkaloids of like nature, so that in +cases of poisoning its adulteration may lead to the failure of medical +treatment, even to the extent of the loss of life. + +The operation of roasting also tends to make coffee soluble in boiling +water, as when Raw coffee is perfectly exhausted by means of boiling +water it yields up 25 per cent. which passes into solution, while +Roasted coffee, on the other hand, when completely exhausted by means +of boiling water, yields up 39 per cent. of soluble matter. These +figures appear rather high, as in actually using coffee as a beverage +we are not in the habit of making anything like a complete extraction, +only some 10 to 12 per cent. of the coffee passing into the liquid. +From these the facts it will be perceived that the chemical character +of coffee provide fairly satisfactory criteria for the recognition of +many species of adulteration, the absence of starch alone in genuine +coffee offering in itself a character which enables the analyst to +at once deal with the whole class of possible adulterants, including +many species of grain, while the absence of more than traces of sugar +in Roasted coffee can likewise be turned to excellent account inasmuch +as Chicory contains no starch, but is highly saccharine even after +roasting, the percentage of sugar in Roasted coffee ranging from 0.0 +to 1.1, while in Roasted chicory the quantity of sugar ranges from 12 +to 18 per cent. The proof of this character is best made by the aid of +the copper-reduction test, for which purpose a standard solution of +copper is required, which may be prepared by dissolving 34.65 grams +of crystalized sulphate of copper in 200 C.C. of water and adding to +it 173 grams of double tartrate of potash and soda, with 400 C. C. +of a solution of caustic soda, the whole being subsequently diluted +with water so as to occupy a litre. The standard solution of copper +made in this manner is of such a strength that 10 C. C. are reduced +by .050 grams of grape sugar, the best method of using this solution +being to take a known volume of it, say 10 C. C. accurately measured +out, and dilute it with three or four times its volume of boiling +water and then dropping into the boiling copper solution, which is to +be added, until the point is just reached when the copper solution is +exhausted, and as the reduction of the copper-salt to the state of +red sub-oxide of copper progresses, the precipitate will accumulate, +and at the same time the blue color will fade from the solution. The +last delicate reading is finally effected by half of the reduction +between the ferro-cyanide of potassium and copper solutions, for which +purpose a little of the liquid is filtered, acidified slightly with +acetic acid and tested with a drop of the solution of the ferro-cyanide +of potassium. In this triturate, as in all like cases, a rough and +rapid estimation is first made, and then a second operation when +the quantity is approximately known to make a delicate and careful +reading of the exact point. Thus if 100 parts of coffee when infused +yield sensibly more than 1 per cent. of sugar, then the presence of +chicory or other adulterant may be strongly suspected and a rough +calculation of the quantity made. The fact that coffee extract is +devoid or almost devoid of sugar, while many of the other natural +products yield saccharine extracts, makes itself manifest in many ways, +and the specific gravity also of equal quantities of an infusion of +coffee being very much lower than the specific gravity of an infusion +of chicory and the other principal substances used in the adulteration +of ground coffee. Chicory also possessing greater coloring power than +coffee, for which reason this character may be rendered available in +the testing of coffee, as not only does chicory color water more deeply +than coffee, but it colors it with greater rapidity, the oil contained +in the coffee hindering the solution of the coloring matter by the +water, whereas chicory, which contains no oil, imparts its coloring +matter to water with great readiness. All of which tends to render the +color-test, when properly applied, the easiest and most available for +the detection of chicory or other substances in coffee. + +What is known as the “Ash test,” is as follows: Pure coffee when +incinerated or burned, yields about 4 per cent. of ash on an average, +while the ash of chicory and other adulterants used in coffee amounts +to between 5 and 6 per cent. of the residue, the ratio of soluble to +insoluble ash being inverted when dissolved in water thus:-- + + Ash of Coffee. Ash of Chicory. + Soluble, 3.24 Soluble, 1.74 + Insoluble, 0.76 Insoluble, 3.52 + +From this analysis it will be observed that the average ash of coffee +when incinerated is about 4 per cent., 3.24 of which is soluble in +water, and 0.76 insoluble, more than half of the entire ash consisting +of potash in combination with carbonic and phosphoric acids. Magnesia +amounting to about 8 and lime to about 4 per cent. of the whole, while +it is claimed that soda and silica are entirely absent from coffee ash, +great stress being laid on this circumstance. The ash of chicory, on +the other hand, which is the main adulterant of coffee, amounts to 5.06 +when incinerated, 1.74 per cent. of which only is soluble in water, and +3.32 insoluble, being almost an inversion of figures and from which it +may be easily understood why the examination of the ash alone would +suffice to distinguish between coffee and chicory, and from which +it may readily be determined, an examination of the ash test alone +sufficing to distinguish pure coffee from the adulterated compounds. + +Another unerring test, known as the “Color test,” is to prepare a +saturated solution of common salt and mix a small quantity of the +coffee to be tested with ten times its weight of the solution in a +test-tube at least three quarters of an inch in diameter, shaking it +repeatedly so that the coffee may be thoroughly wetted, and then allow +the tube to stand for half an hour. Next, closely observe the color of +the liquid and the quantity of coffee floating on the surface as well +as the amount deposited in the tube. If the color be a very pale amber +and almost all of the coffee floats on top, the sample may be assumed +to be pure, but if of a decidedly dark-yellow or brownish hue, it +clearly indicates the admixture of chicory or some similar adulterant, +in which case there is also a larger deposit for the reasons already +stated. This deposit increases and the color of the brine grows darker +in proportion to the extent of the impurity in the coffee, as with +the addition of only 30 per cent. of chicory the brown color is very +marked, so that with a still larger percentage of the adulterant it +becomes correspondingly darker. + + + + +CHAPTER VIII. + +BLENDING AND PREPARING. + + +By the combination of different varieties of coffee much better results +are sometimes obtainable than when one variety is used alone, but in +the mixing or blending of two or more kinds together, several points +have to be studied, such as the age, grade, body, flavor, appearance, +and affinity of the coffees to be combined. The public taste for +certain flavored coffees, like that of tea, being an acquired one, it +behooves the dealer to first study and learn the taste of his customers +before catering to it. + +The successful blending of coffees may be easily accomplished if only +a fair knowledge of the merits and general character of the coffees be +possessed by the dealer; but tastes differ so widely that it is next to +impossible to give any fixed formulas for any specific combinations. +For this reason the following blends are only given for the purpose of +conveying some idea as to what coffees assimilate best in combination +and also ascertain what body, strength and flavor is required by the +customer or customers before preparing the combination; but a taste +for any fairly good blend of coffees may be cultivated in the customer +with time. And as no definite formulas can be given for combining +two or more varieties of coffee, the dealer must study the taste and +requirements of his trade, noting its peculiarities and experimenting +with it until he has discovered a combination that will suit or please +a majority of his customers which, having once found, he should adhere +to strictly, by being always careful to select, as nearly as possible, +the same grades of coffee, and keeping them up to the same high and +uniform standard. + +Though not generally admitted, the testing of coffee is much more +difficult and requires more experience than that of tea, inasmuch as +the sample of tea is all ready to have the water applied to it, while +the sample of coffee is presented in the raw or natural state and +must not only be roasted properly and ground before being tested, but +must also be roasted as precisely as the other samples with which it +is to be compared, in order to determine its exact value. To smell +or taste correctly requires a knowledge of all the properties and +characteristics of the article under consideration, as these senses +convey to the mind their impressions, so that if the mind can analyze +the cause and effect, the senses of smell and taste act in consonance +with the sense of reason. It is thus obvious that to be an expert +judge of either tea or coffee requires a thorough knowledge of the +different varieties and grades of both, and what the most desirable +qualities of each are. It is also further necessary that the dealer +should be well aware of what characteristics and blending of flavors +his customers prefer. Having carefully selected, tested, and purchased +his coffee, the next important thing is to so roast or have it roasted +as to best develop the drinking qualities, which, as stated before, is +a more important and essential process than the hulling and curing of +it, though frequently underestimated by the average dealer, as many +otherwise good coffees are injured irreparably by improper roasting. + +Owing to the wide difference in the age, weight and texture of coffees +they should never be blended in the raw or natural state, as old +and dry coffees require a shorter time to roast than new and moist +ones, the same rule applying to what are known in trade as “mild” and +“strong” coffees, as one will be but half roasted or roasted only when +the former is roasted or burned, thus imparting to the combination +a raw, uncooked or burned flavor, as the case may be. The best way +is to roast or have roasted the coffee intended for the blend in +different cylinders, then mix and cover them up tightly immediately +after roasting, in order that the differing characters and flavors +may exchange and assimilate freely while the pores are still open to +receive them. + + +ROASTED COFFEE BLENDS. + +=No. 1.=--(Low-priced). May be made from a fair Rio and Santos, +low-grade Maracaibo or other mild sort, in the proportions of half and +half, or, when three or more varieties are used, in equal quantities. + +=No. 2.=--(Medium). Is composed of equal quantities of a large +white-bean Santos and Cucuta Maracaibo or other standard mild growth, +the whole being strengthened by the addition of one part choice Rio, if +considered too weak in body. + +=No. 3.=--(Choice). When a really rich, smooth, mellow beverage +is desired a combination, composed of one-third Arabian Mocha and +two-thirds Preanger Java will yield the desired results. While a liquor +equally as good, if not more popular, may be obtained from equal +parts of Cucuta or Merida, Maracaibo, Aden, Mocha and Preanger Java, +particularly when fresh roasted. + +For a good coffee the most common practice is to blend a Padang Java +and a Cucuta Maracaibo, or large, yellow, old-bean Santos in the +proportions of 40 pounds of the former to 60 of either, or both the two +latter, the combination answering well for a straight coffee, and for +which it may be safely sold. In fact, one of the most popular so-called +finest Javas in the market to-day is composed of these three varieties, +the addition of the Santos improving the combination, as it lends to it +the essential quality which is lacking. + + +GROUND COFFEE BLENDS. + +In ground coffees the appended specimen blends are given to illustrate +how they are mixed, rather than as laying down any fixed formulas, and +are recommended as being at least non-injurious, if not positively +wholesome. + +=No. 1.=--Composed of 20 pounds roasted rye, 20 pounds chicory and 20 +pounds ground coffee makes a fairly drinkable compound, when a cheap +coffee is required. + +=No. 2.=--A good medium grade may be prepared of 10 pounds rye, 20 +pounds chicory and 20 pounds coffee. These proportions may be altered +at pleasure, but care must be taken to at all times have the rye in +excess of the chicory and to thoroughly mix and grind the component +parts together. The dry dust of the rye quickly absorbs the moisture +of the chicory and will also prevent the mill from becoming clogged in +grinding. + +=No. 3.=--Better still in the proportions of 15 pounds rye, 10 pounds +chicory and 10 pounds good, mild coffee, the component parts of which +may be still further varied to suit the price and taste of the customer +and to which may be added any of the other ingredients with which +coffees are mixed, except corn or beans, but it must be borne in mind +that only the best grade of coffee must be used in the blend, as what +may otherwise be a good combination may be utterly spoiled by the +introduction of a tainted, stained, damaged or hidey coffee. + +But the best and safest of all substances for mixing or blending +with coffee with the object of reducing its cost is chicory and rye, +containing as they do a large percentage of saccharine, which in the +process of roasting becomes carameled, thus imparting to the compound +the flavor of coffee to a much greater extent than any other substitute +known and for which reason it lends itself to the purpose more readily +than any other vegetable substance. Again, it is not injurious to +health, while at the same time it gives up its extractive matter +easily, thus improving the extract yielded by poor coffee and imparting +a dark color to the decoction such as can only be produced by three +times the weight of pure coffee. It has one great defect, however, that +of easily absorbing moisture, becoming hard and lumpy on exposure to +the atmosphere, more particularly when ground fine. + + +PREPARING FOR USE. + +The methods of preparing for the table are almost as numerous as the +countries in which it is grown, and as much of the beneficial influence +which it undoubtedly exerts depends in a great measure on its proper +preparation. This question has given rise to such a maze of psuedo +chemical subtleties and mechanical devices that it is difficult to +arrive at any fundamental common-sense rule for its most perfect +production in the cup. The two principal objects to be sought for in +the proper preparation of coffee as a beverage are: (1) To obtain the +greatest amount of strength and aroma, without extracting any of +its astringent properties, and (2) to produce a rich, transparent, +nut-brown liquor, free from all cloudiness and grounds. The first +requisite in securing these results is that the article be purchased +_pure_ and _fresh roasted_ in the bean and ground personally a short +time previous to preparing for the table, for if roasted too long +prior to its use the beans lose much of their strength and aroma, +becoming tough and difficult to grind. This latter defect, however, +may be remedied in part by reheating in a pan or oven for some minutes +previous to being ground and infused. + +The usual methods of preparing coffee for use as a beverage are: (1) By +Infusion or drawing; (2) By Decoction or boiling, and (3) By Filtration +or distillation. + +=Infusion=--or “drawing”--is accomplished by first making the +water boil and then putting in the ground coffee, the vessel being +immediately removed off the fire and allowed to stand quietly, in the +same manner as tea, on the stove or range for about ten minutes, in +order to more fully extract its properties. The coffee is ready for use +by this method when the powder swimming on the surface sinks to the +bottom on slightly stirring it. This process yields a very aromatic +beverage, but one containing very little of the extract or stimulating +properties. + +=Decoction=--or “boiling”--is the custom in the East, and generally +yields an excellent coffee. The ground coffee is put in the vessel with +cold water and placed on the fire, where it is allowed to boil for a +few seconds, care being taken not to allow it to overboil. If boiled +too long by this method the aromatic properties are volatilized, and +while the coffee will be rich in extract it will be poor in aroma. + +=Filtration=--or “distilling”.