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+*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 78916 ***
+                          _The Story of Cairo_
+
+
+                      _First Edition, April_ 1902
+
+                      _Second Edition, April_ 1906
+
+
+                         _All rights reserved_
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: CAIRO FROM THE SOUTH-WEST: THE LAKE OF THE ELEPHANT
+(BIRKAT-EL-FIL)]
+
+
+  _The Story of_ Cairo
+
+  _by Stanley Lane-Poole
+  Litt.D. M.A. Professor of Arabic
+  at Trinity College Dublin_
+
+[Decoration]
+
+  _London: J. M. Dent & Co.
+  Aldine House_ 29 _and_ 30 _Bedford Street
+  Covent Garden W.C._ * * 1906
+
+
+
+
+  HE WHO HATH NOT SEEN CAIRO HATH NOT SEEN THE WORLD.
+
+  HER SOIL IS GOLD;
+
+  HER NILE IS A MARVEL;
+
+  HER WOMEN ARE AS THE BRIGHT-EYED HOURIS OF PARADISE;
+
+  HER HOUSES ARE PALACES, AND HER AIR IS SOFT, WITH AN ODOUR ABOVE
+  ALOES, REFRESHING THE HEART;
+
+  AND HOW SHOULD CAIRO BE OTHERWISE, WHEN SHE IS THE MOTHER OF THE
+  WORLD?
+
+
+
+
+                                PREFACE
+
+
+CAIRO is in the fullest sense a mediæval city. It had no existence
+before the Middle Ages; its vigorous life as a separate Metropolis
+almost coincides with the arbitrary millennium of the middle period of
+history; and it still retains to this day much of its mediæval character
+and aspect. The aspect is changing, but not the life. The amazing
+improvements of the past twenty years have altered the Egyptian’s
+material condition, but scarcely as yet touched his character. We have
+given him public order and security, solvency without too heavy
+taxation, an efficient administration, even-handed justice, the means of
+higher education, and above all to every man his fair share of the
+enriching Nile, χρυσορρόης in the truest sense, without which nothing
+else avails. For all these, and especially the last, the peasant is
+grateful in his way, when their merits are pointed out to him; but not
+so the Cairene. The immediate blessings of the irrigation engineer are
+not so prominently brought to bear upon his pressing wants, and for the
+other reforms of the Firengy he cares very little. I should be sorry to
+draw any discourteous comparisons with “the Ethiop,” but whatever time
+and association with Europeans may do for the comely, and to my taste
+none too swarthy, skin of my Cairo friend, I am convinced that he will
+keep his old unregenerate mediæval heart in spite of us all.
+
+Happily for purposes of study (I am not treating of ethics), the East
+changes very slowly, and the soul of the Eastern not at all. The Cairo
+jeweller, who will chaffer with you for an hour over a few piastres,
+though he mixes reluctantly, shrinkingly, in the crazy, bustling
+twentieth century life of Europe that rushes past him, is not of it. In
+his heart of hearts he looks back longingly to the glorious old days of
+the Mamlúks, to which he essentially belongs, and regrets the
+excitements of those stirring times. What good, he asks, comes of all
+this “worry”? Justice? More often a man had need of a little injustice,
+and a respectable tradesman could usually buy that from the Kady before
+these new tribunals were set up. As to fixed taxes and no extortion,
+that is chiefly a matter for the stupid fellahín; and after all the old
+system worked beautifully when you shirked payment, and your neighbour
+was bastinadoed for your share. Then all this fiddling with water and
+drains and streets; what is it all for? When Willcocks or Price Bey have
+put pipes and patent traps and other godless improvements into the
+mosques, will one’s prayers be any better than they were in the pleasant
+pervasive odour of the old fetid tanks? The streets are broader, no
+doubt, to let the Firengis, Allah blacken their faces! roll by in their
+two-horsed ‘arabíyas and splash the Faithful with mud; but for this
+wonderful boon they have taken away the comfortable stone benches from
+before the shops, and the Cairo tradesman misses his old seat, where
+unlimited _keyf_ and the meditative shibúk once whiled away the leisure
+of his never pressing avocations. No; pure water and drains, and
+bicycles and tramcars, and a whole array of wretched little black-coated
+efendis pretending to imitate the Káfirs may be all very well in their
+place, but they are ugly, uninteresting things, and life at Cairo has
+been desperately dull since they came in.
+
+In one of the suggestive essays in his delightful book on “Asia and
+Europe,” Mr Meredith Townsend has shown how _interesting_ life must have
+been in India before England introduced order and all the virtues. The
+picture might have been drawn in Cairo with trifling alterations. Life
+undoubtedly was interesting in the old unregenerate days. There were
+events then; something to see and think of, and possibly fly from;
+plenty of blood and assassination, perhaps, but then you could always
+shut and bar the strong gates of the quarter, when the Mamlúks or the
+Berbers, or, worst of all, the black Sudánis, were on the war-path. Now
+the gates are taken away, and there are no cavalcades of romantic
+troopers, beautiful to behold in their array, to ravish your household
+and give colour to life. In those days it was possible for any man of
+brain and luck to rise to power and wealth, such wealth as all Cairo
+could not furnish in these blank and honest times; promotion was ever at
+hand, and the way was open to the strong, the cunning, and the rich.
+What were a holocaust of victims, an orgy of rapine, even the deadly
+ravages of periodical plague and famine, in comparison with the great
+occasions, the gorgeous pomp, the endless opportunities, the infinite
+variety of those unruly and tumultuous but never tedious days?
+
+This is what the true Cairene meditates in his heart. His ideas, for
+good or ill, are not as our ideas; they date back from the Middle Ages,
+like his dress, his religion, his social habits, his turns of speech,
+his calm insouciance, his impenetrable reserve, his inveterate negation
+of “worry.” Outside the official class he is still the same man whom we
+saw keeping shop or taking his venture to sea in the faithful mirror of
+the Arabian Nights. Even his city preserves its mediæval tone. Much has
+been destroyed by time or innovation, but the European fringe is still a
+fringe, and the old Muslim city for the present defies western
+influences. It has been rebuilt time after time, and every fresh
+rebuilding will take away more of its charm; but enough remains to show
+us what Cairo was five hundred years ago. The crowded streets of the old
+quarters, the immemorial character of the houses and markets, above all
+the historical monuments, carry us back to the Middle Ages.
+
+The aim of these pages is to clothe the vestiges of the mediæval city
+with the associations that lend them their deepest interest. Many of the
+buildings of Cairo, especially the later mosques of the Mamlúk period,
+are exquisitely beautiful, and may be admired as works of art without
+regard to their history. But there are many more, ruined courts,
+crumbling arcades, mere fragments of walls or inscriptions, which appeal
+rather to the archæological than the æsthetic sense, and must be almost
+meaningless until their story is revealed. In tracing the growth of
+Cairo I have tried to surround the remains of its buildings with the
+atmosphere of their historic associations. Mere topography has charms
+for the antiquary alone; it is only when the material growth of a city
+is interwoven with the life of its people and the character of its
+rulers that topography acquires an interest for all. At the same time I
+have sought to keep closely to the subject—the growth and life of the
+city. This is no general history of Egypt, and many things are passed by
+because they bear no intimate relation to the development of its
+capital.
+
+The authorities upon which I rely are sufficiently cited in the
+footnotes. The greatest Arabic source is of course the elaborate
+_Khitat_ of el-Makrízy, frequently referred to as “the Topographer,” who
+wrote in the early years of the fifteenth century, but used various
+topographical and historical works of much earlier date, many of which
+are not otherwise accessible. The remarkable accuracy, completeness, and
+research of his detailed description of Cairo need no praise of mine:
+they are universally recognised. Other writers, such as el-Mas‘údy,
+Násir-i-Khusrau, ‘Abd-el-Latíf, Ibn-Gubeyr (the extracts from whom I owe
+to the kindness of my friend, Mr Guy le Strange, the historian of
+Baghdád, and our most learned authority on the geography of the
+caliphate), Ibn-Sa‘íd, Ibn-Dukmak, es-Suyúty, Abu-l-Mahásin, el-Isháky,
+el-Gabárty, fill up the picture, and add valuable, personal, and
+contemporary touches. Lane’s “Cairo Fifty Years Ago” has the merit of
+presenting an account of the city as it was in 1835, before the
+Europeanizing movement begun by Mohammad ‘Aly, and carried to the
+extreme by Isma‘íl, had had time to work much change in the
+characteristic aspect of the town. In archæology I am especially
+beholden to the researches of MM. Max van Berchem, Ravaisse, and
+Casanova. One exception I must note to the generally full references to
+my sources. There is something repugnant, if not to modesty at least to
+the sense of propriety, in frequently citing one’s own books. Writing
+constantly on the subject of Cairo, its art, its monuments, and its
+history, for many years past, it was inevitable that I should sometimes
+repeat what I have said before: indeed, when we have written what we
+have to say in the best shape that we are able to devise, it seems mere
+affectation to try to seek a different form of expression. I have
+therefore quoted, but sparingly, from my “Art of the Saracens in Egypt”
+(published for the Committee of Council in 1886), my “Cairo Sketches”
+(3rd ed., Virtue, 1898), my “History of Egypt in the Middle Ages”
+(Methuen, 1901), and any extracts to which no footnote is appended must
+be understood to refer to one of these books, generally the “History.” I
+trust I may be permitted to say that for a more complete account of the
+history than would be possible or desirable in the present volume the
+student should consult the last of the three books above cited. Were
+there any other work in English of similar scope I would gladly
+substitute its title. For a much more detailed narrative of the history
+of the Copts than could be here included the reader may turn to Mrs
+Butcher’s “Story of the Church of Egypt” (2 vols., Smith, Elder & Co.,
+1897), a work full of sympathy and appreciation for a neglected and
+persecuted community, though open to criticism in its Mohammedan
+relations.
+
+I have not troubled the reader with an elaborate system of
+transliteration of Arabic names. An acute accent is used merely to show
+where the principal accent falls, not necessarily to indicate a long
+vowel. The vowels are to be pronounced as in Italian, and the letter _g_
+is employed to represent the Arabic consonant that in Cairo is
+pronounced hard (as in _get_), but elsewhere usually soft (as _j_ in
+_jet_). Those who are curious to know the exact transliteration should
+turn to the index, where every Arabic word is given in roman letters
+with diacritical points and distinction of the long vowels.
+
+The illustrations have been chosen with a view to showing the mediæval
+city as far as possible before it suffered its European change. Nothing
+could be better for this purpose than the drawings made between 1826 and
+1838 by Robert Hay of Linplum and by his companion Owen B. Carter (about
+1830), the originals of which are preserved in the Print Room of the
+British Museum, and some were lithographed in Hay’s “Illustrations of
+Cairo.” These represent the mediæval remains as no modern sketches could
+depict them, but Mr J. A. Symington has skilfully supplemented them,
+when no older drawings could be obtained.
+
+In conclusion I should wish to draw attention to what I have said in the
+last chapter on the subject of the Commission for the Preservation of
+the Monuments of Arab Art. To its vigilance and unremitting labours
+during the past twenty years we owe the fact that the mosques and other
+remains of Saracenic architecture are secure from demolition, and, as
+far as the conditions admit, guarded from decay. Never in the history of
+Cairo have its monuments been in such safe keeping, and everyone must be
+grateful to each member of this invaluable committee. In the last five
+years, since Lord Cromer used his influence to improve its financial
+position, the Commission has been enabled to undertake very
+comprehensive works of scientific restoration, and all who visit Cairo
+should make a point of examining the results of its labours and
+inspecting the collections gathered under the care of its chief
+architect, Herz Bey, in the Museum of Arab Art.
+
+                                                   STANLEY LANE-POOLE.
+
+  TRINITY COLLEGE, DUBLIN,
+   _January 31st_, 1902.
+
+
+
+
+                                CONTENTS
+
+
+                               CHAPTER I
+
+                                                                   PAGE
+
+  _The Two Cities_                                                  1-31
+
+      The European and the Egyptian Cairo, 1—Oriental Scenes,
+      2—The Conservative Tradesman, 6—His Shop, 7, and Home,
+      9—The Zuweyla Gate, 10—A Private House, 11—The Mandara,
+      14—Bedrooms, 17—Daily Life, 18—Women’s Life, 19—Cairo
+      Festivities, 22—The Hasaneyn, 23—The Mohammad ‘Aly
+      Street, 27—View from the Citadel, 28.
+
+                               CHAPTER II
+
+  _The Town of the Tent_                                           32-58
+
+      Successive Cities at Cairo, 32—Arab Conquest, 34—Treaty
+      of Amnesty, 35—The Ancient Misr, 36—Babylon and the
+      Mukawkis, 37—The Copts, 38—Foundation of Fustat, “the
+      Tent,” 40—Settlements of the Arab Tribes, 42—The Mosque
+      of ‘Amr, 42—The Fortress of Babylon, 48—The Coptic
+      Churches, 53.
+
+                              CHAPTER III
+
+  _The Faubourgs_                                                  59-90
+
+      The Caliphs’ Governors, 59—Helwan, 61—Treatment of
+      Christians, 61—Monasticism, 62—Conservatism of the
+      Copts, 64—The ‘Abbasid Faubourg el-‘Askar, 65—‘Abbasid
+      Governors, Ibn-Memdud, 66—‘Abdallah ibn Tahir, 67—The
+      Caliph Mamun in Egypt, 68—Persecutions of Muslims and
+      Copts, 69—The Turkish Governors, 70—Their encouragement
+      of Art, 71—Ahmad ibn Tulun, 72—The new Faubourg el-
+      Katai‘, 75—The Aqueduct, 77—Mosque of Ibn-Tulun,
+      78—Sources of Saracen Architecture, 85—Ibn-Tulun’s
+      Wars, 86—Khumaraweyh’s Palaces, 87—Egypt recovered by
+      the Caliphs, 89—The Castle of the Ram, 90.
+
+                               CHAPTER IV
+
+  _Misr_                                                          91-112
+
+      Misr-Fustat the Commercial Capital, 91—The Madara’y
+      Ministers, 92—The Ikhshid, 93—Mas‘udy in Egypt, 95—The
+      Island of Roda, 96—Divines at Misr, 97—Poets,
+      98—Kafur’s Court, 100—Mohammedan Revels, 102—Kafur’s
+      Government, 103—Misr in the 10th and 11th Centuries,
+      104—Nasir-i-Khusrau’s Description, 107—The Burning of
+      Misr, 110—Partial Recovery, Ibn-Sa‘id’s Description,
+      111.
+
+                               CHAPTER V
+
+  _Cairo_                                                        113-163
+
+      The Shi‘a Revolution, 113—The Fatimid Caliphate,
+      116—el-Mo‘izz, 116—Conquest of Egypt, 117—Foundation of
+      el-Kahira, Cairo, 118—Effects of the Revolution,
+      119—The Copts under the Fatimids, 120—el-‘Aziz, 121—The
+      Azhar University Mosque, 123—The Palace-city, 125—The
+      Great Palace, 127—The Gates of Cairo, 129—Bab-Zuweyla,
+      129—William of Tyre’s description of the Fatimid Court,
+      130—The Port of Maks and the Fleet, 132—Wealth and Art
+      and Luxury of the Fatimids, 133—Mosque of el-Hakim,
+      137—The Caliph Hakim, 139—The Hall of Science,
+      142—Apotheosis of Hakim, 142—Military Tyranny and Loss
+      of Provinces, 144—Cairo in 1047—Cutting the Dam,
+      145—el-Yazury, 146—Spoliation by the Turks, 147—The
+      Seven Years’ Famine, 148—Bedr el-Gemaly, 149—The Second
+      Wall and Gates of Cairo, 150—Armenian Ministers,
+      154—The Rule of Vezirs, 157—Murders and Military
+      Despotism, 158—Ibn-Ruzzik, 159—Fatimid Architecture,
+      159.
+
+                               CHAPTER VI
+
+  _Saladin’s Castle_                                             164-192
+
+      Causes of the Invasion of Egypt, 164—Turks and
+      Crusaders, 167—Shawar and Dirgham, 168—Amalric and
+      Shirkuh in Egypt, 169—Saladin Vezir, deposition of the
+      Fatimid Caliph, 170—Saladin’s Campaigns, 172—His Work
+      at Cairo, 173—The New Walls, 174—The Citadel, 175—The
+      Dike of Giza, 180—Risings at Cairo, 181—The Head of
+      Hoseyn, 182—Saladin establishes Medresas or Orthodox
+      Colleges, 183—Ibn-Gubeyr’s Account, 184—The Hospitals,
+      186—Characteristics of Mosques and Medresas,
+      187—Results of the Restoration of Orthodoxy and
+      encouragement of Learning, 190.
+
+                              CHAPTER VII
+
+  _The Dome Builders_                                            193-254
+
+      Saphadin el-‘Adil, 193—Great Famine, 194—Invasion of
+      Crusaders, 195—Frederick II and Kamil, 196—The Mamluk
+      System, 197—Queen Sheger-ed-durr and the Bahry Mamluks,
+      198—Crusade of Louis IX, 201—(i) The Turkish Mamluks,
+      202—Their Wars against Mongols, 203, and Franks,
+      205—Revival of ‘Abbasid Caliphate, 206—Beybars, 206—The
+      Mamluk Court, 209—Turbulence of Emirs, 210—The House of
+      Kalaun, 211—En-Nasir, 212—Toleration of Christians,
+      216—Popular Fanaticism, 217—Incendiaries, 218—Nasir and
+      Abu-l-Fida, 220—Artistic Production, 220—Mosques,
+      223—Emirs’ Mosques, 224—Early Mamluk Style of
+      Architecture, 227—Sultan Hasan, 228—His Great Mosque,
+      231—(ii) The Circassian Mamluks, 235—Corruption,
+      236—Wars, 237—Cultivated Tastes, 238—Architecture,
+      238—Kait-Bey, 241—His Buildings, 245—Mosque _intra
+      muros_, 246—Wekala, 249—Mosques of Emirs and of Kady
+      Ibn-Muzhir, 250—The Modified Medresa, 250—Buildings of
+      el-Ghury, 253—Ottoman Conquest, 254.
+
+                              CHAPTER VIII
+
+  _The City of the Arabian Nights_                               257-286
+
+      Expansion of Cairo, 257—Rise of Bulak, 258—Suburban
+      Mosques, 259—The Approach from Bulak, 260—The Thousand
+      and One Nights redacted in Cairo, 261—The Transit Trade
+      of Egypt, 263—Merchants’ Inns, 265—The Khan el-Khalily,
+      266—The Khan of Mesrur, 269—The Wekala Kusun and the
+      Flower Market, 270—Streets and Quarters, 271—The Art of
+      Silver Inlay, 272—Cairo Metal Work, 277—Venice,
+      279—Wood-carving, 281—Meshrebiya turning,
+      284—Characteristics of Saracenic Art, 285—Men of
+      Letters in the Mamluk Period, 286.
+
+                               CHAPTER IX
+
+  _Beys and Pashas_                                              287-314
+
+      Mamluk Emirs (Beys) still in power, 287—Pasha helpless,
+      288—Street Fights, 289—‘Othman Bey, 289—Rudwan el-
+      Gelfy, 290—The Sharaiby family, 292—Libraries,
+      295—State of Learning, 296—Fanaticism and Superstition,
+      297—Mosques of the Ottoman Period, 298—‘Aly Bey,
+      298—‘Abd-er-Rahman Kiahya, 298—Mohammad Bey Abu-dh-
+      Dhahab, 301—Mohammad ‘Aly, 302—Confiscation of Wakf
+      Trusts, 302—The Commission for the Preservation of the
+      Monuments of Arab Art, 303—Report to Lord Cromer,
+      303—Preservation, 305—Restoration, 309—Lord Cromer’s
+      Action, 313—Grants from the Public Debt Commissioners
+      and the Egyptian Government, 313.
+
+  _Rulers and Monuments of Cairo_                                317-322
+
+  _Table for converting Hijra Years into Anni Domini_            323-327
+
+  _Index_                                                        329-340
+
+
+
+
+                             ILLUSTRATIONS
+
+
+                                                                   PAGE
+
+  _Lake of the Elephant: Birkat-el-Fil._
+      _O. B. Carter_ (c. 1830)                           _Frontispiece_
+
+  _Court of a Private House._
+      _J. A. Symington_ (1902)                                       15
+
+  _The Citadel._
+      _J. A. Symington_                                              29
+
+  _Court of the Mosque of ‘Amr._
+      _J. A. Symington_                                              45
+
+  _Gate of Kasr-esh-Shema‘ (Babylon)._
+      _O. B. Carter_                                                 51
+
+  _Tower of the Mosque of Ibn-Tulun._
+      _O. B. Carter_                                                 73
+
+  _Within the Mosque of Ibn-Tulun._
+      _J. A. Symington_                                              81
+
+  _Detail of Ornament in Mosque of Ibn-Tulun._
+      _J. A. Symington_                                              84
+
+  _Street in Old Misr._
+      _J. A. Symington_                                             105
+
+  _Ruined Mosque of el-Hakim._
+      _J. A. Symington_                                             135
+
+  _Gate of Succour: Bab-en-Nasr._
+      _O. B. Carter_                                                151
+
+  _Minarets over Gate of Zuweyla._
+      _O. B. Carter_                                                155
+
+  _Mosque of el-Guyushy._
+      _O. B. Carter_                                                161
+
+  _Plan of Cairo before_ 1200.
