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| author | www-data <www-data@mail.pglaf.org> | 2026-06-22 11:35:24 -0700 |
|---|---|---|
| committer | www-data <www-data@mail.pglaf.org> | 2026-06-22 11:35:24 -0700 |
| commit | 87ecb4d9982812cabb6e7bbc85fb4848935f664c (patch) | |
| tree | 3fd19f44430df11a9ca1baf3c02e2f667b6dceed /78916-h | |
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+ margin-top: 0; + margin-bottom: 0; + margin-left: auto; + margin-right: auto; + } +figure p.cp1 { + margin-top: 0.3em; + text-align: center; + font-size: 100%; + font-variant: small-caps; +} +figure p.cp2 { + margin-top: 0.3em; + text-align: center; + font-size: 90%; +} +figure p.cp3 { + text-align: center; + font-size: 100%; +} +img { + width: inherit; + max-width: 100%; +} +.iwdecor1 { + width: 50px; +} +.iwdecor2 { + width: 0.7em; +} +.iw1 { width: 600px; } +.iw2 { width: 550px; } +.iw3 { width: 525px; } +.iw4 { width: 500px; } +.iw4b { width: 500px; } +@media screen and (max-width: 1500px) { +.iw4b { + width: 300px; + } + } +.iw5 { width: 400px; } +.iw6 { width: 350px; } +.iw7 { width: 200px; } +</style> +</head> + +<body> +<div style='text-align:center'>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 78916 ***</div> + +<div class="margins"> +<div class="transnote x-ebookmaker-drop"> +<p class="center">Large-size versions of illustrations are +available by clicking on them.</p> +</div> + +<p class="x-ebookmaker-drop space-above2"> +</p> + +<div class="figcenter iw4b x-ebookmaker-drop"> +<figure id="cover"><a href="images/cover.jpg"><img alt="[Cover]" +src="images/cover_thumb.jpg"></a> +</figure> +</div> + +<div class="page"> +<p class="center large"><em>The Story of Cairo</em> +</p> +</div> + +<div class="page"> +<p class="center small space-above"><em>First Edition, April</em> +1902</p> + +<p class="center small"><em>Second Edition, April</em> 1906</p> +</div> + +<div class="page"> +<p class="center small space-above"><em>All rights reserved</em> +</p> +</div> + +<div class="figcenterplate iw1"> +<figure id="i01"><a href="images/i01.jpg"><img alt="" src= +"images/i01.jpg"></a> +<p class="cp1">Cairo from the South-west: the Lake of the Elephant +(Birkat-el-Fil)</p> +</figure> +</div> + +<div class="titlepage"> +<h1><em>The Story of</em> <span class= +"red large letter-spaced01">Cairo</span></h1> + +<p class="nind space-below1 spaced15 word-spaced03"><span class= +"word-spaced05"><span class="large"><em>by</em></span> <span class= +"xxlarge"><em>Stanley Lane-Poole</em></span></span><br> +<span class="large"><em>Litt.D. M.A. Professor of Arabic<br> +at Trinity College Dublin</em></span> +</p> + +<div class="figdecor width-full"> +<figure><a href="images/title.jpg"><img alt="[Decoration]" src= +"images/logo.jpg" class="iw6"></a> +</figure> +</div> + +<p class="publisher"><span class="word-spaced04"><em>London:</em> +<span class="red xlarge"><em>J. M. Dent & +Co.</em></span></span><br> +<em>Aldine House</em> 29 <em>and</em> 30 <em>Bedford Street<br> +Covent Garden W.C.</em> <span class="word-spaced8"><img alt="*" +src="images/decor2.jpg" class="iwdecor2"> <img alt="*" src= +"images/decor2.jpg" class="iwdecor2"> 1906</span></p> +</div> + +<hr class="chap"> + +<div class="page"> +<div class="linegrp-container"> +<div class="linegrp"> +<div class="group"> +<div class="line indent0 sc">He who hath not seen Cairo hath not +seen the World.</div> + +<div class="line indent0 sc">Her Soil is Gold;</div> + +<div class="line indent0 sc">Her Nile is a Marvel;</div> + +<div class="line indent0 sc">Her Women are as the bright-eyed +Houris of Paradise;</div> + +<div class="line indent0 sc">Her houses are Palaces, and her Air is +soft, with an odour above Aloes, refreshing the Heart;</div> + +<div class="line indent0 sc">And how should Cairo be otherwise, +when she is the Mother of the World?</div> +</div> +</div> +</div> +</div> + +<hr class="chap"> + +<h2 class="large"><span class="pagenum" id= +"Page_vii">[vii]</span><a id="pref"></a>PREFACE</h2> + +<p class="dcap space-above15">CAIRO is in the fullest sense a +mediæval city. It had no existence before the Middle Ages; its +vigorous life as a separate Metropolis almost coincides with the +arbitrary millennium of the middle period of history; and it still +retains to this day much of its mediæval character and aspect. The +aspect is changing, but not the life. The amazing improvements of +the past twenty years have altered the Egyptian’s material +condition, but scarcely as yet touched his character. We have given +him public order and security, solvency without too heavy taxation, +an efficient administration, even-handed justice, the means of +higher education, and above all to every man his fair share of the +enriching Nile, χρυσορρόης in the truest sense, without which +nothing else avails. For all these, and especially the last, the +peasant is grateful in his way, when their merits are pointed out +to him; but not so the Cairene. The immediate blessings of the +irrigation engineer are not so prominently brought to bear upon his +pressing wants, and for the other reforms of the Firengy he cares +very little. I should be sorry to draw any discourteous comparisons +with “the Ethiop,” but whatever time and association with Europeans +may do for the comely, and to my taste none too swarthy, skin of my +Cairo friend, I am convinced that he will keep his old unregenerate +mediæval heart in spite of us all.</p> + +<p>Happily for purposes of study (I am not treating of<span class= +"pagenum" id="Page_viii">[viii]</span> ethics), the East changes +very slowly, and the soul of the Eastern not at all. The Cairo +jeweller, who will chaffer with you for an hour over a few +piastres, though he mixes reluctantly, shrinkingly, in the crazy, +bustling twentieth century life of Europe that rushes past him, is +not of it. In his heart of hearts he looks back longingly to the +glorious old days of the Mamlúks, to which he essentially belongs, +and regrets the excitements of those stirring times. What good, he +asks, comes of all this “worry”? Justice? More often a man had need +of a little injustice, and a respectable tradesman could usually +buy that from the Kady before these new tribunals were set up. As +to fixed taxes and no extortion, that is chiefly a matter for the +stupid fellahín; and after all the old system worked beautifully +when you shirked payment, and your neighbour was bastinadoed for +your share. Then all this fiddling with water and drains and +streets; what is it all for? When Willcocks or Price Bey have put +pipes and patent traps and other godless improvements into the +mosques, will one’s prayers be any better than they were in the +pleasant pervasive odour of the old fetid tanks? The streets are +broader, no doubt, to let the Firengis, Allah blacken their faces! +roll by in their two-horsed ‘arabíyas and splash the Faithful with +mud; but for this wonderful boon they have taken away the +comfortable stone benches from before the shops, and the Cairo +tradesman misses his old seat, where unlimited <em>keyf</em> and +the meditative shibúk once whiled away the leisure of his never +pressing avocations. No; pure water and drains, and bicycles and +tramcars, and a whole array of wretched little black-coated efendis +pretending to imitate the Káfirs may be all very well in their +place, but they are ugly, uninteresting things, and life at Cairo +has been desperately dull since they came in.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_ix">[ix]</span>In one of the +suggestive essays in his delightful book on “Asia and Europe,” Mr +Meredith Townsend has shown how <em>interesting</em> life must have +been in India before England introduced order and all the virtues. +The picture might have been drawn in Cairo with trifling +alterations. Life undoubtedly was interesting in the old +unregenerate days. There were events then; something to see and +think of, and possibly fly from; plenty of blood and assassination, +perhaps, but then you could always shut and bar the strong gates of +the quarter, when the Mamlúks or the Berbers, or, worst of all, the +black Sudánis, were on the war-path. Now the gates are taken away, +and there are no cavalcades of romantic troopers, beautiful to +behold in their array, to ravish your household and give colour to +life. In those days it was possible for any man of brain and luck +to rise to power and wealth, such wealth as all Cairo could not +furnish in these blank and honest times; promotion was ever at +hand, and the way was open to the strong, the cunning, and the +rich. What were a holocaust of victims, an orgy of rapine, even the +deadly ravages of periodical plague and famine, in comparison with +the great occasions, the gorgeous pomp, the endless opportunities, +the infinite variety of those unruly and tumultuous but never +tedious days?</p> + +<p>This is what the true Cairene meditates in his heart. His ideas, +for good or ill, are not as our ideas; they date back from the +Middle Ages, like his dress, his religion, his social habits, his +turns of speech, his calm insouciance, his impenetrable reserve, +his inveterate negation of “worry.” Outside the official class he +is still the same man whom we saw keeping shop or taking his +venture to sea in the faithful mirror of the Arabian Nights. Even +his city preserves its mediæval tone. Much has been destroyed by +time or innovation,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_x">[x]</span> but +the European fringe is still a fringe, and the old Muslim city for +the present defies western influences. It has been rebuilt time +after time, and every fresh rebuilding will take away more of its +charm; but enough remains to show us what Cairo was five hundred +years ago. The crowded streets of the old quarters, the immemorial +character of the houses and markets, above all the historical +monuments, carry us back to the Middle Ages.</p> + +<p>The aim of these pages is to clothe the vestiges of the mediæval +city with the associations that lend them their deepest interest. +Many of the buildings of Cairo, especially the later mosques of the +Mamlúk period, are exquisitely beautiful, and may be admired as +works of art without regard to their history. But there are many +more, ruined courts, crumbling arcades, mere fragments of walls or +inscriptions, which appeal rather to the archæological than the +æsthetic sense, and must be almost meaningless until their story is +revealed. In tracing the growth of Cairo I have tried to surround +the remains of its buildings with the atmosphere of their historic +associations. Mere topography has charms for the antiquary alone; +it is only when the material growth of a city is interwoven with +the life of its people and the character of its rulers that +topography acquires an interest for all. At the same time I have +sought to keep closely to the subject—the growth and life of the +city. This is no general history of Egypt, and many things are +passed by because they bear no intimate relation to the development +of its capital.</p> + +<p>The authorities upon which I rely are sufficiently cited in the +footnotes. The greatest Arabic source is of course the elaborate +<em>Khitat</em> of el-Makrízy, frequently referred to as “the +Topographer,” who wrote in the early years of the fifteenth +century, but used various topographical and historical works of +much<span class="pagenum" id="Page_xi">[xi]</span> earlier date, +many of which are not otherwise accessible. The remarkable +accuracy, completeness, and research of his detailed description of +Cairo need no praise of mine: they are universally recognised. +Other writers, such as el-Mas‘údy, Násir-i-Khusrau, ‘Abd-el-Latíf, +Ibn-Gubeyr (the extracts from whom I owe to the kindness of my +friend, Mr Guy le Strange, the historian of Baghdád, and our most +learned authority on the geography of the caliphate), Ibn-Sa‘íd, +Ibn-Dukmak, es-Suyúty, Abu-l-Mahásin, el-Isháky, el-Gabárty, fill +up the picture, and add valuable, personal, and contemporary +touches. Lane’s “Cairo Fifty Years Ago” has the merit of presenting +an account of the city as it was in 1835, before the Europeanizing +movement begun by Mohammad ‘Aly, and carried to the extreme by +Isma‘íl, had had time to work much change in the characteristic +aspect of the town. In archæology I am especially beholden to the +researches of MM. Max van Berchem, Ravaisse, and Casanova. One +exception I must note to the generally full references to my +sources. There is something repugnant, if not to modesty at least +to the sense of propriety, in frequently citing one’s own books. +Writing constantly on the subject of Cairo, its art, its monuments, +and its history, for many years past, it was inevitable that I +should sometimes repeat what I have said before: indeed, when we +have written what we have to say in the best shape that we are able +to devise, it seems mere affectation to try to seek a different +form of expression. I have therefore quoted, but sparingly, from my +“Art of the Saracens in Egypt” (published for the Committee of +Council in 1886), my “Cairo Sketches” (3rd ed., Virtue, 1898), my +“History of Egypt in the Middle Ages” (Methuen, 1901), and any +extracts to which no footnote is appended must be understood to +refer to<span class="pagenum" id="Page_xii">[xii]</span> one of +these books, generally the “History.” I trust I may be permitted to +say that for a more complete account of the history than would be +possible or desirable in the present volume the student should +consult the last of the three books above cited. Were there any +other work in English of similar scope I would gladly substitute +its title. For a much more detailed narrative of the history of the +Copts than could be here included the reader may turn to Mrs +Butcher’s “Story of the Church of Egypt” (2 vols., Smith, Elder & +Co., 1897), a work full of sympathy and appreciation for a +neglected and persecuted community, though open to criticism in its +Mohammedan relations.</p> + +<p>I have not troubled the reader with an elaborate system of +transliteration of Arabic names. An acute accent is used merely to +show where the principal accent falls, not necessarily to indicate +a long vowel. The vowels are to be pronounced as in Italian, and +the letter <em>g</em> is employed to represent the Arabic consonant +that in Cairo is pronounced hard (as in <em>get</em>), but +elsewhere usually soft (as <em>j</em> in <em>jet</em>). Those who +are curious to know the exact transliteration should turn to the +index, where every Arabic word is given in roman letters with +diacritical points and distinction of the long vowels.</p> + +<p>The illustrations have been chosen with a view to showing the +mediæval city as far as possible before it suffered its European +change. Nothing could be better for this purpose than the drawings +made between 1826 and 1838 by Robert Hay of Linplum and by his +companion Owen B. Carter (about 1830), the originals of which are +preserved in the Print Room of the British Museum, and some were +lithographed in Hay’s “Illustrations of Cairo.” These represent the +mediæval remains as no modern sketches could depict<span class= +"pagenum" id="Page_xiii">[xiii]</span> them, but Mr J. A. Symington +has skilfully supplemented them, when no older drawings could be +obtained.</p> + +<p>In conclusion I should wish to draw attention to what I have +said in the last chapter on the subject of the Commission for the +Preservation of the Monuments of Arab Art. To its vigilance and +unremitting labours during the past twenty years we owe the fact +that the mosques and other remains of Saracenic architecture are +secure from demolition, and, as far as the conditions admit, +guarded from decay. Never in the history of Cairo have its +monuments been in such safe keeping, and everyone must be grateful +to each member of this invaluable committee. In the last five +years, since Lord Cromer used his influence to improve its +financial position, the Commission has been enabled to undertake +very comprehensive works of scientific restoration, and all who +visit Cairo should make a point of examining the results of its +labours and inspecting the collections gathered under the care of +its chief architect, Herz Bey, in the Museum of Arab Art.</p> + +<p class="right pad-right2">STANLEY LANE-POOLE.</p> + +<div class="sign1"> +<p><span class="sc">Trinity College, Dublin</span>,<br> +<em>January 31st</em>, 1902.</p> +</div> + +<hr class="chap"> + +<h2 class="large"><span class="pagenum" id= +"Page_xv">[xv]</span>CONTENTS</h2> + +<table class="toc"> +<tr> +<td colspan="2" class="tdc sect1"><a href="#c01">CHAPTER I</a> +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> +</td> +<td class="tdr med width6">PAGE</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdl hang1 sect2"><em>The Two Cities</em> +</td> +<td class="tdr sect2">1-31</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="ind1 pad4">The European and the Egyptian Cairo, <a href= +"#Page_1">1</a>—Oriental Scenes, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>—The +Conservative Tradesman, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>—His Shop, <a href= +"#Page_7">7</a>, and Home, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>—The Zuweyla +Gate, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>—A Private House, <a href= +"#Page_11">11</a>—The Mandara, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>—Bedrooms, +<a href="#Page_17">17</a>—Daily Life, <a href= +"#Page_18">18</a>—Women’s Life, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>—Cairo +Festivities, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>—The Hasaneyn, <a href= +"#Page_23">23</a>—The Mohammad ‘Aly Street, <a href= +"#Page_27">27</a>—View from the Citadel, <a href= +"#Page_28">28</a>.</td> +<td> +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td colspan="2" class="tdc sect1"><a href="#c02">CHAPTER II</a> +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdl hang1 sect2"><em>The Town of the Tent</em> +</td> +<td class="tdr sect2">32-58</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="ind1 pad4">Successive Cities at Cairo, <a href= +"#Page_32">32</a>—Arab Conquest, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>—Treaty +of Amnesty, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>—The Ancient Misr, <a href= +"#Page_36">36</a>—Babylon and the Mukawkis, <a href= +"#Page_37">37</a>—The Copts, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>—Foundation +of Fustat, “the Tent,” <a href="#Page_40">40</a>—Settlements of the +Arab Tribes, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>—The Mosque of ‘Amr, <a href= +"#Page_42">42</a>—The Fortress of Babylon, <a href= +"#Page_48">48</a>—The Coptic Churches, <a href= +"#Page_53">53</a>.</td> +<td> +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td colspan="2" class="tdc sect1"><a href="#c03">CHAPTER III</a> +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdl hang1 sect2"><em>The Faubourgs</em> +</td> +<td class="tdr sect2">59-90</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="ind1 pad4">The Caliphs’ Governors, <a href= +"#Page_59">59</a>—Helwan, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>—Treatment of +Christians, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>—Monasticism, <a href= +"#Page_62">62</a>—Conservatism of the Copts, <a href= +"#Page_64">64</a>—The ‘Abbasid Faubourg el-‘Askar, <a href= +"#Page_65">65</a>—‘Abbasid Governors, Ibn-Memdud, <a href= +"#Page_66">66</a>—‘Abdallah ibn Tahir, <a href= +"#Page_67">67</a>—The Caliph Mamun in Egypt, <a href= +"#Page_68">68</a>—Persecutions of Muslims and Copts, <a href= +"#Page_69">69</a>—The Turkish Governors, <a href= +"#Page_70">70</a>—Their encouragement of Art, <a href= +"#Page_71">71</a>—Ahmad ibn Tulun, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>—The +new Faubourg el-Katai‘, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>—The Aqueduct, +<a href="#Page_77">77</a>—Mosque of Ibn-Tulun, <a href= +"#Page_78">78</a>—Sources of Saracen Architecture, <a href= +"#Page_85">85</a>—Ibn-Tulun’s Wars, <a href= +"#Page_86">86</a>—Khumaraweyh’s Palaces, <a href= +"#Page_87">87</a>—Egypt recovered by the Caliphs, <a href= +"#Page_89">89</a>—The Castle of the Ram, <a href= +"#Page_90">90</a>.</td> +<td> +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td colspan="2" class="tdc sect1"><span class="pagenum" id= +"Page_xvi">[xvi]</span><a href="#c04">CHAPTER IV</a> +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdl hang1 sect2"><em>Misr</em> +</td> +<td class="tdr sect2">91-112</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="ind1 pad4">Misr-Fustat the Commercial Capital, <a href= +"#Page_91">91</a>—The Madara’y Ministers, <a href= +"#Page_92">92</a>—The Ikhshid, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>—Mas‘udy in +Egypt, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>—The Island of Roda, <a href= +"#Page_96">96</a>—Divines at Misr, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>—Poets, +<a href="#Page_98">98</a>—Kafur’s Court, <a href= +"#Page_100">100</a>—Mohammedan Revels, <a href= +"#Page_102">102</a>—Kafur’s Government, <a href= +"#Page_103">103</a>—Misr in the 10th and 11th Centuries, <a href= +"#Page_104">104</a>—Nasir-i-Khusrau’s Description, <a href= +"#Page_107">107</a>—The Burning of Misr, <a href= +"#Page_110">110</a>—Partial Recovery, Ibn-Sa‘id’s Description, +<a href="#Page_111">111</a>.</td> +<td> +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td colspan="2" class="tdc sect1"><a href="#c05">CHAPTER V</a> +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdl hang1 sect2"><em>Cairo</em> +</td> +<td class="tdr sect2">113-163</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="ind1 pad4">The Shi‘a Revolution, <a href= +"#Page_113">113</a>—The Fatimid Caliphate, <a href= +"#Page_116">116</a>—el-Mo‘izz, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>—Conquest +of Egypt, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>—Foundation of el-Kahira, +Cairo, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>—Effects of the Revolution, +<a href="#Page_119">119</a>—The Copts under the Fatimids, <a href= +"#Page_120">120</a>—el-‘Aziz, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>—The Azhar +University Mosque, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>—The Palace-city, +<a href="#Page_125">125</a>—The Great Palace, <a href= +"#Page_127">127</a>—The Gates of Cairo, <a href= +"#Page_129">129</a>—Bab-Zuweyla, <a href= +"#Page_129">129</a>—William of Tyre’s description of the Fatimid +Court, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>—The Port of Maks and the Fleet, +<a href="#Page_132">132</a>—Wealth and Art and Luxury of the +Fatimids, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>—Mosque of el-Hakim, <a href= +"#Page_137">137</a>—The Caliph Hakim, <a href= +"#Page_139">139</a>—The Hall of Science, <a href= +"#Page_142">142</a>—Apotheosis of Hakim, <a href= +"#Page_142">142</a>—Military Tyranny and Loss of Provinces, +<a href="#Page_144">144</a>—Cairo in 1047—Cutting the Dam, <a href= +"#Page_145">145</a>—el-Yazury, <a href= +"#Page_146">146</a>—Spoliation by the Turks, <a href= +"#Page_147">147</a>—The Seven Years’ Famine, <a href= +"#Page_148">148</a>—Bedr el-Gemaly, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>—The +Second Wall and Gates of Cairo, <a href= +"#Page_150">150</a>—Armenian Ministers, <a href= +"#Page_154">154</a>—The Rule of Vezirs, <a href= +"#Page_157">157</a>—Murders and Military Despotism, <a href= +"#Page_158">158</a>—Ibn-Ruzzik, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>—Fatimid +Architecture, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>.</td> +<td> +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td colspan="2" class="tdc sect1"><a href="#c06">CHAPTER VI</a> +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdl hang1 sect2"><em>Saladin’s Castle</em> +</td> +<td class="tdr sect2">164-192</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="ind1 pad4">Causes of the Invasion of Egypt, <a href= +"#Page_164">164</a>—Turks and Crusaders, <a href= +"#Page_167">167</a>—Shawar and Dirgham, <a href= +"#Page_168">168</a>—Amalric and Shirkuh in Egypt, <a href= +"#Page_169">169</a>—Saladin Vezir, deposition of the Fatimid +Caliph, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>—Saladin’s Campaigns, <a href= +"#Page_172">172</a>—His Work at Cairo, <a href= +"#Page_173">173</a>—The New Walls, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>—The +Citadel, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>—The Dike of Giza, <a href= +"#Page_180">180</a>—Risings at Cairo, <a href= +"#Page_181">181</a>—The Head of Hoseyn, <a href= +"#Page_182">182</a>—Saladin establishes Medresas or Orthodox +Colleges, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>—Ibn-Gubeyr’s Account, +<a href="#Page_184">184</a>—The Hospitals, <a href= +"#Page_186">186</a>—Characteristics of Mosques and Medresas, +<a href="#Page_187">187</a>—Results of the Restoration of Orthodoxy +and encouragement of Learning, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>.</td> +<td> +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td colspan="2" class="tdc sect1"><span class="pagenum" id= +"Page_xvii">[xvii]</span><a href="#c07">CHAPTER VII</a> +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdl hang1 sect2"><em>The Dome Builders</em> +</td> +<td class="tdr sect2">193-254</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="ind1 pad4">Saphadin el-‘Adil, <a href= +"#Page_193">193</a>—Great Famine, <a href= +"#Page_194">194</a>—Invasion of Crusaders, <a href= +"#Page_195">195</a>—Frederick II and Kamil, <a href= +"#Page_196">196</a>—The Mamluk System, <a href= +"#Page_197">197</a>—Queen Sheger-ed-durr and the Bahry Mamluks, +<a href="#Page_198">198</a>—Crusade of Louis IX, <a href= +"#Page_201">201</a>—(i) The Turkish Mamluks, <a href= +"#Page_202">202</a>—Their Wars against Mongols, <a href= +"#Page_203">203</a>, and Franks, <a href= +"#Page_205">205</a>—Revival of ‘Abbasid Caliphate, <a href= +"#Page_206">206</a>—Beybars, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>—The Mamluk +Court, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>—Turbulence of Emirs, <a href= +"#Page_210">210</a>—The House of Kalaun, <a href= +"#Page_211">211</a>—En-Nasir, <a href= +"#Page_212">212</a>—Toleration of Christians, <a href= +"#Page_216">216</a>—Popular Fanaticism, <a href= +"#Page_217">217</a>—Incendiaries, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>—Nasir +and Abu-l-Fida, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>—Artistic Production, +<a href="#Page_220">220</a>—Mosques, <a href= +"#Page_223">223</a>—Emirs’ Mosques, <a href= +"#Page_224">224</a>—Early Mamluk Style of Architecture, <a href= +"#Page_227">227</a>—Sultan Hasan, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>—His +Great Mosque, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>—(ii) The Circassian +Mamluks, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>—Corruption, <a href= +"#Page_236">236</a>—Wars, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>—Cultivated +Tastes, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>—Architecture, <a href= +"#Page_238">238</a>—Kait-Bey, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>—His +Buildings, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>—Mosque <em>intra muros</em>, +<a href="#Page_246">246</a>—Wekala, <a href= +"#Page_249">249</a>—Mosques of Emirs and of Kady Ibn-Muzhir, +<a href="#Page_250">250</a>—The Modified Medresa, <a href= +"#Page_250">250</a>—Buildings of el-Ghury, <a href= +"#Page_253">253</a>—Ottoman Conquest, <a href= +"#Page_254">254</a>.</td> +<td> +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td colspan="2" class="tdc sect1"><a href="#c08">CHAPTER VIII</a> +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdl hang1 sect2"><em>The City of the Arabian Nights</em> +</td> +<td class="tdr sect2">257-286</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="ind1 pad4">Expansion of Cairo, <a href= +"#Page_257">257</a>—Rise of Bulak, <a href= +"#Page_258">258</a>—Suburban Mosques, <a href= +"#Page_259">259</a>—The Approach from Bulak, <a href= +"#Page_260">260</a>—The Thousand and One Nights redacted in Cairo, +<a href="#Page_261">261</a>—The Transit Trade of Egypt, <a href= +"#Page_263">263</a>—Merchants’ Inns, <a href= +"#Page_265">265</a>—The Khan el-Khalily, <a href= +"#Page_266">266</a>—The Khan of Mesrur, <a href= +"#Page_269">269</a>—The Wekala Kusun and the Flower Market, +<a href="#Page_270">270</a>—Streets and Quarters, <a href= +"#Page_271">271</a>—The Art of Silver Inlay, <a href= +"#Page_272">272</a>—Cairo Metal Work, <a href= +"#Page_277">277</a>—Venice, <a href= +"#Page_279">279</a>—Wood-carving, <a href= +"#Page_281">281</a>—Meshrebiya turning, <a href= +"#Page_284">284</a>—Characteristics of Saracenic Art, <a href= +"#Page_285">285</a>—Men of Letters in the Mamluk Period, <a href= +"#Page_286">286</a>.</td> +<td> +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td colspan="2" class="tdc sect1"><a href="#c09">CHAPTER IX</a> +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdl hang1 sect2"><em>Beys and Pashas</em> +</td> +<td class="tdr sect2">287-314</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="ind1 pad4">Mamluk Emirs (Beys) still in power, <a href= +"#Page_287">287</a>—Pasha helpless, <a href= +"#Page_288">288</a>—Street Fights, <a href= +"#Page_289">289</a>—‘Othman Bey, <a href="#Page_289">289</a>—Rudwan +el-Gelfy, <a href="#Page_290">290</a>—The Sharaiby family, <a href= +"#Page_292">292</a>—Libraries, <a href="#Page_295">295</a>—State of +Learning, <a href="#Page_296">296</a>—Fanaticism and +Superstition,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_xviii">[xviii]</span> +<a href="#Page_297">297</a>—Mosques of the Ottoman Period, <a href= +"#Page_298">298</a>—‘Aly Bey, <a href= +"#Page_298">298</a>—‘Abd-er-Rahman Kiahya, <a href= +"#Page_298">298</a>—Mohammad Bey Abu-dh-Dhahab, <a href= +"#Page_301">301</a>—Mohammad ‘Aly, <a href= +"#Page_302">302</a>—Confiscation of Wakf Trusts, <a href= +"#Page_302">302</a>—The Commission for the Preservation of the +Monuments of Arab Art, <a href="#Page_303">303</a>—Report to Lord +Cromer, <a href="#Page_303">303</a>—Preservation, <a href= +"#Page_305">305</a>—Restoration, <a href="#Page_309">309</a>—Lord +Cromer’s Action, <a href="#Page_313">313</a>—Grants from the Public +Debt Commissioners and the Egyptian Government, <a href= +"#Page_313">313</a>.</td> +<td> +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdl hang1 sect2 sect15top"><em><a href= +"#app1">Rulers</a> and Monuments of Cairo</em> +</td> +<td class="tdr sect2 sect15top">317-322</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdl hang1 sect05top sect2"><em><a href="#app2">Table</a> +for converting Hijra Years into Anni Domini</em> +</td> +<td class="tdr sect05top sect2">323-327</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdl hang1 sect05top sect2"><a href= +"#ind"><em>Index</em></a> +</td> +<td class="tdr sect05top sect2">329-340</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<hr class="chap"> + +<h2 class="large"><span class="pagenum" id= +"Page_xix">[xix]</span>ILLUSTRATIONS</h2> + +<table class="toi"> +<tr> +<td> +</td> +<td class="tdr med">PAGE</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdl hang1 sectabove"><em>Lake of the Elephant: +Birkat-el-Fil.</em> +</td> +<td> +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdl-top pad4 sectbelow"><em>O. B. Carter</em> (c. +1830)</td> +<td class="tdr-bot sectbelow"><a href= +"#i01"><em>Frontispiece</em></a> +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdl hang1 sectabove"><em>Court of a Private House.</em> +</td> +<td> +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdl-top pad4 sectbelow"><em>J. A. Symington</em> +(1902)</td> +<td class="tdr-bot sectbelow"><a href="#i02">15</a> +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdl hang1 sectabove"><em>The Citadel.</em> +</td> +<td> +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdl-top pad4 sectbelow"><em>J. A. Symington</em> +</td> +<td class="tdr-bot sectbelow"><a href="#i03">29</a> +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdl hang1 sectabove"><em>Court of the Mosque of +‘Amr.</em> +</td> +<td> +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdl-top pad4 sectbelow"><em>J. A. Symington</em> +</td> +<td class="tdr-bot sectbelow"><a href="#i04">45</a> +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdl hang1 sectabove"><em>Gate of Kasr-esh-Shema‘ +(Babylon).</em> +</td> +<td> +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdl-top pad4 sectbelow"><em>O. B. Carter</em> +</td> +<td class="tdr-bot sectbelow"><a href="#i05">51</a> +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdl hang1 sectabove"><em>Tower of the Mosque of +Ibn-Tulun.</em> +</td> +<td> +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdl-top pad4 sectbelow"><em>O. B. Carter</em> +</td> +<td class="tdr-bot sectbelow"><a href="#i06">73</a> +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdl hang1 sectabove"><em>Within the Mosque of +Ibn-Tulun.</em> +</td> +<td> +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdl-top pad4 sectbelow"><em>J. A. Symington</em> +</td> +<td class="tdr-bot sectbelow"><a href="#i07">81</a> +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdl hang1 sectabove"><em>Detail of Ornament in Mosque of +Ibn-Tulun.</em> +</td> +<td> +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdl-top pad4 sectbelow"><em>J. A. Symington</em> +</td> +<td class="tdr-bot sectbelow"><a href="#i08">84</a> +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdl hang1 sectabove"><em>Street in Old Misr.</em> +</td> +<td> +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdl-top pad4 sectbelow"><em>J. A. Symington</em> +</td> +<td class="tdr-bot sectbelow"><a href="#i09">105</a> +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdl hang1 sectabove"><em>Ruined Mosque of el-Hakim.</em> +</td> +<td> +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdl-top pad4 sectbelow"><em>J. A. Symington</em> +</td> +<td class="tdr-bot sectbelow"><a href="#i10">135</a> +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdl hang1 sectabove"><em>Gate of Succour: +Bab-en-Nasr.</em> +</td> +<td> +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdl-top pad4 sectbelow"><em>O. B. Carter</em> +</td> +<td class="tdr-bot sectbelow"><a href="#i11">151</a> +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdl hang1 sectabove"><em>Minarets over Gate of +Zuweyla.</em> +</td> +<td> +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdl-top pad4 sectbelow"><em>O. B. Carter</em> +</td> +<td class="tdr-bot sectbelow"><a href="#i12">155</a> +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdl hang1 sectabove"><em>Mosque of el-Guyushy.</em> +</td> +<td> +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdl-top pad4 sectbelow"><em>O. B. Carter</em> +</td> +<td class="tdr-bot sectbelow"><a href="#i13">161</a> +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdl hang1 sectabove"><em>Plan of Cairo before</em> +1200.</td> +<td> +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdl-top pad4 sectbelow"><em>After Ravaisse, etc.</em> +</td> +<td class="tdr-bot sectbelow"><a href="#i14">165</a> +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdl hang1 sectabove"><em>Castle of the Ram: +Kal‘at-el-Kebsh.</em> +</td> +<td> +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdl-top pad4 sectbelow"><em>O. B. Carter</em> +</td> +<td class="tdr-bot sectbelow"><a href="#i15">177</a> +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdl hang1 sectabove"><span class="pagenum" id= +"Page_xx">[xx]</span><em>Plan of Medresa.</em> +</td> +<td> +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdl-top pad4 sectbelow"><em>After Murray</em> +</td> +<td class="tdr-bot sectbelow"><a href="#i16">190</a> +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdl hang1 sectabove"><em>Island of er-Roda.</em> +</td> +<td> +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdl-top pad4 sectbelow"><em>Robert Hay</em> (c. +1830)</td> +<td class="tdr-bot sectbelow"><a href="#i17">199</a> +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdl hang1 sectabove"><em>“Joseph’s Hall”: Palace of +en-Nasir in Citadel, with his Mosque in background.</em> +</td> +<td> +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdl-top pad4 sectbelow"><em>Robert Hay</em> +</td> +<td class="tdr-bot sectbelow"><a href="#i18">213</a> +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdl hang1 sectabove"><em>Aqueduct and House of the Seven +Watermills.</em> +</td> +<td> +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdl-top pad4 sectbelow"><em>Robert Hay</em> +</td> +<td class="tdr-bot sectbelow"><a href="#i19">221</a> +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdl hang1 sectabove"><em>Mosque of Sultan Hasan.</em> +</td> +<td> +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdl-top pad4 sectbelow"><em>O. B. Carter</em> +</td> +<td class="tdr-bot sectbelow"><a href="#i20">225</a> +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdl hang1 sectabove"><em>Gateway of Sultan Hasan’s +Mosque.</em> +</td> +<td> +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdl-top pad4 sectbelow"><em>O. B. Carter</em> +</td> +<td class="tdr-bot sectbelow"><a href="#i21">229</a> +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdl hang1 sectabove"><em>Tomb-Mosque of Barkuk and +Farag.</em> +</td> +<td> +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdl-top pad4 sectbelow"><em>J. A. Symington</em> +</td> +<td class="tdr-bot sectbelow"><a href="#i22">233</a> +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdl hang1 sectabove"><em>Eastern Cemetery: so-called +“Tombs of the Caliphs.”</em> +</td> +<td> +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdl-top pad4 sectbelow"><em>J. A. Symington</em> +</td> +<td class="tdr-bot sectbelow"><a href="#i23">239</a> +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdl hang1 sectabove"><em>Mosque of Kait-Bey.</em> +</td> +<td> +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdl-top pad4 sectbelow"><em>J. A. Symington</em> +</td> +<td class="tdr-bot sectbelow"><a href="#i24">243</a> +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdl hang1 sectabove"><em>Tomb-Mosques.</em> +</td> +<td> +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdl-top pad4 sectbelow"><em>J. A. Symington</em> +</td> +<td class="tdr-bot sectbelow"><a href="#i25">247</a> +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdl hang1 sectabove"><em>Tombs of the Mamluks.</em> +</td> +<td> +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdl-top pad4 sectbelow"><em>J. A. Symington</em> +</td> +<td class="tdr-bot sectbelow"><a href="#i26">251</a> +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdl hang1 sectabove"><em>Sketch-plan showing growth of +Cairo.</em> +</td> +<td> +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdl-top pad4 sectbelow"><em>After E. W. Lane</em> +(1835)</td> +<td class="tdr-bot sectbelow"><a href="#i27">256</a> +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdl hang1 sectabove"><em>Slave Market.</em> +</td> +<td> +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdl-top pad4 sectbelow"><em>O. B. Carter (figures by H. +Warren)</em> +</td> +<td class="tdr-bot sectbelow"><a href="#i28">267</a> +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdl hang1 sectabove"><em>In the Darb-el-Ahmar.</em> +</td> +<td> +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdl-top pad4 sectbelow"><em>J. A. Symington</em> +</td> +<td class="tdr-bot sectbelow"><a href="#i29">275</a> +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdl hang1 sectabove"><em>Street near Bab-el-Khark.</em> +</td> +<td> +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdl-top pad4 sectbelow"><em>O. B. Carter</em> +</td> +<td class="tdr-bot sectbelow"><a href="#i30">293</a> +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdl hang1 sectabove"><em>A Muslim Graveyard.</em> +</td> +<td> +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdl-top pad4 sectbelow"><em>J. A. Symington</em> +</td> +<td class="tdr-bot sectbelow"><a href="#i31">315</a> +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdl hang1 sectabove"><em>Map of Cairo</em> +</td> +<td class="tdr-bot sectabove"><a href="#map"><em>At end</em></a> +</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<hr class="chap"> + +<p class="center xxlarge space-above pb"><span class="pagenum" id= +"Page_1">[1]</span>The Story of Cairo</p> + +<div class="figdecor iwdecor1"> +<figure><img alt="[Decoration]" src="images/decor1.jpg"> +</figure> +</div> + +<h2 class="nopb letter-spaced01"><a id="c01"></a>CHAPTER I</h2> + +<p class="sch1"><em>The Two Cities</em> +</p> + +<p class="dcap">THERE are two Cairos, distinct in character, though +but slenderly divided in site. There is a European Cairo, and there +is an Egyptian Cairo. The last was once El-Káhira, “the +Victorious,” founded under the auspices of the planet Mars, but it +is now so little conquering, indeed has become so subdued, that one +hears it spoken of as “the native quarters,” or even in Indian +fashion as “the bazars.” In truth European Cairo knows little of +its mediæval sister. Thousands of tourists, mounted on thousands of +donkeys, do indeed explore “the native quarters” every winter, but +these do not belong to European Cairo; birds of passage they are, +not inhabitants. The true resident, who has his cool shaded house +and breezy balcony in the Isma‘ilíya quarter, surrounded by +hundreds of similar comfortable villas, does not by any chance ride +donkeys, and is only dragged to “the bazars” rarely and with +obvious reluctance by the importunity of some enthusiastic visitor. +But even in European Cairo there are signs that another Cairo, an +Oriental, Muslim Cairo, exists not far away. Let the English colony +keep never so closely to itself and<span class="pagenum" id= +"Page_2">[2]</span> ignore “the native quarters,” except as objects +for just government and wise reforms, it cannot walk abroad, or +even open its ears in its own chambers, without becoming conscious +of the true Oriental world in which it lives but of which it is +not. Go to the Post Office, a few minutes’ walk from most of the +hotels, and you are at once in a medley of East and West.</p> + +<p>A German nursemaid, accompanied by the little daughter of the +family, is asking for letters at the <em>arrivée</em> window, and +an old sheykh in <em>kaftán</em> and turban is negotiating a +money-order or a registered letter at the next bureau. Over the way +a row of public letter-writers sit at their tables on the sideway, +gravely imperturbable, awaiting illiterate correspondents. In the +street, omnibuses and tram-cars rumble by, blowing strident horns; +but the passengers who sit on the seats beneath the awning are not +Europeans—they are Egyptians, efendis, clerks, shopkeepers, +sheykhs, often simple fellahín come to town on business and driving +in from Bulák or Kasr-en-Nil. On the footpaths—always uneven and +often muddy, in curious contrast to the roads, which are kept clean +by circular brushes and little girl scavengers—the European +element, Greek, German, Italian, chiefly, is intimately blended +with the Oriental: Sudány women closely veiled with the white +<em>burko‘</em>, which sets off their swarthy brows and black eyes +to advantage; Egyptian girls in blue gowns and black veils hanging +loose and allowing the well-formed neck and line of cheek and chin +to be seen, whilst concealing the only part a woman scrupulously +hides in the East, her mouth; horrible blear-eyed old harridans, +veiled with immaculate precision, squatting in rows against the +house-fronts; Bedawis striding along in the roadway with the +striped <em>kufíya</em> wound round their heads;<span class= +"pagenum" id="Page_3">[3]</span> strings of camels tied together, +laden with <em>bersím</em>, the rich fodder of Egypt, and driven by +the smallest of urchins; petty Government clerks, or efendis, clad +in <em>stambúly</em> and <em>tarbúsh</em>, hunched up on +donkey-back; all classes and ages and sexes mingled together in a +jostling, perspiring, but good-tempered crowd; and everywhere the +pungent pervasive odour of the East.</p> + +<p>Even in the European quarters you still meet the veritable +Eastern sights and sounds. As you look out of your hotel window you +will see a native musician sauntering by, twanging the lute of the +country; then a sound like the tinkling of baby cymbals informs you +that the <em>sherbétly</em> is going his round, with his huge +glass-jar slung at his side, from which he dispenses (to the +unwary) sweet sticky drinks of liquorice juice or orange syrup in +the brass saucers which he clinks unceasingly in his hand. Late at +night sounds of Eastern life invade your pillow: the “rumble of a +distant drum” tells you that a wedding party is perambulating the +streets, and if you have the curiosity to sally forth you will be +rewarded by one of the characteristic sights of Cairo, in which old +and new are oddly blended. Probably a circumcision festival is +combined with the wedding to save expense; and the procession will +be headed by the barber’s sign, a wooden frame raised aloft, +followed by two or three gorgeously caparisoned camels—regular +stage-properties hired out for such occasions—carrying drummers, +and leading the way for a series of carriages crammed with little +boys, each holding a neat white handkerchief to his mouth, to keep +out the devil and the evil eye. Then comes a closed carriage +covered all over with a big cashmere shawl, held down firmly at the +sides by brothers and other relations of the imprisoned bride; then +more carriages and a general crowd of sympathizers. More rarely the +bride is borne in a cashmere-covered<span class="pagenum" id= +"Page_4">[4]</span> litter swung between two camels, fore and aft; +the hind camel must tuck his head under the litter, and is probably +quite as uncomfortable as the bride, who runs a fair chance of +sea-sickness in her rolling palankin. In the old days the bride +walked through the streets under a canopy carried by her friends, +but this is now quite out of fashion, and European carriages are +rapidly ousting even the camel-litters. But the cashmere shawl and +the veil will not soon be abandoned. The Egyptian woman is, at +least in public, generally modest. She detects a stranger’s glance +with magical rapidity, even when to all appearance looking the +other way, and forthwith the veil is pulled closer over her mouth +and nose. When she meets you face to face, she does not drop her +big eyes in the absurd fashion of Western modesty; she slowly turns +them away from you: it is annihilating.</p> + +<p>As soon as you have turned your back on the European suburb and +the hotel region, and escaped from the glass shop fronts and Greek +dealers of the Musky, the real Eastern city begins to dominate you. +It is quite easy to lose oneself in the quaint old streets of +Muslim Cairo when only an occasional passer-by reminds one that +Europe is at the gates. A large part of Cairo is very little +spoilt: it is still in a great degree the city of the Arabian +Nights.</p> + +<p>In that stall round the corner who knows but that the immortal +Barber is recounting the adventures of his luckless brothers to the +impatient lover on the shaving stool? At this very moment the Three +Royal Mendicants may be entertaining the fair Portress and her +delightful sisters with the story of their calamities, and if you +wait till night you may even see the “good” Harún er-Rashíd +himself—though it is true he lived at Baghdád—coming on his +stealthy midnight rambles with prudent Ga‘far at his heels and +black Mesrúr<span class="pagenum" id="Page_5">[5]</span> to clear +the way. A few streets away from the European quarters it is easy +to dream that we are acting a part in the moving histories of the +Thousand and One Nights, which do in fact describe Cairo and its +people as they were in the Middle Ages, and as they are in a great +measure still. In its very dilapidation the city assists the +illusion. The typical Eastern houses falling to ruins, which no one +thinks of repairing, are the natural homes of ‘Efríts and +mischievous Ginn, who keep away god-fearing tenants. But if in its +ruined houses, far more in what remains of its glorious monuments +does Cairo transport us to the golden age of Arabian art and +culture. Among its mosques and colleges and the scanty remnants of +its palaces are the purest examples of Saracenic architecture that +can be seen in all the once wide empire of Islam. Damascus and +Ispahan, Agra and Delhi, Cordova and Granada, Brusa and +Constantinople, possess elements of beauty and features of style +which Cairo has not, and they enlarge and complete our +understanding of Arab art; but to view that art in its purity, +uncorrupted by the mechanical detail of the Alhambra, unspoilt by +the over-elaboration of Delhi, we must study the mosques and tombs +of Cairo.</p> + +<p>The blessed conservatism of the East has happily maintained much +of the old city in its beautiful ruinous unprogressive disorder. +There are of course new houses and rebuilt fronts and even glass +window-sashes; the exquisite <em>meshrebíyas</em> with their +intricate turned lattice work are nearly all gone to make way for +Italian <em>persiennes</em>, and the stone benches in front of the +shops have disappeared in deference to the modern exigencies of +carriages. But the general aspect of the streets has not seriously +altered in recent years, and the people who press through the +crowded lanes, or sit in their little cells of shops at the receipt +of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_6">[6]</span> custom, are +unchanged. They dress as their ancestors dressed ages ago; their +ideas and education are much what they always were, though the new +schools are gradually infusing more modern notions; they are still +as calm and easy-going and procrastinating as ever. The only +conspicuous change is the dethronement of the time-honoured +<em>shibúk</em>,—the long pipe of meditation and stately leisure +and “asphodel and moly” and all that is implied in the ineffable +dreamland of <em>keyf</em>,—in favour of the restless undignified +cigarette; but <em>nargílas</em> and cocoa-nut pipes for hashísh +are still in full play among the lower classes. The tradespeople +are the conservative element in Egypt, as everywhere else. The +upper classes are becoming every year less Oriental in outward +appearance and habits. They dance with “infidel” ladies, wear Frank +clothes, and delight in the little French pieces played in the +Ezbekíya garden. Even their national coffee cups are made in +Europe, and save for the red tarbúsh, and certain mental and moral +idiosyncracies difficult to eliminate and unnecessary to describe, +the Egyptian gentleman might almost pass muster in a Parisian +crowd. It is the tradesman who recalls the past, keeps up the old +traditions, and walks in the old paths. The course of the world +runs slowly in the working East, and the Cairene shopkeeper has +placidly stood still whilst the Western world joined in the +everlasting “move on” of modern civilization.</p> + +<p>“We shall find this stand-still mortal in one of the main +thoroughfares of the city. Leaving the European quarter behind, and +taking little note of the Greek and Italian shops in the renovated +Musky, we turn off to the right into the Ghuríya—one of those +larger but still narrow streets which are distinguished with the +name of <em>shari‘</em> or thoroughfare. Such a street is lined on +either side with little box-like shops, which<span class="pagenum" +id="Page_7">[7]</span> form an unbroken boundary on either hand, +except where a mosque door, or a public fountain, or the entrance +to another street interrupts for a brief space the row of stores. +None of the private doors or windows we are accustomed to in Europe +breaks the line of shops. For a considerable distance all the +traders deal in the same commodity—be it sugar-plums or slippers. +The system has its advantages, for if one dealer be too dear, the +next may be cheap; and the competition of many contiguous salesmen +brings about a salutary reduction in prices. On the other hand, it +must be allowed that it is fatiguing to have to order your coat in +half-a-dozen different places—to buy the cloth in one direction, +the buttons in another, the braid in a third, the lining in a +fourth, the thread in a fifth, and then to have to go to quite +another place to find a tailor to cut it out and sew it together. +And as each dealer has to be bargained with, and generally smoked +with, if not coffeed with, if you get your coat ordered in a single +morning you may count yourself expeditious.</p> + +<p>“In one of these little cupboards that do duty for shops, we may +or may not find the typical tradesman we are seeking. It may chance +he has gone to say his prayers, or to see a friend, or perhaps he +did not feel inclined for business to-day; in which case the +folding shutters of his shop will be closed, and as he does not +live anywhere near, and as, if he did, there is no bell, no private +door, and no assistant, we may wait there for ever, so far as he is +concerned, and get no answer to our inquiries. His neighbour next +door, however, will obligingly inform us that the excellent man +whom we are seeking has gone to the mosque, and we accordingly +betake ourselves to our informer and make his acquaintance +instead.</p> + +<p>“Our new friend is sitting in a recess some five feet square, +and rather more than six feet high, raised a<span class="pagenum" +id="Page_8">[8]</span> foot or two from the ground; and within this +narrow compass he has collected all the wares he thinks he is +likely to sell, and has also reserved room for himself and his +customers to sit down and smoke cigarettes while they bargain. Of +course his stock must be very limited, but then all his neighbours +are ready to help him; and if you cannot find what you want within +the compass of his four walls, he will leave you with a cigarette +and a cup of coffee, or perhaps Persian tea in a tumbler, while he +goes to find the <em>desideratum</em> among the wares of his +colleagues round about.</p> + +<p>“Meanwhile, you drink your scalding aromatic coffee and watch +the throng that passes by: the ungainly camels, laden with +brushwood or green fodder, which seem to threaten to sweep +everything and everybody out of the street;—the respectable +towns-people, mounted on grey or brown asses, ambling along +contentedly, save when an unusually severe blow from the inhuman +donkey-boy running behind makes their beasts swerve incontinently +to the right or left, as though they had a hinge in their +middle;—the grandees in their two-horse carriages, preceded by +breathless runners, who clear the way for their masters with shrill +shouts—“Shemálak, ya weled!” (“To thy left, O boy!”) “Yemínik, ya +Sitt!” (“To thy right, O lady!”) “Iftah ‘eynak, ya Am!” (“Open +thine eye, O uncle!”) and the like;—the women with trays of +eatables on their heads, the water-carrier with goat-skin under +arm, and the vast multitude of blue-robed men and women who have +something or other to do, which takes them indeed along the street, +but does not take them very hurriedly. In spite of the apparent +rush and crush, the crowd moves slowly, like everything else in the +East.</p> + +<p>“Our friend returns with the desired article; we approve it, +guardedly, and with cautious tentative<span class="pagenum" id= +"Page_9">[9]</span> aspect demand, ‘How much?’ The answer is always +at least twice the fair price. We reply, first by exclaiming, ‘I +seek refuge with God’ (from exorbitance), and then by offering +about half the fair price. The dealer shakes his head, looks +disappointed with us, shows he expected better sense in people of +our appearance, puts aside his goods, and sits down to another +cigarette. After a second ineffectual bid, we summon our donkey and +prepare to mount. At this moment the shopman relents, and reduces +his price; but we are obdurate, and begin riding away. He pursues +us, agrees almost to our terms; we return, pay, receive our +purchase, commend him to the protection of God, and wend our way +on.</p> + +<p>“But if, instead of going on, we accompany our late antagonist +in the bargain to his own home, we shall see what a middle-class +Cairene house is like. Indeed, a middle-class dwelling in Cairo may +sometimes chance to be a palace, for the modern Pasha despises the +noble mansions that were the pride and delight of better men than +he in the good old days of the Mamlúks, and prefers to live in +shadeless ‘Route No. 29,’ or thereabouts, in the modern +bricklayer’s paradise known as the Isma‘ilíya quarter; and hence +the tradesman may sometimes occupy the house where some great Bey +of former times held his state, and marshalled his retainers, when +he prepared to strike a blow for the precarious throne that was +always at the command of the strongest battalions. But all Cairene +houses of the old style are very much alike: they differ only in +size and in the richness or poverty of the decoration; and if our +merchant’s home is better than most of its neighbours, we have but +to subtract a few of the statelier rooms, and reduce the scale of +the others, to obtain a fair idea of the houses on either hand and +round about.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_10">[10]</span>“The street we now +enter is quite different from that we have left. We have been doing +our shopping in the busy Cheapside of Cairo, and in full view of +the lofty façade of the mosque of the Mamlúk Sultan El-Muáyyad. Its +two minarets stand upon a fine old gate called Bab Zawíla (or +commonly Zuweyla), which people now-a-days generally prefer to call +the Bab el-Mutawélly, because it is believed to be a favourite +resort of the mysterious Kutb el-Mutawélly, or pope (for the time +being) of all the saints. This very holy personage is gifted with +powers of invisibility and of instantaneous change of place: he +flies unseen from the top of the Kaaba at Mekka to the Bab Zuweyla, +and there reposes in a niche behind the wooden door. True believers +tell their beads as they pass this niche, and the curious peep in +to see if the saint be there; and if you have a headache, there is +no better cure than to drive a nail into the door; while a sure +remedy for the toothache is to pull out the tooth and hang it up on +the same venerated spot. Perhaps pulling the tooth out might of +itself cure the ache; but the suggestion savours of impiety, and at +any rate it is safer to fix the molar up. The door bristles with +unpleasing votive offerings of this sort, and if they were all +successful the Kutb must be an excellent doctor.</p> + +<p>“The street thus barred by the Bab Zuweyla is, for Cairo, a +broad one; and shops, mosques, wekálas (or caravanserais), and +fountains form its boundaries. In complete contrast, the street we +are now to enter, as we turn down a by-lane and then wheel sharply +to the left, has no shops, though there is a little mosque, +probably the tomb of a venerated saint, at the corner. Its broad +bands of red and white relieve the deep shadows of the lane, each +side of which is composed of the tall backs of houses, with nothing +to vary the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_11">[11]</span> +white-washed walls except the closely grated windows. On either +hand still narrower alleys open off, sometimes mere +<em>culs-de-sac</em>, but often threading the city for a +considerable distance. In these solitary courts we may still see +the <em>meshrebíyas</em> which are becoming so rare in the more +frequented thoroughfares. The best lattices are reserved for the +interior windows of the house, which look on the inner court or +garden; but there are not a few streets in Cairo where the +passenger still stops to admire tier upon tier and row after row of +meshrebíyas which give a singularly picturesque appearance to the +houses.</p> + +<p>“The name is derived from the root which means to drink (which +occurs in ‘sherbet’), and is applied to lattice windows because the +porous water-bottles are often placed in them to cool. Frequently +there is a little semi-circular niche projecting out of the middle +of the lattice for the reception of a <em>kulla</em> or carafe. The +delicately turned nobs and balls, by which the patterns of the +lattice-work are formed, are sufficiently near together to conceal +whatever passes within from the inquisitive eyes of opposite +neighbours, and yet there is enough space between them to allow +free access of air. A meshrebíya is, indeed, a cooling place for +human beings as well as water-jars, and at once a convent-grating +and a spying-place for the women of the harím, who can watch their +Lovelace through the meshes of the windows without being seen in +return. Yet there are convenient little doors that open in the +lattice-work if the inmates choose to be seen even as they see; and +the fair ladies of Cairo are not always above the pardonable vanity +of letting a passer-by discover that they are fair.</p> + +<p>“In one of these by-lanes we stop before an arched doorway, and +tie our donkey to the ring beside it. The door is a study in +itself. The upper part is<span class="pagenum" id= +"Page_12">[12]</span> surrounded by arabesque patterns, which form +a square decoration above it, often very tasteful in the case of +the older doorways. Sometimes the wooden door itself has arabesques +on it, and the inscription ‘God is the Creator, the Eternal,’ which +is a charm against sickness and demons and the evil eye, and also +serves as a <em>memento mori</em> to the master of the house +whenever he comes home. There is no bell, for the prophet declared +that a bell is the devil’s musical instrument, and that where a +bell is the angels do not resort—and sometimes there is no knocker, +so we batter upon the door with our stick or fist. It generally +takes several knockings to make oneself heard; but this is not a +land where people hurry overmuch—did not our lord Mohammad, upon +whom be peace, say that ‘haste came from the devil’—so we conform +to the ways of the land, and console ourselves with the antithetic +text, ‘God is with the patient.’ At last a fumbling sound is heard +on the other side, the doorkeeper is endeavouring to fit a stick, +with little wire pins arranged upon it in a certain order, into +corresponding holes bored at the end of a deep mortice in the +sliding bolt of the door. These are the key and lock of Cairo. The +sliding bolt runs through a wooden staple on the door into a slot +in the jamb. When it is home, certain movable pins drop down from +the staple into holes in the sliding bolt and prevent its being +drawn back. The introduction of the key with pins corresponding to +the holes in the bolt lifts the movable pins and permits the bolt +to be slidden back. Nothing could be clumsier or more easy to pick. +A piece of wax at the end of a stick will at once reveal the +position of the pins, and the rest is simple.</p> + +<p>“Within is a passage, which bends sharply after the first yard +or two, and bars any view into the interior from the open door. At +the end of this passage we<span class="pagenum" id= +"Page_13">[13]</span> emerge into an open court, with a well of +brackish water in a shady corner, and perhaps an old sycamore. Here +is no sign of life; the doors are jealously closed, the windows +shrouded by those beautiful screens of net-like woodwork which +delight the artist and tempt the collector. The inner court is +almost as silent and deserted as the guarded windows which overlook +the street. We shall see nothing of the domestic life of the +inhabitants; for the women’s apartments are carefully shut off from +the court, into which open only the guest rooms and other masculine +and semi-public apartments. After the bustle of the street this +quiet and ample space is very refreshing, and one feels that the +Egyptian architects have happily realized the requirements of +Eastern life. They make the streets narrow and overshadow them with +projecting meshrebíyas, because the sun beats down too fiercely for +the wide street of European towns to be endurable. But they make +the houses themselves spacious and surround them with courts and +gardens, because without air the heat of the rooms in summer would +be intolerable. The Eastern architect’s art lies in so constructing +your house that you cannot look into your neighbour’s windows, nor +he into yours; and the obvious way of attaining this end is to +build the rooms round a high open court, and to closely veil the +windows with lattice blinds, which admit a subdued light and +sufficient air, and permit an outlook without allowing the passing +stranger to see through. The wooden screens and secluded court are +necessary to fulfil the requirements of the Mohammedan system of +separating the sexes.</p> + +<p>“The lower rooms, opening directly off the court, are those into +which a man may walk with impunity and no risk of meeting any of +the women. Into one of these lower rooms our host conducts us, with +polite entreaty to do him the honour of making ourselves +at<span class="pagenum" id="Page_14">[14]</span> home. It is the +guest-room, or <em>mandara</em>, and serves as an example of the +ordinary dwelling-room of the better sort. The part of the room +where we enter is of a lower level than the rest, and if it be a +really handsome house we shall find this lower part paved with +marble mosaic and cooled by a fountain in the middle; while +opposite the door is a marble slab raised upon arches, where the +water-bottles, coffee-cups, and washing materials are kept.</p> + +<p>“We leave our outer shoes on the marble before we step upon the +carpeted part of the room. It is covered with rugs, and furnished +by a low divan round three sides. The end wall is filled by a +meshrebíya, which is furnished within with cushions, while above it +some half-dozen windows, composed of small pieces of coloured glass +let into a framework of stucco, so as to form a floral pattern, +admit a half-light. The two sides, whitewashed where there is +neither wood nor tiles, are furnished with shallow cupboards with +doors of complicated geometrical panelling. Small arched niches on +either side of the cupboards, and a shelf above, are filled with +jars and vases, and other ornaments. The ceiling is formed of +planks laid on massive beams and generally painted a dark red, but +in old houses the ceilings are often beautifully decorated. There +are no tables, chairs, or fireplaces, or indeed any of the things a +European understands to be furniture. When a meal is to be eaten, a +little table is brought in; if the weather be cold a brazier of +red-hot charcoal is kindled; instead of chairs the Cairene tucks +his legs up under him on the divan—an excellent method of getting +the cramp, for Europeans.</p> + +<div class="figcenterplate iw5"> +<figure id="i02"><a href="images/i02.jpg"><img src='images/i02.jpg' +alt=''></a> +<p class="cp2">COURT OF A PRIVATE HOUSE</p> +</figure> +</div> + +<p>“There is often another reception-room, raised above the ground, +but entered by steps from the court, into which it looks through an +open arched front; and<span class="pagenum" id= +"Page_17">[17]</span> frequently a recess in the court, under one +of the upper rooms, is furnished with a divan for hot weather. A +door opens out of the court into the staircase leading to the harím +rooms, and here no man but the master of the house may penetrate. +‘<em>Harím</em>’ means what is ‘prohibited’ to other men, and what +is ‘sacred’ to the master himself. The harím rooms are the domestic +part of the house. When a man retires there he is in the bosom of +his family, and it would need a very urgent affair to induce the +doorkeeper to summon him down to anyone who called to see him. +Among the harím apartments there is generally a large sitting-room, +like the mandara, called the <em>ká‘a</em>, with perhaps a cupola +over it; and in front of the ká‘a is a vestibule, which serves as a +ventilating and cooling place, for a sloping screen over an open +space on the roof of this room is so turned as to conduct the cool +north breezes into the house in hot weather; and here the family +often sleep in summer.</p> + +<p>“There are no bedrooms in a Mohammedan house, or rather no rooms +furnished as bedrooms, for there are plenty of separate chambers +where the inmates sleep, but not one of them has any of what we +conceive to be the requisites of bedroom furniture. The only +fittings the Cairene asks for the night consist of a mattress and +pillow, and perhaps a blanket in winter and a mosquito-net in +summer, the whole of which he rolls up in the morning and deposits +in some cupboard or side room; whereupon the bedroom becomes a +sitting-room. There is another important department of the +harím—the bathroom—not a mere room with a fixed bath in it, but a +suite of complicated heated stone apartments, exactly resembling +the public Turkish baths. It is only a large house that boasts this +luxury, however, and most people go out to bathe, if they care to +bathe at all.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_18">[18]</span>“The inhabitants +of a house, such as that described, lead a dreary monotonous life; +fortunately, however, they are not often conscious of its +emptiness. The master rises very early, for the Muslim must say the +daybreak prayers. A pipe and a cup of coffee is often all he takes +before his light mid-day meal, and he generally reserves his +appetite for the chief repast of the day—the supper or dinner—which +he eats soon after sunset. If he is in business he spends the day +in more or less irregular attendance at his shop, smokes almost +incessantly either the new-fangled Turkish cigarette, or the +traditional <em>shibúk</em>, with its handsome amber mouthpiece, +its long cherry-wood stem, and red-clay bowl filled with mild +Gébely or Latakía tobacco. If he has no special occupation, he +amuses himself with calling on his friends, or indulges in long +dreamy hours in the warm atmosphere of the public bath, where the +vapour of the hot-water tanks, and the dislocation of each +particular joint in the shampooing, and the subsequent interval of +cooling and smoking and coffee, are all exceedingly delightful in a +hot climate. When he goes out, a man of any position or wealth +never condescends to walk; as a rule he rides a donkey, sometimes a +horse; but the donkey is far the more convenient in crowded +streets. Indeed, an Egyptian ass of the best breed is a fine +animal, and fetches sometimes as much as a hundred guineas; his +paces are both fast and easy, and it is not difficult to write a +letter on the pummel of one of these ambling mounts.</p> + +<p>“While their lord is paying his calls or attending to his shop, +the women of his household make shift to pass the time as best they +may. In spite of popular ideas on the subject, Mohammedans seldom +have more than one wife, though they sometimes add to their regular +marriage a left-handed connexion with an Abyssinian or other +slave-girl. Efforts, however, are being made<span class="pagenum" +id="Page_19">[19]</span> to put down the traffic in slaves, and if +the trade be really suppressed, as it is already in law, the +Cairene will become monogamous. The late Khedive himself set an +excellent example in this, as in most other respects, and the +better sort of Muslims are, to say the least, as moral as ordinary +Christians. Facility of divorce is the real difficulty. Men will +not keep several wives, because it costs a good deal to allow them +separate houses or suites of rooms, and plurality does not conduce +to domestic harmony; but they do not hesitate to divorce a wife +when they are tired of her, and take a new one in her place. It is +said the caliph ‘Aly thus married and divorced two hundred women in +his time; and a certain dyer of Baghdád even reached the +astonishing total of nine hundred wives: he died at the good old +age of eight-five, and if he married at fifteen, he would have had +a fresh spouse for every month during seventy years of conjugal +felicity. Divorce was so easy that there seems no great reason why +he should not have married nine thousand. One lady is said to have +reduced the fatiguing ceremony of wedlock to extremely convenient +dimensions. The man said to her <em>Khitb</em>, and she replied +<em>Nikh</em>, and the wedding was over! Thus did she marry forty +husbands, and her son Khárija was sorely puzzled to identify his +father. A governor of Upper Egypt was no mean disciple of these +illustrious leaders; but the habit has become more and more +uncommon.</p> + +<p>“There would be much more excuse for the women to demand +polyandria than for the men to ask for polygynaecia; for while the +husband can go about and enjoy himself as he pleases, the women of +his family are often hard pushed to it to find any diversion in +their dull lives. Sometimes they make up a party and engage a whole +public bath; and then the screams of<span class="pagenum" id= +"Page_20">[20]</span> laughter bear witness how the girls of Egypt +enjoy a romp. Or else the mistress goes in state to call upon some +friends, mounted upon the high ass, enveloped in a balloon of black +silk, her face concealed, all but the eyes, by a white veil, and +attended by a trusty manservant. These visits to other haríms are +the chief delights of the ladies of Cairo: unlimited gossip, +sweetmeats, inspection of toilettes, perhaps some singers or +dancers to hear and behold—these are their simple joys. They have +no education whatever, and cannot understand higher or more +intellectual pleasures than those their physical senses can +appreciate: to eat, to dress, to chatter, to sleep, to dream away +the sultry hours on a divan, to stimulate their husband’s +affections and keep him to themselves—this is to <em>live</em>, in +a harím. An Englishwoman asked an Egyptian lady how she passed her +time. ‘I sit on this sofa,’ she answered, ‘and when I am tired, I +cross over and sit on that.’ Embroidery is one of the few +occupations of the harím; but no lady thinks of busying herself +with the flower-garden which is often attached to the house. +Indeed, the fair houris we imagine behind the lattice-windows are +very dreary, uninteresting people; they know nothing, and take but +an indifferent interest in anything that goes on; they are just +beautiful—a few of them—and nothing more.</p> + +<p>“In truth the Egyptian ladies cannot venture to give themselves +airs; they suffer from the low opinion which all Mohammedans +entertain of the fair sex. The unalterable iniquity of womankind is +an incontrovertible fact among the men of the East; it is part of +their religion. Did not the blessed Prophet say, ‘I stood at the +gate of Paradise, and lo! most of its inhabitants were the poor: +and I stood at the gates of Hell, and lo! most of its inhabitants +were women?’ Is it not, moreover, a physiological fact that +woman<span class="pagenum" id="Page_21">[21]</span> was made out of +a <em>crooked</em> rib of Adam; which would break if you tried to +bend it, and if you left it alone it would always remain crooked? +And is it not related that when the Devil heard of the creation of +woman, he laughed with delight, and said, ‘Thou art half of my +host, and thou art the depositary of my secret, and thou art my +arrow with which I shoot and miss not!’ It is no wonder that a +learned doctor gave advice to his disciple, before he entered upon +any serious undertaking, to consult ten intelligent persons among +his particular friends, or if he have not more than five such +friends, let him consult each of them twice; or if he have not more +than one friend, he should consult him ten times, at ten different +visits; if he have not one to consult, let him return to his wife +and consult her, and whatever she advises him to do, let him do the +contrary: so shall he proceed rightly in his affair and attain his +object. Following in the steps of this pious Father, the Muslims +have always treated women as an inferior order of beings, necessary +indeed, and ornamental, but certainly not entitled to respect or +deference. Hence they rarely educate their daughters; hence they +seek in their wives beauty and docility, and treat them either as +pretty toys, to be played with and broken and cast away, or as +useful links in the social economy, good to bear children and order +a household.”<a id="FNanchor_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_1" class= +"fnanchor">[1]</a></p> + +<p>The fatal blot upon Muslim society is this contempt of women, +which far more than counterbalances the good effects of the +Mohammedan doctrine of the equality of all true believers in the +sight of God, and the ease of manner and independence of opinion +which result from the sense of fraternity in the sacred bond of +Islám. The picture we have drawn of the daily life of the Cairene +is perhaps too sombre, and we<span class="pagenum" id= +"Page_22">[22]</span> should watch our tradesman at his revels in +order to understand the brighter side of his life. It is true these +excitements are strictly connected with his religion, but so are +the Roman Catholic holidays, and if one must dissipate it is +soothing to the conscience to do it under the auspices of a saint. +The Muslim, however, takes an unnatural delight in pious +celebrations. The wedding guest of Cairo has his own importunate +Ancient Mariner in the <em>Khatma</em> or recital of the entire +Korán, from cover to cover, which a worthy bridegroom frequently +provides for the entertainment of his friends. When the people of +Cairo wish to go in for serious dissipation they visit the graves +of their relations, and then, in houses expressly reserved for +cheerful mourners, they listen to the chanting of the holy book. +<em>Voilà un terrible humeur d’homme!</em> <em>Tristes</em> as we +are said to be in England in our manner of amusing ourselves, even +an Ibsen audience would stand aghast at the Muslim’s staid +diversions. He certainly makes the most of curiously unpromising +materials. The feast of St Simon and St Jude does not perhaps +suggest exhilaration to an unimaginative Englishman, but your +Cairene will intensely enjoy, in his sedate way, the holidays of +his religion. There are plenty of them, and a Cairo <em>Mólid</em> +or “birthday” is not a one-day’s festival, like mere Christian +feasts, but lasts sometimes as long as nine days at a stretch. +Every tourist knows some of them, such as the Kiswa or Holy Carpet +procession, and the passing of the Mahmal with the pilgrim caravan +to Mekka, and they are worth seeing, if they happen to fall within +the “season”—for the Muslim year still retains the unreformed lunar +calendar, which shifts continually and carries the feasts round +with it. There is hardly a week in the year however without some +special rite or spectacle. It may be the <em>Ashúra</em> +or<span class="pagenum" id="Page_23">[23]</span> 10th of Moharram +(the first month), when people eat cakes in honour of Hoseyn, the +martyred son of ‘Aly, and pay their homage at the mosque of the +Hasaneyn, where the martyr’s head is supposed to rest, and watch +the amazing antics of the dervishes. “Since Hoseyn, in whose honour +it is held (combining with his elder brother, Hasan, to form the +‘Hasaneyn’), is especially the saint of the heretical Persians, and +has given rise, through no merit of his own, to more schisms in the +Mohammedan world than any other person, it is strange that the +Cairenes, who are almost all orthodox Sunnis, should pay such +particular reverence to this feast. But the truth is, they are glad +of any excuse for a holiday; and, after all, was not our lord +Hoseyn the grandson of the Prophet? and is he to be given over +wholly to those heretical dogs of Shi‘a? Whatever the argument, +Hoseyn is deeply revered in Cairo, and his Molid is one of the +sights of the capital that most delight the European visitor. +Nothing more picturesque and fairylike can be imagined than the +scenes in the streets and bazars of Cairo on the great night of the +Hasaneyn. The curious thing was that in the winter after +Tell-el-Kebír, when I stood—for riding was impossible—in the midst +of the dense throng in the Musky, and struggled into the by-street +that leads to the Kady’s court and the mosque of the Hasaneyn, +there was not a sign of ill-humour or fanaticism in spite of the +presence of many Europeans. A more good-natured crowd was never +seen. It might have been expected that at least some slight +demonstration would have been made against the Europeans who +wandered about the gaily illuminated streets; but English ladies +walked through the bazars, English officers and tourists mingled in +the throng and even reached the doors of the sacred mosque itself +without the slightest molestation or even remark. Once or twice a +woman<span class="pagenum" id="Page_24">[24]</span> might have been +heard sarcastically inviting some Christian to ‘bless the Prophet’; +but if the Christian charitably replied, ‘God bless and save him,’ +she was nonplussed; and even if he did not know the proper answer, +nothing came of it. The general good-nature inspired by the +festival obliterated all memories of war and heresy, and it may +safely be asserted that no English mob could have been trusted to +behave in so orderly and friendly a manner in the presence of a +detested minority.</p> + +<p>“The scene, as I turned into one of the narrow lanes of the +great Khan El-Khalíly, or Turkish bazar, which fronts the mosque of +the Hasaneyn, was like a picture in the Arabian Nights. The long +bazar was lighted by innumerable chandeliers and coloured lamps and +candles, and covered by awnings of rich shawls and stuffs from the +shops beneath; while, between the strips of awning, one could see +the sombre outlines of the unlighted houses above, in striking +contrast to the brilliancy and gaiety below. The shops had quite +changed their character. All the wares which were usually littered +about had disappeared; the trays of miscellaneous daggers and rings +and spoons and whatnot, were gone; and each little shop was turned +into a tastefully furnished reception-room. The sides and top were +hung with silks and cashmeres, velvets, brocades, and embroideries +of the greatest beauty and rarity—costly stuffs, which the most +inquisitive purchaser never managed to see on ordinary occasions. +The whole of the sides of the bazar formed one long blaze of gold +and light and colour. And within each shop the owner sat surrounded +by a semicircle of friends, all dressed in their best, very clean +and superbly courteous—for the Cairo tradesman is always a +gentleman in mien, even when he is cheating you most outrageously. +The very man with whom you haggled hotly in the morning +will<span class="pagenum" id="Page_25">[25]</span> now invite you +politely to sit down with him and smoke; at his side is a little +ivory or mother-of-pearl table, from which he takes a bottle of +some sweet drink flavoured with almonds or roses, and offers it to +you with finished grace.</p> + +<p>“Seated in the richly-hung recess, you can see the throng +pushing by—the whole population, it seems, of Cairo, in their best +array and merriest temper. All at once the sound of drums and pipes +is heard, and a band of dervishes, chanting benedictions on the +Prophet and Hoseyn, pass through the delighted crowd. On your left +is a shop—nay, a throne-room in miniature—where a story-teller is +holding an audience spell-bound as he relates, with dramatic +gestures, some favourite tale. Hard by, a holy man is revolving his +head solemnly and unceasingly, as he repeats the name of God, or +some potent text from the Korán. In another place, a party of +dervishes are performing a <em>zikr</em>, or a complete recital of +the Korán is being chanted by swaying devotees. The whole scene is +certainly unreal and fairylike. We can imagine ourselves in the +land of the Ginn or in the City of Brass, but not in Cairo or in +the nineteenth century.</p> + +<p>“Outside the khan, dense masses of the people are crowding into +the mosque of the Hasaneyn, where specially horrible performances +take place, and where the tour of the shrine of Hoseyn must be +made. Near by, a string of men are entering a booth; we follow, and +find tumblers at work, and a performing pony, and a clown who +always imitates the feats of the gymnasts, always fails +grotesquely, and invariably provokes roars of laughter. In another +booth Karakúsh is carrying on his intrigues: this Egyptian Punch is +better manipulated than our own, whom he nearly resembles; but he +is not so choice in his language or behaviour, and we are glad +before long to leave a place where the jokes<span class="pagenum" +id="Page_26">[26]</span> are rather broad, and certain saltatory +insects unusually active. People of the lower class however care +nothing for these drawbacks; they laugh till their sides ache at +Karakúsh’s sallies, and whatever they see, wherever they go, +whomever they meet, whatsoever their cares and their poverty, on +this blessed night of the Hasaneyn they are perfectly happy. An +Egyptian crowd is very easily amused: the simplest sights and +oldest jests delight it; and it is enough to make a fastidious +European regret his niceness to see how these simple folk enjoy +themselves upon so small an incentive.”<a id= +"FNanchor_2"></a><a href="#Footnote_2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a></p> + +<p>This is what one goes to Cairo to see, the real Eastern life in +its Eastern setting. A scene like this repays one for many dreary +calls, many tepid dances in the region of hotels. You may get hotel +life, club life, polo and tennis, and even golf, excellently at +Cairo—the European Cairo—but these things are common to all “winter +resorts.” In the “bazars,” among the people, you get something that +the Isma‘ilíya quarter cannot give, that no other place can quite +rival, something that painters love and that kindles the +imagination. After all, the most interesting things are always the +unfamiliar, and the first plunge into Egypt is a revelation of +fresh ideas, new tones in colour, and the pungent odours of a +strange native life.</p> + +<p>It is in the “bazars” that one feels most the shock of contact +with the unfamiliar; but, in a less intimate yet deeply impressive +way, to drink in the full inspiration of the Muslim city one must +climb to the ramparts of the Citadel about sunset and slowly absorb +the wonderful panorama that spreads below and around. Unhappily, to +get there one usually passes along the most terribly defaced street +in all Cairo. The worst<span class="pagenum" id= +"Page_27">[27]</span> destruction took place, one is thankful to +remember, before England took the reins of Egypt. It was Isma‘íl, +under French influence, who made that unspeakable atrocity, the +“Boulevard Mohammad ‘Aly,” which cut through some of the most +beautiful quarters, ruined palaces and gardens, and chopped off +half of a noble mosque in order to preserve the tasteless accuracy +of its straight line. Along its side are ranged mean and uneven +offices and tenements, neither Europeanly regular nor Orientally +picturesque. Old wine and new bottles are in close connexion. A +Muslim school elbows a “Grog Shop for Army and Navy.” Under the +shadow of the stately mosque of Sultan Hasan an Arab barber is +cutting hair with a modern clipping machine. A gaily painted harím +carriage, guarded by eunuchs, stands at the door of the mosque: on +the panel is a sham coat-of-arms, that last infirmity of Turkish +minds—though for that matter heraldic bearings were used in Egypt +at least seven hundred years ago. Solemn sheykhs pace slowly along +without any sign of surprise at these strange sights. Overhead the +guns boom out a salute, for it is the Great Festival, the <em>‘Id +el-kebír</em>, from Saladin’s Citadel; but the garrison are not +stalwart Turkmáns or wild Kurds, in picturesque garb and with +clanking spear and mace, such as the great Soldan led against +Richard of the Lion-heart, but British “tommies” unbecomingly +attired in khaki. The Citadel itself is an arsenal of modern arms +and stores, and English officers rule where once the Mamlúk Beys +were massacred. Old and new are ever clashing in the mediæval +fortress, and Private Ortheris mounts guard over the mosque of a +Mamlúk Sultan.</p> + +<p>But once we stand on the ramparts the flaring contrasts vanish +and the jarring note is still. All in that wide range beneath the +eye is of the East Eastern. The European touches are too small at +such<span class="pagenum" id="Page_28">[28]</span> a distance to +mar the purely Oriental tone. Countless domes and minarets, a +glimpse of arched cloisters, a wilderness of flat-roofed houses, +yellow and white and brown, with sloped pents to admit the cool +breezes below; a patch of green here and there, with dark-leaved +sycamores, revealing some of the many gardens of the old city, and +beyond, a fringe of palms and a streak of silver where “the long +bright river” rolls sleepily on between its brown banks; in the +distance, against the ridge of the Libyan horizon, in the carmine +glory of the sinking sun, stand the everlasting pyramids, “like the +boundary marks of the mighty waste, the Egyptian land of shades.” +One after the other the tall forms of slender minarets separate +themselves from the bewildering chaos of roofs and domes, and +display their varied grace. Each has its story of victory or exile, +of famine and invasion, of learning and piety, to tell. On the +right, northwards, the fine towers of Muáyyad above the Zuweyla +gate recall a hundred deeds and legends of that famous portal, once +the main entrance of the caliphs’ palace-city. Beyond them rise the +minarets of the Nahhasín, a perfect gallery of Saracen art, and +again beyond, the turrets of Hákim’s great quadrangle. In front in +the foreground stands Sultan Hasan, the largest and most imposing +of Mamlúk mosques, and a little to the left one looks into the vast +arcaded square of Ibn-Tulún, with its queer corkscrew tower +overhanging the billowy mounds that reveal where Fustát lay a +thousand years ago. Still more to the left a line of arches shows +where the aqueduct that has brought water to the Citadel for five +centuries stretches to the Nile, and behind we can look down upon +the cluster of ruined domes and minarets of the southern Karáfa—the +“Tombs of the Mamlúks”—and catch a glimpse of the old fortress of +Egyptian Babylon and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_31">[31]</span> +the mosque of the conqueror ‘Amr. Looking over the Mamlúk minarets +we can see the dim outlines of the cairns of Dahshúr and the +conspicuous form of Sakkára’s step-pyramid, separated from the +Saracen domes by only fifteen miles of space but five millenniums +of time; and as the glow of the sunset fades away the evening +clouds gather in the west and the desert beyond takes up their +shades of grey and blue like a vast mid-African ocean.</p> + +<div class="figcenterplate iw1"> +<figure id="i03"><a href="images/i03_large.jpg"><img src= +'images/i03.jpg' alt=''></a> +<p class="cp2">THE CITADEL</p> +</figure> +</div> + +<p>Here we realize Cairo for the first time as a city of the Middle +Ages, and more than that, a city with an heritage from the dawn of +history. It is true it has not the exquisite setting of the +seven-hilled queen of the Bosporus; it is not even built about the +Nile, which the silts of centuries have breasted away from the +walls it once laved: but as one looks out from the battlements of +the Castle one perceives that there are other oceans than those of +water, and that the capital of Egypt can have no more fitting frame +than the deserts which are her shield and the pyramids her +title-deeds to her inheritance from the remote past. “He who hath +not seen Cairo,” said the Jewish hakím, “hath not seen the world. +Her soil is gold; her Nile is a marvel; her women are as the +bright-eyed houris of Paradise; her houses are palaces, and her air +is soft with an odour above aloes, refreshing the heart: and how +should Cairo be otherwise when she is the Mother of the World?”</p> + +<hr class="chap"> + +<h2><span class="pagenum" id="Page_32">[32]</span><a id= +"c02"></a>CHAPTER II</h2> + +<p class="sch1"><em>The Town of the Tent</em> +</p> + +<p class="dcap">IN the view from the Citadel one sees an +essentially mediæval city, but of all the Arab buildings there is +not one that in its present state dates back to the Arab conquest. +Before the Muslims invaded Egypt in 640 there was no Cairo, and +strictly speaking there was none till three centuries later than +that, when the Greek general laid the foundations of the +palace-city of the Fátimid caliphs and it received the name +el-Káhira, which Europeans twisted into Cahere, Caire, and Cairo. +But this is merely a pedantry of terms, and one might as well +restrict London to the City and refuse the name to Westminster and +Mayfair. There was a Muslim capital from the days of the conquest, +and though it was not called Cairo it was close to the present +city, which is merely an expansion of the original town. The +history of its growth will appear as we study its several stages +and monuments, and for the moment a bare enumeration of the +successive foundations will suffice. First rose the original Arab +settlement, Fustát, the Town of the Tent, in 641. To this was added +in 751 a north-eastern suburb, the official residence of the +governors and their troops, hence named el-‘Áskar, “the +Cantonments.” A new royal faubourg, or small city, was built still +more to the north-east by the first independent Muslim King of +Egypt, Ibn-Tulún, about 860, and was known by the<span class= +"pagenum" id="Page_33">[33]</span> name of el-Katái‘, “the Wards,” +because it was divided into separate quarters for different nations +and classes. So far the three towns were practically contiguous, +and ‘Askar and Katái‘ were but the Chelsea and St James’s of the +City, the commercial capital, Fustát.</p> + +<p>The fourth foundation was still further to the north-east, and a +considerable vacant space was left between it and the almost +destroyed faubourg of Katái‘, in order to preserve the safety and +seclusion of the sacred caliphs for whom it was built in 969. This +last was the true Cairo, el-Káhira, but it was not the commercial +and residential capital, any more than ‘Askar or Katái‘ had been. +Fustát, resting on the Nile bank, was still the emporium of trade +and the metropolis alike of business and of culture, whilst Káhira +was but a palace, a barrack, and a seat of government. When the +mediæval chroniclers, such as William of Tyre, write of +“Macer”—meaning Masr (properly Misr) the usual Arabic name both for +Egypt and for its capital—they refer not to Káhira but to Fustát, +or as it was commonly called Misr-el-Fustát. The Emír or Caliph or +Sultan might dwell and rule at any suburb he pleased to build, but +the old capital remained the real metropolis throughout. There the +Kádis sat in judgment in the “Old Mosque”; there the coins of the +realm were issued; and there resided the bulk of the citizens who +were not attached to the palace. It was only when Fustát was +deliberately burned in 1168, to save it from giving cover to the +Crusaders, that Káhira took its place as the real capital as well +as the official centre of Egypt.</p> + +<p>Saladin was the creator of Cairo as we know it. It was he who +planned the wall that was to enclose not only Káhira but the +Citadel and what remained of Katái‘ and Fustát, and from his time +began the building over the space intervening between +the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_34">[34]</span> Citadel and the +palace of Káhira which gradually filled up the Cairo which we now +see. The growth of the city thus consisted mainly of three +successive expansions towards the north-east, accompanied by decay +of abandoned suburbs, and ending in a general enclosure of the +chief inhabited portions. Since the days of Saladin, whatever +remained of Fustát has vanished, and only a straggling village +called Masr-el-Atíka or “Old Masr,” and known to Europeans as “Old +Cairo,” has risen near its site, which is easily traced by the +immense rubbish-heaps. On the other hand a new town has grown up +between Káhira and the Nile under European influences, but with +this, pleasant winter city as it is, the Mediæval Town has nothing +to do.</p> + +<p>The narrative of the Arab invasion of Egypt is in many points +exceedingly obscure, owing to the circumstances that the Arabs did +not begin to write history till more than two centuries later, and +that our only almost contemporary authority, John, bishop of Nikiu, +has come down to us in a corrupt translation. The Arabs under the +command of ‘Amr ibn el-‘Asy entered Egypt not more than 4000 strong +in December 639, in the caliphate of ‘Omar, the second successor of +the prophet Mohammad; and after taking Pelusium and Bilbeys by +siege, and fighting a battle with the Romans at Umm-Duneyn, a +suburb which stood near the present ‘Abdin palace, attacked the +city of “Misr” or “Babylon of Egypt.” This city was a northern +extension or successor of the decayed but then still existing +Egyptian capital Memphis, about twelve miles distant from the +present Cairo, and had grown up under the protection of the Roman +fortress of Babylon. It was evidently strongly defended, for the +Arab general had to summon reinforcements, till his army mustered +12,000, before he could attack it.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_35">[35]</span>“‘Amr divided his +forces into three corps, one of which he posted to the north of +Babylon; the second was stationed at Tendunyas [probably the +Umm-Duneyn of the Arabic writers], and the third withdrew +northwards to Heliopolis, in the hope of tempting the Romans out of +their fortifications, upon which the other two corps were to fall +on their rear or flank. The manœuvre succeeded. The Romans marched +out of their fortifications, and attacked the Saracens at +Heliopolis, but, being themselves taken in rear by the other +divisions, were routed and driven to the Nile, when they took to +their boats and fled down the river. Upon this the Muslims occupied +Tendunyas, the garrison of which had perished in the battle, except +300 men, who shut themselves up in the fort, whence they retired by +boat to Nikiu. The taking of Tendunyas was evidently followed by, +or synonymous with, the taking of the whole city of Misr, except +its citadel, which was blockaded; for John of Nikiu, from whose +almost contemporary chronicle this account is taken, mentions no +subsequent siege or conquest of the city of Misr, but only the +reduction of the fortress.”<a id="FNanchor_3"></a><a href= +"#Footnote_3" class="fnanchor">[3]</a></p> + +<p>Whatever this city of Misr or Tendunyas may have been, it +vanishes from history as soon as it is conquered. The last we hear +of it is in the treaty of capitulation granted by ‘Amr, which ran +as follows:—</p> + +<p>“In the name of God, the Compassionate, the Merciful, this is +the amnesty which ‘Amr ibn el-‘Asy granted to the people of Misr, +as to themselves, their religion, their goods, their churches and +crosses, their lands and waters: nothing of these shall be meddled +with or minished; the Nubians shall not be permitted to dwell among +them. And the people of Misr, if<span class="pagenum" id= +"Page_36">[36]</span> they enter into this treaty of peace, shall +pay the poll-tax, when the inundation of their river has subsided, +fifty millions. And each one of them is responsible for [acts of +violence that] robbers among them may commit. And as for those who +will not enter into this treaty, the sum of the tax shall be +diminished [to the rest] in proportion, but we have no +responsibility towards such. If the rise of the Nile is less than +usual, the tax shall be reduced in proportion to the decrease. +Romans and Nubians who enter into this treaty shall be treated in +the like manner. And whoso rejects [it] and chooses to go away, he +is protected until he reach a place of safety or leave our kingdom. +The collection of the taxes shall be by thirds, one third at each +time. For [sureties for] this covenant stand the security and +warranty of God, the warranty of His Prophet, and the warranty of +the Caliph, the commander of the faithful, and the warranty of the +[true] believers. . . . Witnessed by ez-Zubeyr and his sons +‘Abdallah and Mohammad, and written by Wardan.”</p> + +<p>The Arab historians connect this treaty—which has all the +appearance of being an authentic document, literally +copied—expressly with the surrender of the city of Misr after the +battle of Heliopolis; but as Misr means Egypt as well as its +capital the document itself only proves that the Arab conqueror +accorded very generous terms to the people of Egypt; it says +nothing explicit as to the town of Misr, the name of which was +shortly to be transferred to Fustát, whilst the place thereof was +known no more. The only explanation seems to be that the Egyptian +city decayed as the Arab town grew, and that the population +migrated to the neighbouring and more prosperous settlement. The +remains of walls south of “Old Misr” may represent part of the +site. The disappearance<span class="pagenum" id= +"Page_37">[37]</span> of an Egyptian town is unhappily far from +unprecedented. Memphis itself has vanished, all save a few traces +of walls and fallen statues; “hundred-gated” Thebes survives only +in her temples; and the reason is that the ancient Egyptian built +his abode of perishable sun-dried brick, and lavished his massive +stone work only upon the tombs of the great dead and the temples of +the immortal gods.</p> + +<p>Whatever became of the city, a fortress of Babylon stands to +this day. Its reduction cost the Arabs a seven months’ siege. The +battle of Heliopolis was won in the late summer of 640, and it was +not till April 641 that the fortress was conquered. A leading part +in the surrender of the place is ascribed to a mysterious +personage, “the Mukawkis,” as the Arabs termed the governor of +Egypt.<a id="FNanchor_4"></a><a href="#Footnote_4" class= +"fnanchor">[4]</a> According to the Arab traditions it was he who +negotiated the treaty cited above, which secured to the Egyptians +freedom of religion and security of life, and when the Byzantine +emperor Heraclius repudiated the treaty, the Mukawkis stuck to his +word and threw in his lot with the Arabs, whose valour and simple +earnestness deeply impressed him. When his envoys returned from an +embassy to the Saracens’ camp, he asked them what manner of men the +Muslims were, and they answered, “We found a people who love death +better than life, and set humility above pride, who have no desire +or enjoyment in this world, who sit in the dust and eat upon their +knees, but frequently and thoroughly wash, and humble themselves in +prayer; a people in whom the stronger can scarce be distinguished +from the weaker, or the<span class="pagenum" id= +"Page_38">[38]</span> master from the slave.” Such a character was +new to the Egyptians, who had long suffered under the corruption +and luxury of the Eastern Roman Empire, and, whatever part the +Mukawkis personally may have played in what has been called the +betrayal of Christian Egypt, it is certain that the population +abetted the invaders.</p> + +<p>Although Christianity had been the official religion of Egypt +since the Edict of Theodosius in 379, there was still a strong +leaven of the old local cults, and, more important still, there was +a vigorous tendency to nationalism both of church and state. The +rule of Byzantium had never been gracious to the Egyptian province; +the Orthodox Church had been tyrannous; and when at the Council of +Chalcedon in 451 the Eutychian heresy maintained by the Egyptian +bishops was formally condemned, the schism became irrevocable. From +that time forward there were two churches in Egypt, the State +Church (or Orthodox Greek), supported from Constantinople, and +known as the Melekite or “Royalist,” and the national church, +afterwards called Jacobite, and generally known as the Coptic +Church. Copt is etymologically the same word as Egyptian (Greek, +Aiguptios; Arabic, Kibt and Kubt; English, Copt), and the Coptic +Church means nothing less than the Church of Egypt as separated by +the adoption of the heresy of Eutyches. The Egyptian Christians +were as much Copts before as after the Council of Chalcedon; but it +was their devotion to a metaphysical definition, which very few of +them could possibly understand, that made them a distinct church, +and to this they owe at once their misfortunes and their historical +interest. By their adhesion to the first Nicæan doctrine of the +single nature of Christ they exposed themselves to persecution and +courted isolation, and sharing in none of the developments of +the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_39">[39]</span> other churches, +they preserved in their scanty and neglected community, unchanged +for nearly fifteen hundred years, the ancient tradition and ritual +of the fifth century. It was their implacable hatred of the +Royalists that threw them into the arms of the Muslim invaders. By +the advice of their exiled patriarch they helped the Arabs from the +moment of their setting foot upon Egyptian soil. Eager to rid +themselves of Byzantine rule, and still more of the Royalist +hierarchy, they embraced they knew not what as a preferable +alternative; and after the Mukawkis, aided, according to tradition, +by a <em>catholicos</em> (probably Cyrus, Royalist patriarch of +Alexandria), had succeeded in obtaining a generous amnesty from the +Arab general, the Copts rendered every aid to the Muslims, assisted +them with labour at bridge-making, and brought them supplies. They +soon discovered that they had only exchanged masters, but the Arab, +despite his haughty assumption of superiority and his occasional +outbursts of persecution, was a gentler tyrant than the Roman of +the Lower Empire.</p> + +<p>Deprived of all support from the population, the Roman garrison +of Babylon surrendered in April 641. The Delta was quickly overrun, +and the Romans fell back upon Alexandria, which, distracted by +factions and deprived of competent leaders, yielded to panic, and +eagerly accepted ‘Amr’s magnanimous terms. By the surrender of the +Roman capital in October 641, the Arab conquest of Egypt was +complete. There was no further resistance worthy the name. The +Muslims spread over the land up to the first cataract of the Nile, +and Egypt became a province of the caliphate.</p> + +<p>On his return from Alexandria ‘Amr founded the Town of the Tent. +The great port on the Mediterranean was no suitable capital for +Arab tribes,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_40">[40]</span> whose +inexperience magnified the terrors of the deep. Alexandria, +moreover, was liable at the period of Nile inundation to be cut off +from the centre of Arab power at Medina, and the caliph ‘Omar, not +yet inspired by dreams of a vast Muslim empire, was chiefly anxious +to keep in touch with the army of Egypt. ‘Amr indeed wished to +retain Alexandria as the capital. “Behold an abode made ready for +us,” he said. But when the caliph heard of it, he asked, “Will +there be water between me and the army of the Muslims?” and the +answer was, “Yes, O commander of the faithful, there will be the +Nile,” so he set his face against Alexandria. He regarded the new +conquest as a barrack rather than a colony. ‘Amr accordingly was +bidden to choose a more central position, and found it some ten +miles north of the remains of the ancient capital of Memphis, on +the site of the camp which lay before the castle of Babylon. An old +canal, the Amnis Trajanus, had formerly connected Babylon with the +Red Sea at Suez, running past Bilbeys and the Crocodile Lake, and +this was immediately cleared of silt and reopened, so that tribute +and corn were sent by water to Arabia, and close relations were +thus maintained with the caliph.</p> + +<p>The Town of the Tent owes its name to a pretty legend, which may +very probably be true. When ‘Amr led his Arabs against the old +capital of Egypt, he pitched his tent on the spot where his mosque +now stands. After the surrender of the castle of Babylon he marched +upon Alexandria; but when the soldiers went to strike his tent, +they found that a dove had laid her eggs within and was sitting on +her nest. ‘Amr at once declared the spot sacred, and ordered them +not to disturb her; and when on the return from the conquest of +Alexandria the army set about building quarters for themselves, +‘Amr bade them settle around his still<span class="pagenum" id= +"Page_41">[41]</span> standing tent, and the first Arab city of +Egypt was ever afterwards known as el-Fustát, “the Tent,” or +Misr-el-Fustát, or simply Misr. The whole space between the Nile +and the hill Mukattam, on a spur of which stands the present +Citadel, was bare at that time. There was nothing but “waste land +and sown fields,” and no buildings except some churches or +convents, and the Roman fortress of Babylon, or Babelyún, known to +the Arabs to this day as the Kasr-esh-Shema‘ or “Castle of the +Beacon,” because (says the Topographer, el-Makrízy) “this Kasr was +illuminated on the summit with candles [in Arabic <em>shema‘</em>] +on the first night of every month,” to serve as a kalendar; but it +is possible, as Dr Butler has suggested, that the name is merely a +corruption of Kasr-el-<em>Khemi</em>, the “Castle of Egypt,” and +that the beacon story was invented to explain it.