--By this process the coffee is prepared +in a “percolator,” in which the ground coffee is compressed between +two metallic diaphragms, so arranged as to permit the water to filter +through it slowly. This method often, but not always, yields a cup of +good coffee, as when the pouring of the boiling water over the ground +coffee is done slowly the drops in passing come in contact with too +much air, the oxygen of which makes a change in the aromatic particles, +often destroying them entirely. The extraction also is incomplete, for, +instead of 20 per cent. the water by this process dissolves only from +10 to 15 per cent., the balance being lost by evaporation, while by the +other methods more than half the valuable parts of the coffee remain in +the grounds and is entirely lost. + +It is contended by many experts and connoisseurs that to obtain the +full aroma of coffee without extracting its astringent properties, it +must in all cases be prepared as an infusion with boiling water, that +is, “drawn” in the same manner as tea, or simply allowed to reach the +boiling point after infusion, but no more. While others, among whom +is Baron Liebig, maintain that by simple infusion alone much of the +valuable soluble principle in the coffee remains unextracted, being +eventually thrown out with the grounds. To avoid this unnecessary +waste, it is suggested that the grounds of the coffee once used by +infusion should be preserved, boiled and the liquor resulting therefrom +be used for infusing a fresh supply. By this method it is claimed that +the substantial properties of the previously infused coffee, and the +aroma of the new are obtained together in the fresh infusion. In many +French households the coffee grounds are utilized by distillation for +economy’s sake, hot water being poured over them, which, after passing +through, is preserved in a bottle and used as an extract. In fact, +this is claimed to be the method adopted in making the finest French +coffee. + +The best method under these circumstances is a combination of the +second and third, in which the usual quantities of both coffee and +water are to be retained, a tin measure containing half an ounce of +roasted coffee beans being generally sufficient for two small cups +(or one large breakfast cup) of coffee of moderate strength, or four +ounces for eight small cups or four large ones. With three-quarters +of the coffee to be prepared after being ground, the water is made +to boil in ten or fifteen minutes, after which the other quarter is +put in, and the vessel immediately withdrawn from the fire, tightly +covered over and allowed to stand for five or six minutes. In order +that the powder on the surface may fall to the bottom more readily, +it is meantime stirred round, and after the deposit takes place the +coffee may be poured off, being then ready for use. But in order to +separate the grounds more completely, the coffee may be passed through +a clean muslin cloth, but generally this operation is not necessary, +being frequently prejudical to the pure flavor of the beverage. +By this process the first boiling gives the strength, the second +adding to the flavor without extracting its astringent properties, +it does not, however, dissolve more than one-fourth of the aromatic +substances contained in the roasted coffee. The beverage, when ready +for use by this process, ought to be of a rich brownish-black color, +semi-transparent, somewhat resembling chocolate thinned with water. + +Coffee may be prepared in any kind of vessel, tin cup, iron pot, +earthen pitcher or regular coffee-pot, but the utensil, whatever it +may be, must be thoroughly clean before using. When prepared in a tin +cup or iron pot first heat the ground coffee in the vessel and pour +on boiling water or milk when the coffee is sufficiently heated, and +stir with a spoon for one minute, then allow to stand by the fire where +it will keep hot, without boiling, for another minute and stir again +and then let stand to settle for two minutes, after which it is ready +for use, care being taken when pouring out not to disturb the grounds. +But, if a pitcher be used, it must be first heated with boiling water +and allowed to stand in a warm place to infuse for at least ten minutes +before serving. + +There are so many different varieties of coffee and such a wide +dissimilarity of tastes, that it is almost next to impossible to +suggest the special kind of coffee to select for use, even for the +average consumer, the same difficulty also applying to what constitutes +the requisite quantity. Many old-time coffee-drinkers prefer a strong, +dark, or, as they term it, “an old-fashioned Rio.” Others like a good +Maracaibo, or other fine, mild grade, such as Ceylon, Jamaica and +Guatemala; in fact, these are the most popular grades and the choice +of the majority of consumers, not only on account of their intrinsic +merits, but also on account of price. For an exceedingly fine coffee, +however, the best results are obtained from a combination of true +Java and genuine Mocha, mixed in the proportions of two-thirds of +the former to one-third of the latter, _fresh roasted, fresh ground +and fresh made_; while, with regard to quantity, one, two and three +tablespoonfuls to each pint of water is recommended, according to the +number to be served and the strength required. + +The degree of strength is altogether a matter of taste, two ounces, +or four heaping tablespoonfuls, of pure, ground coffee, made with +absolutely boiling water, will yield a full quart of average strength, +making a pleasant and well-flavored breakfast coffee. But for four +persons a tea-cup of finely-ground coffee--the finer, the better--will +be required, to be served as soon as made, as the infusion rapidly +deteriorates by standing too long. + + * * * * * + +In Ethiopia and Southeastern Africa, where its virtues were first +discovered and where it has been in use for centuries prior to its +introduction to civilization, it is used in a _solid_ form, being first +roasted, crushed and mixed with fat or grease, rolled into balls and +eaten. The natives claiming that one of these balls will support them +for an entire day, and preferring it so prepared to a meal of bread or +meat. + + * * * * * + +While the Arabs, to whom the civilized world is indebted not only for +the first knowledge of the plant and its product, but also for the +first knowledge of preparing it in liquid form, prepare it for use in a +porous earthenware pitcher first set in hot ashes until all moisture is +evaporated and the vessel is well heated, after which freshly roasted +and pounded coffee is put in and a little salt added, both being heated +thoroughly. Boiling water is then poured on, the vessel covered and +allowed to rest in the hot ashes until it settles before serving. A +decoction known as _Kishr_ is also made there from the dried pulp of +the berries, which is prepared by bruising or pounding the raw pulp +with stones and putting it in boiling water, contained in an earthen +pan placed over a slow fire. Ground cardamons and a little cinnamon or +ginger is next added to the decoction, after which it is allowed to +simmer for half an hour before using. + + * * * * * + +In Turkey, where it is regarded as the national beverage, it is +prepared by first grinding the roasted beans exceedingly fine, almost +as fine as flour, and put in a pot in which cold water is poured +and placed on the fire until it heats up to almost the boiling point +and then, served without the addition of either milk or sugar. But +when only a single cup of coffee is wanted, the requisite quantity is +measured into a small, long-handled brass coffee pot, made expressly to +hold one or two cups, as the case may be, and water enough poured on +to fill the vessel, which is set on live coals until it heats up to, +but not beyond, the boiling point and then served in a tiny cup without +straining or otherwise settling the grounds. + + * * * * * + +While in Egypt, which is also proverbial for the excellence of its +coffee, it is prepared by first grinding the beans fine, as in Turkey, +and adding an equal quantity of sugar to it, pouring on boiling water, +and placing the vessel over the fire until it is thoroughly boiled, +but removing and allowing it to cool occasionally between times until +it becomes black and rather thick, in which state it is served. Coffee +thus prepared will be found very rich and strong, too much so for +the average taste, but dark, frothy-tipped, and, taken altogether, a +delicious beverage. + + * * * * * + +In Java, Sumatra and other Eastern coffee-growing countries the natives +make a beverage from the leaves of the coffee plant, the leaves +containing a large percentage of the active principle--caffeine. They +first roast and cure the leaves after the manner of tea, and prepare +them by infusion the same as tea, the natives preferring the liquor +from the leaves to that produced from the roasted beans. + + * * * * * + +The Dutch settlers in South Africa not only use coffee at all meals +but at all times, the coffee-pot being always on the fire ready for +any visitors and friends who may call. In preparing it they use two +kettles, boiling the water in one and pouring it on the coffee which +has been previously placed in the other; the water is then poured back +and forth several times, a little cold water being finally added to +settle the grounds just before serving. + + * * * * * + +In Mexico the coffee is roasted, ground and prepared at the same time; +the beans are roasted as required and pounded fine in a bag or coarse +cloth, and immediately transferred to the pot, boiling water is then +poured on and milk added to it, after which it is allowed to simmer or +boil slowly for about three minutes. But in some instances the milk is +added as served, a third of a cup of coffee, or less, and the balance +in hot milk being the customary proportions. + + * * * * * + +In Cuba, where the most delicious coffee obtainable anywhere is to +be found, the beverage is prepared by first half filling a coarse +flannel bag with finely pulverized roasted coffee and suspending it +from a nail or hook over the pot or other vessel. Cold water is next +poured on the bag at intervals until the entire mass is well saturated, +when the first drippings which have fallen into the receptacle are +poured again over the bag until the liquid becomes almost thick and +very black. One teaspoonful of this novel extracted liquid placed in +a cup of boiling milk will yield a draught of coffee that is simply +deliciousness itself--a nectar fit for the gods. In Cuba this flannel +bag hangs day and night on the wall, the process of pouring on the cold +water and allowing it to drip being almost ceaseless in its operation, +all classes, ages and conditions offering and drinking coffee there as +freely as the Chinese do tea or as we do water. + + * * * * * + +Coffee constitutes the almost exclusive or “national beverage” of +the people of Brazil, particularly in the regions where it is most +grown. It is made thereby first roasting, as in this country, in small +roasters, but more frequently in iron pans, very high and dark, and is +prepared for use by grinding or pulverizing the beans very fine, almost +as fine as flour, and putting it in a muslin or woolen bag placed in +a pot or other vessel upon which boiling water is poured, and allowed +to infuse for about fifteen minutes. The entire strength is thus +extracted, the Brazilians almost universally preferring their coffee +strong and “black,” that is, without milk, for which reason larger +quantities are also used. + +Many connoisseurs maintain that the roasting of coffee is best done +at home, as no doubt it is, all risk of adulteration and stale coffee +being avoided by this method. + +So to avoid all risks the consumer should purchase the coffee in a +whole state and grind it personally; but any suspected sample of ground +coffee may be tested by the following simple and practical experiments: +(1). Note whether the ground coffee hardens or “cakes” when pressed +between the fingers, if so, the coffee is evidently adulterated, most +probably with chicory; (2). Place a small sample of the suspected +coffee on top of water in a wineglass, and if part floats and part +sinks it is undoubtedly adulterated either with chicory, roasted +cereals or other analogous substances; (3). If the cold water in which +a sample of the ground coffee has been placed becomes deeply colored +it is an evidence of the presence of some roasted vegetable substance; +(4). But to more definitely detect the presence of chicory or other +foreign substances in ground coffee, put a teaspoonful of the suspected +sample on the surface of a glass of cold water. If it floats for some +time, scarcely coloring the water, it is _pure_ coffee, but if part +sinks and imparts a reddish-brown tint to the water as it falls to the +bottom of the glass, it is adulterated with either chicory, rye, peas +or other analogous matter. Or again, place a spoonful of the coffee +in a white bottle of cold water and shake well for a few moments, +and if the sample is pure it will rise to the top, scarcely coloring +the water, but if adulterated it will sink and discolor the fluid +for the following reason: The pure coffee being enveloped in an oily +substance prevents the grounds from absorbing the water, while the +adulterant being devoid of this feature quickly absorbs the water, and +thus becoming heavy sinks and discolors the fluid to a greater or less +extent according to the proportion used; (5). Spread out on a piece of +glass or other smooth surface a little ground coffee and moisten it +with a few drops of water, and pick out by means of a needle the small +particles. If these particles are of a soft consistence the coffee is +undoubtedly adulterated, as the particles of the coffee-seed or bean +are hard and resisting in nature and do not become soft or pliable even +after prolonged immersion in water. These simple methods will usually +suffice to detect the ordinary forms of adulteration, but to determine +the character and extent of the adulteration science and chemistry must +be resorted to, for which purpose the use of a microscope will prove +the most reliable and powerful auxiliary as a means of detection. The +appended formulas are given as showing the different methods by which +coffee is or may be prepared to suit the varying tastes of different +consumers, which after testing, one may be selected for permanent +adoption. + +=1.= Put the requisite quantity of finely-ground coffee in a granitized +vessel and pour on sufficient cold water to just cover it and allow +to stand over night in a moderately warm position. Put it in the pot +next morning, pour in absolutely boiling water and allow to heat to +the boiling point and set back from the fire to prevent ebullition. +By this method the full strength of the coffee will be obtained and +the delicate aroma preserved without the extraction of its bitter and +astringent properties. + +=2.= To prepare coffee by filtration without the aid of an urn or +French coffee-pot. Put finely-ground coffee in a thin muslin bag and +place in an ordinary utensil, first heating the vessel thoroughly and +pour on briskly boiling water slowly around the bag, so as to permit +it to absorb and saturate the coffee effectually and extract its full +strength, after which allow it to stand and settle without boiling. + +=3.= Another excellent method, known as the “Cold-water process,” is to +mix the finely-ground coffee with the white of an egg and sufficient +cold water to just cover the mass, stirring it well meantime; next, +pour in about one-third of cold water required for the infusion and set +the vessel on the range where it will heat gradually to the boiling +point; just as soon as it approaches the boiling point add another +third of cold water and repeat until it again reaches the boiling +point, then pour on the balance of cold water and allow it to come to +the boiling point again. After which remove and let stand where it +will simmer for a few minutes and settle, which may be hastened by +the addition of a little more cold water; but if in a hurry, boiling +water may be used instead of cold by this method also, but the cold +water extracts more fully the active and refreshing principles of the +coffee without its deleterious properties making a stronger and richer +infusion than the boiling water, as more of the strength and aroma is +carried off in the vapor arising from the use of the latter. + +=4.