+      _After Ravaisse, etc._                                        165
+
+  _Castle of the Ram: Kal‘at-el-Kebsh._
+      _O. B. Carter_                                                177
+
+  _Plan of Medresa._
+      _After Murray_                                                190
+
+  _Island of er-Roda._
+      _Robert Hay_ (c. 1830)                                        199
+
+  _“Joseph’s Hall”: Palace of en-Nasir in Citadel, with
+  his Mosque in background._
+      _Robert Hay_                                                  213
+
+  _Aqueduct and House of the Seven Watermills._
+      _Robert Hay_                                                  221
+
+  _Mosque of Sultan Hasan._
+      _O. B. Carter_                                                225
+
+  _Gateway of Sultan Hasan’s Mosque._
+      _O. B. Carter_                                                229
+
+  _Tomb-Mosque of Barkuk and Farag._
+      _J. A. Symington_                                             233
+
+  _Eastern Cemetery: so-called “Tombs of the Caliphs.”_
+      _J. A. Symington_                                             239
+
+  _Mosque of Kait-Bey._
+      _J. A. Symington_                                             243
+
+  _Tomb-Mosques._
+      _J. A. Symington_                                             247
+
+  _Tombs of the Mamluks._
+      _J. A. Symington_                                             251
+
+  _Sketch-plan showing growth of Cairo._
+      _After E. W. Lane_ (1835)                                     256
+
+  _Slave Market._
+      _O. B. Carter (figures by H. Warren)_                         267
+
+  _In the Darb-el-Ahmar._
+      _J. A. Symington_                                             275
+
+  _Street near Bab-el-Khark._
+      _O. B. Carter_                                                293
+
+  _A Muslim Graveyard._
+      _J. A. Symington_                                             315
+
+  _Map of Cairo_                                               _At end_
+
+
+
+
+                           The Story of Cairo
+
+                               * * * * *
+
+                               CHAPTER I
+
+                            _The Two Cities_
+
+
+THERE are two Cairos, distinct in character, though but slenderly
+divided in site. There is a European Cairo, and there is an Egyptian
+Cairo. The last was once El-Káhira, “the Victorious,” founded under the
+auspices of the planet Mars, but it is now so little conquering, indeed
+has become so subdued, that one hears it spoken of as “the native
+quarters,” or even in Indian fashion as “the bazars.” In truth European
+Cairo knows little of its mediæval sister. Thousands of tourists,
+mounted on thousands of donkeys, do indeed explore “the native quarters”
+every winter, but these do not belong to European Cairo; birds of
+passage they are, not inhabitants. The true resident, who has his cool
+shaded house and breezy balcony in the Isma‘ilíya quarter, surrounded by
+hundreds of similar comfortable villas, does not by any chance ride
+donkeys, and is only dragged to “the bazars” rarely and with obvious
+reluctance by the importunity of some enthusiastic visitor. But even in
+European Cairo there are signs that another Cairo, an Oriental, Muslim
+Cairo, exists not far away. Let the English colony keep never so closely
+to itself and ignore “the native quarters,” except as objects for just
+government and wise reforms, it cannot walk abroad, or even open its
+ears in its own chambers, without becoming conscious of the true
+Oriental world in which it lives but of which it is not. Go to the Post
+Office, a few minutes’ walk from most of the hotels, and you are at once
+in a medley of East and West.
+
+A German nursemaid, accompanied by the little daughter of the family, is
+asking for letters at the _arrivée_ window, and an old sheykh in
+_kaftán_ and turban is negotiating a money-order or a registered letter
+at the next bureau. Over the way a row of public letter-writers sit at
+their tables on the sideway, gravely imperturbable, awaiting illiterate
+correspondents. In the street, omnibuses and tram-cars rumble by,
+blowing strident horns; but the passengers who sit on the seats beneath
+the awning are not Europeans—they are Egyptians, efendis, clerks,
+shopkeepers, sheykhs, often simple fellahín come to town on business and
+driving in from Bulák or Kasr-en-Nil. On the footpaths—always uneven and
+often muddy, in curious contrast to the roads, which are kept clean by
+circular brushes and little girl scavengers—the European element, Greek,
+German, Italian, chiefly, is intimately blended with the Oriental:
+Sudány women closely veiled with the white _burko‘_, which sets off
+their swarthy brows and black eyes to advantage; Egyptian girls in blue
+gowns and black veils hanging loose and allowing the well-formed neck
+and line of cheek and chin to be seen, whilst concealing the only part a
+woman scrupulously hides in the East, her mouth; horrible blear-eyed old
+harridans, veiled with immaculate precision, squatting in rows against
+the house-fronts; Bedawis striding along in the roadway with the striped
+_kufíya_ wound round their heads; strings of camels tied together, laden
+with _bersím_, the rich fodder of Egypt, and driven by the smallest of
+urchins; petty Government clerks, or efendis, clad in _stambúly_ and
+_tarbúsh_, hunched up on donkey-back; all classes and ages and sexes
+mingled together in a jostling, perspiring, but good-tempered crowd; and
+everywhere the pungent pervasive odour of the East.
+
+Even in the European quarters you still meet the veritable Eastern
+sights and sounds. As you look out of your hotel window you will see a
+native musician sauntering by, twanging the lute of the country; then a
+sound like the tinkling of baby cymbals informs you that the _sherbétly_
+is going his round, with his huge glass-jar slung at his side, from
+which he dispenses (to the unwary) sweet sticky drinks of liquorice
+juice or orange syrup in the brass saucers which he clinks unceasingly
+in his hand. Late at night sounds of Eastern life invade your pillow:
+the “rumble of a distant drum” tells you that a wedding party is
+perambulating the streets, and if you have the curiosity to sally forth
+you will be rewarded by one of the characteristic sights of Cairo, in
+which old and new are oddly blended. Probably a circumcision festival is
+combined with the wedding to save expense; and the procession will be
+headed by the barber’s sign, a wooden frame raised aloft, followed by
+two or three gorgeously caparisoned camels—regular stage-properties
+hired out for such occasions—carrying drummers, and leading the way for
+a series of carriages crammed with little boys, each holding a neat
+white handkerchief to his mouth, to keep out the devil and the evil eye.
+Then comes a closed carriage covered all over with a big cashmere shawl,
+held down firmly at the sides by brothers and other relations of the
+imprisoned bride; then more carriages and a general crowd of
+sympathizers. More rarely the bride is borne in a cashmere-covered
+litter swung between two camels, fore and aft; the hind camel must tuck
+his head under the litter, and is probably quite as uncomfortable as the
+bride, who runs a fair chance of sea-sickness in her rolling palankin.
+In the old days the bride walked through the streets under a canopy
+carried by her friends, but this is now quite out of fashion, and
+European carriages are rapidly ousting even the camel-litters. But the
+cashmere shawl and the veil will not soon be abandoned. The Egyptian
+woman is, at least in public, generally modest. She detects a stranger’s
+glance with magical rapidity, even when to all appearance looking the
+other way, and forthwith the veil is pulled closer over her mouth and
+nose. When she meets you face to face, she does not drop her big eyes in
+the absurd fashion of Western modesty; she slowly turns them away from
+you: it is annihilating.
+
+As soon as you have turned your back on the European suburb and the
+hotel region, and escaped from the glass shop fronts and Greek dealers
+of the Musky, the real Eastern city begins to dominate you. It is quite
+easy to lose oneself in the quaint old streets of Muslim Cairo when only
+an occasional passer-by reminds one that Europe is at the gates. A large
+part of Cairo is very little spoilt: it is still in a great degree the
+city of the Arabian Nights.
+
+In that stall round the corner who knows but that the immortal Barber is
+recounting the adventures of his luckless brothers to the impatient
+lover on the shaving stool? At this very moment the Three Royal
+Mendicants may be entertaining the fair Portress and her delightful
+sisters with the story of their calamities, and if you wait till night
+you may even see the “good” Harún er-Rashíd himself—though it is true he
+lived at Baghdád—coming on his stealthy midnight rambles with prudent
+Ga‘far at his heels and black Mesrúr to clear the way. A few streets
+away from the European quarters it is easy to dream that we are acting a
+part in the moving histories of the Thousand and One Nights, which do in
+fact describe Cairo and its people as they were in the Middle Ages, and
+as they are in a great measure still. In its very dilapidation the city
+assists the illusion. The typical Eastern houses falling to ruins, which
+no one thinks of repairing, are the natural homes of ‘Efríts and
+mischievous Ginn, who keep away god-fearing tenants. But if in its
+ruined houses, far more in what remains of its glorious monuments does
+Cairo transport us to the golden age of Arabian art and culture. Among
+its mosques and colleges and the scanty remnants of its palaces are the
+purest examples of Saracenic architecture that can be seen in all the
+once wide empire of Islam. Damascus and Ispahan, Agra and Delhi, Cordova
+and Granada, Brusa and Constantinople, possess elements of beauty and
+features of style which Cairo has not, and they enlarge and complete our
+understanding of Arab art; but to view that art in its purity,
+uncorrupted by the mechanical detail of the Alhambra, unspoilt by the
+over-elaboration of Delhi, we must study the mosques and tombs of Cairo.
+
+The blessed conservatism of the East has happily maintained much of the
+old city in its beautiful ruinous unprogressive disorder. There are of
+course new houses and rebuilt fronts and even glass window-sashes; the
+exquisite _meshrebíyas_ with their intricate turned lattice work are
+nearly all gone to make way for Italian _persiennes_, and the stone
+benches in front of the shops have disappeared in deference to the
+modern exigencies of carriages. But the general aspect of the streets
+has not seriously altered in recent years, and the people who press
+through the crowded lanes, or sit in their little cells of shops at the
+receipt of custom, are unchanged. They dress as their ancestors dressed
+ages ago; their ideas and education are much what they always were,
+though the new schools are gradually infusing more modern notions; they
+are still as calm and easy-going and procrastinating as ever. The only
+conspicuous change is the dethronement of the time-honoured
+_shibúk_,—the long pipe of meditation and stately leisure and “asphodel
+and moly” and all that is implied in the ineffable dreamland of
+_keyf_,—in favour of the restless undignified cigarette; but _nargílas_
+and cocoa-nut pipes for hashísh are still in full play among the lower
+classes. The tradespeople are the conservative element in Egypt, as
+everywhere else. The upper classes are becoming every year less Oriental
+in outward appearance and habits. They dance with “infidel” ladies, wear
+Frank clothes, and delight in the little French pieces played in the
+Ezbekíya garden. Even their national coffee cups are made in Europe, and
+save for the red tarbúsh, and certain mental and moral idiosyncracies
+difficult to eliminate and unnecessary to describe, the Egyptian
+gentleman might almost pass muster in a Parisian crowd. It is the
+tradesman who recalls the past, keeps up the old traditions, and walks
+in the old paths. The course of the world runs slowly in the working
+East, and the Cairene shopkeeper has placidly stood still whilst the
+Western world joined in the everlasting “move on” of modern
+civilization.
+
+“We shall find this stand-still mortal in one of the main thoroughfares
+of the city. Leaving the European quarter behind, and taking little note
+of the Greek and Italian shops in the renovated Musky, we turn off to
+the right into the Ghuríya—one of those larger but still narrow streets
+which are distinguished with the name of _shari‘_ or thoroughfare. Such
+a street is lined on either side with little box-like shops, which form
+an unbroken boundary on either hand, except where a mosque door, or a
+public fountain, or the entrance to another street interrupts for a
+brief space the row of stores. None of the private doors or windows we
+are accustomed to in Europe breaks the line of shops. For a considerable
+distance all the traders deal in the same commodity—be it sugar-plums or
+slippers. The system has its advantages, for if one dealer be too dear,
+the next may be cheap; and the competition of many contiguous salesmen
+brings about a salutary reduction in prices. On the other hand, it must
+be allowed that it is fatiguing to have to order your coat in half-a-
+dozen different places—to buy the cloth in one direction, the buttons in
+another, the braid in a third, the lining in a fourth, the thread in a
+fifth, and then to have to go to quite another place to find a tailor to
+cut it out and sew it together. And as each dealer has to be bargained
+with, and generally smoked with, if not coffeed with, if you get your
+coat ordered in a single morning you may count yourself expeditious.
+
+“In one of these little cupboards that do duty for shops, we may or may
+not find the typical tradesman we are seeking. It may chance he has gone
+to say his prayers, or to see a friend, or perhaps he did not feel
+inclined for business to-day; in which case the folding shutters of his
+shop will be closed, and as he does not live anywhere near, and as, if
+he did, there is no bell, no private door, and no assistant, we may wait
+there for ever, so far as he is concerned, and get no answer to our
+inquiries. His neighbour next door, however, will obligingly inform us
+that the excellent man whom we are seeking has gone to the mosque, and
+we accordingly betake ourselves to our informer and make his
+acquaintance instead.
+
+“Our new friend is sitting in a recess some five feet square, and rather
+more than six feet high, raised a foot or two from the ground; and
+within this narrow compass he has collected all the wares he thinks he
+is likely to sell, and has also reserved room for himself and his
+customers to sit down and smoke cigarettes while they bargain. Of course
+his stock must be very limited, but then all his neighbours are ready to
+help him; and if you cannot find what you want within the compass of his
+four walls, he will leave you with a cigarette and a cup of coffee, or
+perhaps Persian tea in a tumbler, while he goes to find the
+_desideratum_ among the wares of his colleagues round about.
+
+“Meanwhile, you drink your scalding aromatic coffee and watch the throng
+that passes by: the ungainly camels, laden with brushwood or green
+fodder, which seem to threaten to sweep everything and everybody out of
+the street;—the respectable towns-people, mounted on grey or brown
+asses, ambling along contentedly, save when an unusually severe blow
+from the inhuman donkey-boy running behind makes their beasts swerve
+incontinently to the right or left, as though they had a hinge in their
+middle;—the grandees in their two-horse carriages, preceded by
+breathless runners, who clear the way for their masters with shrill
+shouts—“Shemálak, ya weled!” (“To thy left, O boy!”) “Yemínik, ya Sitt!”
+(“To thy right, O lady!”) “Iftah ‘eynak, ya Am!” (“Open thine eye, O
+uncle!”) and the like;—the women with trays of eatables on their heads,
+the water-carrier with goat-skin under arm, and the vast multitude of
+blue-robed men and women who have something or other to do, which takes
+them indeed along the street, but does not take them very hurriedly. In
+spite of the apparent rush and crush, the crowd moves slowly, like
+everything else in the East.
+
+“Our friend returns with the desired article; we approve it, guardedly,
+and with cautious tentative aspect demand, ‘How much?’ The answer is
+always at least twice the fair price. We reply, first by exclaiming, ‘I
+seek refuge with God’ (from exorbitance), and then by offering about
+half the fair price. The dealer shakes his head, looks disappointed with
+us, shows he expected better sense in people of our appearance, puts
+aside his goods, and sits down to another cigarette. After a second
+ineffectual bid, we summon our donkey and prepare to mount. At this
+moment the shopman relents, and reduces his price; but we are obdurate,
+and begin riding away. He pursues us, agrees almost to our terms; we
+return, pay, receive our purchase, commend him to the protection of God,
+and wend our way on.
+
+“But if, instead of going on, we accompany our late antagonist in the
+bargain to his own home, we shall see what a middle-class Cairene house
+is like. Indeed, a middle-class dwelling in Cairo may sometimes chance
+to be a palace, for the modern Pasha despises the noble mansions that
+were the pride and delight of better men than he in the good old days of
+the Mamlúks, and prefers to live in shadeless ‘Route No. 29,’ or
+thereabouts, in the modern bricklayer’s paradise known as the Isma‘ilíya
+quarter; and hence the tradesman may sometimes occupy the house where
+some great Bey of former times held his state, and marshalled his
+retainers, when he prepared to strike a blow for the precarious throne
+that was always at the command of the strongest battalions. But all
+Cairene houses of the old style are very much alike: they differ only in
+size and in the richness or poverty of the decoration; and if our
+merchant’s home is better than most of its neighbours, we have but to
+subtract a few of the statelier rooms, and reduce the scale of the
+others, to obtain a fair idea of the houses on either hand and round
+about.
+
+“The street we now enter is quite different from that we have left. We
+have been doing our shopping in the busy Cheapside of Cairo, and in full
+view of the lofty façade of the mosque of the Mamlúk Sultan El-Muáyyad.
+Its two minarets stand upon a fine old gate called Bab Zawíla (or
+commonly Zuweyla), which people now-a-days generally prefer to call the
+Bab el-Mutawélly, because it is believed to be a favourite resort of the
+mysterious Kutb el-Mutawélly, or pope (for the time being) of all the
+saints. This very holy personage is gifted with powers of invisibility
+and of instantaneous change of place: he flies unseen from the top of
+the Kaaba at Mekka to the Bab Zuweyla, and there reposes in a niche
+behind the wooden door. True believers tell their beads as they pass
+this niche, and the curious peep in to see if the saint be there; and if
+you have a headache, there is no better cure than to drive a nail into
+the door; while a sure remedy for the toothache is to pull out the tooth
+and hang it up on the same venerated spot. Perhaps pulling the tooth out
+might of itself cure the ache; but the suggestion savours of impiety,
+and at any rate it is safer to fix the molar up. The door bristles with
+unpleasing votive offerings of this sort, and if they were all
+successful the Kutb must be an excellent doctor.
+
+“The street thus barred by the Bab Zuweyla is, for Cairo, a broad one;
+and shops, mosques, wekálas (or caravanserais), and fountains form its
+boundaries. In complete contrast, the street we are now to enter, as we
+turn down a by-lane and then wheel sharply to the left, has no shops,
+though there is a little mosque, probably the tomb of a venerated saint,
+at the corner. Its broad bands of red and white relieve the deep shadows
+of the lane, each side of which is composed of the tall backs of houses,
+with nothing to vary the white-washed walls except the closely grated
+windows. On either hand still narrower alleys open off, sometimes mere
+_culs-de-sac_, but often threading the city for a considerable distance.
+In these solitary courts we may still see the _meshrebíyas_ which are
+becoming so rare in the more frequented thoroughfares. The best lattices
+are reserved for the interior windows of the house, which look on the
+inner court or garden; but there are not a few streets in Cairo where
+the passenger still stops to admire tier upon tier and row after row of
+meshrebíyas which give a singularly picturesque appearance to the
+houses.
+
+“The name is derived from the root which means to drink (which occurs in
+‘sherbet’), and is applied to lattice windows because the porous water-
+bottles are often placed in them to cool. Frequently there is a little
+semi-circular niche projecting out of the middle of the lattice for the
+reception of a _kulla_ or carafe. The delicately turned nobs and balls,
+by which the patterns of the lattice-work are formed, are sufficiently
+near together to conceal whatever passes within from the inquisitive
+eyes of opposite neighbours, and yet there is enough space between them
+to allow free access of air. A meshrebíya is, indeed, a cooling place
+for human beings as well as water-jars, and at once a convent-grating
+and a spying-place for the women of the harím, who can watch their
+Lovelace through the meshes of the windows without being seen in return.
+Yet there are convenient little doors that open in the lattice-work if
+the inmates choose to be seen even as they see; and the fair ladies of
+Cairo are not always above the pardonable vanity of letting a passer-by
+discover that they are fair.
+
+“In one of these by-lanes we stop before an arched doorway, and tie our
+donkey to the ring beside it. The door is a study in itself. The upper
+part is surrounded by arabesque patterns, which form a square decoration
+above it, often very tasteful in the case of the older doorways.