<a id= +"FNanchor_5"></a><a href="#Footnote_5" class="fnanchor">[5]</a></p> + +<p>Why ‘Amr did not occupy the old city of Misr we<span class= +"pagenum" id="Page_42">[42]</span> do not know: everything +connected with that vanished town is a mystery. Elsewhere the Arabs +had no scruple about taking possession of older cities, such as +Damascus and Edessa; but in Egypt they preferred to take fresh +ground. Misr may have been too small; or it is possible that the +caliph’s orders that they were not to acquire property and take +root in the country led to the original occupation of the bare +stretch of land between Babylon and the Mukattam hills. The first +settlement undoubtedly resembled a temporary camp rather than a +city. They wanted plenty of space to separate the various tribes +who composed the Arab army, and who, despite their Muslim +brotherhood, were liable to recall their ancient jealousies. The +site they chose was ample and almost unencumbered. The tract was +known as the three Hamras or “red” spots<a id= +"FNanchor_6"></a><a href="#Footnote_6" class="fnanchor">[6]</a>—the +Nearer, the Middle, and the Further Hamra—apparently from the red +standard which was set up in the midst.</p> + +<p>The Arab clans divided the three tracts amongst them and laid +out their settlements, from the fortress to where the mosque of +Ibn-Tulún now stands. In the midst was the general’s house, and +close to it rose the first mosque built in Egypt, the “Mosque of +Conquest,” the “Crown of Mosques,” as it was proudly called, but +known later as the “Old Mosque,” and now as the Mosque of ‘Amr. It +was originally a very plain oblong room, about 200 feet long by 56 +wide, built of rough brick, unplastered, with a low roof supported +probably by a few columns, with holes for light. There was no +minaret, no niche for prayer,<span class="pagenum" id= +"Page_43">[43]</span> no decoration, no pavement. Even the pulpit +which ‘Amr set up was removed when the caliph wrote in reproach, +“Is it not enough for thee to stand whilst the Muslims sit at thy +feet?” For it was the duty of the conqueror to recite the prayers +and preach the Friday sermon in this humble building. It soon +became too small for the growing population of Fustát, and was +enlarged in 673 by taking in part of the house of ‘Amr; and at the +same time raised stations—the germ of the minaret—were erected at +the corners for the muézzins to recite the call to prayer. +Twenty-five years later the entire mosque was demolished by a later +governor who rebuilt it on a larger scale. So many and thorough +have been the repairs and reconstructions that there is probably +not a foot of the original building now in existence. What we see +to-day is practically the mosque rebuilt in 827 by ‘Abdallah ibn +Táhir, and restored by Murád Bey in 1798, just before he engaged +the French in the “battle of the Pyramids” at Embába. It is four +times the size of the original mosque, and different in every +respect.<a id="FNanchor_7"></a><a href="#Footnote_7" class= +"fnanchor">[7]</a></p> + +<p>The “Old Mosque,” as the Topographer calls it, was intensely +revered in early times. It was there that the chief Kady held his +court, and learned men congregated in its arcades. It was a +rallying point for orthodoxy in times of schism and obtrusive +heresies. When Fustát was burned in 1168 the mosque escaped, though +much injured, and Saladin restored it; “where he found wood and +stone he left marble.” But it was as hopeless to maintain its +popularity, when the town it belonged to was in ashes, as it would +be to induce the dwellers in Belgravia to<span class="pagenum" id= +"Page_44">[44]</span> attend the services at Bow Bells. Fustát +mostly in ruins, the congregation dispersed, and the mosque of ‘Amr +fell upon evil days. Ibn-Sa‘íd, a Moorish traveller of the +thirteenth century, found the sacred building covered with cobwebs, +and scrawled over with the ribald <em>graffiti</em> of loafers and +vagabonds, the remains of whose victuals littered the floor. There +were few worshippers, and much unseemliness. “Musicians, and +ape-leaders, and conjurers, and mountebanks, and dancing-girls,” +says the historian Gabárty in the eighteenth century, desecrated +the court, and so decrepit did the building become that even these +abandoned it. If Murád Bey had not been “anxious about his soul,” +for very good reasons, and made peace with his conscience by +spending some of his ill-gotten gains upon the pious work of +restoration, the “Crown of Mosques” would have disappeared +altogether. In the early part of the nineteenth century it was +still a favourite place of prayer for the people of Cairo on the +last Friday of the Fast of Ramadán. “It is believed that God will +receive with particular favour the prayers which are offered up in +this ancient mosque; therefore, when the Nile is tardy in rising, +and the people fear a scanty inundation and a consequent scarcity, +the principal Sheykhs and Imáms and learned and devout Muslims of +the metropolis are ordered to betake themselves to the mosque of +‘Amr to pray for an increase of the river, together with the +priests of the various Christian churches and their congregations, +and likewise the Jews; each of these persuasions arranged by +itself, without the mosque. Public prayers were thus offered up for +rain in this consecrated spot by Muslims, Christians and Jews, in a +time of unusual drought about twenty years ago [<em>i.e.</em> +1825-8], and on the following day it rained.”<a id= +"FNanchor_8"></a><a href="#Footnote_8" class="fnanchor">[8]</a></p> + +<div class="figcenterplate iw4"><span class="pagenum" id= +"Page_45">[45]</span> +<figure id="i04"><a href="images/i04.jpg"><img src='images/i04.jpg' +alt=''></a> +<p class="cp2">COURT OF THE MOSQUE OF ‘AMR</p> +</figure> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_47">[47]</span>The outside of the +oldest mosque in Egypt is not impressive. Among the rubbish-hills +that mark the site of the Town of the Tent, its long grey walls, +without windows or the least attempt at ornament, look dreary, and +the two plain minarets are equally unpretentious. But within, +despite decay and the loneliness of neglect, the vast empty court +of some forty thousand square feet, surrounded by colonnades, and +the forest of columns supporting the roof of the east end, the +special place of prayer, wholly dominate all mean details. Crowded +with worshippers in the rhythmic bowings of the Muslim ritual it +must have been a wonderful and solemn vision. The arches are of +various ages, and the columns, taken from churches, show the most +diverse capitals, not always put the right side up; the arcades do +not run parallel to the walls, like cloisters round a cathedral +close, but open at right angles into the court. Wooden beams +stretch from column to column to support hanging lamps, of which +eighteen thousand were lighted every night in former times, and the +effect in the long vistas must have been superb. Those nights of +illumination are long over, and the conqueror’s mosque is a +melancholy ruin, the loneliness of which appeals to the imagination +to people it with the zealous groups of scholars and divines, +fanatics and doctors learned in the law, fakírs and holy men, who +once bowed before its deserted <em>kibla</em>. Not even the mark of +the blessed Prophet’s <em>kurbág</em> on the grey marble of the +pillar, which, urged by the blow—despite all considerations of +chronology—flew through the air from Mekka when ‘Amr was building +the mosque, nor the twin test columns between which only true +believers can squeeze (and even a Turkish soldier stuck and almost +died), avail to attract worshippers to the old shrine except on +very special occasions. Yet it is prophesied that the<span class= +"pagenum" id="Page_48">[48]</span> fall of the mosque of ‘Amr will +be the sign of the downfall of Islám, and it is strange that a +superstitious people are not more careful of their omens.</p> + +<p>The original mosque of the Arab conqueror has gone, but at least +its representative stands on the hallowed site. One cannot say as +much for Fustát, the Town of the Tent, which he founded. Whatever +may remain of this great city, which was the capital and the +river-port of Egypt for five centuries, lies hidden under the +wilderness of sand-hills which cover the débris and kitchen-middens +of the mediæval town. Here, after a strong wind has stirred the +sand, you may sometimes chance to pick up curious fragments of +glass and pottery, Roman lamps, coins, glass-bottle stamps with +inscriptions recording the names of eighth century governors, and +such-like relics of what was once Fustát. Of its houses, its +governors’ palaces, its baths and schools, not a stone or brick +remains. The “granaries of Joseph” certainly date back at least to +that later Joseph, Saladin, for Benjamin of Tudela saw them in +1170; but Masr-el-Atíka, or “Old Cairo,” is built on land which was +covered by the Nile in the days when Fustát was the capital. The +rest is desolation. We shall catch many glimpses of its history in +chapters to come, and read the descriptions of it written by +Persian and Moorish travellers from the east and the west, but such +descriptions do not enable us to realize the vanished Arab +city.</p> + +<p>One monument, however, of the age of the conquest still +survives, but it is not Arab. The Roman fortress of Babylon, the +“Castle of the Beacon,” stands where it once overlooked the +Muslims’ tents and saw the Arab capital growing up beneath its +walls. To understand why it was called Babylon, or as some say +Bab-li-On, “the gate of On,” we must go to Mataríya, a few miles +north of Cairo, where stands<span class="pagenum" id= +"Page_49">[49]</span> a solitary obelisk, sole relic of On or +Heliopolis, the “City of the Sun.” In the plain of Mataríya, before +this lonely stone, the Turks fought the final battle that won Cairo +from the Mamlúks in 1517, and here Kléber gained his victory in +1800 over the Turks. There stood the famous temple of On of which +Potipherah, the father of Joseph’s wife, was priest; here Pianchi, +the Ethiopian priest-king, eight centuries <span class= +"sc2">B.C.</span>, washed at the “Fountain of the Sun,” and made +offerings of white bulls, milk, perfume, incense, and all kinds of +sweet-scented woods, and entering the temple “saw his father Ra +[the sun-god] in the sanctuary.” Heliopolis was the university of +the most ancient civilization in the world, the forerunner of all +the schools of Europe. Here, in all probability, Moses was +instructed by the priests of Ra in “all the wisdom of the +Egyptians”; here, too, Herodotus cross-questioned the same +priesthood with varying success; here Plato came to study, and +Eudoxus the mathematician to learn astronomy; and here Strabo was +shown the houses where the famous Greeks had lived. Of this seat of +learning and focus of religion nothing but the obelisk remains. +“The images of Beth-Shemesh” (the “House of the Sun”) have indeed +been “broken,” and “the houses of the Egyptians’ gods” have been +“burned with fire.”<a id="FNanchor_9"></a><a href="#Footnote_9" +class="fnanchor">[9]</a></p> + +<p>Beside the obelisk is an ancient sycamore, riven with age and +hacked with numberless names, beneath which tradition hath it that +the Holy Family rested in their flight into Egypt, and it is hence +known as the “Virgin’s Tree.” Near by is a spring of fresh water—a +rare sight in this brackish land—which, it is said, became sweet +because the Bambino was bathed there. From the spots where the +drops fell from his swaddling<span class="pagenum" id= +"Page_50">[50]</span> clothes, after they, too, had been washed in +this sacred spring, sprang up balsam-trees, which, it was believed, +flourished nowhere else. There is no evidence for these fancies, +and, of course, the sycamore is but a descendant of the supposed +original, as it was not planted till after 1672. But the +circumstances that a temple was built by the Hebrew Onias for the +worship of his countrymen near here, and that Jewish gardeners were +brought here for the culture of the balsam-trees, give the tale a +certain fitness.</p> + +<p>Heliopolis is no more, but its guardian fortress, the “gate of +On” still defies time and the restorers’ hands, and the name of +Babylon of Egypt, applied to the capital (Fustát) as well as the +fort, appears frequently in the mediæval chronicles and romances. +When Richard Cœur de Lion defeated Saladin, the romance +relates,</p> + +<div class="linegrp-container"> +<div class="linegrp"> +<div class="group"> +<div class="line indent0">“The cheff Sawdon off Hethenysse</div> + +<div class="line indent0"> To Babyloyne was flowen, I +wysse.”</div> +</div> +</div> +</div> + +<p>Whether or not there is any foundation for the tradition +reported by Strabo and Diodorus that the castle was first built by +exiles from the greater Babylon of Chaldæa, the present fortress +dates from the third or possibly the second century of our era. The +exterior is imposing, though the walls have been injured, and the +sand has buried their feet. The greater part of the oblong outline +is still sufficiently distinguishable, and five bastions and two +circular towers are well preserved. The walls are built in the +usual Roman manner, five courses of stone alternating with three of +brick—the origin, probably, of the striped red and yellow +decoration of the Muslim mosques and houses—and their massive +aspect even now makes one realize how much the capture of such a +stronghold must have meant to the early Arabs.</p> + +<div class="figcenterplate iw3"><span class="pagenum" id= +"Page_51">[51]</span> +<figure id="i05"><a href="images/i05.jpg"><img src='images/i05.jpg' +alt=''></a> +<p class="cp2">GATE OF KASR-ESH-SHEMA‘</p> +</figure> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_53">[53]</span>When we enter the +stronghold the strange character of the fortress grows upon us. +Passing through narrow lanes, narrower and darker and dustier even +than the back alleys of Cairo, we are struck by the deadly +stillness of the place. The high houses that shut in the street +have little of the lattice ornament that adorns the thoroughfares +of Cairo; the grated windows are small and few, and but for an +occasional heavy door half open, and here and there the sound of a +voice in the recesses of the houses, we might question whether the +fortress was inhabited at all. Nothing, certainly, indicates that +these plain walls contain six sumptuous churches, with their +dependent chapels, each of which is full of carvings, pictures, +vestments and furniture, which in their way cannot be matched. A +Coptic church is like a Mohammedan harím—it must not appear from +the outside. Just as the studiously plain exterior of many a Cairo +house reveals nothing of the latticed court within, surrounded by +rooms where inlaid dados, tiles, carved and painted ceilings, and +magnificent carpets, glow in the soft light of the stained windows, +so a Coptic church makes no outward show. High walls hide +everything from view. The Copts are shy of visitors, and the plain +exteriors are a sufficient proof of their desire to escape that +notice which in bygone days aroused cupidity and fanaticism.</p> + +<p>After passing through a strong gateway, and traversing a +vestibule, or ascending some stairs, you find yourself in a small +but beautifully finished basilica, gazing at a carved choir-screen +that any cathedral in England might envy. In the dim light you see +rows of valiant saints looking down at you from above the sanctuary +and over the screens, and great golden texts in Coptic and Arabic, +to the glory of God; while above, the arches of the triforium over +the aisles show where other treasures of art are probably to be +found.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_54">[54]</span> The general +plan of a Coptic church is basilican, but there are many points of +wide divergence from the strict pattern; the Byzantine feature of +the dome is almost universal, and sometimes the whole building is +roofed over with a cluster of a dozen domes. The church consists of +a nave and side aisles, waggon-vaulted (exactly like the early +Irish churches, and like no others), and very rarely has transepts, +or approaches the cruciform shape. The sparse marble columns that +divide the nave from the aisles generally return round the west +end, and form a narthex or counterchoir, where is sunk the Epiphany +tank, once the scene of complete immersions, but now used only for +the feet-washing of Maundy Thursday. The church is also divided +cross-wise into three principal sections, besides the narthex. The +rearmost is the women’s place, whom the judicious Copts put behind +the men, and thereby prevent any disturbance of devotions much more +effectually than if the two sexes were ranged side by side as in +some Western churches. A lattice-work screen divides the women’s +portion from the men’s, which is always much larger and more richly +decorated, and the men’s division is similarly partitioned off from +the choir by another screen, while the altars, three in number, are +placed each in a separate apse, surmounted by a complete (not +semicircular) dome, and veiled by the most gorgeous screen of all, +formed of ivory and ebony crosses and geometrical panels, superbly +carved with arabesques, and surmounted by pictures and golden texts +in Coptic and Arabic letters.<a id="FNanchor_10"></a><a href= +"#Footnote_10" class="fnanchor">[10]</a> During the celebration +the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_55">[55]</span> central folding +doors are thrown back, the silver-embroidered curtain is withdrawn, +and the high altar is displayed to the adoring congregation, just +as it is in the impressive ceremonial of St Isaac’s cathedral at St +Petersburg. The carved doors and the silver-thread curtain, the +swinging lamps and pendent ostrich eggs, prepare us for something +more gorgeous than the nearly cubical plastered brick or stone +altar, with its silk covering, and the invariable recess in the +east side, which originally had a more mystic signification, but is +now only used for the burying of the cross in a bed of rose-leaves +on Good Friday, whence it will be disinterred on Easter-day. The +Coptic altar stands detached from the wall of the sanctuary, which +is often coated with slabs of coloured marble, like the dados one +sees in the mosques, or with mosaic of the peculiar Egyptian style; +while above are painted panels or frescoes representing the twelve +apostles, with Christ in the midst in the act of benediction. Over +the altar spreads a canopy or baldacchino, which is also richly +painted with figures of angels. The central sanctuary with its +altar is divided off from the side altars by lattice screens.</p> + +<p>A curious part of the furniture is the Ark, which holds the +chalice during the rite of consecration; and scarcely less +interesting is the flabellum, or fan for keeping gnats off the +chalice, which is often exquisitely fashioned of repoussé silver. +Similar fans are represented in the Irish Book of Kells. There is +never a crucifix, but reliquaries are not uncommon, though their +place is not on the altar. The Coptic church<span class="pagenum" +id="Page_56">[56]</span> forbids the worship of relics, but every +church has its bolster full of them, and the devout believer +attaches considerable importance to their curative properties. +Sometimes the most beautiful object in metal-work in a Coptic +church is the silver textus-case—corresponding to the Irish +<em>cumhdach</em>—in which the copy of the Gospels is supposed to +be sealed up, though generally a few leaves alone remain inside. It +is often a fine example of silver chasing and repoussé work, and is +reverently brought from the altar where it reposes to the +officiating deacon, who places it on the lectern while he reads +from another copy. The lectern itself is a favourite subject for +decoration. That from the Mu‘állaka church, now in the Coptic +cathedral at Cairo, is covered with the beautiful inlaid and carved +panelling which is familiar in the doors and pulpits of +mosques.</p> + +<p>Of the six churches contained within the fortress of Babylon, +three are of the highest interest; for, though the Greek church of +St George, perched on the top of the round tower, is finely +decorated with Damascus and Rhodian tiles and silver lamps, the +Roman tower itself, with its central well, great staircase, and +curious radiating chambers, is more interesting than the church +above it. Of the three principal Coptic churches, that of St +Sergius, or Abu-Sarga, is the most often visited, on account of the +tradition that it was in its crypt that the Holy Family rested when +they journeyed to the land of Egypt. The crypt is certainly many +centuries older than the church above it, which dates from the +tenth century. The church itself is notable for a fine screen, and +close to it a remarkable specimen of early Coptic figure-carving, +with representations of the nativity and of warrior saints in high +relief. Another example of this style of deep carving exists in the +triforium of the church of Saint Barbara.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_57">[57]</span>Besides Abu-Sarga +and Kadísa-Barbára, there remains a third and very interesting +Coptic church to be mentioned. This is suspended between two +bastions of the Roman wall, over a gate with a classical pediment +and a sculptured eagle. It is called from its position the +Mu‘állaka or “hanging” church. It is remarkable in many ways, +partly for being the oldest of the Babylon churches, and partly on +account of the entire absence of domes. The Mu‘állaka has other +peculiarities: it has absolutely no choir—the daïs in front of the +shallow eastern apses has to serve the purpose; and it is double +aisled on the north side.—The carved screen in the north aisle has +the unique property of being filled in with thin ivory panels, +which must have shone with a rosy tint when the lamps behind were +lighted. The sculptured pulpit is especially beautiful; it stands +on “fifteen delicate Saracenic columns, arranged in seven pairs, +with a leader.” Not the least curious part about the “suspended” +church is its hanging garden, where the bold experiment of planting +palms in mid air has succeeded in perpetuating the tradition that +it was here that the Virgin first broke fast with a meal of dates +on her arrival in Egypt.</p> + +<p>This is not the place to enter into the doctrine and ritual of +the Coptic church. The appalling Lenten fast of the Copts, which +lasts fifty-five days, and involves total abstinence from food from +sunrise to sunset during each of those days, no doubt suggested the +only less rigorous Muslim fast of Ramadán. The Coptic sacrament of +matrimony has certain elements of the grotesque in it; but most of +the ceremonial of the church possesses a dignity and the sweet +savour of antiquity which must redeem any minor absurdities. No one +can stand unmoved in a Coptic church during the celebration of the +Mass, or hear the worshippers<span class="pagenum" id= +"Page_58">[58]</span> shout with one voice, just as they did some +fifteen hundred years ago, the loud response, “I believe This is +the Truth,” without emotion. Through fiery persecution they have +clung to their truth with a heroism that is only the more wonderful +when we consider their weakness; and however partial and ignorant +their interpretation of truth, we cannot withhold the respect that +is the due of those who have come out of great tribulation and +remained steadfast to their faith.</p> + +<hr class="chap"> + +<h2><span class="pagenum" id="Page_59">[59]</span><a id= +"c03"></a>CHAPTER III</h2> + +<p class="sch1"><em>The Faubourgs</em> +</p> + +<p class="dcap">BY the Arab conquest in 640 Egypt became a province +of the caliphate, and was ruled, like the other provinces, by +governors appointed by the caliphs. The first four successors of +Mohammad retained Medina, the Arabian city of his adoption, as +their seat of government; but after the murder of ‘Aly, the fourth +caliph, the dynasty of the Omayyads transferred the centre of power +to Damascus. From Damascus therefore came most of the thirty +governors who held rule over the land of Egypt during the ninety +years of the Omayyad caliphate. Some of them were sons or brothers +of the reigning caliphs, and most were naturally court favourites, +inexperienced in the art of government, and ignorant of everything +save their religion and their language. The object of the sovereign +pontiff at Damascus was to get as much revenue as he could out of +the subject provinces, and Egypt especially was regarded in the +light of a valuable milch-cow. ‘Amr, the conqueror, was the first +governor, and from his new capital of Fustát he sent out his +officers and collected about £6,000,000 from a population estimated +at from six to eight millions. When the old warrior died at the age +of ninety and was buried in the Mukattam hills he is said to have +left seventy sacks of <em>dinárs</em><a id= +"FNanchor_11"></a><a href="#Footnote_11" class="fnanchor">[11]</a> +or something like ten tons<span class="pagenum" id= +"Page_60">[60]</span> of gold, which his conscientious sons +declined to inherit.</p> + +<p>However this may be, it is certain that the governors looked +chiefly to the revenue, and did little for the country but draw the +not very burdensome land and capitation taxes, and accumulate such +pickings as might be safely diverted to their own use. A governor +whose average tenure of office was three and a half years, and +whose future livelihood often depended wholly on his savings, was +under serious temptation to make the most of his brief +opportunities. There were good <em>wális</em> and bad, but the +shortness of their tenure and their absolute dependence upon the +caliph at Damascus restricted their powers and energies, and they +generally contented themselves with keeping order and rendering +tribute to their pontifical Cæsar. The position was not easy. There +were some thousands of Arab soldiers at Fustát and Alexandria and +some other towns, constantly increased, however, by the troops +brought into the country by successive governors; but all the rest +of the population was Christian and resolved to remain so. Indeed, +any wholesale conversion was much to be deprecated, since it +implied the loss of the poll-tax of a guinea a head which was +levied only from non-Muslims. Still, it was dangerous to be in so +marked a minority, and we find that about ninety years after the +conquest, a governor, despairing of any considerable accession of +native Egyptians to the Muslim ranks, was driven to import 5000 +Arabs into the Delta. It was only by very slow degrees and after +much intermarriage and many partial immigrations that Egypt became +Muslim, and for a long time the Arabs were practically confined to +the large towns.</p> + +<p>Fustát itself must soon have attracted a numerous Coptic +population from the decaying Egyptian towns in the neighbourhood, +not only in wives for the conquerors,<span class="pagenum" id= +"Page_61">[61]</span> but in officials. All the details of +government were naturally in the hands of the subject people. The +desert Arabs knew nothing beyond the patriarchal rule of the clan, +and they adopted everywhere the system they found prevailing in a +conquered territory. Roman offices were translated into Arabic +equivalents, and the Copts, a race of born clerks and accountants, +managed all the departments. For half a century the government +books and public documents were written in Coptic. Usefulness does +not necessarily compel toleration, and the Christians did not +always escape persecution in spite of their official services. They +were better treated, however, than is sometimes imagined. Grateful +for their assistance in the stress of the invasion ‘Amr granted +privileges to the Jacobites and recalled their exiled patriarch. +Another governor allowed the Copts to build a church at Fustát +beside the bridge that connected the capital with the island of +Roda, and a third, ‘Abd-el-‘Azíz, son of the caliph Marwán, bought +the monastery at Tamweyh from the monks for over £10,000 when he +wanted a country house. He went there in order to be cured of +elephantiasis in the sulphur springs of Helwán, between Cairo and +Memphis, and it is curious to consider how nearly this modern +health-resort (now moved further towards the desert) became the +capital of Egypt. ‘Abd-el-‘Azíz was so charmed with the climate of +Helwán that he built mosques there (695), a palace, known as the +“Golden House” from its gilt dome, and a glass winter-garden, +planted trees, made a lake and aqueduct, and constructed a +Nilometer. Hitherto the lower Nile had been measured at Memphis, +but in 716 a new Nilometer was set up on the island of Roda, where +a second was afterwards built at the upper end of the island in +861. Subsequent governors, however, did not share the +ideas<span class="pagenum" id="Page_62">[62]</span> of +‘Abd-el-‘Azíz either in regard to the charms of Helwán or in +relation to the Copts, and we read of a vexatious system of +passports, badges for monks, fines and tortures, and destruction of +sacred pictures, which excited such indignation that the people +rose in rebellion in the east of the Delta, and the Christian king +of Nubia marched into Egypt to demand the release of an imprisoned +patriarch.</p> + +<p>These Muslim persecutions were not a whit more cruel than the +contemporary Christian persecutions of the Jews, but this does not +make them the more defensible. The monks seem to have especially +excited the fanaticism of the early Muslims, whose puritanism found +no place for monastic rules. In later times the Shí‘a caliphs of +Cairo took very kindly to the Coptic monks, but it was not so in +the cruder and fiercer age of the Arab conquests. Monasticism was a +potent force in Egypt from very early days. The followers of St +Mark in the third century had settled in scattered communities all +over the Delta, and had already begun to formulate what is known as +“the Egyptian rule.” We do not yet know how much we owe to these +remote hermits. Some have held that Irish Christianity, the great +civilizing agent of the early Middle Ages among the northern +nations, was the child of the Egyptian Church. Seven Egyptian monks +are buried at Disert Ulidh, and there is much in the ceremonies and +architecture of early Ireland that reminds one of still earlier +Christian remains in Egypt. Everyone knows that the handicraft of +the Irish monks in the ninth and tenth centuries far excelled +anything that could be found elsewhere in Europe; and if the +Byzantine-looking decoration of their splendid gold and silver work +and their superb illuminations can be traced to the teaching of +Egyptian missionaries, we have more to thank the Copts for +than<span class="pagenum" id="Page_63">[63]</span> has been +imagined. That Arab architecture owes to them much of its +decorative charm is among the commonplaces of the history of +art.</p> + +<p>Such considerations naturally could not influence a people so +wholly dead to artistic ideas as the Arabs. To them the Coptic +monks were merely candidates for clerkships and owners of secret +hoards to be squeezed for the benefit of the faithful. Any thought +of fellowship or amity was out of the question, and the fact that +persecution was not more general and consistent must be ascribed to +the indolence or good nature of individual governors, and to the +prudent maxim that deprecates the slaughter of the goose that lays +golden eggs. Now and again we read of cruel massacres and tortures, +and destruction of churches, and next we hear of permission granted +for the building or restoration of a church. We find the Copts +quietly meeting in the fortress of Babylon, which they always +occupied, to elect a patriarch; and almost at the same moment +appear notices of humiliating sumptuary rules, a distinguishing +garb of some ridiculous colour, and wooden effigies of the devil +hung over Coptic doors. Every now and then some rising, or a mere +street quarrel, would be made the pretext for a wholesale massacre, +when many churches were razed to the ground.</p> + +<p>In spite of persecution, in spite of the apostasy of the weaker +brethren, the Church still preserved a painful existence. There is +something truly heroic in the constancy of these ignorant +people—for the Coptic priesthood was never famous for learning—to +the faith of their forefathers. They still persevered in the +celebration of the rites of their religion, though the loop-holed +walls, massive doors, and secret passages of their surviving +churches testify to the perils that attended such solemnities. From +time to time many<span class="pagenum" id="Page_64">[64]</span> of +them waxed rich, as the gorgeous adornments of these churches show; +for their masters could not do without their skill in reckoning and +scriveners’ work. Aided by this monopoly, and supported by a dogged +adherence to their ancient faith, the Copts present to this day the +curious spectacle of a people who have stood still for ages, and, +through many centuries of varying persecution, have preserved their +individuality and their traditions. They are still a people apart, +less mixed with alien blood than any other inhabitants of the Nile +valley; their features recall those of the ancient Egyptians, as we +see them on the monuments, much more than do the faces of the +Muslim population. And not only in person but in language the Copts +are a remnant of ancient Egypt. Their tongue, preserved in their +liturgy and recited to-day in their churches, is the lineal +descendant of the language of the hieroglyphics and of the Rosetta +stone. For ordinary purposes of course they use the Arabic of their +neighbours, but the sacred speech of their religion is still partly +understood by the priests, and retains its place of honour before +the Arabic translation in the services of the church. By another +curious freak of conservatism they preserve this ancient language, +not in the script that belonged to it—the cursive development of +the picture writing of the monuments—but in the bold uncial +character of early Greek manuscripts. A people of the race of the +Pharaohs, speaking the words of Ramses, writing them with the +letters of Cadmus, and embalming in the sentences thus written a +creed and liturgy which twelve centuries of persecution have not +been able to wrest from them or alter a jot, are indeed a curiosity +of history.</p> + +<p>The Omáyyad caliphs were superseded by the ‘Abbásids in 750, and +Fustát was the scene of the final struggle. Marwán, the last caliph +of the fallen<span class="pagenum" id="Page_65">[65]</span> +dynasty, fled to Egypt, and setting fire to Fustát and the bridge +that joined it to the island of Roda, escaped to the west bank. His +precautions were vain. The ‘Abbásid general and the men of Khurasán +soon found the means of crossing, and Marwán’s head was sent round +the towns in evidence of the change of power. Usurpers have an +invincible repugnance to dwelling in the houses of the usurped. The +‘Abbásid caliphs left Damascus and built themselves a famous new +capital at Baghdád; and their governors in Egypt, abandoning the +House of the Emírate at Fustát, established a new official suburb, +a Versailles of the Egyptian Paris, on the place where the pursuing +army had encamped, and named it el-‘Askar or “the Cantonments.” The +site was a little to the north-east of Fustát, on a part of the +Further Hamra, which had been occupied by three tribes at the time +of the Arab conquest, but had since been abandoned and become +desert. Here a faubourg grew up, which extended from Fustát to the +hill of Yeshkur, on which the mosque of Ibn-Tulún now stands. A +mosque was soon built, and a palace for the governor as well as +barracks for his troops. Streets and quarters and large mansions +clustered round the new fashionable centre, where the sixty-five +<em>wális</em> who represented the ‘Abbásid caliphs for 118 years +had their seat of government. One of them, Hátim, in 810 built +himself a summer palace called the “Dome of the Air” +(Kubbat-el-Hawa) on a spur of the Mukattam, where the Citadel of +Cairo is now built, and thither the emírs of Egypt often resorted +to enjoy the cool breeze. The new faubourg was merely the quarter +of the officials and court circles, and did not diminish the +importance of Fustát as the metropolis of Egypt.</p> + +<p>Not a trace is left of this suburb, and the record +of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_66">[66]</span> the governors who +lived there is almost equally fleeting.<a id= +"FNanchor_12"></a><a href="#Footnote_12" class="fnanchor">[12]</a> +They had a more difficult task than their predecessors under the +Omayyads, and had to suppress insurrections of Mohammedan +schismatics as well as risings among the Arab tribes and the Copts. +Fustát bore unpleasant witness to the revolts in the thousands of +rebels’ heads that were exhibited, and the courage of hesitating +heretics was damped by the sight of their leader’s skull hung up in +the mosque of ‘Amr. The history of the century from 750 to 860 is +one long chronicle of “sedition, privy conspiracy and rebellion, +false doctrine, heresy and schism,” but the disturbances hardly +affected the prosperous capital. The vagaries of some of the +governors were much more vexatious to the quiet citizens. Abu-Sálih +ibn Memdúd, in 779, was a middlesome martinet, who showed great +energy in putting down brigandage in the country, and was so +satisfied with his measures that he convinced himself of the +impossibility of theft in the towns. Confiding in this belief he +ordered the people of Fustát to leave their doors and shops open +all night, with no more protection than a net to keep the dogs out; +he abolished the office of the watchman who used to guard the +bathers’ clothes at the public baths, and proclaimed that if +anything were lost he would replace it himself. It is said that +when a man went to the bath he would call out “O Abu-Sálih, take +care of my clothes!” and no one would dare to touch them. Such +security argued great vigilance on the governor’s part, but his +absurd laws of dress and general interference irritated the people, +and his severity was worse than the evils it put down.</p> + +<p>A story is told of the famous caliph Harún-er-Rashíd, which +would scarcely invite respect for his nominees.<span class= +"pagenum" id="Page_67">[67]</span> One governor of his time, Musa +the ‘Abbásid, “was a man of great official experience, and +well-disposed towards the Copts, whom he allowed to rebuild their +ruined churches. When it was reported that he was harbouring +designs against the caliph [whom, as one of the family, he might +possibly succeed], Harún exclaimed, with his usual levity, ‘By +Allah, I will depose him, and in his place I will set the meanest +creature of my court.’ Just then ‘Omar, the secretary of the +caliph’s mother, came riding on his mule. ‘Will you be governor of +Egypt?’ asked Ga‘far the Barmecide. ‘Oh, yes,’ said ‘Omar. No +sooner said than done, ‘Omar rode his mule to Fustát, followed by a +single slave carrying his baggage. Entering the governor’s house +(at ‘Askar), he took his seat in the back row of the assembled +court. Musa, not knowing him, asked his business, whereat ‘Omar +presented him with the caliph’s dispatch. On reading it, Musa +exclaimed in Koranic phrase, ‘God curse Pharaoh, who said, Am I not +King of Egypt?’ and forthwith delivered up the government to ‘the +meanest creature.’”</p> + +<p>On the other hand a really capable ruler was sometimes sent from +Baghdad. Such was ‘Abdallah the son of Táhir, governor of Khurasán +in northern Persia (where he afterwards founded a dynasty), whose +task in Egypt was to drive out a troublesome multitude of refugees +from Spain, who had seized Alexandria, and, joined by a hot-headed +Arab tribe, set the government at defiance. ‘Abdallah, in the +course of his mission, was compelled to attack the preceding +governor, who refused to be superseded, and Fustát was blockaded +(826). A curious incident of the leaguer was the arrival one night +in the invader’s camp of a thousand slaves and a thousand slave +girls, each of whom brought a thousand dinárs in a purse. ‘Abdallah +refused the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_68">[68]</span> bribe, +and starved the garrison out. Unfortunately, when his work was done +he returned to Persia, and Egypt lost a rare example of “a just and +humane governor, a man of learning, and a staunch friend to poets.” +A reminiscence of his rule may still be tasted at any Cairo hotel +in the ‘Abdalláwi melons which he first introduced. A greater than +he visited ‘Askar when the caliph Mamún, son of Harún-er-Rashíd, +and himself a noted patron of learning and philosophy, came in +person in 832 to put down a determined revolt of the Copts in the +Delta, and did the work so thoroughly and so relentlessly that +there never again was a national movement amongst them; and partly +by their conversion to Islam, partly by the settlement of Arabs on +the land and in the villages, instead of only in the large cities, +Egypt began at last to become preponderantly a Mohammedan country. +It was the first time that an ‘Abbásid caliph had visited the Nile, +the praises of which poets had constantly been dinning in his ears; +and when el-Mamún surveyed the view from the “Dome of the Air,” he +was frankly disappointed. Using the same phrase from the Korán as +the superseded governor, he exclaimed, “God curse Pharaoh for +saying Am I not king of Egypt? If only he had seen Chaldæa and its +meadows!” “Say not so,” rejoined a divine, “for it is also written, +‘we have brought to nought what Pharaoh and his folk reared and +built so skilfully,’ and what must have been those things which God +destroyed, if these be but their remnants!”<a id= +"FNanchor_13"></a><a href="#Footnote_13" class= +"fnanchor">[13]</a></p> + +<p>The caliph’s visit, if it put an end to Coptic insurrection, +brought other troubles in its train. His interest in metaphysical +and theological speculation, which encouraged the study of Greek +philosophy at Baghdád, led him among other things to adopt the +doctrine of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_69">[69]</span> the +createdness of the Korán, which was flat against all orthodox +Muslim theory. The hated doctrine was made a test question for the +kádis or theological judges, and the consequences to those who +indulged conscientious scruples were distressing. A non-conforming +chief kády of Fustát was shorn of his beard—the worst indignity he +could suffer—and whipped through the city on an ass. The orthodox +professors of the Hánafy and Sháfi‘y schools were driven out of the +mosque of ‘Amr in disgrace. The contumely was the less deserved +inasmuch as in those days the judges were the one healthy feature +of the Egyptian government. Upright and incorruptible, as a rule, +and independent of the governor, the chief kády, who may be called +the lord chancellor and primate of Egypt in one, was a firm if +narrow interpreter and administrator of the sacred law, and would +resign his office sooner than submit to his judgments being +overruled. He was not, however, disposed to check his people’s +fanaticism, and the suppression of the Christian revolt was +followed by worse persecution than ever. An orthodox reaction began +after Mamún’s death, and a new caliph issued a number of petty +regulations for the humiliation of the Copts (850). They were +ordered “to wear honey-coloured clothes with distinguishing +patches, use wooden stirrups, and set up wooden images of the devil +or an ape or dog over their doors; the girdle, the symbol of +femininity, was forbidden to women, and ordered to be worn by men: +crosses must not be shown, nor processional lights carried in the +streets,” and so forth. The object of course was to furnish +opportunities for fines and extortion.</p> + +<p>There is no need to dwell further upon the period of Arab rule +at Fustát and ‘Askar. The Arab governors left little trace, and +though it is to be regretted that not a single specimen of their +buildings has come down to<span class="pagenum" id= +"Page_70">[70]</span> us, as links in the history of Saracenic art, +it is not probable that these edifices were remarkable. The Arabs +have never done anything in art by themselves. What is called “Arab +art” in Spain was due to a mixture of other and more gifted races, +and in Egypt we find no Mohammedan art until the caliphs began to +appoint Turks as Governors. One hears a great deal about the +misgovernment of the Turk in the present day; but be it good or +bad, it is never denied that he can govern. In the Middle Ages it +would almost appear that the Turks were the only people who +possessed the art of governing. The greatest ruler of Western Asia +in the eleventh century—the Seljúk emperor, Melik Shah—was a Turk. +The so-called Moghuls of India, Babar and Akbar, were Turks. When +Europe was split up by jealous and ignoble rivalries, the great +Turkish sultans of Constantinople wielded power from the Danube to +the Indian Ocean, and from the Caucasus to the Atlas. Most curious +it is that wherever there was Turkish rule in the Middle Ages, art +and letters flourished. Indeed, in many parts art can hardly be +said to have reawakened till the Turk came to inspire it. It was +not that he could do anything notable himself in art or letters, +for at least among the Turkish rulers of Egypt—and with an interval +of less than two hundred years its rulers have been almost all +Turks for the past eleven centuries—it would be hard to point to +many who were distinguished for cultivation; it was rather that +their strong hand preserved the order that is essential to the work +of culture, and their unscrupulous levies produced the money, that +was needed for the beautiful and grandiose buildings in which they +loved to see their power and wealth reflected. Many of them +probably had a genuine love of art, most of them were fond of +luxury and display, and delighted to surround themselves with +the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_71">[71]</span> costly products +of exquisite workmanship; and a good many, no doubt, believed that +the endowment of sanctuaries might expiate the sins of a life, +remembering the words of the Prophet, “Whosoever builds for God a +place of worship, be it only as the nest of a grouse, God buildeth +for him a house in Paradise.” Whatever the cause, the fact remains +that the influence of the Turk is found in the artistic energy of +every part of the East from the Bosporus to the Ganges. It was to +the Turks of Delhi and Agra that we owe the Kutb Minár, the Taj, +the intricate graces of Fathpur Sikri; Turks built the Atala Mesjid +at Jaunpur, the mosques of Ahmadabad, of Gaur, of Bijapur; Seljúk +Turks were the founders of the noble buildings of Kóniya, +Kaysaríya, Sivás, and other cities of Asia Minor; Othmanly Turks +built the shrines of Brusa and the imperial mosques, second indeed, +but only second, to St Sophia at Constantinople. In Egypt we find +the same thing: the first example of distinctively Saracenic art +appears only when the Turk assumed the sceptre. Up to 856 every +governor of Egypt was an Arab, and, with the doubtful exception of +the mosque of ‘Amr, not a single monument attests their public +spirit. From 856 the governors were Turks, and twenty years later +rose the mosque of Ibn-Tulún, the first and most remarkable +monument of Arab art in the country.</p> + +<p>It would take us far from Cairo to explain how the Turks came to +be rulers of Egypt. The movement was part of that overflow of the +peoples of Central Asia which has been going on from the beginning +of history; but it was assisted by the policy of the caliphs. +Alarmed at the growing power of provincial dynasts in Persia, and +threatened by turbulent Arab tribes in Mesopotamia, the ‘Abbásids +imported a guard of mercenaries recruited from the slave markets of +the Oxus, and for a while rejoiced in the protection of these +stalwart young Turks.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_72">[72]</span> +The old question, <em>Quis custodiet?</em> soon arose, and the +luxurious and effeminate caliphs of Baghdád realized too late that +in purchasing these valiant slaves they had virtually condemned +themselves to slavery. The Turkish captain of the bodyguard became +the <em>maire du palais</em> of the Baghdád <em>roi fainéant</em>, +the offices of State were seized by the Turks, and the government +of the western provinces was confided to their friends. At first +they contented themselves with the profits without the cares of +office, and a series of Turkish emírs, living at Baghdád or +elsewhere in Mesopotamia, held the fief and drew the surplus +revenue of Egypt through Arab deputy-governors. But in 856 the +deputy as well as the fieffee was a Turk, and in 868 the Turkish +fieffee Bakbak sent his stepson, Ahmad ibn Tulún, to govern Egypt +as his representative.</p> + +<p>Ahmad, the son of Tulún, was thirty-three years of age when he +arrived at Fustát, and combined in a remarkable degree the military +and administrative ability of his race with the culture of his +adopted civilization. He had studied under the learned professors +of Baghdád, and even journeyed to Tarsus for the benefit of special +lectures. In matters of Arabic philology and Koranic doctrine he +was critically expert. But beyond this he was a man of boundless +energy, an unerring judge of character, who knew how to choose and +use his subordinates. His justice, if stern, was incorruptible, and +his generosity was superb. “Give to every one who holds out the +hand” was his motto, and every month he devoted a thousand dinárs +to charity. He came to Egypt penniless, save for a loan from a +friend; but when he died he left ten million dinárs in the +treasury, an immense establishment of slaves and horses, and a +hundred ships of war. Yet he accomplished his economies without +increasing the taxes. Indeed he abolished various imposts, and his +revenues were due chiefly to<span class="pagenum" id= +"Page_75">[75]</span> the pains he took to encourage cultivation +and to give the fellahín better security in their land. For the +first time since the Arab conquest Egypt became a powerful and +sovereign State. Ahmad soon threw over all save a nominal +dependence on the caliphate, and after overcoming intrigues and +subduing three rebellions in Egypt, he marched into Syria, and +occupied the whole country as far as Tarsus and the Euphrates, +fought the armies both of the caliphate and of the Romans of the +Cilician frontier, and united under his sole authority the broad +stretch of territory from Barka in Libya to the borders of the +Byzantine empire in Asia Minor, and from the Euphrates to the first +cataract of the Nile.</p> + +<div class="figcenterplate iw5"> +<figure id="i06"><a href="images/i06.jpg"><img src='images/i06.jpg' +alt=''></a> +<p class="cp2">TOWER OF THE MOSQUE OF IBN-TULUN</p> +</figure> +</div> + +<p>Side by side with this imperial policy Ahmad expended infinite +labour and wealth upon the embellishment of his capital. “The +government house at el-‘Askar, the official suburb of Fustát, was +too small to house his numerous retinue and army. He was not +content, either, with a mere governor’s palace. In 870 he chose a +site on the hill of Yeshkur [at the north-east extremity of ‘Askar, +next to the House of the Emirate], levelled the graves of the +Christian cemetery there, and founded the royal suburb of +el-Katái‘, or ‘the Wards,’ so called because each class or +nationality (as household servants, Greeks, Sudánis) had a distinct +quarter assigned to it. The new town stretched from the present +Rumeyla beside the Citadel to the shrine of Zeyn-el-‘Abidin, and +covered a square mile. The new palace was built below the old ‘Dome +of the Air,’ and had a great garden and a spacious enclosed +horse-course or Meydán adjoining it, with mews and a menagerie; the +government house was on the south of the great mosque, which still +stands, and there was a private passage which led from the +residence to the oratory of the emír. A separate<span class= +"pagenum" id="Page_76">[76]</span> palace held the harím, and there +were magnificent baths, markets, and all apparatus of +luxury.”<a id="FNanchor_14"></a><a href="#Footnote_14" class= +"fnanchor">[14]</a></p> + +<p>The generals and officers built their houses round about, and +great mansions soon covered the new site. The bazars were even +better than at Fustát, well built and filled with choice wares. The +Meydán, where Ahmad and his captains played mall or polo, became +the favourite resort of the town, and if one asked anybody where he +was going the answer was sure to be “To the Meydán.” It was entered +by a number of gates, restricted to special classes, such as the +Gate of the Nobles, the Gate of the Harím, or named after some +peculiarity, as the Gate of Lions, which was surmounted by two +lions in plaster, the Sag Gate, made of teak, the Gate of +ed-Darmún, so called because a huge black chamberlain of that name +mounted guard there. Only Ahmad himself could ride through the +central arch of the great triple gate: his 30,000 troops passed +through the side arches. On review days he stationed himself on a +daïs and watched the crowd come in by the Polo Gate (Bab +es-Sawáliga) and pass out by the Gate of Lions, above which he had +a balcony, whence on the night of the great festival he could +survey the whole faubourg and see what the people were about. The +view from this belvedere reached to the gate of Fustát and to the +Nile, and it was a favourite resort of the emír.</p> + +<p>The palace was supplied with water from a spring in the southern +desert by means of an aqueduct, the traces of which may still be +seen—not that of many arches running from the Citadel to the Nile, +which belongs to a much later date. The people, in Eastern fashion, +naturally found fault with the quality of the pure water to which +their own muddy wells and turgid<span class="pagenum" id= +"Page_77">[77]</span> Nile had not accustomed them. Rumours of this +reached Ibn-Tulún, and he sent for the learned doctor Mohammad Ibn +‘Abd-el-Hakam to resolve these suspicions. “I was one night in my +house,” he related, “when a slave of Ibn-Tulún’s came and said, +‘The emir wants thee.’ I mounted my horse in a panic of terror, and +the slave led me off the high road. ‘Where are you taking me?’ I +asked. ‘To the desert,’ was the reply; ‘the emir is there.’ +Convinced that my last hour was come, I said, ‘God help me! I am an +aged and feeble man: do you know what he wants with me?’ The slave +took pity on my fears and said, ‘Beware of speaking disrespectfully +of the aqueduct.’ We went on till suddenly I saw torch-bearers in +the desert, and Ibn-Tulún on horseback at the door of the aqueduct, +with great wax candles burning before him. I forthwith dismounted +and salaamed, but he did not greet me in return. Then I said, ‘O +emir, thy messenger hath grievously fatigued me, and I thirst; let +me, I beg, take a drink.’ The pages offered me water, but I said, +‘No, I will draw for myself.’ I drew water while he looked on, and +drank till I thought I should have burst. At last I said, ‘O emir, +God quench thy thirst at the rivers of Paradise! for I have drunk +my fill, and know not which to praise most, the excellence of this +cool, sweet, clear water, or the delicious smell of the aqueduct.’ +‘Let him retire,’ said Ibn-Tulún, and the slave whispered, ‘Thou +hast hit the mark.’”</p> + +<p>The monument which has immortalized Ibn-Tulún, however, is his +mosque, the only building of all his sumptuous little city that has +survived the buffets of civil war and the slow detrition of +neglect. It is the most interesting monument of Mohammedan Egypt, +and forms a landmark in the history of architecture. Two features +specially distinguish it: it was built<span class="pagenum" id= +"Page_78">[78]</span> entirely of new materials, instead of the +spoils of old churches and temples, and it is the earliest instance +of the use of the pointed arch throughout a building, earlier by at +least two centuries than any in England. They are true pointed +arches, with a very slight return at the spring, but not enough to +suggest the horse-shoe form. The Topographer relates how Ahmad +lighted upon a treasure in the Mukattam hills, at a place called +“Pharaoh’s Oven,” and resolved to build with it a mosque large +enough to hold the vast congregations that then overcrowded the +mosque of el-‘Askar. He chose for the site the flat-topped rocky +hill of Yeshkur, a sure place for prayers to be answered, since it +was believed to be the spot where Moses held converse with Jehovah. +Here the foundations were laid in 876 (263 <span class= +"sc2">A.H.</span>), and two years later the work was finished and +public prayers were held in the presence of the emír. Ibn-Tulún was +at first in a difficulty how to procure the three hundred columns +needed to support the arcades, but his architect, who was a +Christian and doubtless a Copt,<a id="FNanchor_15"></a><a href= +"#Footnote_15" class="fnanchor">[15]</a> and was at the time in +prison for some offence, wrote to him that he would undertake to +build him a mosque of the size he required without columns. He was +brought before the emír who said, “Woe to thee! what is this that +thou sayest respecting the building of the mosque?” “I will draw +the plan for the prince,” answered the Christian, “that he may see +it with his eyes, with no columns save the two beside the +<em>kibla</em>.” They brought him skins and he drew the plan. Such +a<span class="pagenum" id="Page_79">[79]</span> design was +evidently quite new in mosque building, but Ahmad saw its merits at +once, arrayed the designer in a robe of honour, and gave him +100,000 dinárs to carry out his plan. When it was done he gave him +10,000 more, and the total cost is stated to have amounted to +120,000 dinárs or about £63,000. The use of brick arches and piers, +instead of marble columns, was due partly to the emír’s reluctance +to deprive the Christian churches of so many pillars, but even more +to his anxiety to make his mosque safe from fire. He was told that +if he built it of “mortar and cinders and red brick well burnt” it +would resist fire better than if constructed of marble, and the +fact remains that the mosque has withstood the conflagrations that +devastated the rest of the faubourg. The adoption of the new plan +of brick piers, instead of columns, led to the employment of the +pointed arch, and the exclusion of marble suggested the plaster or +stucco decoration which still preserves its original admirable +designs.</p> + +<p>Five rows of arches form the cloister at the Mekka or south-east +side, and two rows on the other sides; arches and piers are alike +coated with gypsum, and the ornaments on the arches and round the +stone grilles or windows are all worked by hand in the plaster. The +difference between the soft flexuousness of this work, done with a +tool in the moist plaster, and the hard mechanical effect of the +designs impressed with a mould in the Alhambra is striking: it is +the difference between the artist and the artisan. On the simple +rounded capitals of the engaged columns built at the corner of each +arch there is a rudimentary bud and flower pattern, and on either +side of the windows between the arches facing the court, which also +are pointed and have small engaged columns, is a rosette, and a +band of rosettes runs round the court beneath the crenellated +parapet.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_80">[80]</span> The inner +arches are differently treated. “Round the arches and windows runs +a knop and flower pattern, which also runs across from spring to +spring of arch beneath the windows, and a band of the same ornament +runs all along above the arches, in place of the rosettes, which +only occur in the face fronting the court; over this band and +likewise running along the whole length of all the inner arcades is +a Kufic inscription carved in wood, and above this is the usual +crenellated parapet. The arcades are roofed over with sycamore +planks resting on heavy beams. In the rearmost arcade the back wall +is pierced with pointed windows, which are filled, not with +coloured glass, but with grilles of stone forming geometrical +designs with central rosettes or stars.”<a id= +"FNanchor_16"></a><a href="#Footnote_16" class= +"fnanchor">[16]</a></p> + +<p>The general form of the mosque is similar to that of ‘Amr as +restored, the form of every mosque in Cairo from the ninth to the +thirteenth century. The great square court, covering three acres of +ground, gave room for the largest assembly, whilst the covered +arcades offered shelter from the sun to the ordinary congregation +and to the groups of students, ascetics, and beggars who have +always made their home in mosques. The south-east arcade or +<em>liwán</em>, with its deeper aisles, was the special +sanctuary,<a id="FNanchor_17"></a><a href="#Footnote_17" class= +"fnanchor">[17]</a> where the <em>mihráb</em> or niche in the wall +showed the direction (<em>kibla</em>) of Mekka, towards which the +prayers of the faithful must turn, and the pulpit (<em>minbar</em>) +and platform (<em>dikka</em>) gave the<span class="pagenum" id= +"Page_83">[83]</span> preacher and the precentors vantage to make +their voices heard throughout the crowd of worshippers. So far +there is nothing original about the mosque. The form may have been +adopted by the Arabs from ancient Semitic temples, or the great +court may represent the atrium of the Byzantine basilica and the +liwán the basilica itself, only supported on pillars instead of +vaulted roofs, with a relic of the apse in the concave +<em>mihráb</em>; but it was too obviously suited to the +requirements of the climate to need any curious derivation.</p> + +<div class="figcenterplate iw5"> +<figure id="i07"><a href="images/i07_large.jpg"><img src= +'images/i07.jpg' alt=''></a> +<p class="cp2">WITHIN THE MOSQUE OF IBN-TULUN</p> +</figure> +</div> + +<p>The dome and minaret, so characteristic of later Cairo mosques, +are here wanting. The odd-looking corkscrew tower with external +winding staircase, like the Assyrian ziggurat, has a fellow in the +tower of Samarra on the Tigris, from which it was doubtless copied, +but the upper part has probably been restored; though the tower of +Ibn-Tulún was certainly in existence in 1047, when it is mentioned +by Násir-i-Khusrau. But it is hardly a minaret in the common sense +of the term.<a id="FNanchor_18"></a><a href="#Footnote_18" class= +"fnanchor">[18]</a> There is no dome, because the dome has nothing +to do with prayer, and therefore nothing with a mosque.<a id= +"FNanchor_19"></a><a href="#Footnote_19" class="fnanchor">[19]</a> +“It is simply the roof of a tomb, and only exists where there is a +tomb to be covered, or at least where it was intended that a tomb +should be.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_84">[84]</span> Only when +there is a chapel attached to a mosque, containing the tomb of the +founder or his family, is there a dome, and it is no more closely +connected with the mosque itself than is the grave it covers: +neither is necessary to a place of prayer. It happens, however, +that a large number of the mosques of Cairo are mausoleums, +containing a chamber with the tomb of the founder, and the +profusion of domes to be seen, when one looks down upon the city +from the battlements of the Citadel, has brought about the not +unnatural mistake of thinking that every mosque must have a dome. +Most mosques with tombs have domes, but no mosque that was not +intended to contain a tomb ever had one in the true sense. The +origin of the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_85">[85]</span> dome +may be traced to the cupolas which surmount the graves of +Babylonia, many of which must have been familiar to the Arabs [and +still more to the Turks], who preserved the essentially sepulchral +character of the form and never used it, as did the Copts and +Byzantines, to say nothing of Western architects, to roof a church +or its apse.”</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<figure id="i08"><a href="images/i08.jpg"><img src='images/i08.jpg' +alt='' class="iw7"></a> +<p class="cp2">DETAIL OF ORNAMENT IN MOSQUE OF IBN-TULUN</p> +</figure> +</div> + +<p>But if there is little originality in the shape of the mosque, +its pointed arches and its decoration are worth studying. Pointed +arches occur also in the second Nilometer on the island of Roda, as +rebuilt in 861, some fifteen years earlier than the mosque of +Ibn-Tulún, and the architect of this building is stated to have +been a native of Ferghána on the Iaxartes. There is nothing to +prove that this arch was derived from the Coptic style. On the +other hand the bold and free plaster decoration, designed by the +Coptic architect, was undoubtedly borrowed from the ornament of his +countrymen. The Arabs have never been artists or even skilled +craftsmen. They imported Persians and Greeks to build for them and +decorate their houses and mosques, but above all they employed the +Copts, who have been the deft workmen of Egypt through thousands of +years of her history. A comparison of the plaster work of Ibn-Tulún +with the Coptic carvings preserved in the Cairo Museum of +Antiquities and those from the tombs of ‘Ayn-es-Síra in the Arab +Museum shows clearly the source of the floral decoration, which +belongs to the Byzantine school of Syria and Egypt. The Kufic +inscriptions carved in the solid wood are a purely Arab addition, +and one that afterwards developed into a leading decorative feature +in Saracenic art.<a id="FNanchor_20"></a><a href="#Footnote_20" +class="fnanchor">[20]</a> The geometrical ornament<span class= +"pagenum" id="Page_86">[86]</span> of the open grilles is also +Byzantine, as M. Bourgouin has established in his exhaustive +treatise on the <em>entrelacs</em>, but it is not certain that they +belong to the original building, and the star polygons suggest that +the grilles may have been part of the later restoration.<a id= +"FNanchor_21"></a><a href="#Footnote_21" class= +"fnanchor">[21]</a></p> + +<p>Home interests did not interfere with Ibn-Tulún’s imperial +ambitions. He played a conspicuous part in Mesopotamian politics, +and almost succeeded in getting the caliph into his hands. The +oppressed head of Islam would have gladly escaped from his +tyrannous brother el-Muwaffak, but the scheme failed, and Egypt +lost the opportunity of becoming the seat of the caliphate. The +result was that the ambitious emir was publicly cursed in every +mosque of Mesopotamia. He also failed to capture the sacred city of +Mekka, but his reign ended in some glorious campaigns against the +Roman emperor, in which the Egyptian forces defeated the enemy near +Tarsus, killed (it is said) 60,000 Christians, and captured immense +spoils of gold and silver crucifixes, jewels, and sacred vessels. +The success turned the general’s head, and Ahmad himself had to +march north to bring his viceroy to obedience. “It was a severe +winter, and his opponent dammed the river, flooded the country, and +nearly drowned the besieging army at Adhana. Ibn-Tulún was forced +to retire to Antioch, where a copious indulgence in buffalo milk, +following upon the exposure and privations of the campaign, brought +on a dysentery. He was carried in a litter to Fustát, where he grew +worse. In sickness the fierce emir was a terror to his doctors. He +refused to follow their orders, flouted their prescribed diet, and +when he found himself still sinking, he had their heads chopped +off, or flogged them till they died. In vain Muslims, Jews, +and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_87">[87]</span> Christians +offered up public prayers for his recovery. Korán and Tora and +Gospel could not save him; and he died in May, 884, before he had +reached the age of fifty.”</p> + +<p>His sumptuous capital received many notable additions from his +successor Khumáraweyh, who fully shared his father’s passion for +splendid building as well as his imperial policy. He enlarged the +palace, and turned the Meydán into a garden, which he planted with +rare trees and exquisite roses. The stems of the trees were thought +unsightly, and he coated them with sheets of copper gilt, between +which and the trunk leaden pipes supplied water not only to the +trees but to the canals and fountains that irrigated the garden by +means of water wheels. There were beds of basil carefully cut to +formal patterns, red, blue, and yellow water-lilies and +gilliflowers, exotic plants from all countries, apricots grafted +upon almond trees, and various horticultural experiments. A +pigeon-tower in the midst was stocked with turtle-doves, +wood-pigeons, and all sorts of birds of rich plumage or sweet song, +who made a cheerful concert as they perched on the ladders set +against the walls or skimmed over the pools and rivulets. In the +palace he adorned the walls of his “Golden House” with gold and +ultra-marine, and there set up his statue and those of his wives in +heroic size, admirably carved in wood, and painted and dressed to +the life with gold crowns and jewelled ears and turbans. In front +of the palace he laid out a lake of quicksilver, by the advice of +his physician, who recommended it as a cure for his lord’s +insomnia. It was fifty cubits each way, and cost immense sums. Here +the prince lay on an air-bed, linked by silk cords to silver +columns on the margin, and as he rocked and courted sleep his +blue-eyed lion Zureyk faithfully guarded his master. Long after +the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_88">[88]</span> palace had +disappeared people use to come and dig for the costly mercury that +had formed the emir’s cradle.</p> + +<p>There was also a pavilion as large as the “Dome of the Air,” +with a new device in curtains, and splendid carpets, and a view +over gardens, town, and Nile. In another kiosk, built by his +father, men chanted the Korán, proclaimed the hours of prayer, and +recited verses sacred and profane, pious and amorous, <em>tristes +et gais, tour à tour</em>, whilst the prince sat at table with his +ladies, surrounded by musicians. As the solemn call to prayer +echoed through the merry din, he would lay aside his cup and bow +his head to the earth in prostration, for he was an orthodox though +very irregular Muslim. The Topographer<a id= +"FNanchor_22"></a><a href="#Footnote_22" class="fnanchor">[22]</a> +expatiates for pages on the wonders of Khumáraweyh’s menagerie of +lions and lionesses, leopards, elephants and giraffes; his vast +stables, for which whole districts were set apart to grow the +necessary fodder; the lavish luxury of his kitchen, which cost +£12,000 a month; and the splendour of his household troops, +recruited from the predatory Arabs of the Delta. So brave, so +terrible, and so gallant a figure was this superb prince that his +subjects dared not speak, much less sneeze, as he passed by. It is +melancholy to think that of all this glory nothing remained after a +few years but the traces of the quicksilver.</p> + +<p>“Neither the lion nor his bodyguard of vigorous young Arabs +could save the voluptuous prince from the jealousies of his harím. +Early in 896 some domestic intrigue ended in his being murdered at +Damascus. His murderers were crucified, and amid loud lamentations +his body was buried beside his father’s, not far from his stately +palace, under Mount Mukattam. Seven Korán readers were engaged in +reciting the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_89">[89]</span> sacred +book at the tomb of Ibn-Tulún, and when the bearers brought the +body of Khumáraweyh and began to lower it into the tomb, they +happened to be chanting the verse, ‘Seize him and hurl him into the +fire of Hell.’”</p> + +<p>His dynasty did not long survive him. Two young sons were ill +able to withstand the efforts of the caliph to recover the rich +provinces of Syria and Egypt which Ahmad and his son had held in +sovereign power for thirty years. In 905 the ‘Abbásid general, +Mohammad ibn Suleymán, entered Katái‘, massacred the black troops +of the Tulúnids, and demolished the beautiful faubourg. ‘Askar +became once more the seat of government, as it had been under +earlier ‘Abbásid emirs, but Katái‘, what was left of it after the +invading army had plundered it for four months, gradually decayed; +its hundred thousand houses (if we are to believe the historians) +fell by degrees, and the prodigious famine and anarchy of the time +of Mustansir in the eleventh century finished the ruin. We shall +hear of this terrible reign of chaos in a later chapter; but though +it is anticipating the course of the story the final destruction of +the two faubourgs must be noted here. These quarters had become so +ruinous by 1070 that a wall was built all the way from the new +palace of Káhira to Fustát—or in other words from the Gate of +Zuweyla to near the mosque of ‘Amr—in order that the caliph, when +he rode out, might not be distressed by the sight of the dead +cities. The ruins of Katái‘ and ‘Askar became as it were a quarry +from which people got the materials for building elsewhere; the +whole space between the new Cairo and Fustát reverted to a state of +desert, except for a few gardens and country houses, and though, +after 1125, the people began to build houses outside the gate of +Zuweyla, the rest of the site of the faubourgs<span class="pagenum" +id="Page_90">[90]</span> remained unoccupied, save about the mosque +of Ibn-Tulún, down to the day when Makrízy wrote in 1424.</p> + +<p>It was no wonder that the place beside the hill of Yeshkur, +known as the “Castle of the Ram,”<a id="FNanchor_23"></a><a href= +"#Footnote_23" class="fnanchor">[23]</a> where “Pharaoh’s Seat” +once stood, and Abraham slew his sacrifice, became the haunt of the +Ginn. In the eighteenth century an ancient sarcophagus, belonging +to a lady of the XXVIth Dynasty, still occupied the site of the +Mastaba Fara‘ún, and anything brought there, were it but a handful +of dates, immediately turned into gold. But now the alchemy is +exhausted, the sarcophagus is in the British Museum, where no such +miracle has been known to happen, and even the Ginn have deserted +the spot.</p> + +<hr class="chap"> + +<h2><span class="pagenum" id="Page_91">[91]</span><a id= +"c04"></a>CHAPTER IV</h2> + +<p class="sch1"><em>Misr</em> +</p> + +<p class="dcap">ON the downfall of the House of Tulún Egypt +reverted to the dependent position of a province of the Baghdád +caliphate. “The Wards” having been laid low by the conquerors, the +new governors took up their residence in ‘Askar, but the name was +soon dropped, and the “cantonments” became merged in the city of +Fustát or Misr. During the whole time of the rise and decay of the +official suburbs, Misr, the real metropolis of Egypt, had been +increasing in prosperity. The segregation of the troops and palace +officials at the faubourgs, whilst depriving the towns-folk of a +certain amount of trade, relieved them from the violence of the +black soldiery and the tyranny of the bureaux, and left them free +to pursue their commerce. A large part of the Indian and Arabian +trade with Europe, which afterwards developed to great importance, +passed through Misr, and the quays were laden with the wares of +many foreign lands. It is true, for thirty years after the ruin of +the Tulúnids, Egypt and its capital were a prey to military +despotism, and the caliphs’ generals, weakly controlled from +distant Baghdád, did what seemed best in their own eyes. These were +wild times in Misr, when a hotheaded youth, el-Khalángy, upholding +the claims of the fallen dynasty with the enthusiastic approval of +the mob, drove out the hated troops, seized the capital<span class= +"pagenum" id="Page_92">[92]</span> and Alexandria, and even +defeated a fresh army from Baghdád, till, after eight months of +amazing impudence, he was betrayed and executed (906). As if this +were not enough diversion for a generation, the schismatic Fátimid +caliphs of Kayrawán offered the good people of Misr the spectacle +of an African army marching through Egypt, and even attacking the +camp across the river at Gíza, where the Baghdád army of +occupation, under the command of Dukas the Greek, lay timidly +intrenched. The Africans were at last driven out (920), but the +state of the country did not improve. The Turkish governor had to +quarter his troops in his own palace for his protection, and, when +he died, “his son was hooted out of the country by the army +clamouring for arrears of pay; the treasurer Madará‘y was in +hiding; rival governors contended for power, mustered their troops, +and skirmished over the distracted land; and a fearful earthquake, +which laid many houses and villages low, followed by a portentous +shower of meteors, added to the terror of the populace.”</p> + +<p>The people who profited most in the confusion were the lords +treasurers, who seem to have done what they pleased with the +revenue. Three members of the talented family of Madará’y, taking +their name from their original village of Madaráya, near Basra on +the Tigris, successively held the lucrative post of treasurer or +comptroller of the taxes, and one of them enjoyed this office not +only under Khumáraweyh and his two sons, but also under some of the +caliphs’ governors, and afterwards under two of the succeeding +dynasty. In spite of several reverses of fortune, Mohammad Madará’y +contrived to scrape together the not contemptible income of over +£200,000 a year, without counting his rents. But if he largely +received, he greatly gave. Every month he distributed a<span class= +"pagenum" id="Page_93">[93]</span> hundred thousand pounds’ weight +of meal to the poor; he freed many thousands of slaves, endowed +charitable and religious foundations, and spent from £60,000 to +£80,000 on each of his twenty-one annual pilgrimages to Mekka; for +he was a devout man, diligent in prayer and fasting, with the Korán +ever in his hand. It was said of his vast charity during the +pilgrimage that there was not a soul in Mekka who did not sleep in +repletion by his beneficence. Madará’y and the great judge +Ibn-Harbaweyh, who used to receive seated even the state visits of +the governors, were two bright exceptions in a crowd of petty +tyrants.</p> + +<p>At last another strong Turk took the reins. If Mohammad “the +Ikhshíd,” who derived his title from his ancestors the kings of +Ferghána on the Iaxartes, did not leave any monument in Misr to +rival that of his great predecessor Ibn-Tulún, and if his cautious +policy was content with a kingdom extending no further than +Damascus, instead of to the Euphrates, he at least restored order +in Egypt, kept the African invaders at a distance, waged on the +whole successful war in Syria, and maintained kingly state in his +beautiful palace in the “Garden of Kafúr,” west of the present +Nahhasín. A delightful trait of chivalry is recorded in his war +with Ibn-Ráik, a Turkish chief, who dominated Syria for a time. +This emír was “so distressed to find the corpse of one of the +Ikhshíd’s brothers among the slain that he sent his own son to his +adversary as an atonement, to be dealt with as he chose. Not to be +outdone in generosity, the Ikhshíd clothed the intended sacrifice +in robes of honour, and sent him back in all courtesy to his +father. Of course the youth married the daughter of his chivalrous +host.”</p> + +<p>In the summer of 935 the people of Misr saw the procession of +the Ikhshíd’s war-vessels advancing up the Nile from Damietta, and +occupying the island of<span class="pagenum" id= +"Page_94">[94]</span> Roda, which was connected with the city by a +bridge of boats; and in August the troops entered the capital and +plundered it for two days, till called to order by their stern +master. After the anarchy of the past thirty years the firm if +rapacious hand of the new ruler was a grateful change, and the +enthusiastic son of el-Khaláty, who jumped upon the carved wooden +horse that stood before his palace, and let fly a pigeon sweetly +anointed with musk and rosewater at the new emír, expressed the +sentiments of the people.<a id="FNanchor_24"></a><a href= +"#Footnote_24" class="fnanchor">[24]</a> The Old Mosque of ‘Amr +recovered its former importance as the chief place of worship, and +the Ikhshíd furnished it with beautiful new rush-mats, lamps and +perfumes, and himself attended the service in state on the last +night of Ramadán, clad in white, and followed by five hundred +squires carrying maces and torches. On the following day, the +Lesser Festival, he held a review, after the example of Ibn-Tulún. +The army, numbering 400,000, marched by all day long, followed by +the household corps of 8000 mamlúks in shining armour, beneath the +daïs at the gate of the Government House. On the second day of the +feast the emír attended the prayers at the mosque, and held open +house for the people. When the caliph sent the Ikhshíd an official +robe of honour, with necklace and bracelets, the streets and bazars +were decked with rich cloth and rugs, and the doors of the Old +Mosque were covered with gold brocade, as the emír dressed in his +new robe pranced in stately procession to the Wednesday +prayers.<a id="FNanchor_25"></a><a href="#Footnote_25" class= +"fnanchor">[25]</a></p> + +<p>Those were glorious days in Misr, and the people<span class= +"pagenum" id="Page_95">[95]</span> almost forgot the immense +confiscations and severities of the new régime in the enjoyment of +its refulgence. Arabic literature began to flourish in the capital +beside the Nile, though still far from rivalling the intellectual +supremacy of the caliphs’ city on the Tigris, where Persian +influences had produced a quickening of varied studies that were +long in finding their way to the more orthodox capital of Egypt. +Arabic learning was still in its infancy in the days of the +Ikhshíd. Poetry indeed had never died, though it had become +mannered and imitative; but history had only begun to be written, +science was scarcely touched upon save in the distorted form of +astrology, and the great names of Arabic literature had hardly +begun to make themselves known. The lives of the Prophet were +gradually being enlarged into wider histories, and two of the +earliest and the most famous chroniclers, Tabary and Mas‘údy, were +contemporaries of the Ikhshíd. Mas‘údy indeed visited Egypt in 942, +and though, greatly to our loss, he does not describe the capital +as he saw it, he gives a vivid account of the “Night of the Bath,” +a Christian festival adopted by the Muslims, which shows us how the +people of Misr could make merry. “The Leylat el-Ghitás,” he says, +“is one of the great ceremonies and the people all go to it on foot +on the 10th of January. I was present in 350 [942 <span class= +"sc2">A.D.</span>] when the Ikhshíd lived at his house called “The +Elect” in the island that divides the Nile. He commanded that the +bank of the island and that of Fustát should be illuminated each +with a thousand torches, besides the illuminations of private +people. Muslims and Christians by hundreds of thousands thronged +the Nile on boats or looked from kiosks over the river or from the +banks, all emulous for pleasure and outdoing each other in their +display and dress, gold and silver vessels and jewels. The sound of +music was heard all about, with singing and dancing.<span class= +"pagenum" id="Page_96">[96]</span> It was a splendid night, the +best in all Misr for beauty and gaiety. The doors of the separate +quarters were left open [instead being barred as usual at sunset], +and most people bathed in the Nile confident in its power [on that +night] of preventing and curing all illnesses.”<a id= +"FNanchor_26"></a><a href="#Footnote_26" class= +"fnanchor">[26]</a></p> + +<p>The traveller tells how people came to the Ikhshíd and begged to +be allowed to dig for treasure, the clue to which they said they +had found in ancient manuscripts; but when permission was given the +treasure-seekers found only caves full of statues of bone and +dust—in short, they had opened some mummy-pits. Mas‘údy mentions +the two Nilometers on the island of Roda, which he calls “the +island of the shipbuilders;” the first built by Osáma and still in +general use; the second made, or rather restored, by Ibn-Tulún, +being used only for very high Niles; and he saw the bridges +connecting Misr with the island and the island with Gíza on the +west bank. He met merchants from Constantinople at Misr, but of the +city itself he tells us nothing. From Ibn-Sa‘íd and others, +however, we learn that the Ikhshíd built a new dockyard at Misr, +which took the place of the inconvenient docks on the island of +Roda, where a garden and pleasure-house were laid out instead; and +it was characteristic of his parsimony that when the estimate was +laid before him he exclaimed, “What? Thirty thousand dinárs for a +pleasure-garden!” and immediately cut the cost down to five +thousand. As the dockyard of Roda was superseded by that of Misr, +so was the latter replaced by the port of Maks, a mile lower down +the river, in the next generation. The Ikhshíd’s economical +pleasure-house on the island has left no traces; but Roda was a +favourite resort of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_97">[97]</span> +successive rulers, and his building was doubtless pulled down to +make way for the Hawdag or “litter-pavilion” of el-Amir and the +more elaborate constructions of the Ayyúbids.</p> + +<p>The great business of men of learning in those days was the +interpretation of the sacred law as laid down in the Korán, in the +traditions of the Prophet, and in the decisions of the canonical +theologians. A Mohammedan lawyer was necessarily a divine, since +the law depended on revelation, and the earliest scholars of Misr +were chiefly theological jurisconsults. Of the four recognized +schools of orthodoxy—the Hánafy, Máliky, Sháfi‘y and Hánbaly—the +Málikis and the Sháfi‘is each had fifteen porticoes in the mosque +of ‘Amr, to only three for the Hánafis, and the great court rang +with their disputes. To us their distinctions may seem trivial, but +to the Muslims of that age they were quite as vital as the +<em>filioque</em> was to the Orthodox Eastern Church or the +difference between ἐκ and ἐν to the Copts. The divines waxed so +furious in their arguments in the Old Mosque that the Ikhshíd was +obliged for a season to take away their rush mats and cushions and +close the mosque except at prayer time. Mosques were then, as some +are still, the academies of Islam, and not merely divinity schools. +In the old days before Mohammad the Arabian poets used to recite +their verses at the great fairs before critical audiences of their +countrymen. In Mohammedan times the criticism of authors was +equally public but in a different fashion. “When a man had produced +something he thought particularly good, he hastened to the mosque +to share it with his critics. He was sure to find them there, +doctors learned in the law, poets, commentators, seated +cross-legged on their carpets in the arched porticos round the +court, expounding the refinements of style to a circle of squatting +students. To this audience he<span class="pagenum" id= +"Page_98">[98]</span> would recite his latest achievement, proud +but tremulous. It must have been a searching ordeal, for the +listeners were some of them rivals and all of them keen critics, on +the alert for the least flaw, the slightest halt in the rhythm, the +smallest lapse from the purity of the classical idiom. They had, +too, a way of expressing their opinions which was more forcible +than kind. There was a hot debate, much citing of precedents and +quoting of the Masters, exploring of memory, and examination of +texts. The new comer defended his diction and produced his +authorities; the rest cut him up in remorseless verbal +vivisection.”<a id="FNanchor_27"></a><a href="#Footnote_27" class= +"fnanchor">[27]</a></p> + +<p>It was not only theology that echoed in the Mosque of ‘Amr in +the days of the Ikhshíd. Though the long list of worthies whose +biographies Ibn-Sa‘íd unrolls in his “String of Trinkets of the +Fustát Bride” consists preponderantly of lawyers and divines, men +primed with serried precedents and tenacious of the authentic +tracing of traditions, these were not all. There were the family of +Tabátaba, famous descendants of ‘Aly, poets every one, whose verse +is full of the love of nature and of love itself, and not a little +of the joys of wine, always forbidden but not the less dear to the +poets of all ages of Islám. Did not one of these poets sing +something like this?—</p> + +<div class="linegrp-container"> +<div class="linegrp"> +<div class="group"> +<div class="line indent0">Grigs chirp in the sand,</div> + +<div class="line indent2">The moon is on high,</div> + +<div class="line indent0">The breeze curls the runnel,</div> + +<div class="line indent2">Clouds fleck the sky,</div> + +<div class="line indent0">Great trees swing with joy</div> + +<div class="line indent2">And merrily crack:</div> + +<div class="line indent0">Now brim me the beaker</div> + +<div class="line indent2">E’er life turns its back!</div> + +<div class="line indent0">No friendship’s so knit</div> + +<div class="line indent2">That time cannot split.</div> +</div> +</div> +</div> + +<p class="nind"><span class="pagenum" id="Page_99">[99]</span>There +was Abu-l-Fadl of the distinguished family of el-Furát, who, though +a mighty authority on traditions, did not disdain, any more than +many other learned doctors, to write a good verse now and then, +though his vein might be serious:—</p> + +<div class="linegrp-container"> +<div class="linegrp"> +<div class="group"> +<div class="line indent0">Whose soul is dark, a quiet life is his, +no night’s unease;</div> + +<div class="line indent0">When the storm breaks, it spares the low +but fells the tallest trees.</div> +</div> +</div> +</div> + +<p class="nind">Even Mansúr the lawyer condescended to a somewhat +staid vein of verse, though it was he who stirred up such a turmoil +by his pronouncement on the question of the legal maintenance of +divorced wives in the days of governor Dukas that he had to be +protected by troops, and there was a terrible scene of swords drawn +and knives about his bier when the people believed that he had been +murdered by a judge who disagreed with him. The Kády el-Bakár, the +aged court poet, had such a fund of delightful anecdote that the +Ikhshíd would often send for him of an evening and beg for a story, +“were it only a finger’s length.” It was this genial old bard who +wrote the lines about the morning cup and the enjoyment of that +good comrade, life, ending</p> + +<div class="linegrp-container"> +<div class="linegrp"> +<div class="group"> +<div class="line indent0">Allah! give me not peace! O God, I ask +not content—</div> + +<div class="line indent0">Only a waist to embrace and a wine cup +never spent!</div> +</div> +</div> +</div> + +<p class="nind">Misr had its merits in this respect, for ez-Zeyneby +wrote:—</p> + +<div class="linegrp-container"> +<div class="linegrp"> +<div class="group"> +<div class="line indent0">My home is in Fustát; blame me ye who +chide.</div> + +<div class="line indent0">Where the Muskat vines are, there do I +abide.</div> + +<div class="line indent0">Egypt, I’ll not leave thee: reason need I +hide?</div> +</div> +</div> +</div> + +<p>The celebrated author el-Musébbihy comes rather<span class= +"pagenum" id="Page_100">[100]</span> later, for he was not born +till 977, but his work is typical of the tenth century in Egypt. +Thirty books he wrote, numbering nearly forty thousand pages, and +their subjects ranged over poetry and criticism, the history of +Egypt and religion, treatises on wine and joviality, on choice +repasts and cookery, on astrology and demons, dreams, wishes and +oaths, anecdotes and maxims, besides subjects that are best +described as “curious.” Literature owed much to the pleasure-loving +court of the Abyssinian slave Kafúr (<em>i.e.</em> “Camphor”), who +after the Ikhshíd’s death in 946 ruled the land for twenty-two +years, first as regent over his late master’s two sons, who lived +and died in luxurious and inactive obscurity, and for the last two +or three years as titular prince of Egypt. There are few quainter +figures in history than this jolly black eunuch, with his huge +paunch, his bandy legs, and his immense cloven underlip, of which +his guest, the poet el-Mutanebby, last of the classic Arabians, +made such fun when he found that his panegyrics of the black prince +brought him less returns—large as they were—than he expected. +“Kafúr was at once the Lucullus and the Maecenas of his age. He had +contrived to acquire some cultivation, as most clever slaves did, +and he loved to surround himself with poets and critics, and listen +to their discussions of an evening, or make them read him the +history of the caliphs of old.” Serious scholars attended his +réunions. There might be seen el-Kindy, the chronicler of the +“Excellencies of Egypt” (Fadáil Misr), to whom Makrízy owed so +much; el-Bakhtary the learned grammarian, as well as Ibn-el-‘Ásim, +whose light lyrics won him the title of the “castanettist of the +soul.” Kafúr could appreciate them all. Like all blacks he +delighted in music. He had control of vast sums of money, and he +scattered it liberally among his<span class="pagenum" id= +"Page_101">[101]</span> literary friends, who repaid him in fulsome +flattery. When the “castanettist of the soul” explained in choice +verse that the frequent earthquakes of the time were due to Egypt’s +dancing for joy at Kafúr’s virtues, the pleased Ethiopian threw him +a thousand dinárs. On his table, “Camphor” was lavish; he had the +black’s jolly sensuality. The daily provision for his kitchen +consisted in 100 sheep, 100 lambs, 250 geese, 500 fowls, 1000 +pigeons and other birds, and 100 jars of sweets. The daily +consumption amounted to 1700 lb. of meat, besides fowls and sweets, +and 50 skins of liquor were allowed to the servants alone. A +favourite drink was quince-cider, for which the kády of Asyút sent +50,000 quince-apples every season.<a id="FNanchor_28"></a><a href= +"#Footnote_28" class="fnanchor">[28]</a></p> + +<p>In spite of a stern and unimaginative religion, in spite of +fatalism and all its paralysing effects, the mediæval Arabs managed +to enjoy life, just as their forefathers of the desert did. The +wonderful thing about this old Mohammedan society is that it was +what it was in spite of Mohammedanism. With all their prayers and +fasts and irritating ritual, the Muslims of the Middle Ages +contrived to amuse themselves. Even in their religion they found +opportunities for enjoyment. They made the most of the festivals of +the faith, and put on their best clothes and made up parties—to +visit the tombs, perhaps, but to visit them cheerfully—and they +“tipped” all their servants that they too might go out and amuse +themselves in the gaily illuminated streets filled with dancers and +singers and reciters, or in the mosques where the dervishes were +performing their strange and revolting rites. Such diversions gave +a relish to life,—even though a man had his destiny inscribed in +the sutures of his skull and some ascetic souls found a consolation +in staring<span class="pagenum" id="Page_102">[102]</span> at a +blank wall till they saw the name of Allah blazing on it.</p> + +<p>But the great amusement of the mediæval Muslim was feasting. It +is true the Arabs did not understand scientific cookery or æsthetic +gastronomy; they drank to get drunk and ate to get full. We read of +a public banquet where the table was covered with 21 enormous +dishes, each containing 21 baked sheep, three years old and fat, +and 350 pigeons and fowls, all piled up together to the height of a +man, and covered in with dried sweetmeats. Between these dishes +were 500 smaller <em>plats</em>, each holding seven fowls and the +usual complement of sweetmeats. The table was strewn with flowers +and cakes of bread, and two grand edifices of sweetmeats, each +weighing 17 cwt., were brought in on shoulder poles. A man might +eat a sheep or two without being too remarkable. And if he ate +hugely, he washed it down with plenty of wine, in spite of all the +Prophet’s laws. The Arab’s cup held a good pint, and he refilled it +pretty often. Hence the majority of the banquets described in the +Arabian histories end under the table, or would do so if there were +any tables of the right kind.</p> + +<p>There are redeeming points, however, in all this gluttony and +sottishness. The Arabs did not tope moodily in solitude. They liked +a jovial company round them, and plenty of flowers and sweet scents +on the board; they dressed very carefully, and perfumed their +beards with civet and sprinkled themselves with rosewater; while +ambergris, burning in a censer, diffused a delicious fragrance +through the room. Nor was the feast complete without music, and the +voices of singing-men and singing-women. A ravishing slave-girl, +with a form like the Oriental willow and a face like the full moon, +sang soft sad Arabian melodies to the accompaniment of the lute, +till the guests rolled<span class="pagenum" id= +"Page_103">[103]</span> over with ecstasy. And rarely was a banquet +considered perfect without the presence of a wit—such a wit as no +longer exists; no mere punster, though he could pun on occasion, +but a man of letters, well stored with the literature of the Arabs, +able to finish a broken quotation, and of fine taste in his +compositions and recitations. It was, indeed, the heyday of +literary men. So intense was the devotion of the caliphs and vezírs +to poetry and song, that they would refuse nothing to the poet who +pleased them. A beggar who gave an answer in a neatly-turned verse +would have his jar filled with gold; and a man of letters who made +a good repartee was likely to have his mouth crammed with jewels, +and his whole wardrobe replenished. One poet left behind him a +hundred complete suits of robes of honour, two hundred shirts, and +five hundred turbans.</p> + +<p>But Kafúr was much more than an epicure and a dilettante. Strong +as a horse, but gentle as a giant, his hard work and unfailing +good-humour were phenomenal. He was no mean statesman and devoted +much time and pains to the management of public business, working +often far into the night, and then throwing himself on his knees, +crying, “O God, give no created thing power over me!” His justice, +clemency, open-handedness, and piety were renowned, and though he +left immense wealth in gold and precious stones, slaves and beasts, +he used his possessions in a large-minded and charitable spirit. He +died in 968, and on his grave at Damascus was written—</p> + +<div class="linegrp-container"> +<div class="linegrp"> +<div class="group"> +<div class="line indent0">“How fares it with thee, Kafúr, alone in +the grave amid the rattle of the hail, who once didst revel in the +din of battling hosts?</div> + +<div class="line indent0">Men’s feet now trample over thy head, +where of old the lions of the sandy waste crouched before +thee.”</div> +</div> +</div> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_104">[104]</span>The warlike +epitaph was not very apposite, for Kafúr, brave as he was, cannot +be described as a successful general, in spite of two victories in +his earlier days in Syria. It was to the credit of his +statesmanship and his officers that the whole of the kingdom, now +extending to the northern frontier of Syria and including the Higáz +with the holy cities of Mekka and Medína, was preserved in +undiminished prosperity and rarely ruffled peace throughout his +regency and reign, and this in spite of several bad Niles and +consequent scarcity, portentous earthquakes, and a disastrous fire +which consumed 1700 houses in Misr in 954. The big black eunuch +knew how to keep order. Unhappily, like most great autocrats, he +left no successor, and the weakness of the government of the new +prince, the infant grandchild of the Ikhshíd, invited the invasion +which the Fátimid caliphs had long been preparing.</p> + +<p>We have no description worth quoting of the city of Misr during +this prosperous period. The traveller Ibn-Hawkal gives a brief +account of it a little later (978), and estimates its size as about +a third of Baghdád. He notes its handsome markets, its narrow +streets, with brick houses of five and even seven storeys high, +large enough for two hundred people to live in, and the gardens and +pleasure-grounds surrounding the city. The Mosque of ‘Amr in its +midst was still the most striking of its buildings, which shows +that there were as yet no great palaces or government houses. +Kafúr’s own palace was outside, probably in the park called the +“Garden of Kafúr,” though at one time he built a new palace, at the +cost of 100,000 dinárs, by the pool of Karún, near the mosque of +Ibn-Tulún; but the miasma from the stagnant water soon caused its +desertion. The capital was of course very differently situated from +the present Cairo. The Nile had then<span class="pagenum" id= +"Page_107">[107]</span> hardly begun the slow shifting of its bed +towards the west which resulted in the formation of the island of +Bulák or el-Gezíra. The river in the Ikhshíd’s time flowed under +the walls of the castle of Babylon, skirted el-‘Askar, and passed +by the points now known as the Bab-el-Luk and Bab-el-Hadíd.<a id= +"FNanchor_29"></a><a href="#Footnote_29" class="fnanchor">[29]</a> +All the districts of Masr-el-‘Atíka, Kasr-el-‘Eyny, Kasr-ed-Dubára, +and Bulák were then under water, and the capital spread along the +banks of the Nile and stretched inland to near the mosque of +Ibn-Tulún.</p> + +<div class="figcenterplate iw6"> +<figure id="i09"><a href="images/i09.jpg"><img src='images/i09.jpg' +alt=''></a> +<p class="cp2">STREET IN OLD MISR</p> +</figure> +</div> + +<p>The best description is that of the Persian Násir-i-Khursau, who +visited Misr in 1047, eighty years after Kafúr’s death, it is true, +but it is not probable that very important changes had taken place +in the interval. He knows nothing of el-Katái‘, and from his +description of Misr as a city built on high ground, and other +indications, it is evident that in his day “the Wards” faubourg was +included in Misr and that there were still houses there in spite of +the devastation that followed the fall of the House of Tulún. The +mosque of Ibn-Tulún “on the outskirts of the town” was then as now +surrounded by a double wall more solid than any the traveller had +seen except at Amid and Mayyafarikin, and a minaret was certainly +standing at that time.<a id="FNanchor_30"></a><a href= +"#Footnote_30" class="fnanchor">[30]</a> There were altogether +seven mosques in the old city, of which that of ‘Amr was the chief, +with its <em>mihráb</em> covered with white marble on which was +engraved the entire text of the Korán, and its court crowded with +professors and students and a multitude of people of all kinds, who +used it as a general meeting place for business. It had lately been +purchased by the Fátimid caliph Hákim, of whom we shall hear +presently, for 100,000 dinárs (the mosque of Ibn-Tulún had cost him +only 35,000), and he had made some restorations<span class= +"pagenum" id="Page_108">[108]</span> and presented a magnificent +silver lamp carrying seven hundred lights. So huge was this work of +art that a door had to be broken down to get it into the mosque. +The chief kády still held his court there.</p> + +<p>Outside, the gates opened into the bazars. On the north was the +Street of Lamps, the like of which the traveller had seen nowhere +else; he was amazed at the cut rock-crystal, tortoise-shell, and +other delicate work he saw there displayed, besides ivory tusks, +ostrich feathers, and other products of the Sudán and Abyssinia. On +one day, to be precise, the 18th of December 1048, he counted the +following flowers and fruits and vegetables in the markets of Misr: +red roses, lilies, narcissi, bitter and sweet oranges, lemons, +apples, jasmine, melons, <em>dastbuyas</em>, bananas, olives, +dates, grapes, sugar-cane, mad-apples, gourds, <em>badrangs</em>, +onions, garlic, carrots, and beetroot, though they belonged to +different seasons: “but Egypt,” he adds, “is a land of great extent +which produces the fruits both of hot and cold climates, and the +products of all the provinces are brought to the capital and are +readily sold in the markets.” Pottery he found manufactured of so +fine a quality that he could see his hand through it, and so +skilfully coloured that it resembled the iridescent fabric called +<em>bukalamún</em>. There was also a green transparent glass of +costly price. (All this is amply confirmed by the fragments which +have been found among the rubbish heaps of the old city.) He saw +great bowls of Damascus copper; one woman owned five thousand of +them which she let out at a franc (dirhem) a month at the +borrower’s risk. He was pleased to discover that there was no need +to carry one’s bottle or paper to the bazars of the druggists or +ironmongers: they themselves supplied the wherewithal to contain +their wares; and what was more extraordinary, the +shopkeepers<span class="pagenum" id="Page_109">[109]</span> sold at +a fixed price, instead of haggling for a bargain, and if one of +them cheated he was set on a camel and marched through the bazar to +the ringing of a bell, crying aloud, “I have deceived and am +punished! May the like chastisement befall other liars!” All the +shopkeepers rode on donkeys from their houses to their shops, and +asses stood for hire at the street corners to the number (he was +told) of 50,000. Only soldiers rode horses.</p> + +<p>The city stretched along the Nile bank, and kiosks and pavilions +overlooked the river, whence one could draw up water by a rope. +Sakkás carried it then as now in great pitchers on their backs, or +on camels. Some of the houses were seven storeys high, and on the +top of one of these was a terrace garden of orange and other fruit +trees, watered by a sákiya turned by a bull that had been conveyed +to the housetop when a calf. The houses were so large (30 cubits +square) that 350 people could occupy a single house. Some of the +covered streets and bazars had to be constantly lighted by lamps, +since no sunlight penetrated to them. To cross to the island there +was a bridge of thirty-six boats, but at that time there was no +second bridge connecting Roda with Giza, and one had to take a boat +or ferry. Fortunately there were more boats to be had at Misr than +either at Baghdád or Basra. The inhabitants of the city, says +Násir-i-Khusrau, were enjoying great prosperity in 1048, and in +honour of a royal accouchement they decorated the town with such +splendour that he would not hope to be believed if he described it. +Indeed, he never knew so peaceful and orderly a country as Egypt, +and tells the story of a rich Christian he met at Misr, who owned +innumerable cargoes and vast estates, and who, when appealed to by +the vezír in a year of scarcity, informed him that he had +enough<span class="pagenum" id="Page_110">[110]</span> corn in his +granaries to supply the capital for six years. The rents of the +occupiers of a single khan or inn, called the Dar-el-Wezír, brought +in 12,000 dinárs a year, and there were said to be two hundred such +buildings.</p> + +<p>The city which the Persian philosopher described in 1047-8 was +probably little changed in the remaining century of its prosperity. +The foundation of Káhira, or Cairo proper, had once more separated +the official and court circles from Misr, eighty years before the +visit of Násir-i-Khusrau, and yet the old capital retained its +flourishing position as the commercial metropolis. There is no +reason to suppose that it decayed during the hundred and twenty +years that were left to it. We have already anticipated the course +of history, in describing Misr in the eleventh century, and it will +be well to finish the subject by relating its destruction in the +twelfth. In 1168 Amalric, the Latin King of Jerusalem, advanced +upon Cairo, intent upon the conquest of Egypt, which the Crusaders +believed to be essential to their safety in Palestine. In November +he took Bilbeys, and stained his name by massacring every man, +woman, and child. Fear of similar atrocities and the danger of +affording the invader valuable cover close to Cairo induced Sháwar, +the vezír of the Fátimid caliph of Egypt, to order the burning of +Misr. On the 12th of November, “twenty thousand naphtha barrels and +ten thousand torches were lighted. The fire lasted fifty-four days, +and its traces may still be found in the wilderness of sandheaps +stretching over miles of buried rubbish on the south side of Cairo. +The people fled ‘as from their very graves’; the father abandoned +his children, the brother his twin; and all rushed to Cairo for +dear life. The hire of a camel for the mile or two of transit cost +thirty pieces of gold”<a id="FNanchor_31"></a><a href= +"#Footnote_31" class="fnanchor">[31]</a> in that crisis +of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_111">[111]</span> panic. The smoke +rose in dense black clouds to the sky, and compelled the invaders +to camp at a distance. The cruel measure may have been necessary, +though Cairo was saved by other means; but as we look out upon the +desolate sandhills that mark the site of the vanished Town of the +Tent and recall the peace and prosperity witnessed by the Persian +traveller, it seems as if a thousand Crusaders in Cairo would be a +lighter sacrifice than the loss of the old city of Misr.