= A quick, convenient and economical method for producing a cup of +good coffee is to first heat some freshly-roasted and finely-ground +coffee--an ounce to each quart of water--in a pan over a brisk fire and +fill a muslin bag with it, then so arrange as to suspend it midway in +the pot, and pour on absolutely boiling water slowly, so as to allow it +to trickle through the bag. After which allow it to stand for about ten +minutes where it will keep hot without boiling, and serve with milk and +sugar. But the simplest, most rapid and effective method is to place +about two ounces of ground coffee in a stew or saucepan, and set it on +a bright fire, stirring the coffee meantime with a spoon until quite +hot, and then pouring over it a pint of briskly boiling water, covering +it over closely for five minutes and passing it through a thin muslin +cloth, warming the liquid again before serving. + +=5.= For the “ideal cup of coffee,” take one part genuine Arabian +Mocha and two parts finest Java; roast each separately and blend well +together, and grind fine immediately before preparing. Fill an ordinary +tea-cup two-thirds full of the coffee, with one raw egg and shell. + +Place the whole in a strainer or percolator and pour on one quart of +briskly boiling water, then let stand for about ten minutes where it +will keep hot without boiling, and serve with cream and sugar to suit, +or, better still, with hot milk. But should a vessel without a strainer +or percolator be used let the infusion boil up once, and pour in a +cup of cold water, after which let it stand for at least five minutes +to thoroughly settle, and you have a beverage brown, creamy, rich, +fragrant and delicious. + +A most convenient, simple and inexpensive method of roasting coffee by +families, travelers or others desiring to roast their own coffee is to +put the requisite quantity--usually about a quarter of a pound--in a +thin glass flask or bottle placed over a charcoal fire and shaking it +well during the process until completed. The non-conducting power gives +this material an advantage over the metal, the coffee being less liable +to burn in it and the coffee can be better observed and regulated +during the progress of the process. But a simple iron pan may also be +used effectively for the purpose, if care be taken to keep the coffee +constantly agitated with a wooden knife or spoon, as a single burnt +bean will impair the aroma, and stopping the operation as soon as the +beans begin to crackle and assume a light-brown color. Before grinding +put the roasted beans in an iron pan or plate and place on the range to +heat until the aroma developed in the coffee by the roasting operation +perfumes the room, after which grind in an ordinary mill and prepare +according to any of the foregoing recipes. + +Many consumers connect the idea of the strength of coffee with a dark +or black color and fancy their coffee to be thin and weak if it does +not possess such color. This is entirely erroneous, as good, pure +coffee is never so, the dark color being imparted by means of a little +burnt sugar or other ingredient. The true flavor of pure coffee is +so little known to some persons that many who drink it for the first +time doubt of its goodness because it tastes of the natural flavor, +forgetting that coffee which does not possess the flavor of coffee +is not coffee at all, but an artificial concoction, for which many +other things may be substituted at pleasure. Hence it is that if to +the vile decoctions made from chicory, carrots and beets be added the +slightest quantity of pure coffee, such persons fail to detect the +difference, and which also accounts for the enormous diffusion of such +substitutes and adulterants; such mixtures with an empirical taste +most people fancy to be coffee. Another error of frequent occurrence +in the preparation of coffee for the table, and which results probably +from the habit of tea-making, is that of using too little coffee in +proportion to the quantity of water. More coffee in proportion should +be used than tea, that is, for a full pint of the infusion an ounce to +an ounce and a half of coffee, that being about the proper proportions +for a beverage of average strength. + +=Café de Paris=--Or “French Coffee” is most generally prepared by +mixing a cupful of finely-ground coffee with a raw egg and shell in a +quart of cold water and placing the pot over a brisk fire, occasionally +stirring it until the boiling point is reached, after which set the +vessel aside to simmer for a few minutes, then pour on a cupful of cold +water and allow to stand for eight or ten minutes before serving, using +cream and sugar to suit. + +=Café au Lait=--or “French Breakfast Coffee” is made by grinding two +tablespoonfuls of coffee for each cup required, and packing solidly +in a regular French filtering coffee-pot, pouring on boiling water +and passing it from two to three times through the coffee-pot. When +serving, boiling milk in equal quantity or to suit the individual +taste is poured into the cup from a separate vessel, after which it is +sweetened to suit. The French usually mix chicory with their coffee, +particularly when used in the form of _café au lait_. For this form, +add half tablespoonful of powdered chicory to two tablespoonfuls of +ground coffee, and after thoroughly mixing, pour on boiling water and +pass twice through the coffee-pot before serving. + +=Café Noir.=--A black “after-dinner coffee,” is prepared by adding four +ounces of freshly-ground strong coffee to a quart of absolutely boiling +water and allowing it to stand until it reaches the boiling point, +meantime passing it twice or thrice through the coffee-pot before +serving. + +=Café au Crême=--Is prepared by the addition of boiled cream to clear, +strong, fresh-made coffee and allowing to infuse or draw together from +fifteen to twenty minutes. + +=Café Glacé.=--To every six cups of freshly-made coffee add one egg +with cream, and sweeten well, then mix thoroughly and place in a +refrigerator until frozen to the consistency of cream. + +=Café Demi-tasse=--Is a beverage prepared after the manner of _Café +Noir_, but sweetened to a much greater extent, and to which is added +Cognac, Kirsch, or some other liqueur, but when taken with a small +glass of liqueur it becomes a _Café Gloria_. + +=Café Capucin=--Is merely another name for _Café au lait_, served in a +glass instead of a cup, while “Mazagran” is coffee served with water +instead of milk, the coffee which is prepared exactly the same as +Demi-tasse is served in a tall, narrow glass or goblet, a decanter of +cold water being served with it, the consumer diluting to suit. + +=Café à la Russe=--Like “Tea à la Russe” is simply strong, black +coffee, prepared after the manner of _Café au lait_, to which a squeeze +or slice of lemon is added before drinking. + +=Coffee à la Hollandaise=--Is prepared in a vessel composed of two +detached parts, the lower one answering as a reservoir and the upper +as a filter; the bottom being perforated with small holes, and over +which is placed a piece of flannel to cover it entirely. The requisite +quantity of finely-ground coffee is placed in the filter and firmly +pressed down, cold water being next slowly poured over it, after which +it is allowed to stand until all the water has percolated through it +into the reservoir beneath; the passing of the water occupying at least +four hours, extracting the full strength and flavor of the coffee in +that time. The vessel is high and narrow, so as to retard as much +as possible the passage of the liquid, but large enough to hold the +requisite quantities of both coffee and water at the same time and to +avoid the necessity of an additional supply of water. + +=Vienna Coffee.=--The famous Vienna Coffee is prepared in a somewhat +complicated contrivance, resembling a cylinder or urn, fitted with +a coarse sieve, the water being boiled by means of an alcohol lamp +underneath. When the water boils the steam passes through a tube and at +the same time through the finely-ground coffee, which has previously +been placed loose on the top, but protected by several strainers. A +glass top attached to the urn enables the cook to observe when the +coffee is properly prepared, the process securing a perfect infusion of +the coffee, and at the same time preserving its full aroma and other +properties. + +=Creole Coffee=--Is prepared by distillation, the coffee being first +roasted until it has assumed a uniformly brown color, after which it +is covered up and allowed to cool. It is then ground and covered up +carefully again until ready for use, when the requisite quantity is put +in a filtered coffee-pot into which it is pressed compactly, a little +briskly boiling water is then poured on and allowed to filter through +the coffee, when more boiling water is poured on, the process being +repeated about every five minutes until ready to serve. The result +of this process is very strong and rich in extract, which is often +preserved in a perfectly air-tight jar or other vessel until again +required for use. A single teaspoonful of which is sufficient to yield +a rich and creamy cup of the beverage when desired. + +=Extract of Coffee=--Is, properly speaking, the true “Essence of +Coffee.” It is best obtained by distilling one part of pure ground +coffee with five parts water and keeping them at a temperature of +209° C. in a very close vessel for about ten minutes, steaming and +evaporating it at a low temperature in a vacuum pan until reduced to +one part. Or it may be more conveniently obtained by the Cuban and +New Orleans methods already described, one spoonful of which yields a +delicious cup of coffee instantaneously as desired. + +It is not too much to state that more than one half of the beverage +which masquerades and is sold under the name of coffee, is unworthy of +the appellation and that the majority of the people of this country +live and die without ever knowing even the true taste of that delicious +and exhilarating beverage; people being prone to think that they know +all about coffee without ever studying what special qualities the +different varieties possess, or the best methods of preparing it. As +a nation, the American people want the best of everything and expect +to get it, and a country which expends so many millions of dollars +annually for coffee, can well afford to study the best methods of +selecting and properly preparing it. But what avails the best material +if it be not prepared in such a manner as to develop and extract its +most volatile, delicate, subtle and refreshing properties, as the +same properties may be depressing and injurious, or exhilarating and +beneficial proportionately as they are treated? + +A large proportion of housekeepers purchase their coffee already +roasted, and many more buy it ground, but if bought whole while still +hot and kept in an air-tight can until required and then ground, the +improvement in the liquor would amply repay for the trouble expended, +as much of the fragrance and aroma of the roasted coffee is lost by +laying too long, there being even a greater loss when the coffee is +ground for too long a time. But, on the other hand, unless the roasting +is done very carefully at home, the coffee will not be good, either, as +a few burnt beans in the roast will invariably spoil the drink. So that +when careful attention cannot be given to the proper roasting of coffee +at home, it will be better to purchase it in the whole bean already +roasted but never ground, using a small mill which can be regulated to +grind coarse or fine as needed. + +To roast coffee at home, put the raw beans about an inch deep in an +ordinary dripping-pan, which must be perfectly clean, and hold over +a brisk fire and stir frequently until the beans are sufficiently +browned. When the coffee becomes a cinnamon-brown, and begin to +crackle, add one tablespoonful of fresh butter, stirring well at the +same time, after which remove and place while hot in a can, and cover +closely, again heating the coffee before or after grinding prior to +preparing. Or place one pound of raw beans in a broad dripping-pan, +shaking and stirring it until they begin to brown and crackle, then +turn the pan from end to end rapidly, until they are evenly colored +to a cinnamon or chocolate shade. Then place the pan on a table to +rest, and stir into the coffee the beaten whites of two eggs and a +tablespoonful of fresh butter, glazing every bean, as this preserves +the aroma until ground. When cool shake the beans in a small sieve, so +that they may not stick together, and put them in an air-tight canister +until required. + +[Illustration: SORTING COFFEE.] + +A combination of one part Mocha, one part Rio and two parts Java or +Maracaibo will yield a heavy, rich, strong-flavored coffee, but not +as smooth and pleasing as if the Rio were omitted, unless for those +preferring it. In other words, when a smooth and delicate flavored +beverage is required, use one-third Mocha and two-thirds Java. When +strong and heavy is desired, use Rio and Maracaibo or temper the former +by combining it with some of the milder kinds. When a rich, smooth +beverage is desired, a combination of one-third Mocha and two-thirds +Java; if a medium, Java and Maracaibo or some other good, mild grade. +But when a heavy body and strong flavor is required, a blend of Rio +or Santos and Maracaibo in equal proportions should be made. Good +Maracaibo being equal to many Javas and is constantly substituted for +it by unprincipled dealers, both wholesale and retail. + +A combination consisting of one-third Mocha and two-thirds Java +fresh roasted and fresh ground makes an ideal cup of coffee. Two +tablespoonfuls or one ounce of this blend to each pint of boiling water +produces a beverage that cannot fail to suit the average taste. But for +consumers who prefer a heavy-bodied beverage a combination of equal +proportions of Santos, Caracas and Maracaibo, will be found to yield a +rich, heavy, pungent and fragrant liquor. These quantities are intended +for a strong beverage, but where only a moderate degree of strength is +desired it is best to use only half these quantities of coffee to the +same quantity of water. + +Some recent experiments in Germany confirm the opinion that coffee, +which is an aid to digestion, should be an infusion and not a +decoction, for which particular reason alone the after-dinner coffee +especially should be an infusion, as the _caffeine_ of coffee, which +is the element most stimulating, is best drawn out by keeping the +coffee at the boiling point, but without boiling, for a few minutes +before serving, as prolonged boiling extracts the astringent property, +tannin. There seems to be, however, a general tendency in favor of the +filtering process, by which the use of all foreign substances, such as +eggs, isinglass, hartshorn, codfish and sole-skins, to clear and settle +it, may be dispensed with altogether. + +To make filtered coffee with cold water, put one teacupful of +finely-ground coffee in a small pan and heat over the fire. Stir +constantly until hot and then put the hot coffee in the filter of the +coffee-pot, placing the coarse strainer on top and pour in a cupful of +cold water by degrees, then cover and let stand for half an hour. Next +add three cupfuls of cold water, a cupful at a time, and when all the +water has passed through the filter, pour it out, and pass it again +through the filter, cover closely and heat it to the boiling point +before serving. The coffee prepared in this manner will be perfectly +clear and sparkling in liquor, smooth, rich and fragrant in flavor, or +mix the coffee with the white of an egg together, then pour one-third +of the requisite quantity of cold water and set the pot on the range +where it will heat up gradually until it begins to boil; then add +another third of cold water, and when it again begins to boil add the +balance of cold water and allow it to again reach the boiling point; +remove and let stand for a few minutes to settle before serving. By +this method boiling water may be used instead of cold if so desired, +but the use of cold water makes a richer and stronger infusion, as none +of the aroma of the coffee is lost by evaporation, and the refreshing +properties are better extracted by the slower process. + +Filtered coffee should never be boiled; so that by placing the +coffee-pot in a vessel of boiling water it keeps the coffee at the +boiling point, but prevents it from boiling. Coffee made by the +cold-water process is invariably stronger than when made with boiling +water, and is, in the opinion of many connoisseurs, much better, so +that a reduced quantity of coffee will answer. Another advantage of +using cold water in the filtering process is that the coffee may be +prepared from it at any time and heated as required; but if to be +served after dinner it will be better if made with three cupfuls of +water instead of four. + +But no matter what method of preparing is adopted, or what kind of +vessel the beverage is prepared in, the result will be satisfactory if +the coffee be pure, good and _fresh roasted_, _fresh ground_ and _fresh +made_ with _fresh water_, _fresh boiled_ and _fresh served_. But always +serve with