+Sometimes the wooden door itself has arabesques on it, and the
+inscription ‘God is the Creator, the Eternal,’ which is a charm against
+sickness and demons and the evil eye, and also serves as a _memento
+mori_ to the master of the house whenever he comes home. There is no
+bell, for the prophet declared that a bell is the devil’s musical
+instrument, and that where a bell is the angels do not resort—and
+sometimes there is no knocker, so we batter upon the door with our stick
+or fist. It generally takes several knockings to make oneself heard; but
+this is not a land where people hurry overmuch—did not our lord
+Mohammad, upon whom be peace, say that ‘haste came from the devil’—so we
+conform to the ways of the land, and console ourselves with the
+antithetic text, ‘God is with the patient.’ At last a fumbling sound is
+heard on the other side, the doorkeeper is endeavouring to fit a stick,
+with little wire pins arranged upon it in a certain order, into
+corresponding holes bored at the end of a deep mortice in the sliding
+bolt of the door. These are the key and lock of Cairo. The sliding bolt
+runs through a wooden staple on the door into a slot in the jamb. When
+it is home, certain movable pins drop down from the staple into holes in
+the sliding bolt and prevent its being drawn back. The introduction of
+the key with pins corresponding to the holes in the bolt lifts the
+movable pins and permits the bolt to be slidden back. Nothing could be
+clumsier or more easy to pick. A piece of wax at the end of a stick will
+at once reveal the position of the pins, and the rest is simple.
+
+“Within is a passage, which bends sharply after the first yard or two,
+and bars any view into the interior from the open door. At the end of
+this passage we emerge into an open court, with a well of brackish water
+in a shady corner, and perhaps an old sycamore. Here is no sign of life;
+the doors are jealously closed, the windows shrouded by those beautiful
+screens of net-like woodwork which delight the artist and tempt the
+collector. The inner court is almost as silent and deserted as the
+guarded windows which overlook the street. We shall see nothing of the
+domestic life of the inhabitants; for the women’s apartments are
+carefully shut off from the court, into which open only the guest rooms
+and other masculine and semi-public apartments. After the bustle of the
+street this quiet and ample space is very refreshing, and one feels that
+the Egyptian architects have happily realized the requirements of
+Eastern life. They make the streets narrow and overshadow them with
+projecting meshrebíyas, because the sun beats down too fiercely for the
+wide street of European towns to be endurable. But they make the houses
+themselves spacious and surround them with courts and gardens, because
+without air the heat of the rooms in summer would be intolerable. The
+Eastern architect’s art lies in so constructing your house that you
+cannot look into your neighbour’s windows, nor he into yours; and the
+obvious way of attaining this end is to build the rooms round a high
+open court, and to closely veil the windows with lattice blinds, which
+admit a subdued light and sufficient air, and permit an outlook without
+allowing the passing stranger to see through. The wooden screens and
+secluded court are necessary to fulfil the requirements of the
+Mohammedan system of separating the sexes.
+
+“The lower rooms, opening directly off the court, are those into which a
+man may walk with impunity and no risk of meeting any of the women. Into
+one of these lower rooms our host conducts us, with polite entreaty to
+do him the honour of making ourselves at home. It is the guest-room, or
+_mandara_, and serves as an example of the ordinary dwelling-room of the
+better sort. The part of the room where we enter is of a lower level
+than the rest, and if it be a really handsome house we shall find this
+lower part paved with marble mosaic and cooled by a fountain in the
+middle; while opposite the door is a marble slab raised upon arches,
+where the water-bottles, coffee-cups, and washing materials are kept.
+
+“We leave our outer shoes on the marble before we step upon the carpeted
+part of the room. It is covered with rugs, and furnished by a low divan
+round three sides. The end wall is filled by a meshrebíya, which is
+furnished within with cushions, while above it some half-dozen windows,
+composed of small pieces of coloured glass let into a framework of
+stucco, so as to form a floral pattern, admit a half-light. The two
+sides, whitewashed where there is neither wood nor tiles, are furnished
+with shallow cupboards with doors of complicated geometrical panelling.
+Small arched niches on either side of the cupboards, and a shelf above,
+are filled with jars and vases, and other ornaments. The ceiling is
+formed of planks laid on massive beams and generally painted a dark red,
+but in old houses the ceilings are often beautifully decorated. There
+are no tables, chairs, or fireplaces, or indeed any of the things a
+European understands to be furniture. When a meal is to be eaten, a
+little table is brought in; if the weather be cold a brazier of red-hot
+charcoal is kindled; instead of chairs the Cairene tucks his legs up
+under him on the divan—an excellent method of getting the cramp, for
+Europeans.
+
+[Illustration: COURT OF A PRIVATE HOUSE]
+
+“There is often another reception-room, raised above the ground, but
+entered by steps from the court, into which it looks through an open
+arched front; and frequently a recess in the court, under one of the
+upper rooms, is furnished with a divan for hot weather. A door opens out
+of the court into the staircase leading to the harím rooms, and here no
+man but the master of the house may penetrate. ‘_Harím_’ means what is
+‘prohibited’ to other men, and what is ‘sacred’ to the master himself.
+The harím rooms are the domestic part of the house. When a man retires
+there he is in the bosom of his family, and it would need a very urgent
+affair to induce the doorkeeper to summon him down to anyone who called
+to see him. Among the harím apartments there is generally a large
+sitting-room, like the mandara, called the _ká‘a_, with perhaps a cupola
+over it; and in front of the ká‘a is a vestibule, which serves as a
+ventilating and cooling place, for a sloping screen over an open space
+on the roof of this room is so turned as to conduct the cool north
+breezes into the house in hot weather; and here the family often sleep
+in summer.
+
+“There are no bedrooms in a Mohammedan house, or rather no rooms
+furnished as bedrooms, for there are plenty of separate chambers where
+the inmates sleep, but not one of them has any of what we conceive to be
+the requisites of bedroom furniture. The only fittings the Cairene asks
+for the night consist of a mattress and pillow, and perhaps a blanket in
+winter and a mosquito-net in summer, the whole of which he rolls up in
+the morning and deposits in some cupboard or side room; whereupon the
+bedroom becomes a sitting-room. There is another important department of
+the harím—the bathroom—not a mere room with a fixed bath in it, but a
+suite of complicated heated stone apartments, exactly resembling the
+public Turkish baths. It is only a large house that boasts this luxury,
+however, and most people go out to bathe, if they care to bathe at all.
+
+“The inhabitants of a house, such as that described, lead a dreary
+monotonous life; fortunately, however, they are not often conscious of
+its emptiness. The master rises very early, for the Muslim must say the
+daybreak prayers. A pipe and a cup of coffee is often all he takes
+before his light mid-day meal, and he generally reserves his appetite
+for the chief repast of the day—the supper or dinner—which he eats soon
+after sunset. If he is in business he spends the day in more or less
+irregular attendance at his shop, smokes almost incessantly either the
+new-fangled Turkish cigarette, or the traditional _shibúk_, with its
+handsome amber mouthpiece, its long cherry-wood stem, and red-clay bowl
+filled with mild Gébely or Latakía tobacco. If he has no special
+occupation, he amuses himself with calling on his friends, or indulges
+in long dreamy hours in the warm atmosphere of the public bath, where
+the vapour of the hot-water tanks, and the dislocation of each
+particular joint in the shampooing, and the subsequent interval of
+cooling and smoking and coffee, are all exceedingly delightful in a hot
+climate. When he goes out, a man of any position or wealth never
+condescends to walk; as a rule he rides a donkey, sometimes a horse; but
+the donkey is far the more convenient in crowded streets. Indeed, an
+Egyptian ass of the best breed is a fine animal, and fetches sometimes
+as much as a hundred guineas; his paces are both fast and easy, and it
+is not difficult to write a letter on the pummel of one of these ambling
+mounts.
+
+“While their lord is paying his calls or attending to his shop, the
+women of his household make shift to pass the time as best they may. In
+spite of popular ideas on the subject, Mohammedans seldom have more than
+one wife, though they sometimes add to their regular marriage a left-
+handed connexion with an Abyssinian or other slave-girl. Efforts,
+however, are being made to put down the traffic in slaves, and if the
+trade be really suppressed, as it is already in law, the Cairene will
+become monogamous. The late Khedive himself set an excellent example in
+this, as in most other respects, and the better sort of Muslims are, to
+say the least, as moral as ordinary Christians. Facility of divorce is
+the real difficulty. Men will not keep several wives, because it costs a
+good deal to allow them separate houses or suites of rooms, and
+plurality does not conduce to domestic harmony; but they do not hesitate
+to divorce a wife when they are tired of her, and take a new one in her
+place. It is said the caliph ‘Aly thus married and divorced two hundred
+women in his time; and a certain dyer of Baghdád even reached the
+astonishing total of nine hundred wives: he died at the good old age of
+eight-five, and if he married at fifteen, he would have had a fresh
+spouse for every month during seventy years of conjugal felicity.
+Divorce was so easy that there seems no great reason why he should not
+have married nine thousand. One lady is said to have reduced the
+fatiguing ceremony of wedlock to extremely convenient dimensions. The
+man said to her _Khitb_, and she replied _Nikh_, and the wedding was
+over! Thus did she marry forty husbands, and her son Khárija was sorely
+puzzled to identify his father. A governor of Upper Egypt was no mean
+disciple of these illustrious leaders; but the habit has become more and
+more uncommon.
+
+“There would be much more excuse for the women to demand polyandria than
+for the men to ask for polygynaecia; for while the husband can go about
+and enjoy himself as he pleases, the women of his family are often hard
+pushed to it to find any diversion in their dull lives. Sometimes they
+make up a party and engage a whole public bath; and then the screams of
+laughter bear witness how the girls of Egypt enjoy a romp. Or else the
+mistress goes in state to call upon some friends, mounted upon the high
+ass, enveloped in a balloon of black silk, her face concealed, all but
+the eyes, by a white veil, and attended by a trusty manservant. These
+visits to other haríms are the chief delights of the ladies of Cairo:
+unlimited gossip, sweetmeats, inspection of toilettes, perhaps some
+singers or dancers to hear and behold—these are their simple joys. They
+have no education whatever, and cannot understand higher or more
+intellectual pleasures than those their physical senses can appreciate:
+to eat, to dress, to chatter, to sleep, to dream away the sultry hours
+on a divan, to stimulate their husband’s affections and keep him to
+themselves—this is to _live_, in a harím. An Englishwoman asked an
+Egyptian lady how she passed her time. ‘I sit on this sofa,’ she
+answered, ‘and when I am tired, I cross over and sit on that.’
+Embroidery is one of the few occupations of the harím; but no lady
+thinks of busying herself with the flower-garden which is often attached
+to the house. Indeed, the fair houris we imagine behind the lattice-
+windows are very dreary, uninteresting people; they know nothing, and
+take but an indifferent interest in anything that goes on; they are just
+beautiful—a few of them—and nothing more.
+
+“In truth the Egyptian ladies cannot venture to give themselves airs;
+they suffer from the low opinion which all Mohammedans entertain of the
+fair sex. The unalterable iniquity of womankind is an incontrovertible
+fact among the men of the East; it is part of their religion. Did not
+the blessed Prophet say, ‘I stood at the gate of Paradise, and lo! most
+of its inhabitants were the poor: and I stood at the gates of Hell, and
+lo! most of its inhabitants were women?’ Is it not, moreover, a
+physiological fact that woman was made out of a _crooked_ rib of Adam;
+which would break if you tried to bend it, and if you left it alone it
+would always remain crooked? And is it not related that when the Devil
+heard of the creation of woman, he laughed with delight, and said, ‘Thou
+art half of my host, and thou art the depositary of my secret, and thou
+art my arrow with which I shoot and miss not!’ It is no wonder that a
+learned doctor gave advice to his disciple, before he entered upon any
+serious undertaking, to consult ten intelligent persons among his
+particular friends, or if he have not more than five such friends, let
+him consult each of them twice; or if he have not more than one friend,
+he should consult him ten times, at ten different visits; if he have not
+one to consult, let him return to his wife and consult her, and whatever
+she advises him to do, let him do the contrary: so shall he proceed
+rightly in his affair and attain his object. Following in the steps of
+this pious Father, the Muslims have always treated women as an inferior
+order of beings, necessary indeed, and ornamental, but certainly not
+entitled to respect or deference. Hence they rarely educate their
+daughters; hence they seek in their wives beauty and docility, and treat
+them either as pretty toys, to be played with and broken and cast away,
+or as useful links in the social economy, good to bear children and
+order a household.”[1]
+
+The fatal blot upon Muslim society is this contempt of women, which far
+more than counterbalances the good effects of the Mohammedan doctrine of
+the equality of all true believers in the sight of God, and the ease of
+manner and independence of opinion which result from the sense of
+fraternity in the sacred bond of Islám. The picture we have drawn of the
+daily life of the Cairene is perhaps too sombre, and we should watch our
+tradesman at his revels in order to understand the brighter side of his
+life. It is true these excitements are strictly connected with his
+religion, but so are the Roman Catholic holidays, and if one must
+dissipate it is soothing to the conscience to do it under the auspices
+of a saint. The Muslim, however, takes an unnatural delight in pious
+celebrations. The wedding guest of Cairo has his own importunate Ancient
+Mariner in the _Khatma_ or recital of the entire Korán, from cover to
+cover, which a worthy bridegroom frequently provides for the
+entertainment of his friends. When the people of Cairo wish to go in for
+serious dissipation they visit the graves of their relations, and then,
+in houses expressly reserved for cheerful mourners, they listen to the
+chanting of the holy book. _Voilà un terrible humeur d’homme!_ _Tristes_
+as we are said to be in England in our manner of amusing ourselves, even
+an Ibsen audience would stand aghast at the Muslim’s staid diversions.
+He certainly makes the most of curiously unpromising materials. The
+feast of St Simon and St Jude does not perhaps suggest exhilaration to
+an unimaginative Englishman, but your Cairene will intensely enjoy, in
+his sedate way, the holidays of his religion. There are plenty of them,
+and a Cairo _Mólid_ or “birthday” is not a one-day’s festival, like mere
+Christian feasts, but lasts sometimes as long as nine days at a stretch.
+Every tourist knows some of them, such as the Kiswa or Holy Carpet
+procession, and the passing of the Mahmal with the pilgrim caravan to
+Mekka, and they are worth seeing, if they happen to fall within the
+“season”—for the Muslim year still retains the unreformed lunar
+calendar, which shifts continually and carries the feasts round with it.
+There is hardly a week in the year however without some special rite or
+spectacle. It may be the _Ashúra_ or 10th of Moharram (the first month),
+when people eat cakes in honour of Hoseyn, the martyred son of ‘Aly, and
+pay their homage at the mosque of the Hasaneyn, where the martyr’s head
+is supposed to rest, and watch the amazing antics of the dervishes.
+“Since Hoseyn, in whose honour it is held (combining with his elder
+brother, Hasan, to form the ‘Hasaneyn’), is especially the saint of the
+heretical Persians, and has given rise, through no merit of his own, to
+more schisms in the Mohammedan world than any other person, it is
+strange that the Cairenes, who are almost all orthodox Sunnis, should
+pay such particular reverence to this feast. But the truth is, they are
+glad of any excuse for a holiday; and, after all, was not our lord
+Hoseyn the grandson of the Prophet? and is he to be given over wholly to
+those heretical dogs of Shi‘a? Whatever the argument, Hoseyn is deeply
+revered in Cairo, and his Molid is one of the sights of the capital that
+most delight the European visitor. Nothing more picturesque and
+fairylike can be imagined than the scenes in the streets and bazars of
+Cairo on the great night of the Hasaneyn. The curious thing was that in
+the winter after Tell-el-Kebír, when I stood—for riding was
+impossible—in the midst of the dense throng in the Musky, and struggled
+into the by-street that leads to the Kady’s court and the mosque of the
+Hasaneyn, there was not a sign of ill-humour or fanaticism in spite of
+the presence of many Europeans. A more good-natured crowd was never
+seen. It might have been expected that at least some slight
+demonstration would have been made against the Europeans who wandered
+about the gaily illuminated streets; but English ladies walked through
+the bazars, English officers and tourists mingled in the throng and even
+reached the doors of the sacred mosque itself without the slightest
+molestation or even remark. Once or twice a woman might have been heard
+sarcastically inviting some Christian to ‘bless the Prophet’; but if the
+Christian charitably replied, ‘God bless and save him,’ she was
+nonplussed; and even if he did not know the proper answer, nothing came
+of it. The general good-nature inspired by the festival obliterated all
+memories of war and heresy, and it may safely be asserted that no
+English mob could have been trusted to behave in so orderly and friendly
+a manner in the presence of a detested minority.
+
+“The scene, as I turned into one of the narrow lanes of the great Khan
+El-Khalíly, or Turkish bazar, which fronts the mosque of the Hasaneyn,
+was like a picture in the Arabian Nights. The long bazar was lighted by
+innumerable chandeliers and coloured lamps and candles, and covered by
+awnings of rich shawls and stuffs from the shops beneath; while, between
+the strips of awning, one could see the sombre outlines of the unlighted
+houses above, in striking contrast to the brilliancy and gaiety below.
+The shops had quite changed their character. All the wares which were
+usually littered about had disappeared; the trays of miscellaneous
+daggers and rings and spoons and whatnot, were gone; and each little
+shop was turned into a tastefully furnished reception-room. The sides
+and top were hung with silks and cashmeres, velvets, brocades, and
+embroideries of the greatest beauty and rarity—costly stuffs, which the
+most inquisitive purchaser never managed to see on ordinary occasions.
+The whole of the sides of the bazar formed one long blaze of gold and
+light and colour. And within each shop the owner sat surrounded by a
+semicircle of friends, all dressed in their best, very clean and
+superbly courteous—for the Cairo tradesman is always a gentleman in
+mien, even when he is cheating you most outrageously. The very man with
+whom you haggled hotly in the morning will now invite you politely to
+sit down with him and smoke; at his side is a little ivory or mother-of-
+pearl table, from which he takes a bottle of some sweet drink flavoured
+with almonds or roses, and offers it to you with finished grace.
+
+“Seated in the richly-hung recess, you can see the throng pushing by—the
+whole population, it seems, of Cairo, in their best array and merriest
+temper. All at once the sound of drums and pipes is heard, and a band of
+dervishes, chanting benedictions on the Prophet and Hoseyn, pass through
+the delighted crowd. On your left is a shop—nay, a throne-room in
+miniature—where a story-teller is holding an audience spell-bound as he
+relates, with dramatic gestures, some favourite tale. Hard by, a holy
+man is revolving his head solemnly and unceasingly, as he repeats the
+name of God, or some potent text from the Korán. In another place, a
+party of dervishes are performing a _zikr_, or a complete recital of the
+Korán is being chanted by swaying devotees. The whole scene is certainly
+unreal and fairylike. We can imagine ourselves in the land of the Ginn
+or in the City of Brass, but not in Cairo or in the nineteenth century.
+
+“Outside the khan, dense masses of the people are crowding into the
+mosque of the Hasaneyn, where specially horrible performances take
+place, and where the tour of the shrine of Hoseyn must be made. Near by,
+a string of men are entering a booth; we follow, and find tumblers at
+work, and a performing pony, and a clown who always imitates the feats
+of the gymnasts, always fails grotesquely, and invariably provokes roars
+of laughter. In another booth Karakúsh is carrying on his intrigues:
+this Egyptian Punch is better manipulated than our own, whom he nearly
+resembles; but he is not so choice in his language or behaviour, and we
+are glad before long to leave a place where the jokes are rather broad,
+and certain saltatory insects unusually active. People of the lower
+class however care nothing for these drawbacks; they laugh till their
+sides ache at Karakúsh’s sallies, and whatever they see, wherever they
+go, whomever they meet, whatsoever their cares and their poverty, on
+this blessed night of the Hasaneyn they are perfectly happy. An Egyptian
+crowd is very easily amused: the simplest sights and oldest jests
+delight it; and it is enough to make a fastidious European regret his
+niceness to see how these simple folk enjoy themselves upon so small an
+incentive.”[2]
+
+This is what one goes to Cairo to see, the real Eastern life in its
+Eastern setting. A scene like this repays one for many dreary calls,
+many tepid dances in the region of hotels. You may get hotel life, club
+life, polo and tennis, and even golf, excellently at Cairo—the European
+Cairo—but these things are common to all “winter resorts.” In the
+“bazars,” among the people, you get something that the Isma‘ilíya
+quarter cannot give, that no other place can quite rival, something that
+painters love and that kindles the imagination. After all, the most
+interesting things are always the unfamiliar, and the first plunge into
+Egypt is a revelation of fresh ideas, new tones in colour, and the
+pungent odours of a strange native life.