</p> + +<p>Though the town never really recovered from the fatal day of its +burning, it must not be supposed that no efforts were made to +rebuild it. People are not so easily transplanted from their old +seats, and as soon as the Crusaders were driven away the +inhabitants began to search for their blackened homes and tried to +make them fit to live in. Ibn-Gubeyr, the Spanish Arab, who visited +Misr in 1183, only fourteen years after the great fire, found a +less melancholy scene than we should be led to expect from the +account of the fifty-four days’ burning. He was comfortably +entertained at the Inn of Master Worthy (Funduk Aby-th-Thaná) in +the Street of Lamps,—so called because formerly inhabited by nobles +who had each a lamp before his door—which still stood close to the +Mosque of ‘Amr, and though there were sad signs of the late +destruction, the people had rebuilt many of the ruined houses, “and +the new buildings are in continuous lines which form a great city +with the remains of the former town lying beyond and all around it, +close by, showing how great was its extent in earlier days.”<a id= +"FNanchor_32"></a><a href="#Footnote_32" class="fnanchor">[32]</a> +The attempt to restore the old city did not succeed. A sign of the +diminishing population is seen in the fact that although ten +colleges were founded in and about Misr by Saladin and +his<span class="pagenum" id="Page_112">[112]</span> successors, in +the belief that the town would recover, not a single mosque for +congregational worship was built there after the great fire. Cairo +was rapidly taking its place, and when Ibn-Sa‘íd visited Misr about +1240 he was distressed at its blackened walls, ruined houses, and +general state of dirt and neglect. There were still plenty of +people in the narrow crooked streets, and pedlers hawking their +wares among the students and children in the Old Mosque, which was +covered with cobwebs and littered with refuse; the slovenly quays +of Fustát were still frequented by much shipping, and there were +sugar and soap factories still at work.<a id= +"FNanchor_33"></a><a href="#Footnote_33" class="fnanchor">[33]</a> +But the ruin was universal, the final decay had set in, and the +glory of Misr was transferred to Cairo.</p> + +<hr class="chap"> + +<h2><span class="pagenum" id="Page_113">[113]</span><a id= +"c05"></a>CHAPTER V</h2> + +<p class="sch1"><em>Cairo</em> +</p> + +<p class="dcap">THE foundation of Cairo proper, as distinguished +from the earlier city of Misr and its faubourgs, marks a revolution +infinitely more profound than a mere change of dynasty or shifting +of site. The Fátimid conquest, which created the new city, was a +revolution in religion, in statecraft, and in culture. The +theological differences that had turned the mosque of ‘Amr into a +bear-garden in the time of the Ikhshíd were hair-splittings +compared with the breach between the old orthodoxy and the heresy +of the newcomers. In its inner essence, Shi‘ism, the religion of +the Fátimids, is not Mohammedanism at all. It merely took advantage +of an old schism in Islám to graft upon it a totally new and +largely political movement. The schism arose out of the succession +to the caliphate, and resolved itself into the old antagonism +between the theories of popular election and divine right. The +orthodox party (or Sunnis) held that the election of the first +three caliphs, Abu-Bekr, ‘Omar and ‘Othmán, was constitutional in +Islám; the Shí‘a maintained that the divine right of succession to +the Prophet’s mantle rested with his own family, that is to say +with his daughter Fátima’s husband ‘Aly and their offspring, the +only surviving descendants of Mohammad. ‘Aly in turn became the +fourth caliph, but he was bitterly opposed, and in the end +murdered; his children,<span class="pagenum" id= +"Page_114">[114]</span> the Prophet’s grandsons, were ousted from +the succession; one of them, Hoseyn, endeavouring to assert his +rights, was defeated and slain, and the tragedy of the “martyrdom” +at Kerbela has ever since excited the deepest passions of the Shí‘a +at the annual representations of the Persian Passion Play in the +month of Moharram.</p> + +<p>The ruthless persecution of the “holy family” by the Omayyad +caliphs stimulated an enthusiastic sympathy with their misfortunes, +but since none of their descendants showed any political genius, +the occasional risings in favour of the ‘Alids were scarcely more +important than the last attempts in Scotland to revive the claims +of the Pretender. The movement would probably have died out as an +element in politics, and become a mere tradition or sentiment, but +for the new development given to it in the ninth century by an +obscure Persian, half conjurer, half eye-doctor, named ‘Abdallah, +son of Meymún. This man, who abhorred the Arabs and their caliphs, +devised a scheme by which the very religion of Islám should become +the instrument of its own destruction, and the Persians should +recover their power by the unconscious aid of their conquerors. His +doctrine, whilst making use of the ‘Alid sentiment of divine right, +was such that not only the enthusiasts who still wept over the +tragedy of Kerbela, but all shades of dissenters from rigid +Mohammedanism might embrace. He taught that God has always been +incarnate in some spiritual leader or “Imám,” such as Adam, +Abraham, and so on to ‘Aly. The world has never been without an +Imám; but—and here came the stroke of genius—the Imám is not always +visible in the flesh. The series of spiritual leaders descended in +apostolic succession from ‘Aly was broken, but not the less was +there a hidden Imám, who would reveal himself to mankind in +his<span class="pagenum" id="Page_115">[115]</span> own good time. +When he appeared all would recognize “the Mahdy,” and abandon the +self-styled caliphs who usurped his authority. Meanwhile those who +awaited his coming must strive to prepare men for it. Though the +Imám be hidden, his doctrine must be zealously preached, and in the +absence of the mysterious being in whom the secrets of the Most +High are deposited, his missionaries must go forth and call men to +the truth.</p> + +<p>A widespread and admirably organized propaganda was instituted; +a secret society, skilfully graduated in advancing degrees of +initiation, worked underground throughout the Mohammedan world, but +with special success in Arabia, Mesopotamia, and North Africa. The +<em>dá‘is</em> or missionaries were carefully chosen and trained to +teach such doctrines as their converts could bear. To the rude and +uneducated they would preach what seemed the plain lessons of the +Korán, always coupled with the imminent approach of that mysterious +and attractive personality, the Mahdy. To the philosophic they +would use arguments suited to their special views, and leading them +up through the progressive stages of initiation, would finally land +them in a philosophy of complete negation. These missionaries had +nothing in common with Muslims: they were atheists among +themselves, and all things to all men. Their aims were political—to +upset Islám through itself, to dispossess the Muslims, and to grasp +their power. They made use of all forms of religion indifferently; +all were equally false to them, and all were serviceable tools to +their purpose. They cared not what means they used to secure +proselytes, to whom they confided only so much of their system as +they could safely assimilate. They employed the hallowed name of +‘Aly, and preached the immediate advent of a Messiah, not because +they believed in either or in any caliphate<span class="pagenum" +id="Page_116">[116]</span> or spiritual incarnation, but because if +the multitude is to be made to dance one must harp on some string, +and these strings happened to twang harmoniously in the ears of the +people.</p> + +<p>Three signal successes rewarded the brilliant propaganda of the +Shí‘a (or Isma‘ílian) missionaries. The first was the Carmathian +domination of Arabia, Mesopotamia and Syria, in the ninth and tenth +centuries; the second was its offshoot, the Fátimid caliphate of +North Africa and Egypt; the last was the dreaded Wehmgericht of the +Isma‘ílians or “Assassins” in Persia and the Lebanon. Here we have +chiefly to do with the second, though both the Carmathians and the +Assassins had their influence upon Egypt.</p> + +<p>The Fátimid caliphate, taking its name from ‘Aly’s wife, the +daughter of the Prophet, was the most powerful and conspicuous +result of Shí‘a proselytism. Among the credulous Berbers the +missionary had an easy field of conquest, and when he produced a +reputed descendant of ‘Aly and Fátima in the person of “the Mahdy” +‘Obeydallah at Kayrawán, the Arab capital of what is now called +Tunisia, in 910, the revolution was triumphant. The whole of +Barbary, from Fez in Morocco to the frontier of Egypt, which he +twice invaded, bowed before the sway of the Mahdy. Inheriting by +conquest the possessions of the Aghlabid dynasty of Tunis, who for +more than a century had been the great naval power of the central +Mediterranean and held Sicily, Sardinia, Corsica and Malta, the +Fátimid fleets ravaged the coasts of France and Italy, plundering, +burning, and kidnapping wherever they went. The fourth caliph of +the Mahdy’s line, el-Mo‘izz, the conqueror of Egypt, was a +singularly able, upright, politic, and intelligent man, an orator, +a linguist who knew Greek as well as Arabic and the Berber tongue, +and to all appearance a just and honest Muslim<span class="pagenum" +id="Page_117">[117]</span> of the Shí‘a sect.<a id= +"FNanchor_34"></a><a href="#Footnote_34" class="fnanchor">[34]</a> +There was so careful a distinction between esoteric and overt +doctrine among the Shí‘a that it is impossible to be certain, but +the probability is that Mo‘izz, like most of his successors, did +not share the extreme views of the advanced degrees of the +initiate, but held Koranic doctrines tempered by ‘Alid views and +allegorical interpretation.</p> + +<p>Such was the Fátimid caliph who, after a progress throughout his +African dominions, and carrying his arms even to the shore of the +Atlantic (959), at length resolved to achieve the conquest of +Egypt, which his grandfather had vainly attempted, and which was +the goal of his own ambition. The barren land and unruly tribes of +Barbary were not to be compared with the fertile valley and +splendid commerce of Egypt, and his plans were carefully laid for +the invasion. The conquest was an easy triumph. Gawhar, his Roman +slave from the Eastern empire, led his 100,000 men from Kayrawán in +February 969. Alexandria capitulated on liberal terms. The +Egyptians, exhausted by a distressing famine followed by plague (of +which more than half a million people died in and around Misr), led +by no competent chief, despoiled by a mutinous soldiery, and +influenced by secret sympathizers with the Fátimids, made scarcely +an effort to resist. There were a few skirmishes at Giza, and then +Gawhar forced the passage of the Nile, the defenders fled, and the +women of Misr implored mercy. A full<span class="pagenum" id= +"Page_118">[118]</span> amnesty rewarded submission, pillage was +interdicted, and the Fátimid army rode into Misr on the 5th of +August.</p> + +<p>“That very night Gawhar laid the foundations of a new city, or +rather fortified palace, destined for the reception of his +sovereign. He was encamped on the sandy waste which stretched +north-east of Fustát, on the road to Heliopolis, and there, at a +distance of about a mile from the river, he marked out the +boundaries of the new capital. There were no buildings, save the +old ‘Convent of the Bones,’ nor any cultivation except the +beautiful park called ‘Kafúr’s Garden,’ to obstruct his plans. A +square [about 1200 yards each way] was pegged out with poles, and +the Maghraby astrologers, in whom Mo‘izz reposed extravagant faith, +consulted together to determine the auspicious moment for the +opening ceremony. Bells were hung on ropes from pole to pole, and +at the signal of the sages their ringing was to announce the +precise moment when the labourers were to turn the first sod. The +calculations of the astrologers were, however, anticipated by a +raven, who perched on one of the ropes and set the bells jingling, +upon which every mattock was struck into the earth, and the +trenches were opened. It was an unlucky hour: the planet Mars +(el-Káhir) was in the ascendant; but it could not be undone, and +the place was accordingly named after the hostile planet, +el-Káhira, ‘the martial’ or ‘triumphant,’ in the hope that the +sinister omen might be turned to a triumphant issue. Cairo, as +Káhira has come to be called, may fairly be said to have outlived +all astrological prejudices. The name of the ‘Abbásid caliph was at +once expunged from the Friday prayers at the old mosque of ‘Amr; +the black ‘Abbásid robes were proscribed, and the preacher, in pure +white, recited the <em>khutba</em> for the Imám Mo‘izz, <em>emír +el-muminín</em>, and invoked blessings<span class="pagenum" id= +"Page_119">[119]</span> on his ancestors, ‘Aly and Fátima and all +their holy family. The call to prayer from the minarets was adapted +to Shí‘a taste. The joyful news was sent to the Fátimid caliph on +swift dromedaries, together with the heads of the slain. Coins were +struck with the special formulas of the Fátimid creed—‘‘Aly is the +noblest of [God’s] delegates, the vezír of the best of apostles’; +‘the Imám Ma‘add calls men to profess the Unity of the Eternal’—in +addition to the usual dogmas of the Mohammedan faith. For two +centuries the mosques and the mint proclaimed the shibboleth of the +Shí‘a.”<a id="FNanchor_35"></a><a href="#Footnote_35" class= +"fnanchor">[35]</a></p> + +<p>But the change was far more than a substitution of one creed for +another: indeed, thanks no doubt to the politic tolerance of the +conqueror and the discreet avoidance of extreme Shí‘a doctrines, +the people accepted the new régime without any outburst of orthodox +fanaticism, except when the new comers flaunted the Moharram +festival in memory of the Kerbela “martyrs” in their very faces. +The majority remained unconverted to the new formulas; at least +they welcomed the restoration of orthodoxy two centuries later with +equal phlegm. The real change was political. Cairo was no longer +the capital of a province of the old caliphate, or even of a +virtually independent principality connected with that caliphate: +it was the capital of a rival Power, and that power a Mediterranean +Empire. It is true the empire soon lost its outlying African +provinces and European islands, and shrank to the dimensions of the +principality of Ibn-Tulún; but the strength and the wealth and +commerce of the Fátimid kingdom were something new. The rivalry +between Cairo and Baghdád, between the vigorous young caliphate of +the Shí‘a and the decaying hierarchy of the Sunnis, had +far-reaching<span class="pagenum" id="Page_120">[120]</span> +effects in politics and in civilization. The naval power and +European connexions of the Fátimids introduced a new element into +foreign policy, gave a stimulus to trade, and modified in various +ways the civilization of Egypt and Syria.</p> + +<p>On the other hand undoubtedly the isolation of Cairo tended to a +development of a separate culture which was not to its advantage. +Heresy cut it off from the great centres of intellectual life in +the Arabian world, from Baghdád, Damascus and Cordova. The old +intercourse, which brought students and professors of all parts of +the Muslim empire together in the mosques of every great city, was +impossible in a capital where the mosques were in the hands of +heretics. Hence Cairo was out of intimate touch with the progress +of Muslim studies in the eleventh and twelfth centuries, and few of +the leaders of Arabic thought or literature were found under +Fátimid rule. In some branches, such as philosophy and physical and +medical science, one would expect to find good results from the +influence of Shí‘a free-thinking, and undoubtedly some progress was +made, especially by Jewish and Christian physicians; but these +exceptions do not outweigh the general loss entailed by isolation +from the rest of the intellectual world. A little later the +heretics of Cairo might have profited much by their intercourse +with Europe, but in the tenth and eleventh centuries Europe had +little to teach.</p> + +<p>The class that gained most by the change of government was that +of the Christian Copts. Hitherto they had had their ups and downs +according to the disposition and rapacity of different Arab and +Turkish governors; but with the advent of the Fátimid caliphs they +entered upon a period of unusual toleration and even favour. The +new rulers, with one notorious<span class="pagenum" id= +"Page_121">[121]</span> exception, were exceedingly well disposed +towards their Christian subjects, and many churches were built or +restored during their reigns.</p> + +<p>The caliph el-‘Azíz, son of Mo‘izz, who reigned from 975 to 996, +had a Christian wife, two of his brothers-in-law were Melekite +patriarchs, and the Jacobite patriarch Ephraim and Severus bishop +of Ushmuneyn were his particular friends. The bishop was encouraged +to come to the palace and discuss theology with the chief kády, and +the patriarch was allowed to restore the church of St Mercurius +(Abu-s-Seyfeyn, “the two-sworded”) outside Misr. “In ancient +times,” we are told by an Armenian writer, “there had been a church +dedicated to Saint Mercurius, on the bank of the river, but it was +ruined and turned into a storehouse for sugar-canes. Then, in the +time of this patriarch, enquiries were made about the creed of the +Christians, whether they believed in the truth or in a lie. So the +Christians assembled and went out to the mountain, and the Muslims +and Jews went out at the same time on account of a certain event. +Many of the Muslim <em>sayyids</em> came forward, and prayed, and +cried <em>Allahu akbar</em>, and implored the assistance of God, +but no sign appeared to them. Then the Jews followed them, and +still no result followed. Then the patriarch came forward, and the +tanner, for whom God had performed a miracle, followed him; and all +the orthodox people followed them. They prayed to the most high +God, and burnt incense, and cried <em>Kyrie eleison</em> three +times; and God showed his wonders, and the mountain moved: namely, +that part of the Mukattam hills which is near the hill of Al-Kabsh, +between Cairo and Misr. This miracle took place through the faith +of the tanner, who had plucked out his eye in the presence of +Al-‘Aziz and the chief men of his government and the kadis of +the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_122">[122]</span> Muslims. When +Al-‘Aziz had witnessed this great miracle, he said: ‘It is enough, +O patriarch; we recognize what God has done for you’; and then he +added: ‘Desire of me what thou choosest, and I will do it for +thee.’ The patriarch, however, refused with thanks; but Al-‘Aziz +begged him to ask for something, and did not cease until the +patriarch had asked for a certain church which had fallen into +ruin. So Al-‘Aziz commanded that this church should be restored for +the patriarch, and it is said to have been the church of Saint +Mercurius.”<a id="FNanchor_36"></a><a href="#Footnote_36" class= +"fnanchor">[36]</a> The patriarch would not accept the offer of +money for the restoration, but paid for it himself, and the work +was carried out under a guard of the caliph’s troops to protect the +Christians from the “common people of the Muslims,” who had no +patience with such concessions to the “polytheists.”</p> + +<p>One of the vezírs or prime-ministers of ‘Azíz was a converted +Jew, another was the Christian Ibn-Nestorius. The Muslims naturally +resented this unusual toleration, and lampooned the caliph, but the +harím was on the side of the Christians, and as usual had its way. +Even under the caliph Hákim, the exception referred to, who +certainly at one time persecuted the Copts cruelly, the great posts +of state were still held by Christians; and though there was much +confiscation and extortion under the vezír Yazúry in the middle of +the eleventh century, it seems to have arisen more from fiscal +necessities than from religious antipathy. The great influence of +the Armenian vezírs in the latter part of that century evidently +promoted a good feeling, for in the twelfth we find the caliph +Háfiz receiving lectures in history twice a week from the Armenian +patriarch, and several of the later caliphs would visit the shaded +gardens<span class="pagenum" id="Page_123">[123]</span> of Coptic +monasteries, where they were hospitably welcomed by the monks and +made suitable returns for their cheer. We read of handsome +contributions for the support of convents and churches. The far +from exemplary caliph Ámir even had a monk for his right-hand man, +and used often to use a pavilion which he had built at a monastery +near Giza as a hunting lodge, paying 1000 dirhems to the monks at +every visit. He took pleasure in standing in the priest’s place in +their church, but scrupulously entered backwards in order to avoid +the appearance of bowing when passing through the low door. The +last of the Fátimid caliphs, el-‘Ádid, had also his favourite +monastic retreat in the convent of the Virgin some miles out of +Cairo, where he would take the air and gaze upon the “blessed +Nile.”<a id="FNanchor_37"></a><a href="#Footnote_37" class= +"fnanchor">[37]</a></p> + +<p>If the churches were cared for, the mosques were not neglected; +and though the Fátimid period is not rich in the multitude of +mosques erected by private benefactors which distinguishes the +later Mamlúk period, it boasts at least the two greatest +congregational mosques (<em>gámi‘</em>) of Cairo proper, both of +which were among the early preoccupations of the new dynasty. +Gawhar’s first step, after beginning the walls of the palace-city +of Káhira, was to lay the foundations of the mosque which stands to +this day, known to all the world as el-Azhar, “the Resplendent.” +The day of its foundation was Sunday the 3rd of April, 970, and it +was finished on the 24th of June, 972. In 988 it was specially +devoted<span class="pagenum" id="Page_124">[124]</span> to the use +of the learned and became what it has been ever since, one of the +chief Universities of Islám. Here to this day multitudes of +students gather from all parts of the Muslim world, from the Gold +Coast to the Malay States, each nation to the special +<em>riwák</em> or portico assigned to its use, and here they +receive from learned sheykhs instruction in the various branches of +the old Arabic curriculum—theology, exegesis, traditions, +jurisprudence, grammar, prosody, logic, rhetoric, algebra, etc. +Over nine thousand students still (1901) attend the lectures of 239 +professors in the Azhar, and not one of them is called upon to pay +a piastre in fees. The learned men of Cairo and many foreign cities +willingly impart their knowledge without reward, and eke out a +living by private tuition and copying manuscripts. The foreign +students not only pay no fees but receive rations of food from +certain bequests. One may regret the limited scope and fanatical +tendency of the Azhar lectures, but at least it is a noble example +of free education, open to the poorest, no matter what his race or +language, and given to all without distinction of class. The knots +of students sitting round their master in earnest attention, or +swaying to and fro as they commit his dicta to memory, are a +spectacle not easily forgotten. In every detail they carry us back +to the Middle Ages of Arabic culture, and show us a zeal for +learning, neither tainted by prize-hunting nor cramped by +examinations, which may teach even Western universities something +that they lack.</p> + +<p>Very little of the Azhar represents the original building. It +has been repeatedly restored, and was largely reconstructed in the +eighteenth and the middle of the nineteenth century, and, though +there are some fine Kufic friezes and keelform (Persian) arches +characteristic of the Fátimid period,<span class="pagenum" id= +"Page_125">[125]</span> its present aspect is modern. The square +court, however, covers the same ground as it did when in 973 the +caliph Mo‘izz, after making his splendid entry, preceded by the +coffins of his ancestors, into the new city built by his faithful +general, and totally ignoring the old metropolis then <em>en +fête</em> for his reception, himself conducted the prayers on the +festival following the fasting month, delivered the <em>Khutba</em> +or sermon with his wonted unction, and then headed the procession +of his troops, escorted by his four sons in armour, and preceded by +two elephants, back to the palace which Gawhar had prepared for +him. The fortified enclosure which has given its name to Cairo, +though sometimes called <em>el-Medína</em>, “the City,” was never +intended to be an Egyptian metropolis. It was to be the residence +of the caliph and his court, his slaves and officials, and his +African troops. The public of Misr had no access to it; none might +pass through the gates without a permit, and even ambassadors from +foreign states were obliged to dismount and were led into the +palace between guards after the Byzantine custom. Káhira was in +fact a royal compound or enclosure, not a public city. Its high +walls and guarded gates symbolized the seclusion and mystery in +which the sacred person of the caliph was wrapped, and its familiar +epithet “the Guarded City” (el-Káhira el-Mahrúsa) illustrates its +privacy.</p> + +<p>The original walls were built of large bricks, nearly two feet +long and fifteen inches broad, and the thickness of the walls was +such that two horsemen could ride abreast upon them. The +Topographer in 1400 measured the last fragment of this first wall, +and says that none of it afterwards remained to be seen.<a id= +"FNanchor_38"></a><a href="#Footnote_38" class="fnanchor">[38]</a> +The original enclosure was about 100 feet smaller every +way<span class="pagenum" id="Page_126">[126]</span> than the later +enclosure built in 1087, and we may easily realize the length of +the city of Gawhar by remembering that the present Bab-el-Futúh +(with the mosque of el-Hákim) and the Bab-Zuweyla (with the mosque +of el-Muayyad) stand a little outside the original enclosure; +whilst its breadth extended from the Bab-el-Ghureyyib beyond the +Azhar on the east to the Khalíg or canal on the west. The western +boundary running beside the canal is still recorded in the street +called Beyn-es-Sureyn, “Between the walls,” at the top of the +Musky. The enclosure was thus about 1200 yards each way, and formed +an area of less than half a square mile.</p> + +<p>About the centre was the square called Beyn-el-Kasreyn, “Between +the Palaces,” a name still preserved in the original site in part +of the street known as the Coppersmiths’ Market (Suk-en-Nahhasín), +now flanked by several noble mosques of much later date. The name +explains itself: the square, which was far broader than the present +thoroughfare, and formed a parade ground on which ten thousand +troops could be marshalled, separated the two palaces which faced +it, and served as the meeting place of the city. The Great Palace +of Mo‘izz lay on the east—the Khán-el-Khalíly stands on a corner of +its vast ground, and the Hasaneyn at another corner—and the Lesser +West Palace, built by ‘Azíz a little later, faced it on the other +side (where the Máristán of Kalaún occupies a portion of its site), +and on the back looked upon the spacious “Garden of Kafúr,” where +the Ikhshíd once had his pleasure-house. Makrízy devotes nearly two +hundred pages to the description of these wonderful palaces. “We +read of four thousand chambers;—of the Golden Gate which opened to +the Golden Hall, a gorgeous pavilion where the caliph, seated on +his golden throne, surrounded by his chamberlains and +gentlemen-in-waiting (generally<span class="pagenum" id= +"Page_127">[127]</span> Greeks or Sudánís), surveyed from behind a +screen of golden filigree the festivals of Islám;—of the Emerald +Hall with its beautiful pillars of marble;—the Great Diván, where +he sat on Mondays and Thursdays at a window beneath a cupola;—and +the Porch where he listened every evening while the oppressed and +wronged came below and cried the <em>credo</em> of the Shí‘a till +he heard their griefs and gave redress.”</p> + +<p>These various buildings composing the Great Palace were not the +work of a single year or of one ruler. Gawhar began the palace on +the same night that he marked out the foundations of the city, in +July 969; two gates were finished in the following March, and a +wall was carried round the palace in 970-1. Writing of the wall +three-quarters of a century later, Násir-i-Khusrau says that from +outside the city the palace of the caliphs looked like a mountain, +by reason of its lofty mass of buildings; but when one drew near +one could see nothing of it on account of its high wall.<a id= +"FNanchor_39"></a><a href="#Footnote_39" class="fnanchor">[39]</a> +This original palace was designed by the caliph Mo‘izz himself, but +it did not comprise half the splendid halls described by the +Topographer. The next caliph ‘Azíz built the “Golden Hall” and the +“Great Diván,” as well as the smaller Western Palace and the Pearl +Pavilion in Kafúr’s Garden. Later caliphs and vezírs added and +altered, and the “Splendid Palaces” (el-Kusúr ez-Záhira), as they +were collectively called, included numerous separate mansions or +suites of rooms of various dates. The Great Palace alone had ten +gates, besides a subterraneous passage by which the caliph could +cross on his mule, led by slave girls, to the Western Palace, which +was specially reserved for the harím. In the eleventh century there +were twelve thousand servants in the Palaces, and +including<span class="pagenum" id="Page_128">[128]</span> the women +the inmates were reckoned at thirty thousand.</p> + +<p>M. Ravaisse has reconstructed the Fátimid palaces, and even +drawn plans of them from the Topographer’s descriptions, in two +elaborate memoirs,<a id="FNanchor_40"></a><a href="#Footnote_40" +class="fnanchor">[40]</a> and though some of the details must be +regarded as tentative and open to revision, the general results +probably represent the actual arrangement of the Fátimid city. +According to these interesting researches the Great East Palace +comprised principally three large quadrangles of unequal sizes +forming three quarters of a square, the fourth or N.E. quarter +being occupied by the Court of the Festival, an open space between +the Great Palace and the Palace of the Vezírs, where the people +could make merry on the ‘Id days. This Great Palace, flanked by the +Vezirate and the Azhar, covered the space from the present +Khan-el-Khalíly and Hasaneyn to the Gemalíya street (where the +monastic mosque of Beybars the Gashnekír stands). The various +halls, apartments, and court offices were arranged about the +quadrangles, and stables and stores formed outbuildings. On the +other side of the Beyn-el-Kasreyn, the West Palace ran from where +the Maristán now stands to the Hárat Bargawán, with two wings +jutting forward at each end to enclose the Beyn-el-Kasreyn; whilst +the space between the West Palace and the west wall was filled by +the spacious Garden of Kafúr with its various kiosques looking on +the canal. The rest of the city enclosure, outside the palaces, was +occupied by the quarters (Hára) of the various divisions of the +Fátimid army, such as the Gawdaris, the Deylemis, the Kitáma, the +Barkis, the Utúfis, the Zawíla, and the north and south Greek +quarters (Hárat-er-Rúm), and so forth. The gates of the city +were<span class="pagenum" id="Page_129">[129]</span> the (old) +Gates of Succour, Bab-en-Nasr, and of Conquests, Bab-el-Futúh, on +the north; the Gate of the Bridge (B.-el-Kántara) leading to +Gawhar’s bridge over the canal, the B.-el-Farag, also called the +Gate of the Sha‘ríya (a Berber tribe), and the Gate of Sa‘áda, +named after a general of el-Mo‘izz, and the Wicket Gate +(Bab-el-Khawkha) on the west, opening to the canal; the old double +Gate of Zuweyla<a id="FNanchor_41"></a><a href="#Footnote_41" +class="fnanchor">[41]</a> on the south; and on the east the Burnt +Gate (B.-el-Mahrúk, so called because burnt down by some fugitive +Mamlúks in the thirteenth century), the New Gate (B.-el-Gedíd, +built by Hákim), and the Gate of the Barka troops (B.-el-Barkíya), +now known as the B.-el-Ghureyyib.</p> + +<p>Some of the modern superstitions connected with the Gate of +Zuweyla have been mentioned before, but it has always been a +haunted spot, and the fact that executions took place just outside +did not improve its reputation. The Topographer records that the +original gate, which stood beside the “oratory of Shem, the son of +Noah,” consisted of two arches, one of which was known as the “Gate +of the Arch.” This was the gate through which el-Mo‘izz entered +when he made his state progress into the new city of Káhira, and +all the people followed his example: but the other arch was +considered unlucky and no one cared to go under it. “This [second] +gate no longer remains,” says Makrízy, “nor is there any trace of +it, but the place where it stood is called el-Haggarín, where +musical instruments, as drums, lutes, and such-like are sold; and +it is still notorious among the people that whoever passes that way +will not accomplish his wishes. Some say that the reason of this +saying is because it is the place of sale for musical +instruments,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_130">[130]</span> which +are held in disrepute, and the abode of musicians and male and +female singers; but the case is not as they pretend, for the saying +was current among the people of el-Káhira from the time when +el-Mo‘izz entered, before this place was a market for musical +instruments and the haunt of the disorderly.”<a id= +"FNanchor_42"></a><a href="#Footnote_42" class= +"fnanchor">[42]</a></p> + +<p>Such topographical details are chiefly interesting to the +antiquary. We must search the records of travellers for more +graphic descriptions. Strangers unfortunately were rare in so +jealously secluded a sanctum as the Fátimid palace, and there are +consequently few travellers’ pictures to add to the researches of +the Topographer. The Persian Násir-i-Khusrau was indeed admitted in +1047, but he is disappointingly discreet in his account, and we +gain only a confused but gorgeous impression of the great +throne-room with hunting-scenes carved on the gold throne, which +was screened by gold lattice and approached by silver steps. The +best description occurs in William of Tyre’s account of the mission +of the Crusaders in 1167, when Amalric was posing as the protector +of the caliph, though it may well be that the palace had greatly +changed in the two centuries that had passed since its foundation. +“The introduction of Christian ambassadors to the sacred presence, +where few even of the most exalted Muslims were admitted, was +unprecedented; but Amalric was in a position to dictate his own +terms. Permission was granted, and Hugh of Cæsarea with Geoffrey +Fulcher the Templar were selected for the unique embassy. The vezír +himself conducted them with every detail of oriental ceremony and +display to the Great Palace of the Fátimids. They were led by +mysterious corridors and through guarded doors, where stalwart +Sudánis saluted with naked swords. They reached a spacious court, +open<span class="pagenum" id="Page_131">[131]</span> to the sky, +and surrounded by arcades resting on marble pillars; the panelled +ceilings were carved and inlaid in gold and colours; the pavement +was rich mosaic. The unaccustomed eyes of the rude knights opened +wide with wonder at the taste and refinement that met them at every +step;—here they saw marble fountains, birds of many notes and +wondrous plumage, strangers to the western world; there, in a +further hall, more exquisite even than the first, ‘a variety of +animals such as the ingenious hand of the painter might depict, or +the license of the poet invent, or the mind of the sleeper conjure +up in the visions of the night,—such, indeed, as the regions of the +East and the South bring forth, but the West sees never, and +scarcely hears of.’</p> + +<p>“At last, after many turns and windings, they reached the throne +room, where the multitude of the pages and their sumptuous dress +proclaimed the splendour of their lord. Thrice did the vezír, +ungirding his sword, prostrate himself to the ground, as though in +humble supplication to his god; then, with a sudden rapid sweep, +the heavy curtains broidered with gold and pearls were drawn aside, +and on a golden throne, robed in more than regal state, the caliph +sat revealed.</p> + +<p>“The vezír humbly presented the foreign knights, and set forth +in lowly words the urgent danger from without, and the great +friendship of the king of Jerusalem. The caliph, a swarthy youth +emerging from boyhood,—<em>fuscus, procerus corpore, facie +venusta,</em>—replied with suave dignity. He was willing, he said, +to confirm in the amplest way the engagements made with his beloved +ally. But when asked to give his hand in pledge of faithfulness, he +hesitated, and a thrill of indignation at the stranger’s +presumption ran through the listening court. After a pause, +however, the caliph offered his hand—gloved as it was—to Sir Hugh. +The<span class="pagenum" id="Page_132">[132]</span> blunt knight +spoke him straight: ‘My lord, troth has no covering: in the good +faith of princes, all is naked and open.’ Then at last, very +unwillingly, as though derogating from his dignity, the caliph, +forcing a smile, drew off the glove and put his hand in Hugh’s, +swearing word by word to keep the covenant truly and in all good +faith.”<a id="FNanchor_43"></a><a href="#Footnote_43" class= +"fnanchor">[43]</a></p> + +<p>There is no doubt that the Fátimid caliphs were the most +sumptuous monarchs that ever ruled in Egypt. Mo‘izz himself was no +sybarite. He attended personally and assiduously to the details of +administration, looked to the justice of the law courts, managed +the army upon which his power depended, and built a new dock at +Maks, lower down the river than the former dockyards of Roda and +Misr, and near the present Ezbekíya. Maks remained the dock and +port of Cairo until the shifting of the Nile bed brought Bulák to +the surface. Six hundred ships were soon afterwards built there, +and some of Mo‘izz’s vessels were seen in 1047 by Násir-i-Khusrau +beached at Maks, and were found to measure about 275 feet in length +by 110 feet in the beam.<a id="FNanchor_44"></a><a href= +"#Footnote_44" class="fnanchor">[44]</a> But hard-working and +prudent as he was, he loved display. He would go in state to cut +the dam of the canal, and spent large sums on the brocaded covering +for the Kaaba at Mekka—the holy city now acknowledged his +supremacy—which was exhibited to the people at the annual Feast of +Sacrifice. The palace buildings were all planned by his own hands; +Gawhar had only been his clerk of the works; and the profusion of +the new<span class="pagenum" id="Page_133">[133]</span> city argued +the luxurious taste and the prodigious resources of the caliph. The +wealth of the Fátimids recorded by the historians seems almost +incredible. We read of two daughters of Mo‘izz, one of whom left +about a million and a half in gold (2,700,000 dinárs), whilst the +other’s numerous jewel-rooms and coffers, containing, among others, +five sacks of emeralds, 3000 silver vessels, and 30,000 Sicilian +embroideries, exhausted forty pounds of wax in sealing them up for +her executors. Mo‘izz himself bought a silk curtain from Persia for +nearly £12,000, on which the countries of the world were depicted +and their cities; and his wife spent much treasure in 966 on her +mosque in the Karáfa, designed by el-Hasan the Persian and +decorated by Basra painters.</p> + +<p>One advantage of heresy was the toleration of artistic ideas +that were abhorrent to the orthodox, and the Fátimids encouraged, +if not portrait painting, at least the representation of human +beings in art, which was held to be distinctly forbidden by the +Prophet.<a id="FNanchor_45"></a><a href="#Footnote_45" class= +"fnanchor">[45]</a> The mosque of the cemetery called the Karáfa, +however, transcended anything ever attempted before in Egypt, if we +except the stories of Khumáraweyh’s palace in “the Wards.” Its plan +was the ordinary square quadrangle surrounded by cloisters, like +the Azhar, but the decoration was remarkable. The fourteen square +doors leading into the <em>liwán</em> or sanctuary were surmounted +by arches resting on triple marble columns, painted blue, red, and +green; the ceilings were also painted in various colours by artists +from Basra. Opposite the middle door was an arch on which a bridge +was painted, with steps of various colours, which looked real. +Painters used to come to<span class="pagenum" id= +"Page_134">[134]</span> see it, but they could not copy it. We read +of two rival artists, el-Kasír and Ibn-‘Azíz of Chaldæa, protégés +of the vezír el-Yazúry, who painted figures, the first of a dancing +girl in a white dress, standing against the black background of an +arch, seeming as though she stood inside it, and the second a +similar girl in red who appeared to be standing out in front of a +yellow arch. There was in a house in the Karáfa a picture by +el-Kettámy, one of the decorators of this mosque, which represented +Joseph in the pit so that he seemed to stand out in relief.<a id= +"FNanchor_46"></a><a href="#Footnote_46" class= +"fnanchor">[46]</a></p> + +<p>The money to pay for the outgoings of the palace, with its +twenty to thirty thousand inmates, and all the luxury it implied, +was partly obtained by a more rigorous collection of the taxes and +arrears than heretofore, and by the substitution of a central tax +office in the old emírate house next to the mosque of Ibn-Tulún in +place of the wasteful and corrupt system of local collectors and +tax-farmers. In a single day the city of Misr (still in its prime) +contributed from £26,000 to £62,000 in taxes, according to the +season. All taxes had to be paid in the new Fátimid coinage, and +the ‘Abbásid money was put out of currency.</p> + +<p>The next caliph el-‘Azíz was noted for his judgment in gems, and +set a number of new fashions in gold-thread turbans, jewelled +harness scented with ambergris, and gold-inlaid armour for his +horses, and luxuries for the table, such as truffles from Mukattam +and fish fresh from the sea. Like Khumáraweyh he was fond of +strange beasts, and imported birds and animals from the Sudán. But +he shared with his father the statesmanlike qualities that no +luxury could enfeeble. He built a fleet to fight the emperor Basil; +personally waged a successful campaign in orthodox<span class= +"pagenum" id="Page_137">[137]</span> Syria, which never became +reconciled to the Fátimid supremacy; and he gave Egypt an interval +of unbroken peace. His name was commemorated in the Friday prayer +in the mosques from Arabia to the Atlantic, and he never failed to +stand before the people in the Azhar and conduct the service as +their spiritual as well as temporal head.</p> + +<div class="figcenterplate iw3"> +<figure id="i10"><a href="images/i10.jpg"><img src='images/i10.jpg' +alt=''></a> +<p class="cp2">RUINED MOSQUE OF EL-HAKIM</p> +</figure> +</div> + +<p>The mosque known as el-Hákim’s owed its foundation at the close +of 990 to el-‘Azíz and his vezír Ibn-Killis, who completed it +sufficiently to hold the Friday prayers there a year later. The +decoration, minarets, and other accessories were not finished till +the reign of his son el-Hákim, who set the work in hand in 1003, +and placed the final inscription on the pulpit in March 1013. Hence +this second congregational mosque of Káhira, originally known as +the “New Mosque” or “The Brilliant” (el-Anwar, in obvious imitation +of the name of el-Azhar), took its most usual title from el-Hákim. +In the course of its history it has suffered even worse indignities +than the Old Mosque of ‘Amr. When the Crusaders occupied Cairo in +1167 they turned part of the mosque of el-Hákim into a church. +Under the Ayyúbid restoration of orthodox Islam, the Azhar was +disused for a time, as being the chief seat of heresy, and the +mosque of el-Hákim became the official place of worship. Afterwards +it seems to have been used for stables, and in the summer of 1303 +it was terribly shattered by a great earthquake, and restored in +the following year by Beybars the Taster. By the time that the +Topographer wrote his account of it about 1420, the mosque was +again in ruins, by fire and neglect, and its roof was crumbling +piece by piece. Since then it has fallen on still more evil days. +Its court has served in turn as a rope-walk, a drying ground, a +common throughfare, a playground, which you entered through a café, +a brewery, or a<span class="pagenum" id="Page_138">[138]</span> +bead factory. The only honourable use it has been turned to is that +of a Museum of Arab Art, which for the past twenty years has +occupied part of the arcades of the east end, where the noble +arches and Kufic inscriptions still preserve something of their +ancient grandeur, and formed a fit shrine for many beautiful and +curious works of Saracenic art.</p> + +<p>Melancholy as this vast empty court surrounded by decayed walls +and ruined arches appears in the present day, there are points of +great interest in the mosque of el-Hákim. The arches are the only +exceptions to the Persian shape (“keelform”—two arcs terminating in +tangential lines <em>at each end</em>) which is otherwise universal +in the architecture of the Fátimid period. This is doubtless due to +its early date and obvious imitation of the mosque of Ibn-Tulún. +Still more remarkable are its minarets, commonly called +<em>mibkharas</em> or censers from their peculiar shape. The heavy +square bases, however, have nothing to do with the original +minarets, the lower parts of which, built of carefully dressed +stone, with traces of Fátimid inscriptions, may still be traced +inside these ugly buttresses. A minute examination made by Herz Bey +and M. van Berchem established beyond a doubt the fact that the +brick minarets belong to the hasty restoration of 1304, after the +earthquake. Beybars did not trouble to rebuild the minarets in +their former style, but put brick tops, and probably shored up the +old bases with the clumsy cubical casings which have puzzled so +many archæologists and suggested strange theories of the early +forms of minarets. The cubes may be later, however, and may have +had some connexion with the military defences of the neighbouring +city gate. The remains of the original stone minarets inside these +casings are specially interesting since they are the only definite +evidence we possess (save the small brick minaret of the mosque +el-Guyúshy)<span class="pagenum" id="Page_139">[139]</span> as to +the construction of minarets of the Fátimid epoch, of which Makrízy +was evidently unaware when he wrote that no stone minarets were +erected previously to that of Kalaún in 1284. They are precisely +similar in construction to the later Mamlúk minarets, starting from +a square base, changing to an octagon, resolved into a cylinder. A +spiral staircase within led up to windows whence the muezzins +chanted the call to prayer.<a id="FNanchor_47"></a><a href= +"#Footnote_47" class="fnanchor">[47]</a></p> + +<p>The caliph Hákim is one of the best known characters in Egyptian +history, yet a character so contradictory and bizarre that his +biographers are inevitably reduced to the weak conclusion of +explaining his conduct by the unsatisfactory solution of mania. He +was the only son of the exemplary ‘Azíz and his Christian wife,—the +sister of two patriarchs,—and is another witness to the truth of +the saying that clergymen’s relations are no better than other +folk. Emerging from the upper branches of a fig tree at the age of +eleven to enter upon the dazzling lustre of the throne, the boy had +an unfortunate training. His governor, the Slavonian eunuch +Bargawán,—whose name is still to be read in one of the lanes off +the Beyn-el-Kasreyn—amused himself in the Pearl Palace in the +Garden of Kafúr, whilst the Berber and Turkish troops fought each +other in the streets. One of Hákim’s early experiences was the +presentation of the Berber general’s head by the victorious Turkish +guard. It was but a short step to the murder of the regent, and +after four years of very lax tutelage the youth of fifteen assumed +full powers.</p> + +<p>“As the young caliph came more before the public, the +eccentricities of his character began to appear. His strange face, +with its terrible blue eyes, made<span class="pagenum" id= +"Page_140">[140]</span> people shrink; his big voice made them +tremble. His tutor had called him ‘a lizard,’ and he had a creepy +slippery way of gliding among his subjects that explained the +nickname. He had a passion for darkness, would summon his council +to meet at night, and would ride about the streets on his grey ass +night after night, spying into the ways and opinions of the people +under pretence of inspecting the market weights and measures. Night +was turned into day by his command. All business and catering was +ordered to take place after sunset. The shops had to be opened and +the houses illuminated to serve his whim, and when the poor people +overdid the thing and began to frolic in the unwonted hours, +repressive orders were issued; women forbidden to leave their +homes, and men to sit in the booths. Shoemakers were ordered to +make no outdoor boots for women, so that they might not have the +wherewithal to stir abroad, and the ladies of Cairo were not only +enjoined on no account to allow themselves to be seen at the +lattice-windows, but might not even take the air on the flat roofs +of their houses. Stringent regulations were issued about food and +drink. Hákim was a zealous teetotaller, as all Muslims are expected +to be. Beer was forbidden, wine was confiscated, vines cut down, +even dried raisins were contraband; malukhíya (Jews’ mallow) was +not to be eaten, and honey was seized and poured into the Nile. +Games, such as the Egyptian chess, were prohibited, and the +chessboards burnt. Dogs were to be killed wherever found in the +streets, but the finest cattle could not be slaughtered save at the +Feast of Sacrifice. Those who ventured to disobey these decrees +were scourged and beheaded, or put to death by some of the novel +forms of torture which the ingenious caliph delighted in inventing. +A good many of these strange regulations were no doubt inspired by +a genuine reforming<span class="pagenum" id="Page_141">[141]</span> +spirit, but it was the spirit of a mad reformer. The lively ladies +of Cairo have always needed a tight hand over them, but who could +expect to restrain a woman by confiscating her boots? The +prohibition of intoxicating liquors, gambling, and public +amusements, was in keeping with the character of a sour and bitter +puritan, and was doubtless intended as much to improve the morals +as to vex the souls of his subjects. But the nightly wanderings, +the needless restrictions and harassing regulations concerning +immaterial details, were signs of an unbalanced mind. Hákim may +have meant well according to his lights, but his lights were +strangely prismatic.”</p> + +<p>It is difficult to discover the method in this madness. At first +Christians were tolerated; then, about 1005, began a course of +contemptible persecution, petty annoyances, foolish badges and +liveries, and other humiliations, followed by wholesale +confiscations and destruction of churches. But the Muslims fared +almost as ill. Vezírs, whether Christians or Muslims, were +indiscriminately assassinated or executed. The great Gawhar’s son +was treacherously murdered in the palace. Officials of all grades +and all creeds were barbarously tortured and wantonly killed. A +distinguished general, after putting down a rebellion which kept +Egypt in a tumult for two years, happened to disturb Hákim when he +was cutting up a murdered child, and paid for his indiscretion with +his life. Yet at the very time when these horrors were being +enacted, the young caliph was busily superintending the decoration +of the mosque that bears his name,<a id="FNanchor_48"></a><a href= +"#Footnote_48" class="fnanchor">[48]</a> and also founding the +remarkable institution called the “Hall<span class="pagenum" id= +"Page_142">[142]</span> of Science” (Dar-el-‘Ilm), in the precincts +of the Great Palace, where learned men of all shades of opinion met +together and discussed everything under the sun with the resources +of a well-appointed library. These meetings of a parliament of +religions recall the debates of Akbar’s later “Hall of Worship” at +Agra, nor is this the only point of resemblance between the two +sovereigns, contrasted as they are in most respects. Akbar allowed +himself to be worshipped as a deity, and Hákim came at last to a +similar result, and both were led to it by Shí‘a influences.</p> + +<p>No doubt those long lonely rides on his grey ass about the +desolate Mukattam hills, those nights in the observatory on the +slopes where he worked out his astrological chimeras, ministered to +a mind deeply imbued with the mystical teaching of the Shí‘a. He +was the Imám, through whom God revealed Himself to the ignorant +world; he was the only possessor of the divine secrets; it was an +easy step, and a logical, to argue that he was the incarnation of +the deity—that he was God. It took more than twenty years to bring +him to this point, but aided by the preaching of some Persian +mystics he arrived there about 1018. It is true his preachers had +poor success in their mission of proclaiming the divinity of Hákim. +One was set upon and murdered to the joy of the orthodox; others +desecrated the Old Mosque of ‘Amr with their blasphemy, and the +people rose and slew them; Darazy, who afterwards gave his name to +the strange sect of the Druzes in the Lebanon, was hunted to the +palace and with difficulty saved by the caliph’s personal +interposition and ready lie. Nobody accepted the new doctrine, +monstrous to orthodox ears; and probably the bulk of the people +were not even moderate Shí‘a but really Sunnis of the old school. +Misr was in an uproar, and within an ace of a +revolution;<span class="pagenum" id="Page_143">[143]</span> but the +negro troops did their savage work, the old capital was looted, +houses were burst open, young girls dragged away, and a reign of +terror silenced the outcry. The tortured people gathered in the +mosques and prayed for help.</p> + +<p>Help came, but from an unexpected quarter. The black troops had +gone too far, and their rivals, the Berbers and Turks, less out of +humanity than mere jealousy of power, joined together in +suppressing the common enemy. Even Hákim lost his control over the +army. He also set a powerful influence against him in the harím. He +slandered his sister’s chastity. The Princess Royal refused after +this to stand between her brother and his fate. A conspiracy was +formed and when, on the 13th of February 1021, Hákim took one of +his accustomed rides to the hills, dauntless and unconcerned as +ever, he never returned. His ass and his coat, slashed with dagger +cuts, were found, but his body had disappeared. For a long time +people fearfully expected his return, as the Druzes in the Lebanon +do to this day.</p> + +<p>After so horrible a nightmare Cairo stood in sore need of rest. +It came, but not at once. Military tyranny was succeeded by the +corrupt rule of a court clique; a terrible famine in 1025 drove the +starving people to highway robbery; the treasury was exhausted, the +very slaves of the palace mutinied, and Syria was in open revolt, +whilst the new caliph, Hákim’s son, amused himself with singers and +dancers and bricked up young girls to starve to death in the +mosque. The luck of the Fátimids was not yet exhausted, however; +and good Niles, a vigorous suppression of the Syrian rebellion by +an energetic viceroy, and a temporary quieting down of the +soldiers’ jealousies, gave Egypt a quarter of a century of +comparative tranquillity. The valley of the Nile was +now<span class="pagenum" id="Page_144">[144]</span> almost all that +was left to the Fátimids. Their great Barbary dominions had +completely fallen away by 1046, and the old Mediterranean supremacy +had departed for ever. Syria was held with difficulty by force of +arms, and though Arabia, from Medina to the Yemen and Hadramawt, +yielded homage to the Egyptian caliphs, its Shí‘a emír was nothing +less than an independent sovereign. The extraordinary fact that for +forty weeks in 1058-9 the Fátimid caliph was prayed for in the +mosques of orthodox Baghdád<a id="FNanchor_49"></a><a href= +"#Footnote_49" class="fnanchor">[49]</a> testifies to political +intrigues in the eastern caliphate rather than to any real access +of power to the Fátimids.</p> + +<p>In Egypt, however, they were still undisturbed. A new caliph, +el-Mustánsir, a baby of eight months, succeeded to the throne in +1036, and kept it, by no special virtue or effort of his own, until +1094, and his long occupation—it can hardly be called +reign—comprised alternations of surprising prosperity and desperate +distress. In spite of the evil influence of his mother, a Sudány +black, who imported many of her savage compatriots to overawe the +capital, the country enjoyed exceptional tranquillity in the middle +of the eleventh century. We have the evidence of Násir-i-Khusrau, +in 1047-9, who states unconditionally that Egypt was then in +affluence, and that he had never known such tranquillity and +security as he saw there. The caliph Mustansir was exceedingly +popular, and no one went in fear of violence or rapacity from his +government.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_145">[145]</span> Order +reigned supreme, and the very jewellers and moneychangers did not +trouble to shut the doors of their shops against thieves. The shops +in Cairo itself were reckoned at over twenty thousand, and all were +the property of the caliph, and paid him from two to ten dinárs a +month. He owned, it was said, 20,000 houses, five or six storeys +high, let out in lodgings, at monthly rents averaging eleven dinárs +(or £70 a year). The houses were well built of good stone, not +brick, and were separated by delightful gardens. There were then no +city walls (the first walls having fallen to ruin, and the second +not built till forty years later), but the lofty houses themselves, +says the traveller, were almost like fortifications, and each +palace or mansion was a castle by itself.<a id= +"FNanchor_50"></a><a href="#Footnote_50" class="fnanchor">[50]</a> +There was a space of a mile between Cairo and Misr, covered with +gardens and country-houses, but flooded at the time of the +inundation so that it looked like a sea.</p> + +<p>The Persian saw one of the great ceremonies of the Cairo year, +the cutting of the dam of the canal at Misr by Mustansir in person. +The caliph rode at the head of ten thousand horsemen, whose saddles +and harness and horse-armour were adorned with gold and precious +stones, with silken housings embroidered with the caliph’s name. +Led camels bore litters richly decorated, and even the mules had +their share of jewelled harness. Regiment after regiment the +army<span class="pagenum" id="Page_146">[146]</span> defiled +towards the mouth of the canal: Berbers of the Kitáma tribe, 20,000 +strong, descended from the veterans of Mo‘izz; Maghrabis, 15,000; +Masmúda, 20,000; Turks and Persians, called “the Easterns,” though +born in Egypt, 10,000; Bedawis from the Higáz, 15,000; Sudány +blacks, 30,000; slaves, chamberlains, officials of all ranks, poets +and doctors, princes from Morocco, from the Yemen, from Nubia, +Abyssinia, Asia Minor, Georgia, Turkistan, and even the sons of a +sultan of Delhi, whose mother had settled at Cairo. The caliph +himself, a handsome and amiable-looking young man, clean shaved, +and dressed in a long robe of pure white, rode a mule without any +ornaments. Three hundred Persians of Deylem on foot, dressed in +Greek brocade, formed his escort, carrying axes and pikes. A great +dignitary bore the parasol of state beside him, and eunuchs burned +incense on either hand. All the people fell on their faces as the +caliph passed to the silken tent at the mouth of the canal, and as +soon as he cast a javelin at the dam they fell to with pick and +shovel, and the Nile flowed in. Then all the world went sailing on +the river in great joy, headed by a boatful of deaf and dumb for +the sake of luck.</p> + +<p>The Persian was fortunate in the time of his sojourn in Egypt. +Very evil days were in store for it, in which Cairo suffered its +first spoliation since its foundation a century before. For nine +years (1050-8) an able vezír, el-Yazúry, kept the upper hand over +the various factions. He did his best to deal with the +ever-recurring menace of famine, and it is possible that the ruins +of “Joseph’s granaries” near Masr-el-‘Atíka, which Benjamin of +Tudela mentions as early as 1170, represent the storehouses for +corn which he laid up against years of scarcity. In those days +there was no Willcocks or Scott Moncrieff to plan +barrages<span class="pagenum" id="Page_147">[147]</span> and dams, +and make the great river the servant of the poorest felláh. If the +Nile at the season of inundation did not rise above the lines on +the Nilometer at Roda known by the ominous names of the degrees of +Munkir and Nakír, the two angels of the grave, a famine inevitably +ensued, and with the famine came too often plague, and misery and +hunger led to disorder and crime. The cause and effect recurred +with the regularity of a machine. Yazúry’s granaries staved off the +danger for a while at the capital; but after he was poisoned in +1058, there was no one to control the warring factions. Forty +changes of vezírs in nine years show the instability of the +government. The caliph listened to the advice of anybody, and men +of straw formed his council. The real rulers were the Turkish +troops, who united with the Berbers and drove the hated Sudánis out +of Cairo. The blacks established themselves in Upper Egypt, where +their license terrified the people and prevented cultivation; the +Berbers, expelled in turn, overran the Delta and deliberately +destroyed the irrigation system in order to starve the fellahín. +Meanwhile the Turks looted the capital, despoiled the beautiful +palaces of the caliphs, dispersed their priceless collections<a id= +"FNanchor_51"></a><a href="#Footnote_51" class="fnanchor">[51]</a> +of works<span class="pagenum" id="Page_148">[148]</span> of art, +precious stones and jewellery, and worst of all broke up their +incomparable library of 100,000 manuscripts—some of them books +which orientalists still search for in vain—and used these +treasures of learning to mend their boots, to light their fires, or +even threw them wantonly out on the rubbish heaps.</p> + +<p>Upper and Lower Egypt being held by predatory bands of Sudánis +and Berbers, the capital was cut off from supplies when the great +famine began in 1066. Seven years it lasted without a sign of +relief, and Egypt was nearly ruined. Terror of the disbanded troops +in the provinces paralysed the fellahín, and nothing was done to +mitigate the effects of the low Niles or to sow for the next +season. Cairo and Misr, deprived of their usual supplies from the +provinces, felt the scarcity most severely. We read of £8 being +paid for a loaf of bread, of a house bartered for a quarter of +flour, of ladies of quality throwing away their useless jewellery +which no one would take in exchange for food, and of horses, asses, +and even dogs and cats, bought at high prices and hungrily +devoured. Soon there was not a beast to be killed, and the caliph’s +stable was brought so low that his starved grooms could only muster +three sorry nags. The people began to kidnap and eat each other. +Human flesh was sold by the butchers. Then came the plague and +mowed down every soul in house after house with its sudden secret +scythe. Famine and plague are no respecters of persons. The great +suffered alike with the poor. Proud noblemen tried to earn a crust +of bread by serving in the public baths.<span class="pagenum" id= +"Page_149">[149]</span> The caliph himself, despoiled by the Turks +and deserted by his household—even his wife and daughters fled to +Baghdád to escape the pest—owed his daily rations of two loaves to +the charity of a scholar’s daughter.</p> + +<p>Those seven lean years of indescribable misery and crime had +never before been approached in Egypt. At last they came to an end. +The harvest of 1073 was bountiful, the leader of the Turks was “cut +in pieces small,” and a great vezír came to the rescue of the +tottering State (1074). This was Bedr el Gemály, for whom the +caliph sent in his distress. Bedr was an Armenian, but not a +Christian, and began his career as a slave. His marked ability had +raised him to such high offices as the governorship of Damascus and +afterwards of ‘Akka (Acre). He was the man for the crisis, and by a +fortunate omen a Korán reader was actually reciting to the caliph +the verse, “And God has helped you with Bedr——”<a id= +"FNanchor_52"></a><a href="#Footnote_52" class="fnanchor">[52]</a> +when Bedr entered the presence. “Had you read any more,” cried the +delighted caliph, “your head would have been cut off.” The famous +general made short work of the Turkish oligarchy. The leaders were +all killed, by a treacherous but salutary trick, in a single night. +The reign of terror in Cairo was over. Bedr was appointed +commander-in-chief, vezír of the sword and pen, chief kády, and +director of the Shí‘a propaganda—generalissimo, prime minister, +cardinal, and lord chancellor in one. He first brought back order +in the capital, and then marched through the provinces, defeating, +slaughtering and subduing Berbers, Sudánis, and Arabs, till law +reigned supreme from Alexandria to Aswán. The peasantry, restored +to peace and security, laboured their lands again, the revenue +rose<span class="pagenum" id="Page_150">[150]</span> by leaps and +bounds, and for twenty years the country enjoyed plenteous +prosperity.</p> + +<p>Cairo benefited incalculably by the large and noble policy of +the great Armenian. For a century since the days when ‘Azíz built +the West Palace and the Pavilion of the Pearl, there had been few +important additions to its architecture. Hákim, indeed, had +finished his father’s mosque, and built the Hall of Science. +Mustansir’s favourite residence was his country palace at +Heliopolis, where he had a kiosk modelled after the holy but +distinctly ugly Kaaba of Mekka, with a pool of wine to represent +the well of Zemzem; and there he made merry, with exceedingly +unorthodox sarcasms upon the black stone and bad water of the +Arabian original. With the rule of Bedr, Cairo once more heard the +sound of the trowel. In view of the recent invasion and spoliation +of the city by insurgent troops the first necessity was to fortify +it for defence. The old wall of sun-burnt brick had practically +disappeared in the growth of the town which now spread outside the +three gates built by Gawhar. These gates were now taken down and +rebuilt of stone (1187-91) so as to enclose a larger area—the Greek +Quarter at the south, for example, was now taken within the +wall—and a new wall of brick was carried round the city. It was +afterwards enlarged by Saladin, but some of the wall of Bedr still +remains. On the north it still connects the Bab-en-Nasr with the +Bab-el-Futúh, and extends to a bastion about 330 feet west of the +latter, and to a re-entering angle some 200 feet east of the +Bab-en-Nasr. There is also a piece of the wall among the houses +near the Bab-Zuweyla on the south face of the enclosure, and as +late as 1842 a portion of the west wall was still to be seen at the +west side of the Ezbekíya.</p> + +<div class="figcenterplate iw3"><span class="pagenum" id= +"Page_151">[151]</span> +<figure id="i11"><a href="images/i11.jpg"><img src='images/i11.jpg' +alt=''></a> +<p class="cp2">GATE OF SUCCOUR: BAB-EN-NASR</p> +</figure> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_153">[153]</span>The three great +gates stand practically unchanged, though the towers of the Zuweyla +gate were shortened to receive the minarets of the mosque of +el-Muayyad in the fifteenth century. These gates are the most +impressive monuments of the Fátimid period, but they are Byzantine, +not Saracenic. According to the Armenian chronicler Abu-Sálih, a +Copt, “John the Monk,” planned the walls and gates for the Armenian +vezír; but whatever share he had in designing the lie of the walls, +he could never have been the architect of these Norman-looking +gates.<a id="FNanchor_53"></a><a href="#Footnote_53" class= +"fnanchor">[53]</a> The Topographer is evidently right in stating +that they were built by three brothers from Edessa—a city full of +Armenians where Bedr, with his Syrian experience, would naturally +seek his architects—each of whom built one gate. The statement is +amply confirmed, not only by the style, which clearly belongs to +the Syrian-Byzantine school, but also by various mason’s marks in +Greek letters, <span class="underline">Ζ</span>, Η, Η’, etc. In +short, as M. van Berchem has pointed out, the gates and enceinte of +Cairo belong to what is called the Templars’ (as distinguished from +the French) style of military architecture,—“the great Byzantine +and Saracenic school of which the chief characteristics may be +traced in various countries and at divers epochs, at +Constantinople, Nicæa, Brusa, Adalia, and the Pamphylian cities, in +the old Arab fortresses of northern Syria, in the style of the +Templars and the military buildings of the post-crusade Saracens, +such as the enceinte of Jerusalem,” etc. The leading features of +the style are square bastions and square or round headed openings, +contrasting with the Persian arches of the Fátimid mosques and the +round bastions of Saladin’s<span class="pagenum" id= +"Page_154">[154]</span> wall. The curtains run to a thickness of +eleven to thirteen feet, and contain archers’ chambers and other +apparatus for defence. The gates consist of a vaulted passage, with +round arch, between towers containing an ingenious arrangement of +shooting floors and connected by a cross-passage above the arch, +with a place for launching stones or grenades upon the enemy. A +fine spiral staircase, admirable cornices, some sculptured shields, +and a magnificent Kufic inscription<a id="FNanchor_54"></a><a href= +"#Footnote_54" class="fnanchor">[54]</a> adorn the Bab-en-Nasr. The +inscription (like another on the Bab-el-Futúh) expresses the Shí‘a +creed, but has nevertheless sustained eight centuries of orthodox +rule in Egypt unchanged. The three great gates are noble monuments +of one of the greatest vezírs of mediæval Cairo.</p> + +<p>For nearly sixty years Egypt enjoyed the inestimable benefits of +Armenian rule. Bedr died in 1094, the year also of the caliph +Mustánsir’s death, but the vezír’s son el-Afdal succeeded to his +father’s power, and governed Egypt till 1121, when he was +assassinated by order of the caliph Amir. Afdal’s son Abu-‘Aly held +supreme power in 1131 in the name of “the expected Mahdy,”—thus +reverting to the old Shí‘a theory of the hidden Imám and ignoring +all claims of the Fátimid dynasty. When he in turn was murdered on +his way to the polo field, Yanis, an Armenian slave of Afdal’s, +became vezír, and after him Bahrám, an Armenian Christian, retained +the office until 1137. By this time the growing influence of the +Armenians had led to their holding every post worth having in all +the government departments, and their excessive assumption of +authority led to a natural reaction. Bahrám and 2000 of his +fellow-countrymen were expelled, and the heyday of the Armenians +was over. They deserved well of the<span class="pagenum" id= +"Page_157">[157]</span> country, and had ruled, on a whole, both +wisely and large-mindedly. Firm and yet mild, the virtual +sovereignty of Bedr and his son had rendered immense services to +Egypt. If they accumulated vast wealth—Afdal is said to have left +over £3,000,000 in gold, and the milk of his herds of cows was +farmed in one year for £15,750—they earned their fortunes by hard +and intelligent work; they were just and generous, and the Copts +had much to thank them for. Even Abu-‘Aly, with his eccentric +revival of the doctrine of the concealed Imám, who actually figured +on the coinage, inherited the wise tradition of his father and +grandfather, and showed himself tolerant and mild, a good friend to +the Christians, and a patron of learning.</p> + +<div class="figcenterplate iw5"> +<figure id="i12"><a href="images/i12_large.jpg"><img src= +'images/i12.jpg' alt=''></a> +<p class="cp2">MINARETS OVER GATE OF ZUWEYLA</p> +</figure> +</div> + +<p>From the time of Bedr, Egypt, it will be realized, had become a +country ruled no longer by caliphs but by vezírs. It was the old +story of the Merovingian <em>major domo</em> translated into +Arabic. Indeed, since the terrible despotism of Hákim no caliph had +exercised personal authority in the great affairs of state, except +el-Amir, who tried for a few years to be his own prime-minister, +with the help, however, of the monk Ibn-Kenna, but the experiment +was not a success. The monk became too inflated, and was scourged +to death. El-Ámir’s cruelty made him detested, and one day as he +was riding back from the Hawdag, or “Litter,” the country-house on +the island of Roda in which he consulted the desert tastes of his +Bedawy bride, he was assassinated by some Isma‘ílian Assassins +(1130). He had at least the virtue to found a mosque, the Gámi‘ +el-Akmar (Grey Mosque), in Beyn-el-Kasreyn. After this the caliphs +resigned themselves to a succession of vezírs, who were themselves +the instruments of military factions. The spiritual sanctity and +seclusion of the Fátimid pontiffs were still observed, as we have +seen in the description<span class="pagenum" id= +"Page_158">[158]</span> of the embassy of the two knights, but one +must believe that this reverence had degenerated into something +like a farce. The murders of Ámir and Záfir; the early imprisonment +of Háfiz, and his later thraldom to his drunken negro guards, who +killed the gallant Rudwán, vezír, soldier, and poet, in front of +the Grey Mosque, and who made the caliph poison his own son by the +hands of his Christian physician; the awful scene of bloodshed in +the very palace, amid which the baby Fáïz was exhibited to the +trembling court as their spiritual Imám<a id= +"FNanchor_55"></a><a href="#Footnote_55" class= +"fnanchor">[55]</a>—these do not point to any real reverence for +the mystical caliphate of the Shí‘a. Fainéant caliphs had long been +known at Baghdád, and their rivals on the Nile were equally shadows +of a mighty name.</p> + +<p>The last horror was too much even for the long-suffering people +of Cairo. The murder of the caliph Záfir shortly after the murder +of the Kurd vezír Ibn-es-Salár; the massacre in the palace; the +peculiar unnaturalness of the crimes on the part of a kinsman and +boonfellow; the atrocious brutality of exposing the child-caliph of +four years to the terror of such a scene of blood and anguish, +roused a storm of vengeance. The new vezír, ‘Abbás, the instigator, +fled from a hail of stones, and was killed near the Dead Sea; the +actual assassin, Nasr, was delivered up by the Templars of +Palestine, for a blood-money of £30,000, to the women of the +palace, who tortured him, and sent him through the streets of +Cairo, maimed and blinded, to be crucified alive at the +Bab-Zuweyla. In their desperate straits the women had sent locks of +their hair to the governor of Ushmuneyn in Upper Egypt, and the +emír Talái‘, son of Ruzzík, responded gallantly to<span class= +"pagenum" id="Page_159">[159]</span> the appeal (1154). Waving the +eloquent tresses he rode into Cairo, followed by an Arab guard, and +when he had assumed the vezirate in the Dar-el-Mamún,<a id= +"FNanchor_56"></a><a href="#Footnote_56" class="fnanchor">[56]</a> +the capital recovered its confidence. Talái‘, who followed the +custom of recent vezírs and styled himself “king,” el-Melik +es-Sálih, was the last buttress of the falling dynasty. He was a +man of culture, a poet, accessible, generous, and politic. His +mosque, still to be seen near the Bab-Zuweyla, bears witness to his +pious munificence. He tried his best to turn aside from Egypt the +storm that was threatening from the political complications in +Syria and Palestine; but the palace women found that they had +called to their rescue an austere moralist, and ungratefully put +him to death. “His last words were a regret that he had not +conquered Jerusalem and exterminated the Franks, and a warning to +his son to beware of Sháwar, the Arab governor of Upper Egypt. The +regret and the warning were well founded. Sháwar deposed and +executed the vezír’s son Ruzzík at the beginning of 1163, and +within the year the Christian king of Jerusalem was in Egypt.”</p> + +<p>Before turning to the invasion of Cairo by the Crusaders, the +conquest by Saladin, and the end of the Fátimids in the death of +the last caliph el-‘Adid, a few words must be said on the remains +of the city which the falling dynasty had created and maintained in +exceptional splendour. Of all their buildings only the three great +gates, part of the walls, and the remains of four<a id= +"FNanchor_57"></a><a href="#Footnote_57" class="fnanchor">[57]</a> +mosques, bear witness to the Fátimids.<span class="pagenum" id= +"Page_160">[160]</span> The palaces have utterly gone: they were +not used by their successors, and gradually fell to ruin. “O +censurer of my love for the sons of Fatima,” wrote Omára, the poet, +before 1174, “join in my tears over the desolate halls of the twin +Palaces.” The Hall of Science, the Dar-el-Mamún, the Palace of the +Vezírs, and all the other mansions and pleasure houses of the Shí‘a +caliphs and their court have disappeared. There was no wanton or +general destruction: the buildings were simply deserted and +neglected under the new orthodox régime, and neglected houses soon +fall to ruin. Of the few remaining monuments, the oldest that can +be regarded as authentic is the mosque of el-Hákim—for the Azhar +retains little of its original architecture or decoration. The +Akmar mosque in Beyn-el-Kasreyn built by the caliph Ámir is +remarkable as the first mosque built of stone: the earlier mosques +were all of brick. Only the façade, however, is of stone, +well-shaped and joined, and finely sculptured. The interior arches +are of brick on marble pillars. “Small and ruined as it is, it has +the feature, unique among Fátimid mosques, of a fine façade +(unfortunately hidden by a formless erection which the Monuments +Commission has vainly sought to obtain power to remove), very +unlike the ordinary plain exterior of the early mosques, and +deserving special notice for the shell ornament of its fluted +niche, the rosette of open tracery composed of inscriptions and +ornaments, and the side niches, surmounted by a Kufic +frieze.”<a id="FNanchor_58"></a><a href="#Footnote_58" class= +"fnanchor">[58]</a> Two inscriptions giving the name of el-Amir and +the date 519 <span class="sc2">A.H.</span> (1125) belong to the +foundation, and two others record the restoration of the mosque by +the emír Yelbugha es-Sálimy in 799 (1396), but this restoration +fortunately made but<span class="pagenum" id= +"Page_163">[163]</span> slight alterations in this interesting +building. The mosque of the vezír Talái‘ ibn Ruzzík, near the +Bab-Zuweyla (1160), though much dilapidated, shows a notable +advance in decorative skill, and the rich detail of its arabesques +is scarcely surpassed by any later work. Fátimid decoration is well +illustrated by several important examples in the Museum of Arab +Art. Especially to be studied are the panelled doors with fine +foliate carving and inscriptions (of el-Hákim) from the Azhar +mosque; and the three <em>mihrabs</em> or prayer niches, two of +which came from the Azhar (one bears an inscription recording its +erection there by el-Ámir in 1125), and the third from the chapel +of Seyyida Rukeyya of about 1135. The last is a marvel of intricate +geometrical panel-work and arabesque and Kufic ornament.</p> + +<div class="figcenterplate iw2"> +<figure id="i13"><a href="images/i13.jpg"><img src='images/i13.jpg' +alt=''></a> +<p class="cp2">MOSQUE OF EL-GUYUSHY</p> +</figure> +</div> + +<p>Unhappily, if heterodox opinions encouraged artistic +development, they also led to the destruction of its achievements. +Had the Fátimids not been heretics, their beautiful palaces with +their thousands of exquisite works of art might have been preserved +by their successors. As it was, they all bore “the mark of the +Beast,” and the pious folk of later times were only too eager to +efface all memories of the schismatic caliphs who had lavished +their fabulous wealth with admirable taste upon the embellishment +of their city.</p> + +<hr class="chap"> + +<h2><span class="pagenum" id="Page_164">[164]</span><a id= +"c06"></a>CHAPTER VI</h2> + +<p class="sch1"><em>Saladin’s Castle</em> +</p> + +<p class="dcap">CAIRO at the beginning of the thirteenth century +was a very different city from the Fátimid royal compound. It +covered a much larger space, included a number of new buildings of +a character unknown in Egypt before, and it possessed a citadel. +All these changes were due to Saladin, though he did not live to +see them completed. To trace in detail the causes which led to the +invasion of Egypt by the Crusading king of Jerusalem and the +expulsion of the Franks by the armies of Nur-ed-din, sultan of +Damascus, would carry us far away from our proper subject. The +principal element in the political situation was the partition of +the Fátimid province of Syria between two new and aggressive +powers, the Crusaders and the Seljúk Turks. The gradual +infiltration of Turkish officers into the Baghdád caliphate had +ended in a great invasion of this race, led by the Seljúks, who not +only subdued the whole of Persia and Mesopotamia in the middle of +the eleventh century and made the ‘Abbásid caliph their tool, but +overran the Fátimid dominions in Syria, which had always been +loosely held, took possession of Damascus in 1076, and were only +prevented from invading Egypt by the bribes and warlike +preparations of the Armenian vezír Bedr el-Gemály. The Seljúk +empire broke up at the close of the century; but its Syrian +fragment, under the brilliant leadership of the Atabeg Zengy and +his son<span class="pagenum" id="Page_167">[167]</span> Nur-ed-din, +was little less formidable to the Fátimid authority than the +undiminished empire of the Seljúks. Meanwhile a fresh complication +was introduced into Syrian politics by the beginning of the +Crusades, the recovery of Jerusalem by the Christians in 1099, and +the establishment there of the Latin Kingdom. Step by step the +Fátimid garrisons were driven south. The Armenian Afdal, Bedr’s +son, after attempting negotiations, fought a series of campaigns in +Palestine, but the advance of the Crusaders was not to be stayed. +Tripolis fell in 1109, Tyre followed in 1124, and after a long +interval Ascalon, the last Fátimid outpost, surrendered in 1153. +The Crusaders now touched the Egyptian frontier, and their +fortresses at Karak and Montréal, by the Dead Sea, intercepted +communications with Syria.</p> + +<div class="figcenterplate iw5"> +<figure id="i14"><a href="images/i14.jpg"><img src='images/i14.jpg' +alt=''></a> +<p class="cp3">CAIRO BEFORE 1200</p> +</figure> +</div> + +<p>Of the two powers, the Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem and the +Turkish Sultanate of Damascus, neither was strong enough to crush +the other. Egypt was the key of the situation. If either power +could obtain possession of the Nile, it would take its rival on the +flank and win the mastery. The natural combination would of course +be between the two Muslim states of Damascus and Cairo; but +religious sectarianism barred the way. Nur-ed-din was a zealous +Muslim of the orthodox school, and would have no traffic with Shí‘a +heretics. The vezírs Ibn-es-Salár and Talái‘ did indeed open a +diplomatic correspondence with the king of Damascus, but received +little encouragement. It was not till his hand was forced by the +actual presence of a Crusading army at Cairo that Nur-ed-din at +last sent his troops to Egypt. The interference was due to the +quarrels of rival vezírs who were struggling over the remains of +the Fátimid power. One of these, Sháwar, expelled by Dirghám, +appealed to Nur-ed-din, and Dirghám sought the alliance of Amalric, +the king<span class="pagenum" id="Page_168">[168]</span> of +Jerusalem, who had already invaded Egypt to claim the yearly +subsidy—<em>annua tributi pensio</em> as William of Tyre describes +it—which the decrepit Fátimid government had recently paid as +blackmail to its Christian neighbour. Sháwar returned in 1164 +supported by a Syrian army commanded by Shirkúh, with his nephew +Saladin on his staff. Dirghám, defeated at Bilbeys, made another +stand at Cairo, where he held the Fátimid city whilst Sháwar and +the Syrians occupied Misr. Popular as Dirghám had been—he was a +brave Arab, who had fought the Crusaders at Gaza and commanded the +Barkíya battalion of the Fátimid army—he ruined his cause by laying +hands on the <em>wakf</em> (pious benefactions) to meet his +military necessities. His followers fell away, and the caliph +withheld his countenance. The final scene was tragical:—</p> + +<p>“Driven to bay, for the last time he sounded the ‘assembly.’ In +vain ‘the drums beat and the trumpets blared, <em>ma-sha-llah!</em> +on the battlements’; no man answered. In vain the desperate emir, +surrounded by his bodyguard of 500 horse, all that remained to him +of a powerful army, stood suppliant before the caliph’s palace for +a whole day, even until the sunset call to prayer, and implored him +by the memory of his forefathers to stand forth at the window and +bless his cause. No answer came; the guard itself gradually +dispersed, till only thirty troopers were left. Suddenly a warning +cry reached him: ‘Look to thyself and save thy life!’—and lo! +Sháwar’s trumpets and drums were heard, entering from the Gate of +the Bridge. Then at last the deserted leader rode out through the +Zuweyla Gate: the fickle folk hacked off his head, and bore it in +triumph through the streets; his body they left to be worried by +the curs. Such was the tragic end of a brave and gallant gentleman, +poet, and paladin.”</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_169">[169]</span>As soon as +Dirghám was disposed of, the treacherous Sháwar turned upon his +deliverers, and called in the aid of Amalric to drive away the +Syrians. After a prolonged conflict, an armistice was eventually +arranged, and both armies, Christian and Syrian, retired from Egypt +without immediate result. But the invasion was the beginning of a +permanent occupation. On their return to Damascus the Syrian troops +described the weakness of the Fátimid rule and urged upon +Nur-ed-din the importance of the conquest of Egypt. The cautious +sultan was slow to move, but when the news came that Amalric was +again intriguing with Sháwar, the Syrian army set out a second time +for the Nile and crossed it just as the Crusaders came up (1167). +Amalric, however, succeeded in getting possession of Cairo, and +made the treaty with the caliph which was the occasion of the +memorable audience of the two knights described above (<a href= +"#Page_131">p. 131</a>). Shirkúh, on the other hand, overran Upper +Egypt, and Saladin held Alexandria for seventy-five days. Then +another truce was arranged, and the two armies went back +respectively to Syria and Palestine. The Franks, however, left a +Resident at Cairo and manned the guards of the gates, quartering a +garrison in the mosque of el-Hákim; and the representations of +these spectators of the weakness and distraction of the government +of Egypt brought Amalric back in the following year with the +definite intention of annexing the land. This breach of faith, +followed by a barbarous massacre at Bilbeys, so alarmed the +Egyptians that they sent urgent entreaties to Nur-ed-din—the caliph +even plied him with the touching argument of tresses of his wives’ +hair—and for the third time, at the beginning of 1169, Shirkúh and +Saladin arrived in Egypt. This time they stayed for good. Amalric +retired without even giving battle; Sháwar, after plotting the +murder of his rescuers, was<span class="pagenum" id= +"Page_170">[170]</span> arrested and executed; Shirkúh was +appointed vezír, and on his death two months later Saladin was +invested with the robe of office in March 1169.</p> + +<p>As vezír of the Shí‘a caliph and at the same time viceroy of the +orthodox king of Damascus, Saladin’s position was clearly +untenable, and though he carried on the business of state for two +years in this anomalous situation it was obvious that the Fátimid +caliphate must come to an end. The last of the Fátimids was dying, +and the opportunity was taken to make the necessary change. At the +Friday prayers on the 10th of September 1171, the ‘Abbásid caliph +of Baghdád was duly proclaimed in the mosques of Cairo. A similar +ceremony is described by an Arab traveller from Spain twelve years +later.</p> + +<p>“In one of these Friday Mosques,” says Ibn-Gubeyr, “the Sermon +was preached to-day. The Preacher herein followed the Sunny rite, +beginning his sermon with an invocation conjointly for the +Companions, the Followers and their fellows, also for the Mothers +of the Faithful, who are the Wives of the Prophet, and for his two +noble uncles Hamza and el-‘Abbás;—further, he preached so fine a +sermon and so moving a discourse that hard hearts were humbled and +dry eyes shed tears. He delivered his sermon robed in black, as is +the ‘Abbásid rule; for he wore a black cloak over which hung a +<em>taylasan</em> or veil of fine black linen, such as in Spain +would be called an <em>ihrám</em>; his turban also was black, and +he was girt with a sword. As he ascended the pulpit, he struck a +blow on the step with the ferule of his scabbard, when he first +began to go up, such as the congregation might hear, and as though +it were a call to silence, and in the midst of his ascent he struck +another blow, and when he reached the top, a third; after which he +pronounced the blessing, turning first to the right and +then<span class="pagenum" id="Page_171">[171]</span> to the left, +standing there between two black banners that had white marks on +them, which were fixed in the upper part of the pulpit. On this +occasion, further, he invoked a blessing first on the ‘Abbásid +caliph, who is en-Násir-li-dini-llah, the son of el-Mustady, and +next he prayed for the restorer of his power, Yúsuf, son of Ayyúb, +who is the Sultan Saladin, and then for his brother and heir +apparent, Abu-Bekr, who is named Seyf-ed-din (Saphadin).”<a id= +"FNanchor_59"></a><a href="#Footnote_59" class= +"fnanchor">[59]</a></p> + +<p>The congregation who first heard this bidding-prayer in 1171 +showed little surprise, and there was scarcely a murmur. The Shí‘a +propaganda had probably been attended with little success in Cairo, +and the bulk of the people retained their leanings to the orthodox +creed, in spite of two centuries of dominant heresy. At least, the +revolution was accomplished without a shock. The last of the +Fátimid caliphs passed away without hearing of his deposition. His +relations were kept in luxurious captivity, and his slaves and +household dispersed. The palaces were too magnificent for Saladin’s +modest wants, and he quartered the officers of his army there, and +himself occupied the House of the Vezírs. The great library of +120,000 books, which had been studiously collected since the +dispersal of the earlier library a century before, was given to the +learned chancellor, Kády el-Fádil. The treasure was distributed or +sold. The palaces and every memory of the Fátimids gradually +disappeared, save their mosques, and orthodoxy once more reigned +supreme in Egypt.</p> + +<p>The career of the great champion of Islám was made chiefly +outside Egypt. Of Saladin’s reign of twenty-four years—for reign it +was from the beginning, though<span class="pagenum" id= +"Page_172">[172]</span> nominally subject to the king of Damascus +for the first five years—he spent but eight at Cairo, and his +greatest triumphs, as well as his few reverses, took place in +Syria, Mesopotamia, and Palestine. When he left Cairo on the 11th +of May, 1182, and the great officers of the court came to his +stirrup to bid him farewell, as the cavalcade halted by the Lake of +the Abyssinians, a voice was heard above the music and the singing: +“Enjoy,” it cried in the classical lines of an Arab poet,</p> + +<div class="linegrp-container"> +<div class="linegrp"> +<div class="group"> +<div class="line indent0">“Enjoy the perfume of the ox-eyes of +Nejd;</div> + +<div class="line indent0"> After to-night there will be no +more ox-eyes.”</div> +</div> +</div> +</div> + +<p class="nind">The evil omen came true: there were no more ox-eyes +in Egypt for him, and Cairo saw him never again. He conquered the +land of the Euphrates; held kingly state at Damascus, which he had +annexed after the death of Nur-ed-din; won his great victory at +Hittín over the Crusaders; recovered Jerusalem, sacred to him as +well as to Christians, and brought all the Holy Land to his feet; +and fought the long duel with the chivalry of Europe which wavered +about ‘Akka for two years, and ended in the running fight with +Richard of England that has made Saladin a household name even in +Europe. After the last dash upon Jaffa and its repulse, the treaty +of peace was signed, and in the following March, 1193, Saladin died +and was buried at Damascus.</p> + +<p>“The Holy War was over; the five years’ contest ended. Before +the great victory at Hittin in July, 1187, not an inch of Palestine +west of the Jordan was in the Muslims’ hands. After the Peace of +Ramla in September, 1192, the whole land was theirs, except a +narrow strip of coast from Tyre to Jaffa. At the Pope’s appeal all +Christendom had risen in arms. The Emperor, the Kings of England, +France and Sicily,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_173">[173]</span> +Leopold of Austria, the Duke of Burgundy, the Count of Flanders, +hundreds of famous barons and knights of all nations, had joined +with the King and Princes of Palestine and the indomitable brothers +of the Temple and Hospital, in the effort to deliver the Holy City +and restore the vanished Kingdom of Jerusalem. The Emperor was +dead, the Kings had gone back; many of their noblest followers lay +buried in the Holy Land: but Jerusalem was still the city of +Saladin, and its titular king reigned over a slender realm at Acre. +All the strength of Christendom concentrated in the Third Crusade +had not shaken Saladin’s power. When the trials and sufferings of +the five years’ war were over, he still reigned unchallenged from +the mountains of Kurdistan to the Libyan desert, and far beyond +these borders the King of Georgia, the Catholicos of Armenia, the +Sultan of Koniya, the Emperor of Constantinople, were eager to call +him friend and ally.”<a id="FNanchor_60"></a><a href="#Footnote_60" +class="fnanchor">[60]</a></p> + +<p>Brief as was Saladin’s residence at Cairo, none of its rulers +has left more lasting traces of his influence. It is to him that +the capital owed the form and extent it has borne ever since, until +comparatively recent times. Its most conspicuous feature, the +Citadel, was Saladin’s creation, and its most pervasive +architectural form, the Medresa, was his introduction. All these +changes were due to his initiative, and when, after eight years, he +went away, and thenceforth continually called upon Egypt to send +its contingents to his yearly campaigns, he left behind him +officers and kinsmen who carried out the great works he had begun. +These works were partly defensive, and partly religious. The +defensive works were the Citadel, the new wall, and the great dike, +and all three are original features. Hitherto the various rulers of +Egypt had<span class="pagenum" id="Page_174">[174]</span> contented +themselves with building official or royal suburbs, each half a +mile or so further to the north-east. Even the Fátimid “city” of +Káhira, as we have seen, was an official and palatial residence of +the caliphs, not a metropolis of Egypt. Saladin was the first to +elaborate a comprehensive plan of a great capital. Instead of +following the example of earlier sovereigns and building a new +suburb, he resolved to unite the existing inhabited districts +within one great wall, and to crown the whole by a citadel. The +burned city of Misr was then struggling to rise from its ashes, +like the phœnix, and renew its youth: Saladin resolved to help it. +The scattered settlements upon the site of the ruined faubourgs +were also to be gathered in, and the port of Maks was to be joined +to its city by a wall, as Peiraeus was to Athens. The enclosing +wall was to be of stone, and to prolong the defences of Bedr the +Armenian to Maks on the west and to the hill of Mukattam on the +south, and thence to run round the remains of the old Town of the +Tent till it touched the Nile.</p> + +<p>The great scheme was never completed: its author was busy on his +Syrian campaigns, and probably his representatives at Cairo had +enough to do to raise men and money for his support without +carrying out more building than was absolutely necessary. It is +also possible that further reflection convinced him or his deputies +that the plan of enclosing so decayed a town as Misr was hardly +worth the cost of a couple of miles of wall. What was actually +accomplished was this: the wall of Bedr on the north was prolonged +from its terminus at the canal to the Nile, where the fortified +tower of Maks was erected; on the east the old wall was prolonged +southwards to the Bab-el-Wezír, near the wall of the new +Citadel;—the Sultan’s death stopped the work before a junction +had<span class="pagenum" id="Page_175">[175]</span> been made, and +the south and west walls were not even begun. A large part of +Saladin’s walls still stands: though often lost among houses, they +can be traced between the canal and the Iron Gate (Báb-el-Hadíd, +formerly called the Bab-el-Bahr, or Nile Gate, beside the fort of +Maks, which has disappeared), where the contrast between the last +square bastion of the Fátimid wall and the neighbouring rounded +bastion of Saladin’s curtain, with its bosses, watch-towers, and +loopholes, is clearly marked. The same characteristics are seen on +the east wall which separates the city from the Káit-Bey cemetery, +until a modern style appears at the Bab-el-Wezír.<a id= +"FNanchor_61"></a><a href="#Footnote_61" class="fnanchor">[61]</a> +A portion of the wall at the N.E. angle, with the Burg ez-Zafar, +lies outside in the desert, showing that here only has the modern +city shrunk within its twelfth century limits.</p> + +<p>The walls were but a development of the earlier enceinte of +Bedr. The Citadel was a new idea. It may have been partly inspired +by Saladin’s dislike to the palaces so intimately associated with +the schismatic caliphs, for though he did not live to dwell in the +Citadel, except for a brief visit, there can be no doubt that he +intended to make it his residence, as his successors did. But the +obvious explanation of the fortress is to be found in his Syrian +experience. There every important city had its <em>Kal‘a</em> or +castle, and nothing could be more natural than that Saladin, +looking with a soldier’s eye at the jutting spur of Mukattam, +should at once have recognized it as the proper place for a +citadel. It is true that whilst commanding Cairo from its height of +250 feet, the fortress is itself commanded by higher positions on +Mukattam; but this would hardly injure its efficiency in days of +stone-slings and short-ranged mangonels. It was a strong +enough<span class="pagenum" id="Page_176">[176]</span> position for +twelfth century engineers, and no pains were spared to make it +impregnable from beneath, in case of an insurrection in the city. +The work was begun in 1176-7 under the direction of the eunuch +Karakúsh, one of Saladin’s most faithful emírs, who in spite of +great services and warlike deeds has by a strange freak of fortune +come to be associated with the ribald antics of Karakúsh, the +Oriental Punch. It was not till six years later that the founder’s +inscription was set up which still surmounts the “Gate of Steps” +(Bab-el-Mudarrag) in the original (west) part of the Citadel, where +we read how “the building of this splendid Castle,—hard by Cairo +the Guarded, on the terrace which joins use to beauty, and space to +strength, for those who seek the shelter of his power,—was ordered +by our master the King Strong-to-aid, <em>Saláh-ed-dunya +wa-d-din</em> (Saladin), Conquest-laden, Yúsuf, son of Ayyúb, +Restorer of the Empire of the Caliph; with the direction of his +brother and heir the Just King (el-‘Adil) Seyf-ed-din Abu-Bekr +Mohammad, friend of the Commander of the Faithful; and under the +management of the Emír of his Kingdom and Support of his Empire +Karakúsh son of ‘Abdallah, the slave of el-Melik en-Násir, in the +year 579” (1183-4).</p> + +<p>The smaller pyramids of Giza were used as quarries for the +stone, and the masonry was executed in part by Frank or European +prisoners taken in Saladin’s wars. The Spanish traveller +Ibn-Gubeyr, who visited Cairo in 1183, saw the building in +progress. “Both the workmen,” he says, “whose forced labour is +employed for building the Citadel and their overseers are Christian +prisoners of war of the Franks; their number is so great as cannot +be reckoned, and but for them there would be no means of carrying +out these works, for only they can support the toil and +heavy<span class="pagenum" id="Page_179">[179]</span> labour of +sawing the marble, dressing the great blocks of stone, and of +quarrying the fosse which encompasses the wall of the Citadel, +which fosse is cut like a ditch in the solid rock with crowbars, a +wonder of wonders for ever. Elsewhere there is another building of +the Sultan which is being carried out by the Frank prisoners who +work here; but even those of the Muslims, who give their service in +these and similar public works, must do it at their own cost, for +there is no pay given to any who work here.” Corvée labour was no +new thing in Egypt, however strange it may have appeared to a +visitor from Spain.</p> + +<div class="figcenterplate iw2"> +<figure id="i15"><a href="images/i15.jpg"><img src='images/i15.jpg' +alt=''></a> +<p class="cp2">CASTLE OF THE RAM: KAL‘AT-EL-KEBSH</p> +</figure> +</div> + +<p>The Citadel was not finished till 1207-8, when Saladin’s nephew +el-Kámil was king. As the chief residence and stronghold of every +successive ruler down to 1850, it has been frequently altered and +enlarged by several of the Mamlúk Sultans, and finally by Mohammad +‘Aly Pasha, and none of the mosques or vestiges of palaces on it +belongs to Saladin’s age. The old mosque was built by en-Násir in +1318; the more conspicuous mosque with slender Turkish minarets was +begun by Mohammad ‘Aly in 1824. The “Hall of Yúsuf,” believed to be +Saladin’s, was part of a Mamlúk palace. The interior towers are not +original, and the gateway opening on the Rumeyla was built in the +middle of the 18th century. Still there is much remaining of the +original structures, besides the famous “Well of the Winding +Stairs,” 280 feet deep, which was excavated by Karakúsh. Saladin’s +walls are still preserved in a large part of the enceinte, though +it needs some architectural knowledge to distinguish them from +later additions and restorations, and some of the internal passages +and constructions date from the foundation. The prevalent use of +round, slightly truncated, and well-projected bastions, commanding +a long stretch of the curtain, the absence of interior<span class= +"pagenum" id="Page_180">[180]</span> chambers or low loopholes in +the curtain, and the <em>arc brisé</em> or square openings, besides +certain technical peculiarities in the masonry, reveal the original +work, and associate it with the Franco-Syrian rather than the +Byzantine school.</p> + +<p>The last work of defence was the great dike of Giza on the west +bank of the Nile. Ibn-Gubeyr describes it as a gigantic +undertaking. “The Sultan,” he says, “to his glory and as a lasting +work that shall serve the need of the Muslims, has begun to build a +great dike of arches to the westward of Misr, and at a distance +from it of seven miles. This forms a continuation of the embankment +which, beginning opposite Misr, runs along the side of the Nile +like a hill that has been flattened on the ground: after traversing +which you come at the end of six miles to the dike continuing it. +This dike consists of forty arches, each of the largest size of +bridge-arches, and runs in the direction of the delta which extends +thence to Alexandria. It is a wonderful work, and such as only a +king of great foresight would emprise, as a precaution against +sudden attack by an enemy from the Alexandrian frontier at the time +of the inundation, when, the land being under water, the usual road +becomes impassable for troops. The dike thus forms a causeway +available at all seasons of need.”<a id="FNanchor_62"></a><a href= +"#Footnote_62" class="fnanchor">[62]</a> The object of this defence +is evident. Saladin had not forgotten the history of the successive +Fátimid invasions from the Libyan side, when there was nothing to +stop them from marching straight to the Nile, and he determined to +be forearmed. Ibn-Gubeyr mentions that there were fears of an +attack from the Almohades, who after subduing all Morocco and +southern Spain, had conquered Algeria, Tunis, and Tripoli in 1158, +till the frontier of their victorious leader +‘Abd-el-Mumin<span class="pagenum" id="Page_181">[181]</span> +actually touched the western border of Egypt. Saladin did well to +take precautions, though the threatened invasion never came.</p> + +<p>These defensive works against external enemies were accompanied +by other measures taken with a view to internal order and content. +It must not be supposed that the new régime had no difficulties to +contend with. However well disposed the mass of the people may have +been towards a ruler who showed himself so magnanimous, generous, +and yet indomitable as Saladin, the traditions of two centuries +were not to be uprooted in a day. The partisans of the Fátimid +family were numerous and active. Before the death of el-‘Ádid, +there was a formidable rising of the black troops, abetted by the +caliph himself, and Saladin had hard work to put it down. The +Sudánis were at last driven to bay and slaughtered for two days +till they cried quarter, when they were banished the city. The part +called el-Mansuríya, outside the Zuweyla Gate, that had been +covered with their barracks, was utterly burned down, and the site +turned into gardens; so that a few years later, when Saladin rode +from the palace to the new Citadel, he passed between trees and +flowers, and standing at the mosque of Ibn-Tulún he could see the +Gate of Zuweyla with no building intervening. Other conspiracies +followed, supported by the Franks who threatened Alexandria, and +stern measures were needed before the new sultan felt his power +secure. So long as there was a strong party sympathizing with the +captive survivors of the fallen dynasty there would always be +danger.</p> + +<p>How zealous the Shí‘a still were may be judged by the scene +described by the Spanish traveller in the famous shrine which +preserved the head of the martyr Hoseyn, in the mosque adjoining +the Great Palace of the Fátimids. “The Head is +preserved<span class="pagenum" id="Page_182">[182]</span> in a +chest of silver buried underground, over which a mighty building +has been erected such as any description thereof must fail to +portray, for the understanding cannot compass it. Its walls are +tapestried with brocades of various kinds, and it is set round with +what are like great columns, the same being white candles, though +some are of smaller size, the most being set in candlesticks of +pure silver or of silver gilt. Above are suspended silver lamps, +and the whole of the part above this is set with the like of golden +apples, and so arranged as to resemble [the chapel at Medina where +the Prophet is buried called] er-Roda; and by the beauty and +magnificence thereof it rivets the sight, for herein are all kinds +of rare variegated marbles wonderfully wrought in mosaic work such +as no imagination can depict, nor can he who would describe it +attain thereto with any description. The entrance to this chapel is +through a mosque that is the equal of it in regard to the pleasure +of the eye and the rare sight that it affords, for all its walls +are of marble after the fashion above described. To the right of +the chapel (where the Head is), and to the left of it, are two +chambers, through which you enter the same, and each of these is in +every particular similar to this last, and curtains in brocade +stuff of wondrous workmanship are here hung on all sides. But the +most curious of the many things that we saw was on entering this +most blessed mosque; for a stone is set in the wall facing him who +enters, which is so extremely black and lustrous that the whole +person is reflected therein, as though it were in an Indian steel +mirror newly polished. And we saw the people kissing this blessed +tomb (where the Head of Hoseyn is buried), embracing it with their +arms and prostrating themselves upon it, after which they would lay +their hands on the pall that covers it and then, +crowding<span class="pagenum" id="Page_183">[183]</span> one on +another, circle round, praying, weeping, and supplicating Allah—to +whom be praise—for the blessing that pertains to this holy grave, +humbling themselves before Him in such fashion as melts the heart +and overcomes the feelings of the spectator; for this is a +wonderful matter and a sight that is awful in its aspect. May Allah +cause us to benefit by the blessing vouchsafed to this holy +Oratory!”