whipped cream or hot milk, heating the milk to the boiling +point, _but never allow it to boil_. + + + + +CHAPTER IX. + +CHEMICAL, MEDICAL AND DIETICAL. + + +In chemical composition the seeds or beans of coffee are complex, +containing as they do variable proportions of proximate principles. The +appended analysis represents the average constitution of raw coffee, +according to M. Payen, and which is accepted as the standard:-- + + Constituents. Parts. + + Fat, 10 to 13 + Water, 12 + Caffeine, 0.8 + Cellulose, 34 + Legumen and caseine, 10 + Glucose, dextrine and organic acid, 15 + Caffeone and aromatic oils, .002 + Caffetannate and potassium, 3 to 5 + Viscid essential oil (insoluble in water), .001 + Ash and other mineral matter, 6 + Other nitrogeneous substances, 3 + +In addition to the foregoing, Payen also describes some 0.8 per cent. +of free Caffeine and very small quantities of essential and aromatic +oils, amounting to about 0.003 per cent. of the coffee, in addition to +other azotized and saline matter. + +In the process of roasting, coffee undergoes certain chemical changes, +as before roasting it contains from 5.7 to 7.8 per cent. of sugar, +which is reduced to 1.1, and sometimes even to zero, after being +roasted, and from which, it would appear, that the description of sugar +contained in the raw coffee is destroyed by the roasting process to +which it is subjected previous to using. + + +COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF RAW AND ROASTED COFFEES. + + Constituents. Raw. Roasted. + Ash, 3.97 5.17 + Fat, 11.42 8.30 + Water, 8.26 0.36 + Sugar, 8.18 1.84 + Gluten, 10.68 12.03 + Caffeine, 1.10 1.06 + Cellulose, 42.36 44.96 + Extractive matter, 14.03 26.28 + ----- ----- + Total parts, 100 100 + +In the operation of roasting, the saccharine matter is converted +into caramel, and a portion of the caffeine is liberated from its +combination with the caffeic acid, the latter still retaining its +astringent properties and developing into a bitter, soluble principle. +A change in the fat of coffee is also undergone in the roasting, as +ether will extract only from 4 to 5 per cent. of fat from the raw +bean, while it readily extracts double that quantity from the roasted +bean. So striking is this fact that Von Bibra goes so far as to claim +that the roasting process produces fat, but most probably the process +is only mechanical and not chemical in its action in bursting the +“fat cells,” and thereby rendering the fat accessible to the solvent +action of the ether. Roasted coffee is also tolerably rich in nitrogen, +containing from 2.5 to 3 per cent., but is found to be quite devoid of +starch. The operation of roasting, in addition, tends to make coffee +soluble in boiling water, as, when raw coffee is perfectly exhausted +in boiling water, it will yield only some 25 per cent. of soluble +matter, while roasted coffee, on the other hand, when completely +exhausted by means of boiling water, yields as high as 40 per cent. in +some instances. A chemical analysis of the bean after being roasted +also shows that it contains 20 per cent. of water and about 60 per +cent. of cellulose, a substance resembling starch or grape sugar. But +the agents that especially distinguish coffee from all other substances +are the Caffeine, Caffeone and Caffeic, each of which constituents +possess virtues and effects peculiar to itself, and produce, by acting +in combination, the general effect of coffee. + +=Caffeine=--Is the principle to which coffee owes its refreshing and +agreeable properties. It is an inodorous agent, having a slightly +bitter taste, and belonging to that group of chemical agents known as +alkaloids. It is identical with the _theine_ of tea, and also forms +the characteristic principle of cocoa, maté, the guarana and many +other plants used by the inhabitants of widely-separated countries, +on account of their yielding a slightly exciting and refreshing +beverage and apparently forming a necessary diet for mankind in +general. Its quantity varies from 0.8 to 1 per cent. in the different +kinds of coffee, being greatest in Martinique and smallest in San +Domingo. According to Chandler, pure Caffeine appears in white silky +needles, having no odor, and containing about 8 per cent. of water +of crystalization, which it parts with at 150° C., being apparently +soluble in cold water, but much more so in hot, still less so in +alcohol and still less in ether, acting as a weak base and dissolving +in acids from which it may be crystalized by evaporation. When boiled +with fixed caustic alkalies it decomposes and yields methlamine, +while heating with basic-hydrates alters it to a stronger base, +termed Caffeidine, but when boiled with an excess of nitric acid and +evaporated at a gentle heat gives it a reddish color resembling that +obtained from minoxide; the addition of a little ammonia making it +again quite characteristic. Administered in strong doses it causes +trembling and a kind of intoxication not unlike that resulting from +alcoholic stimulants, but diminishes the work of organic tissue at the +same time. + +=Caffeone.=--Besides Caffeine coffee contains a volatile or essential +oil chemically termed Caffeone which, according to some authorities, is +not present in the raw bean, but is the result of an essential change +produced in the coffee by the roasting process. It is to this subtle +and fugitive principle, however, that roasted coffee owes its peculiar +and fragrant aroma, an odor possessed by no other known substance. +When chemically separated by ether from the coffee it presents the +appearance and consistency of cocoa-butter, which in roasting permeates +the entire bean, but if the heat be too intense or the roasting +prolonged beyond the proper time, it is entirely dissipated and lost, +the result being to seriously injure the coffee. And although coffee +forms part of the daily food of more than half the nations of the +world, we are still uncertain of the chemical nature, composition and +effects of these products of roasted coffee, and particularly of this +“oil of coffee,” one of the most important characteristic constituents +of the bean. The existence of this coffee oil makes itself known in a +striking manner by its roasting; being forced out of the bean by the +intense heat, it is partially volatilized, and together with the other +products of the roasting, produces the characteristic effects and aroma +of roasted coffee. In very strong black coffee it is found in oil-like +drops floating on the surface, the amount in the raw bean varying from +8 to 13 per cent., at least one-half of which is dissipated and lost +in the roasting, so that it might prove a paying experiment to attempt +to collect this oil, especially in large establishments where much +coffee is roasted, several pounds of this oil being wasted daily which +might find a ready market at a handsome profit in the manufacture of +liqueurs. It is best obtained by crushing about 50 pounds of roasted +coffee in a mortar and then extracting with the aid of ether and +alcohol. The oil of coffee obtained in this manner is a thick, green, +almost transparent substance, which deposits after a time a few long +needles of caffeine, proving that since caffeine is not extracted +from the exhausted beans by ether, and very little is taken up by the +alcohol employed, the coffee from which the oil has been extracted +may be again used for the manufacture of caffeine. The oil becomes +turbid in about six months from the time of extraction, although +preserved in hermetically-sealed bottles small groups of crystals +forming in the middle of the liquid, but slowly settling in the bottom, +forming a precipitate, which in time forms a cloudy mass of crystals, +consisting of the solid fatty acids, but the upper layer remaining +clear and transparent for years, and of a beautiful green color, +proving that a portion of the coffee oil consists of liquid oleic +acid. Taken alone, this “oil of coffee” is found to produce a gentle +perspiration and exhilaration, as well as to stimulate the mental +faculties, but is claimed to retard, in a marked degree, the process +of food assimilation, and consequently the waste of tissue matter. It +also produces an aperient effect on the bowels, while overdoses cause +sleeplessness and symptoms of sthenic excitement, a condition clearly +bordering on inflammation. + +Experiments made with Caffeine and Caffeone prove that they produce +different effects on the animal economy, the former exercising a +sedative and tranquilizing action, being more prolonged in its effect +than the latter, which acts strongly as a transient stimulant and +exhilarant. But in the drinking of an ordinary cup of coffee both these +actions are obtained, the stimulation and exhilaration preceding the +state of sedation and repose. The essential principle of the coffee, +however, is the alkaloid caffeine and not the volatile oil caffeone, +the effects of both constituents being different in time and character. +The former slows the heart’s action and expends its main force on the +spinal cord, to which effect is due the shaking hand of the inveterate +coffee-drinker and the marked tremor which sometimes follows a copious +drink of coffee when taken on an empty stomach, while the latter +reduces the arterial tension, thereby allowing a freer flow of blood +and a more rapid action of the heart, at the same time stimulating the +brain, rendering the mind clear and promoting wakefulness, being also +speedier and more transient in effect. + +=Caffeic.=--Caffetannate, or “tannic acid,” as it exists in the raw +bean of coffee possesses an astringent action, which is greatly +modified in the roasting and neutralized by the aperient properties +of the Caffeone. A great deal of doubt still exists as to the exact +agency of this property in coffee, many chemists contending that to it +the flavor and other properties of the coffee as a beverage is due. +It is a powerful astringent principle, puckering up the mouth when +chewed, and is the property to which coffee owes its bitterness when +boiled or over-infused, but whether it contributes in any degree to +the exhilarating, satisfying or narcotic action of the coffee has not +yet been definitely determined. But united, their specific properties +modified by combination and acting and reacting upon each other, these +three constituents give to coffee its peculiar properties and effects +on the human system. + +To the chemist, coffee and tea are much the same, their two alkaloids, +_caffeine_ and _theine_, being to them undistinguishable one from the +other, each also containing a volatile or essential oil, the difference +in the taste of which is doubtless due to subtle properties which the +chemist is so far unable to detect. For this reason the following +comparative analysis of coffee and tea may be found interesting, as +showing how closely they are chemically allied:-- + + Constituents. Coffee. Tea. + Water, 12.0 5.0 + Theine, 0.75 0.5 + Tannin, 5. 15.0 + Gluten, 13.0 25.0 + Wood fibre, 34.0 24.0 + Volatile oil, 13.0 4.0 + Gum and sugar, 15.0 21.0 + Ash or residue, 7.0 5.0 + +From recent experiments it appears that the quantity of tannin in the +coffee bean is not over about one-third of that contained in the tea +leaf and frequently is considerably less, six samples of coffee being +tested in the same manner as tea for the amount of soluble tannin, and +steeped in fifty parts of water. Equal quantities of coffee and tea +were also analyzed and the amount of tannin estimated with the result +that, on an average, tea yielded nearly four times as much tannin +than the coffee, which proves that in case of poisoning by alkaloids +strong tea is better than coffee as an antidote. When used in equal +quantities tea yields about twice the amount of theine that coffee does +to the water in which it is infused, but as we use a greater weight +of coffee than we do of tea in preparing the beverage, a cup of coffee +of ordinary strength will contain as much theine as a cup of ordinary +strong tea. While, however, coffee checks waste and is naturally a +food, the same cannot be said of tea, the specific effect of which is +to quicken respiration and the vital functions generally. + + +MEDICINAL EFFECTS. + +Coffee belongs to the medicinal or auxiliary class of food substances, +being solely valuable for its stimulating and exhilarating effect upon +the nervous and vascular system. It produces a feeling of buoyancy and +exhilaration comparable to a certain stage of alcoholic intoxication, +but which does not end in the depression and collapse produced by +the latter. It increases the frequency of the pulse, lightens the +sensations of fatigue and sustains the strength under prolonged +and severe muscular exertion. It also contains valuable medicinal +properties, among which is that of being an anti-soporific, and hence +most useful in narcotic poisoning. It has also been found to be the +best stimulant for administration to persons rescued from starvation or +perishing from intense cold, as ardent spirits when given under these +conditions often prove fatal. It dispels languor, stupor and lethargy +and as an antidote is a specific in cases of poisoning by opium and +morphine. + +The early history of coffee informs us of its use among the Arabians +for its exhilarating as well as its curative powers, being used in +Mecca and Medina originally for the purpose of overcoming torpor and +drowsiness by the Mohamedan monks, its exciting and sleep-dispelling +power tending much to bring it into popular favor in these cities as +a medicine as well as a beverage. At this early period it was claimed +that “this liquor purified the blood by gentle agitation, dissipated +the ill-condition of the stomach and aroused the spirits.” In the +treatment of spasmodic asthma its utility is well established as +well as in the cure of whooping cough, cholera infantum and similar +complaints, being also an excellent preventative against all infectious +and epidemical diseases. While in hysterical attacks, for which, in +many instances, the physician can find no diagnosis, coffee has proven +to be one of the greatest helps. + +Fresh-roasted coffee has proven to be an effective dispeller of foul +gases as well as a valuable disinfectant in the sick-room, or any +enclosed space where the fumes can penetrate. As an instantaneous +deodorizer, particularly in the sick-room, where it has no equal, +possessing wonderful, almost magical power, all foul and noxious +exhalations being immediately neutralized or dispelled by simply +passing a chafing-dish of fresh-roasted coffee through the room. As a +disinfectant fresh-roasted coffee has been invaluable as an absorbing +agent in purifying the atmosphere of all foul-smelling and offensive +odors, especially when roasted in the vicinity of the room or place +to be fumigated. When roasted, and while still hot, if placed on a +tray or other open vessel in the centre of the apartment, by the time +it has cooled the surrounding atmosphere will be rendered thoroughly +pure and sweet. Or, better and more advantageous still, by heating an +iron fire-shovel red hot and placing a handful of ground coffee on it +and carrying it around the room or house to be disinfected in this +condition until it cools. The vapor arising from the coffee so heated +will meantime have destroyed all disagreeable and noxious odors. + +Experiments recently made with roasted coffee in France prove it to be +one of the most powerful deodorizers yet discovered for the dissipation +of all noxious odors. As an instance of its great worth in this case, a +quantity of decomposing meat was hung up in a tightly-closed room and +a tin pan containing a few handfuls of fresh-roasted and ground coffee +was placed over a spirit lamp, as the pan became hot and the vapor from +the coffee filled the room, it was found that the foul smell of the +decomposed meat was entirely removed, even when standing close up to +it. While Professor Beer, an eminent Vienna oculist, maintains that the +vapor arising from pure, hot and fresh-made coffee is very invigorating +to the eyes, but at the same time attributing many frequent occurring +cases of affections to the sight to the constant use of chicory, +as well as to the habitual use of the decoctions prepared from the +admixtures of chicory and coffee. + +Coffee and pepper are highly recommended as a certain specific for +rheumatism, as well as in many forms of gout. In such cases the proper +proportions consist of a pint of hot, strong, black coffee, which must +be perfectly pure, and seasoned with a teaspoonful of _pure_ black +pepper, thoroughly mixed before drinking, and the preparation taken +just before retiring. Quite a number of chronic cases of rheumatism +are reputed on excellent authority to have been cured by a single +dose of this simple remedy. The greatest care has to be