+
+It is in the “bazars” that one feels most the shock of contact with the
+unfamiliar; but, in a less intimate yet deeply impressive way, to drink
+in the full inspiration of the Muslim city one must climb to the
+ramparts of the Citadel about sunset and slowly absorb the wonderful
+panorama that spreads below and around. Unhappily, to get there one
+usually passes along the most terribly defaced street in all Cairo. The
+worst destruction took place, one is thankful to remember, before
+England took the reins of Egypt. It was Isma‘íl, under French influence,
+who made that unspeakable atrocity, the “Boulevard Mohammad ‘Aly,” which
+cut through some of the most beautiful quarters, ruined palaces and
+gardens, and chopped off half of a noble mosque in order to preserve the
+tasteless accuracy of its straight line. Along its side are ranged mean
+and uneven offices and tenements, neither Europeanly regular nor
+Orientally picturesque. Old wine and new bottles are in close connexion.
+A Muslim school elbows a “Grog Shop for Army and Navy.” Under the shadow
+of the stately mosque of Sultan Hasan an Arab barber is cutting hair
+with a modern clipping machine. A gaily painted harím carriage, guarded
+by eunuchs, stands at the door of the mosque: on the panel is a sham
+coat-of-arms, that last infirmity of Turkish minds—though for that
+matter heraldic bearings were used in Egypt at least seven hundred years
+ago. Solemn sheykhs pace slowly along without any sign of surprise at
+these strange sights. Overhead the guns boom out a salute, for it is the
+Great Festival, the _‘Id el-kebír_, from Saladin’s Citadel; but the
+garrison are not stalwart Turkmáns or wild Kurds, in picturesque garb
+and with clanking spear and mace, such as the great Soldan led against
+Richard of the Lion-heart, but British “tommies” unbecomingly attired in
+khaki. The Citadel itself is an arsenal of modern arms and stores, and
+English officers rule where once the Mamlúk Beys were massacred. Old and
+new are ever clashing in the mediæval fortress, and Private Ortheris
+mounts guard over the mosque of a Mamlúk Sultan.
+
+But once we stand on the ramparts the flaring contrasts vanish and the
+jarring note is still. All in that wide range beneath the eye is of the
+East Eastern. The European touches are too small at such a distance to
+mar the purely Oriental tone. Countless domes and minarets, a glimpse of
+arched cloisters, a wilderness of flat-roofed houses, yellow and white
+and brown, with sloped pents to admit the cool breezes below; a patch of
+green here and there, with dark-leaved sycamores, revealing some of the
+many gardens of the old city, and beyond, a fringe of palms and a streak
+of silver where “the long bright river” rolls sleepily on between its
+brown banks; in the distance, against the ridge of the Libyan horizon,
+in the carmine glory of the sinking sun, stand the everlasting pyramids,
+“like the boundary marks of the mighty waste, the Egyptian land of
+shades.” One after the other the tall forms of slender minarets separate
+themselves from the bewildering chaos of roofs and domes, and display
+their varied grace. Each has its story of victory or exile, of famine
+and invasion, of learning and piety, to tell. On the right, northwards,
+the fine towers of Muáyyad above the Zuweyla gate recall a hundred deeds
+and legends of that famous portal, once the main entrance of the
+caliphs’ palace-city. Beyond them rise the minarets of the Nahhasín, a
+perfect gallery of Saracen art, and again beyond, the turrets of Hákim’s
+great quadrangle. In front in the foreground stands Sultan Hasan, the
+largest and most imposing of Mamlúk mosques, and a little to the left
+one looks into the vast arcaded square of Ibn-Tulún, with its queer
+corkscrew tower overhanging the billowy mounds that reveal where Fustát
+lay a thousand years ago. Still more to the left a line of arches shows
+where the aqueduct that has brought water to the Citadel for five
+centuries stretches to the Nile, and behind we can look down upon the
+cluster of ruined domes and minarets of the southern Karáfa—the “Tombs
+of the Mamlúks”—and catch a glimpse of the old fortress of Egyptian
+Babylon and the mosque of the conqueror ‘Amr. Looking over the Mamlúk
+minarets we can see the dim outlines of the cairns of Dahshúr and the
+conspicuous form of Sakkára’s step-pyramid, separated from the Saracen
+domes by only fifteen miles of space but five millenniums of time; and
+as the glow of the sunset fades away the evening clouds gather in the
+west and the desert beyond takes up their shades of grey and blue like a
+vast mid-African ocean.
+
+[Illustration: THE CITADEL]
+
+Here we realize Cairo for the first time as a city of the Middle Ages,
+and more than that, a city with an heritage from the dawn of history. It
+is true it has not the exquisite setting of the seven-hilled queen of
+the Bosporus; it is not even built about the Nile, which the silts of
+centuries have breasted away from the walls it once laved: but as one
+looks out from the battlements of the Castle one perceives that there
+are other oceans than those of water, and that the capital of Egypt can
+have no more fitting frame than the deserts which are her shield and the
+pyramids her title-deeds to her inheritance from the remote past. “He
+who hath not seen Cairo,” said the Jewish hakím, “hath not seen the
+world. Her soil is gold; her Nile is a marvel; her women are as the
+bright-eyed houris of Paradise; her houses are palaces, and her air is
+soft with an odour above aloes, refreshing the heart: and how should
+Cairo be otherwise when she is the Mother of the World?”
+
+
+
+
+                               CHAPTER II
+
+                         _The Town of the Tent_
+
+
+IN the view from the Citadel one sees an essentially mediæval city, but
+of all the Arab buildings there is not one that in its present state
+dates back to the Arab conquest. Before the Muslims invaded Egypt in 640
+there was no Cairo, and strictly speaking there was none till three
+centuries later than that, when the Greek general laid the foundations
+of the palace-city of the Fátimid caliphs and it received the name el-
+Káhira, which Europeans twisted into Cahere, Caire, and Cairo. But this
+is merely a pedantry of terms, and one might as well restrict London to
+the City and refuse the name to Westminster and Mayfair. There was a
+Muslim capital from the days of the conquest, and though it was not
+called Cairo it was close to the present city, which is merely an
+expansion of the original town. The history of its growth will appear as
+we study its several stages and monuments, and for the moment a bare
+enumeration of the successive foundations will suffice. First rose the
+original Arab settlement, Fustát, the Town of the Tent, in 641. To this
+was added in 751 a north-eastern suburb, the official residence of the
+governors and their troops, hence named el-‘Áskar, “the Cantonments.” A
+new royal faubourg, or small city, was built still more to the north-
+east by the first independent Muslim King of Egypt, Ibn-Tulún, about
+860, and was known by the name of el-Katái‘, “the Wards,” because it was
+divided into separate quarters for different nations and classes. So far
+the three towns were practically contiguous, and ‘Askar and Katái‘ were
+but the Chelsea and St James’s of the City, the commercial capital,
+Fustát.
+
+The fourth foundation was still further to the north-east, and a
+considerable vacant space was left between it and the almost destroyed
+faubourg of Katái‘, in order to preserve the safety and seclusion of the
+sacred caliphs for whom it was built in 969. This last was the true
+Cairo, el-Káhira, but it was not the commercial and residential capital,
+any more than ‘Askar or Katái‘ had been. Fustát, resting on the Nile
+bank, was still the emporium of trade and the metropolis alike of
+business and of culture, whilst Káhira was but a palace, a barrack, and
+a seat of government. When the mediæval chroniclers, such as William of
+Tyre, write of “Macer”—meaning Masr (properly Misr) the usual Arabic
+name both for Egypt and for its capital—they refer not to Káhira but to
+Fustát, or as it was commonly called Misr-el-Fustát. The Emír or Caliph
+or Sultan might dwell and rule at any suburb he pleased to build, but
+the old capital remained the real metropolis throughout. There the Kádis
+sat in judgment in the “Old Mosque”; there the coins of the realm were
+issued; and there resided the bulk of the citizens who were not attached
+to the palace. It was only when Fustát was deliberately burned in 1168,
+to save it from giving cover to the Crusaders, that Káhira took its
+place as the real capital as well as the official centre of Egypt.
+
+Saladin was the creator of Cairo as we know it. It was he who planned
+the wall that was to enclose not only Káhira but the Citadel and what
+remained of Katái‘ and Fustát, and from his time began the building over
+the space intervening between the Citadel and the palace of Káhira which
+gradually filled up the Cairo which we now see. The growth of the city
+thus consisted mainly of three successive expansions towards the north-
+east, accompanied by decay of abandoned suburbs, and ending in a general
+enclosure of the chief inhabited portions. Since the days of Saladin,
+whatever remained of Fustát has vanished, and only a straggling village
+called Masr-el-Atíka or “Old Masr,” and known to Europeans as “Old
+Cairo,” has risen near its site, which is easily traced by the immense
+rubbish-heaps. On the other hand a new town has grown up between Káhira
+and the Nile under European influences, but with this, pleasant winter
+city as it is, the Mediæval Town has nothing to do.
+
+The narrative of the Arab invasion of Egypt is in many points
+exceedingly obscure, owing to the circumstances that the Arabs did not
+begin to write history till more than two centuries later, and that our
+only almost contemporary authority, John, bishop of Nikiu, has come down
+to us in a corrupt translation. The Arabs under the command of ‘Amr ibn
+el-‘Asy entered Egypt not more than 4000 strong in December 639, in the
+caliphate of ‘Omar, the second successor of the prophet Mohammad; and
+after taking Pelusium and Bilbeys by siege, and fighting a battle with
+the Romans at Umm-Duneyn, a suburb which stood near the present ‘Abdin
+palace, attacked the city of “Misr” or “Babylon of Egypt.” This city was
+a northern extension or successor of the decayed but then still existing
+Egyptian capital Memphis, about twelve miles distant from the present
+Cairo, and had grown up under the protection of the Roman fortress of
+Babylon. It was evidently strongly defended, for the Arab general had to
+summon reinforcements, till his army mustered 12,000, before he could
+attack it.
+
+“‘Amr divided his forces into three corps, one of which he posted to the
+north of Babylon; the second was stationed at Tendunyas [probably the
+Umm-Duneyn of the Arabic writers], and the third withdrew northwards to
+Heliopolis, in the hope of tempting the Romans out of their
+fortifications, upon which the other two corps were to fall on their
+rear or flank. The manœuvre succeeded. The Romans marched out of their
+fortifications, and attacked the Saracens at Heliopolis, but, being
+themselves taken in rear by the other divisions, were routed and driven
+to the Nile, when they took to their boats and fled down the river. Upon
+this the Muslims occupied Tendunyas, the garrison of which had perished
+in the battle, except 300 men, who shut themselves up in the fort,
+whence they retired by boat to Nikiu. The taking of Tendunyas was
+evidently followed by, or synonymous with, the taking of the whole city
+of Misr, except its citadel, which was blockaded; for John of Nikiu,
+from whose almost contemporary chronicle this account is taken, mentions
+no subsequent siege or conquest of the city of Misr, but only the
+reduction of the fortress.”[3]
+
+Whatever this city of Misr or Tendunyas may have been, it vanishes from
+history as soon as it is conquered. The last we hear of it is in the
+treaty of capitulation granted by ‘Amr, which ran as follows:—
+
+“In the name of God, the Compassionate, the Merciful, this is the
+amnesty which ‘Amr ibn el-‘Asy granted to the people of Misr, as to
+themselves, their religion, their goods, their churches and crosses,
+their lands and waters: nothing of these shall be meddled with or
+minished; the Nubians shall not be permitted to dwell among them. And
+the people of Misr, if they enter into this treaty of peace, shall pay
+the poll-tax, when the inundation of their river has subsided, fifty
+millions. And each one of them is responsible for [acts of violence
+that] robbers among them may commit. And as for those who will not enter
+into this treaty, the sum of the tax shall be diminished [to the rest]
+in proportion, but we have no responsibility towards such. If the rise
+of the Nile is less than usual, the tax shall be reduced in proportion
+to the decrease. Romans and Nubians who enter into this treaty shall be
+treated in the like manner. And whoso rejects [it] and chooses to go
+away, he is protected until he reach a place of safety or leave our
+kingdom. The collection of the taxes shall be by thirds, one third at
+each time. For [sureties for] this covenant stand the security and
+warranty of God, the warranty of His Prophet, and the warranty of the
+Caliph, the commander of the faithful, and the warranty of the [true]
+believers. . . . Witnessed by ez-Zubeyr and his sons ‘Abdallah and
+Mohammad, and written by Wardan.”
+
+The Arab historians connect this treaty—which has all the appearance of
+being an authentic document, literally copied—expressly with the
+surrender of the city of Misr after the battle of Heliopolis; but as
+Misr means Egypt as well as its capital the document itself only proves
+that the Arab conqueror accorded very generous terms to the people of
+Egypt; it says nothing explicit as to the town of Misr, the name of
+which was shortly to be transferred to Fustát, whilst the place thereof
+was known no more. The only explanation seems to be that the Egyptian
+city decayed as the Arab town grew, and that the population migrated to
+the neighbouring and more prosperous settlement. The remains of walls
+south of “Old Misr” may represent part of the site. The disappearance of
+an Egyptian town is unhappily far from unprecedented. Memphis itself has
+vanished, all save a few traces of walls and fallen statues; “hundred-
+gated” Thebes survives only in her temples; and the reason is that the
+ancient Egyptian built his abode of perishable sun-dried brick, and
+lavished his massive stone work only upon the tombs of the great dead
+and the temples of the immortal gods.
+
+Whatever became of the city, a fortress of Babylon stands to this day.
+Its reduction cost the Arabs a seven months’ siege. The battle of
+Heliopolis was won in the late summer of 640, and it was not till April
+641 that the fortress was conquered. A leading part in the surrender of
+the place is ascribed to a mysterious personage, “the Mukawkis,” as the
+Arabs termed the governor of Egypt.[4] According to the Arab traditions
+it was he who negotiated the treaty cited above, which secured to the
+Egyptians freedom of religion and security of life, and when the
+Byzantine emperor Heraclius repudiated the treaty, the Mukawkis stuck to
+his word and threw in his lot with the Arabs, whose valour and simple
+earnestness deeply impressed him. When his envoys returned from an
+embassy to the Saracens’ camp, he asked them what manner of men the
+Muslims were, and they answered, “We found a people who love death
+better than life, and set humility above pride, who have no desire or
+enjoyment in this world, who sit in the dust and eat upon their knees,
+but frequently and thoroughly wash, and humble themselves in prayer; a
+people in whom the stronger can scarce be distinguished from the weaker,
+or the master from the slave.” Such a character was new to the
+Egyptians, who had long suffered under the corruption and luxury of the
+Eastern Roman Empire, and, whatever part the Mukawkis personally may
+have played in what has been called the betrayal of Christian Egypt, it
+is certain that the population abetted the invaders.
+
+Although Christianity had been the official religion of Egypt since the
+Edict of Theodosius in 379, there was still a strong leaven of the old
+local cults, and, more important still, there was a vigorous tendency to
+nationalism both of church and state. The rule of Byzantium had never
+been gracious to the Egyptian province; the Orthodox Church had been
+tyrannous; and when at the Council of Chalcedon in 451 the Eutychian
+heresy maintained by the Egyptian bishops was formally condemned, the
+schism became irrevocable. From that time forward there were two
+churches in Egypt, the State Church (or Orthodox Greek), supported from
+Constantinople, and known as the Melekite or “Royalist,” and the
+national church, afterwards called Jacobite, and generally known as the
+Coptic Church. Copt is etymologically the same word as Egyptian (Greek,
+Aiguptios; Arabic, Kibt and Kubt; English, Copt), and the Coptic Church
+means nothing less than the Church of Egypt as separated by the adoption
+of the heresy of Eutyches. The Egyptian Christians were as much Copts
+before as after the Council of Chalcedon; but it was their devotion to a
+metaphysical definition, which very few of them could possibly
+understand, that made them a distinct church, and to this they owe at
+once their misfortunes and their historical interest. By their adhesion
+to the first Nicæan doctrine of the single nature of Christ they exposed
+themselves to persecution and courted isolation, and sharing in none of
+the developments of the other churches, they preserved in their scanty
+and neglected community, unchanged for nearly fifteen hundred years, the
+ancient tradition and ritual of the fifth century. It was their
+implacable hatred of the Royalists that threw them into the arms of the
+Muslim invaders. By the advice of their exiled patriarch they helped the
+Arabs from the moment of their setting foot upon Egyptian soil. Eager to
+rid themselves of Byzantine rule, and still more of the Royalist
+hierarchy, they embraced they knew not what as a preferable alternative;
+and after the Mukawkis, aided, according to tradition, by a _catholicos_
+(probably Cyrus, Royalist patriarch of Alexandria), had succeeded in
+obtaining a generous amnesty from the Arab general, the Copts rendered
+every aid to the Muslims, assisted them with labour at bridge-making,
+and brought them supplies. They soon discovered that they had only
+exchanged masters, but the Arab, despite his haughty assumption of
+superiority and his occasional outbursts of persecution, was a gentler
+tyrant than the Roman of the Lower Empire.
+
+Deprived of all support from the population, the Roman garrison of
+Babylon surrendered in April 641. The Delta was quickly overrun, and the
+Romans fell back upon Alexandria, which, distracted by factions and
+deprived of competent leaders, yielded to panic, and eagerly accepted
+‘Amr’s magnanimous terms. By the surrender of the Roman capital in
+October 641, the Arab conquest of Egypt was complete. There was no
+further resistance worthy the name. The Muslims spread over the land up
+to the first cataract of the Nile, and Egypt became a province of the
+caliphate.
+
+On his return from Alexandria ‘Amr founded the Town of the Tent. The
+great port on the Mediterranean was no suitable capital for Arab tribes,
+whose inexperience magnified the terrors of the deep. Alexandria,
+moreover, was liable at the period of Nile inundation to be cut off from
+the centre of Arab power at Medina, and the caliph ‘Omar, not yet
+inspired by dreams of a vast Muslim empire, was chiefly anxious to keep
+in touch with the army of Egypt. ‘Amr indeed wished to retain Alexandria
+as the capital. “Behold an abode made ready for us,” he said. But when
+the caliph heard of it, he asked, “Will there be water between me and
+the army of the Muslims?” and the answer was, “Yes, O commander of the
+faithful, there will be the Nile,” so he set his face against
+Alexandria. He regarded the new conquest as a barrack rather than a
+colony. ‘Amr accordingly was bidden to choose a more central position,
+and found it some ten miles north of the remains of the ancient capital
+of Memphis, on the site of the camp which lay before the castle of
+Babylon. An old canal, the Amnis Trajanus, had formerly connected
+Babylon with the Red Sea at Suez, running past Bilbeys and the Crocodile
+Lake, and this was immediately cleared of silt and reopened, so that
+tribute and corn were sent by water to Arabia, and close relations were
+thus maintained with the caliph.
+
+The Town of the Tent owes its name to a pretty legend, which may very
+probably be true. When ‘Amr led his Arabs against the old capital of
+Egypt, he pitched his tent on the spot where his mosque now stands.
+After the surrender of the castle of Babylon he marched upon Alexandria;
+but when the soldiers went to strike his tent, they found that a dove
+had laid her eggs within and was sitting on her nest. ‘Amr at once
+declared the spot sacred, and ordered them not to disturb her; and when
+on the return from the conquest of Alexandria the army set about
+building quarters for themselves, ‘Amr bade them settle around his still
+standing tent, and the first Arab city of Egypt was ever afterwards
+known as el-Fustát, “the Tent,” or Misr-el-Fustát, or simply Misr. The
+whole space between the Nile and the hill Mukattam, on a spur of which
+stands the present Citadel, was bare at that time. There was nothing but
+“waste land and sown fields,” and no buildings except some churches or
+convents, and the Roman fortress of Babylon, or Babelyún, known to the
+Arabs to this day as the Kasr-esh-Shema‘ or “Castle of the Beacon,”
+because (says the Topographer, el-Makrízy) “this Kasr was illuminated on
+the summit with candles [in Arabic _shema‘_] on the first night of every
+month,” to serve as a kalendar; but it is possible, as Dr Butler has
+suggested, that the name is merely a corruption of Kasr-el-_Khemi_, the
+“Castle of Egypt,” and that the beacon story was invented to explain
+it.[5]
+
+Why ‘Amr did not occupy the old city of Misr we do not know: everything
+connected with that vanished town is a mystery. Elsewhere the Arabs had
+no scruple about taking possession of older cities, such as Damascus and
+Edessa; but in Egypt they preferred to take fresh ground. Misr may have
+been too small; or it is possible that the caliph’s orders that they
+were not to acquire property and take root in the country led to the
+original occupation of the bare stretch of land between Babylon and the
+Mukattam hills. The first settlement undoubtedly resembled a temporary
+camp rather than a city. They wanted plenty of space to separate the
+various tribes who composed the Arab army, and who, despite their Muslim
+brotherhood, were liable to recall their ancient jealousies. The site
+they chose was ample and almost unencumbered. The tract was known as the
+three Hamras or “red” spots[6]—the Nearer, the Middle, and the Further
+Hamra—apparently from the red standard which was set up in the midst.