<a id="FNanchor_63"></a><a href="#Footnote_63" class= +"fnanchor">[63]</a></p> + +<p>Such a demonstration, recalling the hysterical emotions of the +Persian Passion Play, shows that twelve years after the deposition +and death of the last Fátimid caliph Shí‘a fanaticism was still +ardent in Cairo. Saladin’s mode of dealing with it was +characteristic of his statesmanship. Despite his gentle and +chivalrous nature he was quite capable of fierce persecution “for +righteousness’ sake.” A Muslim of the Muslims, rigidly orthodox, +and deeply imbued with the puritanical ideas of the theologians +with whom he loved to converse, he had no toleration for heretics +and infidels. The grievous confiscation and destruction which the +Copts and their churches suffered in the orthodox reformation +showed that Saladin’s magnanimity did not extend to matters of +faith. But in the case of the Shí‘a he had to deal with a more +powerful and dangerous movement, which had two centuries of +dominance behind it, and he met it not by overt persecution but by +a counter propaganda. The people of Cairo must be taught the true +religion, and then there would be little fear of heresy. At the +time of his accession there was not a single college in Egypt where +orthodox theology was taught. This want was at once supplied, and +Saladin began the foundation of those <em>Medresas</em> or +theological colleges which have ever since been the leading +architectural feature of Cairo.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_184">[184]</span>In 1176 he +established the first <em>Medresa</em> ever built in Egypt. It was +next to the shrine of the Imám Sháfi‘y, the founder of the school +of orthodoxy to which most Egyptian Muslims have since belonged. +The tomb-mosque may still be visited in the wilderness of graves to +the south of Cairo, but the college has long disappeared. In 1183 +the shrine is described as “a magnificent oratory of vast size, and +strongly built, standing opposite to a Medresa,” so large and so +surrounded by buildings as to resemble “a township with its +dependencies. Over against it is the <em>hammám</em> with all other +needful offices, and the building and additions are still going on +at a cost not to be counted. The Sheykh Negm-ed-din el-Khabushány +himself oversees it, being imám of the mosque, a pious learned man. +The sultan of the land, Saladin, has munificently supplied all that +is required therefor, commanding that the buildings shall be well +cared for and beautified, and all expenses set down to him. . . . +We met this Khabushány and gained the blessing of his prayers—his +fame had reached us even in Andalusia. We visited him in his mosque +and also at his private dwelling within the precincts, a small +house with a narrow court, and here he offered up prayer for us +when we left. In all Egypt we did not meet his equal.”<a id= +"FNanchor_64"></a><a href="#Footnote_64" class= +"fnanchor">[64]</a></p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_185">[185]</span>Besides the +Sháfi‘y College, Saladin built a medresa close to the stronghold of +the enemy, the shrine of Hoseyn, turned the old palace of Mamún +into the Seyf-ed-din college for the Hanafy divines, and built +another for the Sháfi‘is and a fifth for the Málikis in Misr. In +recording his benefactions one must not forget his hospitals. +Everyone knows the Maristan or hospital of the Mamlúk Sultan Kalaún +in the Suk-en-Nahhasín, but it is not generally known that this +noble<span class="pagenum" id="Page_186">[186]</span> institution +was anticipated by Saladin. To quote Ibn-Gubeyr again:—</p> + +<p>“Among the famous institutions of this Sultan which we saw was +the Maristán or Hospital, which stands in the city of Cairo. It is +one of the great palaces there, spacious and magnificent, and the +Sultan has been prompted to the meritorious deed of establishing +this hospital solely by the hope of gaining favour with God and +recompense in the world to come. He has appointed here an +administrator, a man of knowledge, in whose charge a provision of +drugs has been placed, with power to compound potions with these +according to diverse recipes, and to prescribe them. In the +chambers of this palace couches have been placed, which the sick +folk make use of as beds, these being fully provided with bed +clothes, and the administrator has under him servants who are +charged with the duty of inquiring into the condition of the sick +folk morning and evening, and these last receive food and medicines +according as their state requires. Opposite this hospital is +another, separate therefrom, for women who are sick, and they also +have persons who attend on them: while adjacent to these two +hospitals is another building with a spacious court, in which are +chambers with iron gratings, which serve for the confinement of +those who are mad, and these also are visited daily by persons who +examine their condition and supply them with what is needful to +ameliorate the same. The Sultan himself inspects the state of these +various institutions, investigating everything and asking +questions, verifying the statements with care and trouble even to +the uttermost; and in Misr also there is another hospital, exactly +after the pattern of the one just described.</p> + +<p>“Between Misr and Cairo stands the great mosque called after its +founder, Ahmad ibn Tulún, which is<span class="pagenum" id= +"Page_187">[187]</span> one of those from ancient times used for +the Friday prayers. It is admirably built and very spacious, being +at the present day set apart by the Sultan as a dwelling-place for +strangers from the Western lands, where they may abide and hold +their assemblies, the Sultan having provided monthly rations for +their support. And one of the most remarkable matters related to us +is this which we heard from a person cognizant of the facts, +namely, that the Sultan allows the strangers entirely to govern +themselves, and lays no hand on any one of them, for they elect +from among themselves their governor, and to his rule they conform, +submitting to his judgment in all cases of disputes that arise in +their affairs. They are people who seek to live in piety and +peacefulness, being solely occupied in the worship of the Lord, and +thus, through the favour of the Sultan, they may gain grace +enabling them to hold the better part in the way of righteousness. +Indeed there is no one either of the great mosques, or of the +lesser mosques, or any one among the diverse chapels that are built +over the tombs of saints, neither any of the various colleges or +schools, but is the object of the grace of the Sultan, and aid in +money from the public treasury is freely given to all who frequent +these places, or have their abode there by reason of necessity, in +relief of their needs.”</p> + +<p>The institution of the Medresa by Saladin marks a conspicuous +change in the architecture of Cairo. Hitherto the mosques had been +of one form only, that of the <em>Gámi‘</em> (commonly pronounced +<em>gama</em>, and meaning a place of assembly) or congregational +mosque, where alone the Friday prayers (<em>gum‘a</em>) and sermon +take place. The form was specially adapted to the meeting of large +congregations. There was the ample east end or sanctuary, where a +considerable number of worshippers could kneel under cover; and in +case of a<span class="pagenum" id="Page_188">[188]</span> great +crowd, as on certain festivals, there was the great open court +where a multitude could prostrate themselves towards the +<em>kibla</em>. The arcades round the court served for professors +to hold classes, and as shelter for fakírs and mendicants; but +these are no essential parts of the gámi‘, which, as its name +implies, is a place of congregational worship. There were only four +such buildings when Ibn-Gubeyr visited Cairo, and these were the +gámi‘s el-Azhar, el-Hákim, Ibn-Tulún, and ‘Amr. The few others that +existed, such as el-Akmar and es-Sálih Talái‘, and perhaps two or +three less important and probably ruined, though built in the gámi‘ +form and used at one time for congregational worship, fell into +disuse when the death of their founders or some other cause removed +them from the list of fashionable churches. New gámi‘s were always +being built from time to time, as we shall see in the next chapter, +and they always formed, and form, the leading mosques of Cairo; but +they were not by any means the only kind of mosque.</p> + +<p>The word mosque itself comes, through the old Italian +<em>meschita</em> (Span. <em>mesquita</em>) and later +<em>moschea</em>, from the Arabic <em>Mesgid</em>, which means a +place of worship, but does not imply a congregation. Comparatively +few mosques were known as mesgids, and such as bore the name were +small buildings used chiefly for private prayer.<a id= +"FNanchor_65"></a><a href="#Footnote_65" class="fnanchor">[65]</a> +Another term, more commonly employed, is<span class="pagenum" id= +"Page_189">[189]</span> <em>Záwiya</em>, which means properly an +ingle or nook, but in its application to mosques differs hardly at +all from mesgid, unless the not unusual assignation of a záwiya as +a hospice for poor students or devotees constitute a difference. +Both the mesgid and the záwiya were comparatively insignificant +edifices, and it may be doubted whether any ordinary visitor to +Cairo has noticed a single example of either, except as a +decorative feature in a by-street.</p> + +<p>The buildings which everyone knows and which everyone calls +“mosques” are really colleges, <em>medresas</em>. They include most +of the famous architectural gems of the city—such as Sultan Hasan, +Barkuk, Ibn-Muzhir, Násir, Kalaún, and so forth, and they differ +altogether from the gámi‘ both in form and object. They were not +intended or used for congregational worship, but were expressly +built for the purpose of theological training; and this purpose +radically influences their form. Instead of the great open court +where vast congregations could muster on Fridays, there is only a +small central square, and in most cases this was originally covered +by a flat roof of painted planks and joists, with perhaps a small +cupola or skylight in the centre. The sides, instead of being +surrounded by long arcades or cloisters, are formed of four +transepts each spanned by a single lofty arch. The transept towards +the east, forming the liwán for prayer, is deeper than the other +three, and is furnished with mihráb, pulpit, tribune, and other +accessories for worship; since worship takes place there, or may do +so, though not as a rule the regular Friday congregations of the +gámi‘. Each of the four transepts was<span class="pagenum" id= +"Page_190">[190]</span> originally assigned—or ready to be +assigned—to one of the four orthodox schools, Sháfi‘y, Máliky, +Hánafy, and Hánbaly, and in each there might be found a group of +students following the instruction of the professor of the +particular school. These professors and students often had lodgings +in the college, and there were also a variety of lecture rooms, +libraries, laboratories, and other adjuncts built in the spaces +that intervened between the cruciform interior and the rectangular +exterior. The subjoined sketch representing the later medresa of +Sultan Hasan (1359) will give a general idea of the +arrangement.</p> + +<div class="figcenter iw6"> +<figure id="i16"><a href="images/i16.jpg"><img src='images/i16.jpg' +alt=''></a> +<p class="cp2">PLAN OF MEDRESA</p> +</figure> +</div> + +<p>This then was Saladin’s method of counteracting heretical +tendencies by building and endowing a number of orthodox +colleges—state-supported theological seminaries or divinity +schools. The idea was not his own: he brought it with him from +Syria, where his former sovereign Nur-ed-din had been<span class= +"pagenum" id="Page_191">[191]</span> zealous in founding similar +colleges for Hanafis at Damascus and other cities; and Nur-ed-din +himself only followed the example of the pattern of the age in +Asia, the great Seljúk Sultan Melik Shah, whose vezír, the scarcely +less famous Nizám-el-Mulk, the friend of ‘Omar Khayyám, had +established the splendid Nizamíya college at Baghdád. The +introduction of colleges into Egypt, however natural and inevitable +in the pupil of such masters, was little less than a revolution in +culture as well as in architecture. The old stigma of heresy +removed, and these new colleges founded, the wave of intellectual +commerce once more flowed to Cairo from all parts of the Muslim +world. The chief control in Egypt during Saladin’s long absence was +vested in his brother or son, subject to the counsels of his +chancellor, the Kády el-Fádil, an Arab of Ascalon, a learned +scholar and a wise man, whose very ornate dispatches concealed a +vast amount of sound sense. Under his influence foreign students +began again to frequent the mosques of Cairo, and Egypt rejoined +the comity of Islám. Professors from remote cities of Persia or +even from beyond the Oxus met the learned men of Cordova and +Seville. In 1176, for example, there arrived “a stranger from +Xativa in distant Andalusia, drawn eastward by the fame of the +revival of learning: it was Ibn-Firro, who had composed a massy +poem of 1173 verses upon the <em>variae lectiones</em> in the +Korán, simply ‘for the greater glory of God.’ This marvel of +erudition modestly confessed that his memory was burdened with +enough sciences to break down a camel. Nevertheless, when it came +to lecturing to his crowded audiences, he never uttered a +superfluous word. It was no wonder that the Kády el-Fádil, chief +judge and governor of Egypt under Saladin, lodged him in his own +house and buried him in his private mausoleum.<span class="pagenum" +id="Page_192">[192]</span> The presence of such philosophers +tempered with cool wisdom the impetuous fire of the predatory +chiefs. Many of the great soldiers of that age delighted in the +society of men of culture. Nur-ed-din was devoted to the society of +the learned, and poets and men of letters gathered round his court; +whilst Saladin took a peculiar pleasure in the conversation of +grave theologians and solemn jurists.”<a id= +"FNanchor_66"></a><a href="#Footnote_66" class="fnanchor">[66]</a> +“I found him,” wrote ‘Abd-el-Latíf, the Baghdád physician, “a great +prince, whose appearance inspired at once respect and love, who was +approachable, deeply intellectual, gracious, and noble in his +thoughts. . . . I found him surrounded by a large concourse of +learned men who were discussing various sciences. He listened with +pleasure and took part in their conversation.” It was not the least +of Saladin’s titles to fame that he brought the collegiate mosque +to Cairo. The training of the medresa may have been narrow and +bigoted, but it was the system of the whole Muslim world, and its +adoption put Cairo in touch with the thought of the other leading +centres of Islám.</p> + +<hr class="chap"> + +<h2><span class="pagenum" id="Page_193">[193]</span><a id= +"c07"></a>CHAPTER VII</h2> + +<p class="sch1"><em>The Dome Builders</em> +</p> + +<h3 class="space-above1">1. THE MAMLUKS OF THE RIVER</h3> + +<p class="dcap">SALADIN had raised Cairo once more to the rank of +an imperial capital. By his fortifications he had strengthened it +against attack, and by his theological foundations he had united it +to the great comity of Muslim culture. He had no doubt added +seriously to the responsibilities of future rulers of Egypt, who +found themselves engaged in controversy, diplomacy, or war with the +minor rulers of Syrian cities, members of Saladin’s kindred, as +well as with the Franks of the coast of Palestine, who had not yet +abandoned the dream of “<em>Gerusalemme liberata</em>,” and were +now fully aware that the road to the Holy City, circuitous as it +might seem, lay through Egypt. It is no part of the story of Cairo +to relate the campaigns waged by Saladin’s brilliant brother, +el-‘Ádil Seyf-ed-din—“the noble Saphadin” of the <em>Talisman</em>, +the friend of King Richard, who actually gave the accolade of +Christian knighthood to one of Saphadin’s sons, as Humphrey of +Toron had given it before to Saladin himself. Succeeding, after a +brief interval, to his brother’s empire in 1200, el-‘Ádil soon +showed that the loss of the hero was not irreparable. He had +loyally served Saladin as his right hand for a quarter of a +century, and for another quarter of a century he<span class= +"pagenum" id="Page_194">[194]</span> held together the empire which +his nephews and cousins were doing their best to shatter into +fragments. He prudently kept on terms with the Franks by the +cession of a couple of ports in Palestine, and such hostilities as +took place in spite of his concessions did not lower his prestige. +He is described by one who knew him as a man of immense experience +and information and much foresight, physically robust and +high-spirited, and capable of eating a whole lamb at a meal. A +contemporary Arabic poet dwells on his extraordinary alertness and +personal control of every part of his wide dominions—</p> + +<div class="linegrp-container"> +<div class="linegrp"> +<div class="group"> +<div class="line indent0">A Monarch, whose majestic air</div> + +<div class="line indent0">Fills all the range of sight, whose +care</div> + +<div class="line indent0">Fills all the regions everywhere;</div> + +<div class="line indent4">Who such a ward doth keep</div> + +<div class="line indent0">That, save where he doth set his +lance</div> + +<div class="line indent0">In rest to check the foe’s advance,</div> + +<div class="line indent0">His eye with bright and piercing +glance</div> + +<div class="line indent4">Knows neither rest nor sleep.</div> +</div> +</div> +</div> + +<p>Even his vigilance, however, could not avert that periodical +calamity of mediæval Egypt an insufficient inundation of the Nile, +and its usual concomitants plague, pestilence, and famine. This +happened in 1201 and was repeated in 1202, and the results were +exceptionally disastrous. We have the appalling narrative of an +eye-witness of undoubted veracity and professional experience for +this time of horror:—</p> + +<p>“The Baghdád physician, ‘Abd-el-Latíf, who lived at Cairo for +ten years (1194-1204), attending the professors’ lectures at the +Azhar mosque, records the terrible experiences of the famine. The +distress was so desperate that the inhabitants emigrated in crowds, +whole quarters and villages were deserted, and those who remained +abandoned themselves to atrocious<span class="pagenum" id= +"Page_195">[195]</span> practices. People habitually ate human +flesh, even parents killed and cooked their own children, and a +wife was found eating her dead husband raw. Men waylaid women in +the streets to seize their infants. The very graves were ransacked +for food. This went on from end to end of Egypt. The roads were +deathtraps, assassination and robbery reigned unchecked, and women +were outraged by the multitude of reprobates whom anarchy and +despair had set loose. Free girls were sold at five shillings +apiece, and many women came and implored to be bought as slaves to +escape starvation. An ox sold for 70 dinárs and corn was over ten +shillings the bushel. The corpses lay unburied in the streets and +houses, and a virulent pestilence spread over the delta. In the +country and on the caravan routes flocks of vultures, hyenas, and +jackals mapped the march of death. Men dropped down at the plough, +stricken with the plague. In one day at Alexandria an imám said the +funeral prayers over 700 persons, and in a single month a property +passed to forty heirs in rapid succession. The depreciation of +property was disastrous. Owing to the decrease of population, +house-rent in Cairo fell to one-seventh of its former price, and +the carvings and furniture of palaces were broken up to feed the +oven-fires. Violent earthquakes, which were also felt throughout +Syria and as far north as Armenia, shook down countless houses, +devastated whole cities, and increased the general misery.”</p> + +<p>The invasion of John de Brienne, who captured Damietta, kept +Egypt in a tremor of anxiety for three years (1218-21); but +el-‘Adil, who died at the beginning of the trouble, left a +singularly able successor in his son el-Kámil; the Crusaders +departed in ignominy; and when some years later the emperor +Frederick II. himself “took the cross” and came<span class= +"pagenum" id="Page_196">[196]</span> to Palestine, the prudent +sultan not only let the emperor crown himself in Jerusalem without +striking a blow, but actually concluded (1229) a general defensive +alliance with Frederick against even the Franks of Syria. The Holy +City was surrendered to the Christians with the road to it, but the +Muslims retained the sacred enclosure of the Mosque of ‘Omar, which +was all they cared for. The treaty was the most singular ever +concluded between a Christian and a Muslim power; but it must be +remembered that the Pope had called Frederick “a follower of +Mohammad,” and the emperor’s correspondence with the Arab +philosopher Ibn-Sab‘in and the metaphysical debates he held with +Kámil’s ambassadors point to “emancipated views” that in the case +of less eminent people commonly conducted them to the stake. +Frederick was much admired by Muslim writers, and for his part +Kámil had shown himself broad-minded. He had entertained the +emperor’s envoy, bishop Bernard, at Cairo, released the poor +prisoners taken in the “Children’s Crusade,” and loyally stood by +his treaty. It is not surprising that good Muslims regarded him in +much the same light as the bishop of Rome held the emperor. They +were wrong, however, for Kámil was a thorough Muslim, and had only +treated with the “infidel” in the cause of peace. His college, the +Dar-el-Hadíth or Kamilíya, some relics of which still stand in +Beyn-el-Kasreyn, bears evidence to his zeal for orthodox Islám, +whilst his father’s intellectual powers shone in the son when he +took part in the meetings of the learned at his palace on Thursday +evenings. To him Cairo owed the completion of the Citadel, where he +took up his residence, and Egypt was improved in cultivation by his +assiduous superintendence and enlargement of the canals and +dikes.</p> + +<p>The new régime of the Ayyúbids or successors of<span class= +"pagenum" id="Page_197">[197]</span> Saladin had introduced +something besides an imperial sway and a revival of orthodox +learning: it had brought with it a feudal system that dominated +Egypt, for better or for worse, for six hundred years, and vitally +affected the social conditions, arts, literature, and material +aspect of Cairo. The <em>Mamlúk</em> period may be said to begin +with Saladin. It is true of course that there had been mamlúks, +<em>i.e.</em> white slaves, long before, and many of them had +attained to power. Ibn-Tulún, or at least his father, was a mamlúk, +and many of the later governors belonged to the same class of +emancipated slaves whether Turks or Greeks, from Turkistan or from +Asia Minor. Under the Fátimid caliphs slaves had risen to the +highest rank. Gawhar, the founder of Cairo, was a Greek or a +Slav—it is not certain which—and we have seen how the Armenian +slave Bedr became practically master of Egypt. Slavery in the East +is no disgrace; on the contrary the relationship ranks far above +mere hired service. The slave is regarded almost as a son, and we +find an amusing instance of this feeling in the undoubted slur that +attached to a famous emír (Kusún) in the fourteenth century, +because he had the misfortune <em>not</em> to be a slave, like the +rest of his world. The Fátimid armies were full of such mamlúks, +and they acquired rank and lands. But the system had not reached +the completeness that we see under Saladin’s successors. The great +champion of Islám was brought up in the mamlúk system, as organized +by the Seljúks and their followers, whose power rested upon a +military basis formed by hired or purchased troops, paid by grants +of fiefs, lands, castles, towns, or even whole provinces, held on +strict condition of military service. The higher feudatories sublet +parts of their fiefs to minor vassals, who had to furnish a certain +number of men to their lord, just as he had to bring his contingent +to aid<span class="pagenum" id="Page_198">[198]</span> the sultan +in his wars. This system was adopted in all the provinces governed +by officers of the Seljúk empire. Nur-ed-din, who sprang from the +Seljúk officers, carried it out in Syria; Saladin, trained under +Nur-ed-din, brought it to Egypt, where the land and villages were +parcelled out among the generals of his armies, who lived on them +during the winter, and joined their overlord at the head of their +retainers each year as soon as the campaigning season opened.</p> + +<p>We find this feudal system in force in Egypt from the arrival of +Saladin and his Turkish troops down to the accession of Mohammad +‘Aly in the nineteenth century. It took a dominant place in Cairo +when el-‘Adil’s grandson, es-Sálih, established a picked battalion +of mamlúks in the new palace and barracks which he built on the +island of Roda, opposite Misr. From their quarters on the river +(<em>el-bahr</em>) they were known as the Bahry or Nilotic Mamlúks. +Their splendid valour at the battle of Mansúra, when under the +leading of Beybars they drove back the finest chivalry in Europe, +decided the fate of the disastrous Crusade of Louis IX. +Thenceforward they ruled Egypt for a century and a half, and in +spite of much lawlessness, tyranny, intrigue, and slaughter, the +reign of the Bahry Mamlúks is among the glorious pages in the +history of Cairo. Their triumph at Mansúra was not the less +remarkable because they were then under the sovereignty of a woman. +Queens are rare in Mohammedan history, for the blessed Prophet had +a prejudice against them; but among the three or four Muslim women +that have held the sceptre, queen Sheger-ed-durr—“Spray of Pearls” +is the translation of her charming name—holds the first place. She +was only a slave, and her lord and husband, es-Sálih, grandson of +el-‘Adil, died in the midst of the campaign with the Crusaders; but +she at once took<span class="pagenum" id="Page_201">[201]</span> +command, kept the sultan’s death secret till his son could be +fetched from the other end of the empire, controlled the +government, organized the defence, gave instructions to the +generals and governors at her levees, and with wonderful courage +and wisdom held the state together. When the heir arrived (1250) +she surrendered her regency, but on the assassination of the brutal +young man by the exasperated mamlúks within two months, “Spray of +Pearl” resumed her authority, and honourably observed the treaty of +ransom with St Louis, who probably owed his life to the high-minded +queen.</p> + +<div class="figcenterplate iw1"> +<figure id="i17"><a href="images/i17.jpg"><img src='images/i17.jpg' +alt=''></a> +<p class="cp2">ISLAND OF ER-RODA</p> +</figure> +</div> + +<p>She possessed great qualities, and she had the title, such as it +was, that was conveyed by her having borne a son to the late +Ayyúbid sultan. The baby was dead, but she still based her claim to +rule upon her motherhood, and her signature and her coins<a id= +"FNanchor_67"></a><a href="#Footnote_67" class="fnanchor">[67]</a> +bore a string of feminine titles ending with “Mother of the +victorious King Khalíl,” though the little “king” had never been +conscious of his royalty.</p> + +<p>She was not long left to rule alone. The idea of queenship was +too repugnant to Muslim prejudices, and the caliph of Baghdád +interfered with all the authority of a pope. “If they had no man +among them,” he wrote to the emírs of Cairo, “he would send them +one.” So the commander-in-chief, Aybek, was chosen to marry the +queen, and a joint-king, a child of Saladin’s kindred, was +appointed to keep up the figment of the departed dynasty. But +“Spray of Pearls” still ruled, in fact though not in name. She kept +her hold on the exchequer, and evidently treated her new husband +with scant respect. Like a true<span class="pagenum" id= +"Page_202">[202]</span> woman however, she could be jealous; she +made him divorce another wife, and when Aybek ventured to propose a +fresh marriage with a princess of Mosil the queen gave way to a +regrettable act of resentment; having lured him by fair words to +the Citadel—the facts unhappily cannot be softened—she had him +murdered in the bath (1257). Her punishment was speedy and +terrible. In three days all was over. The mamlúks shut her up in +the Red Tower, where she vindictively pounded her jewels in a +mortar that they might adorn no other woman, and then she was +dragged before the wife whom she had made Aybek divorce, and there +and then beaten to death with the women’s clogs. For days her body +lay in the Citadel ditch for the curs to worry, till some good +Samaritan buried it. Her tomb may still be seen beside the chapel +of Sitta Nefísa, and a pious hand of these latter days has shrouded +it with a cloth on which the Arabic name of “Spray of Pearls” is +worked in gold.</p> + +<p>The rule of the Bahry Mamlúks now began, without further +pretence of joint-kingship with one of Saladin’s house, though not +without opposition and intrigue from members of the family in +Syria, nor without hostility from the Arabs of Egypt, who got up a +national movement and were put down with great severity. The bare +list of the twenty-three sultans of the Bahry dynasty—all Turks, +and most from Kipchak—who succeeded Aybek and ruled from 1257 to +1382 is misleading unless one takes the conditions of their rule +into account. Of the twenty-three, only four reigned for any +considerable period, and the four reigns of Beybars, Kalaún, +en-Násir, and Hasan, account for more than half the sum of all the +twenty-three reigns. A sultan was nothing more than the chief +mamlúk, elected by his comrades, <em>primus inter pares</em> +indeed, but with a distinct understanding that they were his peers. +For example,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_203">[203]</span> when +Lagín was elected sultan by a conspiracy of the emírs, they marched +at his stirrup and did him fealty, but they made him swear, and +then swear again, that he would remain one of themselves, act only +by their counsel, and never favour his own mamlúks to the detriment +of the rest: and when he broke his oath by making a favourite, they +murdered him. It was only a very strong man who could hold the +dangerous position for long, as Beybars did, partly by the prestige +of his brilliant campaigns in Syria; and after the strong man’s +death, which as likely as not happened by design, his son would be +set on the throne as a stop-gap whilst the rival emírs tried their +strength, arranged their combinations, and bought off competitors. +Then the strongest of them, or the most diplomatic, would remove +the warming-pan and ascend the throne, to hold it as long as he +could; after which the same process would be renewed.</p> + +<p>We must at least give the mamlúks their due as a splendid +soldiery. Four times they had to meet the most formidable of all +possible invasions, the repeated advance of the Mongol hordes led +by Ginghiz Kaan’s successors, and four times they rolled them back. +Kutuz was the first to bear the brunt. Hulagu’s Mongol envoys came +to Cairo with insulting demands of submission: Kutuz cut off their +heads and hung them up at the Zuweyla Gate; then marched into +Syria, routed the Mongols in a glorious victory at Goliath’s Well +in 1260, and rid the land of them. Beybars swam the Euphrates at +the head of his troops and defeated the Mongols at Bira in 1273; +then turning west he slew seven thousand of the enemy at +Abu-lusteyn and seated himself on the Seljúk throne, which they had +usurped, at Cæsarea of Cappadocia. Kalaún stemmed another invasion +in 1281. Mustering every man he could enrol, mamlúks of the guard, +Turkmáns,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_204">[204]</span> desert +Bedawis, Arabs from the Euphrates and the Higáz, backed by the +steady veterans of the old principality of Hamáh which still owned +a prince of Saladin’s blood, the sultan won a decisive battle at +Emesa, and freed Syria once more from the locust-cloud of devouring +Mongols. Again they returned in the time of his son en-Násir, and +this time the Egyptian army sustained a terrible reverse at the +battle of the Treasurer’s Ghyll near Emesa in 1299. Damascus was +lost, and the Mongol envoys appeared at Cairo to treat for the +respectful submission of the sultan. But the mamlúks had not lost +heart; the armourers of Cairo were busy, recruits were pouring in, +and remounts were in such demand that the price of a horse rose at +a bound from £12 to £40. Syria was in a panic, after an orgy of +Mongol license; but the great emírs, Beybars Gashnekír and the +other mamlúk chiefs, rode proudly on to victory. Once more the +opposing armies met, in the plain of Marg-es-Suffar, in 1303, and +for the fourth time, and the last, the Mongols were driven out of +Syria. “Násir returned to Cairo in a wave of glory. Messengers had +announced the news, and the emírs vied with one another in setting +up costly pavilions, or grand stands, richly decorated and +furnished, along the route of his procession. Workmen were +forbidden to do anything but set up these triumphal erections. +Rooms along the route were let at from £2 to £4 for the day. Silken +carpets were laid in the street; and the proud sultan rode between +the brilliant façades and admired the nobles’ pavilions, while +troops of Mongol prisoners in chains, each with a fellow Mongol’s +head hanging from his neck, completed the triumph. So noisy were +the rejoicings and so deafening the tumult of drums and music +throughout Egypt, that nothing short of an earthquake sobered the +people.”</p> + +<p>Nor was it the Mongols alone who felt the edge of<span class= +"pagenum" id="Page_205">[205]</span> the mamlúks’ steel. Beybars +the Great—a blue-eyed Turk from Kipchak afflicted by a cataract +which caused him to fetch but £20 in the slave market—despite his +humble beginnings, had the courage and the zeal of a second +Saladin. He waged the Holy War for ten years in Palestine, where +the Franks were disposed to league with the Mongols. He seized and +razed Cæsarea and Arsúf in 1265, and dragged their defenders in +cruel ignominy to Cairo, where they were paraded with reversed +banners and broken crosses. Jerusalem had been recovered from the +Christians twenty years before, but the embers of Crusading zeal +still smouldered feebly on the coast and at a few inland +fortresses. Beybars resolved to extinguish the last flicker. Jaffa +fell in 1268, Belfort surrendered, and Antioch, the Christian +capital of northern Syria, was stormed and burnt to the ground; +three years later the great fortress of the Hospitallers, Crac des +Chevaliers, lowered its flag, and the Teutonic knights lost +Montfort.<a id="FNanchor_68"></a><a href="#Footnote_68" class= +"fnanchor">[68]</a> Even Cyprus, whence the Franks got their +supplies, was invaded by the mamlúk fleet. The mountain fastnesses +of the dreaded Assassins were seized and disarmed, and the +Wehmgericht sank into impotence. Before Beybars died his commands +were obeyed from the Pyramus and the Euphrates to the south of +Arabia and the fourth cataract of the Nile. The Holy Cities of +Mekka, Medina, and Jerusalem were his; he held the ports of Sawákin +and ‘Aydháb on the Red Sea; the Arabs of the desert were his +servants, the chiefs of Barbary paid him tribute; the great Khan of +the Golden Horde on the Volga was his sworn ally and sent him his +daughter in marriage<span class="pagenum" id= +"Page_206">[206]</span>—Mongol though he was, Baraka Khan was the +inveterate foe of the Mongols of Persia who had overrun +Syria;—embassies were exchanged with the Eastern Emperor, who +permitted a mosque to be restored at Constantinople, while Beybars +supplied him with a patriarch; diplomatic and commercial relations +were established with Manfred of Sicily, James of Aragon, Alfonso +of Seville, Charles of Anjou. To crown his glory he revived the old +‘Abbásid caliphate, extinguished at Baghdad by the Mongols in 1258; +brought a meek representative of the sacred line to Cairo and +housed him in great state in the Citadel, as the supreme legitimate +pontiff of Islám, and humbly received at the caliph’s hands the +purple robe and black turban and golden chain and anklets which +betokened a sovereign recognized by the spiritual power. +Henceforward there was ever a caliph at Cairo—however +<em>fainéant</em>—till the Ottoman conquest and the assumption of +the caliphate by the Sultans of Turkey in 1538.<a id= +"FNanchor_69"></a><a href="#Footnote_69" class= +"fnanchor">[69]</a></p> + +<p>A great soldier and a consummate if perfidious diplomatist, +Beybars was also an able and laborious administrator. Under him the +land was quietly if not quite godly governed, and his energy was +unbounded. He seemed to be in several places at once, so rapid and +secret were his journeys, and it was a favourite device of his to +lie hidden in the Citadel for days together, watching his deputies, +when he was believed to be in Syria all the time. “The greater part +of his reign was spent in campaigns outside Egypt, but he generally +passed the winter months at Cairo, whilst his troops rested and +rains or snow hindered marching,<span class="pagenum" id= +"Page_207">[207]</span> and he devoted these intervals to improving +the country and the capital. It was not only in founding and +restoring mosques and colleges, or rebuilding the Hall of Justice +at the foot of the Citadel, that he showed his public interest. He +enlarged the irrigation canals and dug new ones, made roads and +bridges, fortified Alexandria and repaired the pharos, and +protected the mouths of the Nile from the risk of foreign invasion. +He revived the Egyptian fleet, built forty war galleys, and +maintained 12,000 regular troops—not reckoning, one must assume, +the Arab and Egyptian militia or occasional levies. His heavy war +expenses entailed heavy taxation; and though with a view to +popularity he began his reign by remitting the oppressive taxes +imposed by Kutuz to the amount of 600,000 dinárs a year, he found +himself compelled to increase the fiscal burdens as his campaigns +developed. Yet we read more often of old taxes repealed than of +fresh duties imposed, and his treasury was filled less by the +imposts of Egypt than by the contributions from the conquered +cities and districts of Syria, the tribute of vassal states and +tribes, and the valuable custom-dues of the ports.</p> + +<p>“His government was enlightened, just and strict. He met the +severe famine of 1264 by measures at once wise and generous, by +regulating the sale of corn, and by undertaking, and compelling his +officers and emírs to undertake, the support of the destitute for +three months. He allowed no wine (though the tax on it used to +produce 6000 dinárs a year), beer, or hashish in his dominions; he +attempted to eradicate contagious diseases by scientific isolation; +he was strict with the morals of his subjects, shut up taverns and +brothels, and banished the European women of the town; though, +personally, he was addicted to the Tatar kumiz, and was suspected +of oriental depravity. He was no sybarite, whatever his vices; no +man was<span class="pagenum" id="Page_208">[208]</span> more full +of energy and power of work. If his days were often given to +hunting or polo, lance-play or marksmanship, his nights were +devoted to business. A courier who arrived at daybreak received the +answering dispatches by the third hour, with invariable +punctuality.” Sometimes over fifty dispatches were dictated, signed +and sealed late in the night, after a fatiguing march. There was a +mail twice a week carried by relays of horses, besides a +well-organized pigeon-post.</p> + +<p>It was no wonder that such a man was adored by the people, who +thought him the ideal of a gallant and generous soldier-king, and +who still listen with delight to the romance in which the +story-teller of the cafés of Cairo clothes the great deeds of the +ever popular Záhir Beybars. Even the devout admired a king who +endowed religious foundations and held an even balance between the +four contending schools of orthodox divines, from each of which he +nominated a separate kády. Only the emírs and officers dreaded one +who, if he was true as steel to a good servant, never forgave a bad +one, and whose restless suspicion watched their every move. It was +inevitable that some day one of the many grudges should be paid +off, and after seventeen years of a resplendent reign Beybars died +in 1277 by a cup of poison which he had apparently made ready for +another.</p> + +<p>Beybars was the true founder of the mamlúk power and the +organizer of the mamlúk system. Since the day when he led the +charge of the Bahry guard against Louis of France at the battle of +Mansúra, he had sedulously watched over the army, stimulated +recruiting from fresh blood, and encouraged good service by liberal +distribution of fiefs. His was the foreign policy maintained in +Egypt for many years, and his court formed the pattern for +succeeding kings.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_209">[209]</span> A +very magnificent and ceremonious court it was, where the sultan sat +surrounded by the great officers of state and of the +household,—Viceroy, Commander-in-chief, Major domo, Captain of the +Guard, Armour-bearer, Master of the Horse, Cup-bearer, Taster, +Master of the Wardrobe, Grand Huntsman, Polo-bearer, +Slipper-holder, Lord of the Seat; the Master of the Halberds with +his Gentlemen at Arms; the Adjutant-General with his thirty Lords +of the Drums, each followed by forty troopers and a band of +ceremony of ten drums, four trumpets, and two hautbois; the eunuch +guards, equerries and chamberlains, secretaries and court +physicians, judges and divines. All these functionaries had their +allowances, fiefs, or appanages; a lord of the drums, for instance, +would draw an income of about £16,000 a year; and the expenses of +the royal household may be judged by the estimate that 20,000 lbs. +of food were daily prepared in the larder, and that the daily cost +in meat and vegetables in the time of en-Násir was from £800 to +£1200.</p> + +<p>The great officers of the court and of the army were of course +the most powerful men next to the sultan, and each deemed himself a +fit successor to the throne. On their loyalty, and especially on +that of the bodyguard, a brigade of several thousand picked men who +held in fief a large part of Egypt, rested the safety and power of +the sultan, who stood more or less at their mercy. Each of the +great lords, were he an officer of the guard, or a court official, +or merely a private nobleman, was a mamlúk sultan in miniature. He, +too, had his guard of slaves, who waited at his door to escort him +in his rides abroad, were ready at his behest to attack the public +baths and carry off the women, defended him when a rival lord +besieged his palace, and followed him valiantly as he led the +charge of his division on the field of battle. These +great<span class="pagenum" id="Page_210">[210]</span> lords, with +their retainers, were a constant menace to the reigning sultan. A +coalition would be formed among a certain number of disaffected +nobles, with the support of some of the officers of the household +or of the guard, and their retainers would mass in the approaches +to the royal presence, while a trusted cupbearer or other officer, +whose duties permitted him access to the king’s person, would +strike the fatal blow or administer the insidious cup; and the +conspirators would forthwith elect one of their number to succeed +to the vacant throne. This was not effected without a struggle; the +royal guard was not always to be bribed or overcome, and there were +generally other nobles whose interests attached them to the +reigning sovereign rather than to any possible successor, except +themselves, and who would be sure to oppose the plot. Then there +would be a street fight; the terrified people would close their +shops, run to their houses, and shut the great gates which isolated +the various quarters and markets of the city; and the rival +factions of mamlúks would ride through the streets that remained +open, pillaging the houses of their adversaries, carrying off women +and children, holding pitched battles in the road, or discharging +arrows and spears from the windows upon the enemy in the street +below. These things were of constant occurrence, and the life of +the merchant classes of Cairo must have been exciting. We read how +the great bazar, called the Khan-el-Khalíly, was sometimes shut up +for a week while these contests were going on in the streets +without, and the rich merchants of Cairo huddled trembling behind +the stout gates.</p> + +<p>There were fine doings of this kind when Ketbugha deposed the +child-king Násir, for a time. The Ashrafis—or mamlúks of the late +sultan, el-Ashraf Khalíl—raised a revolt and besieged the +Citadel.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_211">[211]</span> Then +Ketbugha’s troops rode out to quell the tumult and slashed through +the ranks; the rebels were blinded, maimed, drowned, beheaded, +nailed to the gate of Zuweyla; and so a new reign began (1294). A +plague followed, when seven hundred corpses were carried out of one +gate of Cairo in a single day. A fresh conspiracy was formed, +Ketbugha fled, and the viceroy Lagín was elected sultan in his +place. The streets which had lately been shambles were now <em>en +fête</em> with decorations, for the new sultan was a generous man +and promised to remit taxes; bread was cheap and Lagín was +popular.</p> + +<p>The idea of hereditary succession was wholly foreign to the +mamlúk system; yet it presented the only correction to these scenes +of violent supercession, and after a time some sort of hereditary +title seems to have been established. Kalaún had been succeeded by +his son Khalíl, and then by a younger son en-Násir Mohammad in +1293, and though the last, as a mere child, was temporarily +deposed, he came back in 1298 after the murder of his +brother-in-law Lagín. After another trial of usurpation by Beybars +Gashnekír (the Taster) in 1308, Násir was restored and began a +third reign which lasted thirty-one years (1310-1341), and after +his death his incapable descendants sat on the throne, with little +or no real authority, till the close of the dynasty. Thus from 1279 +to 1382 Egypt was ruled, except for six or seven years, by members +of one family, the House of Kalaún. The founder of this family, +whose history refutes the theory that these foreigners were +unprolific in Egypt, was himself a notable figure, a brave general, +a prudent statesman, and a great encourager of commerce. His +passports to traders were in force as far as India and China, and +he did all he could to develop the commerce of Egypt. Like most of +the mamlúk sultans he was a notable<span class="pagenum" id= +"Page_212">[212]</span> builder. It is extraordinary how these men +of war, in the midst of alarums and intrigues, took a delight in +architecture. The brilliant queen, first of the mamlúks, built +(1250) the tomb-mosque over her husband Sálih, which still stands +on part of the site of the old palace of the Fátimids in +Beyn-el-Kasreyn. Beybars founded a college in 1262 on another part +of the palace called the “Hall of the Tent,” and also a great +mosque outside the Bab-el-Futúh in 1267-9, both of which still +exist, though the college is a ruin, and the mosque was used, +<em>infandum!</em> as a bake-house for the French troops a century +ago, and recently as a slaughter-house for the British army of +occupation. Kalaún, stirred by a dangerous illness, vowed to build +a hospital, and his Maristán is still to be seen in the Nahhasín, +though no longer used for its original purpose: it was a madhouse +less than a hundred years ago. It stands beside his mosque and +tomb, the latter notable for its exquisite plaster tracery and red +granite pillars, and for the oddly decorated stone minaret and fine +inscription. Ibn-Tulún and Saladin had built hospitals, and Kalaún +carried on the good tradition of these pious benefactors. Cubicles +for patients were ranged round two courts, and at the sides of +another quadrangle were wards, lecture rooms, library, baths, +dispensary, and every necessary appliance of those days of surgical +science. There was even music to cheer the sufferers; while readers +of the Korán afforded the consolations of the faith. Rich and poor +were treated alike, without fees, and sixty orphans were supported +and educated in the neighbouring school. People still visit the +tomb where the good sultan and his son en-Násir lie buried, to +touch their clothes in sure belief that they will be cured of +sundry diseases and disabilities.</p> + +<div class="figcenterplate iw1"> +<figure id="i18"><a href="images/i18.jpg"><img src='images/i18.jpg' +alt=''></a> +<p class="cp2">“JOSEPH’S HALL”: PALACE OF EN-NASIR IN CITADEL, WITH +HIS MOSQUE IN BACKGROUND</p> +</figure> +</div> + +<p>The long reign of en-Násir was a golden age of mamlúk +architecture. However much this sultan may<span class="pagenum" id= +"Page_215">[215]</span> have profited by the sense of tranquillity +which hereditary title inspired, he owed his long tenure of the +precarious throne partly to his personal qualities. “This +self-possessed, iron-willed man—absolutely despotic, ruling +alone—physically insignificant, small of stature, lame of a foot, +and with a cataract in the eye—with his plain dress and strict +morals, his keen intellect and unwearied energy, his enlightened +tastes and interests, his shrewd diplomacy degenerating into +fruitless deceit, his unsleeping suspicion and cruel vengefulness, +his superb court, his magnificent buildings—is one of the most +remarkable characters of the Middle Ages. His reign was certainly +the climax of Egyptian culture and civilization.” He carried on the +traditions of Beybars and Kalaún; maintained the alliance with the +Golden Horde and married a princess from the Volga, the lady +Tulbíya, whose tomb may still be seen, with that of another of his +wives, in the eastern cemetery; he preserved the normal boundaries +of the empire, from the Pyramus and Euphrates to Sawákin and Aswán, +and arranged, if not alliances, diplomatic connexions with the +emperor of Constantinople and the king of Bulgaria, as well as the +rulers of Abyssinia and Arabia. He married eleven daughters to the +highest nobles, and each wedding cost him half a million. Násir was +not only a statesman; he was a farmer, trainer, and sportsman, who +would pay £4000 for a horse, kept a systematic stud-book, knew all +his horses’ pedigrees, prices, and ages, and broke in three +thousand fillies every year with Bedawy grooms, for the races in +which he and his emírs took the keenest possible interest. He kept +thirty thousand sheep, and imported the finest breeds from abroad, +and like most of the sultans he was devoted to falconry. +Ibn-Batúta, who saw him in 1326, describes Násir as a king “of +noble character and great virtues,” beneficent to pilgrims and +assiduous<span class="pagenum" id="Page_216">[216]</span> in his +duty of sitting in appeal twice a week to hear causes and +complaints in person. Under his rule Egypt thrived; vexatious taxes +were repealed, a new survey of the land was made, millers and +bakers who tried to raise prices in bad years were scourged, and +when his son-in-law, the great emír Kusún was reported to him for +extortion, the sultan smote him with the flat of his sword and +flogged his factor. Prices were kept down by his vigilance, +wine-bibing and immorality were severely punished, and if Násir +recouped himself by sweeping confiscations among the nobles, and +cut down the “tall poppies” remorselessly, the people gained by the +new method, and prospered exceedingly.</p> + +<p>Even to the Copts Násir was indulgent, though the Christians +were never so well used under mamlúk rule as they had been under +the Fátimids and in the time of el-Kámil. At the time of Saladin’s +invasion there had been a great destruction of churches, due rather +to the burning of Misr and the turmoil of war than to any +fanaticism of the conquerors. Saladin himself was no friend to +Christians; he was too rigid a Muslim to be tolerant; but he did +not persecute them. The flight or expulsion of the Armenian +patriarch and his followers was more probably the result of the +close association of the Armenians with the Fátimid government than +of religious bigotry. But the Holy War in Palestine, though waged +against the Latin branch of the church catholic, reacted +unfavourably upon the Copts, and Saladin’s brother el-‘Adil was +stern and tyrannical towards his Christian subjects. His son +el-Kámil often interceded for them successfully, and when he came +to the throne of Egypt himself, he displayed a spirit of toleration +rare indeed in that age. He received St Francis of Assisi +courteously, when the good friar came to teach him the truth as he +perceived it, and the Christians of Egypt unanimously<span class= +"pagenum" id="Page_217">[217]</span> regarded Kámil as the kindest +ruler they had ever known. His son es-Sálih seems to have followed +in his steps during his short reign, for he wrote to Innocent IV to +express his regret that he could not converse with the Dominicans +by reason of his ignorance of Latin.</p> + +<p>The Crusade of Louis IX naturally upset these amicable +relations, and it is not surprising that the Muslims wreaked their +vengeance upon many churches in Egypt. Nor was the temper of the +succeeding mamlúk sultans, excited by repeated victories over the +remnant of the Franks in Syria, conducive to a good understanding +with their Christian subjects. The new colleges founded by Saladin +and his successors were working a change in Cairo, and a fanatical +spirit was encouraged by the teachers of these divinity schools, +whose influence grew stronger as time went on. In 1280 all the +Coptic scribes employed at the war-office were dismissed and their +places supplied by Muslims. In 1301 the old humiliating sumptuary +rules prescribing distinctive dresses and the like were revived. In +1321 occurred a series of outbreaks which brought terrible +persecution on the Christians. The disturbance began when +en-Násir’s workmen, digging a lake called Nasir’s Pool, near the +Lion’s Bridge (west of the Lúk and close to the mosque of Taybars) +undermined the church of ez-Zuhry, which en-Násir had commanded to +be respected. Without the knowledge of the government the people +rushed to the church one Friday after prayers and utterly +demolished it. Thence they went to the church of St Mina in the +Hamra and sacked it, and did the like to the “Church of the +Maidens” by the seven watermills, dragging out the nuns, and +pillaging and burning everything. The sultan was indignant when the +smoke of the burning churches told the tale of disaster, and sent +troops at<span class="pagenum" id="Page_218">[218]</span> once to +coerce the mob. Meanwhile news arrived of the destruction of two +other churches in the quarters of Zuweyla and of the Greeks, and it +was found that the mob was attacking the Mo‘allaka in the fortress +of Babylon. Here the sultan’s troops happily arrived in time to +protect the church. There was evidently a popular excitement +difficult to quell. Wild fakírs got up in the mosques and shouted +“Down with the infidels’ churches! To the foundations! To the +foundations!” The same thing was going on all over Egypt; at +Alexandria, at Damascus, at Kus, churches were burning.</p> + +<p>A month later mysterious fires began to break out at Cairo. One +after the other great conflagrations burst forth, and a strong wind +carried the flames far and wide. People went up the minarets and +cried to God, thinking that the whole city would be burnt down, and +there was groaning and weeping over the loss of homes and +possessions. Every effort was made to extinguish the fires. All the +water-carriers were impressed, and twenty-four emírs of the highest +rank worked at the head of the lines of men carrying water from the +baths and cisterns, and demolishing acres of fine houses to clear a +space round the burning buildings. The street from the Deylem +quarter to the Gate of Zuweyla ran with water like a river. No +sooner was one fire extinguished than another began. Almost every +day witnessed a fresh conflagration.</p> + +<p>It was noticed that these fires were apparently aimed at +mosques, and that they were the work of incendiaries was evident +from clothes soaked in oil and pitch and naphtha that were +discovered. A Christian was caught at the mosque of ez-Záhir with +packets of naphtha and pitch, which he was lighting in the mosque. +Put to the torture he confessed that the conflagrations were the +organized work of Christians.<span class="pagenum" id= +"Page_219">[219]</span> Two monks, under torture, admitted that +they had set the fires afoot to avenge the destruction of the +churches. The Coptic patriarch was called in, and, with tears, +denounced the incendiaries as wild enthusiasts who were paying off +the foolish church-destroyers in their own coin. He was sent back +to his house in honour. The populace however were in no mood to see +a patriarch respected, and would gladly have torn him in pieces, +but for the sultan’s guard. As it was they burned four monks from +the Melekite “Convent of the Mule” (el-Kuseyr) in the Mukattam +hills. Two Christians caught in the act of arson were by the +sultan’s orders burnt alive in a pit in the presence of an exulting +multitude, and an innocent Coptic secretary, passing by, only +escaped being thrown to the flames by hasty apostasy. The mob was +becoming dangerous, and the sultan, who, though much alarmed, had +done his utmost to calm the people, took strong measures. Troops +were sent through the whole of Cairo with orders to charge the +crowds and spare none. The news had preceded them, and they found +the bazars closed and the streets deserted. Not a man was to be +seen between the Citadel and the Gate of Succour. Some two hundred +were arrested near the Nile, and brought before the sultan, who +ordered them to be executed or to lose their hands. In vain they +pleaded innocence; even the emírs interceded for them; en-Násir was +resolved to make an example of somebody. Gallows were set up all +the way from the Gate of Zuweyla to the Rumeyla, and there the +unlucky Muslims were hung by their hands in order to teach other +people not to raise an uproar.</p> + +<p>The result of this excitement was the revival of the old +regulations as to dress which Násir had endeavoured to drop since +1301. Any Christian found riding a horse or wearing a white turban +might be<span class="pagenum" id="Page_220">[220]</span> killed at +sight. The Copts were compelled to wear blue turbans, to carry a +bell round their necks at the baths, and to ride only the ass, and +that with the face to the tail. The emírs were not allowed to +employ Christian servants, nor were the Copts any more to hold +posts in the government offices. They hardly dared to show +themselves abroad, and a great many became Muslims. This was +probably the worst persecution since the days of el-Hákim, three +centuries before, but it must be admitted that there was grave +provocation on both sides, and that the outrages sprang from +popular fury, not from the fanaticism of the rulers. Similar +persecution, though scarcely on so large a scale, went on +throughout the mamlúk period, and the Copts, who had perhaps waxed +over-fat and kicked during the tolerant epoch of the later +Fátimids, paid dearly for their past favour. They were gradually +reduced to the state of suffering insignificance from which they +are only now being to some extent raised.</p> + +<p>Whilst churches were being thus destroyed mosques were rising +with amazing prodigality. There never was such a harvest for the +builder and the architect as in the reign of en-Násir. The sultan +set the example himself. He was a man of fine taste and high +culture, the patron of scholars, and the intimate friend of the +learned historian Abu-l-Fida, whom he restored to the princedom of +Hamáh, which had been held by his family since the days of his +ancestor, Saladin’s brother. It was an age of brilliant artistic +production, and the immense sums spent by the sultan and his emírs +on building and decorative works show that the wealth of the +country was vast, and was nobly expended. Some of Násir’s own +furniture has been preserved—there are two exquisite inlaid-silver +tables of his in the Arab Museum at Cairo—and his two chief +buildings, the college in Beyn-el-Kasreyn (1304), next to +the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_223">[223]</span> Maristán, with +its Gothic gateway brought from ‘Akka by his brother Khalíl, and +the old mosque (1318) in the Citadel, are worthy memorials of his +taste, though unhappily they show but few traces of their original +splendour. The great dome which once surmounted the Citadel mosque +has fallen in, and most of the marble mosaics which adorned the +kibla have vanished, as well as the iron grille which enclosed the +sultan’s place of prayer (<em>maksúra</em>). There is still a range +of clerestory windows all round the mosque, but the tracery and +stained glass is almost all gone; yet the ten great granite +columns, and the marble mosaics on the south wall, and other +relics, show what the mosque must once have been. Its most +remarkable feature is the coating of the minarets with green tiles, +which may probably be ascribed to the Tatar influence of Násir’s +wife, who belonged to the royal family of the Golden Horde. That +the Citadel mosque is not wholly destroyed is due to the care of +Colonel C. M. Watson, C.M.G., who rescued it from the degradation +of an army storehouse, and removed the wooden partitions which had +been set up when the beautiful building was converted into a +prison. There was once a “Hall of Columns” belonging to Násir’s +“Striped Palace” of black and white stone in the Citadel (which +cost, it is said, twenty millions, but the figure is incredible), +which still stood three quarters of a century ago; the fortress was +largely rearranged and added to in his reign, and the aqueduct +which brought the Nile water to the citadel, though commonly +ascribed to Saladin and probably a reconstruction of some Ayyúbid +conduit, was Násir’s work (1311), afterwards restored in stone by +el-Ghúry. He also built a mosque beside the shrine of Seyyida +Nefísa, the Kubbat-en-Nasr near the Red Hill, and other +chapels.</p> + +<div class="figcenterplate iw1"> +<figure id="i19"><a href="images/i19.jpg"><img src='images/i19.jpg' +alt=''></a> +<p class="cp2">AQUEDUCT AND HOUSE OF THE “SEVEN WATERMILLS”</p> +</figure> +</div> + +<p>Where the sultan led, the court followed. The<span class= +"pagenum" id="Page_224">[224]</span> emírs of that day were never +content till they had built a mosque, a college, or a tomb-chapel, +to celebrate their piety and lay up riches where they stood most in +need of a balance. The Moorish traveller, Ibn-Batúta, who was at +Cairo in 1326, was impressed by the zealous emulation of the emírs +in founding mosques and monasteries for recluses, such as the +Khankah or convent of Beybars Gashnekír, still standing, and he +gives a curious account of the monastic rules.<a id= +"FNanchor_70"></a><a href="#Footnote_70" class="fnanchor">[70]</a> +One cannot count the colleges (medresas), he says, and he is lost +in admiration of the great hospital of Kalaún, with its excellent +apparatus and drugs, and its revenue amounting, he was told, to +1000 dinárs a day. More than forty mosques and colleges were +erected between 1320 and 1360—more than a fourth of the total +number recorded from the Arab conquest to the time of Makrízy—and +many of them still survive to bear witness to the munificence of +the great nobles of the time. Such are the mosques (<em>gami‘</em>) +of the emír Hoseyn (founded <span class="sc2">A.H.</span> 719, +<span class="sc2">A.D.</span> 1319), Almás, the chamberlain (730), +Kusún (730), Beshták (736), Altunbugha el-Maridány, the cupbearer +(740), Aslam, the armour-bearer (746), Aksunkur (747), Arghún +el-Isma‘íly (748), Mangak, the proconsul (750), Sheykhú (750); the +colleges (<em>medresa</em>) of Almelik, the polo-master (719), +Sengar el-Gáwaly (723), Ahmad, the master of the ceremonies +(Mihmandár, 725), Akbugha, the major domo (734), Sarghitmish, +captain of the guard (757); the monasteries (<em>Khankáh</em>) of +Kusún (736), el-Gáwaly (723), Sheykhú (756); besides the mosque of +“the Lady Miska” (a slave of Násir’s named Hadak, 740), the college +of Násir’s daughter, the Lady Tatar el-Higazíya (761), and the +great mosque of his son Sultan Hasan facing the Citadel +(757-60).</p> + +<div class="figcenterplate iw3"><span class="pagenum" id= +"Page_225">[225]</span> +<figure id="i20"><a href="images/i20.jpg"><img src='images/i20.jpg' +alt=''></a> +<p class="cp2">MOSQUE OF SULTAN HASAN</p> +</figure> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_227">[227]</span>To describe +these mosques of the Násiry epoch in detail would demand a whole +volume. Some of them indeed are sadly ruined and present but +fragments of their original building. Some, like Aksunkur’s and +el-Isma‘íly’s were restored, the one with much taste by Ibrahím +Agha in 1652; the other, with none, fifty years ago by one of the +Khedivial family. But even in what remains of the original work of +the twenty-one mosques enumerated above there is so much variety in +plan, in treatment of the parts, and in decoration, that no verbal +description can take the place of ocular study on the spot. Almost +every one of these buildings deserves separate and attentive +examination. Three features, however, may here be signalized as +characteristic. The old mosques had no external decoration; their +enclosing walls were plain, and only in the late Fátimid mosque +el-Akmar do we find the beginning of a façade. The mamlúk mosques, +copying no doubt the buildings of the Crusaders in Palestine, +generally present fine façades, with sunk panels, portals in +recess, and decorative cornice and crownwork. The next +characteristic is the development of the minaret, which becomes +more graceful, is built of well-faced stone, and shows delicate +articulations and gradations of tapering from the square to the +polygon and cylinder, with skilful use of “stalactite” or +pendentive treatment of angles and transitions and supports for the +balconies. The third is the construction of large domes. Hitherto +small cupolas over the mihráb or above the entrance were the utmost +achievements of the earlier architects. The feature of a great dome +was introduced by Saladin’s successors, for example in the dome of +the tomb-mosque of esh-Sháfi‘y in the Karáfa, and probably in other +edifices, but too little remains of the Ayyúbid period to permit of +very exact definition.</p> + +<p>The mamlúks were dome-builders <em>par +excellence</em>.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_228">[228]</span> A +large proportion of their mosques and colleges were also the +founders’ tombs; the tomb-chapel adjoined the main building, and +the dome, as we have said, is pre-eminently a sepulchral canopy. +From the mamlúk period begins that adornment of the city with those +beautiful bulbs which still form its dominant architectural note. +From the plain dome with a small cupola on top comes the fluted +dome, and next the dome covered with ornament, chevrons, +arabesques, or geometrical <em>entrelacs</em>, all chiselled in the +stone. The most elaborate ornament belongs to the work of the +Circassian sultans of the fifteenth century, but already in the +fourteenth the dome had taken its place among the leading features +of Saracenic architecture.</p> + +<p>As an example of the fourteenth century style we cannot do +better than take the great mosque of Sultan Hasan, which includes +most of the characteristics of the Násiry epoch, and displays them +on the grandest scale. Sultan Hasan,—who sat on the throne from +1347 to 1351, was deposed by the emírs, and then restored from 1354 +to 1361,—was far from an interesting or estimable character, and +his mosque was his one good deed. It was built between 1356 and +1359 (<span class="sc2">A.H.</span> 757-760) and is said to have +cost him 1000 dinárs a day, but one distrusts the round figures of +Eastern chroniclers. The sultan was so charmed with his masterpiece +that he cut off the architect’s hand in the vague idea that its +loss would cripple his genius and prevent his repeating his +success. The mosque is of the usual form of medresa, a cross formed +of a central court and four deep transepts or porticoes, and the +founder’s tomb may be compared to a lady-chapel behind the chancel +or eastern portico. The outside does not of course reveal the +cruciform character of the interior, since the angles are filled +with numerous<span class="pagenum" id="Page_231">[231]</span> rooms +and offices.<a id="FNanchor_71"></a><a href="#Footnote_71" class= +"fnanchor">[71]</a> The prevailing impression from without is one +of great height, compared with other mosques. The walls are 113 +feet high and built of fine cut stone from the pyramids, and have +the peculiarity, rare in Saracen architecture, of springing from a +socle. Windows—two with horseshoe arches, the rest simple +grilles—slightly relieve the monotony of the broad expanse of wall; +but the most beautiful feature is the splendid cornice built up of +six tiers of stalactites each overlapping the one below, which +crowns the whole wall. There are some graceful pilasters or engaged +columns at the angles, and a magnificent portal set in an arched +niche, 66 feet high, vaulted in a half sphere which is worked up to +by twelve tiers of pendentives. Bold arabesque medallions and +borders, geometrical panels, and corner columns with stalactite +capitals, enrich this stately gate.</p> + +<div class="figcenterplate iw5"> +<figure id="i21"><a href="images/i21_large.jpg"><img src= +'images/i21.jpg' alt=''></a> +<p class="cp2">GATEWAY OF SULTAN HASAN’S MOSQUE</p> +</figure> +</div> + +<p>Inside, the first impression again is of size rather than +detail. The great span of the four arches—that at the east is 90 +feet high and nearly 70 wide—is unmatched in Cairo, but the plaster +coating of the interior of the transepts detracts from the general +effect, nor are the mosaics and marbles, handsome as they are, +equal in delicacy of design or harmony of colour to many others in +the <em>mihrábs</em> of earlier and later mosques. The black, +white, and yellow panels are too garish, and so is the colouring of +the pulpit; but the concave niche itself is singularly rich in +decoration, and the tribune, instead of being as usual an +unpretentious wood platform, stands upon graceful stone columns of +alternate drums of coloured marbles. A fine Kufic inscription forms +a frieze round the top of the walls. The tomb-chamber, entered from +the sanctuary by<span class="pagenum" id="Page_232">[232]</span> a +noble door plated with arabesques in bronze, is surrounded by a +marble dado 25 feet high, above which is the Throne-Verse from the +Korán carved in wood, whilst the angles are gradually worked up to +the circle of the dome by stalactites also carved in wood and much +decayed. In the centre is the plain marble grave of the founder. +The dome itself is comparatively modern, and quite unworthy of the +great mosque. The original great dome, admired by Pietro della +Valle in 1616, collapsed in 1660. There were to have been four +minarets, but scarcely was the third built when it fell (1360), +crushing some three hundred children in the school below. +Thirty-three days later Sultan Hasan was murdered. Of the two that +then remained, one minaret became ruined and was rebuilt too short +in 1659. The great bronze lanterns and many of the enamelled glass +lamps are preserved in the Arab Museum; and the fine bronze-plated +entrance door was removed by el-Muáyyad to his own mosque in +1410.</p> + +<p>The mosque of Sultan Hasan suffered greatly from its position. +Its wide terrace-roof was an excellent post of vantage for cannon +and musketry during the constant émeutes of the Mamlúk period, and +shots were frequently exchanged between it and the Citadel down to +the time of Mohammad ‘Aly: some of the balls may still be seen in +the masonry. Barkúk found the mosque so dangerous as a place of +attack that he demolished its handsome steps and closed the great +door. At one time it remained closed for half a century, and the +students and worshippers had to slink in by a window or a +side-door. The tall minaret was even used in the middle of the +fifteenth century to support a tight-rope stretched to the Citadel +on which a European gymnast disported himself to the tremulous +delight of the populace. In a quieter situation the mosque might +have escaped injury, but even as it is,<span class="pagenum" id= +"Page_235">[235]</span> scarred with bullets and lopped of its +original dome and minarets, it remains the most superb if not the +most beautiful monument of Saracenic art in the fourteenth +century.</p> + +<div class="figcenterplate iw2"> +<figure id="i22"><a href="images/i22.jpg"><img src='images/i22.jpg' +alt=''></a> +<p class="cp2">TOMB-MOSQUE OF BARKUK AND FARAG</p> +</figure> +</div> + +<h3>2. THE MAMLÚKS OF THE FORT.</h3> + +<p>When the feeble descendants of en-Násir, after enduring rather +than enjoying a mock sovereignty for forty years under the tyranny +of a series of powerful emírs—Kusún, Sheykhú, Sarghitmish, and the +rest—gave way to the usurpation of the emír Barkúk in 1382, the +change made little difference in the government of Egypt. The +hereditary principle was gone, indeed, and was never reaffirmed +until the latter part of the nineteenth century; and the new +dynasty consisted of isolated emírs, who sometimes bequeathed their +throne to a son until some other emír deposed him, but who never +founded a royal house like that of Kalaún. The new line was known +as the Burgy Mamlúks, or “slaves of the fort,” because they +belonged to a brigade of troops which had been quartered in the +Citadel ever since their original enrolment by Kalaún a century +before. They are also called the “Circassian Sultans,” from their +common race, for none of them were Turks, though two were Greeks. +There was little to choose, however, in character, between the +Circassians and their Turkish predecessors, and the change on the +whole was for the worse. The sultans of the new line were even more +at the mercy of the leaders of military factions than before. The +mamlúk guard of each king formed a distinct party, calling itself +after his throne-title—as Ashrafy, Muáyyady, Násiry—and after his +death or deposition they remained a separate factor in politics and +contributed to the bloodshed, confusion, and intrigues +of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_236">[236]</span> the period. The +sultans could scarcely restrain their own soldiery, much less these +formidable relics of their predecessors, and the frequent changes +of rulers show how unstable the royal authority had become. Six of +the twenty-three Burgy sultans reigned for 103 out of the total of +134 years covered by the dynasty, leaving but thirty-one years for +the remaining seventeen, or less than two years apiece.</p> + +<p>The character of the rulers was much the same as before, but +everything was on a meaner scale. There was hardly one warrior-king +among them, and this accounts in a large degree for the lack of the +prestige that had kept a soldier like Beybars or Kalaún on the +throne. The Circassians were not soldiers but schemers; they relied +less upon success in war or personal courage than on ruse, +chicanery, and corruption, to retain their hold of power. The Greek +Khushkadam excelled the rest in his adroit management of the +contending factions and the heavy bribes he extorted in the sale of +public offices. The governorship of Damascus cost its possessor +45,000 dinárs in fees to the sultan, and his previous post was sold +to another man for 10,000. Ministers of state were put out of the +way if their enemies made it worth the Greek’s while, and the +ceremonious visits of this ingenious sultan were apt to be +expensive to those he honoured with a call. Throughout the +domination of the Circassian dynasty corruption reigned unchecked; +justice was bought and sold; and even the Sheykh-el-Islám, the +religious chief justice, stole trust-money. The soldiers, who were +purchased white slaves, Greeks, Circassians, Turks and Mongols, ran +riot in the streets, insomuch that decent women dared not leave +their houses and the fellahín feared to bring their stock to market +lest it should fall a prey to the mamlúks or the government. In the +country the population diminished<span class="pagenum" id= +"Page_237">[237]</span> under the oppression of the troops; in the +capital there was seldom peace or order, and sometimes rival +factions pounded each other from the Citadel ramparts and the +opposite roof of Sultan Hasan’s mosque, barricaded the streets, and +made cockpits of the bazars, where processions of rebels nailed to +camel-saddles till they died were no uncommon sights.</p> + +<p>In spite of this corruption and violence the Burgy sultans +contrived not only to preserve the power of Egypt but even to +enlarge its dominions and greatly extend its trade. They withstood +the invasion of Tamerlane boldly in 1399, though in the end they +found it politic to accept his terms; but at least the great +conqueror never ventured to attack Egypt. They fought several +campaigns in Asia Minor, where for some time they secured the +submission of Karaman, Cæsarea, Iconium, and Larenda. They even +conquered Cyprus—a nest of the pirates who disturbed the Egyptian +shipping—in 1426, with a fleet of galleys built at their port of +Bulák, not long risen from the Nile; and King James of Lusignan, +captured at the battle of Chierocitia, was brought in triumph to +the Citadel of Cairo, with the crown of Cyprus and his disgraced +standards, and made to kiss the ground before the Sultan Bars-Bey. +He was ransomed by the Venetian consul and European merchants, and +rode through the streets and bazars in great state, after becoming +a vassal of the Egyptian king. Cyprus paid tribute until the end of +the Circassian dynasty, but several attempts upon Rhodes in 1440-4 +were successfully repelled by the knights. To the end of the +dynasty the Egyptian frontier still extended north as far as the +Pyramus and Euphrates.</p> + +<p>Among the strange anomalies of Oriental history none perhaps is +more surprising than the combination of extreme corruption and +savage cruelty with exquisite<span class="pagenum" id= +"Page_238">[238]</span> refinement in material civilization and an +admirable devotion to art which we see in the mamlúk sultans. The +Circassians were not inferior to their Turkish forerunners as great +architects. Personally some of the second line of sultans were men +of considerable culture. Barkúk, Muáyyad, Gakmak, and Káit-Bey were +fond of learned society and literary talents; Bars-Bey, though he +knew little Arabic, liked to listen to Turkish histories read to +him by el-‘Ayny; and Timurbugha the Greek was a philologist, +historian, and theologian. They were also good Muslims, fasted +regularly and even supererogatorily, abstained from wine, made +pilgrimages, and insured their place in the next world by building +mosques, colleges, hospitals, schools, and every kind of religious +establishment, in this. El-Muáyyad, for example, though utterly +unable to control the disorders of his time, “was personally a +devout man and a learned, a good musician, poet, and orator, +scrupulous in the observance of the rules of his religion, very +simple and unpretentious in his dress and mode of life, bearing +himself in all religious functions as a plain Muslim among fellow +worshippers, and robing himself in common white wool in mourning +for the pestilence that ravaged the land.” The eastern arcade of +his splendid mosque (1415-21) is still preserved in the Sukkaríya +street, and a number of boys may there be seen at their lessons +under the brilliant gold inscriptions and frescoes of the +sanctuary, which has been carefully restored by Herz Bey, who +discovered traces of the original polychromy beneath the whitewash +of ages. The minarets of the mosque are built on the flanking +towers of the Zuweyla gate. There is also a ruined hospital +(el-Maristán el-Muáyyady, 1418), near the Citadel, that +commemorates his pious benefactions. Bars-Bey’s great mosque, the +Ashrafiya (1423), is still a place where congregations<span class= +"pagenum" id="Page_241">[241]</span> meet, at the corner of the +Musky, where one turns into the Ghuríya. Barkúk built (1386) an +exquisite medresa in Beyn-el-Kasreyn, which has recently been +restored by Herz Bey; and his tomb-mosque with the two domes, begun +by himself but completed by his son, the Sultan Farag, in 1410, is +one of the most picturesque features in that beautiful group of +fawn-coloured domes and slender minarets, the eastern cemetery. But +the gem of the group is the perfect tomb-mosque (1472) of Káit-Bey, +which represents the highest achievement of the later mamlúk +school. The admirable arabesques of its shapely dome, the skilfully +graduated transitions of its stately minaret from square to +octagon, and from octagon to circle, with every ingenuity of +stalactite concealment of angles, and the fine inlaid marbles in +the <em>liwán</em>, are treasures of indestructible beauty even +after centuries of neglect and spoliation.</p> + +<div class="figcenterplate iw2"> +<figure id="i23"><a href="images/i23.jpg"><img src='images/i23.jpg' +alt=''></a> +<p class="cp2">EASTERN CEMETERY: SO-CALLED “TOMBS OF THE +CALIPHS”</p> +</figure> +</div> + +<p>Káit-Bey, whose long reign of twenty-eight years (1468-96) was +phenomenal in this quickly changing dynasty, had worked his way up +from the usual humble beginning. Bought by Bars-Bey for twenty-five +guineas, he had passed from master to master, and rank to rank, +till he became commander-in-chief, under the Greek Timurbugha, of +an army which cost the state nearly £300,000 a year—a very large +military budget for the fifteenth century. “He was an expert +swordsman, and an adept at the javelin play. His career had given +him experience and knowledge of the world; he possessed courage, +judgment, insight, energy, and decision. His strong character +dominated his mamlúks, who were devoted to him, and overawed +competitors. His physical energy was sometimes displayed in +flogging the president of the council of state or other high +officials with his own arm, with the object of extorting money for +the treasury. Such contributions and extraordinary taxation were +absolutely necessary for the<span class="pagenum" id= +"Page_242">[242]</span> wars in which he was obliged to engage. Not +only was the land taxed to one-fifth of the produce, but an +additional tenth (half-a-dirhem per ardebb of corn) was demanded. +Rich Jews and Christians were remorselessly squeezed. There was +much barbarous inhumanity, innocent people were scourged, even to +the death, and the chemist ‘Aly ibn el-Marshúshy was blinded and +deprived of his tongue, because he could not turn dross into +gold.</p> + +<p>“The Sultan had the reputation of miserliness, yet the list of +his public works, not only in Egypt, but in Syria and Arabia, shows +that he spent the revenue on admirable objects. His two mosques at +Cairo—one outside among the so-called ‘Tombs of the Caliphs’ +(1472), the other near Ibn-Tulún (1475)—and his wekálas or +caravanserais are among the most exquisite examples of elaborate +arabesque ornament applied to the purest Saracenic architecture. He +diligently restored and repaired the crumbling monuments of his +predecessors, as numerous inscriptions in the mosques, the schools, +the Citadel, and other buildings of Cairo abundantly testify. He +was a frequent traveller, and journeyed in Syria, to the Euphrates, +in Upper and Lower Egypt, besides performing the pilgrimages to +Mekka and Jerusalem; and wherever he went he left traces of his +progress in good roads, bridges, mosques, schools, fortifications, +or other pious or necessary works. No reign, save that of en-Násir +ibn Kalaún, in the long list of mamlúk sultans, was more prolific +in architectural construction or in the minor industries of art. +The people suffered for the cost of his many buildings, but a later +age has recognized their matchless beauty.”<a id= +"FNanchor_72"></a><a href="#Footnote_72" class= +"fnanchor">[72]</a></p> + +<div class="figcenterplate iw6"> +<figure id="i24"><a href="images/i24.jpg"><img src='images/i24.jpg' +alt=''></a> +<p class="cp2">MOSQUE OF KAIT-BEY IN EASTERN CEMETERY</p> +</figure> +</div> + +<p>In the buildings of Káit-Bey and his contemporaries we see the +perfection of the art of pure arabesque and elaborate geometrical +ornament. In the early days of<span class="pagenum" id= +"Page_245">[245]</span> Saracenic architecture the ornament was +worked in soft gypsum or plaster, and the use of a tool (never a +mould) in the soft material gave extraordinary freedom and boldness +to the lines—for example, in the scroll-work of the mosque of +Ibn-Tulún. Plaster continued to be the base of decorative friezes +and borders throughout the Fátimid period: it may be seen in the +original arcades of the Azhar and in the eastern sanctuary of +el-Hákim. The most exquisite specimen of plaster ornament, however, +is seen in the tomb-mosque of Kalaún, where the borders of the +arches that supported the original dome, and of the clerestory +windows above, are formed of a delicate lace-like tracery in +plaster foliate designs, broadly treated and worked into a pattern +so continuous that it is almost impossible to break off at any +middle point. After en-Násir, who also used stucco, however, it was +generally abandoned in favour of stone, though we still see +admirable examples of plaster decoration in the dome of Aksunkur +and the beautiful designs in the cupola of el-Fadawíya. In the +mosque of the Sultan Hasan all the sculpture except the Kufic +frieze is in stone, and as the material is unyielding we find at +once a certain hardness of treatment, a loss of freedom in the +lines, and a tendency to substitute geometrical design for the pure +arabesque of earlier work. The stone pulpit erected by Káit-Bey in +1483 in Barkúk’s tomb-mosque is one of the finest examples of +geometrical chiselling in Cairo. Its side view is triangular, like +the wooden pulpits of other mosques, but instead of carved or +inlaid wooden panels making up the designs on each side, the whole +is of stone slabs, admirably joined, and chiselled with geometrical +figures produced outwards, so as to cover the whole surface with a +network of interlacing lines forming a star-like pattern, the +interstices of which are filled with floral arabesques. Similar +carving enriches<span class="pagenum" id="Page_246">[246]</span> +the walls of the staircase and the canopy of this unique +pulpit.</p> + +<p>Káit-Bey was the most scrupulous of all Cairo architects: he +allowed no detail of his numerous edifices to be neglected, and the +wealth of ornament which he lavished upon them was all cut in +limestone or marble.<a id="FNanchor_73"></a><a href="#Footnote_73" +class="fnanchor">[73]</a> One may realize the richness of this +decoration in his mosque within the city, near Ibn-Tulún’s, where +the chief arch is formed of twenty-three blocks of stone on each +side, alternately red and white, and every one of the white blocks +is covered with arabesque or geometrical designs, no two of which +appear to be alike. The arabesques consist of the usual trefoil +surrounded by very beautifully intertwined foliage conventionally +treated. The geometrical patterns, though at first sight composed +of irregular pentagons and hexagons, are all symmetrically +arranged, and form one elaborate design. On the spandrils of the +arch will be noticed medallions—there are many such in +Cairo—containing the name of the Sultan and a benediction upon him. +A broad band of Koranic inscription, separated by arabesque +patterns, runs as a frieze under the sculptured cornice. The +general effect of the whole is wonderfully rich, and there is +hardly a space that is not filled by some delicate design. Even in +his wekálas, or inns, Káit-Bey was no less careful in details. Few +buildings in Cairo are more fertile in varied designs than his +wekála in the street on the south side of the Azhar. The interior, +unhappily, is deserted and in decay, but once, no doubt, it was +richly ornamented. The façade is still in good preservation, and +deserves<span class="pagenum" id="Page_249">[249]</span> careful +study by all who wish to understand arabesque and geometrical +ornament at its best.<a id="FNanchor_74"></a><a href="#Footnote_74" +class="fnanchor">[74]</a> When we say at its best, some objection +may be taken to the fact that certain designs are systematically +repeated in reverse, in contrast to the honest way of the older +artists who scorned to repeat themselves. But by the time of +Káit-Bey the beauty of uniformity had been realized, and it was +seen that a certain symmetry and recurrence of the designs really +improved their effect. This change was part of the general tendency +towards symmetrical finish and architectural proportion, which +distinguishes the later from the earlier Mamlúk style. There is, +however, abundant variety in the numerous panels of arabesque and +geometrical ornament which form the borders above the thirteen +shops of the inn front, in the superb arched gateway in the centre, +and in the beautiful engaged column in the corner, next the sebíl +or fountain, with its carved drums and stalactite capital. In its +original state this wekála must have been a noble building: even as +it is, one may call it almost a text-book of Saracenic +decoration.</p> + +<div class="figcenterplate iw5"> +<figure id="i25"><a href="images/i25.jpg"><img src='images/i25.jpg' +alt=''></a> +<p class="cp2">TOMB-MOSQUES</p> +</figure> +</div> + +<p>Indeed the epoch of Káit-Bey was almost a repetition of the +great building epoch of en-Násir. The Circassian mosques are +usually the favourites with architects as well as with the +unprofessional sight-seer: their exquisite proportions, delicate +minarets, beautifully sculptured domes, elaborate stalactites in +portals, cornices, and wherever angles had to be masked, and their +rich marble mosaics and incrustated kiblas, are perfect in taste +and disposition. Besides the two exquisite mosques of Káit-Bey, +those of the emírs Ezbek el-Yúsufy<span class="pagenum" id= +"Page_250">[250]</span> (1495), Kheyr Bek (1502), and the Master of +the Horse (emír akhór) Kany Bek (1503), are full of fine work, +whilst for a little gem of the best Circassian type nothing is +better worth seeing than the Medresa of Kady Abu-Bekr ibn Muzhir or +Mazhar (1480) which has been restored with exceptional skill by the +Commission for the Preservation of the Arab Monuments, whose +architect, Herz Bey, has devoted the greatest pains to tracing the +original colours and designs and faithfully reproducing them. +Another careful restoration is that of the mosque of the emír +Kagmás el-Isháky (1481), and both show conspicuous improvement upon +the earlier experiments in restoring the Barkukíya medresa.</p> + +<p>It is to be noticed that, in the majority of the medresas of the +fifteenth century, the original cruciform shape is considerably +modified. The medresa, though still a college, gradually usurped +the position of the gámi‘ or congregational mosque. Friday prayers +were held in the medresa, since few new gámi‘s were erected—the +most important were those of Muáyyad, Bars-Bey and Ezbek—and the +court and the eastern transept (sanctuary or chancel) were +enlarged, whilst the side transepts became smaller, and even +dwindled to mere recesses. Probably the reduction of the side +transepts was due in some measure to the fact that only two of the +four orthodox schools, the Sháfi‘y and the Hánafy, had any great +following in Egypt, and there was thus no necessity for the +retention of the original plan of four separate lecture halls. The +result is that we find under the Circassian Sultans that a +compromise has been made between the gámi‘ and the medresa, and the +form of the latter has been modified to suit the requirements of +the former. This modified medresa form is almost universal in the +Circassian period of architecture, and the salient +features—the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_253">[253]</span> +enlargement of the sanctuary and the diminishing of the side +transepts—is particularly conspicuous in the medresa of +Kagmás.<a id="FNanchor_75"></a><a href="#Footnote_75" class= +"fnanchor">[75]</a></p> + +<div class="figcenterplate iw1"> +<figure id="i26"><a href="images/i26.jpg"><img src='images/i26.jpg' +alt=''></a> +<p class="cp2">TOMBS OF THE MAMLUKS</p> +</figure> +</div> + +<p>Even to the end, when the Ottoman conquest was obviously at +hand, the Circassian mamlúks retained much of their vigour and all +their aesthetic powers. There are few more interesting figures in +their line than the old sultan el-Ghúry, called to the throne in +1501, after four incompetent rulers in as many years had succeeded +Káit-Bey. He was a man of bold decision and boundless energy. He +restored order in the anarchy of Cairo, levied ten months’ taxes at +a stroke to replenish his treasury; taxed water-wheels, boats, +camels, Jews, Christians, servants, every possible source; +increased the customs-dues, confiscated vast estates and levied +enormous death-duties. Having restored the revenue, and earned an +evil name for extortion, he proceeded to spend it on great public +works. Canals, roads, fortifications on the coast, the +strengthening of the Citadel of Cairo, the improvement of the +pilgrims’ route to Mekka, these were among his good deeds. His +college (1503) and tomb-mosque (where, however, he is not buried) +still face each other at opposite sides of the street that bears +his name, the Ghuríya, though badly mauled by the injudicious +restoration of thirty years ago. He also built a minaret for the +Azhar, the mosque of the Nilometer on the island of Roda, the +Sebíl-el-Muminín or Fountain of the Faithful in the Rumeyla, the +watermills at Masr-el-‘Atíka, and restored the aqueduct to the +Citadel. He was sumptuous in his court, and generous to poets and +musicians, whilst he mulcted the heirs of his nobles and robbed +orphans of their dower. Fully alive to the importance of +the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_254">[254]</span> Indian trade, +then menaced by the Portuguese, he furnished a fleet in the Red Sea +and sent it to India, where with the help of the governor of Diu it +defeated the interloping senhors under the younger Almeida in an +engagement off Chaul in 1508. Finally, but too late, he led his +army into Syria to do battle with the advancing Ottomans, and fell +fighting at the age of seventy-six on the fatal field of Marg +Dábik, near Aleppo, where the desertion of the two wings under +Kheyr Bek and el-Ghazzály left the old sultan alone with his +bodyguard to be trampled under the horses of the troopers he vainly +tried to rally (24th August, 1516). An engagement near Heliopolis +to the north of Cairo completed the rout of the mamlúks. Tumán Bey +tried to make a stand against the invaders at the Bab-en-Nasr, but +Selím took him in the flank, and after hand to hand fighting in the +streets, the Citadel was stormed, Tumán was crucified at the Gate +of Zuweyla, and Egypt became a province of the Ottoman Empire.</p> + +<div class="figcenterplate iw1"><span class="pagenum" id= +"Page_256">[256]</span> +<figure id="i27"><a href="images/i27.jpg"><img src='images/i27.jpg' +alt=''></a> +<p class="cp3">SKETCH PLAN SHOWING THE GROWTH OF CAIRO</p> +</figure> +</div> + +<hr class="chap"> + +<h2><span class="pagenum" id="Page_257">[257]</span><a id= +"c08"></a>CHAPTER VIII</h2> + +<p class="sch1"><em>The City of the Arabian Nights</em> +</p> + +<p class="dcap">IN the preceding chapter we finished the story of +Cairo as the capital of an independent state, and described some of +the beautiful buildings with which the Mamlúk Sultans and nobles +adorned the city. But the life of a town does not consist in the +doings of the court, and we should form a very incomplete picture +of mediæval Cairo if we looked no deeper than the Sultans and their +mosques and colleges and tombs. Though trampled under the hoofs of +the dominant troopers, the city had a vigorous life of its own, a +life of prosperous commerce, of social enjoyment, and of literary +culture. Cairo society was no longer the limited palace coterie +cooped up within the high walls of the Fátimid palaces. It spread +on all sides save the east. It had flowed out beyond the northern +gates, and formed the new suburb of the Hoseyníya, where many +mosques and chapels grew up. It had spread to the west over the +space between the old Fátimid wall and the Nile, and the river had +conveniently receded and allowed the new port of Bulák and a whole +colony of houses to be formed on what had been the Nile bed till +the wreck of the good ship <em>Elephant</em> helped to make a sand +bank, called the Elephant’s Isle (Gezírat-el-Fil), which altered +the river’s course and provided an excellent building site. To the +south the space between the Fátimid walls and the Citadel and the +mosque of Ibn-Tulún, where only gardens and summer villas and +pools<span class="pagenum" id="Page_258">[258]</span> flooded at +high Nile had been seen in Saladin’s day, was now covered with +houses, among which rose the domes and minarets of the mamlúks.</p> + +<p>The expansion of the city may readily be traced in the +Topographer’s careful record of the building of mosques, which +necessarily implies a neighbouring population. The mosque of Yúnus +(c. <span class="sc2">A.H.</span> 719) and of Ibn-et-Tabbákh (“the +son of [Násir’s] cook,” 746), in the quarter of el-Luk, point to +the recession of the Nile which formerly ran close by. In the same +way the foundation of the mosques of Ibn-Gházy (741) and et-Tawáshy +(745) on the outside (or west) of the old Bab-el-Bahr, and the +Záwiya of Abu-s-Su‘úd (c. 724) outside the Bab-el-Kantara, point to +a westward extension, though here the land was not formerly under +water. The great expansion to the north, caused by the upheaval of +the Elephant’s Isle, before 1200 <span class="sc2">A.D.</span>, and +the emergence of Bulák a century later, may be fully traced in the +annals of the mosques. Makrízy tells us that the Elephant’s Isle +was flooded only at high Nile, and during the rest of the year it +was a links of sandbanks and coarse grass, where the mamlúks used +to practise archery, in their unhappy ignorance of golf. But as the +Nile receded “people began in 1313 to erect houses, in consequence +of the improvements made in that part by en-Násir,” who had dug the +new canal then known as the Khalíg en-Násiry and now as the +Isma‘ilíya, which drained the tract; “and a proclamation was made +in Káhira and Misr inviting every one to build there without delay. +So the emírs and soldiers and merchants and common folk built +houses there, and Bulák was created at this period.”<a id= +"FNanchor_76"></a><a href="#Footnote_76" class="fnanchor">[76]</a> +He adds that water was drawn from the Nile by a sákiya wheel which +stood on the spot where the mosque of el-Khatíry was afterwards +built,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_259">[259]</span> which shows +that the river has not retreated much since, for it still runs very +near this mosque, which was founded by Aydemir in 737 on a site +which was under water thirty years before. Other mosques at Bulák +were those of Ibn-Sárim and el-Básity (817).</p> + +<p>Behind or east of Bulák, on what is now called the ‘Abbasíya +road, was a plot of land beside the Elephant’s Isle, known as +Ard-et-Tabbála or the “demesne of the tamburina,” because it was +presented by the caliph Mustansir to a singing girl who celebrated +the glories of the Fátimids to the accompaniment of her drum. There +also houses began to be built, and the mosque of el-Keymakhty was +founded there, on the New Canal, in <span class="sc2">A.H.</span> +790. Before this another mosque, that of el-Asyúty, had been +erected about 740 on the Elephant’s Isle, as well as that of Sarúga +on the New Canal near the Pool of er-Ratly. Still further to the +east we find a number of mosques rising in the new quarters outside +the old city walls. Such were the gámi‘s of Almelik (732) and +Ibn-el-Felek in the Hoseyníya quarter, those of Akúsh and +Ibn-el-Maghraby on the canal outside; the convents of Yúnus, +Algibugha (c. 750) and Ibn-Ghuráb (798), and the Záwiyas of +el-Ga‘bary (c. 687), Nasr (c. 719), el-Kalendaríya (c. 722), and +el-Khiláty (c. 737), outside the Bab-en-Nasr, all of which testify +to the expansion of the city towards the north.</p> + +<p>Cairo had in fact attained much the same dimensions as it +measured fifty years ago, before the new European suburbs near the +Nile were developed. There was probably little difference either in +outward aspect or in the life of the middle and lower classes +between the Cairo of the fifteenth century and the city which +Europeans such as Wilkinson, Burckhardt, Lane, John Phillip, and +Hay visited and described or painted in the first half of the +nineteenth. Some of Hay’s and<span class="pagenum" id= +"Page_260">[260]</span> his companion’s, O. B. Carter’s, drawings, +sketched about 1830, are here reproduced, and they may fairly be +taken as true representations of a town which still retained its +essential mediæval characteristics.</p> + +<p>How different Cairo must then have appeared to the newly arrived +visitor, who landed at Bulák after coming through the Mahmudíya +Canal from Alexandria and then ascending the Nile. There was a +mile’s ride from the river bank at Bulák to the Bab-el-Hadíd by +which you entered Cairo at the north-west corner, and instead of +the crowded villa suburb of to-day, there was scarcely a house to +be seen. “Two principal roads,” writes Lane,<a id= +"FNanchor_77"></a><a href="#Footnote_77" class="fnanchor">[77]</a> +“of nearly the same length lead from Bulák to Cairo; the northern, +which is somewhat irregular, but is the chief route of commerce +[there were of course no railways then], leads to the Bab-el-Hadíd; +and the southern, after having crossed two canals, enters the +western side of the Ezbekíya. We pass the picturesque mosque of +Abu-l-‘Ola on our right as we enter the latter road. The French, +during their occupation of Egypt, raised this road, intending also +to continue it through the town as far as the Citadel. It is +straight and wide, but very uneven, and wanting a row of trees on +its southern side to shade it. It is raised a few feet above the +level of the plain, so as to be above the reach of the inundation. +On either side during the inundation are marshes and inundated +fields. These, as soon as the waters have subsided, are sown with +corn, beans, trefoil, etc. Here and there are clusters of palm +trees, and a few sycamores and acacias. The plain was formerly +bounded on the east by extensive mounds of rubbish [doubtless the +ruins of Maks], behind which the capital was nearly concealed. The +road crosses two canals, over each of which is a stone bridge. . . +. Along the western side<span class="pagenum" id= +"Page_261">[261]</span> of the second canal, on the right of the +road, is a long ridge of rubbish. From the top of this ridge, about +a quarter of a mile from the gate of the Ezbekíya, we obtain a view +of Cairo.”</p> + +<p>This was how one approached Cairo in the first half of the +nineteenth century. The description reads drearily enough, but it +has the merit of showing what the place was like before the +European builder took it in hand. When the traveller plodded along +the uneven road between the bean-fields in 1835 he was traversing +precisely the same scene as had been trodden by the mamlúk horsemen +for centuries, and he was approaching a city which was still to all +intents the city of the Arabian Nights. There is no manner of +doubt, from internal evidence, that it was in Cairo that these +famous tales took their definite shape. Their origins have of +course been traced to a large extent in Persia and India, but their +final form and colour are Egyptian. Though many of the scenes are +laid at Baghdád, where the famous Harún er-Rashíd played so +conspicuous and erratic a part, it is obvious to any student of the +topography that the writers were very imperfectly acquainted with +the caliph’s city. It is Cairo that they know and describe, +whatever names they please to give to their scenes. There are +incidental touches that make it probable that the Arabian Nights +assumed their present form, in all essentials, before the middle of +the fourteenth century. The latest historical personage mentioned +is Saladin, and there are many reasons for believing that the tales +were collected and written very nearly in their final shape during +the revival of letters that ennobled the golden age of mamlúk +civilization on the Nile. The society they describe is precisely +what we know of mamlúk times: it is orthodox Muslim society of the +Cairene type.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_262">[262]</span>It may be +wondered that there should be any speculation at all about the date +of so famous a book; but the explanation is simple. Scholars and +learned men in the East have always looked with contempt upon +stories such as these, which are wholly devoid of the literary +preciosity which was the special pride of the true man of letters. +Hence they did not deign even to mention the Thousand and One +Nights, save in two or three slight references which do not +determine the date of the existing redaction. The Nights were +written for the people, for the audiences who gathered in the +coffee-shops to listen to the professional reciter, for the large +uneducated middle class of Cairo. This is what constitutes their +special merit in the eyes of the student of mediæval Egypt. The +doings of kings and emírs we learn from the detailed pages of +Makrízy and many other scholarly writers: it is from the Thousand +and One Nights that we gain our insight into the life of the +people—a life divided from that of the great by a gulf over which +the Oriental historian rarely leaps. The tales are above all the +adventures of merchants and shop-keepers. We are introduced no +doubt to caliphs and sultans and vezírs, as well as to the ginn, +’efrits and márids and other members of the spirit-world; but the +real actors in the stories are traders, men who keep shop and who +have ventures upon the seas, and often make voyages themselves. +Sindibad might easily have heard many of his own adventures from +the lips of the motley crowd that gathered on the quays at Misr +from all parts of the known world. Ibn-Sa‘íd stood and watched the +shipping in 1246 and noticed vessels arriving from all lands: “as +for the merchandise from the Mediterranean and the Red Sea that +comes to Misr it is past describing; here is it bonded, not at +Cairo, and hence it is distributed throughout Egypt.” What was +true<span class="pagenum" id="Page_263">[263]</span> of Misr and +Maks was also true of their successor, the fourteenth century port +at Bulák. It was from Bulák that ‘Aly of Cairo, after spending all +his inheritance making merry with his wife on the island of Roda, +took ship for Damietta and set forth on his quest of a new fortune. +The constantly recurring references to commercial voyages and great +profits are exactly what would occur to a people whose wealth was +made not only by a prodigiously fertile soil, but by a copious +foreign trade.