exercised, +however, that cold is not contracted through the free perspiration +that follows its use, yet severe colds may also be broken up and +cured by its administration. Such a simple and convenient remedy is +certainly worth a trial, as it is, at least, perfectly harmless, and +makes no demand on the doctor or druggist. Another use for coffee +medicinally, is in nausea and violent retching, for which purpose a +strong infusion is prepared and “sipped” slowly while very hot. This +oftentimes acts effectively alone, but is much more so if a strong +mustard plaster is applied to the pit of the stomach at the same time. +Its beneficial effects in extreme alcoholism is already too well +known for description, but is as yet not fully appreciated in such +cases, nor as to what extent this otherwise exhilarating and potent +beverage may be substituted in lieu of spirituous and malt liquors. It +is positively asserted by men of high professional ability that when +the system requires a good stimulant, nothing equals a cup of good, +strong, fresh-made coffee for the purpose, so that those who may desire +to rescue a drunkard from his bane will find no better substitute for +alcoholic spirits or malt liquors than strong, fresh-made coffee, +in the proportions of two ounces of good, pure coffee to one part +of boiling water, making an excellent tonic beverage, but must be +administered without the addition of either milk or sugar in these +particular cases. + +It is also positively asserted by those who have tried it that malarial +and other miasmatic complaints are prevented by drinking a cup of +hot coffee before venturing out into the morning air, and by many +eminent physicians it is regarded as almost a specific in typhoid and +other endemic fevers, so much so that in malarial and intermittent +fevers it has been used by the best physicians with the happiest +results, coffee being opposed to malarial and all noxious vapors, +particularly in alienating and reducing the earlier attacks, and, when +properly administered in such complaints, it is found superior to the +sulphate of quinine in many extreme cases, while in that low state of +intermittent fever as found on the Mississippi and the banks of all +large rivers, accompanied with torpid liver and enlarged spleen, when +judiciously prepared and administered it has been found one of the +safest and most effective remedies. In districts rife with malarial +and other low fevers the drinking of hot coffee before passing into the +infected districts will enable persons living in such regions to escape +all contagion, the nervous system being aroused and the fever germs +thereby rendered innocuous by the coffee. It is also almost a specific +for the disease after being contracted when used with lemon juice, +and is found to be of sovereign efficacy in tiding over any attacks +of the nervous system in a number of emergencies from whatever cause; +and in answer to the query so often put, “Does coffee facilitate or +retard digestion?” it may be observed that it contains several active +principles, each of which exercises a specific influence on the human +system, the first and most important of these being the caffeine, +which raises the activity of the heart, operating in small doses as a +wholesome stimulus. The second, the caffeone or volatile substance, +which operates chiefly on the nerves and acting in moderate quantities +as an agreeable exhilarant, but to which is also attributable the +fantasies and intoxicant effects so frequently experienced as a result +of excessive coffee drinking. The third being the caffeic or tannin, +to which coffee owes its bitter taste when boiled or over-infused and +which, as is well known, enters into combination with the albumen, +thereby materially prejudicing its digestibility. These three principal +properties vary greatly in the quantities extracted according to the +methods of preparation, so much so that if the coffee be simply infused +in water at the boiling point and allowed to cool rapidly we get but +little of the caffeine in the extract, a good deal of the aromatic +principle and scarcely a trace of the tannin, but by over-boiling and +prolonged infusion the aroma is dissipated by passing off with the +steam or vapor arising from it in the process of preparation, more +caffeine being also extracted, and the longer it is infused or boiled +the more tannin is dissolved in the liquid. These facts serve to +confirm the views generally expressed by physicians, that coffee boiled +or over-infused prejudices its digestibility, while simple infusions +facilitate it, but its beneficial action in the latter case is now +proved to be due not to any direct chemical action on the albumen +present, but indirectly to its action on the nerve-centres of the +stomach by promoting the secretion of the gastric juices, such action +being, in other words, physiological and not chemical, as heretofore +supposed. + +With regard to the anti-bilious properties of coffee Dr. Elliott +states that “We speedily found that patients in hospitals and all +persons leading sedentary lives must avoid too concentrated food and +drink abundantly of diluent fluids, that coffee acted on the liver and +was altogether the best remedy for constipation and what is commonly +termed a bilious condition, that tea acted in a precisely opposite +direction, and that not poppies, mandragora nor all the drowsy syrups +of the East could bring the peace to a sufferer from malarial chill +that would come of strong coffee, with a little lemon juice added, and +that strong tea was almost a specific for neuralgia in its simplest and +most uncomplicated form.” Liebig also calls attention to the fact that +coffee contains many of the elements which stimulate the flow of bile, +being a decided laxative, as well as a pronounced diuretic, which is +confirmed by the fact that the “coffee belt” of the world is also the +“bilious belt” and the “malarial belt,” as well as the regions where +noxious germs and suppurative processes most abound. Ample evidence of +“the fitness of things” in nature, no people understanding better than +the inhabitants of these tropical countries the value of coffee to +open the secretions which have been checked by the heat or miasmatic +influences of such climates. Knowing this, they take full advantage of +the well-known antiseptic properties of coffee. + +It is now more than thirty years since Landarabilco called attention +to the great value of raw or unroasted coffee in hepatic and nephritic +diseases; who, after having continued to use the remedy for over a +third of a century in many hundreds of almost hopeless cases, still +continues to use it with marked success in the treatment of liver and +kidney troubles which have persistently resisted all other treatment. +For such cases, 3 drams (¹⁄₄ oz.) of raw coffee beans are placed +in a tumbler of cold water--the best results being obtained from a +combination of Mocha, Bourbon and Martinique coffees in equal parts of +1 dram each. The infusion is allowed to stand over night, and after +being properly strained or filtered must be taken on an empty stomach +the first thing on rising in the morning. This simple remedy has been +found a sovereign remedy in numerous cases of renal and hepatic colics, +as well as in diabetes and migraine or nervous headache, which, while +rebellious to all other treatment for years, readily yielded to the raw +coffee infusion. It may be here remarked that Bourbon and Martinique +coffees cannot be had in this country, going exclusively to France, but +may be substituted by what is known in trade as Bourbon or Mocha-seed, +Santos, Jamaica and Mocha or almost any other fine mild coffee. + +Coffee, like tea, acts powerfully on the respiratory organs, but +increases the rate of respiration more than tea and also the pulsation; +while tea, on the other hand, increases the action of the skin, and, +by lessening the force of the circulation, cools the body, and does +not cause congestion of any of the mucous membranes, particularly +that of the bowels. But coffee, by diminishing the action of the skin, +lessens also the heat of the body, but increases the _vis-a-tergo_, and +therefore the heart’s action and fulness of pulse, thus exciting the +mucous membranes. The conditions, therefore, under which coffee may be +used are different from those suited to the use of tea, and under these +circumstances better adapted for use among the poor and feeble as a +dietecal beverage. But, besides accelerating the action of the bowels, +and, according to Liebig, aiding in the secretion of the bile, it also +invigorates to a very high degree the ganglionic system of the brain, +soothing the painful feeling of fatigue and exhaustion, stimulating to +renewed mental exertion, for which reasons it always has been highly +appreciated by students and literary people generally. The exhilarating +and stimulating effect which coffee has on the human organization is +due chiefly to the characteristic principles which it contains. It +excites the heart’s action, and, as that organ is feeble in the morning +and the skin is active, it is best adapted for use at the morning +meal, its action upon the nervous system being less exciting than +that of tea. Very strong coffee, however, produces sleeplessness in +many persons when taken at night, owing to its effects on the heart’s +action, by retarding that full action of this organ, which is natural +at night, and so requisite to permit sound sleep, while if only a light +infusion be prepared and taken at night, these effects are not likely +to be experienced. + +In typhoid and other fevers its action is frequently very prompt +and efficacious, particularly in the early stages before local +complications set in. Dr. Guillasse, of the French navy, in a recent +paper on typhoid fever, states that “Coffee has given us unhoped-for +satisfaction, for, after having dispensed it, we found, to our great +surprise, that its action was as prompt as it was decisive. No sooner +had our patients taken a few tablespoonfuls of it than their features +became relaxed, and came immediately to their senses, while the next +day the improvement was such that we are tempted to look upon it as +a specific against typhoid fever. Under its influence the stupor is +dispelled and the patient arises from the state of somnolency in which +he has lain since the invasion of the disease; soon all the functions +take their natural course, and he enters on convalescence.” His formula +is to give to an adult two to three tablespoonfuls of strong, black +coffee every two hours, alternately with one to two tablespoonfuls of +claret or burgundy wine, a little lemonade or citrate of magnesia, to +be taken daily, and after a few days quinine in small doses. From the +fact that malaise or cerebral symptoms appear first, the doctor regards +typhoid as a nervous disease, and the coffee, acting on the nerves, is +peculiarly indicated in the early stages, before local complications +arise. While in extreme cases of yellow fever it has been used +effectively by many doctors as the main reliance after all the other +well-known remedies had been administered and failed. In such cases it +acts by retarding the tissue change, that becoming a conservator of +force, especially in that state in which the nervous system tends to +collapse, owing to the blood becoming impure. In such a condition it +sustains the nervous power until the depuration and reorganization of +the blood are accomplished, possessing the advantage over all other +stimulants of inducing to no secondary ill-effects. + +As early as 1835, during the cholera epidemic, the physicians of New +York issued a public manifesto urging the people to abstain from +beer and other liquors and confine themselves to the exclusive use +of pure, strong coffee as a beverage, in order to keep the system +healthy and render it less liable to an attack of the disease, with +the most beneficial and gratifying results. That they “builded better +than they knew” has since been conclusively proven by Sudentz, who +in detailing a series of experiments in which he has determined the +powerful influence of coffee infusions of varying strength upon +the growth of the different forms of pathogenic and non-pathogenic +micro-organisms. The variety of coffee used in these experiments was +the finest Java--although good and bad coffee was afterwards found to +effect precisely similar results--the infusions being made by adding +from 10 to 30 parts of coffee to from 70 to 90 parts of boiling water. +The coffee was first _freshly_ roasted, ground fine and then covered +with the boiling water, the infusion thus prepared being placed in +a closed flask, put in a hot water bath for about ten minutes and +next filtered through a sterilized filter. The infusion thus produced +is used in the making of a gelatinous compound, both directly and +in part, until a nutrient gelatine was prepared from it. With this +as a “menstruum” the various forms of _fungi_ and other forms of +micro-organisms were inoculated with the object of determining the +possibility of their growth or propagation in such a medium, but in +other cases the organisms were added directly to the coffee alone in +infusions of varying strength and after different periods of time +inoculations were made from these infusions into other nutrient +_media_. By this method he found that the forms of _fungi_ experimented +with showed more or less growth in the coffee gelatine and that the +abundance of the growth was in many cases distinctly less than in the +former _media_. The other organisms which he used for his experiments +were the _phyogenes aureus_, _prodigiosus_, _erisipelous_, the germ of +_anthrax_ or splenic fever, the _bacilli_ of typhoid fever and the +_spirulum_ of Asiatic cholera, all of which and many other forms of +micro-organisms were greatly influenced in their life and growth by +exposure to the coffee infusions, some being far more susceptible than +others, however, the _bacillus prodigiosus_ and _proteus vulgaris_ +being entirely destroyed only after an exposure of four days in a 10 +per cent. infusion, while in a 30 per cent. infusion they were all +destroyed in one day. The spore of erysipelas was totally destroyed +after an exposure of one day in a 10 per cent. infusion, the germ of +splenic fever dying in from one to three hours in a 20 to 30 per cent. +infusion; while the typhoid _bacilli_ were completely destroyed in a +5 per cent. infusion after an exposure of three days and in a 30 per +cent. infusion in from one to two days. While _the microbe of Asiatic +cholera was easily destroyed in a 1 per cent. infusion after only +seven hours’ exposure, in a 5 per cent. infusion after four hours and +in a 30 per cent. infusion after two hours_; the cholera _spirulum_ +being by far the most susceptible of the numerous organisms used in +the experiments, next to which was the _anthrax bacilli_, except the +young forms or spores of the latter germs, which perish only in from +three to four weeks’ exposure. These latter results speak volumes for +“coffee as a germicide” for anthrax or splenic fever, as the spores +of this disease are by no means easy to scotch or kill, and after +these revelations _coffee administered internally or hypodermically +in some new form or combination of forms, may be eventually used as +a remedy for all germ-produced diseases_. It must be borne in mind +by the student or chemist, however, that the antiseptic effects of +coffee do not depend on its _Caffeine_ so much as on its _Caffeone_ or +essential oil developed in the roasting of the beans. But aside from +these experiments, others were also made with decomposing meat soups, +which were actually swarming with various forms of micro-organisms, the +results obtained showing that the vitality of the spores contained in +the fluid was greatly diminished after a short exposure, but was not +completely destroyed until after an exposure of many days. + +It may at first sight seem irrational that a substance which restricts +tissue-waste should be used for the purpose of quickening certain +other functions, more especially those of the brain, yet the physical +activity, mental exhilaration and wakefulness it causes explains the +liking for it shown by so many men of science, poets, scholars and +others devoted to thinking. But all of these occupations involve +increased waste of tissue in the brain as well as of the spinal marrow, +the very action which coffee is said to restrain, so much so that +to reconcile these apparent incongruities, it has been maintained +that coffee does not act primarily as a cerebral stimulant, but only +secondarily by removing the vascular plenitude occasioned by prolonged +study, by a full meal, and especially by opium, alcohol, or other +agents which directly tend to load the brain with blood, so that +when