+
+The Arab clans divided the three tracts amongst them and laid out their
+settlements, from the fortress to where the mosque of Ibn-Tulún now
+stands. In the midst was the general’s house, and close to it rose the
+first mosque built in Egypt, the “Mosque of Conquest,” the “Crown of
+Mosques,” as it was proudly called, but known later as the “Old Mosque,”
+and now as the Mosque of ‘Amr. It was originally a very plain oblong
+room, about 200 feet long by 56 wide, built of rough brick, unplastered,
+with a low roof supported probably by a few columns, with holes for
+light. There was no minaret, no niche for prayer, no decoration, no
+pavement. Even the pulpit which ‘Amr set up was removed when the caliph
+wrote in reproach, “Is it not enough for thee to stand whilst the
+Muslims sit at thy feet?” For it was the duty of the conqueror to recite
+the prayers and preach the Friday sermon in this humble building. It
+soon became too small for the growing population of Fustát, and was
+enlarged in 673 by taking in part of the house of ‘Amr; and at the same
+time raised stations—the germ of the minaret—were erected at the corners
+for the muézzins to recite the call to prayer. Twenty-five years later
+the entire mosque was demolished by a later governor who rebuilt it on a
+larger scale. So many and thorough have been the repairs and
+reconstructions that there is probably not a foot of the original
+building now in existence. What we see to-day is practically the mosque
+rebuilt in 827 by ‘Abdallah ibn Táhir, and restored by Murád Bey in
+1798, just before he engaged the French in the “battle of the Pyramids”
+at Embába. It is four times the size of the original mosque, and
+different in every respect.[7]
+
+The “Old Mosque,” as the Topographer calls it, was intensely revered in
+early times. It was there that the chief Kady held his court, and
+learned men congregated in its arcades. It was a rallying point for
+orthodoxy in times of schism and obtrusive heresies. When Fustát was
+burned in 1168 the mosque escaped, though much injured, and Saladin
+restored it; “where he found wood and stone he left marble.” But it was
+as hopeless to maintain its popularity, when the town it belonged to was
+in ashes, as it would be to induce the dwellers in Belgravia to attend
+the services at Bow Bells. Fustát mostly in ruins, the congregation
+dispersed, and the mosque of ‘Amr fell upon evil days. Ibn-Sa‘íd, a
+Moorish traveller of the thirteenth century, found the sacred building
+covered with cobwebs, and scrawled over with the ribald _graffiti_ of
+loafers and vagabonds, the remains of whose victuals littered the floor.
+There were few worshippers, and much unseemliness. “Musicians, and ape-
+leaders, and conjurers, and mountebanks, and dancing-girls,” says the
+historian Gabárty in the eighteenth century, desecrated the court, and
+so decrepit did the building become that even these abandoned it. If
+Murád Bey had not been “anxious about his soul,” for very good reasons,
+and made peace with his conscience by spending some of his ill-gotten
+gains upon the pious work of restoration, the “Crown of Mosques” would
+have disappeared altogether. In the early part of the nineteenth century
+it was still a favourite place of prayer for the people of Cairo on the
+last Friday of the Fast of Ramadán. “It is believed that God will
+receive with particular favour the prayers which are offered up in this
+ancient mosque; therefore, when the Nile is tardy in rising, and the
+people fear a scanty inundation and a consequent scarcity, the principal
+Sheykhs and Imáms and learned and devout Muslims of the metropolis are
+ordered to betake themselves to the mosque of ‘Amr to pray for an
+increase of the river, together with the priests of the various
+Christian churches and their congregations, and likewise the Jews; each
+of these persuasions arranged by itself, without the mosque. Public
+prayers were thus offered up for rain in this consecrated spot by
+Muslims, Christians and Jews, in a time of unusual drought about twenty
+years ago [_i.e._ 1825-8], and on the following day it rained.”[8]
+
+[Illustration: COURT OF THE MOSQUE OF ‘AMR]
+
+The outside of the oldest mosque in Egypt is not impressive. Among the
+rubbish-hills that mark the site of the Town of the Tent, its long grey
+walls, without windows or the least attempt at ornament, look dreary,
+and the two plain minarets are equally unpretentious. But within,
+despite decay and the loneliness of neglect, the vast empty court of
+some forty thousand square feet, surrounded by colonnades, and the
+forest of columns supporting the roof of the east end, the special place
+of prayer, wholly dominate all mean details. Crowded with worshippers in
+the rhythmic bowings of the Muslim ritual it must have been a wonderful
+and solemn vision. The arches are of various ages, and the columns,
+taken from churches, show the most diverse capitals, not always put the
+right side up; the arcades do not run parallel to the walls, like
+cloisters round a cathedral close, but open at right angles into the
+court. Wooden beams stretch from column to column to support hanging
+lamps, of which eighteen thousand were lighted every night in former
+times, and the effect in the long vistas must have been superb. Those
+nights of illumination are long over, and the conqueror’s mosque is a
+melancholy ruin, the loneliness of which appeals to the imagination to
+people it with the zealous groups of scholars and divines, fanatics and
+doctors learned in the law, fakírs and holy men, who once bowed before
+its deserted _kibla_. Not even the mark of the blessed Prophet’s
+_kurbág_ on the grey marble of the pillar, which, urged by the
+blow—despite all considerations of chronology—flew through the air from
+Mekka when ‘Amr was building the mosque, nor the twin test columns
+between which only true believers can squeeze (and even a Turkish
+soldier stuck and almost died), avail to attract worshippers to the old
+shrine except on very special occasions. Yet it is prophesied that the
+fall of the mosque of ‘Amr will be the sign of the downfall of Islám,
+and it is strange that a superstitious people are not more careful of
+their omens.
+
+The original mosque of the Arab conqueror has gone, but at least its
+representative stands on the hallowed site. One cannot say as much for
+Fustát, the Town of the Tent, which he founded. Whatever may remain of
+this great city, which was the capital and the river-port of Egypt for
+five centuries, lies hidden under the wilderness of sand-hills which
+cover the débris and kitchen-middens of the mediæval town. Here, after a
+strong wind has stirred the sand, you may sometimes chance to pick up
+curious fragments of glass and pottery, Roman lamps, coins, glass-bottle
+stamps with inscriptions recording the names of eighth century
+governors, and such-like relics of what was once Fustát. Of its houses,
+its governors’ palaces, its baths and schools, not a stone or brick
+remains. The “granaries of Joseph” certainly date back at least to that
+later Joseph, Saladin, for Benjamin of Tudela saw them in 1170; but
+Masr-el-Atíka, or “Old Cairo,” is built on land which was covered by the
+Nile in the days when Fustát was the capital. The rest is desolation. We
+shall catch many glimpses of its history in chapters to come, and read
+the descriptions of it written by Persian and Moorish travellers from
+the east and the west, but such descriptions do not enable us to realize
+the vanished Arab city.
+
+One monument, however, of the age of the conquest still survives, but it
+is not Arab. The Roman fortress of Babylon, the “Castle of the Beacon,”
+stands where it once overlooked the Muslims’ tents and saw the Arab
+capital growing up beneath its walls. To understand why it was called
+Babylon, or as some say Bab-li-On, “the gate of On,” we must go to
+Mataríya, a few miles north of Cairo, where stands a solitary obelisk,
+sole relic of On or Heliopolis, the “City of the Sun.” In the plain of
+Mataríya, before this lonely stone, the Turks fought the final battle
+that won Cairo from the Mamlúks in 1517, and here Kléber gained his
+victory in 1800 over the Turks. There stood the famous temple of On of
+which Potipherah, the father of Joseph’s wife, was priest; here Pianchi,
+the Ethiopian priest-king, eight centuries B.C., washed at the “Fountain
+of the Sun,” and made offerings of white bulls, milk, perfume, incense,
+and all kinds of sweet-scented woods, and entering the temple “saw his
+father Ra [the sun-god] in the sanctuary.” Heliopolis was the university
+of the most ancient civilization in the world, the forerunner of all the
+schools of Europe. Here, in all probability, Moses was instructed by the
+priests of Ra in “all the wisdom of the Egyptians”; here, too, Herodotus
+cross-questioned the same priesthood with varying success; here Plato
+came to study, and Eudoxus the mathematician to learn astronomy; and
+here Strabo was shown the houses where the famous Greeks had lived. Of
+this seat of learning and focus of religion nothing but the obelisk
+remains. “The images of Beth-Shemesh” (the “House of the Sun”) have
+indeed been “broken,” and “the houses of the Egyptians’ gods” have been
+“burned with fire.”[9]
+
+Beside the obelisk is an ancient sycamore, riven with age and hacked
+with numberless names, beneath which tradition hath it that the Holy
+Family rested in their flight into Egypt, and it is hence known as the
+“Virgin’s Tree.” Near by is a spring of fresh water—a rare sight in this
+brackish land—which, it is said, became sweet because the Bambino was
+bathed there. From the spots where the drops fell from his swaddling
+clothes, after they, too, had been washed in this sacred spring, sprang
+up balsam-trees, which, it was believed, flourished nowhere else. There
+is no evidence for these fancies, and, of course, the sycamore is but a
+descendant of the supposed original, as it was not planted till after
+1672. But the circumstances that a temple was built by the Hebrew Onias
+for the worship of his countrymen near here, and that Jewish gardeners
+were brought here for the culture of the balsam-trees, give the tale a
+certain fitness.
+
+Heliopolis is no more, but its guardian fortress, the “gate of On” still
+defies time and the restorers’ hands, and the name of Babylon of Egypt,
+applied to the capital (Fustát) as well as the fort, appears frequently
+in the mediæval chronicles and romances. When Richard Cœur de Lion
+defeated Saladin, the romance relates,
+
+
+  “The cheff Sawdon off Hethenysse
+
+   To Babyloyne was flowen, I wysse.”
+
+
+Whether or not there is any foundation for the tradition reported by
+Strabo and Diodorus that the castle was first built by exiles from the
+greater Babylon of Chaldæa, the present fortress dates from the third or
+possibly the second century of our era. The exterior is imposing, though
+the walls have been injured, and the sand has buried their feet. The
+greater part of the oblong outline is still sufficiently
+distinguishable, and five bastions and two circular towers are well
+preserved. The walls are built in the usual Roman manner, five courses
+of stone alternating with three of brick—the origin, probably, of the
+striped red and yellow decoration of the Muslim mosques and houses—and
+their massive aspect even now makes one realize how much the capture of
+such a stronghold must have meant to the early Arabs.
+
+[Illustration: GATE OF KASR-ESH-SHEMA‘]
+
+When we enter the stronghold the strange character of the fortress grows
+upon us. Passing through narrow lanes, narrower and darker and dustier
+even than the back alleys of Cairo, we are struck by the deadly
+stillness of the place. The high houses that shut in the street have
+little of the lattice ornament that adorns the thoroughfares of Cairo;
+the grated windows are small and few, and but for an occasional heavy
+door half open, and here and there the sound of a voice in the recesses
+of the houses, we might question whether the fortress was inhabited at
+all. Nothing, certainly, indicates that these plain walls contain six
+sumptuous churches, with their dependent chapels, each of which is full
+of carvings, pictures, vestments and furniture, which in their way
+cannot be matched. A Coptic church is like a Mohammedan harím—it must
+not appear from the outside. Just as the studiously plain exterior of
+many a Cairo house reveals nothing of the latticed court within,
+surrounded by rooms where inlaid dados, tiles, carved and painted
+ceilings, and magnificent carpets, glow in the soft light of the stained
+windows, so a Coptic church makes no outward show. High walls hide
+everything from view. The Copts are shy of visitors, and the plain
+exteriors are a sufficient proof of their desire to escape that notice
+which in bygone days aroused cupidity and fanaticism.
+
+After passing through a strong gateway, and traversing a vestibule, or
+ascending some stairs, you find yourself in a small but beautifully
+finished basilica, gazing at a carved choir-screen that any cathedral in
+England might envy. In the dim light you see rows of valiant saints
+looking down at you from above the sanctuary and over the screens, and
+great golden texts in Coptic and Arabic, to the glory of God; while
+above, the arches of the triforium over the aisles show where other
+treasures of art are probably to be found. The general plan of a Coptic
+church is basilican, but there are many points of wide divergence from
+the strict pattern; the Byzantine feature of the dome is almost
+universal, and sometimes the whole building is roofed over with a
+cluster of a dozen domes. The church consists of a nave and side aisles,
+waggon-vaulted (exactly like the early Irish churches, and like no
+others), and very rarely has transepts, or approaches the cruciform
+shape. The sparse marble columns that divide the nave from the aisles
+generally return round the west end, and form a narthex or counterchoir,
+where is sunk the Epiphany tank, once the scene of complete immersions,
+but now used only for the feet-washing of Maundy Thursday. The church is
+also divided cross-wise into three principal sections, besides the
+narthex. The rearmost is the women’s place, whom the judicious Copts put
+behind the men, and thereby prevent any disturbance of devotions much
+more effectually than if the two sexes were ranged side by side as in
+some Western churches. A lattice-work screen divides the women’s portion
+from the men’s, which is always much larger and more richly decorated,
+and the men’s division is similarly partitioned off from the choir by
+another screen, while the altars, three in number, are placed each in a
+separate apse, surmounted by a complete (not semicircular) dome, and
+veiled by the most gorgeous screen of all, formed of ivory and ebony
+crosses and geometrical panels, superbly carved with arabesques, and
+surmounted by pictures and golden texts in Coptic and Arabic
+letters.[10] During the celebration the central folding doors are thrown
+back, the silver-embroidered curtain is withdrawn, and the high altar is
+displayed to the adoring congregation, just as it is in the impressive
+ceremonial of St Isaac’s cathedral at St Petersburg. The carved doors
+and the silver-thread curtain, the swinging lamps and pendent ostrich
+eggs, prepare us for something more gorgeous than the nearly cubical
+plastered brick or stone altar, with its silk covering, and the
+invariable recess in the east side, which originally had a more mystic
+signification, but is now only used for the burying of the cross in a
+bed of rose-leaves on Good Friday, whence it will be disinterred on
+Easter-day. The Coptic altar stands detached from the wall of the
+sanctuary, which is often coated with slabs of coloured marble, like the
+dados one sees in the mosques, or with mosaic of the peculiar Egyptian
+style; while above are painted panels or frescoes representing the
+twelve apostles, with Christ in the midst in the act of benediction.
+Over the altar spreads a canopy or baldacchino, which is also richly
+painted with figures of angels. The central sanctuary with its altar is
+divided off from the side altars by lattice screens.
+
+A curious part of the furniture is the Ark, which holds the chalice
+during the rite of consecration; and scarcely less interesting is the
+flabellum, or fan for keeping gnats off the chalice, which is often
+exquisitely fashioned of repoussé silver. Similar fans are represented
+in the Irish Book of Kells. There is never a crucifix, but reliquaries
+are not uncommon, though their place is not on the altar. The Coptic
+church forbids the worship of relics, but every church has its bolster
+full of them, and the devout believer attaches considerable importance
+to their curative properties. Sometimes the most beautiful object in
+metal-work in a Coptic church is the silver textus-case—corresponding to
+the Irish _cumhdach_—in which the copy of the Gospels is supposed to be
+sealed up, though generally a few leaves alone remain inside. It is
+often a fine example of silver chasing and repoussé work, and is
+reverently brought from the altar where it reposes to the officiating
+deacon, who places it on the lectern while he reads from another copy.
+The lectern itself is a favourite subject for decoration. That from the
+Mu‘állaka church, now in the Coptic cathedral at Cairo, is covered with
+the beautiful inlaid and carved panelling which is familiar in the doors
+and pulpits of mosques.
+
+Of the six churches contained within the fortress of Babylon, three are
+of the highest interest; for, though the Greek church of St George,
+perched on the top of the round tower, is finely decorated with Damascus
+and Rhodian tiles and silver lamps, the Roman tower itself, with its
+central well, great staircase, and curious radiating chambers, is more
+interesting than the church above it. Of the three principal Coptic
+churches, that of St Sergius, or Abu-Sarga, is the most often visited,
+on account of the tradition that it was in its crypt that the Holy
+Family rested when they journeyed to the land of Egypt. The crypt is
+certainly many centuries older than the church above it, which dates
+from the tenth century. The church itself is notable for a fine screen,
+and close to it a remarkable specimen of early Coptic figure-carving,
+with representations of the nativity and of warrior saints in high
+relief. Another example of this style of deep carving exists in the
+triforium of the church of Saint Barbara.
+
+Besides Abu-Sarga and Kadísa-Barbára, there remains a third and very
+interesting Coptic church to be mentioned. This is suspended between two
+bastions of the Roman wall, over a gate with a classical pediment and a
+sculptured eagle. It is called from its position the Mu‘állaka or
+“hanging” church. It is remarkable in many ways, partly for being the
+oldest of the Babylon churches, and partly on account of the entire
+absence of domes. The Mu‘állaka has other peculiarities: it has
+absolutely no choir—the daïs in front of the shallow eastern apses has
+to serve the purpose; and it is double aisled on the north side.—The
+carved screen in the north aisle has the unique property of being filled
+in with thin ivory panels, which must have shone with a rosy tint when
+the lamps behind were lighted. The sculptured pulpit is especially
+beautiful; it stands on “fifteen delicate Saracenic columns, arranged in
+seven pairs, with a leader.” Not the least curious part about the
+“suspended” church is its hanging garden, where the bold experiment of
+planting palms in mid air has succeeded in perpetuating the tradition
+that it was here that the Virgin first broke fast with a meal of dates
+on her arrival in Egypt.
+
+This is not the place to enter into the doctrine and ritual of the
+Coptic church. The appalling Lenten fast of the Copts, which lasts
+fifty-five days, and involves total abstinence from food from sunrise to
+sunset during each of those days, no doubt suggested the only less
+rigorous Muslim fast of Ramadán. The Coptic sacrament of matrimony has
+certain elements of the grotesque in it; but most of the ceremonial of
+the church possesses a dignity and the sweet savour of antiquity which
+must redeem any minor absurdities. No one can stand unmoved in a Coptic
+church during the celebration of the Mass, or hear the worshippers shout
+with one voice, just as they did some fifteen hundred years ago, the
+loud response, “I believe This is the Truth,” without emotion. Through
+fiery persecution they have clung to their truth with a heroism that is
+only the more wonderful when we consider their weakness; and however
+partial and ignorant their interpretation of truth, we cannot withhold
+the respect that is the due of those who have come out of great
+tribulation and remained steadfast to their faith.
+
+
+
+
+                              CHAPTER III
+
+                            _The Faubourgs_
+
+
+BY the Arab conquest in 640 Egypt became a province of the caliphate,
+and was ruled, like the other provinces, by governors appointed by the
+caliphs. The first four successors of Mohammad retained Medina, the
+Arabian city of his adoption, as their seat of government; but after the
+murder of ‘Aly, the fourth caliph, the dynasty of the Omayyads
+transferred the centre of power to Damascus. From Damascus therefore
+came most of the thirty governors who held rule over the land of Egypt
+during the ninety years of the Omayyad caliphate. Some of them were sons
+or brothers of the reigning caliphs, and most were naturally court
+favourites, inexperienced in the art of government, and ignorant of
+everything save their religion and their language. The object of the
+sovereign pontiff at Damascus was to get as much revenue as he could out
+of the subject provinces, and Egypt especially was regarded in the light
+of a valuable milch-cow. ‘Amr, the conqueror, was the first governor,
+and from his new capital of Fustát he sent out his officers and
+collected about £6,000,000 from a population estimated at from six to
+eight millions. When the old warrior died at the age of ninety and was
+buried in the Mukattam hills he is said to have left seventy sacks of
+_dinárs_[11] or something like ten tons of gold, which his conscientious
+sons declined to inherit.
+
+However this may be, it is certain that the governors looked chiefly to
+the revenue, and did little for the country but draw the not very
+burdensome land and capitation taxes, and accumulate such pickings as
+might be safely diverted to their own use. A governor whose average
+tenure of office was three and a half years, and whose future livelihood
+often depended wholly on his savings, was under serious temptation to
+make the most of his brief opportunities. There were good _wális_ and
+bad, but the shortness of their tenure and their absolute dependence
+upon the caliph at Damascus restricted their powers and energies, and
+they generally contented themselves with keeping order and rendering
+tribute to their pontifical Cæsar. The position was not easy. There were
+some thousands of Arab soldiers at Fustát and Alexandria and some other
+towns, constantly increased, however, by the troops brought into the
+country by successive governors; but all the rest of the population was
+Christian and resolved to remain so. Indeed, any wholesale conversion
+was much to be deprecated, since it implied the loss of the poll-tax of
+a guinea a head which was levied only from non-Muslims. Still, it was
+dangerous to be in so marked a minority, and we find that about ninety
+years after the conquest, a governor, despairing of any considerable
+accession of native Egyptians to the Muslim ranks, was driven to import
+5000 Arabs into the Delta. It was only by very slow degrees and after
+much intermarriage and many partial immigrations that Egypt became
+Muslim, and for a long time the Arabs were practically confined to the
+large towns.