</p> + +<p>What the transit trade of Egypt was worth in mamlúk times may be +judged from a few facts. A single vessel clearing cargo at +Alexandria paid £21,000 in customs. The great Italian republics +found it necessary to maintain consular agents in Egypt, and that +there was a wealthy colony of European merchants is shown by their +being able, headed by the consul of Venice, to guarantee the king +of Cyprus’s ransom of £100,000. The Venetians had enjoyed special +privileges in Egypt since the time of el-‘Adil, in 1208, who +allowed them to build a mart (funduk) of their own at Alexandria; +the Pisans had a consul there; and the concessions to Venice were +renewed in 1238. On the other side, in the Red Sea, there were the +ports of Suez, Tor, Koseyr, ‘Aydháb, Dehlek and Sawákin, where the +mamlúk sultans levied customs of a tenth <em>ad valorem</em>. The +Indian trade had greatly developed under the later mamlúk sultans, +and there was much rivalry and a tariff war between the Arabian and +Egyptian ports in the Red Sea in the effort to secure the heavy +customs dues, which were pressed beyond the customary tenth. In +1426 we read of forty vessels from India and Persia paying £36,000 +in duties at Gidda, the port of Mekka, which, like Yenbu‘, was then +Egyptian. Nor were<span class="pagenum" id="Page_264">[264]</span> +the government duties limited to importation. There were certain +monopolies: sugar, pepper, wood, metalwork could be sold only at +government warehouses, at government prices, subject to duty. A +consignment of pepper that was bought at Cairo for fifty dinárs was +sold to Europeans at Alexandria for one hundred and thirty under +government regulations. The Venetians, after vain consular +remonstrance, sent a fleet to Alexandria to bring away all their +merchants, and Bars-Bey was obliged to reduce his exorbitant +terms.</p> + +<p>How much store the Circassian sultans set by the transit trade +between India and Europe has been seen in the vigorous effort made +by el-Ghúry to crush the Portuguese in the Arabian Sea as soon as +he realized the dangerous rivalry of the Cape route. Indeed the +transit trade must have been a chief source of wealth. As Mr +Cameron, our consul at Port Sa‘íd, has well put it, the mamlúk +sultans, “masters of both Egypt and Syria, held the ports and +caravan routes between Europe and her Indian trade, and levied +customs dues on every bale of Oriental produce which arrived from +the Persian Gulf and the Red Sea for transfer to the harbours +between Alexandria and Alexandretta and for transhipment to Venice. +Until the discovery of the Cape route in 1498, and its subsequent +development, they enjoyed the monopoly of the entire volume of +Indian trade with the Levant; and Venice, by her commercial +capitulations with them, was their sole agent on the continent. Let +us try and estimate what this monopoly meant. An Arab merchant like +Sindbad the Sailor, . . . buys £10,000 worth of raw silks, nutmegs, +pepper, indigo, cloves, and mace in Persia or at Calicut and lands +them at Basra or Suez. The sea route up the Persian Gulf would be +shorter than the voyage up the Red Sea; but the caravan +road<span class="pagenum" id="Page_265">[265]</span> from Basra to +Aleppo would be more perilous than the short journey across Egypt. +At landing, the customs would amount to some £4000 [this is much +above the mark], and the goods would then be worth, say, £20,000. A +second Arab merchant on the Mediterranean coast [or perhaps at the +wharves of Bulák] would sell the consignment for £30,000 to the +Venetian, who would have to pay another £5000 customs dues before +he could clear his cargo. Thus, whether in customs or in tolls, or +in presents to local governors and escorts, a quarter of the +£35,000 paid by the Venetian would go to the mamlúk sultan and +aristocracy merely for the privilege of transit.”<a id= +"FNanchor_78"></a><a href="#Footnote_78" class= +"fnanchor">[78]</a></p> + +<p>It was not the government alone that made the profit. The Cairo +merchant who brought the precious bales from India and the Spice +Islands, or at least bought them from the Indian traders at the Red +Sea ports, made his fortune too. The Thousand and One Nights are +full of such successful ventures. Did not the Second Sheykh, who +led the Two Black Hounds, describe how “we then prepared +merchandise and hired a ship and embarked our goods, and proceeded +on our voyage for the space of a whole month, at the end of which +we arrived at a city where we sold our merchandise, and for every +piece of gold we gained ten”? Such fortunate speculations were no +doubt of everyday occurrence, and the trade represented by these +ventures did not all go out of the capital: a large part found its +way into the bazars to be retailed to the good people of Cairo and +to minister to the luxurious tastes of the thousands of hangers-on +to the mamlúk court. We can form but a meagre notion of the +mediæval <em>funduk</em> from the present bazars. A +<em>funduk</em>, or <em>khan</em>, or <em>wekála</em>—there is +little difference between the three terms—is a great collection of +warehouses and shops, generally<span class="pagenum" id= +"Page_266">[266]</span> surrounding a court, but sometimes more +like a covered arcade, where the merchants keep their reserves of +stores, and where traders find lodgings for themselves and stabling +for their beasts between their journeys. One great mediæval khan is +still familiar to every tourist—the Khan el-Khalíly or “Turkish +bazar,” built by Garkas el-Khalíly, the Master of the Horse of +Sultan Barkúk in 1400 on the site once occupied by the graves of +the Fátimid caliphs, whose bones were dug up and carted away on +asses to the rubbish-mounds outside the eastern Gate. Another khan, +the Hamzáwy, or cloth market, is also well known; and two of +Káit-Bey’s wekálas, the façades of which are finely ornamented with +arabesque panels and intricate geometrical designs, and wooden +medallions carved with the sultan’s name, still remain beside the +Azhar and in the Surugíya. When Lane described Cairo in 1835 there +were about two hundred wekálas, and even now one can scarcely pass +down a street without finding one of these big courts surrounded by +rooms—the inn of the east—opening out through a tall gateway.</p> + +<p>In the fifteenth century the khans of Cairo were busy marts of +the merchants; and the mamlúk emírs, who had clear ideas as to the +value of house property, emulated one another in building handsome +wekálas, every room of which might be expected to bring in a +substantial rent. There was the khan of Mesrúr, one of the most +famous. The young man in the Story of the Humpback “put up” there, +and stored his merchandise, and after a night’s rest took some of +his goods and went to the “kaysaríya of Garkas,” another famous +market of mediæval Cairo dating from Fátimid days, to sell to the +merchants. “Do as other merchants,” said the sheykh of the brokers +to the stranger; “sell thy merchandise upon credit for a certain +period, employing a scrivener, a witness, and<span class="pagenum" +id="Page_269">[269]</span> a moneychanger, and receive a portion of +the profits every Thursday and Monday: so shalt thou make of every +piece of silver two—besides thou wilt have leisure to enjoy the +amusements of Egypt and its Nile.” So the young man followed his +advice and left his goods to be sold for him, whilst he lived +joyously at the khan of Mesrúr, breakfasted on wine and chicken and +mutton and sweetmeats, and perfumed himself elegantly, till he met +the damsel at the shop of Bedr-ed-din, the gardener, and there +happened what fate had decreed, to be a warning to such as would be +admonished. That the young man should have his hand cut off by the +executioner at the Gate of Zuweyla was exactly what might be +expected in the days of the mamlúks. This khan of Mesrúr (or rather +two khans, one large and the other small) was built on a part of +the site of the Fátimid Great Palace where the slaves used to be +sold, by Mesrúr, a favourite slave of Saladin, who left it as a +legacy for the benefit of the poor. The larger building had a +hundred rooms, and was the chief resort of merchants from +Syria,—“the most renowned and greatest of the khans,” says the +Topographer, but its prosperity declined after the tribulation of +Syria at the hands of Tamerlane, “its honour departed and many of +its apartments were ruined.”</p> + +<div class="figcenterplate iw3"> +<figure id="i28"><a href="images/i28_large.jpg"><img src= +'images/i28.jpg' alt=''></a> +<p class="cp2">SLAVE MARKET</p> +</figure> +</div> + +<p>Another famous khan was that of Bilál, a slave of es-Sálih, the +grand-nephew of Saladin, so favoured that the sultan Kalaún used to +say, “God have mercy on our late master es-Sálih! I used to carry +the slippers of this eunuch Bilál whilst he went into the +presence!” The slave was very rich and abounded in good deeds, many +poets praised him and were amply rewarded, and among his worthy +acts was the building of the khan, where the merchants would +deposit their chests of great value. “I used to enter this funduk,” +says Makrízy, “and lo! around it were chests piled, +little<span class="pagenum" id="Page_270">[270]</span> and great, +so that only a small space was left in the middle, and these chests +contained gold and silver enough to amaze one.” Then there was the +“Khan of the Sebíl,” outside the Bab-el-Futúh, founded by Saladin’s +vezír, Karakúsh, for “sons of the road,” poor wayfarers, who were +received without payment; and the Wekála Kusún, built by Násir’s +son-in-law, near the mosque of el-Hákim, where Syrian merchants +stored oil, and sesame, and soap, and preserves, and pistachio-nut, +almonds, syrups, and the like, every store-room being let by the +emír’s order at no more than five dirhems of silver, without +extortion, and no one being turned away. It was a busy place in +Makrízy’s time, very popular on account of its cheapness, full of +people and bales of goods, and noisy with the shouts of the +porters. There were 360 lodgings above the store-rooms, all +occupied, and 4000 people lived there. The Tatar devastation of +Syria ruined this khan too. Opposite the Zuweyla Gate stood the +fruit-market where the produce of the gardens round Cairo was sold; +it was roofed over, like most of the bazars in former days, to keep +off the rays of the sun, and the fruit, which smelt like the +gardens of Paradise, was tastefully arranged and decorated with +flowers and sweet herbs.<a id="FNanchor_79"></a><a href= +"#Footnote_79" class="fnanchor">[79]</a></p> + +<p>There were many more great buildings of this kind, the history +of which is related by the laborious Topographer, whose +descriptions enable us almost to reconstruct in imagination the +city of the fifteenth century. Cairo was a sumptuous and beautiful +place in those days. The old mamlúk palaces—of which we have but +relics in the huge blank walls of Beshták’s palace, the fine +gateway of Yeshbek’s <em>dar</em> next to Sultan Hasan’s mosque, +and the better preserved mansions of Káit-Bey and of the emír Mamáy +(known as<span class="pagenum" id="Page_271">[271]</span> the +Beyt-el-kady)—were then in their full glory. The various quarters +were still separated by their strong gates barred at night. The +súks were shaded by matting or wooden roofs, and the +lattice-windows with their delicate tracery overhung the streets. +Makrízy enumerates and describes 37 <em>Háras</em> or quarters, 30 +districts (<em>khutt</em>), 65 streets (<em>darb</em>), 21 +by-streets and alleys (<em>zukák</em> and <em>khawkha</em>), 49 +squares or <em>places</em> (<em>rahba</em>), 50 markets +(<em>suk</em>), 23 great markets (<em>kaysaríya</em>), 11 +hostelries (<em>khan, funduk, wekála</em>), 55 famous palaces and +mansions (<em>kasr, dar</em>), 44 public baths (<em>hammám</em>), +28 closes and gardens (<em>hakar, bustán</em>), 11 racecourses +(<em>meydán</em>), and numerous pleasure-houses or belvederes +(<em>manzara</em>).</p> + +<p>Many of the streets still run in their old places, and some of +their names survive, such as the Salíba or cross-ways, +Beyn-el-Kasreyn, Beyn-es-Sureyn, Harat Bargawán, Suk-es-Siláh, +Khan-el-Khalíly, Darb-el-Asfar, Habbaníya, Khurunfísh. The old +quarters of Cairo have changed much less than the old parts of +London; but the reason is melancholy. London has changed because it +has grown; Cairo remained comparatively unaltered because it was +slowly decaying. The loss of much of the Indian trade, the +dependence upon Turkey, the misrule of pashas and mamlúk beys, all +tended to reduce the prosperity of the city which had flourished +exceedingly under the Turkish and Circassian sultans.</p> + +<p>With decline of trade came decline in the arts. There is still a +little good work made in Cairo in brass chasing, jewellery, and +silk weaving, but it is a poor relic of what once went on there. +One has only to visit the Arab Museum to realize what magnificent +work the artists of Cairo produced in the mamlúk period. The arts +were closely related to the mosques, which attained their greatest +perfection of ornament in<span class="pagenum" id= +"Page_272">[272]</span> the same period, and the chief objects in +the museum were once parts of the decoration or furniture of the +mosques. The beautiful inlaid and chased silver and brass tables, +with delicate designs in open tracery, Koran cases, lamps and +chandeliers, bowls, censers, candlesticks, enamelled glass lamps +with inscriptions in blue picked out with carmine and gold, +generally came from mosques and centre round the fourteenth +century. The carved panels inlaid with ivory and ebony and choice +woods once enriched the doors and pulpits of the mosques, and the +cast bronze bosses and cut brass filigree work belong chiefly to +the same period. There are many admirable examples of these arts in +the South Kensington Museum, and the British Museum possesses an +unsurpassed collection of Saracenic metal work. There is unhappily +no “Market of the Inlayers” now at Cairo, as there was in Makrízy’s +time. This silver and gold inlay of arabesques and inscriptions on +a brass base was one of the most elaborate and characteristic of +Saracenic arts. It was not Egyptian in origin, but derived from the +old Sasanian silversmiths of Mesopotamia. The oldest specimens we +know came from Mosil on the Tigris, which was a famous home of +metal-workers, within reach of the mines of the Taurus country. No +doubt these Mosil smiths were attracted to Cairo in the flourishing +days of the mamlúk sultans, or even earlier. At least it is certain +that some of their finest work was done for the Egyptian market, +and even bears the names of well-known Cairene rulers and emírs. +There is the casket, for example, engraved with the name and titles +of el-‘Adil II, Saladin’s grand-nephew, who sat on the throne of +Egypt from 1238 to 1240, and was succeeded by es-Sálih, the husband +of “Spray of Pearls.” It is in the Mosil style of the earliest +period; the sides are ornamented with dotted +eight-foils<span class="pagenum" id="Page_273">[273]</span> +(exactly resembling the ornament on the silver coins of the family +of Saladin) containing hunting scenes, a combat with a lion, a +horseman with falcon on wrist (which is covered with the falconer’s +glove), etc.; the intervening ground is decorated with fine +arabesques, and an inscription on the bevel of the lid gives the +name and titles of the sultan. On the top are personifications of +the six planets (of Arabian science) surrounding the sun (the +seventh):—the Moon, a seated figure holding a crescent; Mercury, +with his writing materials; Venus, a woman playing on the lyre; +Mars, a warrior brandishing a sword and holding a bleeding head; +Jupiter, a throned judge; and Saturn, patron of thieves, with his +bludgeon and purse. Outside these is a band of the twelve signs of +the Zodiac, represented much in the usual manner. On the bottom of +the box is an inscription stating that it was made “for the royal +wardrobe of el-‘Adil.”</p> + +<p>The hunting-scenes and representations of human figures and +animals are characteristic of Mesopotamian silver work, and we see +medallions of two-headed eagles on a splendid inlaid perfume-burner +in the British Museum, “made,” as the silver letters inform us, “by +order of his excellency, the generous, the exalted lord, the great +emír, the honourable master, marshal, warrior for the faith, warden +of Islám, mighty, heaven-supported, victorious, Full Moon of the +Faith Beysary, mamlúk of ez-Záhir (Beybars),” etc. The date must be +before 1279, and the vessel carries us back to the days of Kalaún +and the beginning of mamlúk splendour. Beysary was one of the +greatest and most sumptuous of the early mamlúk emírs, and his +perfume burner was typical of the luxurious refinements of his +palace. He valued his comfort more than ambition, and twice refused +the precarious honour of the throne during the unsettled period +succeeding<span class="pagenum" id="Page_274">[274]</span> Kalaún’s +death, when the sultanate was open to the strongest emír. Even so +he could not escape the consequences of being wealthy and +distinguished, and in spite of his retiring character he was +suspected of pretensions to power, fleeced of his treasures, and +often confined to the dungeons of the Citadel. His palace, which +stood in Beyn-el-Kasreyn, covered four acres, and possessed the +richest mosaics and the handsomest carved doors in Cairo. +Bedr-ed-din Beysary was indeed the most sumptuous man of his time. +He loved to surround himself with beautiful things, and his slave +body-guard was the best appointed of the day. No fortune could +support his lavish extravagance. He not only spent upon himself, +but gave prodigally to all who asked him. Hospitality was his +foible, and his gifts to the poor ran in round sums of five hundred +or a thousand dirhems (say francs) to each applicant. He would +daily distribute three thousand pounds of meat, and a single +present consisted of a thousand pieces of gold, five thousand +bushels of corn, and a thousand hundredweight of honey. One of his +mamlúks used every day to draw ninety pounds of meat and seventy +rations of barley, which it is to be presumed neither he nor his +horses could possibly digest. Naturally Beysary was perpetually in +debt. The constant amount of his liabilities is placed at 400,000 +dirhems, for as soon as one debt was paid off, the generous soul +hastened to contract another of the same figure. A considerable +part of his expenditure must have gone in table equipage, for it is +recorded that he never drank twice out of the same cup; and as +Makrízy mentions that at one time this thirteenth century epicure +was wholly given over to wine and hazard, the number of cups +required must have been considerable. But a great and cultivated +emír needed more than cups for his comfort: he must<span class= +"pagenum" id="Page_277">[277]</span> have inlaid tables on which to +put the broad brass tray incrusted with chased silver and gold, +which carried his service of the forbidden fruit of the grape; he +must have his beautiful hall lighted by candles placed in elaborate +stands, covered with silver inlay; his very tubs and cooking-pots +must be chased with arabesques and complicated designs, and his +palace must be perfumed with incense rising from perfume-burners on +which the artist had engraved representations of horsemen at the +chase, hounds and quarry, falcons and waterfowl, and all the +decorative subjects of the Saracen silversmith.</p> + +<div class="figcenterplate iw5"> +<figure id="i29"><a href="images/i29_large.jpg"><img src= +'images/i29.jpg' alt=''></a> +<p class="cp2">IN THE DARB-EL-AHMAR</p> +</figure> +</div> + +<p>The earliest and finest examples of metal work connected with +the names of Cairo kings and nobles are of Mosil origin, though +very probably made in Cairo in the “Market of the Inlayers” by +artists who had been attracted to the court. There was undoubtedly +an early Fátimid art of a similar character, but beyond a very few +rare examples, such as the Bayeux casket at Paris and some +specimens of cut crystal at Venice, we know almost nothing of its +style. Under the mamlúk sultans, however, Cairo soon acquired a +school of her own, which seems to have possessed traditions coming +from a different source than that of Mosil. The Cairo style is what +we see on the numerous trays, bowls, cups, censers, and other +vessels of the mamlúks of Egypt of the fourteenth and fifteenth +centuries, preserved in our museums and private collections. Some +points of resemblance to the Mosil work may be noticed, but the new +elements are very distinct. The figures of horsemen and seated +princes have for the most part disappeared, as it was natural they +should when the Turkish princes became habituated to the +puritanical prescriptions of Islám concerning the treatment of +living things in art; but borders representing beasts of the chase, +and a ground covered with<span class="pagenum" id= +"Page_278">[278]</span> wild duck and other fowl, still remain. The +prevalence of the duck, which was easily explicable in the swamps +of Mesopotamia, finds another <em>raison d’être</em> in Egypt, for +the founder of the line of sultans who ruled in Cairo for nearly a +century was a Turk of Kipchak, whose name, Kalaún, means in his +native Mongol tongue “duck.” We may compare Abbot Islip’s plastic +puns on his own name in his chapel in Westminster Abbey. The +ornament of the mamlúk metalwork is essentially different in style +from that of Mosil. The inscriptions are arranged in broad bands, +with large surfaces of silver inlay, divided by medallions filled +with the sultan’s name on a fess, or else by some heraldic coat of +arms borne by the owner, among which the cup and polo-stick +(indicating the court offices of cup-bearer and polo-master), the +lozenge, and a curious imitation of a hieroglyphic inscription +common on the ancient monuments of Egypt, but doubtless +unintelligible to the copyists, are the most usual. Round the +medallions are belts of flowers and leaves, reminding one of the +designs of Damascus tiles; and similar leaves and flowers, +interspersed with birds, cover the ground. The execution is no less +admirable than the design. There was no scamped work among these +Saracen smiths. They cut away the whole design in the brass, and +undercut the edges to hold the thin plates of silver or gold, to be +hammered and burnished in, which formed the design; and they chased +with the graver every plate of silver, were it only a pin’s head in +size, with wings or eyes or floral scrolls—a work of infinite +labour; and then they covered the interstices, where the brass +showed, with a black bituminous composition which set off the +precious metal to advantage. Much of the silver and coating has +been lost by wear and time, and it is difficult to realize the +beauty of the original state of<span class="pagenum" id= +"Page_279">[279]</span> most of the vessels and trays that have +come down to us; but a careful examination only reveals more fully +the exquisite skill, care, and fine honest workmanship that no time +or injury can destroy.</p> + +<p>This art of silver inlay, like architecture and wood and ivory +carving and every other variety of æsthetic expression, culminated +in the wonderful efflorescence of art and culture in the reign of +en-Násir, Kalaún’s son, in the first half of the fourteenth +century. Whenever in any museum we see a fine specimen of +metalwork, we may be almost sure to find the name of a Násiry +emír—that is a courtier or mamlúk of en-Násir—in its inscription, +and sometimes even the name of the sultan himself.</p> + +<p>The Topographer tells us that in his day, in the early part of +the fifteenth century, this beautiful art had fallen into +disrepute. It used, he says, to be a favourite taste, and “we have +seen inlaid work (<em>keft</em>) in such quantities that it could +not be counted; there was hardly a house in Cairo or Misr that had +not many pieces of inlaid copper,”—he means brass. A stand of +inlaid bowls and plates ranged on a frame of carved wood and ivory +was a usual part of a bride’s trousseau, and cost as much as two +hundred dinárs. But, he adds, “the art is now lacking in Misr; . . +. the demand for this inlaid copper-work has fallen off in our +times, and since many years the people have turned away from buying +what was to be sold of it, so that but a small remnant of the +workers of inlay subsists in this market.”<a id= +"FNanchor_80"></a><a href="#Footnote_80" class= +"fnanchor">[80]</a></p> + +<p>The art was not dead, however; it had merely passed on +elsewhere. The heritage which Cairo received from Mosil was +bequeathed to Venice. We have seen that the Venetians were the +European agents of the Egyptian merchants, and it is not too +much<span class="pagenum" id="Page_280">[280]</span> to say that +Venice was half an oriental city. Italy was full of Eastern +influences. We know that a twelfth century poet lamented that Pisa +was “delivered over to Moors, Indians and Turks”; that there was a +via Sarracena at Ferrara, and Lucera was deeply tinged with Muslim +traditions, dating from Frederick II’s importation of Saracen +archers. But Venice felt this influence most of all. Her commerce +and colonies brought her merchants into relations with the artistic +work of the East; her ambassadors brought home the splendid gifts +of the mamlúk sultans; and she soon began to import the artists as +well as the art. The <em>opus Salomonis</em> or Jews’ work was the +name given to this Saracenic style, often referred to in early +romances. Chaucer had heard of it, for he writes in Sir +Thopas:—</p> + +<div class="linegrp-container"> +<div class="linegrp"> +<div class="group"> +<div class="line indent0">“And over that a fyn hawberk</div> + +<div class="line indent0"> Was all i-wrought of jewes +work.”</div> +</div> +</div> +</div> + +<p class="nind">Especially did Venice excel in the chasing of great +salvers in the Saracenic manner, though with considerable +differences both in design and in technique. The silver is applied +chiefly in narrow threads instead of broad plates, and the designs +are chiefly arabesque, whilst the forms of the vessels show marked +improvement upon the somewhat crude outlines of the Cairo +silversmith. Native Italian artists began to copy the art +introduced by Mahmúd the Kurd and his Saracen comrades. They called +themselves Azzimine, <em>i.e.</em> workers in the Persian style +<em>all’ Agemina</em>—for it has long been the fashion to miscall +every form of Saracenic art Persian—and we read of Italian artists, +such as Giorgio Ghisi Azzimina of Mantua, and Paulus Ageminius, who +excelled in the art which had been imported from Egypt.</p> + +<p>We have singled out the silver-inlay from among<span class= +"pagenum" id="Page_281">[281]</span> the arts of mediæval Cairo +because it is a branch in which the development can be traced with +certainty by a series of dated examples. But the chief decorative +arts of the mosque builders were wood-carving and marble mosaic. +The beautiful panelled work of mosque pulpits and doors, originally +suggested, no doubt, by the necessity of small surfaces in a hot +climate where warping had to be prevented, are among the most +characteristic forms of Cairo ornament; and the use of variegated +marbles in the mihrábs of the mosques produces a rich (if sometimes +rather glaring) effect, which was imitated in the dados of the +houses of the nobles, now unhappily for the most part destroyed. +The extensive use of wood in Cairo architecture is the more +remarkable when it is considered how little suitable wood grows in +Egypt. On the other hand the dry climate, though it warps, +preserves timber for centuries. The original wooden ties of the +pillars of Ibn-Tulún’s mosque have stood for more than a thousand +years and are still sound, and a portion even of the ceiling of the +arcades has been preserved. This wooden ceiling shows that in the +ninth century the same method was used as is seen in all periods of +Saracenic art previous to the introduction of European styles. It +consists of joists of palm trunks sawn in two, with the three +exposed sides faced with planks to square the outline. The hollows +between the squared joists were divided by cross pieces into +shallow compartments or “coffers.” In private houses the joists +were often left uncovered in their natural half-round shape. +Whether planked or left in the round, the joists and the coffers +between were coated with plaster, generally laid on canvas, and the +plaster was painted with arabesques in deep blue, carmine, and +gold. These coffered ceilings, which may still be seen in many +houses, have a wonderfully rich effect with their deep tones of red +and blue,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_282">[282]</span> lighted +up by gold outlines; and the transition from the ceiling to the +walls is skilfully masked by arching and stalactite pendentives, +richly painted with similar designs. Inferior to the coffered +ceilings, but still very effective, are those composed of boards +nailed flat across the joists and covered with a thin coating of +stucco, worked into arabesque and floral patterns, and then painted +and gilt; or with a geometrical design formed by appliqué strips of +wood, gilt shaded with red, the interstices being filled with +arabesques in painted stucco.</p> + +<p>Wood-carving had ample opportunities for display in the pulpits, +Korán desks, interior doors and cupboards of mosques. Some of the +oldest examples, from the mosques of Ibn-Tulún and el-Hákim, may be +seen in the Arab Museum at Cairo, and the deep volutes carved in +the panels are clearly of Byzantine origin, resembling the still +earlier but undated panels found in the tract of ‘Ayn-es-Síra, +south of Cairo. In the thirteenth century the style alters. Instead +of the bold foliate designs we find more intricate and delicate +ornament distributed in much smaller geometrical panels. A +peculiarly beautiful example is the Sheykh’s tomb-casing of 1216, +of which one side is in the Museum at South Kensington, and the +other three in the Arab Museum. Another is the carved casing of the +tomb of es-Sálih Ayyúb (1249):—“the little panels are formed into +hexagonal stars and delicately carved, and here appears the +representation of fruit-stalks, which is a common feature in +thirteenth century wood-carving. The mihráb or prayer niche from +the chapel of Seyyida Rukeyya, which belongs probably to the same +century, deserves special notice for its characteristic +ornamentation of stems branching out of a vase.”<a id= +"FNanchor_81"></a><a href="#Footnote_81" class="fnanchor">[81]</a> +But it was under the Mamlúk Sultans, and especially in the +great<span class="pagenum" id="Page_283">[283]</span> period of +en-Násir that wood-carving attained its most exquisite development. +Woods of different colours were employed to produce the effect of +relief, and inlay was largely adopted in place of carving in the +solid block. Sometimes each little carved panel was set in a frame +of ebony beading, which was itself carved, and often consisted of +two or three distinct frames, one outside the other; whilst the +central design was hardly ever the same in two panels out of many +hundreds. The amount of careful work demanded in carving and +putting together a large surface of this intricate panelling must +have been immense. Many beautiful examples may be seen in the +mosques, and even finer are the carved doors in wood and ivory +panelling in the Coptic churches of Babylon, from which there can +be little doubt that the Muslims learnt the art; but to see Mamlúk +carving at its best one need not leave London. A large number of +the very finest specimens were taken away from their lawful +guardians during the reign of the Khedive Isma‘íl, and even +earlier, and have found their way to the Museum at South +Kensington. There we may study at leisure some of the rich yet not +over-elaborate arabesque carvings abstracted from the pulpit set up +in the mosque of Ibn-Tulún by Lagín in 1296; others of +extraordinary beauty from the mosque of el-Maridány, 1339, absurdly +set in the top of a French table; others, probably from the pulpit +of the mosque of Kusún, also set in coarse modern framework, but +preserving all the delicate grace of the arabesque carvings +absolutely intact; and finally the complete pulpit bearing the +inscription of Káit-Bey, but from what mosque is not known. The +whole forms a singularly rich and beautiful exhibition of Saracenic +wood-carving of the best period.<a id="FNanchor_82"></a><a href= +"#Footnote_82" class="fnanchor">[82]</a></p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_284">[284]</span>There are +differences and even decadence in the series, however, and a +careful study of the designs will show that the art reached its +highest point in the carvings of el-Maridány, <em>i.e.</em> +immediately after the reign of en-Násir. Sheykhú’s pulpit of 1358 +is not so good; Sultan Hasan’s is of stone; el-Muáyyad’s of 1420 is +distinctly inferior; and even Káit-Bey’s, prince though he was of +Cairo builders, is not to be compared with the work of the middle +of the fourteenth century. The designs have become less +spontaneous, the lines are harder and more mechanical, and (as in +stone carving) there is a tendency to repetition utterly foreign to +the earlier work. Part of this may be explained by the introduction +of ivory as the material for the inlaid panels, for ivory, though +capable of even more delicate carving, is less easy to work in +flowing lines. But the main cause was probably the preponderating +attention given to carving in stone. No sooner does stone become +the predominant material for decoration than wood-carving, like +stucco-tooling, falls into comparative neglect. The middle of the +fourteenth century was the parting of the ways. Stone became the +favourite material, and the carvers of wood, if they did not lay +aside the graver for the stone-chisel, at least moulded their style +upon the harder outlines of the sculptors, and the result was +deterioration.</p> + +<p>If wood-carving decayed after the middle of the fourteenth +century, another branch of woodwork was notably developed. One +charming feature of the exterior of a Cairo house is the +<em>meshrebíya</em> of delicate turned tracery. There is no reason +to doubt that this kind of work is very old, but whether by reason +of its fragility or the frequent conflagrations that afflicted the +city, no ancient examples have been preserved. The few wooden +lattices that still remain in the older mosques are of quite a +different style: they are made<span class="pagenum" id= +"Page_285">[285]</span> of stout clumsy quarterings, divided into +compartments filled by square or round upright balusters, such as +are seen in the tomb of Kalaún. Others are mere grilles of large +open squares, with no pretension to artistic design. A finer kind +is seen in Lagín’s pulpit in the mosque of Ibn-Tulún (1296), where +the mesh is close and the knobs are inlaid and carved. It is +curious that the true meshrebíya, with its varied designs and +lace-like effect, first appears in the screen of the sanctuary in +the mosque of el-Maridány, which also shows the highest development +of wood-carving. As the one art decayed, the other improved. There +are fine examples of meshrebíya work of the early part of the +fifteenth century, as in the pulpit of el-Muáyyad, but it attained +its greatest perfection in the age of Káit-Bey, of which a fine +specimen is preserved in the pulpit of Abu-Bekr ibn Muzhir. Most of +the house meshrebíyas are comparatively modern, though it is +impossible to fix their precise date. Their inevitable +disappearance is an æsthetic loss that nothing can replace; but it +must be admitted that they formed the most dangerous conductors of +fire from house to house and street to street that the ingenuity of +man could well devise.</p> + +<p>There is this to be said about every branch of artistic work of +mediæval Cairo, whether it be architecture, carving in wood or +stone, metal chasing, or glass—it is always distinctively original. +The Saracens brought no art with them; indeed they appear to have +been singularly lacking in the æsthetic sense. They learned their +arts from their foreign subjects, yet they invariably introduced an +element of differentiation which marks their work as +characteristically Saracenic. They learned their metal chasing from +Persia, but they soon made it their own; they copied Byzantine and +Coptic wood-carving, and added the essential personal +equation<span class="pagenum" id="Page_286">[286]</span> which +constitutes a distinct art; they found glass making and blowing in +Egypt, acquired the secrets of enamelling and gilding from +Constantinople, and then produced a style of enamelled lamps +totally unlike any other in the world. It is not only a variation +in design or shape that makes the difference: the whole character +of the work, in every branch of Saracenic art, is distinct and +absolutely <em>sui generis</em>. They were not only wonderful +assimilators, they also had the genius of development on original +lines. Perhaps the strangest part of the matter is that the highest +development was achieved in the troubled times of singularly +uncultivated and sanguinary foreign masters. Yet the age of the +Mamlúk Sultans was the Saturnian age of Mohammedan Egypt in art and +also in literature. For it must not be forgotten that some of the +greatest names in Muslim theology, jurisprudence, criticism, and +history were associated as kádis or professors with the mosques and +medresas of Cairo, and that the mamlúk period produced or +encouraged such writers as Ibn-Khaldún, Nuweyry, Ibn-Dukmák, +Makrízy, Ibn-Hagar, el-‘Ayny, Ibn-‘Arab-shah, Abu-l-Mahásin, +es-Suyúty, and Ibn-Iyás, who either were born in Egypt, or, like +Abu-l-Fida, spent many years in Cairo. The fifteenth century was +perhaps the most prolific period in Egyptian literature, and this +activity was more than rivalled in the neighbouring province of +Syria under the same sultans.</p> + +<hr class="chap"> + +<h2><span class="pagenum" id="Page_287">[287]</span><a id= +"c09"></a>CHAPTER IX</h2> + +<p class="sch1"><em>Beys and Pashas</em> +</p> + +<p class="dcap">NO one has had the heart to write the history of +Egypt during the three centuries of its subjection to the Sultans +of Turkey, from its conquest by Selím the Grim in 1516 to Mohammad +‘Aly’s foundation of a virtually independent dynasty in 1805. The +annals of this period are monotonous, and the great figures of the +earlier mamlúk period are wanting. The whole action seems to be +played upon a smaller stage by inferior performers. The incentives +to public spirit supplied by foreign wars were withdrawn from a +merely provincial government, and the profuse expenditure and +sumptuous luxury of a sovereign court no longer stimulated art and +handicrafts or quickened the emulation of the emírs. The cramping +influence of dependence and the grasping fiscal policy of the +Ottoman empire destroyed much of the old magnificence of the +mamlúks. Yet there was no such vivid contrast between Cairo under +the pashas and the city that Makrízy describes as has sometimes +been imagined. Everything in the East changes by almost +imperceptible degrees, and the mills of God in Egypt grind with the +tedious slowness of the creaking sákiyas of the country. +Deterioration there was, but it came very gradually. The emírs were +still the dominant power, and the chief difference was that instead +of a sultan elected by themselves they had over them a pasha +appointed<span class="pagenum" id="Page_288">[288]</span> by the +Sublime Porte. The pasha’s authority was checked by a council of +mamlúk emírs—or beys, as they came to be called—and he was +frequently deposed by them or by the intrigues of the mutinous +soldiery. Though a pasha might arrive with a suite of twelve +hundred persons, and scatter handkerchiefs full of gold coins on +festal occasions, he could seldom make head against the military +oligarchy. The chief mamlúk, or sheykh-el-beled (mayor of the city) +as he was entitled, was a far more powerful personage than the +pasha. The emírs were much what they had been under the Circassian +dynasty: they were not the same men, because Selím had massacred as +many as he could catch, but they were similar—Turks, Georgians, +Circassians, risen from slavery to office and rank,—and they +maintained great state in their palaces beside the Ezbekíya lake or +on the Birket-el-Fil, in the Crossway, or the Street of Arms; were +followed by large bands of retainers, and carried on their +jealousies, civil wars, and street fights with as much fervour as +before. A new element of discord was introduced by the Turkish +battalions of ‘Azabs and Janizaries in the Citadel barracks, and +the commanders of these troops became the most powerful emírs in +Egypt. But these too were of precisely the same character as the +earlier mamlúks, and save for the absence of a controlling +influence such as a strong sultan sometimes exerted, but a +delegated pasha almost never, there was little to choose between +the state of Cairo under the new régime and its anarchic condition +under the impotent direction of most of the later Circassian +kings.</p> + +<p>Egypt in fact was still ruled by mamlúks. Its pashas were +perpetually changed, and lived in terror of their own garrison; the +emírs held the real power, and used it in the old way for their own +benefit and for the ruin by exile or execution of their rivals. +They<span class="pagenum" id="Page_289">[289]</span> formed +themselves into powerful cliques, such as the Kásimis and the +Fikáris, and their retainers fought each other in the streets, and +besieged the government ‘Azab troops for months together. They had +already discovered that the Citadel could be commanded by artillery +on the hill behind. We read in Gabárty’s chronicle of bands of +troops fortifying themselves in the mosques of Ibn-Tulún, Almás, +Mahmudíya, and so forth, and discharging cannon balls from the +adjacent minarets. The anarchy at times was indescribable; streets +were deserted, houses plundered, and no man dared to go as far as +Bulák or Old Misr; then followed an interval of tranquillity +assured by the temporary supremacy of some great lord. It is +difficult to discover any very notable distinction between these +later emírs and those of the golden age of mamlúk civilization. +Their opportunities were less, because they could no longer carry +on wars in Syria or Asia Minor in their own behoof, for the +contingents that were constantly drafted in Egypt for foreign +service were merely employed as an insignificant part of the +Ottoman armies. But their characters, occupations, and tastes +appear to have been much what they had been for the preceding two +centuries. There was a difference in degree but not in kind: they +were not as a rule such big men with large opportunities as their +forerunners, but in race, in character, in action, they were the +same.</p> + +<p>Indeed some of them were remarkable personages fit to compare +with those of the old school. ‘Othmán Bey Dhu-l-fikár, for example, +in the first half of the eighteenth century,—after playing a bold +part in the faction fight that centred round his patron Dhu-l-fikár +Bey and Cherkes Bey, and seeing eleven emírs of rank done to death +in the palace of the Defterdár, himself narrowly escaping with a +sabre-cut in his turban,—became<span class="pagenum" id= +"Page_290">[290]</span> the most eminent noble in Cairo, with power +to raise his own mamlúks to the rank of emír. He was chief of the +pilgrimage (emír-el-hagg), one of the most coveted posts in Egypt, +in 1739; and when ‘Aly el-Gelfy the deputy<a id= +"FNanchor_83"></a><a href="#Footnote_83" class="fnanchor">[83]</a> +was assassinated, ‘Othmán Bey deposed the pasha and appointed +Rudwán to be deputy over the ‘Azab battalions. ‘Othmán was the +first emír who ventured to invite the pasha of Egypt to a feast in +his palace, and the other nobles were completely subject to him. He +held a court in his own house to decide causes of complaint, and, +incorruptible himself, he severely punished any cases of extortion +or oppression that came before him, watched the market-inspector +closely, prescribed a fixed tariff for bread and other necessaries +of life, and insisted on the due payment of pious benefactions to +their proper uses. Lofty in character, of noble ideas and thoughts, +just, able, disinterested, of honest life, and proud as Lucifer, he +left such an impression behind him, when the intrigues of his +rivals banished him from Egypt, that he created an era: one heard +people say, “such a thing happened so many years after the +departure of ‘Othmán Bey,” or “I was such and such an age when +‘Othmán Bey left.”</p> + +<p>Rudwán el-Gelfy, just referred to, was another notable figure of +the eighteenth century. Whilst he and another deputy, Ibrahím, held +office, the country enjoyed absolute peace, food was cheaper than +was ever known before, and plenty reigned in all classes. In those +days every great man kept open house twice a day, noon and evening, +in a spacious hall to which all might enter. The lord and his +guests sat at the head<span class="pagenum" id= +"Page_291">[291]</span> of the table, and his mamlúks and followers +lower down, as it were “below the salt,” and it was held +disgraceful to refuse admission to any stranger who presented +himself. On feast days great dishes of rice and honey or milk were +distributed to the poor, and sweetmeats were served on Fridays and +festivals. One of Rudwán’s houses was on the Ezbekíya, on the +border of the lake (as it then was, at least at high Nile). Its +halls were surmounted by cunningly designed domes, in which gold +arabesques on a blue ground harmonized with stained glass of many +colours in charming combination. He built kiosks in a garden beside +the canal, where he had laid out a lake and cascade, and there, +when his ambition was satisfied, he took his pleasure, which +savoured, it must be confessed, of debauch. Indeed Rudwán was no +stern moralist, like ‘Othmán Bey, but allowed a considerable +licence to the fair ladies of Cairo. The police had his orders not +to disturb them or baulk their admirers,<a id= +"FNanchor_84"></a><a href="#Footnote_84" class="fnanchor">[84]</a> +and “Cairo then resembled a land of gazelles, a paradise of houris +and darlings; its inhabitants drank their fill in the cup of +delight, as though there were no reckoning to be paid on the day of +judgment.” No wonder that poets sang his praises in such verses as +“the Impurpled Wine” and “the Perfume of Paradise.” Rudwán’s palace +is no more to be seen in the Ezbekíya, but his gate, the +Bab-el-‘Azab, leading into the Citadel from the Rumeyla, preserves +his memory. His end was tragic. Conspirators surrounded his house +in the street of Kusún, and bullets began to pour in whilst he was +engaged in the meditative process of having his head shaved. He +fought while he had strength, and then, with a broken leg, +struggled on horseback and fled to die in upper Egypt. He was the +last great commander of the ‘Azabs.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_292">[292]</span>It was not only +the emírs who owned such splendid houses as Rudwán. Another house +on the Ezbekíya belonged to a famous merchant, Ahmad esh-Sharáiby +(the apothecary), whose family had produced emírs and owned +mamlúks. They possessed immense wealth, and they used it as +high-minded, honest gentlefolk. Learned men frequented their house, +which was full of rare manuscripts as well as ordinary works of +reference. Whatever book was in the market, if it was not in their +library they bought it regardless of the price; and once there it +was immediately placed at the disposal of every visitor. A scholar +was sure to find any book he required in the Sharáiby library, and +he was at liberty to carry it off on loan, or even to keep it +altogether; for the princely merchants would never think of asking +its return, but would merely seek out and buy another copy. From +the scholar’s point of view it seems impossible to improve upon +this system. The members of this family were more than enlightened +book collectors and book lenders: they were strict observers of the +austere rule of the Málikis, tenacious of sound morals, and +exclusive in their connexions. They married only among their own +large family circle, and their daughters never left the house +except when they were married or borne to their grave. It was well +to be cautious in days when the luxurious Rudwán was encouraging +amatory adventures, and when a party of high-born dames, riding out +to “smell the air,” as Cairo ladies do now, at the proper season, +were set upon near the Ezbekíya and stripped of their jewels and +every garment they had on. But the Sharáiby folk, though strict, +could unbend. When marriage feasts were afoot, for example, they +gave splendid entertainments, but so careful were they of their +daughters that they waited till all the guests were<span class= +"pagenum" id="Page_295">[295]</span> safely engaged in prayer at +the mosque of Ezbek<a id="FNanchor_85"></a><a href="#Footnote_85" +class="fnanchor">[85]</a> opposite the house, and then hurried the +bride off to her husband’s abode under guard of a discreet body of +matrons: after which there was plenty of gunfiring and torch +waving, and all was merry.</p> + +<div class="figcenterplate iw5"> +<figure id="i30"><a href="images/i30_large.jpg"><img src= +'images/i30.jpg' alt=''></a> +<p class="cp2">STREET NEAR BAB-EL-KHARK</p> +</figure> +</div> + +<p>The family had the custom of appointing one of their number +trustee of all their property and business. It was his duty to +collect the rents, gather the harvest and crops, receive the +profits of their ventures, and pay all expenses, including the +family’s dress and pocket-money. At the end of the year he drew up +his balance sheet and paid each member his share. This excellent +plan was not likely to last for ever, and one is not surprised to +learn that at last the younger members quarrelled over the +accounts, and the joint-stock company broke up in disorder. This +was no doubt an exceptional family; but there were many of the +kind, and there are some yet in Cairo, sterling honest folk, who +walk in the old paths and guard a severe self-respect.</p> + +<p>The zeal for books displayed by this family casts an interesting +light upon the education and learning of the times. During the +earlier mamlúk days many important libraries had been formed in +Cairo, partly from the spoils of Syrian mosques, and if we are to +take as evidence the long biographies of numerous sheykhs, +professors, divines, historians, and poets, related with +enthusiastic admiration by el-Gabarty, there was a vast deal of +intellectual energy expended in Egypt in the seventeenth and +eighteenth centuries, though perhaps it was hardly in the first +rank of original genius. He reports a curious conversation, +however, in 1750, between Ahmad pasha, a governor of mathematical +tastes, and the sheykh ‘Abdallah esh-Shubrawy, of<span class= +"pagenum" id="Page_296">[296]</span> the Azhar. The pasha remarked +that he had continually heard of the wonderful merits of Egypt as +the home of learning, but he would like to see the results. “True, +O my master,” replied the sheykh, “Egypt is as you have heard, the +mine of sciences and knowledge.” “But where are they?” asked the +pasha. “As far as I can see, you know nothing but law and +metaphysic and other less important studies, and disdain practical +science altogether.” The sheykh had to admit that at the Azhar they +did not teach mathematics, beyond arithmetic, which was useful for +the law of inheritance. “How about astronomy?” suggested the pasha. +“It is needed for the hours of prayer, times of fast, and many +other things.” The sheykh admitted that few studied astronomy, +which demanded special aptitudes, and instruments, and +physiological conditions, and a “sweet and tranquil disposition,” +for its proper pursuit; but he said he could find the man whom the +pasha wanted, though not in the Azhar. When the man appeared, it +seems his arithmetical problems delighted the governor, who gave +him a fur cloak, which the sage afterwards sold for 800 dinars. He +drew beautiful sun-dials, on marble, to show the hours of prayer, +with appropriate mottoes, and two of these were set up in the Azhar +and on the roof of the mosque of the Imám esh-Sháfi‘y.<a id= +"FNanchor_86"></a><a href="#Footnote_86" class="fnanchor">[86]</a> +One gathers from this anecdote, as well as from the lists of works +described by the historian, that study in Cairo at that time was +rather zealous than profound, and that learning was decidedly in +its decadence.</p> + +<p>Religion, on the other hand, was more powerful<span class= +"pagenum" id="Page_297">[297]</span> than ever. The annals of the +pashalik are full of references to the influence of the Azhar +professors and of the seyyids, and we hear of something very near a +revolution when a Turkish preacher got up in the mosque of +el-Muáyyad and fulminated against the invocation of saints, a +popular accretion which is certainly no part of the creed of +Mohammad. The preacher urged the crowd to demolish the cupolas over +the saints’ tombs, and the orthodox professors of divinity had much +trouble to silence him and appease the crowd. There was often a +very severe regulation of public behaviour in deference to +religious notions, and we find, for example, a stern prohibition of +smoking in the streets. Police marched up and down three times a +day, and if any smoker was caught he had to eat his pipe-bowl. An +old custom, mentioned by Násir-i-Khusrau (above, <a href= +"#Page_109">p. 109</a>), was still in force: a man who had +falsified documents was paraded on camelback through the streets, +whilst a crier proclaimed, “Behold the punishment of forgers!” The +Cairenes were clearly very superstitious, and when in 1735 a +circumstantial rumour went round that the Resurrection would +certainly take place on the next Friday, in two days’ time, they +bade each other last farewells, and wandered about the fields and +roads saying good-bye to the land they loved, whilst the people of +Giza, moved by a superstition which ran in their minds from ages +long before Islám was discovered, bathed hysterically in the Nile, +both men and women. There was nothing but panic and repentance and +prayer till Saturday—when behold! nothing had happened.</p> + +<p>An age that attached so much importance to religion was not +likely to neglect its shrines. It is a mistake to ascribe the ruin +of so many of the mosques of Cairo to the period of the Turkish +pashas. On the contrary, the danger was that they might be +“restored” out of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_298">[298]</span> +all knowledge. Cairo is full of “Turkish” mosques, that is Turkish +of the Othmanly style, which, if they cannot compare with the +buildings of the earlier mamlúks, are nevertheless very creditable +examples of their kind, and far superior to anything built, say, in +England, during the past century. Indeed the mosques of Seyyida +Safíya (1604) and of Mohammad Abu-dh-Dhahab (1774), are exceedingly +noble buildings, and that little gem of Turkish mosaic work, +el-Burdeyny, is beautiful in its own way. The architects of the +Ottoman period abandoned the medresa style introduced by Saladin, +which, as we have seen, had lost much of its original cruciform +plan when the medresas were used as congregational mosques under +the Circassian Mamlúks; but, whilst reverting to the older and +simpler plan of the gámi‘, they modified it by substituting cupolas +of Byzantine form for the level ceilings which formerly covered the +sanctuary. In fact, the Ottoman mosque is practically a basilica. A +special feature of the mosques and restorations of the Othmanly +period is the introduction of faïence. The medresa of Aksunkur was +restored by Ibrahím Aga in 1652, and the whole east wall covered +with fine blue tiles, chiefly of the Damascus style, with a few +so-called Rhodian, probably from Constantinople. It was not often +that restoration proved so successful, and one has frequently to +deplore the patching of Turkish additions upon the old +masterpieces. Ahmad pasha restored the then dilapidated mosque of +el-Muayyad in 1690; another pasha built the Arba‘ín mosque by the +Karameydan Gate in 1704; Ahmad the deputy restored the Fátimid +mosque of ez-Záfir, known as el-Fakahány, in 1735.</p> + +<p>But the prince of restorers was ‘Abd-er-Rahmán Kiahya +(Ketkhuda), who enjoyed great influence before the time when ‘Aly +Bey—himself the restorer of the dome of the tomb-mosque of Imám +Sháfi‘y and builder<span class="pagenum" id="Page_299">[299]</span> +of the Bulák bazar—deposing the reigning pasha made himself king of +Egypt from 1768 to 1772. ‘Abd-er-Rahmán’s father, ‘Othmán Ketkhuda, +had architectural tastes. Out of his very ill-gotten gains he built +his mosque, school, and fountain by the Ezbekíya lake, and on the +day of opening filled the great central basin and all the ewers he +could collect with sherbet for the congregation. He also built the +school for the blind at the Azhar, and other benefactions. His son, +however, far surpassed him. Every tourist knows his little +<em>sebíl</em>—elegant like its founder, who was dainty in person +and dress, and very fair—at the end of Beyn-el-Kasreyn, with its +tiles, and open arched school above; but this was the least of his +works. He built a mosque outside the Bab-el-Futúh, and another by +the Bab-el-Ghureyyib, with a cistern, fountain, and school; a great +reservoir, with fountain and school, near the Ezbekíya cemetery, +for the sakkas or water-carriers; rebuilt the chapels of Seyyida +Zeyneb and Seyyida Sekína, and erected others near the Karáfa Gate, +in the Musky, in the Hoseyníya quarter, and in the ‘Abdín street, +etc. Of his restorations the best known is that of the Azhar, which +owes its present aspect largely to ‘Abd-er-Rahmán’s work. He put in +fifty marble columns supporting groins of faced stone covered with +costly woods; erected a new <em>mihráb</em> and pulpit, built the +two archways, one with a school for orphans above it, the other +with a minaret; set up a tomb in the court, added libraries, +reading-rooms, kitchens, and other apartments for the benefit of +students from Upper Egypt; enlarged the Taybarsíya and Akbughawíya +medresas attached to the Azhar, and built the splendid portal +between them, opposite the wekála of Káit-Bey; furnished +<em>riwáks</em> (or partitions) for students from Mekka and from +the Sudán; and settled rents in trust for the maintenance of +these<span class="pagenum" id="Page_300">[300]</span> benefactions, +besides giving every day in Ramadán to the Azhar kitchen a large +quantity of rice, butter, oil, and meal for the evening refreshment +of the students after the day’s fast. ‘Abd-er-Rahmán also restored +the mosque of the Imám Sháfi‘y, and paved the corridor with +variegated marbles; repaired the tomb of Seyyida Nefísa and the +Maristán of Kalaún (then a madhouse), but after pulling down the +dome he neglected to rebuild it, and merely boarded it over, and so +it remains to this day. He took great pains to trace the bequests +left by the founder and his successors to the hospital, and +succeeded in recovering the title-deeds and restoring the revenues. +By whatever means he acquired his wealth, and it was said the means +were not above suspicion, there was no end to this man’s charitable +acts. At winter time he distributed woollen clothes to crowds of +the blind, who always abound at Cairo, and also to the muezzins to +protect them from cold when chanting the nightly calls to prayer. +The poor clamoured about his door in the evenings of Ramadán, +waiting for the plates of food which were never refused, and after +the meal they went away happy with two loaves and two paras ready +for next day’s breakfast. Altogether, ‘Abd-er-Rahmán Kiahya built +or rebuilt eighteen mosques, besides chapels, fountains, schools, +bridges, and every sort of edifice. He had an architectural +passion, and fortunately excellent taste in its gratification, and +the people well named him “the great benefactor.” He died at Cairo +in 1776 at a great age, after twelve years’ exile in Arabia; for +all his charity could not protect him from the suspicions of ‘Aly +Bey. All the ‘ulema, professors, students, and poor of his numerous +benefactions, escorted his splendid funeral to the Azhar, where he +lies in the tomb which he had built near the south gate.</p> + +<p>The last great mosque built during the period of the<span class= +"pagenum" id="Page_301">[301]</span> pashalik was that of Mohammad +Bey, known as Abu-dh-Dhahab, or “father of gold,” from his +munificent way of scattering gold coins among the crowd. He was the +favourite and trusted mamlúk of the great ‘Aly Bey, and he rewarded +his patron by manœuvring his downfall and exile, and finally +accomplishing his death. He was a brilliant soldier, fought +successful campaigns in Arabia and Syria for his master, and +achieved extraordinary popularity by his delightful manners and +open hand. Egypt had peace whilst he held the reins of power, and +the Sublime Porte, whilst appointing pashas as before, wisely left +the real authority in the hands of the capable and popular emír. In +1774 Mohammad Bey founded his handsome <em>medresa</em> opposite +the Azhar, and there he lies in his tomb. It was built on the plan +of an earlier mosque at Bulák (the Senaníya), and was “a marvel of +architecture and richness: gilded ceilings, marble porticoes, and +stupendous dome, with bronze dormers admirably worked,” etc. There +were porticoes for the Hanafis, Málikis, and Sháfi‘is, and +celebrated doctors came to profess the law there, and, contrary to +the usual custom, received salaries, some as much as 150 paras a +day (you could sometimes buy a pound of meat for 2 paras), and none +less than 10 paras a day and an annual gift of 50 bushels of corn. +On the day of opening the great man clothed the divines with cloaks +of sables or white fur, according to their rank—a handsome form of +university hood.</p> + +<p>Mohammad Bey’s is the last of the great mosques of Cairo, with +the exception of Mohammad Aly’s sumptuous and very effective mosque +in the Citadel, where it forms a conspicuous feature in the view +from every side. This, however, is too obviously a foreign +importation, a child of Stambúl, to harmonize with the true Cairo +style, and, though it is perhaps a narrow<span class="pagenum" id= +"Page_302">[302]</span> prejudice, we confess we can never quite +reconcile ourselves to Ottoman architecture in the old mamlúk +city.</p> + +<p>Enough has been said to show that it was not during the rule of +pashas and beys that the mosques of Cairo suffered damage or +demolition. They were well cared for. Their evil day came when +Mohammad ‘Aly, a second but more successful ‘Aly Bey, made himself +master of Egypt and inaugurated a new régime, compared with which +the rule of the sternest of the mamlúks was mildness itself. It was +Mohammad ‘Aly, who, in 1808-1810, laid hands on the Wakfs or +religious endowments, which the piety of many centuries had placed +in trust for the maintenance of the mosques and colleges of Egypt, +and amidst the tears and curses of all the ‘ulema of Cairo, +deprived them of the right to control the sacred monuments confided +to their charge. From this act of confiscation, when title-deeds +were lost or destroyed, and trust-funds confused and malversed, +dates the most serious decay of the monuments of Cairo. The +Europeanizing movement of the nineteenth century, inevitable, and +in many ways most desirable as it was, brought with it a large +destruction of mosques and other historic buildings which impeded +carriage-traffic or stood in the way of the new streets and squares +which the viceroys of Egypt planned with little or no regard to +existing antiquities. The Shari‘ Mohammad ‘Aly was the most +flagrant example of a street cutting its way remorselessly through +historic monuments, but similar vandalism occurred in almost every +part of the city, and the department which attends to the alignment +of the streets has often exercised its powers in the narrowest +spirit of county-councildom. That much worse has not happened is +wholly due to the vigilance and firmness of the<span class= +"pagenum" id="Page_303">[303]</span> “Commission for the +Preservation of the Monuments of Arab Art,” an official body in +which happily large powers are vested, and to which we owe the +maintenance of a multitude of Saracenic monuments of every class +and all periods, which, but for its timely interposition, would now +have disappeared or have been on the high road to ruin. It is +impossible to over-estimate the excellent and patient work of the +Commission. The seventeen annual reports it has issued—solid +volumes, with plans and illustrations—form a library of valuable +information, and testify in every page to the care and sense of +responsibility shown by the members. I may here be permitted to +quote a report on the results and methods of the Commission which I +made at Earl Cromer’s request in 1895, and which was published in +his annual survey of the progress of Egypt presented to Parliament +in 1896.</p> + +<p class="right pad-right2 space-above15"><em>The Athenæum, London, +December</em> 12, 1895.</p> + +<p>“<span class="sc">My Lord</span>,—In accordance with your +Lordship’s invitation, I have the honour to submit a few remarks on +the work of the Commission for the Preservation of Arab Monuments, +of which I made a detailed examination in the summer of this +year.</p> + +<p>The Commission was instituted by Decree of His Highness the late +Khedive on the 18th December, 1881. Its duties were:—</p> + +<p>1. To make an inventory of the Arab monuments of Egypt which +possess historical or artistic interest.</p> + +<p>2. To watch over the preservation of these monuments, and report +to the Minister of Wakfs such repairs as were considered necessary +for their maintenance.</p> + +<p>3. To prepare plans for such repairs and scrupulously +superintend their execution.</p> + +<p>4. To see that plans of all the work executed should<span class= +"pagenum" id="Page_304">[304]</span> be preserved in the Ministry +of Wakfs, and to indicate any fragments or detached objects which +should be transferred to the Museum of Arab Art.</p> + +<p>Political disturbance prevented much being done before the close +of 1882; but when I made a general inspection of the Arab monuments +of Cairo in January to March 1883, the Commission was in working +order. I was then able to see the beginning of its labours, and am +therefore in a position to compare the state of the monuments at +the time when the Commission first took them seriously in hand with +their present condition after the Commission has been over twelve +years at work.</p> + +<p>I can state with confidence that, comparing the general state of +the mosques in 1883 and 1895, they are in a far safer and better +preserved condition now than they were twelve years ago. Several +monuments that then seemed inevitably doomed to destruction have +been strengthened and supported, and, generally speaking, weak +places have been detected and repaired, whilst a more vigilant +supervision and protection against vandalism and robbery now +prevail. These happy results are especially due to the energy and +archæological or technical knowledge of the late Rogers Bey, of +Franz Pasha, and of his Excellency Yakub Artin Pasha, whose name +will always be honourably associated with the intellectual progress +of Egypt. Some of their French colleagues have also rendered useful +services from time to time, and the presence on the Commission of +successive Under-Secretaries of Public Works, and notably at the +present time of Mr [now Sir] W. E. Garstin, has proved a valuable +source of strength. The most vital appointment under the Commission +is, of course, that of the Architect, who surveys the monuments, +recommends such repairs as are necessary or desirable, and +personally superintends their execution.<span class="pagenum" id= +"Page_305">[305]</span> Since the creation of the Special +Department (Bureau Spécial) of the Commission, which was separated +at the beginning of 1890 from the Bureau Technique of the Wakfs, Mr +Max Herz [Hon. F. S. A.] has been the Architect in charge of the +work of the Commission, and it is bare justice to say that to his +industry and considerable technical and archæological attainments +much of the present improved manner of supervising and preserving +the monuments is undoubtedly due. Herz Bey joins to the technical +training of an architect a familiarity with the history of Arab +art, together with a genuine enthusiasm for his work. His +“Catalogue of the Arab Museum,” published this year in French, but +shortly to be reissued in an English translation [published, 1896], +furnishes proofs of an extensive study of the periods of +development of Arab or Saracenic art, and of the literature, Arabic +and European, relating to this subject; and the complete +restorations he has made of a few of the smaller mosques are +evidence of his insight into Arab construction and decoration, of +his technical skill, and of his scrupulous fidelity to the original +design. On this vexed subject of restoration, however, I shall have +something to say later; but whatever may be thought of the +principle, it is impossible to doubt that in the appointment of +Herz Bey the Commission has been exceptionally fortunate.</p> + +<p><em>Preservation.</em> It must never be forgotten that the prime +duty of the Commission is the preservation, not the restoration, of +the monuments. A fairly complete list of the monuments which, on +historical or artistic grounds, ought to be preserved has been +drawn up by Sub-Committee 1, and the first obligation laid upon the +Commission is to watch over the preservation of every monument in +this list. So far as my<span class="pagenum" id= +"Page_306">[306]</span> observation went, its members are clearly +alive to this obligation, and have endeavoured to fulfil it as far +as their limited funds permitted. To enumerate the long catalogue +of repairs, from the stablishing of the entire walls of a mosque to +the removal of whitewash or dirt from a carved inscription or a +mosaic, would extend these notes to an undue length. The details +may be read in the excellent Annual Reports of the Commission, +which, if they are scarcely as prompt in their appearance as they +might be, leave little to be desired in point of accuracy or +completeness. Much more, however, remains to be done, and many of +the repairs already executed can only be regarded as temporary +cheap make-shifts, pending the possibility of more thorough works +when finances permit. The adequate and enduring preservation of the +monuments is essentially a question of money. The Commission and +its Architect know what ought to be done, but they cannot do it +without an increased staff and a larger budget.</p> + +<p>Meanwhile, there are two or three points to which the attention +of the Commission should, I think, be specially and immediately +directed, since they can be dealt with even on the present +insufficient annual grant.</p> + +<p>1. In cases where a thorough repair would be too costly to be +undertaken on the present budget, there is a mode of preservation, +in a literary and artistic sense, which ought to be invariably +adopted when there is any risk of further immediate decay. The +great mosque of Sultan Hasan is an instance in point. In such a +case, where many thousands of pounds would be required for +substantial preservation, the Commission cannot at present +entertain the plans which have been drawn up for so elaborate a +work. But what they can do is to prepare an exact record of +the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_307">[307]</span> present state +of the mosque, to draw full architectural plans and elevations, +photograph every detail of ornament or inscription, reproduce +mosaics and other coloured decoration in the colours of the +originals, and generally to make it possible at any time to +reproduce the entire mosque in its true proportions and exact +details of ornament.<a id="FNanchor_87"></a><a href="#Footnote_87" +class="fnanchor">[87]</a> To students of the history of Arab art +such a record would be invaluable, whilst it would make the task of +preservation possible even should want of funds postpone the work +till the mosque had fallen into much more lamentable decay. To +prepare such records would necessitate an increase in the staff of +the Commission, but if the memoirs were published, with adequate +historical introductions and explanations, the sale would probably +repay a large part of the expense. At the same time, these records +should not of course be regarded as a substitute for actual +preservation, or as a reason for deferring necessary repairs. They +should be used merely as a safeguard against the total or partial +obliteration of a monument by a sudden catastrophe (which might +happen any day to one of the minarets of Sultan Hasan), not as a +ground for refusing to avert the ruin.</p> + +<p>2. Another and much simpler precaution should be taken in the +case of the numerous small mosques of Cairo which are more or less +roofed in. These have generally windows of open tracery, or +grille-work, and often a small opening in the centre over the +court. The central opening should be covered with glass to keep out +the weather, and the open windows should invariably be furnished +with wire-netting outside to exclude the birds, which do much +mischief in the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_308">[308]</span> +interiors. All covered-in mosques require frequent inspection with +this view, and every cranny which could admit rain or birds should +be carefully stopped.</p> + +<p>3. A more expensive but absolutely necessary step is the +compulsory expropriation of the shops or booths which cling like +limpets to the façades of many of the mosques. The proprietors of +these shops use the mosques behind as dust-bins, and throw their +refuse and broken crockery through the windows. The appearance of +the mosques, both inside and out, is seriously impaired by these +excrescences which narrow the street (<em>e.g.</em>, the +Suk-en-Nahhasin), impede traffic, and prevent the façades of the +mosques being seen in their true proportion and effect.</p> + +<p>In order to avoid the risk of any historical monument being +overlooked and neglected, it would be well if the Commission were +to divide Cairo into a certain number of definite quarters, and +that the scheduled monuments in each quarter should be periodically +visited by the Sub-Committee of Inspection and the architect at +least once a year. The number of monuments in the list is so large, +that it might be impossible to arrange more than one or two +inspections of each in every season. Such visits should be +recorded, with notes on the condition of each monument, in a +special book.</p> + +<p>An important question is that of the private monuments, whether +mosques, houses, <em>sebils</em>, <em>wekalas</em>, or other +buildings. The Government apparently has no power either to compel +owners to maintain and preserve the historical buildings which they +inhabit or let, or to force them to sell. The few mediæval houses +still standing in Cairo are artistically more valuable than the +mosques maintained by private wakfs, for they form almost the sole +remaining examples of the domestic style of Arab art. It is greatly +to be wished<span class="pagenum" id="Page_309">[309]</span> that +they could be brought under the control of the Commission, and if +due compensation were made for ejectment or interference, the +owners would have little ground for complaint.</p> + +<p><em>Restoration.</em>—The Commission has not confined its +labours strictly to preservation, it has also undertaken the +complete restoration of several monuments. There is a well-founded +prejudice in artistic and archæological circles against restoration +of any and every description; but I believe that an examination of +some of the recent restorations carried out by Herz Bey would +remove these natural and generally just apprehensions. This +architect’s principle, as he explained it to me, appears sound and +reasonable. It is this. No unique monument (<em>e.g.</em>, the +Mosque of Ibn-Tulun) or monument belonging to an architectural +period of which there are very few examples (<em>e.g.</em>, the +Fátimid Mosques), must on any account be restored; preservation is +the only possible treatment for such cases, and nothing more must +be done than is absolutely necessary for the stability of the +building, and its security from weather and other injury. But when +there are numerous mosques of the same period, nearly resembling +one another in style, and often even in detail of ornament +(<em>e.g.</em>, at the period of Kait-Bey), then a few may safely +be selected for complete restoration at all points, so as to +present as nearly as possible their original appearance, as when +first opened for public worship. Herz Bey has given a few examples +of his theory of restoration in mosques of a well-represented +period. They are not equally successful, and it is evident from the +latest specimens that experience has taught him much, especially in +regard to colour. But I think the most rigid opponent of +restoration would find very little to criticize in the careful and +beautiful manner in which the little mosque of [Kády] Abu-Bekr +ibn<span class="pagenum" id="Page_310">[310]</span> Muzhir in the +Bargawan has been restored to almost its original condition; and +whatever may be said about the tampering to which the mosque of +el-Muayyad was subjected under a former régime, there is no doubt +that the inscriptional frieze and the painted ceiling have been +restored as perfectly and as scrupulously as skill and knowledge +could attain. I can assert from personal observation that nothing +can exceed the care and precautions which are observed by the +architect of the Commission in order to make sure that he has +really discovered the original design and colouring beneath +centuries of dirt and whitewash, or the pains he takes to reproduce +them faithfully. And I may here observe that the staff of the +Commission includes workers in metal and wood, who are able to copy +the designs so accurately, that it is almost impossible to +distinguish them from the originals. (They are not yet successful +in stained glass, however.) This merit has the obvious drawback +that, unless great care is taken, the details of the monuments +(<em>e.g.</em>, the bronze bosses and plaques on doors, or the wood +and ivory carvings and inlay work of doors and <em>minbars</em>) +may be falsified.</p> + +<p>In recent restorations of Arabic inscriptions the inscription +itself is made to tell the date of its restoration; but many small +details of ornament are not distinguished at all from the original +work whose gaps they supply. This defect calls for immediate +correction before the distinction is forgotten by the restorers +themselves. Every <em>plaque</em> of metal or panel of wood or +mosaic should bear an unmistakable distinguishing mark, such as the +date of restoration in Arabic cyphers; and detailed plans of all +restored monuments should be preserved in the archives of the +Commission, in which the new portions should be clearly +distinguished by colour or shading. If this<span class="pagenum" +id="Page_311">[311]</span> rule is carefully observed I confess I +can see nothing but advantage in the complete restoration of a +<em>limited</em> number of mosques <em>under the restrictions</em> +already mentioned. When the work is executed with the skill and +honesty which one observes in the case of the Mosque of Abu-Bekr +ibn Muzhir, there is no falsification but rather preservation in +the most complete and satisfactory sense. The beauty of these +restored mosques seems to appeal to the eyes of the worshippers, +and there is no doubt that the Mosque of el-Muayyad has been far +more frequented for prayer since its <em>liwan</em> was restored to +something of its original beauty and richness of gold and colour. +This is a consideration to which the Ministry of Wakfs can hardly +fail to attach considerable importance. At the same time there is +possibly some risk of the vital work of preservation being +sometimes neglected in order that restorations, which are naturally +more interesting and effective to both the architect and the +public, should be carried out.</p> + +<p>At present there are five mosques in course of +restoration,<a id="FNanchor_88"></a><a href="#Footnote_88" class= +"fnanchor">[88]</a> viz., those of Zeyn-ed-din Yahya, near the +Musky; Gami‘-el-Benat; of Asunbugha, in the Darb-es-Sa‘ada, and of +Kagmas el-Ishaky; besides el-Muayyad and Abu-Bekr ibn Muzhir, which +may be regarded as finished. Two of these mosques, however, are +private wakfs, and are being paid for by private persons. Still, in +my opinion, enough restoration has been undertaken for the present, +and the chief attention of the Commission should be directed for +the next two or three years to a fresh and complete examination of +all the monuments on their list with a view to their thorough +preservation. At all events the selection of a new mosque for +complete restoration should be a subject of anxious thought, and +should not<span class="pagenum" id="Page_312">[312]</span> be +lightly undertaken. Restoration, it must be remembered, is costly, +and cannot judiciously be embarked upon so long as the funds of the +Commission are scarcely sufficient for preservation alone. . . +.</p> + +<p>Such, my Lord, are the conclusions which suggested themselves to +me after my inspection of the results of the Commission’s labours. +I have confined my remarks to Cairo, because I had no opportunity +this year to examine the work that has been done in other towns of +Egypt. In Cairo, as I have endeavoured to show, the Commission has +done excellent work, and has accomplished a great deal in face of +inadequate funds and frequent obstruction and opposition. The few +suggestions and criticisms I have ventured to make are trifles in +comparison with the quantity and generally high quality of the work +of preservation and restoration carried out under the authority of +the Commission. In my opinion the Wakfs and the Public Works +together should raise the annual budget of the Commission to +£10,000, and then leave it to manage its own affairs, as it is +fully competent to do. Were it possible to create a Ministry of +Fine Arts, which should include the Archæological Directorate as +well as the Commission, the Giza as well as the Arab Museum, this +would probably be the most satisfactory course. But the +consideration of so thorough a reconstruction is beyond the scope +of the Report which your Lordship has asked me to submit.”</p> + +<p>To these remarks I have nothing to add. All subsequent +observation has confirmed the belief that the Commission has done +and is still doing a noble work for the monuments of Cairo. The +passages omitted in the preceding extracts related to the financial +status of the Commission, and the result of these recommendations +is thus stated in Lord Cromer’s<span class="pagenum" id= +"Page_313">[313]</span> covering report, which also strongly +supported the various suggestions offered for the better protection +of the monuments, and added some excellent provisions for the +inclusion of the Coptic churches in the field of operation of the +Commission. Lord Cromer wrote:—</p> + +<p>“I have for long been well aware that the grants heretofore +obtained from the Wakf Administration were inadequate, and that, if +greater activity was to be displayed in this branch of the +Administration, additional expenditure would have to be incurred. +Indeed, one of the main objects I had in view in consulting Mr +Stanley Lane-Poole was to obtain suggestions from him as to the +best method of spending more money, supposing it to be +available.</p> + +<p>“On receipt of Mr Stanley Lane-Poole’s Report, I placed myself +in communication with the authorities of the Financial and Public +Works Department with the result that a proposal was made to the +Commissioners of the Public Debt that they should grant a sum of +£20,000 from the Reserve Fund at their disposal to be spent under +the direction of the Preservation Committee during the years 1896 +and 1897. I am glad to say that this proposal was received by the +Commissioners in a very friendly spirit. The money has been +granted, and the details of the expenditure now alone remain to be +settled. . . .</p> + +<p>“I should add that, in addition to the £20,000, which is to be +spent exclusively on works of different sorts, the Egyptian +Government has consented to give a permanent grant of £1000 a-year +from the Treasury in order to provide for the additional staff +which will without doubt be required.”</p> + +<p>The effects of this munificent addition to the funds placed at +the disposal of the Commission have been far-reaching. The list of +monuments that have benefited by the timely succour is too long to +quote,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_314">[314]</span> but the +repairs effected in the great mosque of el-Maridány at a cost of +£4000 must be specially mentioned: it was a work greatly needed, +and the money has been well spent. Every visitor to Cairo is struck +by the difference in the condition of the mosques since the +Commission took them under its charge. Many which seemed doomed are +now safe; others have their lives at least prolonged; and no +fragment of Arab art, no vestige of the city wall, no piece of +carving or inscription, is beneath the watchful care of the +Commission. When a monument cannot be preserved, such fragments of +ornament or inscriptions as remain are carefully gathered and +transported to the Arab Museum, which itself is evidence of the +good work that has been done in the past twenty years. These years +have indeed been fruitful in serious labour to repair the injury +which natural decay, and unnatural confiscation, neglect, and +vandalism have worked in the past upon the relics of mediæval +Cairo.</p> + +<div class="figcenterplate iw1"><span class="pagenum" id= +"Page_315">[315]</span> +<figure id="i31"><a href="images/i31.jpg"><img src='images/i31.jpg' +alt=''></a> +<p class="cp2">A MUSLIM GRAVEYARD</p> +</figure> +</div> + +<hr class="chap"> + +<h2 class="large"><span class="pagenum" id= +"Page_317">[317]</span><a id="app1"></a>RULERS AND MONUMENTS OF +CAIRO<a id="FNanchor_89"></a><a href="#Footnote_89" class= +"fnanchor">[89]</a></h2> + +<hr class="decor width12"> + +<table class="bd-collapse padded1" id="t317"> +<tr> +<td colspan="7" class="tdc sect1 large">1. ARAB PERIOD</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<th>A.D.</th> +<th>A.H.</th> +<th class="width14"> +</th> +<th class="width-brace1"> +</th> +<th> +</th> +<th> +</th> +<th class="width6">A.H.</th> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr-top">640-868</td> +<td class="tdr-top">20-254</td> +<td colspan="3" rowspan="2" class="tdl-top hang1">Ninety-eight +governors under caliphs of Damascus and Baghdād</td> +<td class="tdl-top hang1">†Mosque of ‘Amr</td> +<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">21</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td class="tdl-top hang1"> Town of the Tent (el-Fusṭāṭ)</td> +<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">21</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td class="tdl-top hang1"> First Nilometer at er-Rōḍa</td> +<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">98</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td class="tdl-top hang1"> Faubourg el-‘Askar</td> +<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">133</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td class="tdl-top hang1">*Second Nilometer at er-Rōḍa</td> +<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">247</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td colspan="7" class="tdc sect1 large">2. TURKISH PERIOD</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td colspan="7" class="tdc sect05bot med">HOUSE OF ṬŪLŪN</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr-top">868</td> +<td class="tdr-top">254</td> +<td colspan="3" class="tdl-top hang1">Aḥmad ibn Ṭūlūn</td> +<td class="tdl-top hang1"> Faubourg el-Ḳaṭāi‘</td> +<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">256</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td class="tdl-top hang1"> Palaces of el-Ḳaṭāi‘</td> +<td class="tdr-top">256 ff.</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td class="tdl-top hang1"> Māristān</td> +<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">259</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td class="tdl-top hang1">*Mosque of Ibn-Ṭūlūn</td> +<td class="tdr-top pad-right05">263-5</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr-top">883</td> +<td class="tdr-top">270</td> +<td colspan="3" class="tdl-top hang1">Khumāraweyh b. Aḥmad</td> +<td class="tdl-top hang1"> Palaces of el-Ḳaṭāi‘</td> +<td class="tdr-top">270 ff.</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr-top">895</td> +<td class="tdr-top">282</td> +<td colspan="3" class="tdl-top hang1">Geysh b. Khumāraweyh</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr-top">896</td> +<td class="tdr-top">283</td> +<td colspan="3" class="tdl-top hang1">Hārūn b. Khumāraweyh</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr-top">904</td> +<td class="tdr-top">292</td> +<td colspan="3" class="tdl-top hang1">Sheybān b. Aḥmad b. +Ṭūlūn</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td colspan="7" class="tdc sect1top sect05bot med">CALIPHS’ +GOVERNORS</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr-top">905-934</td> +<td class="tdr-top">292-323</td> +<td colspan="3" class="tdl-top hang1">Thirteen governors</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td colspan="7" class="tdc sect1top sect05bot med">HOUSE OF +EL-IKHSHĪD</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr-top">934</td> +<td class="tdr-top">323</td> +<td colspan="3" class="tdl-top hang1">Moḥammad el-Ikhshīd</td> +<td class="tdl-top hang1"> Palace in Kāfūr’s Garden and at +Rōḍa</td> +<td> +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr-top">946</td> +<td class="tdr-top">334</td> +<td colspan="3" class="tdl-top hang1">Abū-l-Ḳāsim Ūngūr b. +el-Ikhshīd</td> +<td class="tdl-top hang1"> Māristān at Fusṭāṭ</td> +<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">346</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr-top">960</td> +<td class="tdr-top">349</td> +<td colspan="3" class="tdl-top hang1">Abū-l-Ḥasan ‘Aly b. +el-Ikhshīd</td> +<td class="tdl-top hang1"> Mosque of el-Gīza</td> +<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">350</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr-top">966</td> +<td class="tdr-top">355</td> +<td colspan="3" class="tdl-top hang1">Abū-l-Misk Kāfūr</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr-top">968</td> +<td class="tdr-top">358</td> +<td colspan="3" class="tdl-top hang1">Abū-l-Fawāris Aḥmad b. +‘Aly</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td colspan="7" class="tdc sect1 large"><span class="pagenum" id= +"Page_318">[318]</span>3. FĀṬIMID PERIOD.</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr-top">969</td> +<td class="tdr-top">358</td> +<td colspan="3" class="tdl-top hang1">el-Mo‘izz</td> +<td class="tdl-top hang1"> Foundation of el-Ḳāhira</td> +<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">358</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td class="tdl-top hang1"> Great East Palace, etc.</td> +<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">358</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td class="tdl-top hang1">*Mosque el-Azhar</td> +<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">359</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr-top">975</td> +<td class="tdr-top">365</td> +<td colspan="3" class="tdl-top hang1">el-‘Azīz</td> +<td class="tdl-top hang1"> West Palace, etc.</td> +<td> +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td class="tdl-top hang1">*Mosque of el-Ḥākim</td> +<td class="tdr-top">380-403</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr-top">996</td> +<td class="tdr-top">386</td> +<td colspan="3" class="tdl-top hang1">el-Ḥākim</td> +<td class="tdl-top hang1"> Mosque of Rāshida</td> +<td class="tdr-top pad-right05">393-5</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td class="tdl-top hang1"><span class= +"word-spaced5"> „ </span> el-Maḳs</td> +<td> +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr-top">1021</td> +<td class="tdr-top">411</td> +<td colspan="3" class="tdl-top hang1">eẓ-Ẓāhir</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr-top">1036</td> +<td class="tdr-top">427</td> +<td colspan="3" class="tdl-top hang1">el-Mustanṣir</td> +<td class="tdl-top hang1">*Mosque el-Guyūshy</td> +<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">478</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td class="tdl-top hang1">*Bāb-en-Naṣr, *Bāb-el-Futūḥ, *Second +wall, *Bāb-Zuweyla</td> +<td class="tdr-top">480-484</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td class="tdl-top hang1"> Mosque of Nilometer</td> +<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">485</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr-top">1094</td> +<td class="tdr-top">487</td> +<td colspan="3" class="tdl-top hang1">el-Musta‘ly</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr-top">1101</td> +<td class="tdr-top">495</td> +<td colspan="3" class="tdl-top hang1">el-Āmir</td> +<td class="tdl-top hang1">*Mosque el-Aḳmar</td> +<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">519</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td class="tdl-top hang1"> Several mesgids (Yānis, Kāfūry, +Bāb-el-Khawkha)</td> +<td> +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td class="tdl-top hang1">*Mihrābs of Azhar and Seyyida +Ruḳeyya</td> +<td> +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr-top">1131</td> +<td class="tdr-top">524</td> +<td colspan="3" class="tdl-top hang1">el-Ḥāfiẓ</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr-top">1149</td> +<td class="tdr-top">544</td> +<td colspan="3" class="tdl-top hang1">eẓ-Ẓāfir</td> +<td class="tdl-top hang1">†Mosque el-Afkhar</td> +<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">543</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr-top">1154</td> +<td class="tdr-top">549</td> +<td colspan="3" class="tdl-top hang1">el-Fāiz</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr-top">1160</td> +<td class="tdr-top">555</td> +<td colspan="3" class="tdl-top hang1">el-‘Āḍid</td> +<td class="tdl-top hang1">*Mosque of eṣ-Ṣālih Ṭalāi‘</td> +<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">555</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td colspan="7" class="tdc sect1 large">4. HOUSE OF SALADIN</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr-top">1169</td> +<td class="tdr-top">565</td> +<td colspan="3" rowspan="2" class="tdl-top hang1">en-Nāṣir +Ṣalāḥ-ed-dīn (Saladin) ibn Ayyūb</td> +<td class="tdl-top hang1"> Mosque of Negm-ed-dīn Ayyūb</td> +<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">566</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td class="tdl-top hang1"> College Nāṣirīya</td> +<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">566</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td class="tdl-top hang1"><span class= +"word-spaced7"> „ </span> Ḳamḥiya</td> +<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">566</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td class="tdl-top hang1"><span class= +"word-spaced7"> „ </span> Ḳuṭbīya</td> +<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">570</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td class="tdl-top hang1"><span class= +"word-spaced7"> „ </span> Ibn-el-Arsūfy</td> +<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">570</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td class="tdl-top hang1"><span class= +"word-spaced7"> „ </span> Suyūfīya</td> +<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">572</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td class="tdl-top hang1"> Citadel and 3rd Wall begun</td> +<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">572</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td class="tdl-top hang1"> Māristān</td> +<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">575</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td class="tdl-top hang1"> College el-Fāḍilīya</td> +<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">580</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr-top">1193</td> +<td class="tdr-top">589</td> +<td colspan="3" class="tdl-top hang1">el-‘Azīz, son of Saladin</td> +<td class="tdl-top hang1"> Mosque of Ibn-el-Benā</td> +<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">c. 591</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td class="tdl-top hang1"> College Ushkushīya</td> +<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">592</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr-top">1198</td> +<td class="tdr-top">595</td> +<td colspan="3" class="tdl-top hang1">el-Manṣūr b. el-‘Azīz</td> +<td class="tdl-top hang1"><span class= +"word-spaced7"> „ </span> Ghaznawīya</td> +<td> +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr-top">1200</td> +<td class="tdr-top">596</td> +<td colspan="3" class="tdl-top hang1">el-‘Adil Seyf-ed-dīn</td> +<td class="tdl-top hang1"><span class= +"word-spaced7"> „ </span> ‘Ādilīya</td> +<td> +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td class="tdl-top hang1"><span class= +"word-spaced7"> „ </span> Sherīfīya</td> +<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">612</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr-top">1218</td> +<td class="tdr-top">615</td> +<td colspan="3" class="tdl-top hang1">el-Kāmil b. el-‘Ādil</td> +<td class="tdl-top hang1"> Restor. of M. of Shāfi‘y</td> +<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">607</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td class="tdl-top hang1">*College Kāmilīya</td> +<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">622</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td class="tdl-top hang1"><span class= +"word-spaced7"> „ </span> Fakhrīya</td> +<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">622</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td class="tdl-top hang1"> Zāwiya Ḳaṣry</td> +<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">c. 633</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td class="tdl-top hang1"> M. Ibn-esh-Sheykhy</td> +<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">c. 633</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr-top">1238</td> +<td class="tdr-top">635</td> +<td colspan="3" class="tdl-top hang1">el-‘Ādil II. b. el-Kāmil</td> +<td class="tdl-top hang1"> College Ṣayramīya</td> +<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">c. 636</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td class="tdl-top hang1"><span class= +"word-spaced7"> „ </span> Fāizīya</td> +<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">636</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr-top">1240</td> +<td class="tdr-top">637</td> +<td colspan="3" class="tdl-top hang1">eṣ-Ṣāliḥ Ayyūb b. +el-Kāmil</td> +<td class="tdl-top hang1"><span class= +"word-spaced7"> „ </span> *Ṣāliḥīya</td> +<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">639</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td class="tdl-top hang1"> Mosque, etc., of er-Rōḍa</td> +<td> +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr-top">1249</td> +<td class="tdr-top">647</td> +<td colspan="3" class="tdl-top hang1">el-Mu‘aẓẓam Tūrān-Shāh b. +eṣ-Ṣāliḥ</td> +<td class="tdl-top hang1"> Zāwiya Khaddām</td> +<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">647</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td colspan="7" class="tdc sect1 large"><span class="pagenum" id= +"Page_319">[319]</span>5. TURKISH MAMLŪKS</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr-top">1250</td> +<td class="tdr-top">648</td> +<td colspan="3" class="tdl-top hang1">Queen Sheger-ed-durr</td> +<td class="tdl-top hang1">*Tomb of eṣ-Ṣāliḥ</td> +<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">648</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr-top">1250</td> +<td class="tdr-top">648</td> +<td colspan="3" class="tdl-top hang1">el-Mo‘izz Aybek</td> +<td class="tdl-top hang1"> College Ḳuṭbīya</td> +<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">650</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td class="tdl-top hang1"><span class= +"word-spaced7"> „ </span> Ṣāḥibīya</td> +<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">654</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr-top">1257</td> +<td class="tdr-top">655</td> +<td colspan="3" class="tdl-top hang1">el-Manṣūr ‘Aly b. Aybek</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr-top">1259</td> +<td class="tdr-top">657</td> +<td colspan="3" class="tdl-top hang1">el-Muẓaffar Ḳuṭuz</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr-top">1260</td> +<td class="tdr-top">658</td> +<td colspan="3" class="tdl-top hang1">eẓ-Ẓāhir Beybars</td> +<td class="tdl-top hang1">*College Ẓāhirīya</td> +<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">660</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td class="tdl-top hang1"> Meshhed el-Ḥoseyny</td> +<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">662</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td class="tdl-top hang1"> College Megdīya</td> +<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">663</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td class="tdl-top hang1"> Mosque el-Afram</td> +<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">663</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td class="tdl-top hang1">*Mosque eẓ-Ẓāhir</td> +<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">665</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td class="tdl-top hang1"> College Muhedhdhibīya</td> +<td> +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td class="tdl-top hang1"><span class= +"word-spaced7"> „ </span> Fārikānīya</td> +<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">676</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr-top">1277</td> +<td class="tdr-top">676</td> +<td colspan="3" class="tdl-top hang1">es-Sa‘īd Baraka b. +Beybars</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr-top">1279</td> +<td class="tdr-top">678</td> +<td colspan="3" class="tdl-top hang1">el-‘Ādil Selāmish b. +Beybars</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr-top">1279</td> +<td class="tdr-top">679</td> +<td colspan="3" class="tdl-top hang1">el-Manṣūr Ḳalā’ūn</td> +<td class="tdl-top hang1">*College Manṣūrīya and Māristān +Ḳalā’ūn</td> +<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">684</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td class="tdl-top hang1">Zāwiya el-Gemīzy</td> +<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">682</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td class="tdl-top hang1"><span class= +"word-spaced6"> „ </span> el-Ga‘bary</td> +<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">687</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td class="tdl-top hang1"><span class= +"word-spaced6"> „ </span> el-Halāwy</td> +<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">683</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td class="tdl-top hang1"> Convent el-Bunduḳdārīya</td> +<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">688</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr-top">1290</td> +<td class="tdr-top">689</td> +<td colspan="3" class="tdl-top hang1">el-Ashraf Khalīl b. +Ḳalā’ūn</td> +<td class="tdl-top hang1">*Gate from ‘Akka</td> +<td> +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr-top">1293</td> +<td class="tdr-top">693</td> +<td colspan="3" class="tdl-top hang1">en-Nāṣir Moḥammad b. +Ḳalā’ūn</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr-top">1294</td> +<td class="tdr-top">694</td> +<td colspan="3" class="tdl-top hang1">el-‘Ādil Ketbughā</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr-top">1296</td> +<td class="tdr-top">696</td> +<td colspan="3" class="tdl-top hang1">el-Manṣūr Lāgīn</td> +<td class="tdl-top hang1"> Restor. M. of Ibn-Ṭūlūn</td> +<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">696</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td class="tdl-top hang1"> College Ṭafagīya</td> +<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">c. 698</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td class="tdl-top hang1"><span class= +"word-spaced7"> „ </span> Mangūtimurīya</td> +<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">698</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr-top">1298</td> +<td class="tdr-top">698</td> +<td colspan="3" class="tdl-top hang1">en-Nāṣir, second reign</td> +<td class="tdl-top hang1"><span class= +"word-spaced7"> „ </span> *Nāṣirīya</td> +<td class="tdr-top">699-703</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td class="tdl-top hang1"><span class= +"word-spaced7"> „ </span> Karāsunḳurīya</td> +<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">700</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td class="tdl-top hang1"><span class= +"word-spaced7"> „ </span> Gemālīya</td> +<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">703</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td class="tdl-top hang1"> Restor. of Ḥākim, Azhar, +Ṭalāi‘</td> +<td class="tdr-top pad-right05">703-4</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td class="tdl-top hang1"> Mosque of Ṭaybars</td> +<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">707</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr-top">1308</td> +<td class="tdr-top">708</td> +<td colspan="3" class="tdl-top hang1">el-Muẓaffar Beybars +<em>Gāshnekīr</em></td> +<td class="tdl-top hang1">*Convent of Beybars</td> +<td class="tdr-top pad-right05">706-9</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr-top">1309</td> +<td class="tdr-top">709</td> +<td colspan="3" class="tdl-top hang1">en-Nāṣir, third reign</td> +<td class="tdl-top hang1">*College Ṭaybarsīya</td> +<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">709</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td class="tdl-top hang1"> Zāwiya of el-Ḥimṣy</td> +<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">709</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td class="tdl-top hang1"> Mosque of el-Gāky</td> +<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">713</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td class="tdl-top hang1">*Citadel palace, aqueduct</td> +<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">713</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td class="tdl-top hang1"> College Sa‘īdīya</td> +<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">715</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td class="tdl-top hang1"> Convent of Arslān</td> +<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">c. 717</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td class="tdl-top hang1">*Mosque of Citadel</td> +<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">718</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td class="tdl-top hang1">*Mosque of emīr Ḥoseyn</td> +<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">719</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td class="tdl-top hang1">*College Ālmelikīya</td> +<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">719</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td class="tdl-top hang1">*College Gāwalīya</td> +<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">723</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td class="tdl-top hang1">*Tomb of Ordūtegīn</td> +<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">724</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td class="tdl-top hang1">*College Mihmandāriya</td> +<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">725</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td class="tdl-top hang1"><span class= +"word-spaced7"> „ </span> Buktumurīya</td> +<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">726</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td class="tdl-top hang1"> Mosque of el-Khazāny</td> +<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">729</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td class="tdl-top hang1"><span class= +"word-spaced6"> „ </span> *of Almās</td> +<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">730</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td class="tdl-top hang1"><span class= +"word-spaced6"> „ </span> el-Barḳīya</td> +<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">730</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td class="tdl-top hang1"><span class="pagenum" id= +"Page_320">[320]</span>*Mosque of Ḳūṣūn</td> +<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">730</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td class="tdl-top hang1"><span class= +"word-spaced6"> „ </span> of Sārūgā</td> +<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">c. 730</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td class="tdl-top hang1">*College Aḳbughawīya</td> +<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">734</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td class="tdl-top hang1">*Tomb of Tāshtimur</td> +<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">734</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td class="tdl-top hang1">*Palace of Beshtāk</td> +<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">c. 735</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td class="tdl-top hang1">*Convent of Ḳūṣūn</td> +<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">736</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td class="tdl-top hang1"><span class= +"word-spaced7"> „ </span> at Siryāḳūs</td> +<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">736</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td class="tdl-top hang1">†Mosque of Beshtāk</td> +<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">736</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td class="tdl-top hang1"><span class= +"word-spaced6"> „ </span> Aydemir</td> +<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">737</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td class="tdl-top hang1"><span class= +"word-spaced6"> „ </span> et-Turkmāny</td> +<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">738</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td class="tdl-top hang1"><span class= +"word-spaced6"> „ </span> *el-Māridāny</td> +<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">740</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr-top">1341</td> +<td class="tdr-top">741</td> +<td class="tdl-top hang1">el-Manṣūr Abū-Bekr</td> +<td class="brt"> +</td> +<td rowspan="8" class="tdc less">sons of en-Nāṣir</td> +<td class="tdl-top hang1"><span class= +"word-spaced6"> „ </span> *Sitta Miska</td> +<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">740</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td class="liner"> +</td> +<td class="tdl-top hang1"><span class= +"word-spaced6"> „ </span> Ibn-Ghāzy</td> +<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">741</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr-top">1341</td> +<td class="tdr-top">742</td> +<td class="tdl-top hang1">el-Ashraf Kuguk</td> +<td class="liner"> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr-top">1342</td> +<td class="tdr-top">742</td> +<td class="tdl-top hang1">en-Nāṣir Aḥmad</td> +<td class="liner"> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr-top">1342</td> +<td class="tdr-top">743</td> +<td class="tdl-top hang1">eṣ-Ṣāliḥ Ismā‘īl</td> +<td class="liner"> +</td> +<td class="tdl-top hang1"> Mosque of eṭ-Ṭawāshy</td> +<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">745</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr-top">1345</td> +<td class="tdr-top">746</td> +<td class="tdl-top hang1">el-Ḳāmil Sha‘bān</td> +<td class="liner"> +</td> +<td class="tdl-top hang1"><span class= +"word-spaced6"> „ </span> Ibn-eṭ-Ṭabbākh</td> +<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">746</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr-top">1346</td> +<td class="tdr-top">747</td> +<td class="tdl-top hang1">el-Muẓaffar Ḥāggy</td> +<td class="liner"> +</td> +<td class="tdl-top hang1"><span class= +"word-spaced6"> „ </span> *Kuguk</td> +<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">747</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr-top">1347</td> +<td class="tdr-top">748</td> +<td class="tdl-top hang1">en-Nāṣir Ḥasan</td> +<td class="brb"> +</td> +<td class="tdl-top hang1"><span class= +"word-spaced6"> „ </span> †Āḳsunḳur</td> +<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">747</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td class="tdl-top hang1"><span class= +"word-spaced6"> „ </span> †el-Ismā‘īly</td> +<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">748</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td class="tdl-top hang1"><span class= +"word-spaced6"> „ </span> *Ḳutlubugha</td> +<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">748</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td class="tdl-top hang1"><span class= +"word-spaced6"> „ </span> el-Asyūṭy</td> +<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">c. 749</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td class="tdl-top hang1">*Convent of Umm-Anūk</td> +<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">c. 749</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td class="tdl-top hang1"><span class= +"word-spaced7"> „ </span> Algībughā</td> +<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">c. 750</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td class="tdl-top hang1">*Mosque of Mangak</td> +<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">750</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td class="tdl-top hang1"><span class= +"word-spaced6"> „ </span> *Sheykhū</td> +<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">750</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td class="tdl-top hang1"> College of el-Kharrūba</td> +<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">750</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td class="tdl-top hang1">*Cistern of Lāgīn</td> +<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">750</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td class="tdl-top hang1"> College Ḳaysarānīya</td> +<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">751</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td class="tdl-top hang1"><span class= +"word-spaced7"> „ </span> Ṣaghīra</td> +<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">751</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr-top">1351</td> +<td class="tdr-top">752</td> +<td colspan="3" class="tdl-top hang1">eṣ-Ṣāliḥ Ṣāliḥ b. Nāṣir</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr-top">1354</td> +<td class="tdr-top">755</td> +<td colspan="3" class="tdl-top hang1">Ḥasan, second reign</td> +<td class="tdl-top hang1">*Convent of Sheykhū</td> +<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">756</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td class="tdl-top hang1"> College Fārisīya</td> +<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">756</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td class="tdl-top hang1"><span class= +"word-spaced7"> „ </span> *Ṣarghitmishīya</td> +<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">756</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td class="tdl-top hang1"><span class= +"word-spaced7"> „ </span> *Sulṭān Ḥasan</td> +<td class="tdr-top">757 ff.