taken on an empty stomach it does not quicken the functions of +the brain, but on the contrary renders it dull and inapt for steady +thought, creating nervousness and general debility and frequently +causing hemicrania. + +During digestion, however, the case is different, particularly if a +full and stimulating meal has been taken, the mind grows dull and +sluggish, a tendency to sleep arises, and everything indicates an +increased amount of blood on the brain, it being in like manner that +prolonged mental labor produces cerebral plenitude and drowsiness. It +is this condition apparently which coffee corrects by contracting +the blood-vessels and thereby relieving the brain of its oppressive +load of blood. The habit of using coffee at breakfast and after dinner +is thus explained by the stimulant action which it exerts, not only +upon the nervous system generally, but more especially on the stomach +and bowels, there being no doubt that it quickens gastric digestion +and relieves the sense of plenitude in the stomach, stimulating +the secretion of bile and augmenting the peristaltic action of the +intestine, and thereby promoting defecation. While it is quite as +certain that, used to excess, it paralyzes the digestive function in +all its stages and leads to further disorders, of which the chief are +constipation, hemorrhoids and congestion of the liver, but whether +these effects are to be ascribed to a power in coffee to produce +contraction of the capillary blood-vessels or not is uncertain, but +their reality is beyond dispute. + +With regard to the injurious effects charged to the abuse of coffee by +some authorities, it may be said that the consequences of an abuse of +tea were declared to be similar to that of coffee long before chemistry +had demonstrated the identity of _theine_ with _caffeine_, when among +their evil effects were enumerated acidity, heartburn, indigestion, +tremors, wakefulness, irritability of disposition and depression of +spirits. Most of these ill-effects are more likely to follow the abuse +of tea than coffee, if at all, and the spinal symptoms, such as painful +muscular tension, cramp and persistent wakefulness, are also more apt +to be produced by tea. In experiments made with a number of selected +healthy persons, the operation of caffeine has been found to vary +exceedingly, some being scarcely affected at all, while others by the +same dose suffered from a full, frequent or irregular pulse, headache, +trembling limbs, palpitation of the heart, flashes before the eyes, +roaring in the ears, sleeplessness, phantasms, a sort of intoxication, +and a subsequent unfitness for all physical and mental labor when +very large doses were taken. These effects illustrate the danger of +exceeding due moderation in the use of coffee, showing that it may, +if abused, tend to develop a morbid condition of the nervous system, +rendering it peculiarly liable to disease, although in a much less +degree than either opium or alcohol, its excessive use being much more +injurious to the spinal than to the cerebral functions. + +From these facts it may be advanced by some authorities that an article +possessing such great powers and capacity for such energetic action +must be injurious by habitual employment as an article of diet, or at +least not without some injurious or deleterious properties. But no +corresponding ill-results or nervous derangements are ever observed +after its effects have disappeared as are noticed in other narcotics +and stimulants, the action imparted to the nervous system by coffee +being natural and healthy in the extreme, in proof of which it has +been shown that habitual coffee-drinkers generally enjoy good health +and spirits, some of the longest-lived people having used coffee +continually from their earliest infancy without experiencing any +inconvenience, depressing reaction, or other ill-effects such as is +invariably produced by the use of alcoholic stimulants. There are, +on the other hand, systems with which it does not agree, as, being a +stimulant, it may be taken too freely; in such cases it undoubtedly +produces irregularities in the action of the heart and nervous system. +But generally it is an unmixed blessing, its beneficial influence +becoming more apparent as its use penetrates into the lower strata of +society, taking the place of the various debasing alcoholic beverages. + +In addition to its many other virtues, coffee has been found to be an +excellent barometer, from the fact of its being such a great absorbent. +On the eve of a rain-storm grinding coffee will be found difficult, +the bean becoming damp and tough, while when dry weather is indicated +the process is quite easy. Another method of predicting the weather by +it is to drop a lump of sugar into a cup of coffee without stirring. +In a very short time the air contained in the sugar will rise to the +surface in the shape of bubbles. If the bubbles collect in the middle +of the cup a fair day will be sure to follow, but if they should +adhere to the side of the cup, forming a ring of bubbles with a clear +space in the centre, rain is certain to be near at hand, while if the +bubbles be neither of these, but scatter irregularly over the surface +of the liquid, variable weather is indicated by the movement. What +the scientific explanation of the action of the atmosphere on the +bubbles so found is not known, but that their indications curiously and +correctly agree with those of a barometer has been tested and proved. + + +DIETETICAL PROPERTIES. + +The human family have, from time immemorial, been addicted to the use +of warm food and liquids in some form, infusions or decoctions of sage +and the leaves of other plants being used extensively in Europe for +the purpose prior to the introduction of tea and coffee. The human +body demands food or liquid when in an exhausted state, and if they be +not warm they make an immediate drain on the system for heat before +it can supply material for combustion, so that the body is taxed for +heat at a time when it is least fitted for the purpose. It is but +natural therefore that there should be a craving for warm food and +drink, and as liquid food, particularly in a cold state, is deficient +in heat-giving matter, the use of cold liquids is more injurious than +that of cold solids. The temperature of the human body being 98°, when +food is taken into the stomach at a lower temperature than that of the +body, it obstructs the heat from the stomach and surrounding tissues, +so that when the practice of taking cold food into the body becomes +habitual, depression occurs and the stomach is disordered. The system +must therefore make good the heat lost in raising the temperature of +the cold food--liquid or solid--or else suffer the consequences. + +The action of coffee as a diet is directed chiefly to the nervous +system, producing a warming cordial impression on the stomach, which +is quickly followed by a diffused and agreeable nervous excitement +which extends itself to the cerebral function, giving rise to +increased vigor of the imagination and intellect, this too without any +subsequent reaction or stupor such as are characteristic of liquor and +other narcotics. It contains essential principles of nutrition far +exceeding in importance its exhilarating properties, and is one of the +most valuable articles of food for sustaining the system in certain +protracted and wasting diseases, and as compared even with the best +soups, coffee has a decided advantage and is to be preferred to them in +many cases. But to rightly understand its function as a food it should +be used chiefly as an accessory to food, as it aids in the digestion +and assimilation of the other foods when it is properly prepared--that +is, by protracted infusion--as when boiled too long the caffeic acid +or tannin is extracted. The action of this acid in combination with +the milk and cream being to harden the albumen into an indigestible +compound, which has been found exceedingly irritating to the delicate +membranes of the digestive organs and nervous system. Milk and coffee +act similarly upon the skin and other organs, its use with coffee +making it a more perfect food than when milk is used with tea. But +while, like tea, it increases the respiration, yet again, unlike it, +its effects are not lasting, as by the use of coffee the rate of the +pulse is increased, and the action of the skin’s pores diminished, +thereby lessening the quantity of the blood circulating in the organs +of the body, it distends the veins, but contracts the capillaries, +thus preventing a waste. According to Professor Johnstone, “Coffee +arouses, exhilarates and keeps awake, counteracts the stupor occasioned +by fatigue, disease or opium, allays hunger to a certain extent, gives +to the wearied increased strength and vigor, and imparts a feeling of +comfort and repose. Its physiological effects upon the human system +appear to be, that while it makes the brain more active, it soothes +the body generally, retards the change and waste of tissue, making the +demand for food consequently less. + +The Gallæ, a wandering nation of Africa, during their incursions, are +obliged to travel over immense deserts, and being also desirous of +falling upon the towns and villages of their victims without warning, +carry nothing to eat with them but the roasted and pulverized beans +of coffee, which they mix with grease to a certain consistency, +that will permit of its being rolled into masses about the size of +billiard-balls, which they keep in leather-bags until required for use. +One of these balls so prepared supports them for an entire day when on +a marauding excursion or in active war better than a loaf of bread or a +meal of meat, claiming that they prefer it to grain or meat because it +cheered their spirits as well as fed them. Eaten in this manner, coffee +undoubtedly affords much nourishment, as, according to Payen, it +contains more than twice the nutriment of soup and three times as much +as tea. In the liquid state, however, the nitrogeneous or flesh-forming +properties, being mostly insoluble, they remain in the grounds. For +this reason coffees lightly roasted possesses the maximum of nutrition, +strength and aroma. + +The Belgian coal miners live and work effectively on a ration of solid +food less than the French miners, yet perform more labor than the +latter, the only difference in their food consisting in the Belgians +receiving a ration of coffee instead of wine, to which is attributed +their greater endurance. While Jomand states that eight pints of an +infusion made with six ounces of different kinds of coffee enabled +him to live for five consecutive days without lessening his ordinary +occupations, as well as to use more and prolonged muscular exercise +than he was accustomed to without any other physical injury than a +slight degree of fatigue and a little loss of flesh. The value of +hot infusions of coffee under the rigors of an Arctic cold has been +demonstrated by the experience of all polar explorers, and it has been +found scarcely less useful in tropical regions, where it beneficially +stimulates the action of the skin. Captain Parry states that when +on his Arctic expedition he placed his starboard watch on a diet of +coffee and the port watch on that of rum, as an experiment, with the +result that the coffee watch was found to possess a vigor of health and +activity entirely wanting in that of the other. And many of our own +troops during the late war declared that they could march longer and +endure more hardship and exposure under the stimulus of a cup of warm +coffee--and they got far from the best or purest--than they could under +an equal quantity of liquor. + +But there is still another effect of coffee--that of checking the +too rapid consumption of nitrogeneous matter in the system--which, +while not nutritious in itself, yet possesses an indirect nutritive +value; this result, added to its stimulating character, have made +it the chosen beverage for breakfast, and therefore the best staple +supply for both our army and navy. By taking a cup of strong, black +coffee, without milk or sugar, between two glasses of hot water before +rising in the morning and at least an hour before breakfast, the +various secretions are stimulated and the nervous force aroused, so +that an hour later a hearty meal is enjoyed and the day’s labor begun +favorably, no matter how the duties of the day and night preceding +may have drawn upon the system. While another cup at four in the +afternoon is sufficient to sustain the flagging energies for many +hours thereafter. In this manner its full effect is best secured, +but if along with this the proper diet is taken at the proper time, +the capacity for work will be almost unlimited. Its physiological +effects upon the human system, so far as they have been investigated, +appear to be that while it makes the brain more active it soothes +the body generally, making the waste and loss of tissue slower and +the demand for food less. It is a mental stimulus of a high order, +and therefore is as a beverage liable to be abused for that reason. +Through its influence the student burns the midnight oil to excess, and +consequently reduces his store of physical force. + +The German naturalist Martin relates a case he met with of a horse +which owed its life to the use of coffee after being in a condition +considered as incurable. The animal was reduced to a mere skeleton and +so weak that it could scarcely walk, when infusions of coffee were +first given it as an experiment, and then some ground coffee mixed +with honey. In a short time the animal began to improve rapidly, +eventually becoming better than ever. The same treatment was afterwards +tried with like success in many similar cases where the horses had been +over-worked or lost their strength and appetite. + +It has been affirmed that coffee and other substances containing the +alkaloid Caffeine have a direct influence in retarding the waste +of tissue matter in the human frame, a single cup of the liquid +prepared from a quarter ounce of coffee, containing from 1.5 to 1.9 +grains of Caffeine in the infused state. The moderation of tissue +waste attributed to coffee in common with other articles having the +same general action and in use among different nations, is proven by +various well-established facts. In its primary operation it agrees with +those stimulants in exciting mental and muscular activity as well as +cheerfulness, while in its after effects it does not tend to produce +narcotism or stupor, only that unsteadiness of mind and of the spinal +functions which denotes exhaustion. + + +MORAL INFLUENCE. + +It has been the custom at frequently-recurring periods for moralists +and scientists to claim that coffee is injurious to the health of its +votaries, and many coffee drinkers believing such statements give up +its use regretfully. That its use or rather its abuse may be injurious +in some instances cannot be denied, but of all beverages now in use +the facts and effects prove it to be the least injurious of any and +all when not indulged in immoderately. Taken in moderation it is both +a mental and physical stimulant of the most agreeable and pleasant +nature, being followed by no harmful reaction. It produces contentment +of mind, allays hunger and bodily weakness, increases the incentive +and capacity for work, enabling those who use it in bounds to remain +long without food or sleep, endure unusual fatigue, and preserve +their cheerfulness and composure, coffee-drinkers as a rule being +generally cheerful, active and persevering. The truth is that coffee, +if of a pure kind and properly prepared, is about the pleasantest +and most innocuous stimulant that can be resorted to, particularly +after a long worry or severe drain on the emotional or intellectual +forces. So that if it could be but made to take the place of absinthe, +champagne and other such beverages the coming race would be all the +better intellectually and physically for it. Habitual coffee-drinkers +generally enjoy good health, some of the longest-lived people have used +it from their earliest infancy without apparent injury or depressing +reaction, such as is invariably produced by alcoholic stimulants. The +physiological action of coffee is directed chiefly to the nervous +system, producing a warm, cordial feeling in the stomach, which is +quickly followed by a well-diffused and agreeable nervous excitement +extending itself to the cerebral functions, giving rise to increased +vigor to the imagination and intellect without causing any subsequent +stupor or confusion of ideas, such as are so characteristic of all +other narcotics. It produces contentment of mind, allays hunger, mental +and bodily weariness, increases the capacity for work, makes man forget +his troubles and anxieties, enabling those who use it judiciously