+
+Fustát itself must soon have attracted a numerous Coptic population from
+the decaying Egyptian towns in the neighbourhood, not only in wives for
+the conquerors, but in officials. All the details of government were
+naturally in the hands of the subject people. The desert Arabs knew
+nothing beyond the patriarchal rule of the clan, and they adopted
+everywhere the system they found prevailing in a conquered territory.
+Roman offices were translated into Arabic equivalents, and the Copts, a
+race of born clerks and accountants, managed all the departments. For
+half a century the government books and public documents were written in
+Coptic. Usefulness does not necessarily compel toleration, and the
+Christians did not always escape persecution in spite of their official
+services. They were better treated, however, than is sometimes imagined.
+Grateful for their assistance in the stress of the invasion ‘Amr granted
+privileges to the Jacobites and recalled their exiled patriarch. Another
+governor allowed the Copts to build a church at Fustát beside the bridge
+that connected the capital with the island of Roda, and a third, ‘Abd-
+el-‘Azíz, son of the caliph Marwán, bought the monastery at Tamweyh from
+the monks for over £10,000 when he wanted a country house. He went there
+in order to be cured of elephantiasis in the sulphur springs of Helwán,
+between Cairo and Memphis, and it is curious to consider how nearly this
+modern health-resort (now moved further towards the desert) became the
+capital of Egypt. ‘Abd-el-‘Azíz was so charmed with the climate of
+Helwán that he built mosques there (695), a palace, known as the “Golden
+House” from its gilt dome, and a glass winter-garden, planted trees,
+made a lake and aqueduct, and constructed a Nilometer. Hitherto the
+lower Nile had been measured at Memphis, but in 716 a new Nilometer was
+set up on the island of Roda, where a second was afterwards built at the
+upper end of the island in 861. Subsequent governors, however, did not
+share the ideas of ‘Abd-el-‘Azíz either in regard to the charms of
+Helwán or in relation to the Copts, and we read of a vexatious system of
+passports, badges for monks, fines and tortures, and destruction of
+sacred pictures, which excited such indignation that the people rose in
+rebellion in the east of the Delta, and the Christian king of Nubia
+marched into Egypt to demand the release of an imprisoned patriarch.
+
+These Muslim persecutions were not a whit more cruel than the
+contemporary Christian persecutions of the Jews, but this does not make
+them the more defensible. The monks seem to have especially excited the
+fanaticism of the early Muslims, whose puritanism found no place for
+monastic rules. In later times the Shí‘a caliphs of Cairo took very
+kindly to the Coptic monks, but it was not so in the cruder and fiercer
+age of the Arab conquests. Monasticism was a potent force in Egypt from
+very early days. The followers of St Mark in the third century had
+settled in scattered communities all over the Delta, and had already
+begun to formulate what is known as “the Egyptian rule.” We do not yet
+know how much we owe to these remote hermits. Some have held that Irish
+Christianity, the great civilizing agent of the early Middle Ages among
+the northern nations, was the child of the Egyptian Church. Seven
+Egyptian monks are buried at Disert Ulidh, and there is much in the
+ceremonies and architecture of early Ireland that reminds one of still
+earlier Christian remains in Egypt. Everyone knows that the handicraft
+of the Irish monks in the ninth and tenth centuries far excelled
+anything that could be found elsewhere in Europe; and if the Byzantine-
+looking decoration of their splendid gold and silver work and their
+superb illuminations can be traced to the teaching of Egyptian
+missionaries, we have more to thank the Copts for than has been
+imagined. That Arab architecture owes to them much of its decorative
+charm is among the commonplaces of the history of art.
+
+Such considerations naturally could not influence a people so wholly
+dead to artistic ideas as the Arabs. To them the Coptic monks were
+merely candidates for clerkships and owners of secret hoards to be
+squeezed for the benefit of the faithful. Any thought of fellowship or
+amity was out of the question, and the fact that persecution was not
+more general and consistent must be ascribed to the indolence or good
+nature of individual governors, and to the prudent maxim that deprecates
+the slaughter of the goose that lays golden eggs. Now and again we read
+of cruel massacres and tortures, and destruction of churches, and next
+we hear of permission granted for the building or restoration of a
+church. We find the Copts quietly meeting in the fortress of Babylon,
+which they always occupied, to elect a patriarch; and almost at the same
+moment appear notices of humiliating sumptuary rules, a distinguishing
+garb of some ridiculous colour, and wooden effigies of the devil hung
+over Coptic doors. Every now and then some rising, or a mere street
+quarrel, would be made the pretext for a wholesale massacre, when many
+churches were razed to the ground.
+
+In spite of persecution, in spite of the apostasy of the weaker
+brethren, the Church still preserved a painful existence. There is
+something truly heroic in the constancy of these ignorant people—for the
+Coptic priesthood was never famous for learning—to the faith of their
+forefathers. They still persevered in the celebration of the rites of
+their religion, though the loop-holed walls, massive doors, and secret
+passages of their surviving churches testify to the perils that attended
+such solemnities. From time to time many of them waxed rich, as the
+gorgeous adornments of these churches show; for their masters could not
+do without their skill in reckoning and scriveners’ work. Aided by this
+monopoly, and supported by a dogged adherence to their ancient faith,
+the Copts present to this day the curious spectacle of a people who have
+stood still for ages, and, through many centuries of varying
+persecution, have preserved their individuality and their traditions.
+They are still a people apart, less mixed with alien blood than any
+other inhabitants of the Nile valley; their features recall those of the
+ancient Egyptians, as we see them on the monuments, much more than do
+the faces of the Muslim population. And not only in person but in
+language the Copts are a remnant of ancient Egypt. Their tongue,
+preserved in their liturgy and recited to-day in their churches, is the
+lineal descendant of the language of the hieroglyphics and of the
+Rosetta stone. For ordinary purposes of course they use the Arabic of
+their neighbours, but the sacred speech of their religion is still
+partly understood by the priests, and retains its place of honour before
+the Arabic translation in the services of the church. By another curious
+freak of conservatism they preserve this ancient language, not in the
+script that belonged to it—the cursive development of the picture
+writing of the monuments—but in the bold uncial character of early Greek
+manuscripts. A people of the race of the Pharaohs, speaking the words of
+Ramses, writing them with the letters of Cadmus, and embalming in the
+sentences thus written a creed and liturgy which twelve centuries of
+persecution have not been able to wrest from them or alter a jot, are
+indeed a curiosity of history.
+
+The Omáyyad caliphs were superseded by the ‘Abbásids in 750, and Fustát
+was the scene of the final struggle. Marwán, the last caliph of the
+fallen dynasty, fled to Egypt, and setting fire to Fustát and the bridge
+that joined it to the island of Roda, escaped to the west bank. His
+precautions were vain. The ‘Abbásid general and the men of Khurasán soon
+found the means of crossing, and Marwán’s head was sent round the towns
+in evidence of the change of power. Usurpers have an invincible
+repugnance to dwelling in the houses of the usurped. The ‘Abbásid
+caliphs left Damascus and built themselves a famous new capital at
+Baghdád; and their governors in Egypt, abandoning the House of the
+Emírate at Fustát, established a new official suburb, a Versailles of
+the Egyptian Paris, on the place where the pursuing army had encamped,
+and named it el-‘Askar or “the Cantonments.” The site was a little to
+the north-east of Fustát, on a part of the Further Hamra, which had been
+occupied by three tribes at the time of the Arab conquest, but had since
+been abandoned and become desert. Here a faubourg grew up, which
+extended from Fustát to the hill of Yeshkur, on which the mosque of Ibn-
+Tulún now stands. A mosque was soon built, and a palace for the governor
+as well as barracks for his troops. Streets and quarters and large
+mansions clustered round the new fashionable centre, where the sixty-
+five _wális_ who represented the ‘Abbásid caliphs for 118 years had
+their seat of government. One of them, Hátim, in 810 built himself a
+summer palace called the “Dome of the Air” (Kubbat-el-Hawa) on a spur of
+the Mukattam, where the Citadel of Cairo is now built, and thither the
+emírs of Egypt often resorted to enjoy the cool breeze. The new faubourg
+was merely the quarter of the officials and court circles, and did not
+diminish the importance of Fustát as the metropolis of Egypt.
+
+Not a trace is left of this suburb, and the record of the governors who
+lived there is almost equally fleeting.[12] They had a more difficult
+task than their predecessors under the Omayyads, and had to suppress
+insurrections of Mohammedan schismatics as well as risings among the
+Arab tribes and the Copts. Fustát bore unpleasant witness to the revolts
+in the thousands of rebels’ heads that were exhibited, and the courage
+of hesitating heretics was damped by the sight of their leader’s skull
+hung up in the mosque of ‘Amr. The history of the century from 750 to
+860 is one long chronicle of “sedition, privy conspiracy and rebellion,
+false doctrine, heresy and schism,” but the disturbances hardly affected
+the prosperous capital. The vagaries of some of the governors were much
+more vexatious to the quiet citizens. Abu-Sálih ibn Memdúd, in 779, was
+a middlesome martinet, who showed great energy in putting down
+brigandage in the country, and was so satisfied with his measures that
+he convinced himself of the impossibility of theft in the towns.
+Confiding in this belief he ordered the people of Fustát to leave their
+doors and shops open all night, with no more protection than a net to
+keep the dogs out; he abolished the office of the watchman who used to
+guard the bathers’ clothes at the public baths, and proclaimed that if
+anything were lost he would replace it himself. It is said that when a
+man went to the bath he would call out “O Abu-Sálih, take care of my
+clothes!” and no one would dare to touch them. Such security argued
+great vigilance on the governor’s part, but his absurd laws of dress and
+general interference irritated the people, and his severity was worse
+than the evils it put down.
+
+A story is told of the famous caliph Harún-er-Rashíd, which would
+scarcely invite respect for his nominees. One governor of his time, Musa
+the ‘Abbásid, “was a man of great official experience, and well-disposed
+towards the Copts, whom he allowed to rebuild their ruined churches.
+When it was reported that he was harbouring designs against the caliph
+[whom, as one of the family, he might possibly succeed], Harún
+exclaimed, with his usual levity, ‘By Allah, I will depose him, and in
+his place I will set the meanest creature of my court.’ Just then ‘Omar,
+the secretary of the caliph’s mother, came riding on his mule. ‘Will you
+be governor of Egypt?’ asked Ga‘far the Barmecide. ‘Oh, yes,’ said
+‘Omar. No sooner said than done, ‘Omar rode his mule to Fustát, followed
+by a single slave carrying his baggage. Entering the governor’s house
+(at ‘Askar), he took his seat in the back row of the assembled court.
+Musa, not knowing him, asked his business, whereat ‘Omar presented him
+with the caliph’s dispatch. On reading it, Musa exclaimed in Koranic
+phrase, ‘God curse Pharaoh, who said, Am I not King of Egypt?’ and
+forthwith delivered up the government to ‘the meanest creature.’”
+
+On the other hand a really capable ruler was sometimes sent from
+Baghdad. Such was ‘Abdallah the son of Táhir, governor of Khurasán in
+northern Persia (where he afterwards founded a dynasty), whose task in
+Egypt was to drive out a troublesome multitude of refugees from Spain,
+who had seized Alexandria, and, joined by a hot-headed Arab tribe, set
+the government at defiance. ‘Abdallah, in the course of his mission, was
+compelled to attack the preceding governor, who refused to be
+superseded, and Fustát was blockaded (826). A curious incident of the
+leaguer was the arrival one night in the invader’s camp of a thousand
+slaves and a thousand slave girls, each of whom brought a thousand
+dinárs in a purse. ‘Abdallah refused the bribe, and starved the garrison
+out. Unfortunately, when his work was done he returned to Persia, and
+Egypt lost a rare example of “a just and humane governor, a man of
+learning, and a staunch friend to poets.” A reminiscence of his rule may
+still be tasted at any Cairo hotel in the ‘Abdalláwi melons which he
+first introduced. A greater than he visited ‘Askar when the caliph
+Mamún, son of Harún-er-Rashíd, and himself a noted patron of learning
+and philosophy, came in person in 832 to put down a determined revolt of
+the Copts in the Delta, and did the work so thoroughly and so
+relentlessly that there never again was a national movement amongst
+them; and partly by their conversion to Islam, partly by the settlement
+of Arabs on the land and in the villages, instead of only in the large
+cities, Egypt began at last to become preponderantly a Mohammedan
+country. It was the first time that an ‘Abbásid caliph had visited the
+Nile, the praises of which poets had constantly been dinning in his
+ears; and when el-Mamún surveyed the view from the “Dome of the Air,” he
+was frankly disappointed. Using the same phrase from the Korán as the
+superseded governor, he exclaimed, “God curse Pharaoh for saying Am I
+not king of Egypt? If only he had seen Chaldæa and its meadows!” “Say
+not so,” rejoined a divine, “for it is also written, ‘we have brought to
+nought what Pharaoh and his folk reared and built so skilfully,’ and
+what must have been those things which God destroyed, if these be but
+their remnants!”[13]
+
+The caliph’s visit, if it put an end to Coptic insurrection, brought
+other troubles in its train. His interest in metaphysical and
+theological speculation, which encouraged the study of Greek philosophy
+at Baghdád, led him among other things to adopt the doctrine of the
+createdness of the Korán, which was flat against all orthodox Muslim
+theory. The hated doctrine was made a test question for the kádis or
+theological judges, and the consequences to those who indulged
+conscientious scruples were distressing. A non-conforming chief kády of
+Fustát was shorn of his beard—the worst indignity he could suffer—and
+whipped through the city on an ass. The orthodox professors of the
+Hánafy and Sháfi‘y schools were driven out of the mosque of ‘Amr in
+disgrace. The contumely was the less deserved inasmuch as in those days
+the judges were the one healthy feature of the Egyptian government.
+Upright and incorruptible, as a rule, and independent of the governor,
+the chief kády, who may be called the lord chancellor and primate of
+Egypt in one, was a firm if narrow interpreter and administrator of the
+sacred law, and would resign his office sooner than submit to his
+judgments being overruled. He was not, however, disposed to check his
+people’s fanaticism, and the suppression of the Christian revolt was
+followed by worse persecution than ever. An orthodox reaction began
+after Mamún’s death, and a new caliph issued a number of petty
+regulations for the humiliation of the Copts (850). They were ordered
+“to wear honey-coloured clothes with distinguishing patches, use wooden
+stirrups, and set up wooden images of the devil or an ape or dog over
+their doors; the girdle, the symbol of femininity, was forbidden to
+women, and ordered to be worn by men: crosses must not be shown, nor
+processional lights carried in the streets,” and so forth. The object of
+course was to furnish opportunities for fines and extortion.
+
+There is no need to dwell further upon the period of Arab rule at Fustát
+and ‘Askar. The Arab governors left little trace, and though it is to be
+regretted that not a single specimen of their buildings has come down to
+us, as links in the history of Saracenic art, it is not probable that
+these edifices were remarkable. The Arabs have never done anything in
+art by themselves. What is called “Arab art” in Spain was due to a
+mixture of other and more gifted races, and in Egypt we find no
+Mohammedan art until the caliphs began to appoint Turks as Governors.
+One hears a great deal about the misgovernment of the Turk in the
+present day; but be it good or bad, it is never denied that he can
+govern. In the Middle Ages it would almost appear that the Turks were
+the only people who possessed the art of governing. The greatest ruler
+of Western Asia in the eleventh century—the Seljúk emperor, Melik
+Shah—was a Turk. The so-called Moghuls of India, Babar and Akbar, were
+Turks. When Europe was split up by jealous and ignoble rivalries, the
+great Turkish sultans of Constantinople wielded power from the Danube to
+the Indian Ocean, and from the Caucasus to the Atlas. Most curious it is
+that wherever there was Turkish rule in the Middle Ages, art and letters
+flourished. Indeed, in many parts art can hardly be said to have
+reawakened till the Turk came to inspire it. It was not that he could do
+anything notable himself in art or letters, for at least among the
+Turkish rulers of Egypt—and with an interval of less than two hundred
+years its rulers have been almost all Turks for the past eleven
+centuries—it would be hard to point to many who were distinguished for
+cultivation; it was rather that their strong hand preserved the order
+that is essential to the work of culture, and their unscrupulous levies
+produced the money, that was needed for the beautiful and grandiose
+buildings in which they loved to see their power and wealth reflected.
+Many of them probably had a genuine love of art, most of them were fond
+of luxury and display, and delighted to surround themselves with the
+costly products of exquisite workmanship; and a good many, no doubt,
+believed that the endowment of sanctuaries might expiate the sins of a
+life, remembering the words of the Prophet, “Whosoever builds for God a
+place of worship, be it only as the nest of a grouse, God buildeth for
+him a house in Paradise.” Whatever the cause, the fact remains that the
+influence of the Turk is found in the artistic energy of every part of
+the East from the Bosporus to the Ganges. It was to the Turks of Delhi
+and Agra that we owe the Kutb Minár, the Taj, the intricate graces of
+Fathpur Sikri; Turks built the Atala Mesjid at Jaunpur, the mosques of
+Ahmadabad, of Gaur, of Bijapur; Seljúk Turks were the founders of the
+noble buildings of Kóniya, Kaysaríya, Sivás, and other cities of Asia
+Minor; Othmanly Turks built the shrines of Brusa and the imperial
+mosques, second indeed, but only second, to St Sophia at Constantinople.
+In Egypt we find the same thing: the first example of distinctively
+Saracenic art appears only when the Turk assumed the sceptre. Up to 856
+every governor of Egypt was an Arab, and, with the doubtful exception of
+the mosque of ‘Amr, not a single monument attests their public spirit.
+From 856 the governors were Turks, and twenty years later rose the
+mosque of Ibn-Tulún, the first and most remarkable monument of Arab art
+in the country.
+
+It would take us far from Cairo to explain how the Turks came to be
+rulers of Egypt. The movement was part of that overflow of the peoples
+of Central Asia which has been going on from the beginning of history;
+but it was assisted by the policy of the caliphs. Alarmed at the growing
+power of provincial dynasts in Persia, and threatened by turbulent Arab
+tribes in Mesopotamia, the ‘Abbásids imported a guard of mercenaries
+recruited from the slave markets of the Oxus, and for a while rejoiced
+in the protection of these stalwart young Turks. The old question, _Quis
+custodiet?_ soon arose, and the luxurious and effeminate caliphs of
+Baghdád realized too late that in purchasing these valiant slaves they
+had virtually condemned themselves to slavery. The Turkish captain of
+the bodyguard became the _maire du palais_ of the Baghdád _roi
+fainéant_, the offices of State were seized by the Turks, and the
+government of the western provinces was confided to their friends. At
+first they contented themselves with the profits without the cares of
+office, and a series of Turkish emírs, living at Baghdád or elsewhere in
+Mesopotamia, held the fief and drew the surplus revenue of Egypt through
+Arab deputy-governors. But in 856 the deputy as well as the fieffee was
+a Turk, and in 868 the Turkish fieffee Bakbak sent his stepson, Ahmad
+ibn Tulún, to govern Egypt as his representative.
+
+Ahmad, the son of Tulún, was thirty-three years of age when he arrived
+at Fustát, and combined in a remarkable degree the military and
+administrative ability of his race with the culture of his adopted
+civilization. He had studied under the learned professors of Baghdád,
+and even journeyed to Tarsus for the benefit of special lectures. In
+matters of Arabic philology and Koranic doctrine he was critically
+expert. But beyond this he was a man of boundless energy, an unerring
+judge of character, who knew how to choose and use his subordinates. His
+justice, if stern, was incorruptible, and his generosity was superb.
+“Give to every one who holds out the hand” was his motto, and every
+month he devoted a thousand dinárs to charity. He came to Egypt
+penniless, save for a loan from a friend; but when he died he left ten
+million dinárs in the treasury, an immense establishment of slaves and
+horses, and a hundred ships of war. Yet he accomplished his economies
+without increasing the taxes. Indeed he abolished various imposts, and
+his revenues were due chiefly to the pains he took to encourage
+cultivation and to give the fellahín better security in their land. For
+the first time since the Arab conquest Egypt became a powerful and
+sovereign State. Ahmad soon threw over all save a nominal dependence on
+the caliphate, and after overcoming intrigues and subduing three
+rebellions in Egypt, he marched into Syria, and occupied the whole
+country as far as Tarsus and the Euphrates, fought the armies both of
+the caliphate and of the Romans of the Cilician frontier, and united
+under his sole authority the broad stretch of territory from Barka in
+Libya to the borders of the Byzantine empire in Asia Minor, and from the
+Euphrates to the first cataract of the Nile.