</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td class="tdl-top hang1"><span class= +"word-spaced7"> „ </span> Bedīrīya</td> +<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">758</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td class="tdl-top hang1"><span class= +"word-spaced7"> „ </span> *Ḥigāzīya</td> +<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">761</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td class="tdl-top hang1"><span class= +"word-spaced7"> „ </span> Beshīrīya</td> +<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">761</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr-top">1361</td> +<td class="tdr-top">762</td> +<td class="tdl-top hang1">el-Manṣūr Moḥammad</td> +<td class="brt"> +</td> +<td rowspan="2" class="tdc less">grand-sons of en-Nāṣir</td> +<td class="tdl-top hang1"><span class= +"word-spaced7"> „ </span> Sābiḳīya</td> +<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">763</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr-top">1363</td> +<td class="tdr-top">764</td> +<td class="tdl-top hang1">el-Ashraf Sha‘bān</td> +<td class="brb"> +</td> +<td class="tdl-top hang1">*Tomb of Ṭulbīya</td> +<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">765</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td class="tdl-top hang1">*Mosque of Sha‘bān</td> +<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">771</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td class="tdl-top hang1">*College Bubekrīya (Asunbughā)</td> +<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">772</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td class="tdl-top hang1">*College of Gāy el-Yūsufy</td> +<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">775</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td class="tdl-top hang1"><span class= +"word-spaced7"> „ </span> Baḳrīya</td> +<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">c. 775</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr-top">1376</td> +<td class="tdr-top">778</td> +<td colspan="3" class="tdl-top hang1">el-Manṣūr ‘Aly b. +Sha‘bān</td> +<td class="tdl-top hang1"><span class= +"word-spaced7"> „ </span> Ibn-‘Irām</td> +<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">782</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr-top">1381</td> +<td class="tdr-top">783</td> +<td colspan="3" class="tdl-top hang1">eṣ-Ṣāliḥ Ḥāggy b. Sha‘bān +(dep. 1382, restored 1389-90)</td> +<td class="tdl-top hang1"> Tomb of Umm-Ṣāliḥ</td> +<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">783</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td colspan="7" class="tdc sect1 large"><span class="pagenum" id= +"Page_321">[321]</span>6. CIRCASSIAN MAMLŪKS</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr-top">1382</td> +<td class="tdr-top">784</td> +<td colspan="3" class="tdl-top hang1">eẓ-Ẓāhir Barḳūḳ</td> +<td class="tdl-top hang1">*Tomb of Anas</td> +<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">783</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td colspan="3" class="tdl-top hang1">[interrupted 791-2 by +Ḥāggy]</td> +<td class="tdl-top hang1">*College of Aytmish</td> +<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">785</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td class="tdl-top hang1">*College of Barḳūḳ</td> +<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">788</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td class="tdl-top hang1">*Mosque of Zeyn-ed-dīn</td> +<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">790</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td class="tdl-top hang1">*College of Īnāl <em>Ustāddār</em></td> +<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">795</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td class="tdl-top hang1"><span class= +"word-spaced7"> „ </span> Maḥmūdīya</td> +<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">797</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td class="tdl-top hang1"><span class= +"word-spaced7"> „ </span> *Muḳbil Zemāmīya</td> +<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">797</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td class="tdl-top hang1"><span class= +"word-spaced7"> „ </span> Ibn-Ghurāb</td> +<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">798</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr-top">1399</td> +<td class="tdr-top">801</td> +<td colspan="3" class="tdl-top hang1">en-Nāṣir Farag b. Barḳūḳ</td> +<td class="tdl-top hang1"> M. of Ibn-‘Abd-eẓ-Ẓāhir</td> +<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">803</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td class="tdl-top hang1">*College of Sūdūn</td> +<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">804</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td class="tdl-top hang1"><span class= +"word-spaced7"> „ </span> Mahally</td> +<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">c. 806</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr-top">1405</td> +<td class="tdr-top">808</td> +<td colspan="3" class="tdl-top hang1">el-Manṣūr ‘Abd-el-‘Azīz b. +Barḳūḳ</td> +<td class="tdl-top hang1">*Convent and Tomb of Barḳūḳ and Farag, +and College of Farag</td> +<td class="tdr-top">803-13</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr-top">1405</td> +<td class="tdr-top">809</td> +<td colspan="3" class="tdl-top hang1">Farag, second reign</td> +<td class="tdl-top hang1">*College of Gemāl-ed-dīn</td> +<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">811</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td class="tdl-top hang1"> Mosque of Hōsh (Citadel)</td> +<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">812</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr-top">1412</td> +<td class="tdr-top">815</td> +<td colspan="3" class="tdl-top hang1">el-Musta‘īn (caliph)</td> +<td class="tdl-top hang1"><span class= +"word-spaced6"> „ </span> Birket-er-Raṭly</td> +<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">814</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr-top">1412</td> +<td class="tdr-top">815</td> +<td colspan="3" class="tdl-top hang1">el-Mu’ayyad Sheykh</td> +<td class="tdl-top hang1"> M. of eḍ-Ḍiwa (Citadel)</td> +<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">815</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td class="tdl-top hang1"> Mosque of el-Bāsiṭy</td> +<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">817</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td class="tdl-top hang1"><span class= +"word-spaced6"> „ </span> el-Ḥanafy</td> +<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">817</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td class="tdl-top hang1"><span class= +"word-spaced6"> „ </span> ez-Zāhid</td> +<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">818</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td class="tdl-top hang1">*Māristān of el-Mu’ayyad</td> +<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">818</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td class="tdl-top hang1">*Mosque of el-Mu’ayyad</td> +<td class="tdr-top">819-23</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td class="tdl-top hang1">*Coll. of ‘Abd-el-Ghany</td> +<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">821</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td class="tdl-top hang1"> Mosque of el-Fakhry</td> +<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">821</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td class="tdl-top hang1">*Coll. of Ḳāḍy ‘Abd-el-Bāsiṭ</td> +<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">823</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="sect15top tdr-top">1421</td> +<td class="tdr-top sect15top">824</td> +<td colspan="3" class="tdl-top hang1 sect15top">el-Muẓaffar Aḥmad +b. Sheykh</td> +<td class="sect15top"> +</td> +<td class="sect15top"> +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr-top">1421</td> +<td class="tdr-top">824</td> +<td colspan="3" class="tdl-top hang1">eẓ-Ẓāhir Ṭaṭar</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr-top">1421</td> +<td class="tdr-top">824</td> +<td colspan="3" class="tdl-top hang1">eṣ-Ṣāliḥ Moḥammad b. +Ṭaṭar</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr-top">1422</td> +<td class="tdr-top">825</td> +<td colspan="3" class="tdl-top hang1">el-Ashraf Bars-Bey</td> +<td class="tdl-top hang1">*College of Bars-Bey</td> +<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">827</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td class="tdl-top hang1">*Mosque of Gāny-Bek</td> +<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">830</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td class="tdl-top hang1">*College of Feyrūz</td> +<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">830</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td class="tdl-top hang1">*Conv. and tomb of Bars-Bey</td> +<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">835</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr-top">1438</td> +<td class="tdr-top">842</td> +<td colspan="3" class="tdl-top hang1">el-‘Azīz Yūsuf b. +Bars-Bey</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr-top">1438</td> +<td class="tdr-top">842</td> +<td colspan="3" class="tdl-top hang1">eẓ-Ẓāhir Gaḳmaḳ</td> +<td class="tdl-top hang1">*College of Taghry-Berdy</td> +<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">844</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td class="tdl-top hang1">*Mosque of Ḳāny-Bey</td> +<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">845</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr-top">1453</td> +<td class="tdr-top">857</td> +<td colspan="3" class="tdl-top hang1">el-Manṣūr ‘Othmān b. +Gaḳmaḳ</td> +<td class="tdl-top hang1">*M. and tomb Ḳāḍy Yaḥyā</td> +<td class="tdr-top">848-50</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td class="tdl-top hang1">*Mosque of Gaḳmaḳ</td> +<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">853</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr-top">1453</td> +<td class="tdr-top">857</td> +<td colspan="3" class="tdl-top hang1">el-Ashraf Īnāl</td> +<td class="tdl-top hang1">*Coll., Conv., tomb of Īnāl</td> +<td class="tdr-top">855-60</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr-top">1461</td> +<td class="tdr-top">865</td> +<td colspan="3" class="tdl-top hang1">el-Mu’ayyad Aḥmad b. +Īnāl</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr-top">1461</td> +<td class="tdr-top">865</td> +<td colspan="3" class="tdl-top hang1">eẓ-Ẓāhir Khūshḳadam</td> +<td class="tdl-top hang1">*Tomb of Gāny-Bek</td> +<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">869</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td class="tdl-top hang1">*Mosque of Nūr-ed-dīn</td> +<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">870</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td class="tdl-top hang1">*Mosque of Sūdūn</td> +<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">c. 870</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td class="tdl-top hang1">*College of Ḳānim</td> +<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">c. 870</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr-top">1467</td> +<td class="tdr-top">872</td> +<td colspan="3" class="tdl-top hang1">eẓ-Ẓāhir Yel-Bey</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr-top">1467</td> +<td class="tdr-top">872</td> +<td colspan="3" class="tdl-top hang1">eẓ-Ẓāhir Timurbughā</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr-top"><span class="pagenum" id= +"Page_322">[322]</span>1468</td> +<td class="tdr-top">873</td> +<td colspan="3" class="tdl-top hang1">el-Ashraf Ḳā’it-Bey</td> +<td class="tdl-top hang1">*Mosque of Timrāz</td> +<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">876</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td class="tdl-top hang1">*M. of Ezbek b. Tutush</td> +<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">880</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td class="tdl-top hang1">*Palace of Yeshbek</td> +<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">880</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td class="tdl-top hang1">*Ḳā’it-Bey’s Coll. and tomb</td> +<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">879</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td class="tdl-top hang1"><span class= +"word-spaced8"> „ </span> *Coll. in town</td> +<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">880</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td class="tdl-top hang1"><span class= +"word-spaced8"> „ </span> *Wekāla by Azhar</td> +<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">882</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td class="tdl-top hang1"><span class= +"word-spaced8"> „ </span> *Sebīl</td> +<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">884</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td class="tdl-top hang1"><span class= +"word-spaced8"> „ </span> Wekāla, B. en-Naṣr</td> +<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">885</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td class="tdl-top hang1"><span class= +"word-spaced8"> „ </span> *Wek., Surūgīya</td> +<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">c. 885</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td class="tdl-top hang1"><span class= +"word-spaced8"> „ </span> *Faḍawīya cupola</td> +<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">c. 886</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td class="tdl-top hang1"><span class= +"word-spaced8"> „ </span> *Palace and mekān</td> +<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">890</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td class="tdl-top hang1"><span class= +"word-spaced8"> „ </span> *Restor. of S. gates</td> +<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">890</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td class="tdl-top hang1"><span class= +"word-spaced8"> „ </span> *Coll. at er-Rōḍa</td> +<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">896</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td class="tdl-top hang1">*Mosque of Gānim</td> +<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">883</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td class="tdl-top hang1">*Coll. of Abū-Bekr b. Muzhir</td> +<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">885</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td class="tdl-top hang1">*Mosque of Ḳagmās</td> +<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">886</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td class="tdl-top hang1">*Coll. of Ezbek el-Yūsufy</td> +<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">900</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr-top">1496</td> +<td class="tdr-top">901</td> +<td colspan="3" class="tdl-top hang1">en-Nāṣir Moḥammad b. +Ḳā’it-Bey</td> +<td class="tdl-top hang1">*Palace of Mamāy (Beyt-el-Ḳāḍy)</td> +<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">901</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr-top">1498</td> +<td class="tdr-top">904</td> +<td colspan="3" class="tdl-top hang1">eẓ-Ẓāhir Ḳānṣūh</td> +<td class="tdl-top hang1">*Tomb of Ḳānṣūh</td> +<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">904</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr-top">1500</td> +<td class="tdr-top">905</td> +<td colspan="3" class="tdl-top hang1">el-Ashraf Gānbalāt</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr-top">1501</td> +<td class="tdr-top">906</td> +<td colspan="3" class="tdl-top hang1">el-‘Ādil Ṭūmān-Bey</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr-top">1501</td> +<td class="tdr-top">906</td> +<td colspan="3" class="tdl-top hang1">el-Ashraf Ḳānṣūh +el-Ghūry</td> +<td class="tdl-top hang1">*Tomb el-‘Ādil Ṭūmān-Bey</td> +<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">906</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td class="tdl-top hang1">*Mosque of Kheyr-Bek</td> +<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">908</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td class="tdl-top hang1">*Coll. Ḳāny-Bek emīr akhōr</td> +<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">908</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td class="tdl-top hang1">*Coll. of el-Ghūry</td> +<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">909</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td class="tdl-top hang1">†Tomb-mosque of el-Ghūry</td> +<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">909</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td class="tdl-top hang1">*Tomb of Sūdūn</td> +<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">c. 910</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td class="tdl-top hang1">*College of Ḳāny-Bek Ḳarā</td> +<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">911</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +<td class="tdl-top hang1"> Restoration of aqueduct to +Citadel</td> +<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">911</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr-top">1516</td> +<td class="tdr-top">922</td> +<td colspan="3" class="tdl-top hang1">el-Ashraf Ṭumān-Bey</td> +<td> +</td> +<td> +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr-top">1517</td> +<td class="tdr-top">922</td> +<td colspan="4" class="tdc">‘OTHMĀNLY CONQUEST OF EGYPT</td> +<td> +</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<div class="figcenterplate iw1"> +<figure id="map"> +<p class="cp3">CAIRO.</p> +<a href="images/map_large.jpg"><img src='images/map.jpg' alt= +''></a> +</figure> +</div> + +<hr class="chap"> + +<h2 class="large"><span class="pagenum" id= +"Page_323">[323]</span><a id="app2"></a>TABLE FOR CONVERTING HIJRA +YEARS INTO ANNI DOMINI.</h2> + +<table class="borders" id="t323"> +<tr> +<th class="sserif">A.H.</th> +<th class="sserif">A.D.</th> +<th colspan="2" class="sserif">BEGINS</th> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">1</td> +<td class="tdr">622</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Jy.</td> +<td class="tdr">16</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">2</td> +<td class="tdr">623</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Jy.</td> +<td class="tdr">5</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">3</td> +<td class="tdr">624</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ju.</td> +<td class="tdr">24</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">4</td> +<td class="tdr">625</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ju.</td> +<td class="tdr">13</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">5</td> +<td class="tdr">626</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ju.</td> +<td class="tdr">2</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">6</td> +<td class="tdr">627</td> +<td class="bdless-right">My.</td> +<td class="tdr">23</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">7</td> +<td class="tdr">628</td> +<td class="bdless-right">My.</td> +<td class="tdr">11</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">8</td> +<td class="tdr">629</td> +<td class="bdless-right">My.</td> +<td class="tdr">1</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">9</td> +<td class="tdr">630</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ap.</td> +<td class="tdr">20</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">10</td> +<td class="tdr">631</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ap.</td> +<td class="tdr">9</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">11</td> +<td class="tdr">632</td> +<td class="bdless-right">M.</td> +<td class="tdr">29</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">12</td> +<td class="tdr">633</td> +<td class="bdless-right">M.</td> +<td class="tdr">18</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">13</td> +<td class="tdr">634</td> +<td class="bdless-right">M.</td> +<td class="tdr">7</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">14</td> +<td class="tdr">635</td> +<td class="bdless-right">F.</td> +<td class="tdr">25</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">15</td> +<td class="tdr">636</td> +<td class="bdless-right">F.</td> +<td class="tdr">14</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">16</td> +<td class="tdr">637</td> +<td class="bdless-right">F.</td> +<td class="tdr">2</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">17</td> +<td class="tdr">638</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ja.</td> +<td class="tdr">23</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">18</td> +<td class="tdr">639</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ja.</td> +<td class="tdr">12</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">19</td> +<td class="tdr">640</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ja.</td> +<td class="tdr">2</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">20</td> +<td class="tdr">640</td> +<td class="bdless-right">D.</td> +<td class="tdr">21</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">21</td> +<td class="tdr">641</td> +<td class="bdless-right">D.</td> +<td class="tdr">10</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">22</td> +<td class="tdr">642</td> +<td class="bdless-right">N.</td> +<td class="tdr">30</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">23</td> +<td class="tdr">643</td> +<td class="bdless-right">N.</td> +<td class="tdr">19</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">24</td> +<td class="tdr">644</td> +<td class="bdless-right">N.</td> +<td class="tdr">7</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">25</td> +<td class="tdr">645</td> +<td class="bdless-right">O.</td> +<td class="tdr">28</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">26</td> +<td class="tdr">646</td> +<td class="bdless-right">O.</td> +<td class="tdr">17</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">27</td> +<td class="tdr">647</td> +<td class="bdless-right">O.</td> +<td class="tdr">7</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">28</td> +<td class="tdr">648</td> +<td class="bdless-right">S.</td> +<td class="tdr">25</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">29</td> +<td class="tdr">649</td> +<td class="bdless-right">S.</td> +<td class="tdr">14</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">30</td> +<td class="tdr">650</td> +<td class="bdless-right">S.</td> +<td class="tdr">4</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">31</td> +<td class="tdr">651</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ag.</td> +<td class="tdr">24</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">32</td> +<td class="tdr">652</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ag.</td> +<td class="tdr">12</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">33</td> +<td class="tdr">653</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ag.</td> +<td class="tdr">2</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">34</td> +<td class="tdr">654</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Jy.</td> +<td class="tdr">22</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">35</td> +<td class="tdr">655</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Jy.</td> +<td class="tdr">11</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">36</td> +<td class="tdr">656</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ju.</td> +<td class="tdr">30</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">37</td> +<td class="tdr">657</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ju.</td> +<td class="tdr">19</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">38</td> +<td class="tdr">658</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ju.</td> +<td class="tdr">9</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">39</td> +<td class="tdr">659</td> +<td class="bdless-right">My.</td> +<td class="tdr">29</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">40</td> +<td class="tdr">660</td> +<td class="bdless-right">My.</td> +<td class="tdr">17</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">41</td> +<td class="tdr">661</td> +<td class="bdless-right">My.</td> +<td class="tdr">7</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">42</td> +<td class="tdr">662</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ap.</td> +<td class="tdr">26</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">43</td> +<td class="tdr">663</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ap.</td> +<td class="tdr">15</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">44</td> +<td class="tdr">664</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ap.</td> +<td class="tdr">4</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">45</td> +<td class="tdr">665</td> +<td class="bdless-right">M.</td> +<td class="tdr">24</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">46</td> +<td class="tdr">666</td> +<td class="bdless-right">M.</td> +<td class="tdr">13</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">47</td> +<td class="tdr">667</td> +<td class="bdless-right">M.</td> +<td class="tdr">3</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">48</td> +<td class="tdr">668</td> +<td class="bdless-right">F.</td> +<td class="tdr">20</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">49</td> +<td class="tdr">669</td> +<td class="bdless-right">F.</td> +<td class="tdr">9</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">50</td> +<td class="tdr">670</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ja.</td> +<td class="tdr">29</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">51</td> +<td class="tdr">671</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ja.</td> +<td class="tdr">18</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">52</td> +<td class="tdr">672</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ja.</td> +<td class="tdr">8</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">53</td> +<td class="tdr">672</td> +<td class="bdless-right">D.</td> +<td class="tdr">27</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">54</td> +<td class="tdr">673</td> +<td class="bdless-right">D.</td> +<td class="tdr">16</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">55</td> +<td class="tdr">674</td> +<td class="bdless-right">D.</td> +<td class="tdr">6</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">56</td> +<td class="tdr">675</td> +<td class="bdless-right">N.</td> +<td class="tdr">25</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">57</td> +<td class="tdr">676</td> +<td class="bdless-right">N.</td> +<td class="tdr">14</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">58</td> +<td class="tdr">677</td> +<td class="bdless-right">N.</td> +<td class="tdr">3</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">59</td> +<td class="tdr">678</td> +<td class="bdless-right">O.</td> +<td class="tdr">23</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">60</td> +<td class="tdr">679</td> +<td class="bdless-right">O.</td> +<td class="tdr">13</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">61</td> +<td class="tdr">680</td> +<td class="bdless-right">O.</td> +<td class="tdr">1</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">62</td> +<td class="tdr">681</td> +<td class="bdless-right">S.</td> +<td class="tdr">20</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">63</td> +<td class="tdr">682</td> +<td class="bdless-right">S.</td> +<td class="tdr">10</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">64</td> +<td class="tdr">683</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ag.</td> +<td class="tdr">30</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">65</td> +<td class="tdr">684</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ag.</td> +<td class="tdr">18</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">66</td> +<td class="tdr">685</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ag.</td> +<td class="tdr">8</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">67</td> +<td class="tdr">686</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Jy.</td> +<td class="tdr">28</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">68</td> +<td class="tdr">687</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Jy.</td> +<td class="tdr">18</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">69</td> +<td class="tdr">688</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Jy.</td> +<td class="tdr">6</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">70</td> +<td class="tdr">689</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ju.</td> +<td class="tdr">25</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">71</td> +<td class="tdr">690</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ju.</td> +<td class="tdr">15</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">72</td> +<td class="tdr">691</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ju.</td> +<td class="tdr">4</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">73</td> +<td class="tdr">692</td> +<td class="bdless-right">My.</td> +<td class="tdr">23</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">74</td> +<td class="tdr">693</td> +<td class="bdless-right">My.</td> +<td class="tdr">13</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">75</td> +<td class="tdr">694</td> +<td class="bdless-right">My.</td> +<td class="tdr">2</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">76</td> +<td class="tdr">695</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ap.</td> +<td class="tdr">21</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">77</td> +<td class="tdr">696</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ap.</td> +<td class="tdr">10</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">78</td> +<td class="tdr">697</td> +<td class="bdless-right">M.</td> +<td class="tdr">30</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">79</td> +<td class="tdr">698</td> +<td class="bdless-right">M.</td> +<td class="tdr">20</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">80</td> +<td class="tdr">699</td> +<td class="bdless-right">M.</td> +<td class="tdr">9</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">81</td> +<td class="tdr">700</td> +<td class="bdless-right">F.</td> +<td class="tdr">26</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">82</td> +<td class="tdr">701</td> +<td class="bdless-right">F.</td> +<td class="tdr">15</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">83</td> +<td class="tdr">702</td> +<td class="bdless-right">F.</td> +<td class="tdr">4</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">84</td> +<td class="tdr">703</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ja.</td> +<td class="tdr">24</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">85</td> +<td class="tdr">704</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ja.</td> +<td class="tdr">14</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">86</td> +<td class="tdr">705</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ja.</td> +<td class="tdr">2</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">87</td> +<td class="tdr">705</td> +<td class="bdless-right">D.</td> +<td class="tdr">23</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">88</td> +<td class="tdr">706</td> +<td class="bdless-right">D.</td> +<td class="tdr">12</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">89</td> +<td class="tdr">707</td> +<td class="bdless-right">D.</td> +<td class="tdr">1</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">90</td> +<td class="tdr">708</td> +<td class="bdless-right">N.</td> +<td class="tdr">20</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">91</td> +<td class="tdr">709</td> +<td class="bdless-right">N.</td> +<td class="tdr">9</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">92</td> +<td class="tdr">710</td> +<td class="bdless-right">O.</td> +<td class="tdr">29</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">93</td> +<td class="tdr">711</td> +<td class="bdless-right">O.</td> +<td class="tdr">19</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">94</td> +<td class="tdr">712</td> +<td class="bdless-right">O.</td> +<td class="tdr">7</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">95</td> +<td class="tdr">713</td> +<td class="bdless-right">S.</td> +<td class="tdr">26</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">96</td> +<td class="tdr">714</td> +<td class="bdless-right">S.</td> +<td class="tdr">16</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">97</td> +<td class="tdr">715</td> +<td class="bdless-right">S.</td> +<td class="tdr">5</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">98</td> +<td class="tdr">716</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ag.</td> +<td class="tdr">25</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">99</td> +<td class="tdr">717</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ag.</td> +<td class="tdr">14</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">100</td> +<td class="tdr">718</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ag.</td> +<td class="tdr">3</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">101</td> +<td class="tdr">719</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Jy.</td> +<td class="tdr">24</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">102</td> +<td class="tdr">720</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Jy.</td> +<td class="tdr">12</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">103</td> +<td class="tdr">721</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Jy.</td> +<td class="tdr">1</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">104</td> +<td class="tdr">722</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ju.</td> +<td class="tdr">21</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">105</td> +<td class="tdr">723</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ju.</td> +<td class="tdr">10</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">106</td> +<td class="tdr">724</td> +<td class="bdless-right">My.</td> +<td class="tdr">29</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">107</td> +<td class="tdr">725</td> +<td class="bdless-right">My.</td> +<td class="tdr">19</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">108</td> +<td class="tdr">726</td> +<td class="bdless-right">My.</td> +<td class="tdr">8</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">109</td> +<td class="tdr">727</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ap.</td> +<td class="tdr">28</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">110</td> +<td class="tdr">728</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ap.</td> +<td class="tdr">16</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">111</td> +<td class="tdr">729</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ap.</td> +<td class="tdr">5</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">112</td> +<td class="tdr">730</td> +<td class="bdless-right">M.</td> +<td class="tdr">26</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">113</td> +<td class="tdr">731</td> +<td class="bdless-right">M.</td> +<td class="tdr">15</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">114</td> +<td class="tdr">732</td> +<td class="bdless-right">M.</td> +<td class="tdr">3</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">115</td> +<td class="tdr">733</td> +<td class="bdless-right">F.</td> +<td class="tdr">21</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">116</td> +<td class="tdr">734</td> +<td class="bdless-right">F.</td> +<td class="tdr">10</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">117</td> +<td class="tdr">735</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ja.</td> +<td class="tdr">31</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">118</td> +<td class="tdr">736</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ja.</td> +<td class="tdr">20</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">119</td> +<td class="tdr">737</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ja.</td> +<td class="tdr">8</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">120</td> +<td class="tdr">737</td> +<td class="bdless-right">D.</td> +<td class="tdr">29</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">121</td> +<td class="tdr">738</td> +<td class="bdless-right">D.</td> +<td class="tdr">18</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">122</td> +<td class="tdr">739</td> +<td class="bdless-right">D.</td> +<td class="tdr">7</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">123</td> +<td class="tdr">740</td> +<td class="bdless-right">N.</td> +<td class="tdr">26</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">124</td> +<td class="tdr">741</td> +<td class="bdless-right">N.</td> +<td class="tdr">15</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">125</td> +<td class="tdr">742</td> +<td class="bdless-right">N.</td> +<td class="tdr">4</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">126</td> +<td class="tdr">743</td> +<td class="bdless-right">O.</td> +<td class="tdr">25</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">127</td> +<td class="tdr">744</td> +<td class="bdless-right">O.</td> +<td class="tdr">13</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">128</td> +<td class="tdr">745</td> +<td class="bdless-right">O.</td> +<td class="tdr">3</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">129</td> +<td class="tdr">746</td> +<td class="bdless-right">S.</td> +<td class="tdr">22</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">130</td> +<td class="tdr">747</td> +<td class="bdless-right">S.</td> +<td class="tdr">11</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">131</td> +<td class="tdr">748</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ag.</td> +<td class="tdr">31</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">132</td> +<td class="tdr">749</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ag.</td> +<td class="tdr">20</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">133</td> +<td class="tdr">750</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ag.</td> +<td class="tdr">9</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">134</td> +<td class="tdr">751</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Jy.</td> +<td class="tdr">30</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">135</td> +<td class="tdr">752</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Jy.</td> +<td class="tdr">18</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">136</td> +<td class="tdr">753</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Jy.</td> +<td class="tdr">7</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">137</td> +<td class="tdr">754</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ju.</td> +<td class="tdr">27</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">138</td> +<td class="tdr">755</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ju.</td> +<td class="tdr">16</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">139</td> +<td class="tdr">756</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ju.</td> +<td class="tdr">5</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">140</td> +<td class="tdr">757</td> +<td class="bdless-right">My.</td> +<td class="tdr">25</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">141</td> +<td class="tdr">758</td> +<td class="bdless-right">My.</td> +<td class="tdr">14</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">142</td> +<td class="tdr">759</td> +<td class="bdless-right">My.</td> +<td class="tdr">4</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">143</td> +<td class="tdr">760</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ap.</td> +<td class="tdr">22</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">144</td> +<td class="tdr">761</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ap.</td> +<td class="tdr">11</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">145</td> +<td class="tdr">762</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ap.</td> +<td class="tdr">1</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">146</td> +<td class="tdr">763</td> +<td class="bdless-right">M.</td> +<td class="tdr">21</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">147</td> +<td class="tdr">764</td> +<td class="bdless-right">M.</td> +<td class="tdr">10</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">148</td> +<td class="tdr">765</td> +<td class="bdless-right">F.</td> +<td class="tdr">27</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">149</td> +<td class="tdr">766</td> +<td class="bdless-right">F.</td> +<td class="tdr">16</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">150</td> +<td class="tdr">767</td> +<td class="bdless-right">F.</td> +<td class="tdr">6</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">151</td> +<td class="tdr">768</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ja.</td> +<td class="tdr">26</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">152</td> +<td class="tdr">769</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ja.</td> +<td class="tdr">14</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">153</td> +<td class="tdr">770</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ja.</td> +<td class="tdr">4</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">154</td> +<td class="tdr">770</td> +<td class="bdless-right">D.</td> +<td class="tdr">24</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">155</td> +<td class="tdr">771</td> +<td class="bdless-right">D.</td> +<td class="tdr">13</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">156</td> +<td class="tdr">772</td> +<td class="bdless-right">D.</td> +<td class="tdr">2</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">157</td> +<td class="tdr">773</td> +<td class="bdless-right">N.</td> +<td class="tdr">21</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">158</td> +<td class="tdr">774</td> +<td class="bdless-right">N.</td> +<td class="tdr">11</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">159</td> +<td class="tdr">775</td> +<td class="bdless-right">O.</td> +<td class="tdr">31</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">160</td> +<td class="tdr">776</td> +<td class="bdless-right">O.</td> +<td class="tdr">19</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">161</td> +<td class="tdr">777</td> +<td class="bdless-right">O.</td> +<td class="tdr">9</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">162</td> +<td class="tdr">778</td> +<td class="bdless-right">S.</td> +<td class="tdr">28</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">163</td> +<td class="tdr">779</td> +<td class="bdless-right">S.</td> +<td class="tdr">17</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">164</td> +<td class="tdr">780</td> +<td class="bdless-right">S.</td> +<td class="tdr">6</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">165</td> +<td class="tdr">781</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ag.</td> +<td class="tdr">26</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">166</td> +<td class="tdr">782</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ag.</td> +<td class="tdr">15</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">167</td> +<td class="tdr">783</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ag.</td> +<td class="tdr">5</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">168</td> +<td class="tdr">784</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Jy.</td> +<td class="tdr">24</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">169</td> +<td class="tdr">785</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Jy.</td> +<td class="tdr">14</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">170</td> +<td class="tdr">786</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Jy.</td> +<td class="tdr">3</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">171</td> +<td class="tdr">787</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ju.</td> +<td class="tdr">22</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">172</td> +<td class="tdr">788</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ju.</td> +<td class="tdr">11</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">173</td> +<td class="tdr">789</td> +<td class="bdless-right">My.</td> +<td class="tdr">31</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">174</td> +<td class="tdr">790</td> +<td class="bdless-right">My.</td> +<td class="tdr">20</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">175</td> +<td class="tdr">791</td> +<td class="bdless-right">My.</td> +<td class="tdr">10</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">176</td> +<td class="tdr">792</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ap.</td> +<td class="tdr">28</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">177</td> +<td class="tdr">793</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ap.</td> +<td class="tdr">18</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">178</td> +<td class="tdr">794</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ap.</td> +<td class="tdr">7</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">179</td> +<td class="tdr">795</td> +<td class="bdless-right">M.</td> +<td class="tdr">27</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">180</td> +<td class="tdr">796</td> +<td class="bdless-right">M.</td> +<td class="tdr">16</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">181</td> +<td class="tdr">797</td> +<td class="bdless-right">M.</td> +<td class="tdr">5</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">182</td> +<td class="tdr">798</td> +<td class="bdless-right">F.</td> +<td class="tdr">22</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">183</td> +<td class="tdr">799</td> +<td class="bdless-right">F.</td> +<td class="tdr">12</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">184</td> +<td class="tdr">800</td> +<td class="bdless-right">F.</td> +<td class="tdr">1</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">185</td> +<td class="tdr">801</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ja.</td> +<td class="tdr">20</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">186</td> +<td class="tdr">802</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ja.</td> +<td class="tdr">10</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">187</td> +<td class="tdr">802</td> +<td class="bdless-right">D.</td> +<td class="tdr">30</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">188</td> +<td class="tdr">803</td> +<td class="bdless-right">D.</td> +<td class="tdr">20</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">189</td> +<td class="tdr">804</td> +<td class="bdless-right">D.</td> +<td class="tdr">8</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">190</td> +<td class="tdr">805</td> +<td class="bdless-right">N.</td> +<td class="tdr">27</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">191</td> +<td class="tdr">806</td> +<td class="bdless-right">N.</td> +<td class="tdr">17</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">192</td> +<td class="tdr">807</td> +<td class="bdless-right">N.</td> +<td class="tdr">6</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">193</td> +<td class="tdr">808</td> +<td class="bdless-right">O.</td> +<td class="tdr">25</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">194</td> +<td class="tdr">809</td> +<td class="bdless-right">O.</td> +<td class="tdr">15</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">195</td> +<td class="tdr">810</td> +<td class="bdless-right">O.</td> +<td class="tdr">4</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">196</td> +<td class="tdr">811</td> +<td class="bdless-right">S.</td> +<td class="tdr">23</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">197</td> +<td class="tdr">812</td> +<td class="bdless-right">S.</td> +<td class="tdr">12</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">198</td> +<td class="tdr">813</td> +<td class="bdless-right">S.</td> +<td class="tdr">1</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">199</td> +<td class="tdr">814</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ag.</td> +<td class="tdr">22</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">200</td> +<td class="tdr">815</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ag.</td> +<td class="tdr">11</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr"><span class="pagenum" id= +"Page_324">[324]</span>201</td> +<td class="tdr">816</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Jy.</td> +<td class="tdr">30</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">202</td> +<td class="tdr">817</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Jy.</td> +<td class="tdr">20</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">203</td> +<td class="tdr">818</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Jy.</td> +<td class="tdr">9</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">204</td> +<td class="tdr">819</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ju.</td> +<td class="tdr">28</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">205</td> +<td class="tdr">820</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ju.</td> +<td class="tdr">17</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">206</td> +<td class="tdr">821</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ju.</td> +<td class="tdr">6</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">207</td> +<td class="tdr">822</td> +<td class="bdless-right">My.</td> +<td class="tdr">27</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">208</td> +<td class="tdr">823</td> +<td class="bdless-right">My.</td> +<td class="tdr">16</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">209</td> +<td class="tdr">824</td> +<td class="bdless-right">My.</td> +<td class="tdr">4</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">210</td> +<td class="tdr">825</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ap.</td> +<td class="tdr">24</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">211</td> +<td class="tdr">826</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ap.</td> +<td class="tdr">13</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">212</td> +<td class="tdr">827</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ap.</td> +<td class="tdr">2</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">213</td> +<td class="tdr">828</td> +<td class="bdless-right">M.</td> +<td class="tdr">22</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">214</td> +<td class="tdr">829</td> +<td class="bdless-right">M.</td> +<td class="tdr">11</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">215</td> +<td class="tdr">830</td> +<td class="bdless-right">F.</td> +<td class="tdr">28</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">216</td> +<td class="tdr">831</td> +<td class="bdless-right">F.</td> +<td class="tdr">18</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">217</td> +<td class="tdr">832</td> +<td class="bdless-right">F.</td> +<td class="tdr">7</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">218</td> +<td class="tdr">833</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ja.</td> +<td class="tdr">27</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">219</td> +<td class="tdr">834</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ja.</td> +<td class="tdr">16</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">220</td> +<td class="tdr">835</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ja.</td> +<td class="tdr">5</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">221</td> +<td class="tdr">835</td> +<td class="bdless-right">D.</td> +<td class="tdr">26</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">222</td> +<td class="tdr">836</td> +<td class="bdless-right">D.</td> +<td class="tdr">14</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">223</td> +<td class="tdr">837</td> +<td class="bdless-right">D.</td> +<td class="tdr">3</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">224</td> +<td class="tdr">838</td> +<td class="bdless-right">N.</td> +<td class="tdr">23</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">225</td> +<td class="tdr">839</td> +<td class="bdless-right">N.</td> +<td class="tdr">12</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">226</td> +<td class="tdr">840</td> +<td class="bdless-right">O.</td> +<td class="tdr">31</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">227</td> +<td class="tdr">841</td> +<td class="bdless-right">O.</td> +<td class="tdr">21</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">228</td> +<td class="tdr">842</td> +<td class="bdless-right">O.</td> +<td class="tdr">10</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">229</td> +<td class="tdr">843</td> +<td class="bdless-right">S.</td> +<td class="tdr">30</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">230</td> +<td class="tdr">844</td> +<td class="bdless-right">S.</td> +<td class="tdr">18</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">231</td> +<td class="tdr">845</td> +<td class="bdless-right">S.</td> +<td class="tdr">7</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">232</td> +<td class="tdr">846</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ag.</td> +<td class="tdr">28</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">233</td> +<td class="tdr">847</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ag.</td> +<td class="tdr">17</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">234</td> +<td class="tdr">848</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ag.</td> +<td class="tdr">5</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">235</td> +<td class="tdr">849</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Jy.</td> +<td class="tdr">26</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">236</td> +<td class="tdr">850</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Jy.</td> +<td class="tdr">15</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">237</td> +<td class="tdr">851</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Jy.</td> +<td class="tdr">5</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">238</td> +<td class="tdr">852</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ju.</td> +<td class="tdr">23</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">239</td> +<td class="tdr">853</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ju.</td> +<td class="tdr">12</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">240</td> +<td class="tdr">854</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ju.</td> +<td class="tdr">2</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">241</td> +<td class="tdr">855</td> +<td class="bdless-right">My.</td> +<td class="tdr">22</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">242</td> +<td class="tdr">856</td> +<td class="bdless-right">My.</td> +<td class="tdr">10</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">243</td> +<td class="tdr">857</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ap.</td> +<td class="tdr">30</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">244</td> +<td class="tdr">858</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ap.</td> +<td class="tdr">19</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">245</td> +<td class="tdr">859</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ap.</td> +<td class="tdr">8</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">246</td> +<td class="tdr">860</td> +<td class="bdless-right">M.</td> +<td class="tdr">28</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">247</td> +<td class="tdr">861</td> +<td class="bdless-right">M.</td> +<td class="tdr">17</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">248</td> +<td class="tdr">862</td> +<td class="bdless-right">M.</td> +<td class="tdr">7</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">249</td> +<td class="tdr">863</td> +<td class="bdless-right">F.</td> +<td class="tdr">24</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">250</td> +<td class="tdr">864</td> +<td class="bdless-right">F.</td> +<td class="tdr">13</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">251</td> +<td class="tdr">865</td> +<td class="bdless-right">F.</td> +<td class="tdr">2</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">252</td> +<td class="tdr">866</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ja.</td> +<td class="tdr">22</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">253</td> +<td class="tdr">867</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ja.</td> +<td class="tdr">11</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">254</td> +<td class="tdr">868</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ja.</td> +<td class="tdr">1</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">255</td> +<td class="tdr">868</td> +<td class="bdless-right">D.</td> +<td class="tdr">20</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">256</td> +<td class="tdr">869</td> +<td class="bdless-right">D.</td> +<td class="tdr">9</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">257</td> +<td class="tdr">870</td> +<td class="bdless-right">N.</td> +<td class="tdr">29</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">258</td> +<td class="tdr">871</td> +<td class="bdless-right">N.</td> +<td class="tdr">18</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">259</td> +<td class="tdr">872</td> +<td class="bdless-right">N.</td> +<td class="tdr">7</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">260</td> +<td class="tdr">873</td> +<td class="bdless-right">O.</td> +<td class="tdr">27</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">261</td> +<td class="tdr">874</td> +<td class="bdless-right">O.</td> +<td class="tdr">16</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">262</td> +<td class="tdr">875</td> +<td class="bdless-right">O.</td> +<td class="tdr">6</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">263</td> +<td class="tdr">876</td> +<td class="bdless-right">S.</td> +<td class="tdr">24</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">264</td> +<td class="tdr">877</td> +<td class="bdless-right">S.</td> +<td class="tdr">13</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">265</td> +<td class="tdr">878</td> +<td class="bdless-right">S.</td> +<td class="tdr">3</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">266</td> +<td class="tdr">879</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ag.</td> +<td class="tdr">23</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">267</td> +<td class="tdr">880</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ag.</td> +<td class="tdr">12</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">268</td> +<td class="tdr">881</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ag.</td> +<td class="tdr">1</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">269</td> +<td class="tdr">882</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Jy.</td> +<td class="tdr">21</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">270</td> +<td class="tdr">883</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Jy.</td> +<td class="tdr">11</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">271</td> +<td class="tdr">884</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ju.</td> +<td class="tdr">29</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">272</td> +<td class="tdr">885</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ju.</td> +<td class="tdr">18</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">273</td> +<td class="tdr">886</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ju.</td> +<td class="tdr">8</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">274</td> +<td class="tdr">887</td> +<td class="bdless-right">My.</td> +<td class="tdr">28</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">275</td> +<td class="tdr">888</td> +<td class="bdless-right">My.</td> +<td class="tdr">16</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">276</td> +<td class="tdr">889</td> +<td class="bdless-right">My.</td> +<td class="tdr">6</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">277</td> +<td class="tdr">890</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ap.</td> +<td class="tdr">25</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">278</td> +<td class="tdr">891</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ap.</td> +<td class="tdr">15</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">279</td> +<td class="tdr">892</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ap.</td> +<td class="tdr">3</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">280</td> +<td class="tdr">893</td> +<td class="bdless-right">M.</td> +<td class="tdr">23</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">281</td> +<td class="tdr">894</td> +<td class="bdless-right">M.</td> +<td class="tdr">13</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">282</td> +<td class="tdr">895</td> +<td class="bdless-right">M.</td> +<td class="tdr">2</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">283</td> +<td class="tdr">896</td> +<td class="bdless-right">F.</td> +<td class="tdr">19</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">284</td> +<td class="tdr">897</td> +<td class="bdless-right">F.</td> +<td class="tdr">8</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">285</td> +<td class="tdr">898</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ja.</td> +<td class="tdr">28</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">286</td> +<td class="tdr">899</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ja.</td> +<td class="tdr">17</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">287</td> +<td class="tdr">900</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ja.</td> +<td class="tdr">7</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">288</td> +<td class="tdr">900</td> +<td class="bdless-right">D.</td> +<td class="tdr">26</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">289</td> +<td class="tdr">901</td> +<td class="bdless-right">D.</td> +<td class="tdr">16</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">290</td> +<td class="tdr">902</td> +<td class="bdless-right">D.</td> +<td class="tdr">5</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">291</td> +<td class="tdr">903</td> +<td class="bdless-right">N.</td> +<td class="tdr">24</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">292</td> +<td class="tdr">904</td> +<td class="bdless-right">N.</td> +<td class="tdr">13</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">293</td> +<td class="tdr">905</td> +<td class="bdless-right">N.</td> +<td class="tdr">2</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">294</td> +<td class="tdr">906</td> +<td class="bdless-right">O.</td> +<td class="tdr">22</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">295</td> +<td class="tdr">907</td> +<td class="bdless-right">O.</td> +<td class="tdr">12</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">296</td> +<td class="tdr">908</td> +<td class="bdless-right">S.</td> +<td class="tdr">30</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">297</td> +<td class="tdr">909</td> +<td class="bdless-right">S.</td> +<td class="tdr">20</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">298</td> +<td class="tdr">910</td> +<td class="bdless-right">S.</td> +<td class="tdr">9</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">299</td> +<td class="tdr">911</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ag.</td> +<td class="tdr">18</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">300</td> +<td class="tdr">912</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ag.</td> +<td class="tdr">29</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">301</td> +<td class="tdr">913</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ag.</td> +<td class="tdr">7</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">302</td> +<td class="tdr">914</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Jy.</td> +<td class="tdr">27</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">303</td> +<td class="tdr">915</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Jy.</td> +<td class="tdr">17</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">304</td> +<td class="tdr">916</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Jy.</td> +<td class="tdr">5</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">305</td> +<td class="tdr">917</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ju.</td> +<td class="tdr">24</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">306</td> +<td class="tdr">918</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ju.</td> +<td class="tdr">14</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">307</td> +<td class="tdr">919</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ju.</td> +<td class="tdr">3</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">308</td> +<td class="tdr">920</td> +<td class="bdless-right">My.</td> +<td class="tdr">23</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">309</td> +<td class="tdr">921</td> +<td class="bdless-right">My.</td> +<td class="tdr">12</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">310</td> +<td class="tdr">922</td> +<td class="bdless-right">My.</td> +<td class="tdr">1</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">311</td> +<td class="tdr">923</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ap.</td> +<td class="tdr">21</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">312</td> +<td class="tdr">924</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ap.</td> +<td class="tdr">9</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">313</td> +<td class="tdr">925</td> +<td class="bdless-right">M.</td> +<td class="tdr">29</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">314</td> +<td class="tdr">926</td> +<td class="bdless-right">M.</td> +<td class="tdr">19</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">315</td> +<td class="tdr">927</td> +<td class="bdless-right">M.</td> +<td class="tdr">8</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">316</td> +<td class="tdr">928</td> +<td class="bdless-right">F.</td> +<td class="tdr">25</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">317</td> +<td class="tdr">929</td> +<td class="bdless-right">F.</td> +<td class="tdr">14</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">318</td> +<td class="tdr">930</td> +<td class="bdless-right">F.</td> +<td class="tdr">3</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">319</td> +<td class="tdr">931</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ja.</td> +<td class="tdr">24</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">320</td> +<td class="tdr">932</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ja.</td> +<td class="tdr">13</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">321</td> +<td class="tdr">933</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ja.</td> +<td class="tdr">1</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">322</td> +<td class="tdr">933</td> +<td class="bdless-right">D.</td> +<td class="tdr">22</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">323</td> +<td class="tdr">934</td> +<td class="bdless-right">D.</td> +<td class="tdr">11</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">324</td> +<td class="tdr">935</td> +<td class="bdless-right">N.</td> +<td class="tdr">30</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">325</td> +<td class="tdr">936</td> +<td class="bdless-right">N.</td> +<td class="tdr">19</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">326</td> +<td class="tdr">937</td> +<td class="bdless-right">N.</td> +<td class="tdr">8</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">327</td> +<td class="tdr">938</td> +<td class="bdless-right">O.</td> +<td class="tdr">29</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">328</td> +<td class="tdr">939</td> +<td class="bdless-right">O.</td> +<td class="tdr">18</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">329</td> +<td class="tdr">940</td> +<td class="bdless-right">O.</td> +<td class="tdr">6</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">330</td> +<td class="tdr">941</td> +<td class="bdless-right">S.</td> +<td class="tdr">26</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">331</td> +<td class="tdr">942</td> +<td class="bdless-right">S.</td> +<td class="tdr">15</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">332</td> +<td class="tdr">943</td> +<td class="bdless-right">S.</td> +<td class="tdr">4</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">333</td> +<td class="tdr">944</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ag.</td> +<td class="tdr">24</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">334</td> +<td class="tdr">945</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ag.</td> +<td class="tdr">13</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">335</td> +<td class="tdr">946</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ag.</td> +<td class="tdr">2</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">336</td> +<td class="tdr">947</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Jy.</td> +<td class="tdr">23</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">337</td> +<td class="tdr">948</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Jy.</td> +<td class="tdr">11</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">338</td> +<td class="tdr">949</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Jy.</td> +<td class="tdr">1</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">339</td> +<td class="tdr">950</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ju.</td> +<td class="tdr">20</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">340</td> +<td class="tdr">951</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ju.</td> +<td class="tdr">9</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">341</td> +<td class="tdr">952</td> +<td class="bdless-right">My.</td> +<td class="tdr">29</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">342</td> +<td class="tdr">953</td> +<td class="bdless-right">My.</td> +<td class="tdr">18</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">343</td> +<td class="tdr">954</td> +<td class="bdless-right">My.</td> +<td class="tdr">7</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">344</td> +<td class="tdr">955</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ap.</td> +<td class="tdr">27</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">345</td> +<td class="tdr">956</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ap.</td> +<td class="tdr">15</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">346</td> +<td class="tdr">957</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ap.</td> +<td class="tdr">4</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">347</td> +<td class="tdr">958</td> +<td class="bdless-right">M.</td> +<td class="tdr">25</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">348</td> +<td class="tdr">959</td> +<td class="bdless-right">M.</td> +<td class="tdr">14</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">349</td> +<td class="tdr">960</td> +<td class="bdless-right">M.</td> +<td class="tdr">3</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">350</td> +<td class="tdr">961</td> +<td class="bdless-right">F.</td> +<td class="tdr">20</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">351</td> +<td class="tdr">962</td> +<td class="bdless-right">F.</td> +<td class="tdr">9</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">352</td> +<td class="tdr">963</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ja.</td> +<td class="tdr">30</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">353</td> +<td class="tdr">964</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ja.</td> +<td class="tdr">19</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">354</td> +<td class="tdr">965</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ja.</td> +<td class="tdr">7</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">355</td> +<td class="tdr">965</td> +<td class="bdless-right">D.</td> +<td class="tdr">28</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">356</td> +<td class="tdr">966</td> +<td class="bdless-right">D.</td> +<td class="tdr">17</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">357</td> +<td class="tdr">967</td> +<td class="bdless-right">D.</td> +<td class="tdr">7</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">358</td> +<td class="tdr">968</td> +<td class="bdless-right">N.</td> +<td class="tdr">25</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">359</td> +<td class="tdr">969</td> +<td class="bdless-right">N.</td> +<td class="tdr">14</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">360</td> +<td class="tdr">970</td> +<td class="bdless-right">N.</td> +<td class="tdr">4</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">361</td> +<td class="tdr">971</td> +<td class="bdless-right">O.</td> +<td class="tdr">24</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">362</td> +<td class="tdr">972</td> +<td class="bdless-right">O.</td> +<td class="tdr">12</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">363</td> +<td class="tdr">973</td> +<td class="bdless-right">O.</td> +<td class="tdr">2</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">364</td> +<td class="tdr">974</td> +<td class="bdless-right">S.</td> +<td class="tdr">21</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">365</td> +<td class="tdr">975</td> +<td class="bdless-right">S.</td> +<td class="tdr">10</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">366</td> +<td class="tdr">976</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ag.</td> +<td class="tdr">30</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">367</td> +<td class="tdr">977</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ag.</td> +<td class="tdr">19</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">368</td> +<td class="tdr">978</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ag.</td> +<td class="tdr">9</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">369</td> +<td class="tdr">979</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Jy.</td> +<td class="tdr">29</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">370</td> +<td class="tdr">980</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Jy.</td> +<td class="tdr">17</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">371</td> +<td class="tdr">981</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Jy.</td> +<td class="tdr">7</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">372</td> +<td class="tdr">982</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ju.</td> +<td class="tdr">26</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">373</td> +<td class="tdr">983</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ju.</td> +<td class="tdr">15</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">374</td> +<td class="tdr">984</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ju.</td> +<td class="tdr">4</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">375</td> +<td class="tdr">985</td> +<td class="bdless-right">My.</td> +<td class="tdr">24</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">376</td> +<td class="tdr">986</td> +<td class="bdless-right">My.</td> +<td class="tdr">13</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">377</td> +<td class="tdr">987</td> +<td class="bdless-right">My.</td> +<td class="tdr">3</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">378</td> +<td class="tdr">988</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ap.</td> +<td class="tdr">21</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">379</td> +<td class="tdr">989</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ap.</td> +<td class="tdr">11</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">380</td> +<td class="tdr">990</td> +<td class="bdless-right">M.</td> +<td class="tdr">31</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">381</td> +<td class="tdr">991</td> +<td class="bdless-right">M.</td> +<td class="tdr">20</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">382</td> +<td class="tdr">992</td> +<td class="bdless-right">M.</td> +<td class="tdr">9</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">383</td> +<td class="tdr">993</td> +<td class="bdless-right">F.</td> +<td class="tdr">26</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">384</td> +<td class="tdr">994</td> +<td class="bdless-right">F.</td> +<td class="tdr">15</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">385</td> +<td class="tdr">995</td> +<td class="bdless-right">F.</td> +<td class="tdr">5</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">386</td> +<td class="tdr">996</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ja.</td> +<td class="tdr">25</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">387</td> +<td class="tdr">997</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ja.</td> +<td class="tdr">14</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">388</td> +<td class="tdr">998</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ja.</td> +<td class="tdr">3</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">389</td> +<td class="tdr">998</td> +<td class="bdless-right">D.</td> +<td class="tdr">23</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">390</td> +<td class="tdr">999</td> +<td class="bdless-right">D.</td> +<td class="tdr">13</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">391</td> +<td class="tdr">1000</td> +<td class="bdless-right">D.</td> +<td class="tdr">1</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">392</td> +<td class="tdr">1001</td> +<td class="bdless-right">N.</td> +<td class="tdr">20</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">393</td> +<td class="tdr">1002</td> +<td class="bdless-right">N.</td> +<td class="tdr">10</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">394</td> +<td class="tdr">1003</td> +<td class="bdless-right">O.</td> +<td class="tdr">30</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">395</td> +<td class="tdr">1004</td> +<td class="bdless-right">O.</td> +<td class="tdr">18</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">396</td> +<td class="tdr">1005</td> +<td class="bdless-right">O.</td> +<td class="tdr">8</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">397</td> +<td class="tdr">1006</td> +<td class="bdless-right">S.</td> +<td class="tdr">27</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">398</td> +<td class="tdr">1007</td> +<td class="bdless-right">S.</td> +<td class="tdr">17</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">399</td> +<td class="tdr">1008</td> +<td class="bdless-right">S.</td> +<td class="tdr">5</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">400</td> +<td class="tdr">1009</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ag.</td> +<td class="tdr">25</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">401</td> +<td class="tdr">1010</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ag.</td> +<td class="tdr">15</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">402</td> +<td class="tdr">1011</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ag.</td> +<td class="tdr">4</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">403</td> +<td class="tdr">1012</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Jy.</td> +<td class="tdr">23</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">404</td> +<td class="tdr">1013</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Jy.</td> +<td class="tdr">13</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">405</td> +<td class="tdr">1014</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Jy.</td> +<td class="tdr">2</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">406</td> +<td class="tdr">1015</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ju.</td> +<td class="tdr">21</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">407</td> +<td class="tdr">1016</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ju.</td> +<td class="tdr">10</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">408</td> +<td class="tdr">1017</td> +<td class="bdless-right">My.</td> +<td class="tdr">30</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">409</td> +<td class="tdr">1018</td> +<td class="bdless-right">My.</td> +<td class="tdr">20</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">410</td> +<td class="tdr">1019</td> +<td class="bdless-right">My.</td> +<td class="tdr">9</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">411</td> +<td class="tdr">1020</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ap.</td> +<td class="tdr">27</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">412</td> +<td class="tdr">1021</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ap</td> +<td class="tdr">17</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">413</td> +<td class="tdr">1022</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ap.</td> +<td class="tdr">6</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">414</td> +<td class="tdr">1023</td> +<td class="bdless-right">M.</td> +<td class="tdr">26</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">415</td> +<td class="tdr">1024</td> +<td class="bdless-right">M.</td> +<td class="tdr">15</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">416</td> +<td class="tdr">1025</td> +<td class="bdless-right">M.</td> +<td class="tdr">4</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">417</td> +<td class="tdr">1026</td> +<td class="bdless-right">F.</td> +<td class="tdr">22</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">418</td> +<td class="tdr">1027</td> +<td class="bdless-right">F.</td> +<td class="tdr">11</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">419</td> +<td class="tdr">1028</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ja.</td> +<td class="tdr">31</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">420</td> +<td class="tdr">1029</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ja.</td> +<td class="tdr">20</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr"><span class="pagenum" id= +"Page_325">[325]</span>421</td> +<td class="tdr">1030</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ja.</td> +<td class="tdr">9</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">422</td> +<td class="tdr">1030</td> +<td class="bdless-right">D.</td> +<td class="tdr">29</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">423</td> +<td class="tdr">1031</td> +<td class="bdless-right">D.</td> +<td class="tdr">19</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">424</td> +<td class="tdr">1032</td> +<td class="bdless-right">D.</td> +<td class="tdr">7</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">425</td> +<td class="tdr">1033</td> +<td class="bdless-right">N.</td> +<td class="tdr">26</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">426</td> +<td class="tdr">1034</td> +<td class="bdless-right">N.</td> +<td class="tdr">16</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">427</td> +<td class="tdr">1035</td> +<td class="bdless-right">N.</td> +<td class="tdr">5</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">428</td> +<td class="tdr">1036</td> +<td class="bdless-right">O.</td> +<td class="tdr">25</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">429</td> +<td class="tdr">1037</td> +<td class="bdless-right">O.</td> +<td class="tdr">14</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">430</td> +<td class="tdr">1038</td> +<td class="bdless-right">O.</td> +<td class="tdr">3</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">431</td> +<td class="tdr">1039</td> +<td class="bdless-right">S.</td> +<td class="tdr">23</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">432</td> +<td class="tdr">1040</td> +<td class="bdless-right">S.</td> +<td class="tdr">11</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">433</td> +<td class="tdr">1041</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ag.</td> +<td class="tdr">31</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">434</td> +<td class="tdr">1042</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ag.</td> +<td class="tdr">21</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">435</td> +<td class="tdr">1043</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ag.</td> +<td class="tdr">10</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">436</td> +<td class="tdr">1044</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Jy.</td> +<td class="tdr">29</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">437</td> +<td class="tdr">1045</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Jy.</td> +<td class="tdr">19</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">438</td> +<td class="tdr">1046</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Jy.</td> +<td class="tdr">8</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">439</td> +<td class="tdr">1047</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ju.</td> +<td class="tdr">28</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">440</td> +<td class="tdr">1048</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ju.</td> +<td class="tdr">16</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">441</td> +<td class="tdr">1049</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ju.</td> +<td class="tdr">5</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">442</td> +<td class="tdr">1050</td> +<td class="bdless-right">My.</td> +<td class="tdr">26</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">443</td> +<td class="tdr">1051</td> +<td class="bdless-right">My.</td> +<td class="tdr">15</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">444</td> +<td class="tdr">1052</td> +<td class="bdless-right">My.</td> +<td class="tdr">3</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">445</td> +<td class="tdr">1053</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ap.</td> +<td class="tdr">23</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">446</td> +<td class="tdr">1054</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ap.</td> +<td class="tdr">12</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">447</td> +<td class="tdr">1055</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ap.</td> +<td class="tdr">2</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">448</td> +<td class="tdr">1056</td> +<td class="bdless-right">M.</td> +<td class="tdr">21</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">449</td> +<td class="tdr">1057</td> +<td class="bdless-right">M.</td> +<td class="tdr">10</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">450</td> +<td class="tdr">1058</td> +<td class="bdless-right">F.</td> +<td class="tdr">28</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">451</td> +<td class="tdr">1059</td> +<td class="bdless-right">F.</td> +<td class="tdr">17</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">452</td> +<td class="tdr">1060</td> +<td class="bdless-right">F.</td> +<td class="tdr">6</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">453</td> +<td class="tdr">1061</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ja.</td> +<td class="tdr">26</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">454</td> +<td class="tdr">1062</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ja.</td> +<td class="tdr">15</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">455</td> +<td class="tdr">1063</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ja.</td> +<td class="tdr">4</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">456</td> +<td class="tdr">1063</td> +<td class="bdless-right">D.</td> +<td class="tdr">25</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">457</td> +<td class="tdr">1064</td> +<td class="bdless-right">D.</td> +<td class="tdr">13</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">458</td> +<td class="tdr">1065</td> +<td class="bdless-right">D.</td> +<td class="tdr">3</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">459</td> +<td class="tdr">1066</td> +<td class="bdless-right">N.</td> +<td class="tdr">22</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">460</td> +<td class="tdr">1067</td> +<td class="bdless-right">N.</td> +<td class="tdr">11</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">461</td> +<td class="tdr">1068</td> +<td class="bdless-right">O.</td> +<td class="tdr">31</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">462</td> +<td class="tdr">1069</td> +<td class="bdless-right">O.</td> +<td class="tdr">20</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">463</td> +<td class="tdr">1070</td> +<td class="bdless-right">O.</td> +<td class="tdr">9</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">464</td> +<td class="tdr">1071</td> +<td class="bdless-right">S.</td> +<td class="tdr">29</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">465</td> +<td class="tdr">1072</td> +<td class="bdless-right">S.</td> +<td class="tdr">17</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">466</td> +<td class="tdr">1073</td> +<td class="bdless-right">S.</td> +<td class="tdr">6</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">467</td> +<td class="tdr">1074</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ag.</td> +<td class="tdr">27</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">468</td> +<td class="tdr">1075</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ag.</td> +<td class="tdr">16</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">469</td> +<td class="tdr">1076</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ag.</td> +<td class="tdr">5</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">470</td> +<td class="tdr">1077</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Jy.</td> +<td class="tdr">25</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">471</td> +<td class="tdr">1078</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Jy.</td> +<td class="tdr">14</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">472</td> +<td class="tdr">1079</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Jy.</td> +<td class="tdr">4</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">473</td> +<td class="tdr">1080</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ju.</td> +<td class="tdr">22</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">474</td> +<td class="tdr">1081</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ju.</td> +<td class="tdr">11</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">475</td> +<td class="tdr">1082</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ju.</td> +<td class="tdr">1</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">476</td> +<td class="tdr">1083</td> +<td class="bdless-right">My.</td> +<td class="tdr">21</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">477</td> +<td class="tdr">1084</td> +<td class="bdless-right">My.</td> +<td class="tdr">10</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">478</td> +<td class="tdr">1085</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ap.</td> +<td class="tdr">29</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">479</td> +<td class="tdr">1086</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ap.</td> +<td class="tdr">18</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">480</td> +<td class="tdr">1087</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ap.</td> +<td class="tdr">8</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">481</td> +<td class="tdr">1088</td> +<td class="bdless-right">M.</td> +<td class="tdr">27</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">482</td> +<td class="tdr">1089</td> +<td class="bdless-right">M.</td> +<td class="tdr">16</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">483</td> +<td class="tdr">1090</td> +<td class="bdless-right">M.</td> +<td class="tdr">6</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">484</td> +<td class="tdr">1091</td> +<td class="bdless-right">F.</td> +<td class="tdr">23</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">485</td> +<td class="tdr">1092</td> +<td class="bdless-right">F.</td> +<td class="tdr">12</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">486</td> +<td class="tdr">1093</td> +<td class="bdless-right">F.</td> +<td class="tdr">1</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">487</td> +<td class="tdr">1094</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ja.</td> +<td class="tdr">21</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">488</td> +<td class="tdr">1095</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ja.</td> +<td class="tdr">11</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">489</td> +<td class="tdr">1095</td> +<td class="bdless-right">D.</td> +<td class="tdr">31</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">490</td> +<td class="tdr">1096</td> +<td class="bdless-right">D.</td> +<td class="tdr">19</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">491</td> +<td class="tdr">1097</td> +<td class="bdless-right">D.</td> +<td class="tdr">9</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">492</td> +<td class="tdr">1098</td> +<td class="bdless-right">N.</td> +<td class="tdr">28</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">493</td> +<td class="tdr">1099</td> +<td class="bdless-right">N.</td> +<td class="tdr">17</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">494</td> +<td class="tdr">1100</td> +<td class="bdless-right">N.</td> +<td class="tdr">6</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">495</td> +<td class="tdr">1101</td> +<td class="bdless-right">O.</td> +<td class="tdr">26</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">496</td> +<td class="tdr">1102</td> +<td class="bdless-right">O.</td> +<td class="tdr">15</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">497</td> +<td class="tdr">1103</td> +<td class="bdless-right">O.</td> +<td class="tdr">5</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">498</td> +<td class="tdr">1104</td> +<td class="bdless-right">S.</td> +<td class="tdr">23</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">499</td> +<td class="tdr">1105</td> +<td class="bdless-right">S.</td> +<td class="tdr">13</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">500</td> +<td class="tdr">1106</td> +<td class="bdless-right">S.</td> +<td class="tdr">2</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">501</td> +<td class="tdr">1107</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ag.</td> +<td class="tdr">22</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">502</td> +<td class="tdr">1108</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ag.</td> +<td class="tdr">11</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">503</td> +<td class="tdr">1109</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Jy.</td> +<td class="tdr">31</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">504</td> +<td class="tdr">1110</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Jy.</td> +<td class="tdr">20</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">505</td> +<td class="tdr">1111</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Jy.</td> +<td class="tdr">10</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">506</td> +<td class="tdr">1112</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ju.</td> +<td class="tdr">28</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">507</td> +<td class="tdr">1113</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ju.</td> +<td class="tdr">18</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">508</td> +<td class="tdr">1114</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ju.</td> +<td class="tdr">7</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">509</td> +<td class="tdr">1115</td> +<td class="bdless-right">My.</td> +<td class="tdr">27</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">510</td> +<td class="tdr">1116</td> +<td class="bdless-right">My.</td> +<td class="tdr">16</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">511</td> +<td class="tdr">1117</td> +<td class="bdless-right">My.</td> +<td class="tdr">5</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">512</td> +<td class="tdr">1118</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ap.</td> +<td class="tdr">24</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">513</td> +<td class="tdr">1119</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ap.</td> +<td class="tdr">14</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">514</td> +<td class="tdr">1120</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ap.</td> +<td class="tdr">2</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">515</td> +<td class="tdr">1121</td> +<td class="bdless-right">M.</td> +<td class="tdr">22</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">516</td> +<td class="tdr">1122</td> +<td class="bdless-right">M.</td> +<td class="tdr">12</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">517</td> +<td class="tdr">1123</td> +<td class="bdless-right">M.</td> +<td class="tdr">1</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">518</td> +<td class="tdr">1124</td> +<td class="bdless-right">F.</td> +<td class="tdr">19</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">519</td> +<td class="tdr">1125</td> +<td class="bdless-right">F.</td> +<td class="tdr">7</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">520</td> +<td class="tdr">1126</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ja.</td> +<td class="tdr">27</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">521</td> +<td class="tdr">1127</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ja.</td> +<td class="tdr">17</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">522</td> +<td class="tdr">1128</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ja.</td> +<td class="tdr">6</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">523</td> +<td class="tdr">1128</td> +<td class="bdless-right">D.</td> +<td class="tdr">25</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">524</td> +<td class="tdr">1129</td> +<td class="bdless-right">D.</td> +<td class="tdr">15</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">525</td> +<td class="tdr">1130</td> +<td class="bdless-right">D.</td> +<td class="tdr">4</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">526</td> +<td class="tdr">1131</td> +<td class="bdless-right">N.</td> +<td class="tdr">23</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">527</td> +<td class="tdr">1132</td> +<td class="bdless-right">N.</td> +<td class="tdr">12</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">528</td> +<td class="tdr">1133</td> +<td class="bdless-right">N.</td> +<td class="tdr">1</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">529</td> +<td class="tdr">1134</td> +<td class="bdless-right">O.</td> +<td class="tdr">22</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">530</td> +<td class="tdr">1135</td> +<td class="bdless-right">O.</td> +<td class="tdr">11</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">531</td> +<td class="tdr">1136</td> +<td class="bdless-right">S.</td> +<td class="tdr">29</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">532</td> +<td class="tdr">1137</td> +<td class="bdless-right">S.</td> +<td class="tdr">19</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">533</td> +<td class="tdr">1138</td> +<td class="bdless-right">S.</td> +<td class="tdr">8</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">534</td> +<td class="tdr">1139</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ag.</td> +<td class="tdr">28</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">535</td> +<td class="tdr">1140</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ag.</td> +<td class="tdr">17</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">536</td> +<td class="tdr">1141</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ag.</td> +<td class="tdr">6</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">537</td> +<td class="tdr">1142</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Jy.</td> +<td class="tdr">27</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">538</td> +<td class="tdr">1143</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Jy.</td> +<td class="tdr">16</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">539</td> +<td class="tdr">1144</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Jy.</td> +<td class="tdr">4</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">540</td> +<td class="tdr">1145</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ju.</td> +<td class="tdr">24</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">541</td> +<td class="tdr">1146</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ju.</td> +<td class="tdr">13</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">542</td> +<td class="tdr">1147</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ju.</td> +<td class="tdr">2</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">543</td> +<td class="tdr">1148</td> +<td class="bdless-right">My.</td> +<td class="tdr">22</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">544</td> +<td class="tdr">1149</td> +<td class="bdless-right">My.</td> +<td class="tdr">11</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">545</td> +<td class="tdr">1150</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ap.</td> +<td class="tdr">30</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">546</td> +<td class="tdr">1151</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ap.</td> +<td class="tdr">20</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">547</td> +<td class="tdr">1152</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ap.</td> +<td class="tdr">8</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">548</td> +<td class="tdr">1153</td> +<td class="bdless-right">M.</td> +<td class="tdr">29</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">549</td> +<td class="tdr">1154</td> +<td class="bdless-right">M.</td> +<td class="tdr">18</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">550</td> +<td class="tdr">1155</td> +<td class="bdless-right">M.</td> +<td class="tdr">7</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">551</td> +<td class="tdr">1156</td> +<td class="bdless-right">F.</td> +<td class="tdr">25</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">552</td> +<td class="tdr">1157</td> +<td class="bdless-right">F.</td> +<td class="tdr">13</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">553</td> +<td class="tdr">1158</td> +<td class="bdless-right">F.</td> +<td class="tdr">2</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">554</td> +<td class="tdr">1159</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ja.</td> +<td class="tdr">23</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">555</td> +<td class="tdr">1160</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ja.</td> +<td class="tdr">12</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">556</td> +<td class="tdr">1160</td> +<td class="bdless-right">D.</td> +<td class="tdr">31</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">557</td> +<td class="tdr">1161</td> +<td class="bdless-right">D.</td> +<td class="tdr">21</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">558</td> +<td class="tdr">1162</td> +<td class="bdless-right">D.