to +endure unusual fatigue and remain a long time without food or sleep, as +well as to preserve their temper and cheerfulness. + +The influence which the introduction of coffee has exercised on +modern morals is on account of its peculiar character, much easier to +understand than to prove. We know that the discovery of gunpowder +changed the entire art of war from the equipment of the individual +soldier to the alignment of an entire army, and thus its influence +became a palpable fact. But the changes in modern life effected +by the introduction of coffee belong to the general and concealed +springs of life; to its motives, rather than to any circumscribed set +of utterances regarding its facts, and an influence of this nature +requires the application of a peculiar instrument in order to in a +measure calculate or even demonstrate it. A doctor may be perfectly +correct in ascribing a fever to certain atmospheric conditions, but +without thermometer, barometer or microscope, he can prove absolutely +nothing. We may be perfectly certain then that the introduction of +coffee has altered the whole moral atmosphere in which we move, +but without statistics we are unable to demonstrate the legitimacy +or correctness of the assumption, and statistics is a scientific +instrument of much later date than the introduction of coffee. + +Observations, however, which in some degree may be of some service +in arriving at exact figures, are not altogether wanting. It cannot +be contended that life has become more just and honest, which would +be the legitimate result of a better education, but it is certain +that it has become gentler, more uniform and pacific, two results +which essentially depend on food and occupation. Nor can it be denied +that it is the increasing demands of reason which awe, superstition, +bigotry and narrow fanaticism out of our educational system, and not +this system which spontaneously has endeavored to make everything else +subservient to reason, and what thus is dimly or vaguely indicated by +a general view of life, often becomes more striking in many individual +instances. It is a hazardous, but nevertheless felicitous expression, +that “if Queen Elizabeth had breakfasted upon coffee and hot rolls, +instead of beer and bacon, Queen Mary would never had been beheaded.” +We find in bygone ages a perversity of temper, an impetuosity of will, +a violence of the passions which has led some moralists to consider the +later generations of the human race as decreasing in vital force, while +indeed the phenomenon might be explained as the single result of an +over-stimulating and too exciting a diet and a lack of temperance. Let +the people begin to indulge once again in drinking wine, ale or other +intoxicating beverages at the morning meal instead of tea or coffee, +and we will soon have the same amount of vital force back again. It +is not the power of passion which has decreased, but the power of +restriction which has increased, and a comprehensive consideration of +historical facts seem to justify the conclusion that this increased +power of the reason is due as much to a more proper feeding of the body +as to a better system of education. + +The mental exhilaration and physical activity and buoyancy which coffee +causes explains the fondness which has been shown for it by so many men +of science, poets, scholars and others devoted to writing or thinking +at all times, and for which reason it has been styled the “intellectual +beverage.” Preachers, orators, editors and lawyers finding a cup of +good coffee the gentlest, most harmless and effective of brain-bracers, +but it does not appear to be generally known that nearly all men of +literary habits who exhaust much nerve force use it constantly. It +supported Voltaire in his old age and enabled Fontenelle to pass his +hundred years. It was Voltaire who replied, on being informed by his +physician “that coffee was a _slow poison_,” “Yes, I know it is a _very +slow poison_; it has been poisoning me for over seventy years;” and +Sydney Smith who said, “If you want to improve your understanding +drink coffee; it is the intellectual beverage.” Brady terming it “The +sovereign drink of pleasure and of health,” and Pope eulogizing it in +the following lines:-- + + “From silver spouts the grateful liquors slide + While China’s earth receives the smoking tide, + At once they gratify their sense and taste, + And frequent cups prolong the rich repast; + Coffee!----which makes the politician wise + And see through all things with half-shut eyes.” + +Howells paying his tribute to it when he says, “This coffee intoxicates +without exciting, soothes you softly out of dull sobriety, making you +think and talk of all the pleasant things that ever happened to you.” +But times have changed since Voltaire, Diderot, Pope and others wrote +and sang of coffee, jested, reasoned and made themselves immortal +under its influence; alimentary and not literary is the modern _café_, +though some can still boast of a _clientèle_ artistic, journalistic, +or scientific, the commercial element preponderating, but the old +historic _café_, the _café_ of tradition, where one was sure to find +some celebrity on exhibition--a poet or a philosopher--may be said to +be defunct. + +From its cordial and gently stimulating effects we may well join in the +enthusiastic panegyric pronounced on it by an Arabian of old, of which +the following is a free, but condensed, translation: “O, coffee, thou +dispellest the cares of the great and bringest back those who wander +from the paths of knowledge! Coffee is our gold, and in the place of +its illusions we are in the enjoyment of the best and noblest society. +Every care vanishes when the cup-bearer presents the delicious chalice +to our lips. It circulates freely through our veins and will not rankle +there. Grief cannot exist where it grows and sorrow humbles itself +before its powers.” + + _Vive la café!_ + + + + +CHAPTER X. + +PRODUCTION AND CONSUMPTION. + + +Fifty years ago a supply of 150,000 tons of all kinds of coffee was +considered sufficient to meet the entire demand of Europe and America +combined. In 1848, however, these two continents alone consumed upwards +of 250,000 tons, which had increased in 1868 to 375,000 tons, and in +1888 to over 700,000 tons, or more than double that of fifty years +before. + + +TABLE I. + +WORLD’S PRODUCTION (ESTIMATED). + + Weight + Countries. in Tons. + Liberia and all other Countries on the West Coast of Africa, 19,500 + Abyssinia and all other Countries on the East Coast of Africa, 20,000 + Natal and Cape of Good Hope, 300 + Arabia, Bourbon and Mauritius, 15,000 + British India and Ceylon, 30,500 + Java, Sumatra and Celebes, 60,000 + Bali, Timour and other Islands in the Malayan Archipelago, 10,000 + Philippine, Fiji and Samoa Islands, 11,000 + Sandwich and all other Islands in the South Pacific Ocean, 1,200 + Cuba and Porto Rico, 25,000 + Hayti and San Domingo, 15,000 + Jamaica and other Islands in the West Indies, 18,000 + Mexico and Central America, 80,000 + Venezuela and Colombia, 50,000 + Equador and Bolivia, 15,000 + Brazil and other Countries in South America, 500,000 + ------- + Grand total, 875,500 + +Or about 1,800,000,000 pounds per annum, the value of which averages +over $275,000,000 wholesale, according to its market price at time of +sale. + + +TABLE II. + +WORLD’S CONSUMPTION (ESTIMATED). + + Weight + Countries. in Tons. + Asia, 40,000 + Africa, 25,000 + Australia, 5,000 + Continent of Europe, 430,000 + Great Britain and Ireland, 15,000 + United States and Canada, 275,000 + Mexico and Central America, 20,000 + West India Islands, 15,000 + Brazil and South American Countries, 40,000 + ------- + Total, 865,000 + +Which shows that, in recent years, the world’s supply has not kept pace +with the growing demand throughout the civilized world. + + +TABLE III. + +Showing the average annual consumption in the United States, imported +principally as follows:-- + + Country. Tons. Per Cent. + Brazil, 150,000 75.00 + Venezuela, 20,000 5.00 + Mexico, 10,000 4.00 + Central America, 5,000 2.00 + West India Islands, 10,000 4.00 + India and Ceylon, 1,000 1.00 + Arabia and Africa, 10,000 5.00 + Java and Sumatra, 10,000 4.00 + ------- ------ + Total, 216,000 100.00 + +[Illustration: BAGGING COFFEE FOR SHIPMENT.] + + +TABLE IV. + +Showing where United States receives supplies of coffee from in general +and the various kinds consumed:-- + + Country. Pounds. + Africa, 25,000,000 + Arabia, 10,000,000 + England, 5,000,000 + Holland, 5,000,000 + Germany, 250,000 + Belgium, 80,000 + Portugal and Spain, 150,000 + Brazil, 400,000,000 + Canada, 500 + Mexico, 10,000,000 + Venezuela, 35,000,000 + Colombia, 15,000,000 + Equador and Bolivia, 1,000,000 + West India Islands, 5,000,000 + British and Dutch Guiana, 1,500,000 + Malayan Archipelago, 25,000,000 + British India and Ceylon, 5,000,000 + Philippine and Pacific Islands, 10,000 + Sandwich and other Islands, 75,000 + Azores and Cape Verde Islands, 1,500 + French Possessions in Africa, Madagascar and Bourbon, 1,500 + ---------- + Total importation, 600,000,000 + Total value, $80,000,000 + +Which, according to the Bureau of Statistics, is about 9 pounds _per +capita_, valued at $1.15 per head, for every man, woman and child in +the United States, while it has been ascertained that the consumption +of coffee has declined in England in the past ten years to less than +one pound _per capita_ of the population as against an increase in the +consumption of tea from 6 to 8 pounds. + + +TABLE V. + +Showing _per capita_ consumption of the principal countries of the +world in round numbers:-- + + Countries. Consumption Per Capita + (Pounds). (Pounds). + Asia, 80,000,000 ---- + Africa, 50,000,000 1 + Australia, 10,000,000 2 + Austria, 10,000,000 2¹⁄₂ + Belgium, 50,000,000 10 + Denmark, 25,000,000 6 + France, 100,000,000 2¹⁄₂ + Germany, 180,000,000 5 + Greece, 2,000,000 0¹⁄₂ + Holland, 70,000,000 14 + Italy, 30,000,000 1 + Switzerland, 20,000,000 5 + Russia and Siberia, 15,000,000 ---- + Sweden and Norway, 35,000,000 10 + Great Britain and Ireland, 35,000,000 1 + United States and Canada, 600,000,000 6 + Mexico and Central America, 35,000,000 3 + West India Islands, 30,000,000 5 + South American States, 100,000,000 3 + +What tea is to the United Kingdom coffee is to the United States, the +consumption of the latter in this country increasing from 80,000,000 +pounds in 1861 to 116,000,000 in 1871, and to over 400,000,000 pounds +in 1881, the consumption of coffee, at the present time in this +country, falling just short of the enormous figures of 600,000,000 +pounds. + +The use of coffee has been extending at an enormous rate for the past +150 years, until at the present day it is found in every civilized +country and almost every uncivilized country on the habitable globe. It +has become one of the corner-stones of civilization. As has been well +said by one writer, it smoothes the troubled soul, heals all family +feuds, fits one for the annoyances of business, and organizes a truce +between the man who drinks it and all the troubles and cares of life. +The United States is without doubt a nation of coffee-drinkers, the +average annual consumption reaching upwards of 600,000,000 pounds, or +nearly ten pounds _per capita_ of the entire population. + +Up to 1860 there was a wide disparity between the production and +consumption of coffee throughout the civilized world, the former +remaining stationary while the latter continued to increase rapidly +until the civil war, which caused a reduction in this country of +nearly 200,000 tons per annum, thus re-establishing the relative +difference between the laws of supply and demand. With the close of the +rebellion, the United States, however, and a reduction of the duty, +the consumption again steadily increased, exceeding in a short time +the increase in the production, causing a steady advance in prices +from 1869 to 1880, the extreme advance in prices in the latter year +naturally stimulated and increased production until stocks accumulated +largely and prices again declined accordingly. During the period +from 1880-87, planters and dealers suffered greatly, many disastrous +failures among both classes following as a consequence. The consumption +meanwhile continued to increase steadily, as did also the production, +owing to the yield of new plantations previously opened under the +stimulus of the high prices prevailing in 1880, fair relations between +the production and consumption being to the present maintained. + +The history of tariff legislation on coffee in the United States may +be summed up in the following sequence: The first duty on coffee was +levied in 1789, which was 2¹⁄₂ cents per pound. In 1790 this was +increased to 4 cents, and again to 5 cents in 1794, being retained at +the latter figure until 1812, when it was increased to 10 cents, owing +to the increased expenditures of the government, due to the war with +England. At the close of this war, in 1814, the duty was reduced to 5 +cents per pound, remaining at the latter figure until 1828, when it was +still further reduced to 2 cents; in 1830, to 1 cent, being removed +altogether in 1832, and placed for the first time on the free list. No +tax was again placed on coffee until the beginning of the civil war +in 1861, when a duty of 4 cents per pound was levied on it, which was +shortly after increased to 5 cents, at which figure it remained until +1871, when it was reduced to 3 cents, the duty being entirely removed +from coffee in 1872, since which year it has remained uninterruptedly +on the free list. + +During the years from 1832 to 1861, when coffee was entered free of +duty, it ruled lower in price and increased more in consumption than +it had at any previous period, the _per capita_ consumption increasing +from three pounds in 1830, to nearly six pounds in 1860, the quantity +imported into the United States in the latter year reaching nearly +236,000,000 pounds, being valued at $21,500,000, the three following +years showing an average annual importation of about 220,600,000 +pounds, valued at $21,000,000. In 1855 fair Rio averaged 11 cents per +pound; Maracaibo, 12 cents, and Java, 14¹⁄₂ cents; these being the +three principal then in demand in the American market, while in 1860 +the range was considerably higher and the consumption correspondingly +less, Rios averaging 13³⁄₄ cents; Maracaibos, 14¹⁄₂ cents; and Javas, +16¹⁄₂ cents. These prices continuing to advance until 1863-4, when the +prices of coffee ruled exceptionally high, owing to the war duty of +5 cents per pound; the figures averaging in 1863 31 cents for Rio, 32 +cents for Maracaibo, and 37 cents for Java, increasing in 1864 to 42¹⁄₂ +cents for Rio, 43 cents for Maracaibo, and 49 cents for Java. From 1864 +to 1880, however, there was a steady decline in the prices of coffee, +there being at the same time a correspondingly steady increase in its +consumption. The prices ruling for the three leading kinds of coffee in +the American market, from 1880 to 1890, is as follows, per pound:-- + + Rio. Maracaibo. Java. + Year. Cents. Cents. Cents. + 1880 16 16¹⁄₂ 23¹⁄₂ + 1881 12¹⁄₂ 13 18 + 1882 9³⁄₄ 10¹⁄₂ 16 + 1883 10¹⁄₂ 11 17¹⁄₂ + 1884 11 11¹⁄₄ 16¹⁄₂ + 1885 9 10¹⁄₄ 15¹⁄₂ + 1886 10³⁄₄ 10¹⁄₂ 16³⁄₄ + 1887 8¹⁄₂ 10 16 + 1888 16¹⁄₂ 16¹⁄₂ 20 + 1889 19 20 22 + 1890 18 20 22 + +In many of the years from 1870 to 1880, Java, which is regarded as +the standard coffee, sold less than Maracaibo; the latter frequently +selling for less than Rio, which is considered the lowest in the +scale during the same period. In 1875, however, the imports again +increased to 300,000,000 pounds, valued at $51,000,000. Taking the +population in 1856 at 27,000,000 and in 1875 at 42,000,000, it will +be noticed that the increase in quantity of imports was only 34 per +cent., 21 per cent. less than the increase of population for the +same period, while the increase in value was 146 per cent. meantime. +Figures which serve conclusively to prove that while low prices tend +to increase consumption, high prices only serve to retard it. About +1883 new factors in the buying and selling of coffee appeared, coffee +exchanges been opened in Havre, Hamburg and New York, which created +large transactions in “options,” some of them becoming enormous in +their magnitude, and against which considerable quantities of coffee +must be held, the operations for future deliveries reaching as high as +22,000,000 bags in 1887. This enormous increase in the transactions of +that year was due entirely to a short crop report and to the active +speculation based thereon. The continued increase in consumption and +the increased demand for stocks held against the trading in options not +being met by a corresponding increase in the production of the article, +added to the serious injury to the crops in Java by leaf disease and in +Brazil by blight, having