+
+[Illustration: TOWER OF THE MOSQUE OF IBN-TULUN]
+
+Side by side with this imperial policy Ahmad expended infinite labour
+and wealth upon the embellishment of his capital. “The government house
+at el-‘Askar, the official suburb of Fustát, was too small to house his
+numerous retinue and army. He was not content, either, with a mere
+governor’s palace. In 870 he chose a site on the hill of Yeshkur [at the
+north-east extremity of ‘Askar, next to the House of the Emirate],
+levelled the graves of the Christian cemetery there, and founded the
+royal suburb of el-Katái‘, or ‘the Wards,’ so called because each class
+or nationality (as household servants, Greeks, Sudánis) had a distinct
+quarter assigned to it. The new town stretched from the present Rumeyla
+beside the Citadel to the shrine of Zeyn-el-‘Abidin, and covered a
+square mile. The new palace was built below the old ‘Dome of the Air,’
+and had a great garden and a spacious enclosed horse-course or Meydán
+adjoining it, with mews and a menagerie; the government house was on the
+south of the great mosque, which still stands, and there was a private
+passage which led from the residence to the oratory of the emír. A
+separate palace held the harím, and there were magnificent baths,
+markets, and all apparatus of luxury.”[14]
+
+The generals and officers built their houses round about, and great
+mansions soon covered the new site. The bazars were even better than at
+Fustát, well built and filled with choice wares. The Meydán, where Ahmad
+and his captains played mall or polo, became the favourite resort of the
+town, and if one asked anybody where he was going the answer was sure to
+be “To the Meydán.” It was entered by a number of gates, restricted to
+special classes, such as the Gate of the Nobles, the Gate of the Harím,
+or named after some peculiarity, as the Gate of Lions, which was
+surmounted by two lions in plaster, the Sag Gate, made of teak, the Gate
+of ed-Darmún, so called because a huge black chamberlain of that name
+mounted guard there. Only Ahmad himself could ride through the central
+arch of the great triple gate: his 30,000 troops passed through the side
+arches. On review days he stationed himself on a daïs and watched the
+crowd come in by the Polo Gate (Bab es-Sawáliga) and pass out by the
+Gate of Lions, above which he had a balcony, whence on the night of the
+great festival he could survey the whole faubourg and see what the
+people were about. The view from this belvedere reached to the gate of
+Fustát and to the Nile, and it was a favourite resort of the emír.
+
+The palace was supplied with water from a spring in the southern desert
+by means of an aqueduct, the traces of which may still be seen—not that
+of many arches running from the Citadel to the Nile, which belongs to a
+much later date. The people, in Eastern fashion, naturally found fault
+with the quality of the pure water to which their own muddy wells and
+turgid Nile had not accustomed them. Rumours of this reached Ibn-Tulún,
+and he sent for the learned doctor Mohammad Ibn ‘Abd-el-Hakam to resolve
+these suspicions. “I was one night in my house,” he related, “when a
+slave of Ibn-Tulún’s came and said, ‘The emir wants thee.’ I mounted my
+horse in a panic of terror, and the slave led me off the high road.
+‘Where are you taking me?’ I asked. ‘To the desert,’ was the reply; ‘the
+emir is there.’ Convinced that my last hour was come, I said, ‘God help
+me! I am an aged and feeble man: do you know what he wants with me?’ The
+slave took pity on my fears and said, ‘Beware of speaking
+disrespectfully of the aqueduct.’ We went on till suddenly I saw torch-
+bearers in the desert, and Ibn-Tulún on horseback at the door of the
+aqueduct, with great wax candles burning before him. I forthwith
+dismounted and salaamed, but he did not greet me in return. Then I said,
+‘O emir, thy messenger hath grievously fatigued me, and I thirst; let
+me, I beg, take a drink.’ The pages offered me water, but I said, ‘No, I
+will draw for myself.’ I drew water while he looked on, and drank till I
+thought I should have burst. At last I said, ‘O emir, God quench thy
+thirst at the rivers of Paradise! for I have drunk my fill, and know not
+which to praise most, the excellence of this cool, sweet, clear water,
+or the delicious smell of the aqueduct.’ ‘Let him retire,’ said Ibn-
+Tulún, and the slave whispered, ‘Thou hast hit the mark.’”
+
+The monument which has immortalized Ibn-Tulún, however, is his mosque,
+the only building of all his sumptuous little city that has survived the
+buffets of civil war and the slow detrition of neglect. It is the most
+interesting monument of Mohammedan Egypt, and forms a landmark in the
+history of architecture. Two features specially distinguish it: it was
+built entirely of new materials, instead of the spoils of old churches
+and temples, and it is the earliest instance of the use of the pointed
+arch throughout a building, earlier by at least two centuries than any
+in England. They are true pointed arches, with a very slight return at
+the spring, but not enough to suggest the horse-shoe form. The
+Topographer relates how Ahmad lighted upon a treasure in the Mukattam
+hills, at a place called “Pharaoh’s Oven,” and resolved to build with it
+a mosque large enough to hold the vast congregations that then
+overcrowded the mosque of el-‘Askar. He chose for the site the flat-
+topped rocky hill of Yeshkur, a sure place for prayers to be answered,
+since it was believed to be the spot where Moses held converse with
+Jehovah. Here the foundations were laid in 876 (263 A.H.), and two years
+later the work was finished and public prayers were held in the presence
+of the emír. Ibn-Tulún was at first in a difficulty how to procure the
+three hundred columns needed to support the arcades, but his architect,
+who was a Christian and doubtless a Copt,[15] and was at the time in
+prison for some offence, wrote to him that he would undertake to build
+him a mosque of the size he required without columns. He was brought
+before the emír who said, “Woe to thee! what is this that thou sayest
+respecting the building of the mosque?” “I will draw the plan for the
+prince,” answered the Christian, “that he may see it with his eyes, with
+no columns save the two beside the _kibla_.” They brought him skins and
+he drew the plan. Such a design was evidently quite new in mosque
+building, but Ahmad saw its merits at once, arrayed the designer in a
+robe of honour, and gave him 100,000 dinárs to carry out his plan. When
+it was done he gave him 10,000 more, and the total cost is stated to
+have amounted to 120,000 dinárs or about £63,000. The use of brick
+arches and piers, instead of marble columns, was due partly to the
+emír’s reluctance to deprive the Christian churches of so many pillars,
+but even more to his anxiety to make his mosque safe from fire. He was
+told that if he built it of “mortar and cinders and red brick well
+burnt” it would resist fire better than if constructed of marble, and
+the fact remains that the mosque has withstood the conflagrations that
+devastated the rest of the faubourg. The adoption of the new plan of
+brick piers, instead of columns, led to the employment of the pointed
+arch, and the exclusion of marble suggested the plaster or stucco
+decoration which still preserves its original admirable designs.
+
+Five rows of arches form the cloister at the Mekka or south-east side,
+and two rows on the other sides; arches and piers are alike coated with
+gypsum, and the ornaments on the arches and round the stone grilles or
+windows are all worked by hand in the plaster. The difference between
+the soft flexuousness of this work, done with a tool in the moist
+plaster, and the hard mechanical effect of the designs impressed with a
+mould in the Alhambra is striking: it is the difference between the
+artist and the artisan. On the simple rounded capitals of the engaged
+columns built at the corner of each arch there is a rudimentary bud and
+flower pattern, and on either side of the windows between the arches
+facing the court, which also are pointed and have small engaged columns,
+is a rosette, and a band of rosettes runs round the court beneath the
+crenellated parapet. The inner arches are differently treated. “Round
+the arches and windows runs a knop and flower pattern, which also runs
+across from spring to spring of arch beneath the windows, and a band of
+the same ornament runs all along above the arches, in place of the
+rosettes, which only occur in the face fronting the court; over this
+band and likewise running along the whole length of all the inner
+arcades is a Kufic inscription carved in wood, and above this is the
+usual crenellated parapet. The arcades are roofed over with sycamore
+planks resting on heavy beams. In the rearmost arcade the back wall is
+pierced with pointed windows, which are filled, not with coloured glass,
+but with grilles of stone forming geometrical designs with central
+rosettes or stars.”[16]
+
+The general form of the mosque is similar to that of ‘Amr as restored,
+the form of every mosque in Cairo from the ninth to the thirteenth
+century. The great square court, covering three acres of ground, gave
+room for the largest assembly, whilst the covered arcades offered
+shelter from the sun to the ordinary congregation and to the groups of
+students, ascetics, and beggars who have always made their home in
+mosques. The south-east arcade or _liwán_, with its deeper aisles, was
+the special sanctuary,[17] where the _mihráb_ or niche in the wall
+showed the direction (_kibla_) of Mekka, towards which the prayers of
+the faithful must turn, and the pulpit (_minbar_) and platform (_dikka_)
+gave the preacher and the precentors vantage to make their voices heard
+throughout the crowd of worshippers. So far there is nothing original
+about the mosque. The form may have been adopted by the Arabs from
+ancient Semitic temples, or the great court may represent the atrium of
+the Byzantine basilica and the liwán the basilica itself, only supported
+on pillars instead of vaulted roofs, with a relic of the apse in the
+concave _mihráb_; but it was too obviously suited to the requirements of
+the climate to need any curious derivation.
+
+[Illustration: WITHIN THE MOSQUE OF IBN-TULUN]
+
+The dome and minaret, so characteristic of later Cairo mosques, are here
+wanting. The odd-looking corkscrew tower with external winding
+staircase, like the Assyrian ziggurat, has a fellow in the tower of
+Samarra on the Tigris, from which it was doubtless copied, but the upper
+part has probably been restored; though the tower of Ibn-Tulún was
+certainly in existence in 1047, when it is mentioned by Násir-i-Khusrau.
+But it is hardly a minaret in the common sense of the term.[18] There is
+no dome, because the dome has nothing to do with prayer, and therefore
+nothing with a mosque.[19] “It is simply the roof of a tomb, and only
+exists where there is a tomb to be covered, or at least where it was
+intended that a tomb should be. Only when there is a chapel attached to
+a mosque, containing the tomb of the founder or his family, is there a
+dome, and it is no more closely connected with the mosque itself than is
+the grave it covers: neither is necessary to a place of prayer. It
+happens, however, that a large number of the mosques of Cairo are
+mausoleums, containing a chamber with the tomb of the founder, and the
+profusion of domes to be seen, when one looks down upon the city from
+the battlements of the Citadel, has brought about the not unnatural
+mistake of thinking that every mosque must have a dome. Most mosques
+with tombs have domes, but no mosque that was not intended to contain a
+tomb ever had one in the true sense. The origin of the dome may be
+traced to the cupolas which surmount the graves of Babylonia, many of
+which must have been familiar to the Arabs [and still more to the
+Turks], who preserved the essentially sepulchral character of the form
+and never used it, as did the Copts and Byzantines, to say nothing of
+Western architects, to roof a church or its apse.”
+
+[Illustration: DETAIL OF ORNAMENT IN MOSQUE OF IBN-TULUN]
+
+But if there is little originality in the shape of the mosque, its
+pointed arches and its decoration are worth studying. Pointed arches
+occur also in the second Nilometer on the island of Roda, as rebuilt in
+861, some fifteen years earlier than the mosque of Ibn-Tulún, and the
+architect of this building is stated to have been a native of Ferghána
+on the Iaxartes. There is nothing to prove that this arch was derived
+from the Coptic style. On the other hand the bold and free plaster
+decoration, designed by the Coptic architect, was undoubtedly borrowed
+from the ornament of his countrymen. The Arabs have never been artists
+or even skilled craftsmen. They imported Persians and Greeks to build
+for them and decorate their houses and mosques, but above all they
+employed the Copts, who have been the deft workmen of Egypt through
+thousands of years of her history. A comparison of the plaster work of
+Ibn-Tulún with the Coptic carvings preserved in the Cairo Museum of
+Antiquities and those from the tombs of ‘Ayn-es-Síra in the Arab Museum
+shows clearly the source of the floral decoration, which belongs to the
+Byzantine school of Syria and Egypt. The Kufic inscriptions carved in
+the solid wood are a purely Arab addition, and one that afterwards
+developed into a leading decorative feature in Saracenic art.[20] The
+geometrical ornament of the open grilles is also Byzantine, as M.
+Bourgouin has established in his exhaustive treatise on the _entrelacs_,
+but it is not certain that they belong to the original building, and the
+star polygons suggest that the grilles may have been part of the later
+restoration.[21]
+
+Home interests did not interfere with Ibn-Tulún’s imperial ambitions. He
+played a conspicuous part in Mesopotamian politics, and almost succeeded
+in getting the caliph into his hands. The oppressed head of Islam would
+have gladly escaped from his tyrannous brother el-Muwaffak, but the
+scheme failed, and Egypt lost the opportunity of becoming the seat of
+the caliphate. The result was that the ambitious emir was publicly
+cursed in every mosque of Mesopotamia. He also failed to capture the
+sacred city of Mekka, but his reign ended in some glorious campaigns
+against the Roman emperor, in which the Egyptian forces defeated the
+enemy near Tarsus, killed (it is said) 60,000 Christians, and captured
+immense spoils of gold and silver crucifixes, jewels, and sacred
+vessels. The success turned the general’s head, and Ahmad himself had to
+march north to bring his viceroy to obedience. “It was a severe winter,
+and his opponent dammed the river, flooded the country, and nearly
+drowned the besieging army at Adhana. Ibn-Tulún was forced to retire to
+Antioch, where a copious indulgence in buffalo milk, following upon the
+exposure and privations of the campaign, brought on a dysentery. He was
+carried in a litter to Fustát, where he grew worse. In sickness the
+fierce emir was a terror to his doctors. He refused to follow their
+orders, flouted their prescribed diet, and when he found himself still
+sinking, he had their heads chopped off, or flogged them till they died.
+In vain Muslims, Jews, and Christians offered up public prayers for his
+recovery. Korán and Tora and Gospel could not save him; and he died in
+May, 884, before he had reached the age of fifty.”
+
+His sumptuous capital received many notable additions from his successor
+Khumáraweyh, who fully shared his father’s passion for splendid building
+as well as his imperial policy. He enlarged the palace, and turned the
+Meydán into a garden, which he planted with rare trees and exquisite
+roses. The stems of the trees were thought unsightly, and he coated them
+with sheets of copper gilt, between which and the trunk leaden pipes
+supplied water not only to the trees but to the canals and fountains
+that irrigated the garden by means of water wheels. There were beds of
+basil carefully cut to formal patterns, red, blue, and yellow water-
+lilies and gilliflowers, exotic plants from all countries, apricots
+grafted upon almond trees, and various horticultural experiments. A
+pigeon-tower in the midst was stocked with turtle-doves, wood-pigeons,
+and all sorts of birds of rich plumage or sweet song, who made a
+cheerful concert as they perched on the ladders set against the walls or
+skimmed over the pools and rivulets. In the palace he adorned the walls
+of his “Golden House” with gold and ultra-marine, and there set up his
+statue and those of his wives in heroic size, admirably carved in wood,
+and painted and dressed to the life with gold crowns and jewelled ears
+and turbans. In front of the palace he laid out a lake of quicksilver,
+by the advice of his physician, who recommended it as a cure for his
+lord’s insomnia. It was fifty cubits each way, and cost immense sums.
+Here the prince lay on an air-bed, linked by silk cords to silver
+columns on the margin, and as he rocked and courted sleep his blue-eyed
+lion Zureyk faithfully guarded his master. Long after the palace had
+disappeared people use to come and dig for the costly mercury that had
+formed the emir’s cradle.
+
+There was also a pavilion as large as the “Dome of the Air,” with a new
+device in curtains, and splendid carpets, and a view over gardens, town,
+and Nile. In another kiosk, built by his father, men chanted the Korán,
+proclaimed the hours of prayer, and recited verses sacred and profane,
+pious and amorous, _tristes et gais, tour à tour_, whilst the prince sat
+at table with his ladies, surrounded by musicians. As the solemn call to
+prayer echoed through the merry din, he would lay aside his cup and bow
+his head to the earth in prostration, for he was an orthodox though very
+irregular Muslim. The Topographer[22] expatiates for pages on the
+wonders of Khumáraweyh’s menagerie of lions and lionesses, leopards,
+elephants and giraffes; his vast stables, for which whole districts were
+set apart to grow the necessary fodder; the lavish luxury of his
+kitchen, which cost £12,000 a month; and the splendour of his household
+troops, recruited from the predatory Arabs of the Delta. So brave, so
+terrible, and so gallant a figure was this superb prince that his
+subjects dared not speak, much less sneeze, as he passed by. It is
+melancholy to think that of all this glory nothing remained after a few
+years but the traces of the quicksilver.
+
+“Neither the lion nor his bodyguard of vigorous young Arabs could save
+the voluptuous prince from the jealousies of his harím. Early in 896
+some domestic intrigue ended in his being murdered at Damascus. His
+murderers were crucified, and amid loud lamentations his body was buried
+beside his father’s, not far from his stately palace, under Mount
+Mukattam. Seven Korán readers were engaged in reciting the sacred book
+at the tomb of Ibn-Tulún, and when the bearers brought the body of
+Khumáraweyh and began to lower it into the tomb, they happened to be
+chanting the verse, ‘Seize him and hurl him into the fire of Hell.’”
+
+His dynasty did not long survive him. Two young sons were ill able to
+withstand the efforts of the caliph to recover the rich provinces of
+Syria and Egypt which Ahmad and his son had held in sovereign power for
+thirty years. In 905 the ‘Abbásid general, Mohammad ibn Suleymán,
+entered Katái‘, massacred the black troops of the Tulúnids, and
+demolished the beautiful faubourg. ‘Askar became once more the seat of
+government, as it had been under earlier ‘Abbásid emirs, but Katái‘,
+what was left of it after the invading army had plundered it for four
+months, gradually decayed; its hundred thousand houses (if we are to
+believe the historians) fell by degrees, and the prodigious famine and
+anarchy of the time of Mustansir in the eleventh century finished the
+ruin. We shall hear of this terrible reign of chaos in a later chapter;
+but though it is anticipating the course of the story the final
+destruction of the two faubourgs must be noted here. These quarters had
+become so ruinous by 1070 that a wall was built all the way from the new
+palace of Káhira to Fustát—or in other words from the Gate of Zuweyla to
+near the mosque of ‘Amr—in order that the caliph, when he rode out,
+might not be distressed by the sight of the dead cities. The ruins of
+Katái‘ and ‘Askar became as it were a quarry from which people got the
+materials for building elsewhere; the whole space between the new Cairo
+and Fustát reverted to a state of desert, except for a few gardens and
+country houses, and though, after 1125, the people began to build houses
+outside the gate of Zuweyla, the rest of the site of the faubourgs
+remained unoccupied, save about the mosque of Ibn-Tulún, down to the day
+when Makrízy wrote in 1424.
+
+It was no wonder that the place beside the hill of Yeshkur, known as the
+“Castle of the Ram,”[23] where “Pharaoh’s Seat” once stood, and Abraham
+slew his sacrifice, became the haunt of the Ginn. In the eighteenth
+century an ancient sarcophagus, belonging to a lady of the XXVIth
+Dynasty, still occupied the site of the Mastaba Fara‘ún, and anything
+brought there, were it but a handful of dates, immediately turned into
+gold. But now the alchemy is exhausted, the sarcophagus is in the
+British Museum, where no such miracle has been known to happen, and even
+the Ginn have deserted the spot.