</td> +<td class="tdr">10</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">559</td> +<td class="tdr">1163</td> +<td class="bdless-right">N.</td> +<td class="tdr">30</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">560</td> +<td class="tdr">1164</td> +<td class="bdless-right">N.</td> +<td class="tdr">18</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">561</td> +<td class="tdr">1165</td> +<td class="bdless-right">N.</td> +<td class="tdr">7</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">562</td> +<td class="tdr">1166</td> +<td class="bdless-right">O.</td> +<td class="tdr">28</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">563</td> +<td class="tdr">1167</td> +<td class="bdless-right">O.</td> +<td class="tdr">17</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">564</td> +<td class="tdr">1168</td> +<td class="bdless-right">O.</td> +<td class="tdr">5</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">565</td> +<td class="tdr">1169</td> +<td class="bdless-right">S.</td> +<td class="tdr">25</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">566</td> +<td class="tdr">1170</td> +<td class="bdless-right">S.</td> +<td class="tdr">14</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">567</td> +<td class="tdr">1171</td> +<td class="bdless-right">S.</td> +<td class="tdr">4</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">568</td> +<td class="tdr">1172</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ag.</td> +<td class="tdr">23</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">569</td> +<td class="tdr">1173</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ag.</td> +<td class="tdr">12</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">570</td> +<td class="tdr">1174</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ag.</td> +<td class="tdr">2</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">571</td> +<td class="tdr">1175</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Jy.</td> +<td class="tdr">22</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">572</td> +<td class="tdr">1176</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Jy.</td> +<td class="tdr">10</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">573</td> +<td class="tdr">1177</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ju.</td> +<td class="tdr">30</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">574</td> +<td class="tdr">1178</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ju.</td> +<td class="tdr">19</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">575</td> +<td class="tdr">1179</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ju.</td> +<td class="tdr">8</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">576</td> +<td class="tdr">1180</td> +<td class="bdless-right">My.</td> +<td class="tdr">28</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">577</td> +<td class="tdr">1181</td> +<td class="bdless-right">My.</td> +<td class="tdr">17</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">578</td> +<td class="tdr">1182</td> +<td class="bdless-right">My.</td> +<td class="tdr">7</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">579</td> +<td class="tdr">1183</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ap.</td> +<td class="tdr">26</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">580</td> +<td class="tdr">1184</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ap.</td> +<td class="tdr">14</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">581</td> +<td class="tdr">1185</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ap.</td> +<td class="tdr">4</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">582</td> +<td class="tdr">1186</td> +<td class="bdless-right">M.</td> +<td class="tdr">24</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">583</td> +<td class="tdr">1187</td> +<td class="bdless-right">M.</td> +<td class="tdr">13</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">584</td> +<td class="tdr">1188</td> +<td class="bdless-right">M.</td> +<td class="tdr">2</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">585</td> +<td class="tdr">1189</td> +<td class="bdless-right">F.</td> +<td class="tdr">19</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">586</td> +<td class="tdr">1190</td> +<td class="bdless-right">F.</td> +<td class="tdr">8</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">587</td> +<td class="tdr">1191</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ja.</td> +<td class="tdr">29</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">588</td> +<td class="tdr">1192</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ja.</td> +<td class="tdr">18</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">589</td> +<td class="tdr">1193</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ja.</td> +<td class="tdr">7</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">590</td> +<td class="tdr">1193</td> +<td class="bdless-right">D.</td> +<td class="tdr">27</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">591</td> +<td class="tdr">1194</td> +<td class="bdless-right">D.</td> +<td class="tdr">16</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">592</td> +<td class="tdr">1195</td> +<td class="bdless-right">D.</td> +<td class="tdr">6</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">593</td> +<td class="tdr">1196</td> +<td class="bdless-right">N.</td> +<td class="tdr">24</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">594</td> +<td class="tdr">1197</td> +<td class="bdless-right">N.</td> +<td class="tdr">13</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">595</td> +<td class="tdr">1198</td> +<td class="bdless-right">N.</td> +<td class="tdr">3</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">596</td> +<td class="tdr">1199</td> +<td class="bdless-right">O.</td> +<td class="tdr">23</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">597</td> +<td class="tdr">1200</td> +<td class="bdless-right">O.</td> +<td class="tdr">12</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">598</td> +<td class="tdr">1201</td> +<td class="bdless-right">O.</td> +<td class="tdr">1</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">599</td> +<td class="tdr">1202</td> +<td class="bdless-right">S.</td> +<td class="tdr">20</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">600</td> +<td class="tdr">1203</td> +<td class="bdless-right">S.</td> +<td class="tdr">10</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">601</td> +<td class="tdr">1204</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ag.</td> +<td class="tdr">29</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">602</td> +<td class="tdr">1205</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ag.</td> +<td class="tdr">18</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">603</td> +<td class="tdr">1206</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ag.</td> +<td class="tdr">8</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">604</td> +<td class="tdr">1207</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Jy.</td> +<td class="tdr">28</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">605</td> +<td class="tdr">1208</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Jy.</td> +<td class="tdr">16</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">606</td> +<td class="tdr">1209</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Jy.</td> +<td class="tdr">6</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">607</td> +<td class="tdr">1210</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ju.</td> +<td class="tdr">25</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">608</td> +<td class="tdr">1211</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ju.</td> +<td class="tdr">15</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">609</td> +<td class="tdr">1212</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ju.</td> +<td class="tdr">3</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">610</td> +<td class="tdr">1213</td> +<td class="bdless-right">My.</td> +<td class="tdr">23</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">611</td> +<td class="tdr">1214</td> +<td class="bdless-right">My.</td> +<td class="tdr">13</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">612</td> +<td class="tdr">1215</td> +<td class="bdless-right">My.</td> +<td class="tdr">2</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">613</td> +<td class="tdr">1216</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ap.</td> +<td class="tdr">20</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">614</td> +<td class="tdr">1217</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ap.</td> +<td class="tdr">10</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">615</td> +<td class="tdr">1218</td> +<td class="bdless-right">M.</td> +<td class="tdr">30</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">616</td> +<td class="tdr">1219</td> +<td class="bdless-right">M.</td> +<td class="tdr">19</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">617</td> +<td class="tdr">1220</td> +<td class="bdless-right">M.</td> +<td class="tdr">8</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">618</td> +<td class="tdr">1221</td> +<td class="bdless-right">F.</td> +<td class="tdr">25</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">619</td> +<td class="tdr">1222</td> +<td class="bdless-right">F.</td> +<td class="tdr">15</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">620</td> +<td class="tdr">1223</td> +<td class="bdless-right">F.</td> +<td class="tdr">4</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">621</td> +<td class="tdr">1224</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ja.</td> +<td class="tdr">24</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">622</td> +<td class="tdr">1225</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ja.</td> +<td class="tdr">13</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">623</td> +<td class="tdr">1226</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ja.</td> +<td class="tdr">2</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">624</td> +<td class="tdr">1226</td> +<td class="bdless-right">D.</td> +<td class="tdr">22</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">625</td> +<td class="tdr">1227</td> +<td class="bdless-right">D.</td> +<td class="tdr">12</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">626</td> +<td class="tdr">1228</td> +<td class="bdless-right">N.</td> +<td class="tdr">30</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">627</td> +<td class="tdr">1229</td> +<td class="bdless-right">N.</td> +<td class="tdr">20</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">628</td> +<td class="tdr">1230</td> +<td class="bdless-right">N.</td> +<td class="tdr">9</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">629</td> +<td class="tdr">1231</td> +<td class="bdless-right">O.</td> +<td class="tdr">29</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">630</td> +<td class="tdr">1232</td> +<td class="bdless-right">O.</td> +<td class="tdr">18</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">631</td> +<td class="tdr">1233</td> +<td class="bdless-right">O.</td> +<td class="tdr">7</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">632</td> +<td class="tdr">1234</td> +<td class="bdless-right">S.</td> +<td class="tdr">26</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">633</td> +<td class="tdr">1235</td> +<td class="bdless-right">S.</td> +<td class="tdr">16</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">634</td> +<td class="tdr">1236</td> +<td class="bdless-right">S.</td> +<td class="tdr">4</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">635</td> +<td class="tdr">1237</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ag.</td> +<td class="tdr">24</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">636</td> +<td class="tdr">1238</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ag.</td> +<td class="tdr">14</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">637</td> +<td class="tdr">1239</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ag.</td> +<td class="tdr">3</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">638</td> +<td class="tdr">1240</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Jy.</td> +<td class="tdr">23</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">639</td> +<td class="tdr">1241</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Jy.</td> +<td class="tdr">12</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">640</td> +<td class="tdr">1242</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Jy.</td> +<td class="tdr">1</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr"><span class="pagenum" id= +"Page_326">[326]</span>641</td> +<td class="tdr">1243</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ju.</td> +<td class="tdr">21</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">642</td> +<td class="tdr">1244</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ju.</td> +<td class="tdr">9</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">643</td> +<td class="tdr">1245</td> +<td class="bdless-right">My.</td> +<td class="tdr">29</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">644</td> +<td class="tdr">1246</td> +<td class="bdless-right">My.</td> +<td class="tdr">19</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">645</td> +<td class="tdr">1247</td> +<td class="bdless-right">My.</td> +<td class="tdr">8</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">646</td> +<td class="tdr">1248</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ap.</td> +<td class="tdr">26</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">647</td> +<td class="tdr">1249</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ap.</td> +<td class="tdr">16</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">648</td> +<td class="tdr">1250</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ap.</td> +<td class="tdr">5</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">649</td> +<td class="tdr">1251</td> +<td class="bdless-right">M.</td> +<td class="tdr">26</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">650</td> +<td class="tdr">1252</td> +<td class="bdless-right">M.</td> +<td class="tdr">14</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">651</td> +<td class="tdr">1253</td> +<td class="bdless-right">M.</td> +<td class="tdr">3</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">652</td> +<td class="tdr">1254</td> +<td class="bdless-right">F.</td> +<td class="tdr">21</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">653</td> +<td class="tdr">1255</td> +<td class="bdless-right">F.</td> +<td class="tdr">10</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">654</td> +<td class="tdr">1256</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ja.</td> +<td class="tdr">30</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">655</td> +<td class="tdr">1257</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ja.</td> +<td class="tdr">19</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">656</td> +<td class="tdr">1258</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ja.</td> +<td class="tdr">8</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">657</td> +<td class="tdr">1258</td> +<td class="bdless-right">D.</td> +<td class="tdr">29</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">658</td> +<td class="tdr">1259</td> +<td class="bdless-right">D.</td> +<td class="tdr">18</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">659</td> +<td class="tdr">1260</td> +<td class="bdless-right">D.</td> +<td class="tdr">6</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">660</td> +<td class="tdr">1261</td> +<td class="bdless-right">N.</td> +<td class="tdr">26</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">661</td> +<td class="tdr">1262</td> +<td class="bdless-right">N.</td> +<td class="tdr">15</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">662</td> +<td class="tdr">1263</td> +<td class="bdless-right">N.</td> +<td class="tdr">4</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">663</td> +<td class="tdr">1264</td> +<td class="bdless-right">O.</td> +<td class="tdr">24</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">664</td> +<td class="tdr">1265</td> +<td class="bdless-right">O.</td> +<td class="tdr">13</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">665</td> +<td class="tdr">1266</td> +<td class="bdless-right">O.</td> +<td class="tdr">2</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">666</td> +<td class="tdr">1267</td> +<td class="bdless-right">S.</td> +<td class="tdr">22</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">667</td> +<td class="tdr">1268</td> +<td class="bdless-right">S.</td> +<td class="tdr">10</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">668</td> +<td class="tdr">1269</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ag.</td> +<td class="tdr">31</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">669</td> +<td class="tdr">1270</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ag.</td> +<td class="tdr">20</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">670</td> +<td class="tdr">1271</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ag.</td> +<td class="tdr">9</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">671</td> +<td class="tdr">1272</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Jy.</td> +<td class="tdr">29</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">672</td> +<td class="tdr">1273</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Jy.</td> +<td class="tdr">18</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">673</td> +<td class="tdr">1274</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Jy.</td> +<td class="tdr">7</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">674</td> +<td class="tdr">1275</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ju.</td> +<td class="tdr">27</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">675</td> +<td class="tdr">1276</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ju.</td> +<td class="tdr">15</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">676</td> +<td class="tdr">1277</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ju.</td> +<td class="tdr">4</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">677</td> +<td class="tdr">1278</td> +<td class="bdless-right">My.</td> +<td class="tdr">25</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">678</td> +<td class="tdr">1279</td> +<td class="bdless-right">My.</td> +<td class="tdr">14</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">679</td> +<td class="tdr">1280</td> +<td class="bdless-right">My.</td> +<td class="tdr">3</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">680</td> +<td class="tdr">1281</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ap.</td> +<td class="tdr">22</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">681</td> +<td class="tdr">1282</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ap.</td> +<td class="tdr">11</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">682</td> +<td class="tdr">1283</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ap.</td> +<td class="tdr">1</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">683</td> +<td class="tdr">1284</td> +<td class="bdless-right">M.</td> +<td class="tdr">20</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">684</td> +<td class="tdr">1285</td> +<td class="bdless-right">M.</td> +<td class="tdr">9</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">685</td> +<td class="tdr">1286</td> +<td class="bdless-right">F.</td> +<td class="tdr">27</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">686</td> +<td class="tdr">1287</td> +<td class="bdless-right">F.</td> +<td class="tdr">16</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">687</td> +<td class="tdr">1288</td> +<td class="bdless-right">F.</td> +<td class="tdr">6</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">688</td> +<td class="tdr">1289</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ja.</td> +<td class="tdr">25</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">689</td> +<td class="tdr">1290</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ja.</td> +<td class="tdr">14</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">690</td> +<td class="tdr">1291</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ja.</td> +<td class="tdr">4</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">691</td> +<td class="tdr">1291</td> +<td class="bdless-right">D.</td> +<td class="tdr">24</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">692</td> +<td class="tdr">1292</td> +<td class="bdless-right">D.</td> +<td class="tdr">12</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">693</td> +<td class="tdr">1293</td> +<td class="bdless-right">D.</td> +<td class="tdr">2</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">694</td> +<td class="tdr">1294</td> +<td class="bdless-right">N.</td> +<td class="tdr">21</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">695</td> +<td class="tdr">1295</td> +<td class="bdless-right">N.</td> +<td class="tdr">10</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">696</td> +<td class="tdr">1296</td> +<td class="bdless-right">O.</td> +<td class="tdr">30</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">697</td> +<td class="tdr">1297</td> +<td class="bdless-right">O.</td> +<td class="tdr">19</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">698</td> +<td class="tdr">1298</td> +<td class="bdless-right">O.</td> +<td class="tdr">9</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">699</td> +<td class="tdr">1299</td> +<td class="bdless-right">S.</td> +<td class="tdr">28</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">700</td> +<td class="tdr">1300</td> +<td class="bdless-right">S.</td> +<td class="tdr">16</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">701</td> +<td class="tdr">1301</td> +<td class="bdless-right">S.</td> +<td class="tdr">6</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">702</td> +<td class="tdr">1302</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ag.</td> +<td class="tdr">26</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">703</td> +<td class="tdr">1303</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ag.</td> +<td class="tdr">15</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">704</td> +<td class="tdr">1304</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ag.</td> +<td class="tdr">4</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">705</td> +<td class="tdr">1305</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Jy.</td> +<td class="tdr">24</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">706</td> +<td class="tdr">1306</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Jy.</td> +<td class="tdr">13</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">707</td> +<td class="tdr">1307</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Jy.</td> +<td class="tdr">3</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">708</td> +<td class="tdr">1308</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ju.</td> +<td class="tdr">21</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">709</td> +<td class="tdr">1309</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ju.</td> +<td class="tdr">11</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">710</td> +<td class="tdr">1310</td> +<td class="bdless-right">My.</td> +<td class="tdr">31</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">711</td> +<td class="tdr">1311</td> +<td class="bdless-right">My.</td> +<td class="tdr">20</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">712</td> +<td class="tdr">1312</td> +<td class="bdless-right">My.</td> +<td class="tdr">9</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">713</td> +<td class="tdr">1313</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ap.</td> +<td class="tdr">28</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">714</td> +<td class="tdr">1314</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ap.</td> +<td class="tdr">17</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">715</td> +<td class="tdr">1315</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ap</td> +<td class="tdr">7</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">716</td> +<td class="tdr">1316</td> +<td class="bdless-right">M.</td> +<td class="tdr">26</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">717</td> +<td class="tdr">1317</td> +<td class="bdless-right">M.</td> +<td class="tdr">16</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">718</td> +<td class="tdr">1318</td> +<td class="bdless-right">M.</td> +<td class="tdr">5</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">719</td> +<td class="tdr">1319</td> +<td class="bdless-right">F.</td> +<td class="tdr">22</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">720</td> +<td class="tdr">1320</td> +<td class="bdless-right">F.</td> +<td class="tdr">12</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">721</td> +<td class="tdr">1321</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ja.</td> +<td class="tdr">31</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">722</td> +<td class="tdr">1322</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ja.</td> +<td class="tdr">20</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">723</td> +<td class="tdr">1323</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ja.</td> +<td class="tdr">10</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">724</td> +<td class="tdr">1323</td> +<td class="bdless-right">D.</td> +<td class="tdr">30</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">725</td> +<td class="tdr">1324</td> +<td class="bdless-right">D.</td> +<td class="tdr">18</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">726</td> +<td class="tdr">1325</td> +<td class="bdless-right">D.</td> +<td class="tdr">8</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">727</td> +<td class="tdr">1326</td> +<td class="bdless-right">N.</td> +<td class="tdr">27</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">728</td> +<td class="tdr">1327</td> +<td class="bdless-right">N.</td> +<td class="tdr">17</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">729</td> +<td class="tdr">1328</td> +<td class="bdless-right">N.</td> +<td class="tdr">5</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">730</td> +<td class="tdr">1329</td> +<td class="bdless-right">O.</td> +<td class="tdr">25</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">731</td> +<td class="tdr">1330</td> +<td class="bdless-right">O.</td> +<td class="tdr">15</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">732</td> +<td class="tdr">1331</td> +<td class="bdless-right">O.</td> +<td class="tdr">4</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">733</td> +<td class="tdr">1332</td> +<td class="bdless-right">S.</td> +<td class="tdr">22</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">734</td> +<td class="tdr">1333</td> +<td class="bdless-right">S.</td> +<td class="tdr">12</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">735</td> +<td class="tdr">1334</td> +<td class="bdless-right">S.</td> +<td class="tdr">1</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">736</td> +<td class="tdr">1335</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ag.</td> +<td class="tdr">21</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">737</td> +<td class="tdr">1336</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ag.</td> +<td class="tdr">10</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">738</td> +<td class="tdr">1337</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Jy.</td> +<td class="tdr">30</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">739</td> +<td class="tdr">1338</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Jy.</td> +<td class="tdr">20</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">740</td> +<td class="tdr">1339</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Jy.</td> +<td class="tdr">9</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">741</td> +<td class="tdr">1340</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ju.</td> +<td class="tdr">27</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">742</td> +<td class="tdr">1341</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ju.</td> +<td class="tdr">17</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">743</td> +<td class="tdr">1342</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ju.</td> +<td class="tdr">6</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">744</td> +<td class="tdr">1343</td> +<td class="bdless-right">My.</td> +<td class="tdr">26</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">745</td> +<td class="tdr">1344</td> +<td class="bdless-right">My.</td> +<td class="tdr">15</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">746</td> +<td class="tdr">1345</td> +<td class="bdless-right">My.</td> +<td class="tdr">4</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">747</td> +<td class="tdr">1346</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ap.</td> +<td class="tdr">24</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">748</td> +<td class="tdr">1347</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ap.</td> +<td class="tdr">13</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">749</td> +<td class="tdr">1348</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ap.</td> +<td class="tdr">1</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">750</td> +<td class="tdr">1349</td> +<td class="bdless-right">M.</td> +<td class="tdr">22</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">751</td> +<td class="tdr">1350</td> +<td class="bdless-right">M.</td> +<td class="tdr">11</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">752</td> +<td class="tdr">1351</td> +<td class="bdless-right">F.</td> +<td class="tdr">28</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">753</td> +<td class="tdr">1352</td> +<td class="bdless-right">F.</td> +<td class="tdr">18</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">754</td> +<td class="tdr">1353</td> +<td class="bdless-right">F.</td> +<td class="tdr">6</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">755</td> +<td class="tdr">1354</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ja.</td> +<td class="tdr">26</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">756</td> +<td class="tdr">1355</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ja.</td> +<td class="tdr">16</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">757</td> +<td class="tdr">1356</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ja.</td> +<td class="tdr">5</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">758</td> +<td class="tdr">1356</td> +<td class="bdless-right">D.</td> +<td class="tdr">25</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">759</td> +<td class="tdr">1357</td> +<td class="bdless-right">D.</td> +<td class="tdr">14</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">760</td> +<td class="tdr">1358</td> +<td class="bdless-right">D.</td> +<td class="tdr">3</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">761</td> +<td class="tdr">1359</td> +<td class="bdless-right">N.</td> +<td class="tdr">23</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">762</td> +<td class="tdr">1360</td> +<td class="bdless-right">N.</td> +<td class="tdr">11</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">763</td> +<td class="tdr">1361</td> +<td class="bdless-right">O.</td> +<td class="tdr">31</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">764</td> +<td class="tdr">1362</td> +<td class="bdless-right">O.</td> +<td class="tdr">21</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">765</td> +<td class="tdr">1363</td> +<td class="bdless-right">O.</td> +<td class="tdr">10</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">766</td> +<td class="tdr">1364</td> +<td class="bdless-right">S.</td> +<td class="tdr">28</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">767</td> +<td class="tdr">1365</td> +<td class="bdless-right">S.</td> +<td class="tdr">18</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">768</td> +<td class="tdr">1366</td> +<td class="bdless-right">S.</td> +<td class="tdr">7</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">769</td> +<td class="tdr">1367</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ag.</td> +<td class="tdr">28</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">770</td> +<td class="tdr">1368</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ag.</td> +<td class="tdr">16</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">771</td> +<td class="tdr">1369</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ag.</td> +<td class="tdr">5</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">772</td> +<td class="tdr">1370</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Jy.</td> +<td class="tdr">26</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">773</td> +<td class="tdr">1371</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Jy.</td> +<td class="tdr">15</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">774</td> +<td class="tdr">1372</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Jy.</td> +<td class="tdr">3</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">775</td> +<td class="tdr">1373</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ju.</td> +<td class="tdr">23</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">776</td> +<td class="tdr">1374</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ju.</td> +<td class="tdr">12</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">777</td> +<td class="tdr">1375</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ju.</td> +<td class="tdr">2</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">778</td> +<td class="tdr">1376</td> +<td class="bdless-right">My.</td> +<td class="tdr">21</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">779</td> +<td class="tdr">1377</td> +<td class="bdless-right">My.</td> +<td class="tdr">10</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">780</td> +<td class="tdr">1378</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ap.</td> +<td class="tdr">30</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">781</td> +<td class="tdr">1379</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ap.</td> +<td class="tdr">19</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">782</td> +<td class="tdr">1380</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ap.</td> +<td class="tdr">7</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">783</td> +<td class="tdr">1381</td> +<td class="bdless-right">M.</td> +<td class="tdr">28</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">784</td> +<td class="tdr">1382</td> +<td class="bdless-right">M.</td> +<td class="tdr">17</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">785</td> +<td class="tdr">1383</td> +<td class="bdless-right">M.</td> +<td class="tdr">6</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">786</td> +<td class="tdr">1384</td> +<td class="bdless-right">F.</td> +<td class="tdr">24</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">787</td> +<td class="tdr">1385</td> +<td class="bdless-right">F.</td> +<td class="tdr">12</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">788</td> +<td class="tdr">1386</td> +<td class="bdless-right">F.</td> +<td class="tdr">2</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">789</td> +<td class="tdr">1387</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ja.</td> +<td class="tdr">22</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">790</td> +<td class="tdr">1388</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ja.</td> +<td class="tdr">11</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">791</td> +<td class="tdr">1388</td> +<td class="bdless-right">D.</td> +<td class="tdr">31</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">792</td> +<td class="tdr">1389</td> +<td class="bdless-right">D.</td> +<td class="tdr">20</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">793</td> +<td class="tdr">1390</td> +<td class="bdless-right">D.</td> +<td class="tdr">9</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">794</td> +<td class="tdr">1391</td> +<td class="bdless-right">N.</td> +<td class="tdr">29</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">795</td> +<td class="tdr">1392</td> +<td class="bdless-right">N.</td> +<td class="tdr">17</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">796</td> +<td class="tdr">1393</td> +<td class="bdless-right">N.</td> +<td class="tdr">6</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">797</td> +<td class="tdr">1394</td> +<td class="bdless-right">O.</td> +<td class="tdr">27</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">798</td> +<td class="tdr">1395</td> +<td class="bdless-right">O.</td> +<td class="tdr">16</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">799</td> +<td class="tdr">1396</td> +<td class="bdless-right">O.</td> +<td class="tdr">5</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">800</td> +<td class="tdr">1397</td> +<td class="bdless-right">S.</td> +<td class="tdr">24</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">801</td> +<td class="tdr">1398</td> +<td class="bdless-right">S.</td> +<td class="tdr">13</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">802</td> +<td class="tdr">1399</td> +<td class="bdless-right">S.</td> +<td class="tdr">3</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">803</td> +<td class="tdr">1400</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ag.</td> +<td class="tdr">22</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">804</td> +<td class="tdr">1401</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ag.</td> +<td class="tdr">11</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">805</td> +<td class="tdr">1402</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ag.</td> +<td class="tdr">1</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">806</td> +<td class="tdr">1403</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Jy.</td> +<td class="tdr">21</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">807</td> +<td class="tdr">1404</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Jy.</td> +<td class="tdr">10</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">808</td> +<td class="tdr">1405</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ju.</td> +<td class="tdr">29</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">809</td> +<td class="tdr">1406</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ju.</td> +<td class="tdr">18</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">810</td> +<td class="tdr">1407</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ju.</td> +<td class="tdr">8</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">811</td> +<td class="tdr">1408</td> +<td class="bdless-right">My.</td> +<td class="tdr">27</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">812</td> +<td class="tdr">1409</td> +<td class="bdless-right">My.</td> +<td class="tdr">16</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">813</td> +<td class="tdr">1410</td> +<td class="bdless-right">My.</td> +<td class="tdr">6</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">814</td> +<td class="tdr">1411</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ap.</td> +<td class="tdr">25</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">815</td> +<td class="tdr">1412</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ap.</td> +<td class="tdr">13</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">816</td> +<td class="tdr">1413</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ap.</td> +<td class="tdr">3</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">817</td> +<td class="tdr">1414</td> +<td class="bdless-right">M.</td> +<td class="tdr">23</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">818</td> +<td class="tdr">1415</td> +<td class="bdless-right">M.</td> +<td class="tdr">13</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">819</td> +<td class="tdr">1416</td> +<td class="bdless-right">M.</td> +<td class="tdr">1</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">820</td> +<td class="tdr">1417</td> +<td class="bdless-right">F.</td> +<td class="tdr">18</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">821</td> +<td class="tdr">1418</td> +<td class="bdless-right">F.</td> +<td class="tdr">8</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">822</td> +<td class="tdr">1419</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ja.</td> +<td class="tdr">28</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">823</td> +<td class="tdr">1420</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ja.</td> +<td class="tdr">17</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">824</td> +<td class="tdr">1421</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ja.</td> +<td class="tdr">6</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">825</td> +<td class="tdr">1421</td> +<td class="bdless-right">D.</td> +<td class="tdr">26</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">826</td> +<td class="tdr">1422</td> +<td class="bdless-right">D.</td> +<td class="tdr">15</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">827</td> +<td class="tdr">1423</td> +<td class="bdless-right">D.</td> +<td class="tdr">5</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">828</td> +<td class="tdr">1424</td> +<td class="bdless-right">N.</td> +<td class="tdr">23</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">829</td> +<td class="tdr">1425</td> +<td class="bdless-right">N.</td> +<td class="tdr">13</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">830</td> +<td class="tdr">1426</td> +<td class="bdless-right">N.</td> +<td class="tdr">2</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">831</td> +<td class="tdr">1427</td> +<td class="bdless-right">O.</td> +<td class="tdr">22</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">832</td> +<td class="tdr">1428</td> +<td class="bdless-right">O.</td> +<td class="tdr">11</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">833</td> +<td class="tdr">1429</td> +<td class="bdless-right">S.</td> +<td class="tdr">30</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">834</td> +<td class="tdr">1430</td> +<td class="bdless-right">S.</td> +<td class="tdr">19</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">835</td> +<td class="tdr">1431</td> +<td class="bdless-right">S.</td> +<td class="tdr">9</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">836</td> +<td class="tdr">1432</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ag.</td> +<td class="tdr">28</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">837</td> +<td class="tdr">1433</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ag.</td> +<td class="tdr">18</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">838</td> +<td class="tdr">1434</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ag.</td> +<td class="tdr">7</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">839</td> +<td class="tdr">1435</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Jy.</td> +<td class="tdr">27</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">840</td> +<td class="tdr">1436</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Jy.</td> +<td class="tdr">16</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">841</td> +<td class="tdr">1437</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Jy.</td> +<td class="tdr">5</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">842</td> +<td class="tdr">1438</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ju.</td> +<td class="tdr">24</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">843</td> +<td class="tdr">1439</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ju.</td> +<td class="tdr">14</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">844</td> +<td class="tdr">1440</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ju.</td> +<td class="tdr">2</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">845</td> +<td class="tdr">1441</td> +<td class="bdless-right">My.</td> +<td class="tdr">22</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">846</td> +<td class="tdr">1442</td> +<td class="bdless-right">My.</td> +<td class="tdr">12</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">847</td> +<td class="tdr">1443</td> +<td class="bdless-right">My.</td> +<td class="tdr">1</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">848</td> +<td class="tdr">1444</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ap.</td> +<td class="tdr">20</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">849</td> +<td class="tdr">1445</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ap.</td> +<td class="tdr">9</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">850</td> +<td class="tdr">1446</td> +<td class="bdless-right">M.</td> +<td class="tdr">29</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">851</td> +<td class="tdr">1447</td> +<td class="bdless-right">M.</td> +<td class="tdr">19</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">852</td> +<td class="tdr">1448</td> +<td class="bdless-right">M.</td> +<td class="tdr">7</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">853</td> +<td class="tdr">1449</td> +<td class="bdless-right">F.</td> +<td class="tdr">24</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">854</td> +<td class="tdr">1450</td> +<td class="bdless-right">F.</td> +<td class="tdr">14</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">855</td> +<td class="tdr">1451</td> +<td class="bdless-right">F.</td> +<td class="tdr">3</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">856</td> +<td class="tdr">1452</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ja.</td> +<td class="tdr">23</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">857</td> +<td class="tdr">1453</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ja.</td> +<td class="tdr">12</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">858</td> +<td class="tdr">1454</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ja.</td> +<td class="tdr">1</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">859</td> +<td class="tdr">1454</td> +<td class="bdless-right">D.</td> +<td class="tdr">22</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">860</td> +<td class="tdr">1455</td> +<td class="bdless-right">D.</td> +<td class="tdr">11</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr"><span class="pagenum" id= +"Page_327">[327]</span>861</td> +<td class="tdr">1456</td> +<td class="bdless-right">N.</td> +<td class="tdr">29</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">862</td> +<td class="tdr">1457</td> +<td class="bdless-right">N.</td> +<td class="tdr">19</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">863</td> +<td class="tdr">1458</td> +<td class="bdless-right">N.</td> +<td class="tdr">8</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">864</td> +<td class="tdr">1459</td> +<td class="bdless-right">O.</td> +<td class="tdr">28</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">865</td> +<td class="tdr">1460</td> +<td class="bdless-right">O.</td> +<td class="tdr">17</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">866</td> +<td class="tdr">1461</td> +<td class="bdless-right">O.</td> +<td class="tdr">6</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">867</td> +<td class="tdr">1462</td> +<td class="bdless-right">S.</td> +<td class="tdr">26</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">868</td> +<td class="tdr">1463</td> +<td class="bdless-right">S.</td> +<td class="tdr">15</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">869</td> +<td class="tdr">1464</td> +<td class="bdless-right">S.</td> +<td class="tdr">3</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">870</td> +<td class="tdr">1465</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ag.</td> +<td class="tdr">24</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">871</td> +<td class="tdr">1466</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ag.</td> +<td class="tdr">13</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">872</td> +<td class="tdr">1467</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ag.</td> +<td class="tdr">2</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">873</td> +<td class="tdr">1468</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Jy.</td> +<td class="tdr">22</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">874</td> +<td class="tdr">1469</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Jy.</td> +<td class="tdr">11</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">875</td> +<td class="tdr">1470</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ju.</td> +<td class="tdr">30</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">876</td> +<td class="tdr">1471</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ju.</td> +<td class="tdr">20</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">877</td> +<td class="tdr">1472</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ju.</td> +<td class="tdr">8</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">878</td> +<td class="tdr">1473</td> +<td class="bdless-right">My.</td> +<td class="tdr">29</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">879</td> +<td class="tdr">1474</td> +<td class="bdless-right">My.</td> +<td class="tdr">18</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">880</td> +<td class="tdr">1475</td> +<td class="bdless-right">My.</td> +<td class="tdr">7</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">881</td> +<td class="tdr">1476</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ap.</td> +<td class="tdr">26</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">882</td> +<td class="tdr">1477</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ap.</td> +<td class="tdr">15</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">883</td> +<td class="tdr">1478</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ap.</td> +<td class="tdr">4</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">884</td> +<td class="tdr">1479</td> +<td class="bdless-right">M.</td> +<td class="tdr">25</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">885</td> +<td class="tdr">1480</td> +<td class="bdless-right">M.</td> +<td class="tdr">13</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">886</td> +<td class="tdr">1481</td> +<td class="bdless-right">M.</td> +<td class="tdr">2</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">887</td> +<td class="tdr">1482</td> +<td class="bdless-right">F.</td> +<td class="tdr">20</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">888</td> +<td class="tdr">1483</td> +<td class="bdless-right">F.</td> +<td class="tdr">9</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">889</td> +<td class="tdr">1484</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ja.</td> +<td class="tdr">30</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">890</td> +<td class="tdr">1485</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ja.</td> +<td class="tdr">18</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">891</td> +<td class="tdr">1486</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ja.</td> +<td class="tdr">7</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">892</td> +<td class="tdr">1486</td> +<td class="bdless-right">D.</td> +<td class="tdr">28</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">893</td> +<td class="tdr">1487</td> +<td class="bdless-right">D.</td> +<td class="tdr">17</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">894</td> +<td class="tdr">1488</td> +<td class="bdless-right">D.</td> +<td class="tdr">5</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">895</td> +<td class="tdr">1489</td> +<td class="bdless-right">N.</td> +<td class="tdr">25</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">896</td> +<td class="tdr">1490</td> +<td class="bdless-right">N.</td> +<td class="tdr">14</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">897</td> +<td class="tdr">1491</td> +<td class="bdless-right">N.</td> +<td class="tdr">4</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">898</td> +<td class="tdr">1492</td> +<td class="bdless-right">O.</td> +<td class="tdr">23</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">899</td> +<td class="tdr">1493</td> +<td class="bdless-right">O.</td> +<td class="tdr">12</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">900</td> +<td class="tdr">1494</td> +<td class="bdless-right">O.</td> +<td class="tdr">2</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">901</td> +<td class="tdr">1495</td> +<td class="bdless-right">S.</td> +<td class="tdr">21</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">902</td> +<td class="tdr">1496</td> +<td class="bdless-right">S.</td> +<td class="tdr">9</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">903</td> +<td class="tdr">1497</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ag.</td> +<td class="tdr">30</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">904</td> +<td class="tdr">1498</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ag.</td> +<td class="tdr">19</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">905</td> +<td class="tdr">1499</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ag.</td> +<td class="tdr">8</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">906</td> +<td class="tdr">1500</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Jy.</td> +<td class="tdr">28</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">907</td> +<td class="tdr">1501</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Jy.</td> +<td class="tdr">17</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">908</td> +<td class="tdr">1502</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Jy.</td> +<td class="tdr">7</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">909</td> +<td class="tdr">1503</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ju.</td> +<td class="tdr">26</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">910</td> +<td class="tdr">1504</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ju.</td> +<td class="tdr">14</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">911</td> +<td class="tdr">1505</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ju.</td> +<td class="tdr">4</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">912</td> +<td class="tdr">1506</td> +<td class="bdless-right">My.</td> +<td class="tdr">24</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">913</td> +<td class="tdr">1507</td> +<td class="bdless-right">My.</td> +<td class="tdr">13</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">914</td> +<td class="tdr">1508</td> +<td class="bdless-right">My.</td> +<td class="tdr">2</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">915</td> +<td class="tdr">1509</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ap.</td> +<td class="tdr">21</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">916</td> +<td class="tdr">1510</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ap.</td> +<td class="tdr">10</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">917</td> +<td class="tdr">1511</td> +<td class="bdless-right">M.</td> +<td class="tdr">31</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">918</td> +<td class="tdr">1512</td> +<td class="bdless-right">M.</td> +<td class="tdr">19</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">919</td> +<td class="tdr">1513</td> +<td class="bdless-right">M.</td> +<td class="tdr">9</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">920</td> +<td class="tdr">1514</td> +<td class="bdless-right">F.</td> +<td class="tdr">26</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">921</td> +<td class="tdr">1515</td> +<td class="bdless-right">F.</td> +<td class="tdr">15</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">922</td> +<td class="tdr">1516</td> +<td class="bdless-right">F.</td> +<td class="tdr">5</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">923</td> +<td class="tdr">1517</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ja.</td> +<td class="tdr">24</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">924</td> +<td class="tdr">1518</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ja.</td> +<td class="tdr">13</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">925</td> +<td class="tdr">1519</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ja.</td> +<td class="tdr">3</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">926</td> +<td class="tdr">1519</td> +<td class="bdless-right">D.</td> +<td class="tdr">23</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">927</td> +<td class="tdr">1520</td> +<td class="bdless-right">D.</td> +<td class="tdr">12</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">928</td> +<td class="tdr">1521</td> +<td class="bdless-right">D.</td> +<td class="tdr">1</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">929</td> +<td class="tdr">1522</td> +<td class="bdless-right">N.</td> +<td class="tdr">20</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">930</td> +<td class="tdr">1523</td> +<td class="bdless-right">N.</td> +<td class="tdr">10</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">931</td> +<td class="tdr">1524</td> +<td class="bdless-right">O.</td> +<td class="tdr">29</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">932</td> +<td class="tdr">1525</td> +<td class="bdless-right">O.</td> +<td class="tdr">18</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">933</td> +<td class="tdr">1526</td> +<td class="bdless-right">O.</td> +<td class="tdr">8</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">934</td> +<td class="tdr">1527</td> +<td class="bdless-right">S.</td> +<td class="tdr">27</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">935</td> +<td class="tdr">1528</td> +<td class="bdless-right">S.</td> +<td class="tdr">15</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">936</td> +<td class="tdr">1529</td> +<td class="bdless-right">S.</td> +<td class="tdr">5</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">937</td> +<td class="tdr">1530</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ag.</td> +<td class="tdr">25</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">938</td> +<td class="tdr">1531</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ag.</td> +<td class="tdr">15</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">939</td> +<td class="tdr">1532</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ag.</td> +<td class="tdr">3</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">940</td> +<td class="tdr">1533</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Jy.</td> +<td class="tdr">23</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">941</td> +<td class="tdr">1534</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Jy.</td> +<td class="tdr">13</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">942</td> +<td class="tdr">1535</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Jy.</td> +<td class="tdr">2</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">943</td> +<td class="tdr">1536</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ju.</td> +<td class="tdr">20</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">944</td> +<td class="tdr">1537</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ju.</td> +<td class="tdr">10</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">945</td> +<td class="tdr">1538</td> +<td class="bdless-right">My.</td> +<td class="tdr">30</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">946</td> +<td class="tdr">1539</td> +<td class="bdless-right">My.</td> +<td class="tdr">19</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">947</td> +<td class="tdr">1540</td> +<td class="bdless-right">My.</td> +<td class="tdr">8</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">948</td> +<td class="tdr">1541</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ap.</td> +<td class="tdr">27</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">949</td> +<td class="tdr">1542</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ap.</td> +<td class="tdr">17</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">950</td> +<td class="tdr">1543</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ap.</td> +<td class="tdr">6</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">951</td> +<td class="tdr">1544</td> +<td class="bdless-right">M.</td> +<td class="tdr">25</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">952</td> +<td class="tdr">1545</td> +<td class="bdless-right">M.</td> +<td class="tdr">15</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">953</td> +<td class="tdr">1546</td> +<td class="bdless-right">M.</td> +<td class="tdr">4</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">954</td> +<td class="tdr">1547</td> +<td class="bdless-right">F.</td> +<td class="tdr">21</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">955</td> +<td class="tdr">1548</td> +<td class="bdless-right">F.</td> +<td class="tdr">11</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">956</td> +<td class="tdr">1549</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ja.</td> +<td class="tdr">30</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">957</td> +<td class="tdr">1550</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ja.</td> +<td class="tdr">20</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">958</td> +<td class="tdr">1551</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ja.</td> +<td class="tdr">9</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">959</td> +<td class="tdr">1551</td> +<td class="bdless-right">D.</td> +<td class="tdr">29</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">960</td> +<td class="tdr">1552</td> +<td class="bdless-right">D.</td> +<td class="tdr">18</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">961</td> +<td class="tdr">1553</td> +<td class="bdless-right">D.</td> +<td class="tdr">7</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">962</td> +<td class="tdr">1554</td> +<td class="bdless-right">N.</td> +<td class="tdr">26</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">963</td> +<td class="tdr">1555</td> +<td class="bdless-right">N.</td> +<td class="tdr">16</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">964</td> +<td class="tdr">1556</td> +<td class="bdless-right">N.</td> +<td class="tdr">4</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">965</td> +<td class="tdr">1557</td> +<td class="bdless-right">O.</td> +<td class="tdr">24</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">966</td> +<td class="tdr">1558</td> +<td class="bdless-right">O.</td> +<td class="tdr">14</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">967</td> +<td class="tdr">1559</td> +<td class="bdless-right">O.</td> +<td class="tdr">3</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">968</td> +<td class="tdr">1560</td> +<td class="bdless-right">S.</td> +<td class="tdr">22</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">969</td> +<td class="tdr">1561</td> +<td class="bdless-right">S.</td> +<td class="tdr">11</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">970</td> +<td class="tdr">1562</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ag.</td> +<td class="tdr">31</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">971</td> +<td class="tdr">1563</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ag.</td> +<td class="tdr">21</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">972</td> +<td class="tdr">1564</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ag.</td> +<td class="tdr">9</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">973</td> +<td class="tdr">1565</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Jy.</td> +<td class="tdr">29</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">974</td> +<td class="tdr">1566</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Jy.</td> +<td class="tdr">19</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">975</td> +<td class="tdr">1567</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Jy.</td> +<td class="tdr">8</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">976</td> +<td class="tdr">1568</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ju.</td> +<td class="tdr">26</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">977</td> +<td class="tdr">1569</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ju.</td> +<td class="tdr">16</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">978</td> +<td class="tdr">1570</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ju.</td> +<td class="tdr">5</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">979</td> +<td class="tdr">1571</td> +<td class="bdless-right">My.</td> +<td class="tdr">26</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">980</td> +<td class="tdr">1572</td> +<td class="bdless-right">My.</td> +<td class="tdr">14</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">981</td> +<td class="tdr">1573</td> +<td class="bdless-right">My.</td> +<td class="tdr">3</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">982</td> +<td class="tdr">1574</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ap.</td> +<td class="tdr">23</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">983</td> +<td class="tdr">1575</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ap.</td> +<td class="tdr">12</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">984</td> +<td class="tdr">1576</td> +<td class="bdless-right">M.</td> +<td class="tdr">31</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">985</td> +<td class="tdr">1577</td> +<td class="bdless-right">M.</td> +<td class="tdr">21</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">986</td> +<td class="tdr">1578</td> +<td class="bdless-right">M.</td> +<td class="tdr">10</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">987</td> +<td class="tdr">1579</td> +<td class="bdless-right">F.</td> +<td class="tdr">28</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">988</td> +<td class="tdr">1580</td> +<td class="bdless-right">F.</td> +<td class="tdr">17</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">989</td> +<td class="tdr">1581</td> +<td class="bdless-right">F.</td> +<td class="tdr">5</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">990</td> +<td class="tdr">1582</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ja.</td> +<td class="tdr">26</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">991</td> +<td class="tdr">1583</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ja.</td> +<td class="tdr">25*</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">992</td> +<td class="tdr">1584</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ja.</td> +<td class="tdr">14</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">993</td> +<td class="tdr">1585</td> +<td class="bdless-right">Ja.</td> +<td class="tdr">3</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">994</td> +<td class="tdr">1585</td> +<td class="bdless-right">D.</td> +<td class="tdr">23</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">995</td> +<td class="tdr">1586</td> +<td class="bdless-right">D.</td> +<td class="tdr">12</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">996</td> +<td class="tdr">1587</td> +<td class="bdless-right">D.</td> +<td class="tdr">2</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">997</td> +<td class="tdr">1588</td> +<td class="bdless-right">N.</td> +<td class="tdr">20</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">998</td> +<td class="tdr">1589</td> +<td class="bdless-right">N.</td> +<td class="tdr">10</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">999</td> +<td class="tdr">1590</td> +<td class="bdless-right">O.</td> +<td class="tdr">30</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdr">1000</td> +<td class="tdr">1591</td> +<td class="bdless-right">O.</td> +<td class="tdr">19</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<div class="footnotes"> +<div class="footnote"> +<p>* Here the change to the Gregorian New Style occurs.</p> +</div> +</div> + +<hr class="chap"> + +<h2 class="large"><span class="pagenum" id= +"Page_328">[328]</span><a id="ind"></a>INDEX</h2> + +<p class="center less">[Cross references are within square +brackets.]</p> + +<ul class="index"> +<li class="ifrst">A.</li> + +<li>‘Abbās, Fāṭimid vezīr, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>.</li> + +<li>‘Abbāsids [Caliphs].</li> + +<li>‘Abdallāh ibn Meymūn, Shī‘y, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>.</li> + +<li>‘Abdallāh ibn Ṭāhir, governor, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, +<a href="#Page_67">67</a>.</li> + +<li>‘Abdallāh ibn ez-Zubeyr, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>.</li> + +<li>‘Abd-el-‘Azīz, governor, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>.</li> + +<li>‘Abd-el-Ḥakam, Ibn, historian, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, +<a href="#Page_185">185</a>.</li> + +<li>‘Abd-el-Laṭīf, geographer, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>, +<a href="#Page_194">194</a>.</li> + +<li>‘Abd-er-Raḥmān Kiaḥya, <a href="#Page_298">298</a>-301.</li> + +<li>‘Ab’dīn, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href= +"#Page_299">299</a>.</li> + +<li>‘Abid-esh-shera, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>.</li> + +<li>Abī-th-Thanā, Funduḳ, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>.</li> + +<li>Abū-‘Aly, vezīr, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>, <a href= +"#Page_157">157</a>.</li> + +<li>Abū-Bekr [Muzhir].</li> + +<li>Abū-dh-Dhahab [Moḥammad Bey].</li> + +<li>Abū-l-Fidā, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>.</li> + +<li>Abū-l-‘Ola, mosque, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>.</li> + +<li>Abū-Sarga, church, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>.</li> + +<li>Abū-s-Seyfeyn, church, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>.</li> + +<li>Abū-s-Su‘ūd, mosque, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>.</li> + +<li>Abulusteyn, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>.</li> + +<li>Abyssinians’ lake (Birkat-el-Ḥabash), <a href= +"#Page_172">172</a>.</li> + +<li>Academies, <a href="#Page_97">97</a> [Medresa, Mosque].</li> + +<li>Acre [‘Akkā].</li> + +<li>Adhana, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>.</li> + +<li>‘Āḍid, el-, Fāṭimid caliph, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>, +<a href="#Page_169">169</a>, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>, <a href= +"#Page_181">181</a>.</li> + +<li>‘Ādil, el-, Seyf-ed-dīn, Ayyūbid sultan, <a href= +"#Page_176">176</a>, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>-5, <a href= +"#Page_263">263</a>.</li> + +<li>‘Ādil, el-, II., casket, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>.</li> + +<li>Afḍal, el-, Fāṭimid vezīr, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href= +"#Page_154">154</a>, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>.</li> + +<li>Ageminius, <a href="#Page_280">280</a>.</li> + +<li>Aghlabids of Tunis, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>.</li> + +<li>Aḥmad [Ṭūlūn].</li> + +<li>Aḥmad Pasha, <a href="#Page_298">298</a>.</li> + +<li>Akbar, emperor, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>.</li> + +<li>Aḳbughāwīya, medresa, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>, <a href= +"#Page_299">299</a>.</li> + +<li>Akhdar, el-, mosque [Fakahany].</li> + +<li>Akhōr, emīr, master of the horse, [Ḳāny Bek].</li> + +<li>‘Akkā (Acre), <a href="#Page_149">149</a>, <a href= +"#Page_172">172</a>, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>, <a href= +"#Page_223">223</a>.</li> + +<li>Aḳmar, mosque, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>, <a href= +"#Page_160">160</a>, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>.</li> + +<li>Aḳsunḳur, Mamlūk emīr, mosque, <a href="#Page_223">223</a>, +<a href="#Page_227">227</a>, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>, <a href= +"#Page_298">298</a>.</li> + +<li>Aḳūsh, Mamlūk emīr, mosque, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>.</li> + +<li>Alexandria, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href= +"#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href= +"#Page_117">117</a>, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>, <a href= +"#Page_180">180</a>, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>, <a href= +"#Page_195">195</a>, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>, <a href= +"#Page_263">263</a>.</li> + +<li>Alfonso, of Seville, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>.</li> + +<li>Algibughā, Mamlūk emīr, mosque, <a href= +"#Page_259">259</a>.</li> + +<li>‘Alids, <a href="#Page_114">114</a> <em>ff.</em></li> + +<li>Almās, Mamlūk emīr, mosque, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>, +<a href="#Page_289">289</a>.</li> + +<li>Almelik, Mamlūk emīr, mosque, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>, +<a href="#Page_259">259</a>.</li> + +<li>Almohades, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>.</li> + +<li>‘Aly, caliph, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href= +"#Page_113">113</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>.</li> + +<li>‘Aly Bey, <a href="#Page_298">298</a>-301.</li> + +<li>‘Aly el-Gelfy, ketkhudā, <a href="#Page_290">290</a>.</li> + +<li>Amalric, k. of Jerusalem, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href= +"#Page_130">130</a>, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>-9.</li> + +<li>Ambassadors, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>, <a href= +"#Page_139">139</a>-2, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>.</li> + +<li>Amber, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>.</li> + +<li>Amīr [Emīr].</li> + +<li>Āmir, el-, Fāṭimid caliph, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, <a href= +"#Page_123">123</a>, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>, <a href= +"#Page_160">160</a>, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>.</li> + +<li>Amnis Trajanus, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>.</li> + +<li>‘Amr ibn el-‘Āṣy, conqueror of Egypt, <a href= +"#Page_34">34</a>-43, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href= +"#Page_61">61</a>; mosque, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href= +"#Page_42">42</a>-48, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href= +"#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, <a href= +"#Page_94">94</a>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, <a href= +"#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href= +"#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>, <a href= +"#Page_185">185</a>, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>.</li> + +<li>“Antar’s stable,” <a href="#Page_41">41</a>.</li> + +<li>Anthropophagy, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, <a href= +"#Page_195">195</a>.</li> + +<li>Antioch, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href= +"#Page_205">205</a>.</li> + +<li>Anwar, el-, mosque (el-Ḥākim), <a href= +"#Page_137">137</a>.</li> + +<li>Aqueducts, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href= +"#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_223">223</a>, <a href= +"#Page_253">253</a>.</li> + +<li>Arab conquest, <a href="#Page_34">34</a> <em>ff.</em>; tribes, +<a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href= +"#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href= +"#Page_88">88</a>.</li> + +<li>Arabia, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>.</li> + +<li>Arabian Nights [Thousand and One Nights].</li> + +<li>Arch, keelform or Persian, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>, +<a href="#Page_138">138</a>; pointed, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, +<a href="#Page_85">85</a>.</li> + +<li><span class="pagenum" id="Page_329">[329]</span>Archery, +<a href="#Page_258">258</a>.</li> + +<li>Architects, Christian, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href= +"#Page_153">153</a>.</li> + +<li>Architecture—</li> + +<li class="isub">Byzantine, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href= +"#Page_83">83</a>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, <a href= +"#Page_153">153</a>.</li> + +<li class="isub">Franco-Syrian, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>, +<a href="#Page_175">175</a>, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>.</li> + +<li class="isub">Saracenic (Arab), <a href="#Page_4">4</a> +[Medresa, Mosque, Palace].</li> + +<li class="isub">Turkish (Ottoman), <a href= +"#Page_298">298</a>-301.</li> + +<li>Arḍ-eṭ-Ṭabbāla, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>.</li> + +<li>Arghūn el-Ismā‘īly, Mamlūk emīr, mosque, <a href= +"#Page_224">224</a>, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>.</li> + +<li>Ark in Coptic church, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>.</li> + +<li>Armenians, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>, <a href= +"#Page_122">122</a>, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>-157, <a href= +"#Page_216">216</a>.</li> + +<li>Armour, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>; +horse-, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>, <a href= +"#Page_145">145</a>.</li> + +<li>Army, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, +<a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href= +"#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, <a href= +"#Page_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href= +"#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, <a href= +"#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href= +"#Page_139">139</a>, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, <a href= +"#Page_144">144</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, <a href= +"#Page_147">147</a>, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>, <a href= +"#Page_158">158</a>, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>, <a href= +"#Page_197">197</a>, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>, <a href= +"#Page_203">203</a>-5, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>, <a href= +"#Page_209">209</a>, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>, <a href= +"#Page_235">235</a>, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>, <a href= +"#Page_288">288</a>.</li> + +<li>Arsūf, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>.</li> + +<li>Artīn Pasha, Ya‘ḳūb, <a href="#Page_304">304</a>.</li> + +<li>Arts, Saracenic, <a href="#Page_271">271</a> <em>ff.</em></li> + +<li>Ascalon, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>.</li> + +<li>Ashraf, el- [Bars-Bey, Sha‘bān].</li> + +<li>Ashrafīya mosque, <a href="#i22">233</a>, <a href= +"#Page_250">250</a>.</li> + +<li>Ashrafy mamlūks, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>.</li> + +<li>‘Ashūra (10th Moḥarram), <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href= +"#Page_23">23</a>.</li> + +<li>‘Aṣim, Ibn el-, poet, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>.</li> + +<li>‘Askar, el-, official faubourg, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, +<a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, <a href= +"#Page_91">91</a>; mosque, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>.</li> + +<li>‘Aṣmat-ed-dīn [Sheger-ed-durr].</li> + +<li>Assassins (Ismā‘īlīs), <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <a href= +"#Page_137">137</a>, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>.</li> + +<li>Astrology, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href= +"#Page_142">142</a>.</li> + +<li>Astronomy, <a href="#Page_296">296</a>.</li> + +<li>Asunbughā, Mamlūk emīr, mosque, <a href= +"#Page_311">311</a>.</li> + +<li>Aswān, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>.</li> + +<li>Asyūṭy, el, mosque, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>.</li> + +<li>Aybek, Mamlūk sultan, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>, <a href= +"#Page_202">202</a>.</li> + +<li>Aydemir el-Khaṭīry, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>.</li> + +<li>‘Aydhāb, port on Red Sea, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>, <a href= +"#Page_263">263</a>.</li> + +<li>‘Ayn-eṣ-Ṣīra, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, <a href= +"#Page_282">282</a>.</li> + +<li>‘Ayny, el-, historian, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>.</li> + +<li>Ayyūb [Ṣāliḥ].</li> + +<li>Ayyūbid dynasty, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>, <a href= +"#Page_170">170</a>-201.</li> + +<li>Azab troops, <a href="#Page_288">288</a>-291.</li> + +<li>‘Azab [Bāb].</li> + +<li>Azhar, el-, university mosque, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>-125, +<a href="#Page_163">163</a>, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>, <a href= +"#Page_245">245</a>, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>, <a href= +"#Page_296">296</a>, <a href="#Page_297">297</a>, <a href= +"#Page_299">299</a>.</li> + +<li>‘Azīz, el-, Fāṭimid caliph, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>, +<a href="#Page_122">122</a>, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>, <a href= +"#Page_127">127</a>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>, <a href= +"#Page_137">137</a>.</li> + +<li>‘Azīz, Ibn, painter, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>.</li> + +<li>Azzimina, <a href="#Page_280">280</a>.</li> + +<li class="ifrst">B.</li> + +<li>Bāb (gate)—</li> + +<li class="isub">Bāb-el-‘Azab, <a href="#Page_291">291</a>.</li> + +<li class="isub">B.-el-Baḥr or el-Ḥadīd, <a href= +"#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>, <a href= +"#Page_258">258</a>, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>.</li> + +<li class="isub">B.-el-Barḳīya or el-Ghureyyib, <a href= +"#Page_126">126</a>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>, <a href= +"#Page_266">266</a>, <a href="#Page_299">299</a>.</li> + +<li class="isub">B.-el-Farag, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>.</li> + +<li class="isub">B.-el-Futūḥ, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>, <a href= +"#Page_129">129</a>, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, <a href= +"#Page_150">150</a>-154, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>, <a href= +"#Page_299">299</a>.</li> + +<li class="isub">B.-el-Gedīd, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>.</li> + +<li class="isub">B.-el-Ḳantara, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>, +<a href="#Page_145">145</a>, <a href="#i14">166</a>, <a href= +"#Page_188">188</a>, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>.</li> + +<li class="isub">B.-el-Ḳarāfa, <a href="#Page_299">299</a>.</li> + +<li class="isub">B.-el-Kharḳ, <a href="#i30">293</a>.</li> + +<li class="isub">B.-el-Khawkha, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>.</li> + +<li class="isub">B.-el-Lūk, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href= +"#Page_217">217</a>, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>.</li> + +<li class="isub">B.-el-Maḥrūḳ, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>.</li> + +<li class="isub">B.-el-Mudarrag, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>.</li> + +<li class="isub">B.-en-Naṣr, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>, <a href= +"#Page_145">145</a>, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>-154, <a href= +"#Page_188">188</a>, <a href="#Page_219">219</a>, <a href= +"#Page_254">254</a>, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>.</li> + +<li class="isub">B.-Sa‘āda, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>, <a href= +"#Page_188">188</a>.</li> + +<li class="isub">B.-el-Wezīr, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>, <a href= +"#Page_175">175</a>.</li> + +<li class="isub">B.-Zuweyla (Zawīla), <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, +<a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>, <a href= +"#Page_129">129</a>, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, <a href= +"#Page_150">150</a>-154, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>, <a href= +"#Page_159">159</a>, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, <a href= +"#Page_181">181</a>, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>, <a href= +"#Page_203">203</a>, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>, <a href= +"#Page_218">218</a>, <a href="#Page_219">219</a>, <a href= +"#Page_238">238</a>, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>, <a href= +"#Page_269">269</a>, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>.</li> + +<li>Babylon, fortress, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href= +"#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href= +"#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href= +"#Page_48">48</a>-57, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href= +"#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>.</li> + +<li>Baghdād, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, +<a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href= +"#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>, <a href= +"#Page_144">144</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, <a href= +"#Page_158">158</a>, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>, <a href= +"#Page_190">190</a>, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>, <a href= +"#Page_261">261</a>.</li> + +<li>Baḥr [Bāb].</li> + +<li>Bahrām, Fāṭimid vezīr, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>.</li> + +<li>Baḥry (Turkish) Mamlūks, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>-232.</li> + +<li>Baḳār, el-, Ḳāḍy, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>.</li> + +<li>Bakbak, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>.</li> + +<li>Bakhtary, el-, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>.</li> + +<li>Balsam, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>.</li> + +<li>Banquets, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href= +"#Page_102">102</a>.</li> + +<li>Baraka, khān of the Golden Horde, <a href= +"#Page_206">206</a>.</li> + +<li>Barbara, St, church, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>.</li> + +<li>Bargawān, Fāṭimid emīr, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>; quarter, +<a href="#Page_128">128</a>, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>.</li> + +<li>Barḳīya quarter, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>; troops, <a href= +"#Page_168">168</a>.</li> + +<li>Barḳīya [Bāb].</li> + +<li>Barḳūḳ, Mamlūk sultan, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>, <a href= +"#Page_238">238</a>, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>; medresa, <a href= +"#Page_241">241</a>, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>; tomb-mosque, +<a href="#Page_241">241</a>, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>.</li> + +<li>Bars-Bey, el-Ashraf, Mamlūk sultan, <a href= +"#Page_237">237</a>, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>; mosque, <a href= +"#Page_238">238</a>, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>.</li> + +<li>Basil, emperor, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>.</li> + +<li>Bāsiṭy, el-, mosque, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>.</li> + +<li>Baṣra, el-, painters from, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>.</li> + +<li>Bastions, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>, <a href= +"#Page_179">179</a>.</li> + +<li>Bath (ḥammām), <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href= +"#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, <a href= +"#Page_184">184</a>.</li> + +<li><span class="pagenum" id="Page_330">[330]</span>Bath, Night of +the (Leylat-el-Ghiṭās), <a href="#Page_95">95</a>.</li> + +<li>Bāṭilīya quarter, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>.</li> + +<li>Baṭūṭa, Ibn, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>, <a href= +"#Page_224">224</a>.</li> + +<li>Bāzār (market, sūḳ), <a href="#Page_24">24</a>.</li> + +<li>Beacon, Castle of the [Babylon].</li> + +<li>Bedawīs, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, <a href= +"#Page_157">157</a>, <a href="#Page_215">215</a></li> + +<li>Bedr-el-Gemāly, Fāṭimid vezīr, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, +<a href="#Page_149">149</a>-154, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>, +<a href="#Page_164">164</a>, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>, <a href= +"#Page_175">175</a>.</li> + +<li>Bedrooms, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>.</li> + +<li>Beer, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, <a href= +"#Page_207">207</a>.</li> + +<li>Belvedere (manẓara), <a href="#Page_90">90</a>.</li> + +<li>Benāt, Gāmi‘-el-, <a href="#Page_311">311</a>.</li> + +<li>Benjamin of Tudela, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href= +"#Page_146">146</a>.</li> + +<li>Berbers, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <a href= +"#Page_139">139</a>, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, <a href= +"#Page_146">146</a>, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>, <a href= +"#Page_148">148</a>.</li> + +<li>Berchem, M. van, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href= +"#Page_138">138</a>, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>, <a href= +"#Page_153">153</a>, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>, <a href= +"#Page_253">253</a>, <a href="#Page_296">296</a>.</li> + +<li>Bernard, bishop of Palermo, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>.</li> + +<li>Bersīm, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>.</li> + +<li>Beshtāk, Mamlūk emīr, palace, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>; +mosque, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>.</li> + +<li>Beybars, eẓ-Ẓāhir, Mamlūk sultan, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>, +<a href="#Page_203">203</a>, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>-9, +<a href="#Page_218">218</a>, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>; mosque, +<a href="#Page_207">207</a>, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>, <a href= +"#Page_218">218</a>.</li> + +<li>Beybars el-Gashnekīr (taster), Mamlūk sultan, <a href= +"#Page_128">128</a>, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>, <a href= +"#Page_138">138</a>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, <a href= +"#Page_204">204</a>, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>; convent, <a href= +"#Page_128">128</a>.</li> + +<li>Beyn-el-Ḳaṣreyn (square “between the two palaces”), <a href= +"#Page_126">126</a>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, <a href= +"#Page_139">139</a>, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>, <a href= +"#Page_160">160</a>, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>, <a href= +"#Page_196">196</a>, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>, <a href= +"#Page_220">220</a>, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>.</li> + +<li>Beyn-es-Sūreyn (street “between the two walls”), <a href= +"#Page_126">126</a>.</li> + +<li>Beysary, Mamlūk emīr, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>, <a href= +"#Page_274">274</a>.</li> + +<li>Beyt-el-Ḳāḍy, chief judge’s court, <a href= +"#Page_271">271</a>.</li> + +<li>Bilāl, khān of, <a href="#Page_269">269</a>.</li> + +<li>Bilbeys, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, +<a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, <a href= +"#Page_169">169</a>.</li> + +<li>Bīra, el-, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>.</li> + +<li>Birkat-el-Fīl (elephant’s lake), <a href= +"#Page_288">288</a>.</li> + +<li>Birkat-el-Ḥabash (Abyssinians’ lake), <a href= +"#Page_172">172</a>.</li> + +<li>Black robes, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>; troops +[Sūdānīs].</li> + +<li>Boats, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, +<a href="#Page_146">146</a>.</li> + +<li>Brass work [Metal work].</li> + +<li>Brick, used for piers, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>.</li> + +<li>Bridal procession, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>.</li> + +<li>Bridges, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, +<a href="#Page_109">109</a>.</li> + +<li>Brienne, John de, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>.</li> + +<li>Bronze [Metal work].</li> + +<li>Buḳalamūn, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>.</li> + +<li>Būlāḳ, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>, <a href= +"#Page_257">257</a>-260, <a href="#Page_263">263</a>, <a href= +"#Page_299">299</a>, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>.</li> + +<li>Burdeyny, el-, mosque, <a href="#Page_298">298</a>.</li> + +<li>Burg-eẓ-Ẓafar, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>.</li> + +<li>Burgy (Circassian) Mamlūks, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>, +<a href="#Page_235">235</a>-254.</li> + +<li>Burko‘, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>.</li> + +<li>Bustān, <a href="#Page_271">271</a> [Gardens].</li> + +<li>Butler, A. J., <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href= +"#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href= +"#Page_123">123</a>.</li> + +<li>Byzantine architecture, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href= +"#Page_83">83</a>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, <a href= +"#Page_153">153</a>.</li> + +<li>Byzantine empire [Constantinople, Romans].</li> + +<li class="ifrst">C.</li> + +<li>Cæsaræa, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>, <a href= +"#Page_237">237</a>;—<a href="#Page_205">205</a>.</li> + +<li>Cage for caliph, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>.</li> + +<li>Cairo proper [Ḳāhira].</li> + +<li>Caliphs [‘Aly, ‘Omar].</li> + +<li><span class="word-spaced7"> „ </span> ‘Abbāsid, +<a href="#Page_64">64</a>-72, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href= +"#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, <a href= +"#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, <a href= +"#Page_164">164</a>, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>, <a href= +"#Page_201">201</a>, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>.</li> + +<li><span class="word-spaced7"> „ </span> Fāṭimid, +<a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>-171; graves, +<a href="#Page_266">266</a>.</li> + +<li><span class="word-spaced7"> „ </span> Omayyad, +<a href="#Page_59">59</a>.</li> + +<li><span class="word-spaced7"> „ </span> Tombs of the, +<a href="#Page_241">241</a>, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>.</li> + +<li>Cameron, D. A., <a href="#Page_264">264</a>, <a href= +"#Page_265">265</a>.</li> + +<li>Canals (Khalīg), <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href= +"#Page_132">132</a>, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, <a href= +"#Page_146">146</a>, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>, <a href= +"#Page_258">258</a>, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>.</li> + +<li>Cantonments [‘Askar].</li> + +<li>Carmathians (Ḳarmaṭis), <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <a href= +"#Page_117">117</a>.</li> + +<li>Carpet, Holy (Kiswa), <a href="#Page_22">22</a>.</li> + +<li>Carter, O. B., <a href="#Page_260">260</a>.</li> + +<li>Carving [Wood-carving].</li> + +<li>Castle of the Beacon [Babylon].</li> + +<li>Castle of the Mountain [Citadel].</li> + +<li>Castle of the Ram, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>, <a href= +"#Page_121">121</a>.</li> + +<li>Catholicos, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>.</li> + +<li>Ceilings, painted, <a href="#Page_281">281</a>, <a href= +"#Page_282">282</a>.</li> + +<li>Cemetery, eastern, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>, <a href= +"#Page_242">242</a>.</li> + +<li><span class="word-spaced8"> „ </span> southern +[Ḳarāfa].</li> + +<li>Censers, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, <a href= +"#Page_273">273</a>.</li> + +<li>Charles of Anjou, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>.</li> + +<li>Chaul, naval engagement off, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>.</li> + +<li>Cherkes Bey, <a href="#Page_289">289</a>.</li> + +<li>Chess, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>.</li> + +<li>Chibouk [Shibūk].</li> + +<li>Christians [Architects, Armenians, Copts].</li> + +<li>Circassian Mamlūks, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>, <a href= +"#Page_235">235</a>-254.</li> + +<li>Citadel, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, +<a href="#Page_175">175</a>-180, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>, +<a href="#Page_223">223</a>, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>, <a href= +"#Page_237">237</a>, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>, <a href= +"#Page_253">253</a>, <a href="#Page_288">288</a>, <a href= +"#Page_290">290</a>.</li> + +<li>Cloisters in mosques, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href= +"#Page_79">79</a>.</li> + +<li>Coins, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>, +<a href="#Page_201">201</a>, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>.</li> + +<li>Colleges, <a href="#Page_111">111</a> [Medresa].</li> + +<li>Commerce, <a href="#Page_262">262</a>-270 [Trade].</li> + +<li>Commission for the Preservation of the Monuments of Arab Art, +<a href="#Page_160">160</a>, <a href="#Page_303">303</a>-314.</li> + +<li>Conquest, Mosque of, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>.</li> + +<li><span class="pagenum" id="Page_331">[331]</span>Constantinople, +<a href="#Page_173">173</a>, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>, <a href= +"#Page_298">298</a>.</li> + +<li>Convents, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href= +"#Page_123">123</a>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, <a href= +"#Page_259">259</a>.</li> + +<li>Coppersmiths’ bāzār [Sūḳ-en-Naḥḥāsīn].</li> + +<li>Copts, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, +<a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>-64, <a href= +"#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href= +"#Page_120">120</a>-123, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>; churches, +<a href="#Page_53">53</a>-57, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>; art, +<a href="#Page_55">55</a>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href= +"#Page_85">85</a>; persecutions, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>-3, +<a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, <a href= +"#Page_141">141</a>, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>, <a href= +"#Page_216">216</a>-220.</li> + +<li>Corbett, E. K., <a href="#Page_43">43</a>.</li> + +<li>Corvée labour, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>.</li> + +<li>Court, Mamlūk, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>.</li> + +<li><span class="word-spaced5"> „ </span> of house, +<a href="#Page_13">13</a>.</li> + +<li>Cromer, Earl, <a href="#Page_303">303</a>, <a href= +"#Page_313">313</a>, <a href="#Page_314">314</a>.</li> + +<li>“Crown of Mosques,” <a href="#Page_42">42</a>.</li> + +<li>Crusades, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href= +"#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>, <a href= +"#Page_164">164</a>-173, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>, <a href= +"#Page_181">181</a>, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>, <a href= +"#Page_196">196</a>, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>, <a href= +"#Page_201">201</a>, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>, <a href= +"#Page_217">217</a>, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>.</li> + +<li>Cumhdach, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>.</li> + +<li>Cyprus, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>, <a href= +"#Page_237">237</a>.</li> + +<li>Cyrus, patriarch of Alexandria, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, +<a href="#Page_38">38</a>.</li> + +<li class="ifrst">D.</li> + +<li>Dā‘īs, Shī‘a missionaries, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>.</li> + +<li>Dam of canal, cutting the, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>, +<a href="#Page_145">145</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>.</li> + +<li>Damascus, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, +<a href="#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>, <a href= +"#Page_103">103</a>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href= +"#Page_149">149</a>, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>-173, <a href= +"#Page_204">204</a>, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>; tiles, <a href= +"#Page_56">56</a>, <a href="#Page_278">278</a>, <a href= +"#Page_298">298</a>.</li> + +<li>Damietta, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>.</li> + +<li>Dār (mansion, hall), <a href="#Page_271">271</a>.</li> + +<li>Dār-el-‘Adl (Hall of Justice), <a href= +"#Page_207">207</a>.</li> + +<li>Dār-el-Ḥadīth (Hall of Tradition), <a href= +"#Page_196">196</a>.</li> + +<li>Dār-el-‘Ilm (Hall of Science), <a href="#Page_142">142</a>, +<a href="#Page_160">160</a>.</li> + +<li>Dār-el-Ma’mūn (Ma’mūn’s palace), <a href="#Page_159">159</a>, +<a href="#Page_160">160</a>, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>.</li> + +<li>Dār-el-Wezīr (Palace of Vezīrs), <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, +<a href="#Page_160">160</a>, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>; also a +khān at Miṣr, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>.</li> + +<li>Darb (street), <a href="#Page_271">271</a>.</li> + +<li>Darmūn, ed-, gate of, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>.</li> + +<li>Defterdār, palace, <a href="#Page_289">289</a>.</li> + +<li>Dehlek, Red Sea port, <a href="#Page_263">263</a>.</li> + +<li>Deylemīs, quarter, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, <a href= +"#Page_145">145</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, <a href= +"#Page_218">218</a>.</li> + +<li>Dhahab, Abū-dh- [Moḥammad Bey].</li> + +<li>Dikka (tribune of mosque), <a href="#Page_80">80</a>.</li> + +<li>Dīnār (half-guinea), <a href="#Page_59">59</a>.</li> + +<li>Diodorus, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>.</li> + +<li>Ḍirghām, eḍ-, Fāṭimid vezīr, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>, +<a href="#Page_168">168</a>.</li> + +<li>Disert Ulidh, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>.</li> + +<li>Divorce, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href= +"#Page_99">99</a>.</li> + +<li>Docks, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href= +"#Page_132">132</a>.</li> + +<li>Dome, in mosques, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>-85, <a href= +"#Page_228">228</a>; in Coptic churches, <a href= +"#Page_54">54</a>.</li> + +<li>Dome of the Air (Ḳubbat-el-Ḥawā), <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, +<a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>.</li> + +<li>Dominicans, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>.</li> + +<li>Donkeys, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>.</li> + +<li>Druzes, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>, <a href= +"#Page_143">143</a>.</li> + +<li>Dukas, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href= +"#Page_99">99</a>.</li> + +<li class="ifrst">E.</li> + +<li>Earthquakes, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href= +"#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>.</li> + +<li>“Easterns, the,” <a href="#Page_146">146</a>.</li> + +<li>Edessa, architects from, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>.</li> + +<li>Embāba, battles at, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>.</li> + +<li>Emesa, battles at, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>.</li> + +<li>Emīr Akhōr, master of the horse, [Ḳāny Bek].</li> + +<li>Emīrate or Government House, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, +<a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>.</li> + +<li>Emīrs, Mamlūk, <a href="#Page_209">209</a> <em>ff.</em>, +<a href="#Page_224">224</a>, <a href="#Page_235">235</a> +<em>ff.</em></li> + +<li>Epiphany tank, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>.</li> + +<li>Eudoxus, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>.</li> + +<li>Euphrates, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href= +"#Page_205">205</a>, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>, <a href= +"#Page_237">237</a>.</li> + +<li>Europe, trade with, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href= +"#Page_263">263</a>-5.</li> + +<li>Eutychius, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>.</li> + +<li>Evetts, B.T.A., <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, <a href= +"#Page_123">123</a>.</li> + +<li>Ezbek ibn Tutush, mosque, <a href="#Page_295">295</a>.</li> + +<li>Ezbek el-Yūsufy, mosque, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>, <a href= +"#Page_250">250</a>.</li> + +<li>Ezbekīya, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>, <a href= +"#Page_260">260</a>, <a href="#Page_288">288</a>, <a href= +"#Page_291">291</a>, <a href="#Page_292">292</a>, <a href= +"#Page_295">295</a>, <a href="#Page_299">299</a>.</li> + +<li class="ifrst">F.</li> + +<li>Fāḍil, el-, Ḳāḍy, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>, <a href= +"#Page_191">191</a>.</li> + +<li>Faïence, <a href="#Page_298">298</a> [Tiles].</li> + +<li>Fā’iz, el-, Fāṭimid caliph, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>.</li> + +<li>Fakahāny, el-, mosque, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>, <a href= +"#Page_298">298</a>.</li> + +<li>Falconry, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>, <a href= +"#Page_273">273</a>.</li> + +<li>Famine, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href= +"#Page_143">143</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, <a href= +"#Page_194">194</a>, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>, <a href= +"#Page_207">207</a>.</li> + +<li>Farag, Mamlūk sultan, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>.</li> + +<li>Farag [Bāb].</li> + +<li>Far‘ūn, Maṣṭaba [Pharaoh].</li> + +<li>Fasts, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, +<a href="#Page_94">94</a>.</li> + +<li>Fāṭima, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, <a href= +"#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>.</li> + +<li>Fāṭimids [Caliphs].</li> + +<li>Felek, Ibn-el-, mosque, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>.</li> + +<li>Ferghāna, architect from, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>.</li> + +<li>Feudal system in East, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>, <a href= +"#Page_198">198</a>.</li> + +<li>Festivals and festivities, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>-26, +<a href="#Page_94">94</a>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>-103, +<a href="#Page_128">128</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, <a href= +"#Page_204">204</a>.</li> + +<li>Fieffees or grantees, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href= +"#Page_197">197</a>.</li> + +<li>Fiḳārīs, <a href="#Page_289">289</a>.</li> + +<li>Fīl (elephant) [Birkat Gezīrat].</li> + +<li><span class="pagenum" id="Page_332">[332]</span>Fires, <a href= +"#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href= +"#Page_218">218</a>.</li> + +<li>Firro, Ibn, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>.</li> + +<li>Flabellum, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>.</li> + +<li>Fleet, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>, +<a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>, <a href= +"#Page_134">134</a>, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>, <a href= +"#Page_254">254</a>.</li> + +<li>Flowers, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href= +"#Page_108">108</a>; market, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>.</li> + +<li>Forgers, <a href="#Page_297">297</a>.</li> + +<li>Fortress, <a href="#Page_175">175</a> [Citadel].</li> + +<li>Fortress, Roman [Babylon].</li> + +<li>Fountain [Sebīl].</li> + +<li>Franz Pasha, <a href="#Page_304">304</a>.</li> + +<li>Frederick II., <a href="#Page_195">195</a>, <a href= +"#Page_196">196</a>, <a href="#Page_280">280</a>.</li> + +<li>Fruits, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href= +"#Page_270">270</a>.</li> + +<li>Fulcher, Geoffrey, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>-132.</li> + +<li>Fum-el-Khalīg [Dam].</li> + +<li>Funduḳ (hostelry), <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href= +"#Page_263">263</a>-271.</li> + +<li>Furāt, Ibn-el-, poet, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>.</li> + +<li>Fusṭāṭ (Miṣr, Maṣr), <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href= +"#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>-48, <a href= +"#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>-61, <a href= +"#Page_64">64</a>-69, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href= +"#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, <a href= +"#Page_91">91</a>-112, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>, <a href= +"#Page_134">134</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, <a href= +"#Page_174">174</a>, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>, <a href= +"#Page_186">186</a>, <a href="#Page_279">279</a>.