still further disturbed the relations between +the established laws of supply and demand. + + + + +APPENDIX. + + + + +APPENDIX. + + +TABLE I. + +Showing tares, style of package and average weight of the principal +coffees imported into the United States. + + Style Average + of Weight + Kind. Package. Pounds. Tare. + Mocha, Bales, 160 Actual. + Javas, Mats, 66 1 per cent. + India, Bags, 140 2 per cent. + Ceylon, Bags, 140 2 per cent. + Ceylon, Casks, 1,000 Actual. + Jamaica, Bags, 200 2 per cent. + Jamaica, Barrels, 200 Actual. + San Domingo, Bags, 150 2 per cent. + Hayti, Bags, 150 2 per cent. + Mexican, Bales, 150 2 per cent. + Guatemala, Bags, 140 1 per cent. + Nicaragua, Bags, 140 1 per cent. + Honduras, Bags, 140 1 per cent. + Costa Rica, Bags, 140 1 per cent. + Caracas, Bags, 130 2 per cent. + Maracaibo, Bags, 130 1 per cent. + Laguayra, Bags, 130 1 per cent. + Angostura, Bags, 130 Actual. + Colombo, Bags, 230 1 per cent. + Equador, Bags, 130 1 per cent. + Bolivian, Bags, 130 1 per cent. + Brazilian, Bags, 130 1 per cent. + +All other coffees in bags one per cent. and all others in bales and +barrels actual tare. + + +TABLE II. + +Showing relative difference between cost of raw and roasted coffees, +including cost of roasting (¹⁄₂ cent per pound), and loss by shrinkage +(15 per cent). + + Raw. Roasted. + 10 12 35 + 10¹⁄₄ 12 65 + 10¹⁄₂ 12 94 + 10³⁄₄ 13 24 + 11 13 53 + 11¹⁄₄ 13 82 + 11¹⁄₂ 14 12 + 11³⁄₄ 14 41 + 12 14 71 + 12¹⁄₄ 15 00 + 12¹⁄₂ 15 29 + 12³⁄₄ 15 59 + 13 15 88 + 13¹⁄₄ 16 18 + 13¹⁄₂ 16 48 + 13³⁄₄ 16 67 + 14 17 06 + 14¹⁄₄ 17 35 + 14¹⁄₂ 17 67 + 14³⁄₄ 17 94 + 15 18 24 + 15¹⁄₄ 18 53 + 15¹⁄₂ 18 82 + 15³⁄₄ 19 13 + 16 19 41 + 16¹⁄₄ 19 71 + 16¹⁄₂ 20 00 + 16³⁄₄ 20 30 + 17 20 59 + 17¹⁄₄ 20 89 + 17³⁄₄ 21 47 + 18 21 76 + 18¹⁄₄ 22 06 + 18¹⁄₂ 22 35 + 18³⁄₄ 22 64 + 19 22 93 + 19¹⁄₄ 23 22 + 19¹⁄₂ 23 52 + 19³⁄₄ 23 82 + 20 24 41 + 20¹⁄₄ 24 41 + 20¹⁄₂ 24 71 + 20³⁄₄ 25 00 + 21 25 30 + 21¹⁄₄ 25 59 + 21¹⁄₂ 25 88 + 21³⁄₄ 26 19 + 22 26 47 + 22¹⁄₄ 26 76 + 22¹⁄₂ 27 06 + 22³⁄₄ 27 35 + 23 27 64 + 23¹⁄₄ 27 94 + 23¹⁄₂ 28 24 + 23³⁄₄ 28 53 + 24 28 82 + 24¹⁄₄ 29 12 + 24¹⁄₂ 29 42 + 24³⁄₄ 29 71 + 25 30 00 + +For each one-eighth of a cent Raw add one-fifteenth Roasted. + + +TABLE III. + +Showing comparative loss in roasting coffee between Winter and Summer +months of the principal coffees:-- + + Months. Rio. Java. Mocha. Maracaibo. + Per cent. Per cent. Per cent. Per cent. + January, 14 16 15 16 + February, 14 16 15 16 + March, 14 16 15 16 + June, 13 15 14 15 + July, 13 15 14 15 + August, 13 15 14 15 + +From which it may be noted that Rio and Mocha lose on an average one +per cent. less than Java and Maracaibo in both seasons, which is +accounted for by the greater hardness and solidity of the bean of the +former over the latter, which are lighter and softer in texture, the +average loss being 15 per cent. on all coffees. + + +TABLE IV. + +Showing comparative weights of Raw and Roasted coffees, after +sustaining a loss of from 12 to 16 per cent.:-- + + Weight raw. Weight roasted. + Net. Per cent. Per cent. Per cent. Per cent. Per cent. + 12 13 14 15 16 + ----------- --------- --------- --------- --------- --------- + 50 lbs. 44 43¹⁄₂ 43 42¹⁄₂ 42 + 55 „ 48¹⁄₂ 48 47¹⁄₄ 46³⁄₄ 46 + 60 „ 52¹⁄₄ 52 51¹⁄₂ 51 50¹⁄₂ + 65 „ 57 56¹⁄₂ 56 55¹⁄₄ 54¹⁄₂ + 70 „ 61¹⁄₂ 61 60 59¹⁄₂ 58³⁄₄ + 75 „ 66 65¹⁄₄ 64¹⁄₂ 63³⁄₄ 63 + 80 „ 70¹⁄₂ 69¹⁄₂ 68¹⁄₄ 68 67 + 85 „ 74³⁄₄ 74 73 72¹⁄₄ 71¹⁄₂ + 90 „ 79 78³⁄₄ 77¹⁄₂ 76¹⁄₂ 75¹⁄₂ + 95 „ 83¹⁄₂ 82¹⁄₂ 81¹⁄₂ 80³⁄₄ 79³⁄₄ + 100 „ 89 87 86 85 84 + 105 „ 92¹⁄₂ 91¹⁄₂ 90¹⁄₂ 89¹⁄₄ 88 + 110 „ 96³⁄₄ 95¹⁄₂ 94¹⁄₂ 93¹⁄₂ 91¹⁄₄ + 115 „ 102 100 99 98 96¹⁄₂ + 120 „ 105¹⁄₂ 104¹⁄₂ 103 102 101 + 125 „ 110 108³⁄₄ 107¹⁄₂ 106¹⁄₄ 105 + 130 „ 114¹⁄₂ 113 112 111 110¹⁄₄ + 135 „ 118³⁄₄ 117¹⁄₂ 116 114³⁄₄ 113¹⁄₂ + 140 „ 124 121³⁄₄ 120¹⁄₂ 119 117¹⁄₂ + 145 „ 127¹⁄₂ 126 124¹⁄₂ 123¹⁄₄ 121³⁄₄ + 150 „ 131¹⁄₄ 129³⁄₄ 128¹⁄₄ 126³⁄₄ 125¹⁄₄ + + +TABLE V. + +Showing cost of Roasted coffee after sustaining a loss of:-- + + Cost Raw. Per cent. Per cent. Per cent. Per cent. Per cent. + 12 13 14 15 16 + -------- --------- --------- --------- --------- --------- + 10 11³⁄₈ 11¹⁄₂ 11⁵⁄₈ 11³⁄₄ 11⁷⁄₈ + 10¹⁄₂ 12 12¹⁄₈ 12¹⁄₄ 12³⁄₈ 12¹⁄₂ + 11 12¹⁄₂ 12⁵⁄₈ 12³⁄₄ 12⁷⁄₈ 13 + 11¹⁄₂ 13 13¹⁄₄ 13³⁄₈ 13⁵⁄₈ 13³⁄₄ + 12 13⁵⁄₈ 13³⁄₄ 14 14¹⁄₈ 14¹⁄₄ + 12¹⁄₂ 14¹⁄₄ 14³⁄₈ 14¹⁄₂ 14³⁄₄ 14⁷⁄₈ + 13 14³⁄₄ 15 15¹⁄₈ 15³⁄₈ 15¹⁄₂ + 13¹⁄₂ 15³⁄₈ 15¹⁄₂ 15⁵⁄₈ 15³⁄₄ 15⁷⁄₈ + 14 15⁷⁄₈ 16¹⁄₈ 16¹⁄₄ 16¹⁄₂ 16⁵⁄₈ + 14¹⁄₂ 16¹⁄₂ 16⁵⁄₈ 16⁷⁄₈ 17 17¹⁄₄ + 15 17 17¹⁄₈ 17³⁄₈ 17⁵⁄₈ 17⁷⁄₈ + 15¹⁄₂ 17⁵⁄₈ 17⁷⁄₈ 18 18¹⁄₄ 18¹⁄₂ + 16 18⁷⁄₈ 18³⁄₈ 18⁵⁄₈ 18⁷⁄₈ 19 + 16¹⁄₂ 18³⁄₄ 19 19¹⁄₈ 19³⁄₈ 19⁵⁄₈ + 17 19¹⁄₄ 19¹⁄₂ 19³⁄₄ 20 20¹⁄₄ + 17¹⁄₂ 19⁷⁄₈ 20¹⁄₂ 20³⁄₈ 20⁵⁄₈ 20⁷⁄₈ + 18 20³⁄₈ 20⁵⁄₈ 20⁷⁄₈ 21¹⁄₈ 21³⁄₈ + 18¹⁄₂ 21 21¹⁄₄ 21¹⁄₂ 21³⁄₄ 22 + 19 21⁵⁄₈ 21⁷⁄₈ 22¹⁄₈ 22³⁄₈ 22⁵⁄₈ + 19¹⁄₂ 22¹⁄₈ 22³⁄₈ 22⁵⁄₈ 23 23¹⁄₄ + 20 22³⁄₄ 23 23¹⁄₄ 23¹⁄₂ 23³⁄₄ + 20¹⁄₂ 23¹⁄₄ 23¹⁄₂ 23⁷⁄₈ 24¹⁄₈ 24³⁄₈ + 21 23³⁄₄ 24 24³⁄₈ 24³⁄₄ 25 + 21¹⁄₂ 24¹⁄₂ 24³⁄₄ 25 25¹⁄₄ 25⁵⁄₈ + 22 25 25¹⁄₄ 25⁵⁄₈ 25⁷⁄₈ 26¹⁄₈ + 22¹⁄₂ 25¹⁄₂ 25⁷⁄₈ 26¹⁄₈ 26¹⁄₂ 26³⁄₄ + 23 26¹⁄₈ 26³⁄₈ 26³⁄₄ 27 27³⁄₈ + 23¹⁄₂ 26³⁄₄ 27 27³⁄₈ 27⁵⁄₈ 28 + 24 27¹⁄₄ 27⁵⁄₈ 27⁷⁄₈ 28¹⁄₂ 28⁷⁄₈ + 24¹⁄₂ 27⁷⁄₈ 28¹⁄₈ 28¹⁄₂ 28³⁄₄ 29¹⁄₈ + 25 28³⁄₈ 28³⁄₄ 29¹⁄₈ 29³⁄₈ 29³⁄₄ + +To which must be added cost of roasting, ¹⁄₂ cent per pound. + + +TABLE VI. + +Showing New York Coffee Exchange point card, and giving decimal value +of 5 points to one cent per pound on 250 bags coffee (32,500 pounds), +which is the smallest transaction:-- + + Points. Difference. + 05, $16 25 + 10, 32 50 + 15, 48 75 + 20, 65 00 + 25, 81 25 + 30, 97 50 + 35, 113 75 + 40, 130 00 + 45, 146 25 + 50, 162 50 + 55, 178 75 + 60, 195 00 + 65, 211 25 + 70, 227 50 + 75, 243 75 + 80, 260 00 + 85, 276 25 + 90, 292 50 + 95, 308 75 + 100 (one cent), 325 00 + 105, 341 25 + 110, 357 50 + 115, 373 75 + 120, 390 10 + 125, 406 25 + 130, 432 50 + 135, 438 75 + 140, 455 50 + 145, 471 25 + 150, 487 50 + 155, 503 75 + 160, 520 00 + 165, 536 25 + 170, 552 50 + 175, 568 75 + 180, 585 00 + 185, 601 25 + 190, 617 50 + 195, 635 75 + 200 (two cents), 650 50 + +No. 7 (low ordinary) is adopted as the “standard grade,” and is taken +as a basis for all operations, but a grade comparing with any of +the ten numbers may be substituted at their approximate values when +delivered is insisted on and No. 7 cannot be had. The brokerage for +buying and selling is 4 cents per bag, and the original margin $1.00 +per bag, the smallest transaction allowed being 250 bags and the market +fluctuation ⁵⁄₁₀₀ cents per pound. + + +TABLE VII. + +Showing method for converting Rio and Santos quotations into United +States currency, including freight charges at 40 cents and 5 per cent. +per bag marine insurance. One month’s charges in New York, at 2 per +cent. discount, $4.80, equaling the pound sterling at 60 days sight. + + Market Price Rio Rates of Exchange on London + in Rio per (equivalent in cents per pound). + 10 Kilos. 21_d_ 21¹⁄₂_d_ 22_d_ + .000 12¹¹⁄₁₀₀ 12³⁹⁄₁₀₀ 12⁶⁷⁄₁₀₀ + .200 12⁵⁶⁄₁₀₀ 12⁸⁵⁄₁₀₀ 12¹⁴⁄₁₀₀ + .400 13⁰¹⁄₁₀₀ 13³¹⁄₁₀₀ 13⁶¹⁄₁₀₀ + .600 13⁴⁷⁄₁₀₀ 13⁷⁷⁄₁₀₀ 14⁸⁹⁄₁₀₀ + .800 13⁹²⁄₁₀₀ 14⁴⁰⁄₁₀₀ 14⁵⁶⁄₁₀₀ + .000 14³⁷⁄₁₀₀ 14⁷⁰⁄₁₀₀ 15⁰³⁄₁₀₀ + .200 14⁸²⁄₁₀₀ 15¹⁶⁄₁₀₀ 15⁵¹⁄₁₀₀ + .400 15²⁷⁄₁₀₀ 16⁶²⁄₁₀₀ 15⁹⁸⁄₁₀₀ + .600 15⁷²⁄₁₀₀ 16⁰⁹⁄₁₀₀ 16⁴⁵⁄₁₀₀ + .800 16¹⁸⁄₁₀₀ 16⁵⁵⁄₁₀₀ 16⁹²⁄₁₀₀ + .000 16⁶³⁄₁₀₀ 17⁰¹⁄₁₀₀ 17⁴⁰⁄₁₀₀ + +Fractional equivalents to be added if necessary, each ¹⁄₄ _d._ in +exchange being equivalent to about 1 per cent. Bases for freight +differences to be added or deducted at rate of 5 cents and 5 per cent. +per bag--.04 cents per pound, to which must be also added commission +for buying in Rio or Santos, but if the coffee should be wanted for +sale on the Exchange no addition need be made. + + +TABLE VIII. + +For converting London quotations into U. S. currency, including cost, +insurance, freight, one month’s charges in New York and 2 per cent. +discount. + + Market Price in London London Rates of Exchange at 60 days, + per 112 pounds. equivalent in cents per pound. + + Shillings. $4 80 $4 85 $4 90 + + 50 $11 43 $11 54 $11 65 + 51 11 63 11 78 11 89 + 52 11 89 12 00 12 12 + 53 12 11 12 23 12 35 + 54 12 34 12 46 12 58 + 55 12 53 12 69 12 81 + 56 12 73 12 91 13 04 + 57 13 02 13 14 13 27 + 58 13 23 13 38 13 51 + 59 13 48 13 60 13 75 + +The best and most rapid method of reducing the cost of coffee in Brazil +to United States currency is, however, to multiply the price by the +rate of exchange ruling at the time of purchase. The result will be in +English pence, which is converted into American gold in the regular +way at the existing rate of London exchange. Another method by which +a result accurate enough for all practical purposes may be obtained +is to multiply the price by the rate of exchange, and then deducting +one-fourth of the amount so obtained, first getting the free-on-board +charges in Rio or Santos, to which must be added the cost of freight +and other charges. + + +TABLE IX. + +Showing the average value for each year from 1846 to 1878, inclusive, +for fair to prime Rio coffee, cargo price in gold, “in bond,” in New +York:-- + + Year. Value. + 1846 7.44 + 1847 7.34 + 1848 6.63 + 1849 7.37 + 1850 10.91 + 1851 9.44 + 1852 8.85 + 1853 9.76 + 1854 10.48 + 1855 10.47 + 1856 11.04 + 1857 11.15 + 1858 11.08 + 1859 11.66 + 1860 13.74 + 1861 12.31 + 1862 15.22 + 1863 16.39 + 1864 16.22 + 1865 15.95 + 1866 13.86 + 1867 12.23 + 1868 10.5 + 1869 11.00 + 1870 11.33 + 1871 12.91 + 16 48 + 1872 -- -- + 17 27 + 1873 19.99 + 1874 21.08 + 1875 18.87 + 1876 18.21 + 1877 18.45 + 1878 15.58 + 1879 14.87 + 1880 15.12 + 1881 12.23 + 1882 9.77 + 1883 10.36 + 1884 10.92 + 1885 9.01 + 1886 10.33 + +Coffee was admitted free up to the first of August, 1861, when an +import duty of four cents a pound was levied. In January, 1862, the +duty was raised to five cents a pound; and this continued to 1870, when +the duty was reduced to three cents a pound. On the first of July, +1872, the impost was removed, and coffee was admitted to duty free +once more. In the above table, it will be observed that the highest +point was in 1874, after the impost had been removed, when it was 21 +cents. This was about the same as in 1863 and ’64, with the duty of 5 +cents added; but this, it will be remembered, is an average for the +years alluded to for fair to prime, but during the year there was often +fluctuations, and prime, as circumstances demanded, brought a very high +price, as in some instances it touched at or near 25 cents, when of +course all other coffees were proportionally large. + + +TABLE X. + +Showing fluctuations in the coffee market from 1850 to 1867, inclusive. + + Year. Pounds. + 1850 131,640,000 + 1851 177,760,000 + 1852 291,344,000 + 1853 172,898,000 + 1854 175,780,000 + 1855 206,250,000 + 1856 214,104,000 + 1857 168,916,000 + 1858 246,510,000 + 1859 219,010,000 + 1860 173,844,000 + 1861 194,656,000 + 1862 87,406,000 + 1863 78,562,000 + 1864 107,052,900 + 1865 125,708,000 + 1866 157,146,000 + 1867 199,760,000 + 1868 219,212,400 + 1869 238,653,800 + 1870 275,895,400 + 1871 310,956,800 + 1872 266,866,600 + 1873 264,666,600 + 1874 272,608,600 + 1875 301,727,800 + 1876 295,039,800 + 1877 297,523,600 + 1878 213,830,000 + 1879 396,391,600 + 1880 390,188,500 + 1881 411,633,200 + 1882 467,504,400 + 1883 449,002,400 + 1884 490,468,000 + 1885 530,127,400 + +It will be seen that the consumption increased to 1858, and gradually +declined to 1863, when it touched the lowest point. Since that time it +has increased nearly seven-fold, but while the quantity imported or +consumed has increased beyond our power to fully realize the amount in +figures, it is curious to consider the varied values of coffee under +the many peculiarities of circumstances for the past thirty-six years. + + +TABLE XI. + +SHOWING HOW COFFEE IS IMPORTED. + +_Pro Forma Invoice of 1,000 Bags of Coffee, of 60 Kilos. each, Shipped +from Rio de Janeiro or Santos to the United States._ + + 1,000 bags coffee of 60 kilos. each + =net 10 kilos. 60,000, @ 6$350 per + 10 kilos., [1]Rs. 38:100$000 + + 1,000 empty bags @ 700 reis, 700$000 + -------------- Rs. 38:800$000 + + Export duty on kilos. 60,000 @ 502 + rs. per kilo. = Rs. 30,120$000 @ 13 + per cent., Reis 3:915$600 + + Harbor-master (Capatazias) fees, 60 + rs. per bag, 60$000 + + Brokerage, 50 rs. per bag, 50$000 + + Shipping expenses (at 220 rs. = Rs. + 220,000), sample, tins and box (Rs. + 25$000), freight on same (Rs. 2$000), + consul’s certificate (included in + sample, tins, etc.), cablegram (Rs. + 100$000), stamps, petties, etc. + (included in sample, tins and box), 347$000 + -------------- 4:372$600 + -------------- + 43:172$600 + Commission for buying, 2 per cent., 863$450 + -------------- + 44:036$050 + Bill brokerage and stamps, ³⁄₈ of 1 per cent., 165$760 + -------------- + Reis 44:201$810 + +[1] 1,000 réis = 1 mil-réis = 54¹⁄₂ cents, U. S. + + +TABLE XII. + +SHOWING CONVERSION OF BRAZILIAN INTO AMERICAN CURRENCY. + + Amount of pro forma invoice, Reis 44:201$810 + At 21¹⁄₂d. exchange at Rio, £3,959 15 + $4.84¹⁄₂--¹⁄₈ per £ sterling, $19,161 00 + + Charges accruing in the United States:-- + + Freight per steamer to New York, + 40c. per bag and 5 per cent. + primage, $420 00 + + Marine insurance, 1 per cent. less + 30 per cent.--⁷⁄₁₀ net, on $21,672 + or invoice and £ value @ $5.50, 151 70 + + Banker’s commission for credit = + ³⁄₄ of 1 per cent. on $19,161, 143 72 + + Bill stamps in London (nil). + + Labor at vessel, 4c. per bag; + storage, one month, @ 4c.; + weighing, 3¹⁄₄c.; fire insurance, + 1¹⁄₄c. per bag; delivery + (lighterage), 4c. per bag = 16¹⁄₂c. + per bag, 165 00 + + Petty charges, _i. e._, sampling, + sewing, custom fees, etc., on bags, + per bag, 3¹⁄₂c.; approximate for + skimming of quality,----bags + @ ; furnishing new bags, 35 00 + + Cables at New York, 5 00 + --------- 920 42 + ---------- + Cost of 1,000 in store, $20,081 42 + + + + + Transcriber’s Notes + + + Unusual, inconsistent, erroneous and archaic spelling, hyphenation, + punctuation, grammar, typography, etc. have been retained, except as + mentioned under Changes below. Many non-English words and phrases + and geographical, proper and scientific names in particular contain + typographical or other errors. + + Page 74, alumnia (2x): possibly an error for aluminia. + + Page 132, ...crops of which the first or “roor-pluk,” which is + small...: probably an error for “voor-pluk,” (pre-picking). + + Page 292, table: the entry for 17¹⁄₂ is not present in the source + document. + + Page 296, table VII: presumably the bottom 6 rows in column 1 should + read 1.000, 1.200, ..., 2.000. + + Page 297, Table IX: the values for 1872 may represent the two + values 16.48 and 17.27 (before and after the removal of the impost + respectively). + + Page 298, Showing fluctuations in the coffee market from 1850 to + 1867, inclusive: the data given continue through 1885. + + Page 300, table entry Petty charges ... bags @ ; furnishing new + bags: the price per bag is missing in the source document. + + + Changes made: + + Illustrations were moved out of text paragraphs. + + Minor obvious punctuation and typographical errors have been + corrected silently. + + Page 31: ...climatic conditions favorable to its production has + been found... changed to ...climatic conditions favorable to its + production have been found.... + + Page 46: ...the latter being claimed to be analagous... changed to + ...the latter being claimed to be analogous.... + + Page 86: ...when about two weeks’ old... changed to ...when about two + weeks old.... + + Page 95: An easy meany of applying artificial heat... changed to An + easy means of applying artificial heat.... + + Page 135: ...at least equal to the renumeration changed to ...at + least equal to the remuneration. + + Page 139: Stored coffees, for this reason, loses weight... changed to + Stored coffees, for this reason, lose weight.... + + Page 142: ...the bean graduing changes to a deep-yellow... changed to + ...the bean gradually changes to a deep-yellow.... + + Page 143: ...by becoming throughly dry and seasoned... changed to + ...by becoming thoroughly dry and seasoned.... + + Page 177: ...Rios improve with age, and with time loses their harsh + flavor... changed to ...Rios improve with age, and with time lose + their harsh flavor.... + + Page 210: ...coffee leaves contain the principle coffeine... changed + to ...coffee leaves contain the principle caffeine.... + + Page 213: ...innumerable other substances has been tried... changed + to ...innumerable other substances have been tried.... + + Page 217: ...patent or proprietory ground coffees... changed to + ...patent or proprietary ground coffees.... + + Page 232: A decoction known as Kishre... changed to A decoction known + as Kishr... as elsewhere. + + Page 271: ...it should be used chiefly as an accessary to food... + changed to ...it should be used chiefly as an accessory to food.... + + Page 295, table: repeated entry 150, 487 50 deleted. + + Page 296, table VIII, bottom row: 1360 changed to 13 60. + +*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 79274 *** |