</li> + +<li>Futūḥ [Bāb].</li> + +<li class="ifrst">G.</li> + +<li>Ga‘bary, el-, mosque, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>.</li> + +<li>Gabarṭy, el-, historian, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href= +"#Page_289">289</a>, <a href="#Page_295">295</a>, <a href= +"#Page_296">296</a>.</li> + +<li>Gāmi‘ (congregational mosque), <a href="#Page_123">123</a>, +<a href="#Page_187">187</a>.</li> + +<li>Gardens, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, +<a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, <a href= +"#Page_93">93</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href= +"#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>.</li> + +<li>Garkas el-Khalīly, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>.</li> + +<li>Garstin, Sir W. E., <a href="#Page_304">304</a>.</li> + +<li>Gāshnekīr (taster) [Beybars II].</li> + +<li>Gate [Bāb]—of Succour [Bāb-en-Naṣr], of Conquests +[Bāb-el-Futūḥ], of the Bridge [Bāb-el-Ḳanṭara], of Iron +[Bāb-el-Ḥadīd], of el-Ḳaṭāi‘, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>.</li> + +<li>Gawdarīya quarter, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, <a href= +"#Page_145">145</a>.</li> + +<li>Gawhar, Fāṭimid general, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>-127, +<a href="#Page_132">132</a>, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>.</li> + +<li>Gedīd [Bāb].</li> + +<li>Gelfy, el-, <a href="#Page_290">290</a>.</li> + +<li>Gemālīya, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>.</li> + +<li>George, church of St, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>.</li> + +<li>Gezīra, el- (island of Būlāḳ), <a href= +"#Page_107">107</a>.</li> + +<li>Gezīrat-el-Fīl (island of the elephant), <a href= +"#Page_257">257</a>, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>.</li> + +<li>Ghāzy, Ibn, mosque, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>.</li> + +<li>Ghurāb, Ibn, mosque, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>.</li> + +<li>Ghureyyib [Bāb].</li> + +<li>Ghūrīya street, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href= +"#Page_159">159</a>, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>.</li> + +<li>Ghūry, el-, Ḳānṣūh, Mamlūk sultan, <a href= +"#Page_253">253</a>-4, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>; mosques, +<a href="#Page_253">253</a>.</li> + +<li>Gidda, <a href="#Page_263">263</a>.</li> + +<li>Giorgio Ghisi, Azzimina, <a href="#Page_280">280</a>.</li> + +<li>Gīza, el-, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href= +"#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href= +"#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href= +"#Page_123">123</a>, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>.</li> + +<li>Gīza, el-, dike of, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>.</li> + +<li>Glass, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href= +"#Page_232">232</a>, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>, <a href= +"#Page_286">286</a>.</li> + +<li>Golden Horde, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>, <a href= +"#Page_206">206</a>, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>, <a href= +"#Page_223">223</a>.</li> + +<li>Golden House, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>;—<a href= +"#Page_87">87</a>.</li> + +<li>Governors under caliphs, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>-72.</li> + +<li>Granaries, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href= +"#Page_146">146</a>.</li> + +<li>Greeks, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, +<a href="#Page_236">236</a>, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>, <a href= +"#Page_241">241</a>.</li> + +<li><span class="word-spaced6"> „ </span> quarters of +the, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>.</li> + +<li>Grey mosque (el-Aḳmar), <a href="#Page_157">157</a>, <a href= +"#Page_158">158</a>.</li> + +<li>Gubeyr, Ibn, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href= +"#Page_171">171</a>, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>-187.</li> + +<li>Guyūshy, el-, mosque, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>.</li> + +<li>Gypsum, decoration in, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>, <a href= +"#Page_85">85</a>.</li> + +<li class="ifrst">H.</li> + +<li>Ḥadīd [Bāb].</li> + +<li>Ḥāfiẓ, el-, Fāṭimid caliph, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>.</li> + +<li>Ḥagg, Emīr-el-, <a href="#Page_290">290</a>.</li> + +<li>Haggarīn, el-, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>.</li> + +<li>Hair, appeal by, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>, <a href= +"#Page_169">169</a>.</li> + +<li>Ḥakar (close), <a href="#Page_271">271</a>.</li> + +<li>Ḥākim, el-, Fāṭimid caliph, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, +<a href="#Page_137">137</a>, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>-143; +mosque, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>, +<a href="#Page_137">137</a>-139, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>, +<a href="#Page_163">163</a>, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>, <a href= +"#Page_188">188</a>, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>, <a href= +"#Page_282">282</a>.</li> + +<li>Hall of Columns, <a href="#Page_223">223</a>.</li> + +<li><span class="word-spaced4"> „ </span> of Justice, +<a href="#Page_207">207</a>.</li> + +<li><span class="word-spaced4"> „ </span> of the Ḳāḍy, +<a href="#Page_271">271</a>.</li> + +<li><span class="word-spaced4"> „ </span> of el-Ma’mūn, +<a href="#Page_159">159</a>, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>, <a href= +"#Page_185">185</a>.</li> + +<li><span class="word-spaced4"> „ </span> of Science, +<a href="#Page_142">142</a>, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>.</li> + +<li><span class="word-spaced4"> „ </span> of Tradition, +<a href="#Page_196">196</a>.</li> + +<li><span class="word-spaced4"> „ </span> of the Vezīrs, +<a href="#Page_128">128</a>, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>.</li> + +<li><span class="word-spaced4"> „ </span> of Yūsuf, +<a href="#Page_179">179</a>, <a href="#Page_223">223</a>.</li> + +<li>Ḥamāh, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>, <a href= +"#Page_220">220</a>.</li> + +<li>Ḥammām [Bath].</li> + +<li>Ḥamrā (“red” place), <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href= +"#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>.</li> + +<li>Ḥamzāwy khān (cloth-market), <a href="#Page_266">266</a>.</li> + +<li>Ḥanafīs, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, <a href= +"#Page_301">301</a>.</li> + +<li>Ḥanbalīs, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>.</li> + +<li>Ḥāra (quarter), <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, <a href= +"#Page_271">271</a>.</li> + +<li>Ḥarbaweyh, Ibn, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>.</li> + +<li>Ḥarīm, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>-21.</li> + +<li>Hārūn-er-Rashīd, ‘Abbāsid caliph, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, +<a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>, <a href= +"#Page_261">261</a>.</li> + +<li>Ḥasan, Mamlūk sultan, mosque of, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>, +<a href="#Page_228">228</a>-235, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>, +<a href="#Page_245">245</a>, <a href="#Page_284">284</a>, <a href= +"#Page_306">306</a>, <a href="#Page_307">307</a>.</li> + +<li>Ḥasaneyn, mosque and festival, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>-26, +<a href="#Page_128">128</a>, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>-183, +<a href="#Page_185">185</a>.</li> + +<li>Hawdag, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, <a href= +"#Page_157">157</a>.</li> + +<li>Ḥawkal, Ibn, geographer, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>.</li> + +<li>Hay, Robert, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>, <a href= +"#Page_260">260</a>.</li> + +<li><span class="pagenum" id="Page_333">[333]</span>Heliopolis +(On), <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, +<a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href= +"#Page_150">150</a>, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>.</li> + +<li>Helwān, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>.</li> + +<li>Heraclius, emperor, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>.</li> + +<li>Herz Bey, Max, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, <a href= +"#Page_160">160</a>, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>, <a href= +"#Page_238">238</a>, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>, <a href= +"#Page_282">282</a>, <a href="#Page_305">305</a> <em>ff.</em></li> + +<li>Ḥigāz, el-, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href= +"#Page_204">204</a>.</li> + +<li>Ḥigāzīya, Ṭaṭar el-, mosque, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>.</li> + +<li>Historians, <a href="#Page_286">286</a>.</li> + +<li>Holy family, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href= +"#Page_56">56</a>.</li> + +<li>Holy War, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>, <a href= +"#Page_173">173</a>, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>, <a href= +"#Page_216">216</a>.</li> + +<li>Horse-armour, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>, <a href= +"#Page_145">145</a>.</li> + +<li>Horse, statue, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>.</li> + +<li>Ḥoseyn, the martyr, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href= +"#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>, <a href= +"#Page_181">181</a>-183, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>; festival, +<a href="#Page_23">23</a>-26.</li> + +<li>Ḥoseyn, Mamlūk emīr, mosque, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>.</li> + +<li>Ḥoseynīya quarter, <a href="#Page_257">257</a>, <a href= +"#Page_259">259</a>, <a href="#Page_299">299</a>.</li> + +<li>Houses, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>-17; <a href= +"#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, <a href= +"#Page_290">290</a>, <a href="#Page_292">292</a>, <a href= +"#Page_308">308</a>.</li> + +<li>Household of Mamlūk sultan, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>.</li> + +<li>Hugh of Cæsarea, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>-132.</li> + +<li>Hūlāgū, Mongol of Persia, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>.</li> + +<li>Humphrey of Toron, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>.</li> + +<li class="ifrst">I.</li> + +<li>Ibn. <em>See</em> under second name.</li> + +<li>Ibrāhīm Aga, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>, <a href= +"#Page_298">298</a>.</li> + +<li>Iḥrām, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>.</li> + +<li>Ikhshīd, el- Moḥammad, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>-100.</li> + +<li>Illuminations, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href= +"#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href= +"#Page_101">101</a>.</li> + +<li>Imām (preacher or precentor), <a href="#Page_170">170</a>, +<a href="#Page_171">171</a>, <a href="#Page_297">297</a>.</li> + +<li>Imām, Shī‘a doctrine of the, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>-116, +<a href="#Page_154">154</a>.</li> + +<li>Incarnation, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>-116, <a href= +"#Page_142">142</a>, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>.</li> + +<li>Incrustation [Metalwork].</li> + +<li>Indian trade, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href= +"#Page_211">211</a>, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>, <a href= +"#Page_263">263</a>-5.</li> + +<li>Industries, <a href="#Page_271">271</a> <em>ff.</em></li> + +<li>Inlaying, <a href="#Page_272">272</a> <em>ff.</em></li> + +<li>Inscriptions, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href= +"#Page_85">85</a>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>, <a href= +"#Page_138">138</a>, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>, <a href= +"#Page_160">160</a>, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>, <a href= +"#Page_245">245</a>, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>.</li> + +<li>Investiture, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, <a href= +"#Page_206">206</a>.</li> + +<li>Irish art, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>-56, <a href= +"#Page_62">62</a>.</li> + +<li>Irrigation, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>, <a href= +"#Page_207">207</a>, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>.</li> + +<li>Ismā‘īlīs (Shī‘a), <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <a href= +"#Page_157">157</a>, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>.</li> + +<li>Ismā‘īlīya canal, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>.</li> + +<li>Ismā‘īly [Arghūn].</li> + +<li>Italy, relations with, <a href="#Page_263">263</a>, <a href= +"#Page_280">280</a> [Venice].</li> + +<li>Ivory carving, <a href="#Page_284">284</a>.</li> + +<li class="ifrst">J.</li> + +<li>Jacobites, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>.</li> + +<li>Jaffa, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>, <a href= +"#Page_205">205</a>.</li> + +<li>James of Aragon, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>.</li> + +<li>James of Lusignan, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>.</li> + +<li>Janizaries, <a href="#Page_288">288</a>.</li> + +<li>Jerusalem, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>, <a href= +"#Page_172">172</a>, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>, <a href= +"#Page_196">196</a>, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>.</li> + +<li>Jews, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, +<a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>, <a href= +"#Page_121">121</a>, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>.</li> + +<li>Jews’ work, <a href="#Page_280">280</a>.</li> + +<li>John de Brienne, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>.</li> + +<li>John the Monk, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>.</li> + +<li>John of Nikiu, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href= +"#Page_35">35</a>.</li> + +<li>Joseph’s granaries, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href= +"#Page_146">146</a>.</li> + +<li>Joseph’s Hall, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>, <a href= +"#Page_223">223</a>.</li> + +<li>Joseph’s Well, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>.</li> + +<li class="ifrst">K.</li> + +<li>Ka‘a, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>.</li> + +<li>Ka‘ba, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>, <a href= +"#Page_150">150</a>.</li> + +<li>Ḳāḍy, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href= +"#Page_69">69</a>.</li> + +<li>Kāfūr, Ikhshīdid vezīr, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>-104.</li> + +<li>Kāfūr, Garden of, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>, <a href= +"#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href= +"#Page_126">126</a>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, <a href= +"#Page_139">139</a>, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>.</li> + +<li>Kagmās, Mamlūk emīr, mosque, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>, +<a href="#Page_311">311</a>.</li> + +<li>Ḳāhira, el- (Cairo proper), <a href="#Page_118">118</a> +<em>ff.</em></li> + +<li>Ḳā’it-Bey, el-Ashraf, Mamlūk sultan, <a href= +"#Page_238">238</a>, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>-250; medallion, +<a href="#Page_246">246</a>; mosques, <a href= +"#Page_242">242</a>-249, <a href="#Page_284">284</a>, <a href= +"#Page_285">285</a>; pulpits, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>; palace, +<a href="#Page_270">270</a>; wekālas, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>, +<a href="#Page_249">249</a>, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>.</li> + +<li>Ḳal‘at-el-Gebel (Castle of the Hill) [Citadel].</li> + +<li>Ḳal‘at-el-Kebsh (Castle of the Ram), <a href="#Page_90">90</a>, +<a href="#Page_121">121</a>.</li> + +<li>Ḳalā’ūn, el-Manṣūr, Mamlūk sultan, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>, +<a href="#Page_204">204</a>, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>, <a href= +"#Page_212">212</a>, <a href="#Page_269">269</a>, <a href= +"#Page_273">273</a>, <a href="#Page_278">278</a>; Māristān, +<a href="#Page_126">126</a>, <a href="#Page_300">300</a>; minaret, +<a href="#Page_139">139</a>; mosques, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>, +<a href="#Page_245">245</a>, <a href="#Page_283">283</a>, <a href= +"#Page_285">285</a>.</li> + +<li>Ḳalendarīya, el-, mosque, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>.</li> + +<li>Kāmil, el-, Ayyūbid sultan, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>, +<a href="#Page_195">195</a>, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>, <a href= +"#Page_216">216</a>; medresa Kāmilīya, <a href= +"#Page_196">196</a>.</li> + +<li>Ḳanāṭīr-el-Gīza, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>.</li> + +<li>Ḳanṭara [Bāb].</li> + +<li>Ḳāny Bek, emīr akhōr (master of the horse), <a href= +"#Page_250">250</a>.</li> + +<li>Ḳarāfa, southern cemetery, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>, +<a href="#Page_185">185</a>, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>; mosque +of, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a> +[Bāb].</li> + +<li>Ḳarāḳūsh, vezīr of Saladin, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>, +<a href="#Page_179">179</a>; khān, <a href= +"#Page_270">270</a>.</li> + +<li>Ḳarāḳūsh (Punch), <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href= +"#Page_176">176</a>.</li> + +<li>Ḳarmaṭīs [Carmathians].</li> + +<li>Ḳārūn, pool of, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>.</li> + +<li>Ḳāsimīs, <a href="#Page_289">289</a>.</li> + +<li>Ḳaṣr (palace), <a href="#Page_289">289</a>.</li> + +<li><span class="pagenum" id="Page_334">[334]</span>Ḳaṣr-el-‘Ayny, +<a href="#Page_107">107</a>.</li> + +<li>Ḳaṣr-ed-Dubāra, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>.</li> + +<li>Ḳaṣr-esh-Shawk, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>.</li> + +<li>Ḳaṣr-esh-Shema‘, <a href="#Page_41">41</a> [Babylon].</li> + +<li>Ḳaṣr-Yūsuf (Joseph’s Hall), <a href="#Page_179">179</a>, +<a href="#Page_223">223</a>.</li> + +<li>Ḳaṣreyn [Beyn-el-Ḳaṣreyn].</li> + +<li>Ḳaṭāi‘, el-, Ṭūlūnid faubourg, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, +<a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href= +"#Page_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>.</li> + +<li>Ḳayrawān, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <a href= +"#Page_117">117</a>.</li> + +<li>Ḳayṣarīya (great market), <a href="#Page_266">266</a>, <a href= +"#Page_271">271</a>.</li> + +<li>Keelform arch, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>, <a href= +"#Page_138">138</a>.</li> + +<li>Kells, Book of, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>.</li> + +<li>Kenna, Ibn, monk, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>.</li> + +<li>Kerbelā, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href= +"#Page_119">119</a>.</li> + +<li>Ketkhudā (kiaḥyā, kikhyā), <a href="#Page_290">290</a>, +<a href="#Page_298">298</a>, <a href="#Page_299">299</a>.</li> + +<li>Kettāmy, el-, painter, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>.</li> + +<li>Keymakhty, el-, mosque, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>.</li> + +<li>Khabushāny, el-, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>.</li> + +<li>Khalangy, el-, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>.</li> + +<li>Khalāṭy, el-, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>.</li> + +<li>Khalīg [Canal].</li> + +<li>Khalīl, el-Ashraf, Mamlūk sultan, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>, +<a href="#Page_211">211</a>, <a href="#Page_223">223</a>; ‘Akka +gate.</li> + +<li>Khalīly, Garkas el-, <a href="#Page_266">266</a> [Khān].</li> + +<li>Khān (inn), <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href= +"#Page_265">265</a>-271.</li> + +<li>Khān el-Khalīly, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href= +"#Page_126">126</a>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, <a href= +"#Page_210">210</a>, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>.</li> + +<li>Khāriga, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>.</li> + +<li>Kharḳ [Bāb].</li> + +<li>Khaṭīb (preacher), <a href="#Page_170">170</a>, <a href= +"#Page_171">171</a>, <a href="#Page_297">297</a>.</li> + +<li>Khaṭīry, el-, Aydemir, mosque, <a href= +"#Page_258">258</a>.</li> + +<li>Khaṭma (recital of Ḳor’ān), <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href= +"#Page_25">25</a>.</li> + +<li>Khawkha, <a href="#Page_271">271</a> [Bāb].</li> + +<li>Kheyr Bek, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>; mosque, <a href= +"#Page_250">250</a>.</li> + +<li>Khilāṭy, el-, mosque, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>.</li> + +<li>Khumāraweyh ibn Aḥmad ibn Ṭūlūn, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>-89, +<a href="#Page_92">92</a>.</li> + +<li>Khūshḳadam, Mamlūk sultan, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>.</li> + +<li>Khuṭba (bidding-prayer, sermon), <a href="#Page_170">170</a>, +<a href="#Page_171">171</a>.</li> + +<li>Khuṭṭ (district), <a href="#Page_271">271</a>.</li> + +<li>Kiaḥyā (Kikhya), <a href="#Page_290">290</a> [‘Abd-er-Raḥmān, +‘Othmān, Ruḍwān].</li> + +<li>Ḳibla (point towards Mekka), <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, +<a href="#Page_80">80</a>.</li> + +<li>Kieman, Casr, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>.</li> + +<li>Killis, Ibn, Fāṭimid vezīr, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>.</li> + +<li>Kindy, el-, historian, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>.</li> + +<li>King, title of Fāṭimid vezīrs, <a href= +"#Page_159">159</a>.</li> + +<li>Kiosks, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, +<a href="#Page_291">291</a>.</li> + +<li>Kipchak, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>, <a href= +"#Page_205">205</a>.</li> + +<li>Kiswa (holy carpet), <a href="#Page_22">22</a>.</li> + +<li>Kitāma, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>; quarter, <a href= +"#Page_128">128</a>.</li> + +<li>Kléber, general, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>.</li> + +<li>Knighthood conferred on Muslims, <a href= +"#Page_193">193</a>.</li> + +<li>Ḳor’ān, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>-69, <a href= +"#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, <a href= +"#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>, <a href= +"#Page_185">185</a>, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>, <a href= +"#Page_232">232</a>, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>.</li> + +<li>Ḳubbat-el-Ḥawā [Dome of the air].</li> + +<li>Ḳubbat-en-Naṣr, <a href="#Page_223">223</a>.</li> + +<li>Kufic [Inscriptions].</li> + +<li>Kufīya, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>.</li> + +<li>Ḳulla, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>.</li> + +<li>Kumiz, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>.</li> + +<li>Ḳuseyr, el-, convent, <a href="#Page_219">219</a>.</li> + +<li>Ḳuseyr, Red Sea port, <a href="#Page_263">263</a>.</li> + +<li>Ḳūṣūn, Mamlūk emīr, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>, <a href= +"#Page_216">216</a>, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>, <a href= +"#Page_291">291</a>; mosque, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>, <a href= +"#Page_283">283</a>, <a href="#Page_296">296</a>; wekāla, <a href= +"#Page_270">270</a>.</li> + +<li>Ḳuṭb [Mutawelly].</li> + +<li>Ḳuṭuz, Mamlūk sultan, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>, <a href= +"#Page_207">207</a>.</li> + +<li class="ifrst">L.</li> + +<li>Labour, forced, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>.</li> + +<li>Lāgīn, Mamlūk sultan, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>; his +restoration of mosque of Ibn-Ṭūlūn, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, +<a href="#Page_83">83</a>, <a href="#Page_283">283</a>, <a href= +"#Page_285">285</a>.</li> + +<li>Lamps, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>; enamelled glass, <a href= +"#Page_232">232</a>, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>.</li> + +<li>Lamps, Street of, at Miṣr, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, +<a href="#Page_111">111</a>.</li> + +<li>Lane, E. W., <a href="#Page_259">259</a>, <a href= +"#Page_266">266</a>.</li> + +<li>Larenda, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>.</li> + +<li>Lattice [Meshrebīya].</li> + +<li>Lectern, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>.</li> + +<li>Le Strange, Guy, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href= +"#Page_171">171</a>.</li> + +<li>Leylet-el-Ghiṭās, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>.</li> + +<li>Libraries, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, <a href= +"#Page_171">171</a>, <a href="#Page_292">292</a>, <a href= +"#Page_295">295</a>.</li> + +<li>Lions’ Bridges, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href= +"#Page_217">217</a>.</li> + +<li>Literature, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href= +"#Page_98">98</a>-100, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, <a href= +"#Page_120">120</a>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>, <a href= +"#Page_295">295</a>, <a href="#Page_296">296</a>.</li> + +<li>Līwān (sanctuary, S.-E. end of mosque), <a href= +"#Page_80">80</a>.</li> + +<li>Lock, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>.</li> + +<li>Louis IX., crusade of, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>, <a href= +"#Page_201">201</a>, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>.</li> + +<li>Lūḳ [Bāb].</li> + +<li>Lunatics, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>, <a href= +"#Page_300">300</a>.</li> + +<li class="ifrst">M.</li> + +<li>Macer [Miṣr].</li> + +<li>Mādarā’y, el-, treasurer, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href= +"#Page_93">93</a>.</li> + +<li>Maghraby, Ibn-el-, mosque, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>.</li> + +<li>Mahdy, el-, doctrine of, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>, <a href= +"#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>, <a href= +"#Page_157">157</a>.</li> + +<li>Maḥmal, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>.</li> + +<li>Maḥmūd el-Kurdy, <a href="#Page_280">280</a>.</li> + +<li>Maḥmūdīya canal, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>.</li> + +<li><span class="pagenum" id="Page_335">[335]</span>Maḥmūdīya +mosque, <a href="#Page_289">289</a>.</li> + +<li>Maḥrūḳ [Bāb].</li> + +<li>Maḥrūsa, el-, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>.</li> + +<li>Maidens’ convent, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>.</li> + +<li>Maḳrīzy, el-, topographer, <a href="#Page_41">41</a> et +passim.</li> + +<li>Maḳs, el-, port of Cairo, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href= +"#Page_132">132</a>, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>, <a href= +"#Page_175">175</a>; mosques, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>, <a href= +"#Page_189">189</a>, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>.</li> + +<li>Maḳṣūra (royal pew), <a href="#Page_223">223</a>.</li> + +<li>Mālikīs (orthodox school of theology), <a href= +"#Page_97">97</a>, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>, <a href= +"#Page_292">292</a>.</li> + +<li>Mamā’y, palace of Mamlūk emīr, <a href= +"#Page_270">270</a>.</li> + +<li>Mamlūks, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>-301.</li> + +<li>Ma’mūn, el-, ‘Abbāsid caliph, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>.</li> + +<li>Ma’mūn, el-, Fāṭimid vezīr [Dār].</li> + +<li>Mandara (manẓara, guest-room), <a href="#Page_14">14</a>.</li> + +<li>Manfred, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>.</li> + +<li>Mangak, Mamlūk emīr, mosque, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>.</li> + +<li>Manṣūra, el-, battle, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>, <a href= +"#Page_208">208</a>.</li> + +<li>Manṣūrīya, el-, quarter of Sūdānīs, <a href= +"#Page_181">181</a>.</li> + +<li>Manṣūrīya medresa (Ḳalā’ūn), <a href="#Page_83">83</a>.</li> + +<li>Manẓara (belvedere), <a href="#Page_90">90</a>, <a href= +"#Page_271">271</a>.</li> + +<li>Marble mosaic, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>.</li> + +<li>Marg-Dābiḳ, battle, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>.</li> + +<li>Marg-es-Suffar, battle, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>.</li> + +<li>Māridāny, el-, Mamlūk emīr, mosque, <a href= +"#Page_224">224</a>, <a href="#Page_283">283</a>-285, <a href= +"#Page_314">314</a>.</li> + +<li>Māristāns, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>, <a href= +"#Page_185">185</a>, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>, <a href= +"#Page_212">212</a>, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>, <a href= +"#Page_238">238</a>, <a href="#Page_300">300</a>.</li> + +<li>Marshūshy, el-, ‘Aly, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>.</li> + +<li>Martyrs, Place of, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>.</li> + +<li>Marwān, last Omayyad caliph, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, +<a href="#Page_65">65</a>.</li> + +<li>Maskat vines, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>.</li> + +<li>Masmūda, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, <a href= +"#Page_146">146</a>.</li> + +<li>Maṣr (for Miṣr, name of Egypt and of its capital), <a href= +"#Page_33">33</a> [Fusṭāṭ, Miṣr].</li> + +<li>Maṣr-el-‘Atīḳa (old Miṣr, “Old Cairo”), <a href= +"#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href= +"#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href= +"#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, <a href= +"#Page_253">253</a>.</li> + +<li>Maṣṭaba Far‘ūn (Pharaoh’s Seat), <a href= +"#Page_90">90</a>.</li> + +<li>Mas‘ūdy, el-, historian, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href= +"#Page_96">96</a>.</li> + +<li>Maṭarīya, el-, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>; battle, <a href= +"#Page_49">49</a>.</li> + +<li>Medallion of Ḳā’it-Bey, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>.</li> + +<li>Medīna, el-, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href= +"#Page_144">144</a>, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>, <a href= +"#Page_205">205</a>.</li> + +<li>Medresa (academy, college), <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, +<a href="#Page_173">173</a>, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>-192, +<a href="#Page_224">224</a>, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>, <a href= +"#Page_298">298</a> [Mosque].</li> + +<li>Mekka, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, +<a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>, <a href= +"#Page_205">205</a>, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>, <a href= +"#Page_263">263</a>, <a href="#Page_299">299</a>.</li> + +<li>Melekites (orthodox Greek church), <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, +<a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>, <a href= +"#Page_219">219</a>.</li> + +<li>Melons, ‘Abdallāwy, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>.</li> + +<li>Memdūd, Ibn, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>.</li> + +<li>Memphis, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, +<a href="#Page_41">41</a>.</li> + +<li>Menageries, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href= +"#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>.</li> + +<li>Menāẓir-el-Kebsh (belvederes of the ram), <a href= +"#Page_90">90</a>.</li> + +<li>Mercurius, St., <a href="#Page_121">121</a>.</li> + +<li>Mercury, lake of, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>.</li> + +<li>Mesgid, <a href="#Page_188">188</a> [Mosque].</li> + +<li>Meshrebīya, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, +<a href="#Page_284">284</a>, <a href="#Page_285">285</a>.</li> + +<li>Mesopotamia, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href= +"#Page_115">115</a>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>.</li> + +<li>Mesrūr, khān of, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>, <a href= +"#i28">268</a>.</li> + +<li>Metal-work, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href= +"#Page_271">271</a>-280, <a href="#Page_310">310</a>.</li> + +<li>Meydān (racecourse), <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href= +"#Page_271">271</a>.</li> + +<li>Meymūn, Ibn, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>.</li> + +<li>Mibkhara (censer), <a href="#Page_138">138</a>.</li> + +<li>Mihmandār (master of the ceremonies), Aḥmad, Mamlūk emīr, +mosque, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>.</li> + +<li>Miḥrāb (niche for prayer in mosque), <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, +<a href="#Page_83">83</a>, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>, <a href= +"#Page_231">231</a>, <a href="#Page_299">299</a>.</li> + +<li>Mina, St, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>.</li> + +<li>Minarets, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>; +of Ibn-Ṭūlūn, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>; of el-Ḥākim, <a href= +"#Page_83">83</a>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, <a href= +"#Page_139">139</a>; of Ḳalā’ūn and Āḳbughā, <a href= +"#Page_83">83</a>; of el-Mu’ayyad, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>, +<a href="#Page_238">238</a>; of Sultan Ḥasan, <a href= +"#Page_232">232</a>, <a href="#Page_307">307</a>.</li> + +<li>Minbar [Pulpit].</li> + +<li>Miska, Sitta, mosque, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>.</li> + +<li>Miṣr (Maṣr), <a href="#Page_34">34</a>-36, <a href= +"#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a> [Fusṭāṭ].</li> + +<li>Missionaries, Shī‘a, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>.</li> + +<li>Mo‘allaḳa, el-, church, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, <a href= +"#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>.</li> + +<li>Moḥammad, the Prophet, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href= +"#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>.</li> + +<li>Moḥammad ‘Aly, viceroy, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>, <a href= +"#Page_302">302</a>; mosque, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>; street, +<a href="#Page_302">302</a>.</li> + +<li>Moḥammad Bey, Abū-dh-Dhahab, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>.</li> + +<li>Moḥammad el-Mādarā’y, treasurer, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, +<a href="#Page_93">93</a>.</li> + +<li>Moḥammad ibn Suleymān, ‘Abbāsid general, <a href= +"#Page_89">89</a>.</li> + +<li>Moḥammad ibn ez-Zubeyr, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>.</li> + +<li>Moḥarram festival, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href= +"#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>.</li> + +<li>Mo‘izz, el-, Fāṭimid caliph, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>-119, +<a href="#Page_125">125</a>-127, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>, +<a href="#Page_132">132</a>, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>, <a href= +"#Page_147">147</a>.</li> + +<li>Mōlids (birthday festivals), <a href="#Page_22">22</a>.</li> + +<li>Monasteries, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href= +"#Page_123">123</a>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>.</li> + +<li>Mongols, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>, <a href= +"#Page_204">204</a>, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>.</li> + +<li>Monks, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>, +<a href="#Page_219">219</a>.</li> + +<li>Monopolies, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>.</li> + +<li>Mosaic, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>.</li> + +<li>Mōṣil artists, <a href="#Page_272">272</a> <em>ff.</em></li> + +<li><span class="pagenum" id="Page_336">[336]</span>Mosques:—</li> + +<li class="isub">Abū-dh-Dhahab [Moḥammad Bey], <a href= +"#Page_301">301</a>.</li> + +<li class="isub">Abū-l-‘Olā, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>.</li> + +<li class="isub">Abū-s-Su‘ūd, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>.</li> + +<li class="isub">Aḳbughā, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>, <a href= +"#Page_299">299</a>.</li> + +<li class="isub">Akhdar [Fakahāny].</li> + +<li class="isub">Aḳmar, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>, <a href= +"#Page_160">160</a>, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>.</li> + +<li class="isub">Aḳsunḳur, <a href="#Page_223">223</a>, <a href= +"#Page_224">224</a>, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>, <a href= +"#Page_245">245</a>, <a href="#Page_298">298</a>.</li> + +<li class="isub">Aḳūsh, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>.</li> + +<li class="isub">Algibughā, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>.</li> + +<li class="isub">Almās, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>, <a href= +"#Page_289">289</a>.</li> + +<li class="isub">Almelik, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>, <a href= +"#Page_259">259</a>.</li> + +<li class="isub">‘Amr, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>-48, etc. +[<em>q.v.</em>].</li> + +<li class="isub">Anwar [Ḥākim].</li> + +<li class="isub">Arghūn el-Ismā‘īly, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>, +<a href="#Page_227">227</a>.</li> + +<li class="isub">Ashraf, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>, <a href= +"#Page_250">250</a>.</li> + +<li class="isub">‘Askar, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>.</li> + +<li class="isub">Asunbugha, <a href="#Page_311">311</a>.</li> + +<li class="isub">Asyūṭy, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>.</li> + +<li class="isub">Aydemir [Khaṭīry].</li> + +<li class="isub">Azhar, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>-5, etc. +(<em>q.v.</em>).</li> + +<li class="isub">Barḳūḳ, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>, <a href= +"#Page_250">250</a>.</li> + +<li class="isub"><span class="word-spaced6"> „ </span> +and Farag, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>, <a href= +"#Page_245">245</a>.</li> + +<li class="isub">Bars-Bey, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>, <a href= +"#Page_250">250</a>.</li> + +<li class="isub">Bāsiṭy, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>.</li> + +<li class="isub">Benāt, <a href="#Page_311">311</a>.</li> + +<li class="isub">Beshtāk, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>.</li> + +<li class="isub">Beybars, Ẓāhir, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>, +<a href="#Page_212">212</a>, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>.</li> + +<li class="isub">Beybars, Gāshnekīr, <a href= +"#Page_128">128</a>.</li> + +<li class="isub">Burdeyny, <a href="#Page_298">298</a>.</li> + +<li class="isub">Emīr Akhōr [Ḳāny Bek].</li> + +<li class="isub">Ezbek ibn Tutush, <a href= +"#Page_295">295</a>.</li> + +<li class="isub">Ezbek el-Yūsufy, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>, +<a href="#Page_250">250</a>.</li> + +<li class="isub">Fakahāny, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>, <a href= +"#Page_298">298</a>.</li> + +<li class="isub">Farag [Barḳūḳ].</li> + +<li class="isub">Felek, Ibn-el-, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>.</li> + +<li class="isub">Ga‘bary, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>.</li> + +<li class="isub">Ghāzy, Ibn, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>.</li> + +<li class="isub">Ghurāb, Ibn, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>.</li> + +<li class="isub">Ghūry, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>.</li> + +<li class="isub">Guyūshy, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>.</li> + +<li class="isub">Ḥākim, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href= +"#Page_126">126</a>, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>-9 +(<em>q.v.</em>).</li> + +<li class="isub">Ḥasan, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>, <a href= +"#Page_224">224</a>, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>-37, <a href= +"#Page_245">245</a>, <a href="#Page_284">284</a>, <a href= +"#Page_306">306</a>.</li> + +<li class="isub">Ḥasaneyn, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, <a href= +"#Page_181">181</a>-185.</li> + +<li class="isub">Ḥigāzīya, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>.</li> + +<li class="isub">Ḥoseyn, emīr, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>.</li> + +<li class="isub">Ibrāhīm Aga (Aḳsunḳur), <a href= +"#Page_227">227</a>, <a href="#Page_298">298</a>.</li> + +<li class="isub">Ismā‘īly [Arghūn].</li> + +<li class="isub">Ḳagmās, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>, <a href= +"#Page_311">311</a>.</li> + +<li class="isub">Ḳā’it-Bey, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>-9, <a href= +"#Page_284">284</a>, <a href="#Page_285">285</a>.</li> + +<li class="isub">Ḳalā’ūn, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>, <a href= +"#Page_245">245</a>, <a href="#Page_283">283</a>, <a href= +"#Page_285">285</a>.</li> + +<li class="isub">Ḳalendarīya, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>.</li> + +<li class="isub">Kāmilīya, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>.</li> + +<li class="isub">Ḳāny Bek, emīr Akhōr, <a href= +"#Page_250">250</a>.</li> + +<li class="isub">Ḳarāfa, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>, <a href= +"#Page_134">134</a>.</li> + +<li class="isub">Keymakhty, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>.</li> + +<li class="isub">Khaṭīry, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>.</li> + +<li class="isub">Kheyr Bek, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>.</li> + +<li class="isub">Khilāṭy, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>.</li> + +<li class="isub">Ḳūṣūn, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>, <a href= +"#Page_283">283</a>, <a href="#Page_296">296</a>.</li> + +<li class="isub">Maghraby, Ibn-el-, <a href= +"#Page_259">259</a>.</li> + +<li class="isub">Maḥmūdīya, <a href="#Page_289">289</a>.</li> + +<li class="isub">Maḳs, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>, <a href= +"#Page_189">189</a>, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>.</li> + +<li class="isub">Mangak, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>.</li> + +<li class="isub">Māridāny, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>, <a href= +"#Page_283">283</a>-5, <a href="#Page_314">314</a>.</li> + +<li class="isub">Mihmandār, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>.</li> + +<li class="isub">Miska, Sitta, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>.</li> + +<li class="isub">Moḥammad ‘Aly, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>.</li> + +<li class="isub">Moḥammad Bey, <a href="#Page_300">300</a>.</li> + +<li class="isub">Mu’ayyad, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>, <a href= +"#Page_250">250</a>, <a href="#Page_284">284</a>-5, <a href= +"#Page_297">297</a>, <a href="#Page_311">311</a>.</li> + +<li class="isub">Muzhir (Mazhar) Abū-Bekr ibn, <a href= +"#Page_250">250</a>, <a href="#Page_285">285</a>, <a href= +"#Page_309">309</a>-311.</li> + +<li class="isub">Nāṣir in Citadel, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>, +<a href="#Page_223">223</a>.</li> + +<li><span class="word-spaced5"> „ </span> Naḥḥāsīn, +<a href="#Page_220">220</a>, <a href="#Page_223">223</a>.</li> + +<li class="isub">Naṣr, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>.</li> + +<li class="isub">Nefīsa, Seyyida, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>, +<a href="#Page_206">206</a>, <a href="#Page_223">223</a>, <a href= +"#Page_300">300</a>.</li> + +<li class="isub">Rāshida, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>.</li> + +<li class="isub">Ṣāliḥ Ayyūb, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>, <a href= +"#Page_282">282</a>.</li> + +<li class="isub">Ṣāliḥ Ṭalāi‘.</li> + +<li class="isub">Ṣarghitmish, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>.</li> + +<li class="isub">Ṣārim, Ibn-, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>.</li> + +<li class="isub">Sāriyat-el-Gebel, <a href= +"#Page_185">185</a>.</li> + +<li class="isub">Sārūgā, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>.</li> + +<li class="isub">Sennānīya, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>.</li> + +<li class="isub">Sengar el-Gāwaly, <a href= +"#Page_224">224</a>.</li> + +<li class="isub">Seyf-ed-dīn, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>.</li> + +<li class="isub">Shāfi‘y, Imām, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>, +<a href="#Page_225">225</a>, <a href="#Page_296">296</a>, <a href= +"#Page_298">298</a>, <a href="#Page_300">300</a>.</li> + +<li class="isub">Shem, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>.</li> + +<li class="isub">Sheykhū, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>, <a href= +"#Page_284">284</a>.</li> + +<li class="isub">Ṭabbākh, Ibn-eṭ, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>.</li> + +<li class="isub">Ṭalāi‘ ibn Ruzzīk, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>, +<a href="#Page_167">167</a>.</li> + +<li class="isub">Ṭawāshy, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>.</li> + +<li class="isub">Ṭaybars, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>, <a href= +"#Page_299">299</a>.</li> + +<li class="isub">Ṭulbīya, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>.</li> + +<li class="isub">Ṭūlūn, Aḥmad ibn, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>-86 +[<em>q.v.</em>].</li> + +<li class="isub">Yūnus, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>, <a href= +"#Page_259">259</a>.</li> + +<li class="isub">Ẓāhir [Beybars].</li> + +<li class="isub">Zeyneb, Seyyida, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>, +<a href="#Page_299">299</a>.</li> + +<li class="isub">Zeyn-ed-dīn Yaḥyā, <a href= +"#Page_311">311</a>.</li> + +<li class="isub">[See also Table of Monuments, pp. <a href= +"#Page_317">317</a>-22].</li> + +<li>Mu’ayyad, el-, Mamlūk sultan, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>; +mosque, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>, +<a href="#Page_232">232</a>, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>, <a href= +"#Page_284">284</a>, <a href="#Page_285">285</a>, <a href= +"#Page_297">297</a>, <a href="#Page_298">298</a>, <a href= +"#Page_311">311</a>.</li> + +<li>Mudarrag [Bāb].</li> + +<li>Muedhdhin or Muezzin (prayer crier), <a href= +"#Page_43">43</a>.</li> + +<li><span class="pagenum" id="Page_337">[337]</span>Muḳaṭṭam, el-, +hills, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, +<a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href= +"#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>, <a href= +"#Page_134">134</a>, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>, <a href= +"#Page_175">175</a>, <a href="#Page_219">219</a>.</li> + +<li>Muḳawḳis, el-, Roman governor of Egypt, <a href= +"#Page_37">37</a>-39.</li> + +<li>Mule, Convent of the, <a href="#Page_219">219</a>.</li> + +<li>Murād Bey, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href= +"#Page_44">44</a>.</li> + +<li>Mūsā el-‘Abbāsy, governor, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>.</li> + +<li>Muṣallā-l-‘Id (oratory of the Festival), <a href= +"#Page_141">141</a>.</li> + +<li>Musebbiḥy, el-, author, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href= +"#Page_100">100</a>.</li> + +<li>Museum of Arab Art, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, <a href= +"#Page_138">138</a>, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>, <a href= +"#Page_282">282</a>, <a href="#Page_304">304</a>, <a href= +"#Page_305">305</a>, <a href="#Page_312">312</a>.</li> + +<li>Museum, British, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>, <a href= +"#Page_273">273</a>.</li> + +<li><span class="word-spaced6"> „ </span> South +Kensington, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>, <a href= +"#Page_282">282</a>, <a href="#Page_283">283</a>.</li> + +<li>Music, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>.</li> + +<li>Musky street, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href= +"#Page_126">126</a>.</li> + +<li>Mustanṣir, el-, Fāṭimid caliph, <a href= +"#Page_144">144</a>-154, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>.</li> + +<li>Mutanebby, el-, poet, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>.</li> + +<li>Mutawelly, Ḳuṭb el-, <a href="#Page_10">10</a> +[Bāb-Zuweyla].</li> + +<li>Muwaffaḳ, el-, ‘Abbāsid, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>.</li> + +<li>Muzhir (Mazhar), Abū-Bekr ibn, Ḳāḍy, mosque, <a href= +"#Page_250">250</a>, <a href="#Page_285">285</a>, <a href= +"#Page_309">309</a>-311.</li> + +<li class="ifrst">N.</li> + +<li>Naḥḥāsīn [Sūḳ].</li> + +<li>Narthex, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>.</li> + +<li>Nāṣir, en-, title of Saladin, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>.</li> + +<li>Nāṣir, en-, Moḥammad, Mamlūk sultan, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>, +<a href="#Page_204">204</a>, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>-228; +mosque in Citadel, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>, <a href= +"#Page_223">223</a>; mosque in Naḥḥāsīn, <a href= +"#Page_220">220</a>, <a href="#Page_223">223</a>; artistic epoch, +<a href="#Page_279">279</a>, <a href="#Page_282">282</a>, <a href= +"#Page_284">284</a>.</li> + +<li>Nāṣir, en-, pool of, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>.</li> + +<li>Nāṣir-i-Khusrau, philosopher and traveller, <a href= +"#Page_83">83</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>-110, <a href= +"#Page_127">127</a>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>, <a href= +"#Page_132">132</a>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, <a href= +"#Page_145">145</a>.</li> + +<li>Naṣr [Bāb, Ḳubba].</li> + +<li>Naṣr ibn ‘Abbās, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>.</li> + +<li>Nefīsa, Seyyida, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>, <a href= +"#Page_206">206</a>, <a href="#Page_223">223</a>, <a href= +"#Page_300">300</a>.</li> + +<li>Nestorius, Ibn, Fāṭimid vezīr, <a href= +"#Page_122">122</a>.</li> + +<li>Niche of mosque [Miḥrāb].</li> + +<li>Night of the Bath, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>.</li> + +<li>Nikiu, John, bishop of, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>.</li> + +<li>Nile, change of bed, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href= +"#Page_257">257</a>, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>; festivals, +<a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href= +"#Page_132">132</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>.</li> + +<li>Nilometers, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href= +"#Page_85">85</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href= +"#Page_147">147</a>; mosque of, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>.</li> + +<li>Niẓām-el-mulk, Seljūḳ vezīr, college of, <a href= +"#Page_190">190</a>.</li> + +<li>Nubians, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, +<a href="#Page_62">62</a>.</li> + +<li>Nūr-ed-dīn, sultan of Damascus, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>, +<a href="#Page_190">190</a>, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>, <a href= +"#Page_198">198</a>.</li> + +<li class="ifrst">O.</li> + +<li>‘Okba, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>.</li> + +<li>Old Cairo [Maṣr-el-‘Atīḳa].</li> + +<li>‘Omar, caliph, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href= +"#Page_40">40</a>.</li> + +<li>‘Omar, secretary, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>.</li> + +<li>‘Omāra, poet, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>.</li> + +<li>Omayyads [caliphs].</li> + +<li>On, <a href="#Page_49">49</a> [Heliopolis].</li> + +<li>Osāma, treasurer, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>.</li> + +<li>Osāma ibn Munkidh, Arab chief, <a href= +"#Page_158">158</a>.</li> + +<li>‘Othmān Bey Dhū-l-Fiḳār, <a href="#Page_289">289</a>, <a href= +"#Page_290">290</a>.</li> + +<li>‘Othmān Ketkhudā, <a href="#Page_299">299</a>.</li> + +<li>‘Othmānly (Osmānli, Ottoman) Turks, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, +<a href="#Page_206">206</a>; mosques, <a href= +"#Page_298">298</a>-301.</li> + +<li class="ifrst">P.</li> + +<li>Palaces, Fāṭimid, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>-8, <a href= +"#Page_130">130</a>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>, <a href= +"#Page_160">160</a>; Mamlūk, <a href="#Page_223">223</a>, <a href= +"#Page_270">270</a>, <a href="#Page_274">274</a>, <a href= +"#Page_288">288</a>-290; Ṭūlūnid, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, +<a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href= +"#Page_88">88</a>.</li> + +<li>Patriarchs, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href= +"#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href= +"#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>, <a href= +"#Page_122">122</a>, <a href="#Page_219">219</a>.</li> + +<li>Paulus Ageminius, <a href="#Page_280">280</a>.</li> + +<li>Pavilions, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, <a href= +"#Page_127">127</a>, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>.</li> + +<li>Pelusium, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>.</li> + +<li>Perfumes, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>, <a href= +"#Page_134">134</a>, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>.</li> + +<li>Persia, Mongol khāns of, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>, <a href= +"#Page_206">206</a>.</li> + +<li>Persian arch, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>, <a href= +"#Page_138">138</a>, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>; art, <a href= +"#Page_133">133</a>, <a href="#Page_280">280</a>; troops, <a href= +"#Page_146">146</a>.</li> + +<li>Pharaoh’s Oven, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>; Seat, <a href= +"#Page_90">90</a>.</li> + +<li>Physicians, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href= +"#Page_120">120</a>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>.</li> + +<li>Pictures, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, +<a href="#Page_133">133</a>.</li> + +<li>Pigeon post, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>; tower, <a href= +"#Page_87">87</a>.</li> + +<li>Pilgrims, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>.</li> + +<li>Plague, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>.</li> + +<li>Planets, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>.</li> + +<li>Plaster-work, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>, <a href= +"#Page_85">85</a>, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>.</li> + +<li>Plato, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>.</li> + +<li>Pococke, R., <a href="#Page_41">41</a>.</li> + +<li>Poets, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>-101.</li> + +<li>Polo, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>.</li> + +<li>Pottery, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>.</li> + +<li>Preacher, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>, <a href= +"#Page_171">171</a>, <a href="#Page_297">297</a>.</li> + +<li>Professors, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, <a href= +"#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>, <a href= +"#Page_297">297</a>, <a href="#Page_300">300</a>, <a href= +"#Page_301">301</a>.</li> + +<li>Pulpit (minbar), <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href= +"#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href= +"#Page_283">283</a>, <a href="#Page_284">284</a>, <a href= +"#Page_299">299</a>.</li> + +<li>Punch (Ḳarāḳūsh), <a href="#Page_25">25</a>.</li> + +<li class="ifrst"><span class="pagenum" id= +"Page_338">[338]</span>Q.</li> + +<li>Quicksilver Lake, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>.</li> + +<li class="ifrst">R.</li> + +<li>Raḥba (square), <a href="#Page_271">271</a>.</li> + +<li>Rā’ik, Ibn, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>.</li> + +<li>Rain, prayers for, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>.</li> + +<li>Ram, Castle of the, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>.</li> + +<li>Ramaḍān, fast, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href= +"#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>.</li> + +<li>Ramla, er-, Peace of, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>.</li> + +<li>Rashīd [Hārūn].</li> + +<li>Rāshida, mosque at, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>.</li> + +<li>Raṭly, Birkat-el-, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>.</li> + +<li>Ravaisse, M., <a href="#Page_128">128</a>.</li> + +<li>Red [Ḥamrā]; tower, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>; sea, <a href= +"#Page_205">205</a>.</li> + +<li>Rents, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, <a href= +"#Page_195">195</a>, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>, <a href= +"#Page_270">270</a>.</li> + +<li>Restoration of mosques, <a href="#Page_309">309</a>-312.</li> + +<li>Revenue, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>.</li> + +<li>Review, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>.</li> + +<li>Rhodes, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>; tiles, <a href= +"#Page_56">56</a>, <a href="#Page_298">298</a>.</li> + +<li>Riwāḳs (partitions in Azhar), <a href="#Page_291">291</a>.</li> + +<li>Rōḍa, er-, Island, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href= +"#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>-96, <a href= +"#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>, <a href= +"#Page_157">157</a>, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>.</li> + +<li>Rogers, E. T., <a href="#Page_206">206</a>, <a href= +"#Page_304">304</a>.</li> + +<li>Romans (Eastern Empire), <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href= +"#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href= +"#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>.</li> + +<li>Ruḍwān, Fāṭimid vezīr, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>.</li> + +<li>Ruḍwān el-Gelfy, <a href="#Page_290">290</a>, <a href= +"#Page_291">291</a>.</li> + +<li>Ruḳeyya, Seyyida, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>.</li> + +<li>Rūm, Ḥārat-er-, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, <a href= +"#Page_145">145</a>.</li> + +<li>Rumeyla, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href= +"#Page_179">179</a>, <a href="#Page_219">219</a>, <a href= +"#Page_253">253</a>.</li> + +<li>Ruzzīk, <a href="#Page_159">159</a> [Ṭalāi‘].</li> + +<li class="ifrst">S.</li> + +<li>Sa‘āda [Bāb].</li> + +<li>Ṣafīya, Seyyida, mosque, <a href="#Page_298">298</a>.</li> + +<li>Sāg (teak wood), <a href="#Page_76">76</a>.</li> + +<li>Sa‘īd, Ibn, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href= +"#Page_94">94</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href= +"#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_262">262</a>.</li> + +<li>Sāḳiya (water-wheel), <a href="#Page_258">258</a>.</li> + +<li>Saḳḳa (water carrier), <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href= +"#Page_299">299</a>.</li> + +<li>Saladin (Ṣalāḥ-ed-dīn), Ayyūbid sultan, <a href= +"#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>, <a href= +"#Page_164">164</a>-193, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>, <a href= +"#Page_212">212</a>, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>.</li> + +<li>Sālār, Ibn es-, Fāṭimid vezīr, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>, +<a href="#Page_167">167</a>.</li> + +<li>Ṣalība (crossway) street, <a href="#Page_288">288</a>.</li> + +<li>Ṣāliḥ, eṣ-, Ayyūb, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>, <a href= +"#Page_198">198</a>, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>, <a href= +"#Page_217">217</a>, <a href="#Page_269">269</a>; tomb, <a href= +"#Page_212">212</a>, <a href="#Page_282">282</a>.</li> + +<li>Ṣāliḥ, eṣ- [Ṭalāi‘].</li> + +<li>Ṣāliḥ, Abū-, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, <a href= +"#Page_153">153</a>.</li> + +<li>Salomonis opus, <a href="#Page_280">280</a>.</li> + +<li>Sanctuary [Līwān].</li> + +<li>Saphadin [‘Ādil].</li> + +<li>Sarga, Abu-, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>.</li> + +<li>Ṣarghitmish, Mamlūk emīr, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>; mosque, +<a href="#Page_224">224</a>.</li> + +<li>Ṣārim, Ibn, mosque, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>.</li> + +<li>Sāriyat-el-Gebel, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>.</li> + +<li>Sārūgā, mosque, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>.</li> + +<li>Sawākin, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>, <a href= +"#Page_215">215</a>, <a href="#Page_263">263</a>.</li> + +<li>Schefer, C., <a href="#Page_107">107</a>.</li> + +<li>Schools or sects of Islām, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, <a href= +"#Page_190">190</a>, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>, <a href= +"#Page_300">300</a>.</li> + +<li>Screens, Coptic, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>-55, <a href= +"#Page_57">57</a>.</li> + +<li>Sebīl (street fountain), <a href="#Page_249">249</a>, <a href= +"#Page_253">253</a>, <a href="#Page_299">299</a>.</li> + +<li>Sebīl, khān of the, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>.</li> + +<li>Sekīna, Seyyida, <a href="#Page_299">299</a>.</li> + +<li>Selīm, ‘Othmānly sultan, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>.</li> + +<li>Seljūḳs, sultans of western Asia, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>, +<a href="#Page_167">167</a>, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>, <a href= +"#Page_203">203</a>.</li> + +<li>Sennānīya, es-, mosque, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>.</li> + +<li>Sengar el-Gāwaly, mosque, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>.</li> + +<li>Sergius, St, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>.</li> + +<li>Severus, bishop of el-Ushmūneyn, <a href= +"#Page_121">121</a>.</li> + +<li>Seyf-ed-din, college, <a href="#Page_185">185</a> [‘Ādil].</li> + +<li>Seyfeyn, Abū-s-, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>.</li> + +<li>Sha‘bān, el-Ashraf, Mamlūk sultan, <a href= +"#Page_90">90</a>.</li> + +<li>Shāfi‘īs, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, <a href= +"#Page_185">185</a>, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>.</li> + +<li>Shāfi‘y, esh-, Imām, mosque, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>, +<a href="#Page_225">225</a>, <a href="#Page_296">296</a>, <a href= +"#Page_298">298</a>, <a href="#Page_300">300</a>.</li> + +<li>Sharā’iby family, <a href="#Page_292">292</a>.</li> + +<li>Shāri‘ (street), <a href="#Page_6">6</a>.</li> + +<li>Shāwar, Fāṭimid vezīr, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href= +"#Page_159">159</a>, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>-169.</li> + +<li>Sheger-ed-durr, ‘Aṣmat-ed-dīn, Mamlūk queen, <a href= +"#Page_198">198</a>, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>, <a href= +"#Page_202">202</a>, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>.</li> + +<li>Shem, son of Noah, muṣallā of, <a href= +"#Page_129">129</a>.</li> + +<li>Sherbetly, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>.</li> + +<li>Sheykh-el-beled, <a href="#Page_288">288</a>.</li> + +<li>Sheykh-el-Islām, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>.</li> + +<li>Sheykhū, Mamlūk emīr, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>; mosque, +<a href="#Page_224">224</a>, <a href="#Page_284">284</a>.</li> + +<li>Shī‘a, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>-120, <a href= +"#Page_180">180</a>-182.</li> + +<li>Shibūk, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href= +"#Page_288">288</a>.</li> + +<li>Shipbuilders’ island, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>.</li> + +<li>Shīrkūh, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>-170.</li> + +<li>Shops, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>-9, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, +<a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>.</li> + +<li>Shubrawy, esh-, Aḥmad, <a href="#Page_295">295</a>, <a href= +"#Page_296">296</a>.</li> + +<li>Silversmiths, <a href="#Page_272">272</a> <em>ff.</em></li> + +<li>Slaves, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>, <a href= +"#Page_236">236</a>, <a href="#Page_269">269</a>, <a href= +"#Page_288">288</a>.</li> + +<li>Slavonians, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>.</li> + +<li>Smoking, <a href="#Page_288">288</a>.</li> + +<li>Spain, refugees from, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>.</li> + +<li>Statues, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>.</li> + +<li>Stone-work, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, <a href= +"#Page_139">139</a>, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>, <a href= +"#Page_284">284</a>.</li> + +<li><span class="pagenum" id="Page_339">[339]</span>Strabo, +<a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>.</li> + +<li>Streets of Cairo, <a href="#Page_271">271</a>.</li> + +<li>Striped decoration, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>.</li> + +<li>Striped Palace (Ḳaṣr-el-Ablaḳ), <a href= +"#Page_223">223</a>.</li> + +<li>Stucco-work, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>, <a href= +"#Page_85">85</a>, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>, <a href= +"#Page_284">284</a>.</li> + +<li>Sūdān trade, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href= +"#Page_134">134</a>; students, <a href="#Page_299">299</a>.</li> + +<li>Sūdānīs, black troops, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href= +"#Page_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>, <a href= +"#Page_130">130</a>, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, <a href= +"#Page_144">144</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, <a href= +"#Page_147">147</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, <a href= +"#Page_181">181</a>.</li> + +<li>Suez, <a href="#Page_263">263</a>.</li> + +<li>Sūḳ (bazar, market), <a href= +"#Page_271">271</a>;—Sūḳ-en-Naḥḥāsīn, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>, +<a href="#Page_126">126</a>, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>.</li> + +<li>Sukkarīya (sugar bāzār), <a href="#Page_159">159</a>, <a href= +"#Page_238">238</a>.</li> + +<li>Sun-dials, <a href="#Page_296">296</a>.</li> + +<li>Sunnīs (orthodox Muslims), <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, +<a href="#Page_119">119</a>.</li> + +<li>Superstition, <a href="#Page_297">297</a>.</li> + +<li>Surūgīya, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>.</li> + +<li>Syria, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, +<a href="#Page_93">93</a>, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>, <a href= +"#Page_143">143</a>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, <a href= +"#Page_164">164</a>-173, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>, <a href= +"#Page_196">196</a>, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>-207, <a href= +"#Page_217">217</a>, <a href="#Page_301">301</a> [Damascus].</li> + +<li>Syrian trade, <a href="#Page_269">269</a>, <a href= +"#Page_270">270</a>.</li> + +<li class="ifrst">T.</li> + +<li>Ṭabary, eṭ-, historian, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>.</li> + +<li>Ṭabāṭabā poets, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>.</li> + +<li>Ṭabbākh, Ibn-eṭ-, mosque, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>.</li> + +<li>Ṭāhir, Ibn, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href= +"#Page_67">67</a>.</li> + +<li>Ṭalāi‘ ibn Rūzzīk, Fāṭimid vezīr, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>, +<a href="#Page_159">159</a>; mosque, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>, +<a href="#Page_167">167</a>.</li> + +<li>Ṭamweyh, monastery, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>.</li> + +<li>Ṭarsūs, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, +<a href="#Page_86">86</a>.</li> + +<li>Ṭawāshy, eṭ-, mosque, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>.</li> + +<li>Taxes, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, +<a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>, <a href= +"#Page_207">207</a>, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>, <a href= +"#Page_241">241</a>, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>.</li> + +<li>Ṭaybars, Mamlūk emīr, mosque, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>; +medresa, <a href="#Page_299">299</a>.</li> + +<li>Ṭaylasan, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>.</li> + +<li>Templars, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>.</li> + +<li>Ṭendunyās, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>.</li> + +<li>Tent [Fusṭāṭ]; state tents, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>.</li> + +<li>Textus case, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>.</li> + +<li>Thedosius, edict of, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>.</li> + +<li><em>Thousand and One Nights</em>, <a href= +"#Page_261">261</a>-263.</li> + +<li>Throne, ‘Abbāsid, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>.</li> + +<li>Tiles, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, <a href="#Page_298">298</a>, +<a href="#Page_299">299</a>.</li> + +<li>Tīmūr (Tamerlane), <a href="#Page_237">237</a>.</li> + +<li>Tīmūrbughā, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>, <a href= +"#Page_241">241</a>.</li> + +<li>Tombs, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, +<a href="#Page_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href= +"#Page_184">184</a>, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>, <a href= +"#Page_228">228</a> [Mosque].</li> + +<li>Ṭōr, eṭ-, <a href="#Page_263">263</a>.</li> + +<li>Trade, transit, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href= +"#Page_262">262</a>-265.</li> + +<li>Treasurers, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href= +"#Page_93">93</a>.</li> + +<li>Treaty, Arab, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>-37.</li> + +<li>Tripolis, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>, <a href= +"#Page_205">205</a>.</li> + +<li>Truffles, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>.</li> + +<li>Ṭulbīya, wife of en-Nāṣir, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>.</li> + +<li>Ṭūlūn, Aḥmad ibn, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>-87, <a href= +"#Page_197">197</a>, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>; faubourg and +palace, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>-77; mosque, <a href= +"#Page_77">77</a>-86, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href= +"#Page_187">187</a>, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>, <a href= +"#Page_245">245</a>, <a href="#Page_281">281</a>-3, <a href= +"#Page_285">285</a>, <a href="#Page_289">289</a>; Nilometer, +<a href="#Page_96">96</a>.</li> + +<li>Ṭūmān-Bey, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>.</li> + +<li>Tunis, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>.</li> + +<li>Turkish governors, <a href="#Page_70">70</a> <em>ff.</em>; +troops, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, +<a href="#Page_147">147</a>-149.</li> + +<li>Tyre, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>.</li> + +<li>Tyre, William of, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href= +"#Page_130">130</a>-132, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>.</li> + +<li class="ifrst">U.</li> + +<li>‘Ulamā (learned men), <a href="#Page_300">300</a>, <a href= +"#Page_302">302</a>.</li> + +<li>Umarā, Hārat-el- (emīrs’ quarter), <a href= +"#Page_145">145</a>.</li> + +<li>Umm-Duneyn, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href= +"#Page_35">35</a>.</li> + +<li>Umm-Khalīl, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>.</li> + +<li>Umm-Kulthūm, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>.</li> + +<li>Ustaddār (major domo).</li> + +<li>‘Uṭūfīya quarter, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>.</li> + +<li>University [Azhar].</li> + +<li class="ifrst">V.</li> + +<li>Valle, Pietro della, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>.</li> + +<li>Venice, consuls, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>, <a href= +"#Page_263">263</a>-265; art, <a href="#Page_277">277</a>, <a href= +"#Page_279">279</a>, <a href="#Page_280">280</a>.</li> + +<li>Vezīrs’ Palace, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, <a href= +"#Page_171">171</a>.</li> + +<li>Vezīrs, Fāṭimid, <a href="#Page_147">147</a> <em>ff.</em></li> + +<li class="ifrst">W.</li> + +<li>Waḳf (religious trusts), <a href="#Page_302">302</a>-5, +<a href="#Page_311">311</a>-313.</li> + +<li>Wālīs [Governors].</li> + +<li>Walls of Cairo, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href= +"#Page_123">123</a>, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>-128, <a href= +"#Page_150">150</a>.</li> + +<li>Wardān, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>.</li> + +<li>Wards [Ḳaṭāi‘].</li> + +<li>Watermills, the Seven, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href= +"#Page_217">217</a>.</li> + +<li>Watson, Colonel C. M., <a href="#Page_223">223</a>.</li> + +<li>Wekāla (hostelry), <a href="#Page_265">265</a>-267.</li> + +<li>Well in Citadel, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>.</li> + +<li>Wine, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, +<a href="#Page_102">102</a>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, <a href= +"#Page_207">207</a>.</li> + +<li>Women, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, +<a href="#Page_18">18</a>-20, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href= +"#Page_121">121</a>, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, <a href= +"#Page_140">140</a>, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>, <a href= +"#Page_144">144</a>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>, <a href= +"#Page_160">160</a>, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>, <a href= +"#Page_201">201</a>, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>, <a href= +"#Page_212">212</a>, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>.</li> + +<li>Wood-work, <a href="#Page_281">281</a>-285, <a href= +"#Page_310">310</a>.</li> + +<li class="ifrst"><span class="pagenum" id= +"Page_340">[340]</span>Y.</li> + +<li>Yānis, Fāṭimid vezīr, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>.</li> + +<li>Yāzūry, el-, Fāṭimid vezīr, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, +<a href="#Page_146">146</a>-148.</li> + +<li>Yelbughā, Mamlūk emīr, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>.</li> + +<li>Yenbu‘, port of Mekka, <a href="#Page_263">263</a>.</li> + +<li>Yeshbek, Mamlūk emīr, palace, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>.</li> + +<li>Yeshkur, hill, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href= +"#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href= +"#Page_90">90</a>.</li> + +<li>Yūnus, mosque, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>, <a href= +"#Page_259">259</a>.</li> + +<li class="ifrst">Z.</li> + +<li>Ẓāfir, eẓ-, Fāṭimid caliph, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>; +mosque, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>.</li> + +<li>Ẓāhir, eẓ-, Fāṭimid caliph, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, +<a href="#Page_298">298</a>.</li> + +<li>Ẓāhir, eẓ- [Beybars Barḳūḳ].</li> + +<li>Zawīla or Zuweyla [Bāb]; quarter, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, +<a href="#Page_145">145</a>, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>.</li> + +<li>Zāwiya (chapel), <a href="#Page_189">189</a>, <a href= +"#Page_259">259</a>.</li> + +<li>Zemzem, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>.</li> + +<li>Zeyneb, Seyyida, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>, <a href= +"#Page_299">299</a>.</li> + +<li>Zeyneby, ez-, poet, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>.</li> + +<li>Zeyn-ed-dīn Yaḥya, mosque, <a href="#Page_311">311</a>.</li> + +<li>Zeyn-el-‘Abidīn, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href= +"#Page_185">185</a>.</li> + +<li>Ziggurat, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>.</li> + +<li>Zikrs, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>.</li> + +<li>Zodiac, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>.</li> + +<li>Zubeyr, ez-, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href= +"#Page_185">185</a>.</li> + +<li>Zuhry, ez-, church, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>.</li> + +<li>Zuḳāḳ, <a href="#Page_271">271</a>.</li> + +<li>Zureyḳ, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>.</li> + +<li>Zuweyla [Bāb].</li> +</ul> + +<p class="center small space-above2">TURNBULL AND SPEARS, PRINTERS, +EDINBURGH</p> + +<div class="footnotes"> +<h2>FOOTNOTES:</h2> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a id="Footnote_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1"><span class= +"label">[1]</span></a>See my <em>Cairo Sketches</em> (Virtue, +1897), 120-140.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a id="Footnote_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2"><span class= +"label">[2]</span></a>See <em>Cairo Sketches</em>, 174-5.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a id="Footnote_3"></a><a href="#FNanchor_3"><span class= +"label">[3]</span></a>See my <em>History of Egypt in the Middle +Ages</em>, 4.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a id="Footnote_4"></a><a href="#FNanchor_4"><span class= +"label">[4]</span></a>On the very obscure subject of the Mukawkis +see Dr A. J. Butler’s recent paper in the <em>Proc. Soc. Bibl. +Archæology</em>, 1902, in which he seeks to identify the Mukawkis +with Cyrus, the patriarch of Alexandria. This identification, +however, finds no support from any Arabic authorities.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a id="Footnote_5"></a><a href="#FNanchor_5"><span class= +"label">[5]</span></a>Dr Butler’s suggestion is rather strengthened +by Pococke’s statement that in his time the Kasr-esh-Shema‘ was +also known by the name of “Casr Kieman.” It is not, however, quite +certain that this Kasr-esh-Shema‘ represents the principal part of +Babylon. There was another Roman building on a rocky hill, formerly +washed by the Nile, south-east of the Kasr-esh-Shema‘, which +according to several Arabic writers quoted by Makrízy was the town +of Misr or Babylon besieged by ‘Amr, and contained the fortress +known as Kasr Babelyún. Possibly the remains of this are +commemorated in “Antar’s Stable,” of which massive foundations +exist. See Lane, <em>Cairo Fifty Years Ago</em>, 146. Traces of +walls beside the bed of the Nile have been noticed south of Masr +el-‘Atíka, and it is probable that here we have vestiges of the +vanished pre-Muslim city of Misr, guarded by its two forts. That +Misr was a northern extension of the old but decayed capital, +Memphis, is not so impossible as it seems. The distance it is true +between the present ruins of Memphis and the fortress of Babylon is +over ten miles, but it must be remembered that Memphis once had a +circuit of seventeen miles, and stretched as far as Giza.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a id="Footnote_6"></a><a href="#FNanchor_6"><span class= +"label">[6]</span></a>In later times the Hamra became known as the +quarter of the “Lions’ Bridges” (over the canal), so-called from +the lions sculptured on them, and the quarter of the “Seven +Watermills,” referring to the machines for raising the Nile water +to the aqueduct. <em>Makrízy</em>, i. 286.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a id="Footnote_7"></a><a href="#FNanchor_7"><span class= +"label">[7]</span></a>See Mr E. K. Corbett’s exhaustive and +masterly essay on “the History of the Mosque of ‘Amr at Old Cairo” +in <em>Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society</em>, N.S., xxii., +1891.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a id="Footnote_8"></a><a href="#FNanchor_8"><span class= +"label">[8]</span></a>Lane, <em>Cairo Fifty Years Ago</em>, 142, +143.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a id="Footnote_9"></a><a href="#FNanchor_9"><span class= +"label">[9]</span></a>Jeremiah xliii. 13.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a id="Footnote_10"></a><a href="#FNanchor_10"><span class= +"label">[10]</span></a>See Dr A. J. Butler’s <em>Ancient Coptic +Churches of Egypt</em> (i. 86-9), which for the first time presents +a thorough and scholarly account of these wonderful monuments. Dr +Butler’s zeal and research need no praise of mine to augment their +value, but I cannot resist this opportunity of saying how grateful +every one who is interested in the art of Egypt must be to his +admirable and laborious investigations of every detail of Coptic +antiquities. His work is the highest authority we possess on this +fascinating subject, and from it much of this description is +derived.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a id="Footnote_11"></a><a href="#FNanchor_11"><span class= +"label">[11]</span></a>The dinár was a gold coin of about the +weight of a half-guinea.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a id="Footnote_12"></a><a href="#FNanchor_12"><span class= +"label">[12]</span></a>For the annals of the governors see my +<em>History of Egypt in the Middle Ages</em>, 18-58.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a id="Footnote_13"></a><a href="#FNanchor_13"><span class= +"label">[13]</span></a><em>Korán</em>, xliv. 50, and vii. 133; +<em>History</em>, 37, 38.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a id="Footnote_14"></a><a href="#FNanchor_14"><span class= +"label">[14]</span></a>See <em>History</em>, 60-71; Makrízy, i. +313, 315.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a id="Footnote_15"></a><a href="#FNanchor_15"><span class= +"label">[15]</span></a>He is called by Makrízy merely a Nasrány, +Christian, but had he been a Greek he would certainly have been +given the epithet Rúmy. El-Mas‘údy gives a long account of the +conversations of an aged and very intelligent Copt of Upper Egypt, +a great favourite with Ibn-Tulún, who used to spend much time in +his company and learned many curious things from the ancient +man.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a id="Footnote_16"></a><a href="#FNanchor_16"><span class= +"label">[16]</span></a>See <em>Art of the Saracens in Egypt</em>, +54-59. The grilles are probably of later date.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a id="Footnote_17"></a><a href="#FNanchor_17"><span class= +"label">[17]</span></a>The <em>liwán</em> of the mosque of +Ibn-Tulún has been considerably altered since its foundation. The +vezír Bedr el-Gemály made some repairs in 1077, after the injuries +inflicted during the troubles of el-Mustansir’s reign; and his son +the vezír el-Afdal built a <em>mihráb</em> in 1094; but the chief +restoration was made in 1296 by the Mamlúk Sultan Lagín, whose +pulpit still stands in the mosque and bears his inscriptions.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a id="Footnote_18"></a><a href="#FNanchor_18"><span class= +"label">[18]</span></a>Makrízy says (<em>Khitat</em>, ii. 284) that +the minaret of the small mosque of Akbugha included in the Azhar +buildings and erected in 1331 was “the first minaret built of stone +in the land of Egypt after the Mansuríya” of Kalaún; from which we +infer that Kalaún’s minaret (of 1284) was the first stone minaret +known to the topographer. He would probably not call the tower of +Ibn-Tulún strictly a minaret, and he evidently knew nothing of the +stone minarets of the mosque of el-Hákim (see below, <a href= +"#Page_138">p. 138</a>).</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a id="Footnote_19"></a><a href="#FNanchor_19"><span class= +"label">[19]</span></a>There is a small cupola over the niche, but +this, like the pulpit and most of the decoration of the liwán, +belongs to the restoration by Lagín in 1296. The central domed +ablution tank is also a later addition, replacing the original +marble basin resting on columns under a roof.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a id="Footnote_20"></a><a href="#FNanchor_20"><span class= +"label">[20]</span></a>There are some remarkable specimens of +arabesque woodcarving from the mosque of Ibn-Tulún in the Cairo +Museum of Arab Art.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a id="Footnote_21"></a><a href="#FNanchor_21"><span class= +"label">[21]</span></a>See M. van Berchem, <em>Notes d’Archéologie +Arabe</em>, Extr. du Journal Asiatique, 125 (1891).</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a id="Footnote_22"></a><a href="#FNanchor_22"><span class= +"label">[22]</span></a>Makrízy, i. 318 ff.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a id="Footnote_23"></a><a href="#FNanchor_23"><span class= +"label">[23]</span></a>This curious building, of which a drawing is +given on <a href="#i15">p. 177,</a> was built (very probably on an +ancient foundation) by Saladin’s great-nephew es-Sálih about 1245, +and was used as a royal palace. Here the ‘Abbásid caliph Hakim was +installed by Beybars. En-Násir rebuilt the Castle (or Belvedere) of +the Ram in 1323, and the emír Sarghitmish lived there and built the +gate and round towers. It was partly destroyed by el-Ashraf +Sha‘ban, and then used for tenements. Makrízy ii. 133.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a id="Footnote_24"></a><a href="#FNanchor_24"><span class= +"label">[24]</span></a>Ibn-Sa‘íd, ed. Tallqvist, Arabic text, +14.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a id="Footnote_25"></a><a href="#FNanchor_25"><span class= +"label">[25]</span></a>The Ikhshíd had a passion for amber, and +people used to give him quantities of it at the New Year and Spring +festivals, and he would sell it for great sums. After his death his +widow’s house was burnt down, and with it £50,000 worth of amber +(Ibn-Sa‘íd).</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a id="Footnote_26"></a><a href="#FNanchor_26"><span class= +"label">[26]</span></a>Mas‘údy, <em>Murúg</em>, ii. 364, 365. He +met the historian Eutychius at Misr, and it was there that he +finished the work entitled <em>Kitáb et-Tenbíh</em> in <span class= +"sc2">A.H.</span> 345.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a id="Footnote_27"></a><a href="#FNanchor_27"><span class= +"label">[27]</span></a>See my “Arab Classic,” in <em>Among my +Books</em>, 90.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a id="Footnote_28"></a><a href="#FNanchor_28"><span class= +"label">[28]</span></a>See <em>History</em>, 88, 89, and Dr +Tallqvist’s excellent edition of part of Ibn-Sa‘id, 78 ff.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a id="Footnote_29"></a><a href="#FNanchor_29"><span class= +"label">[29]</span></a>See Makrízy, ii. 177, 114, 115, 163, 185, +etc.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a id="Footnote_30"></a><a href="#FNanchor_30"><span class= +"label">[30]</span></a>Nasir-i-Khusrau, <em>Safar Náma</em>, ed. +Schefer, 145 ff.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a id="Footnote_31"></a><a href="#FNanchor_31"><span class= +"label">[31]</span></a>See my <em>Saladin</em>, 93, and see below, +<a href="#Page_169">p. 169.</a></p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a id="Footnote_32"></a><a href="#FNanchor_32"><span class= +"label">[32]</span></a>Ibn-Gubeyr, ed. Wright, 51. I owe this +reference to Mr Guy le Strange.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a id="Footnote_33"></a><a href="#FNanchor_33"><span class= +"label">[33]</span></a>Quoted in Makrízy, i. 341.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a id="Footnote_34"></a><a href="#FNanchor_34"><span class= +"label">[34]</span></a>As evidence may be cited his complete breach +with the Carmathians, although they were the source of the Fátimid +revolution. Twice they invaded Egypt shortly after the Fátimid +conquest, in 971 and again in 974, and even laid siege to Cairo, +and forced their way through one of the gates. The invincible +hostility of Mo‘izz to these Arabian brigands had doubtless a +political basis, but had he held the advanced views of the Shí‘a +propaganda he would hardly have quarrelled with its grand +master.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a id="Footnote_35"></a><a href="#FNanchor_35"><span class= +"label">[35]</span></a>See my <em>History</em>, 103, 104.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a id="Footnote_36"></a><a href="#FNanchor_36"><span class= +"label">[36]</span></a>Abu-Sálih, ed. Evetts, fol. 35.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a id="Footnote_37"></a><a href="#FNanchor_37"><span class= +"label">[37]</span></a>There are numerous notices of this intimacy +between the caliphs and the Coptic monks in the work of the +Armenian Christian Abu-Salih, written between 1173 and 1208, and +excellently edited, translated, and annotated by Mr B. T. A. Evetts +with the assistance of Dr A. J. Butler (<em>The Churches and +Monasteries of Egpyt</em>, Anecdota Oxon, 1895): see especially +foll. 7<em>b</em>, 34<em>b</em>-36, 40<em>b</em>, 46<em>b</em>, +84<em>a</em>.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a id="Footnote_38"></a><a href="#FNanchor_38"><span class= +"label">[38]</span></a>Makrízy, i. 377.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a id="Footnote_39"></a><a href="#FNanchor_39"><span class= +"label">[39]</span></a>He is clearly referring to the +<em>palace</em> wall, for he distinctly says that the <em>city</em> +wall did not then exist. Ed. Schefer, 128.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a id="Footnote_40"></a><a href="#FNanchor_40"><span class= +"label">[40]</span></a><em>Mémoires de la Mission archéologique +française au Caire</em>, tomes i. and iii., to which every student +of the Fátimid palaces should refer.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a id="Footnote_41"></a><a href="#FNanchor_41"><span class= +"label">[41]</span></a>Zuweyla is the popular pronunciation; the +correct form is Zawíla, the name of a Berber tribe.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a id="Footnote_42"></a><a href="#FNanchor_42"><span class= +"label">[42]</span></a>Makrízy, i. 381.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a id="Footnote_43"></a><a href="#FNanchor_43"><span class= +"label">[43]</span></a>William of Tyre, <em>Historia rerum in +partibus transmarinis gestarum</em>, lib. xix., cap. 19, 20, +epitomized in my <em>Saladin</em>, 86-88. The embassy is not +recorded by the Arabic chroniclers.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a id="Footnote_44"></a><a href="#FNanchor_44"><span class= +"label">[44]</span></a><em>Safar Náma</em>, ed. Schefer, 126. +Broad-bottomed tubs we should call these ships.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a id="Footnote_45"></a><a href="#FNanchor_45"><span class= +"label">[45]</span></a>For details of Fátimid art and industries, +see my <em>Art of the Saracens</em>, 10, 163, 201, 241, etc.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a id="Footnote_46"></a><a href="#FNanchor_46"><span class= +"label">[46]</span></a>Makrízy, ii. 318.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a id="Footnote_47"></a><a href="#FNanchor_47"><span class= +"label">[47]</span></a>See M. van Berchem, <em>Notes d’Archéologie +arabe</em> (1891), 27-36.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a id="Footnote_48"></a><a href="#FNanchor_48"><span class= +"label">[48]</span></a>El-Hákim also built the “Oratory of the +Feast” (Musalla-l-‘Id) beside the Bab-en-Nasr, a mosque at Maks +beside the Nile, and another in the district called Ráshida to the +south of Katái‘, near Mukattam. See <em>History</em>, 126.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a id="Footnote_49"></a><a href="#FNanchor_49"><span class= +"label">[49]</span></a>It was even believed that the ‘Abbásid +caliph would be sent a prisoner to Cairo, and his Fátimid rival had +a gilt cage constructed for him, and spent a couple of million +dinárs in preparing the West Palace for his expected guest. The +‘Abbásid throne and royal robes and turban were actually deposited +in Cairo, and remained there till the time of Saladin, who restored +the robes, but the throne was kept, and afterwards set up in the +mosque of Beybars the Gashnekír. See <em>History</em>, 139.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a id="Footnote_50"></a><a href="#FNanchor_50"><span class= +"label">[50]</span></a>Násir-el-Khusrau states that the city was +then divided into ten quarters, namely, the Hárat Bargawán, H. +Zuweyla, H. el-Gawdaríya (certain troops originally from Barbary), +H. el-Umara (of the emírs), H. ed-Deylima (Persians), H. er-Rum +(Greeks), H. el-Batilíya (originally some of Gawhar’s veterans), +Kasr-esh-Shawk (a subsidiary palace), ‘Abid-esh-Shera (bought +slaves), H. el-Masámida (Masmúda Berbers). He mentions only five +gates: the Bab en-Nasr, B. el-Futúh, B. el-Kantara, B. Zuweyla, and +B. el-Khalíg.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a id="Footnote_51"></a><a href="#FNanchor_51"><span class= +"label">[51]</span></a>Makrízy gives an inventory of the caliph’s +<em>objets de virtù</em> far too long to quote. It includes (apart +from immense stores of precious stones, plate, crystal and gold +vases, rich brocades and cloth of gold, and all kinds of pottery), +cups of bezoar engraved with the name of Harún er-Rashíd, enamelled +plates, the gift of a Roman emperor to ‘Azíz; the sword of the +Prophet, the breastplate of the martyr Hoseyn, the sword of Mo‘izz, +and quantities of jewelled daggers, javelins, and other arms; +inlaid gold dishes, inkstands, etc.; chess boards worked in gold on +silk, with gold and silver, ivory and ebony pieces; steel mirrors, +amber cups, a table of sardonyx, a peacock of gold with eyes of +ruby and feathers of enamel, an antelope spotted with pearls, and a +turban, the jewels of which weighed 17 lbs.; thirty-eight +state-barges, one of silver; the caliph Záhir’s tent of gold thread +resting on silver poles, and the marquee of Yazúry, a mass of +exquisite designs which took fifty artists nine years to complete, +the pole of which was 120 feet high, and the circumference of the +tent nearly 1000 feet.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a id="Footnote_52"></a><a href="#FNanchor_52"><span class= +"label">[52]</span></a>The verse of course refers to the battle of +Bedr in the early career of Mohammad.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a id="Footnote_53"></a><a href="#FNanchor_53"><span class= +"label">[53]</span></a>Abu-Sálih, f. 51<em>a</em>, Makrízy, i. 381. +See the admirable <em>Notes</em> of M. van Berchem (1891), 37-72, +for an architectural examination of the walls and gates.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a id="Footnote_54"></a><a href="#FNanchor_54"><span class= +"label">[54]</span></a>Published by Mr H. C. Kay, <em>Journal R. +Asiatic Soc.</em>, N.S., xviii., from a squeeze which he and I +caused to be taken with some difficulty when we were at Cairo in +1883.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a id="Footnote_55"></a><a href="#FNanchor_55"><span class= +"label">[55]</span></a>The scene is described by the Arab prince +Osáma, who was at Cairo at the time, and was a friend of ‘Abbás, +the murderer both of the vezír and of the caliph. See Derenbourg, +<em>Vie d’Ousama</em>, 205-260.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a id="Footnote_56"></a><a href="#FNanchor_56"><span class= +"label">[56]</span></a>This palace, founded by an earlier vezír, +was turned into a college by Saladin. It stood near the present +mosque of el-Ashraf in the Ghuríya street.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a id="Footnote_57"></a><a href="#FNanchor_57"><span class= +"label">[57]</span></a>The mosque of ez-Záfir, founded by that +caliph in 1129, still exists at the corner of the Sukkaríya, and is +known as the Gámi‘ el-Fakihiyín (or el-Fakahány), but it was +entirely rebuilt in 1735.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a id="Footnote_58"></a><a href="#FNanchor_58"><span class= +"label">[58]</span></a>Herz Bey, <em>Catalogue of the National +Museum of Arab Art</em>, edited by S. Lane-Poole, xxiv.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a id="Footnote_59"></a><a href="#FNanchor_59"><span class= +"label">[59]</span></a><em>Ibn-Gubeyr</em>, ed. Wright, 46, 47. +This and the following extracts from the travels of the Spanish +Arab are translated by Mr Guy le Strange.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a id="Footnote_60"></a><a href="#FNanchor_60"><span class= +"label">[60]</span></a><em>Saladin</em>, 358-360.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a id="Footnote_61"></a><a href="#FNanchor_61"><span class= +"label">[61]</span></a>See M. van Berchem, <em>Notes</em> (1891), +55, 68-70.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a id="Footnote_62"></a><a href="#FNanchor_62"><span class= +"label">[62]</span></a>Ibn-Gubeyr, ed. Wright, 49. See Makrízy, ii. +151, on the “Kanatír el-Giza.”</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a id="Footnote_63"></a><a href="#FNanchor_63"><span class= +"label">[63]</span></a>Ibn-Gubeyr, ed. Wright, 41, 42.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a id="Footnote_64"></a><a href="#FNanchor_64"><span class= +"label">[64]</span></a>Ibn-Gubeyr, ed. Wright, 44, 45. This +intelligent traveller to whom we owe so many interesting details of +Saladin’s period, gives a curious description of the great Karáfa +cemetery to the south of Cairo, which is one of the few places that +carry one back to the days of the Arab conquest. Here lie the bones +of most of the early warriors and poets and divines of the Town of +the Tent, though nothing but tradition identifies their graves now. +In Ibn-Gubeyr’s time the identification was evidently doubtful, for +he declines to be responsible for what he has taken from the +histories, though he adds, piously, that “their authenticity is +above suspicion, if it please God.” Passing by such legendary tombs +as those of the Prophet Sálih, and Reuben son of Jacob, and +Pharaoh’s wife Asiya, we find descriptions of fourteen tombs of the +male descendants of ‘Aly and five women, each in its own beautiful +chapel with its keeper and endowment. Among them were +Zeyn-el-‘Abidín, the son of the martyr Hoseyn, Zeyneb his +great-granddaughter, and Umm-Kulthúm, the daughter of the sixth +Imám Ga‘far es-Sádik. There were also the tombs of ‘Okba, the +standard-bearer of the Prophet, of Abu-l-Hasan his goldsmith, of +Sáriya of the Hill (who is also commemorated by a mosque in the +Citadel, though there is nothing to connect him with Egypt), of two +sons and a daughter of the caliph Abu-Bekr, of the son of ez-Zubeyr +the general under ‘Amr, of Ibn-‘Abd-al-Hakam, of el-Gawhary; +besides such notabilities as the Man of the Water-Pot, famous for +wonders, the man who quoted the Korán when he was laid in his +grave, the man who never spoke for forty years, and the bride to +whom a miracle was vouchsafed when she unveiled to her husband. +There was the Place of the Martyrs, where are buried the warriors +who fell fighting for Islám under Sáriya, and the plain was dotted +all over with the mounds of their graves. “All the buildings of the +Karáfa, whether mosques or chapels, give hospitable shelter to all +learned and pious strangers, as well as to mendicants, each +building being provided with a grant of money, paid monthly on +behalf of the Sultan, and the same in the case with the colleges +both of Misr and Cairo. It was told us that the sum of those grants +exceeded 2000 Egyptian dinárs a month, which is equal to 4000 +Morocco dinárs; and as to the great mosque of ‘Amr at Misr we were +informed that its revenues amounted to about thirty Egyptian dinárs +a day for its upkeep and the salaries of the guardians, precentors, +and Korán readers.”—<em>Ibid.</em> 42-6.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a id="Footnote_65"></a><a href="#FNanchor_65"><span class= +"label">[65]</span></a>Makrízy describes only nineteen +<em>mesgids</em> (apart from those in the Karáfa cemetery), as +compared with eighty-seven <em>gámi‘s</em>; and all the nineteen +seem to have been unimportant. They were chiefly of Fátimid or +Ayyúbid foundation, and situate outside the Zuweyla, Nasr, Kantara, +and Sa‘áda Gates, or in the garden of Kafúr, though three were in +or near Beyn-el-Kasreyn. None of them is standing now. Makrízy +enumerates twenty-five <em>Záwiyas</em>, all but one being Mamlúk +foundations, of which seven were outside the Bab-en-Nasr or B. +el-Futúh, four outside other gates, five at or near Maks. In short, +mesgid would appear to be applied in the Topographer’s time chiefly +to the earlier suburban chapels, and záwiya to outlying chapels of +the Mamlúk period.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a id="Footnote_66"></a><a href="#FNanchor_66"><span class= +"label">[66]</span></a><em>Saladin</em>, 20.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a id="Footnote_67"></a><a href="#FNanchor_67"><span class= +"label">[67]</span></a>The only coin known of Sheger-ed-durr is in +the British Museum (see my <em>Catalogue of Oriental Coins</em>, +iv. p. 136). Her surname was ‘Asmat-ed-din, “Defender of the +Faith,” and her title Sultán. “Sultana” is not an Arabic title.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a id="Footnote_68"></a><a href="#FNanchor_68"><span class= +"label">[68]</span></a>The extinction of the Crusaders was +completed by the conquest of Margat and Tripolis by Kalaún, and the +storming of ‘Akka by Khalíl in 1292: the few remaining cities fell +immediately, and the work of the Crusaders was wiped out.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a id="Footnote_69"></a><a href="#FNanchor_69"><span class= +"label">[69]</span></a>The tombs of two of the ‘Abbásid caliphs of +Egypt and some of their relations were discovered by E. T. Rogers +Bey in 1883, close to the mosque of Sitta Nefísa at the southern +side of Cairo.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a id="Footnote_70"></a><a href="#FNanchor_70"><span class= +"label">[70]</span></a>Ibn-Batúta, ed. Defremery, i. 71-4.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a id="Footnote_71"></a><a href="#FNanchor_71"><span class= +"label">[71]</span></a>See plan, <a href="#i16">p. 190.</a> Compare +the elaborate work of Herz Bey, <em>La Mosquée du Sultan +Hasan</em>, full of admirable photographs, drawings, +reconstructions, and plans.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a id="Footnote_72"></a><a href="#FNanchor_72"><span class= +"label">[72]</span></a><em>History of Egypt in the Middle +Ages</em>, 344.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a id="Footnote_73"></a><a href="#FNanchor_73"><span class= +"label">[73]</span></a>Marble was not commonly used before the +thirteenth century, when it began to be veneered on portals. It is +best seen in tessellated pavements and mural mosaics. The latter, +composed of pieces of various coloured marbles, were either set in +mortar or let into a solid marble slab.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a id="Footnote_74"></a><a href="#FNanchor_74"><span class= +"label">[74]</span></a>When I was in Cairo in 1883 I made paper +squeezes (strengthened by layers of plaster of Paris mixed with +glue) of the whole of the ornament of this wekála, and plaster +casts made from these squeezes may now be examined in one of the +galleries of the Museum at South Kensington.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a id="Footnote_75"></a><a href="#FNanchor_75"><span class= +"label">[75]</span></a>See M. van Berchem, <em>Corpus Inscr. +Arabic.</em>, 533 ff., for an exhaustive discussion of the +development of the <em>plan cruciforme déformé</em>.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a id="Footnote_76"></a><a href="#FNanchor_76"><span class= +"label">[76]</span></a>Makrízy, ii. 130, 131.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a id="Footnote_77"></a><a href="#FNanchor_77"><span class= +"label">[77]</span></a><em>Cairo Fifty Years Ago</em>, 34, 35.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a id="Footnote_78"></a><a href="#FNanchor_78"><span class= +"label">[78]</span></a>D. A. Cameron, <em>Egypt in the Nineteenth +Century</em>, 14, 15.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a id="Footnote_79"></a><a href="#FNanchor_79"><span class= +"label">[79]</span></a>Makrízy, ii. 91 <em>ff.</em></p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a id="Footnote_80"></a><a href="#FNanchor_80"><span class= +"label">[80]</span></a><em>Khitat</em>, ii. 105.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a id="Footnote_81"></a><a href="#FNanchor_81"><span class= +"label">[81]</span></a>See Herz Bey, <em>Catalogue of the Arab +Museum</em>, 47, 48, a little handbook which is invaluable to +students of Saracenic art.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a id="Footnote_82"></a><a href="#FNanchor_82"><span class= +"label">[82]</span></a>See my <em>Art of the Saracens</em>, +111-150, for detailed descriptions of these exquisite carvings.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a id="Footnote_83"></a><a href="#FNanchor_83"><span class= +"label">[83]</span></a>By “deputy” is meant the Ketkhuda, commonly +pronounced Kiahya, or in Egypt Kikhya, who was the deputy of the +pasha, and often corresponded loosely with what we should call +Minister of the Interior or Home Secretary.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a id="Footnote_84"></a><a href="#FNanchor_84"><span class= +"label">[84]</span></a>Gabarty, ii. 124-143.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a id="Footnote_85"></a><a href="#FNanchor_85"><span class= +"label">[85]</span></a>Pulled down in 1869. It was built by the +famous emír Ezbek ibn Tutush, from whom the Ezbekíya took its +name.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a id="Footnote_86"></a><a href="#FNanchor_86"><span class= +"label">[86]</span></a>M. van Berchem describes some curious +sun-dials in his <em>Notes d’Archéologie arabe</em> (1892), 13-18. +One was set up in the mosque of Ibn-Tulún in 696 (1296) by Lagín; +another may still be seen in the mosque of Kusún, and is dated 785 +(1383); a third exists in the tomb-mosque of Inál, and bears the +date 871 (1466).</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a id="Footnote_87"></a><a href="#FNanchor_87"><span class= +"label">[87]</span></a>[This has been done in the case of Sultan +Hasan in the sumptuous work, <em>La Mosquée du Sultan Hassan au +Caire</em>, par Max Herz Bey, published by the Commission, +1899.]</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a id="Footnote_88"></a><a href="#FNanchor_88"><span class= +"label">[88]</span></a>All these are now completed.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a id="Footnote_89"></a><a href="#FNanchor_89"><span class= +"label">[89]</span></a>Monuments still standing, or of which parts +still remain, are distinguished by an asterisk. An obelus † +indicates a restoration on the same site. b stands for ibn (son). +Tables for converting Hijra dates into <span class= +"sc2">A.D.</span> are given at the end.</p> +</div> +</div> +</div> +<div style='text-align:center'>*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 78916 ***</div> +</body> +</html> diff --git a/78916-h/images/cover.jpg b/78916-h/images/cover.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..e9907ab --- /dev/null +++ b/78916-h/images/cover.jpg diff --git a/78916-h/images/cover_thumb.jpg b/78916-h/images/cover_thumb.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..3591186 --- /dev/null +++ b/78916-h/images/cover_thumb.jpg diff --git a/78916-h/images/decor1.jpg b/78916-h/images/decor1.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..75cb169 --- /dev/null +++ b/78916-h/images/decor1.jpg diff --git a/78916-h/images/decor2.jpg b/78916-h/images/decor2.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..2484b9b --- /dev/null +++ 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