+
+
+
+
+                               CHAPTER IV
+
+                                 _Misr_
+
+
+ON the downfall of the House of Tulún Egypt reverted to the dependent
+position of a province of the Baghdád caliphate. “The Wards” having been
+laid low by the conquerors, the new governors took up their residence in
+‘Askar, but the name was soon dropped, and the “cantonments” became
+merged in the city of Fustát or Misr. During the whole time of the rise
+and decay of the official suburbs, Misr, the real metropolis of Egypt,
+had been increasing in prosperity. The segregation of the troops and
+palace officials at the faubourgs, whilst depriving the towns-folk of a
+certain amount of trade, relieved them from the violence of the black
+soldiery and the tyranny of the bureaux, and left them free to pursue
+their commerce. A large part of the Indian and Arabian trade with
+Europe, which afterwards developed to great importance, passed through
+Misr, and the quays were laden with the wares of many foreign lands. It
+is true, for thirty years after the ruin of the Tulúnids, Egypt and its
+capital were a prey to military despotism, and the caliphs’ generals,
+weakly controlled from distant Baghdád, did what seemed best in their
+own eyes. These were wild times in Misr, when a hotheaded youth, el-
+Khalángy, upholding the claims of the fallen dynasty with the
+enthusiastic approval of the mob, drove out the hated troops, seized the
+capital and Alexandria, and even defeated a fresh army from Baghdád,
+till, after eight months of amazing impudence, he was betrayed and
+executed (906). As if this were not enough diversion for a generation,
+the schismatic Fátimid caliphs of Kayrawán offered the good people of
+Misr the spectacle of an African army marching through Egypt, and even
+attacking the camp across the river at Gíza, where the Baghdád army of
+occupation, under the command of Dukas the Greek, lay timidly
+intrenched. The Africans were at last driven out (920), but the state of
+the country did not improve. The Turkish governor had to quarter his
+troops in his own palace for his protection, and, when he died, “his son
+was hooted out of the country by the army clamouring for arrears of pay;
+the treasurer Madará‘y was in hiding; rival governors contended for
+power, mustered their troops, and skirmished over the distracted land;
+and a fearful earthquake, which laid many houses and villages low,
+followed by a portentous shower of meteors, added to the terror of the
+populace.”
+
+The people who profited most in the confusion were the lords treasurers,
+who seem to have done what they pleased with the revenue. Three members
+of the talented family of Madará’y, taking their name from their
+original village of Madaráya, near Basra on the Tigris, successively
+held the lucrative post of treasurer or comptroller of the taxes, and
+one of them enjoyed this office not only under Khumáraweyh and his two
+sons, but also under some of the caliphs’ governors, and afterwards
+under two of the succeeding dynasty. In spite of several reverses of
+fortune, Mohammad Madará’y contrived to scrape together the not
+contemptible income of over £200,000 a year, without counting his rents.
+But if he largely received, he greatly gave. Every month he distributed
+a hundred thousand pounds’ weight of meal to the poor; he freed many
+thousands of slaves, endowed charitable and religious foundations, and
+spent from £60,000 to £80,000 on each of his twenty-one annual
+pilgrimages to Mekka; for he was a devout man, diligent in prayer and
+fasting, with the Korán ever in his hand. It was said of his vast
+charity during the pilgrimage that there was not a soul in Mekka who did
+not sleep in repletion by his beneficence. Madará’y and the great judge
+Ibn-Harbaweyh, who used to receive seated even the state visits of the
+governors, were two bright exceptions in a crowd of petty tyrants.
+
+At last another strong Turk took the reins. If Mohammad “the Ikhshíd,”
+who derived his title from his ancestors the kings of Ferghána on the
+Iaxartes, did not leave any monument in Misr to rival that of his great
+predecessor Ibn-Tulún, and if his cautious policy was content with a
+kingdom extending no further than Damascus, instead of to the Euphrates,
+he at least restored order in Egypt, kept the African invaders at a
+distance, waged on the whole successful war in Syria, and maintained
+kingly state in his beautiful palace in the “Garden of Kafúr,” west of
+the present Nahhasín. A delightful trait of chivalry is recorded in his
+war with Ibn-Ráik, a Turkish chief, who dominated Syria for a time. This
+emír was “so distressed to find the corpse of one of the Ikhshíd’s
+brothers among the slain that he sent his own son to his adversary as an
+atonement, to be dealt with as he chose. Not to be outdone in
+generosity, the Ikhshíd clothed the intended sacrifice in robes of
+honour, and sent him back in all courtesy to his father. Of course the
+youth married the daughter of his chivalrous host.”
+
+In the summer of 935 the people of Misr saw the procession of the
+Ikhshíd’s war-vessels advancing up the Nile from Damietta, and occupying
+the island of Roda, which was connected with the city by a bridge of
+boats; and in August the troops entered the capital and plundered it for
+two days, till called to order by their stern master. After the anarchy
+of the past thirty years the firm if rapacious hand of the new ruler was
+a grateful change, and the enthusiastic son of el-Khaláty, who jumped
+upon the carved wooden horse that stood before his palace, and let fly a
+pigeon sweetly anointed with musk and rosewater at the new emír,
+expressed the sentiments of the people.[24] The Old Mosque of ‘Amr
+recovered its former importance as the chief place of worship, and the
+Ikhshíd furnished it with beautiful new rush-mats, lamps and perfumes,
+and himself attended the service in state on the last night of Ramadán,
+clad in white, and followed by five hundred squires carrying maces and
+torches. On the following day, the Lesser Festival, he held a review,
+after the example of Ibn-Tulún. The army, numbering 400,000, marched by
+all day long, followed by the household corps of 8000 mamlúks in shining
+armour, beneath the daïs at the gate of the Government House. On the
+second day of the feast the emír attended the prayers at the mosque, and
+held open house for the people. When the caliph sent the Ikhshíd an
+official robe of honour, with necklace and bracelets, the streets and
+bazars were decked with rich cloth and rugs, and the doors of the Old
+Mosque were covered with gold brocade, as the emír dressed in his new
+robe pranced in stately procession to the Wednesday prayers.[25]
+
+Those were glorious days in Misr, and the people almost forgot the
+immense confiscations and severities of the new régime in the enjoyment
+of its refulgence. Arabic literature began to flourish in the capital
+beside the Nile, though still far from rivalling the intellectual
+supremacy of the caliphs’ city on the Tigris, where Persian influences
+had produced a quickening of varied studies that were long in finding
+their way to the more orthodox capital of Egypt. Arabic learning was
+still in its infancy in the days of the Ikhshíd. Poetry indeed had never
+died, though it had become mannered and imitative; but history had only
+begun to be written, science was scarcely touched upon save in the
+distorted form of astrology, and the great names of Arabic literature
+had hardly begun to make themselves known. The lives of the Prophet were
+gradually being enlarged into wider histories, and two of the earliest
+and the most famous chroniclers, Tabary and Mas‘údy, were contemporaries
+of the Ikhshíd. Mas‘údy indeed visited Egypt in 942, and though, greatly
+to our loss, he does not describe the capital as he saw it, he gives a
+vivid account of the “Night of the Bath,” a Christian festival adopted
+by the Muslims, which shows us how the people of Misr could make merry.
+“The Leylat el-Ghitás,” he says, “is one of the great ceremonies and the
+people all go to it on foot on the 10th of January. I was present in 350
+[942 A.D.] when the Ikhshíd lived at his house called “The Elect” in the
+island that divides the Nile. He commanded that the bank of the island
+and that of Fustát should be illuminated each with a thousand torches,
+besides the illuminations of private people. Muslims and Christians by
+hundreds of thousands thronged the Nile on boats or looked from kiosks
+over the river or from the banks, all emulous for pleasure and outdoing
+each other in their display and dress, gold and silver vessels and
+jewels. The sound of music was heard all about, with singing and
+dancing. It was a splendid night, the best in all Misr for beauty and
+gaiety. The doors of the separate quarters were left open [instead being
+barred as usual at sunset], and most people bathed in the Nile confident
+in its power [on that night] of preventing and curing all
+illnesses.”[26]
+
+The traveller tells how people came to the Ikhshíd and begged to be
+allowed to dig for treasure, the clue to which they said they had found
+in ancient manuscripts; but when permission was given the treasure-
+seekers found only caves full of statues of bone and dust—in short, they
+had opened some mummy-pits. Mas‘údy mentions the two Nilometers on the
+island of Roda, which he calls “the island of the shipbuilders;” the
+first built by Osáma and still in general use; the second made, or
+rather restored, by Ibn-Tulún, being used only for very high Niles; and
+he saw the bridges connecting Misr with the island and the island with
+Gíza on the west bank. He met merchants from Constantinople at Misr, but
+of the city itself he tells us nothing. From Ibn-Sa‘íd and others,
+however, we learn that the Ikhshíd built a new dockyard at Misr, which
+took the place of the inconvenient docks on the island of Roda, where a
+garden and pleasure-house were laid out instead; and it was
+characteristic of his parsimony that when the estimate was laid before
+him he exclaimed, “What? Thirty thousand dinárs for a pleasure-garden!”
+and immediately cut the cost down to five thousand. As the dockyard of
+Roda was superseded by that of Misr, so was the latter replaced by the
+port of Maks, a mile lower down the river, in the next generation. The
+Ikhshíd’s economical pleasure-house on the island has left no traces;
+but Roda was a favourite resort of successive rulers, and his building
+was doubtless pulled down to make way for the Hawdag or “litter-
+pavilion” of el-Amir and the more elaborate constructions of the
+Ayyúbids.
+
+The great business of men of learning in those days was the
+interpretation of the sacred law as laid down in the Korán, in the
+traditions of the Prophet, and in the decisions of the canonical
+theologians. A Mohammedan lawyer was necessarily a divine, since the law
+depended on revelation, and the earliest scholars of Misr were chiefly
+theological jurisconsults. Of the four recognized schools of
+orthodoxy—the Hánafy, Máliky, Sháfi‘y and Hánbaly—the Málikis and the
+Sháfi‘is each had fifteen porticoes in the mosque of ‘Amr, to only three
+for the Hánafis, and the great court rang with their disputes. To us
+their distinctions may seem trivial, but to the Muslims of that age they
+were quite as vital as the _filioque_ was to the Orthodox Eastern Church
+or the difference between ἐκ and ἐν to the Copts. The divines waxed so
+furious in their arguments in the Old Mosque that the Ikhshíd was
+obliged for a season to take away their rush mats and cushions and close
+the mosque except at prayer time. Mosques were then, as some are still,
+the academies of Islam, and not merely divinity schools. In the old days
+before Mohammad the Arabian poets used to recite their verses at the
+great fairs before critical audiences of their countrymen. In Mohammedan
+times the criticism of authors was equally public but in a different
+fashion. “When a man had produced something he thought particularly
+good, he hastened to the mosque to share it with his critics. He was
+sure to find them there, doctors learned in the law, poets,
+commentators, seated cross-legged on their carpets in the arched
+porticos round the court, expounding the refinements of style to a
+circle of squatting students. To this audience he would recite his
+latest achievement, proud but tremulous. It must have been a searching
+ordeal, for the listeners were some of them rivals and all of them keen
+critics, on the alert for the least flaw, the slightest halt in the
+rhythm, the smallest lapse from the purity of the classical idiom. They
+had, too, a way of expressing their opinions which was more forcible
+than kind. There was a hot debate, much citing of precedents and quoting
+of the Masters, exploring of memory, and examination of texts. The new
+comer defended his diction and produced his authorities; the rest cut
+him up in remorseless verbal vivisection.”[27]
+
+It was not only theology that echoed in the Mosque of ‘Amr in the days
+of the Ikhshíd. Though the long list of worthies whose biographies Ibn-
+Sa‘íd unrolls in his “String of Trinkets of the Fustát Bride” consists
+preponderantly of lawyers and divines, men primed with serried
+precedents and tenacious of the authentic tracing of traditions, these
+were not all. There were the family of Tabátaba, famous descendants of
+‘Aly, poets every one, whose verse is full of the love of nature and of
+love itself, and not a little of the joys of wine, always forbidden but
+not the less dear to the poets of all ages of Islám. Did not one of
+these poets sing something like this?—
+
+
+  Grigs chirp in the sand,
+
+    The moon is on high,
+
+  The breeze curls the runnel,
+
+    Clouds fleck the sky,
+
+  Great trees swing with joy
+
+    And merrily crack:
+
+  Now brim me the beaker
+
+    E’er life turns its back!
+
+  No friendship’s so knit
+
+    That time cannot split.
+
+
+There was Abu-l-Fadl of the distinguished family of el-Furát, who,
+though a mighty authority on traditions, did not disdain, any more than
+many other learned doctors, to write a good verse now and then, though
+his vein might be serious:—
+
+
+  Whose soul is dark, a quiet life is his, no night’s unease;
+
+  When the storm breaks, it spares the low but fells the tallest trees.
+
+
+Even Mansúr the lawyer condescended to a somewhat staid vein of verse,
+though it was he who stirred up such a turmoil by his pronouncement on
+the question of the legal maintenance of divorced wives in the days of
+governor Dukas that he had to be protected by troops, and there was a
+terrible scene of swords drawn and knives about his bier when the people
+believed that he had been murdered by a judge who disagreed with him.
+The Kády el-Bakár, the aged court poet, had such a fund of delightful
+anecdote that the Ikhshíd would often send for him of an evening and beg
+for a story, “were it only a finger’s length.” It was this genial old
+bard who wrote the lines about the morning cup and the enjoyment of that
+good comrade, life, ending
+
+
+  Allah! give me not peace! O God, I ask not content—
+
+  Only a waist to embrace and a wine cup never spent!
+
+
+Misr had its merits in this respect, for ez-Zeyneby wrote:—
+
+
+  My home is in Fustát; blame me ye who chide.
+
+  Where the Muskat vines are, there do I abide.
+
+  Egypt, I’ll not leave thee: reason need I hide?
+
+
+The celebrated author el-Musébbihy comes rather later, for he was not
+born till 977, but his work is typical of the tenth century in Egypt.
+Thirty books he wrote, numbering nearly forty thousand pages, and their
+subjects ranged over poetry and criticism, the history of Egypt and
+religion, treatises on wine and joviality, on choice repasts and
+cookery, on astrology and demons, dreams, wishes and oaths, anecdotes
+and maxims, besides subjects that are best described as “curious.”
+Literature owed much to the pleasure-loving court of the Abyssinian
+slave Kafúr (_i.e._ “Camphor”), who after the Ikhshíd’s death in 946
+ruled the land for twenty-two years, first as regent over his late
+master’s two sons, who lived and died in luxurious and inactive
+obscurity, and for the last two or three years as titular prince of
+Egypt. There are few quainter figures in history than this jolly black
+eunuch, with his huge paunch, his bandy legs, and his immense cloven
+underlip, of which his guest, the poet el-Mutanebby, last of the classic
+Arabians, made such fun when he found that his panegyrics of the black
+prince brought him less returns—large as they were—than he expected.
+“Kafúr was at once the Lucullus and the Maecenas of his age. He had
+contrived to acquire some cultivation, as most clever slaves did, and he
+loved to surround himself with poets and critics, and listen to their
+discussions of an evening, or make them read him the history of the
+caliphs of old.” Serious scholars attended his réunions. There might be
+seen el-Kindy, the chronicler of the “Excellencies of Egypt” (Fadáil
+Misr), to whom Makrízy owed so much; el-Bakhtary the learned grammarian,
+as well as Ibn-el-‘Ásim, whose light lyrics won him the title of the
+“castanettist of the soul.” Kafúr could appreciate them all. Like all
+blacks he delighted in music. He had control of vast sums of money, and
+he scattered it liberally among his literary friends, who repaid him in
+fulsome flattery. When the “castanettist of the soul” explained in
+choice verse that the frequent earthquakes of the time were due to
+Egypt’s dancing for joy at Kafúr’s virtues, the pleased Ethiopian threw
+him a thousand dinárs. On his table, “Camphor” was lavish; he had the
+black’s jolly sensuality. The daily provision for his kitchen consisted
+in 100 sheep, 100 lambs, 250 geese, 500 fowls, 1000 pigeons and other
+birds, and 100 jars of sweets. The daily consumption amounted to 1700
+lb. of meat, besides fowls and sweets, and 50 skins of liquor were
+allowed to the servants alone. A favourite drink was quince-cider, for
+which the kády of Asyút sent 50,000 quince-apples every season.[28]
+
+In spite of a stern and unimaginative religion, in spite of fatalism and
+all its paralysing effects, the mediæval Arabs managed to enjoy life,
+just as their forefathers of the desert did. The wonderful thing about
+this old Mohammedan society is that it was what it was in spite of
+Mohammedanism. With all their prayers and fasts and irritating ritual,
+the Muslims of the Middle Ages contrived to amuse themselves. Even in
+their religion they found opportunities for enjoyment. They made the
+most of the festivals of the faith, and put on their best clothes and
+made up parties—to visit the tombs, perhaps, but to visit them
+cheerfully—and they “tipped” all their servants that they too might go
+out and amuse themselves in the gaily illuminated streets filled with
+dancers and singers and reciters, or in the mosques where the dervishes
+were performing their strange and revolting rites. Such diversions gave
+a relish to life,—even though a man had his destiny inscribed in the
+sutures of his skull and some ascetic souls found a consolation in
+staring at a blank wall till they saw the name of Allah blazing on it.
+
+But the great amusement of the mediæval Muslim was feasting. It is true
+the Arabs did not understand scientific cookery or æsthetic gastronomy;
+they drank to get drunk and ate to get full. We read of a public banquet
+where the table was covered with 21 enormous dishes, each containing 21
+baked sheep, three years old and fat, and 350 pigeons and fowls, all
+piled up together to the height of a man, and covered in with dried
+sweetmeats. Between these dishes were 500 smaller _plats_, each holding
+seven fowls and the usual complement of sweetmeats. The table was strewn
+with flowers and cakes of bread, and two grand edifices of sweetmeats,
+each weighing 17 cwt., were brought in on shoulder poles. A man might
+eat a sheep or two without being too remarkable. And if he ate hugely,
+he washed it down with plenty of wine, in spite of all the Prophet’s
+laws. The Arab’s cup held a good pint, and he refilled it pretty often.
+Hence the majority of the banquets described in the Arabian histories
+end under the table, or would do so if there were any tables of the
+right kind.
+
+There are redeeming points, however, in all this gluttony and
+sottishness. The Arabs did not tope moodily in solitude. They liked a
+jovial company round them, and plenty of flowers and sweet scents on the
+board; they dressed very carefully, and perfumed their beards with civet
+and sprinkled themselves with rosewater; while ambergris, burning in a
+censer, diffused a delicious fragrance through the room. Nor was the
+feast complete without music, and the voices of singing-men and singing-
+women. A ravishing slave-girl, with a form like the Oriental willow and
+a face like the full moon, sang soft sad Arabian melodies to the
+accompaniment of the lute, till the guests rolled over with ecstasy. And
+rarely was a banquet considered perfect without the presence of a
+wit—such a wit as no longer exists; no mere punster, though he could pun
+on occasion, but a man of letters, well stored with the literature of
+the Arabs, able to finish a broken quotation, and of fine taste in his
+compositions and recitations. It was, indeed, the heyday of literary
+men. So intense was the devotion of the caliphs and vezírs to poetry and
+song, that they would refuse nothing to the poet who pleased them. A
+beggar who gave an answer in a neatly-turned verse would have his jar
+filled with gold; and a man of letters who made a good repartee was
+likely to have his mouth crammed with jewels, and his whole wardrobe
+replenished. One poet left behind him a hundred complete suits of robes
+of honour, two hundred shirts, and five hundred turbans.
+
+But Kafúr was much more than an epicure and a dilettante. Strong as a
+horse, but gentle as a giant, his hard work and unfailing good-humour
+were phenomenal. He was no mean statesman and devoted much time and
+pains to the management of public business, working often far into the
+night, and then throwing himself on his knees, crying, “O God, give no
+created thing power over me!” His justice, clemency, open-handedness,
+and piety were renowned, and though he left immense wealth in gold and
+precious stones, slaves and beasts, he used his possessions in a large-
+minded and charitable spirit. He died in 968, and on his grave at
+Damascus was written—
+
+
+  “How fares it with thee, Kafúr, alone in the grave amid the rattle of
+  the hail, who once didst revel in the din of battling hosts?
+
+  Men’s feet now trample over thy head, where of old the lions of the
+  sandy waste crouched before thee.”
+
+
+The warlike epitaph was not very apposite, for Kafúr, brave as he was,
+cannot be described as a successful general, in spite of two victories
+in his earlier days in Syria. It was to the credit of his statesmanship
+and his officers that the whole of the kingdom, now extending to the
+northern frontier of Syria and including the Higáz with the holy cities
+of Mekka and Medína, was preserved in undiminished prosperity and rarely
+ruffled peace throughout his regency and reign, and this in spite of
+several bad Niles and consequent scarcity, portentous earthquakes, and a
+disastrous fire which consumed 1700 houses in Misr in 954. The big black
+eunuch knew how to keep order. Unhappily, like most great autocrats, he
+left no successor, and the weakness of the government of the new prince,
+the infant grandchild of the Ikhshíd, invited the invasion which the
+Fátimid caliphs had long been preparing.
+
+We have no description worth quoting of the city of Misr during this
+prosperous period. The traveller Ibn-Hawkal gives a brief account of it
+a little later (978), and estimates its size as about a third of
+Baghdád. He notes its handsome markets, its narrow streets, with brick
+houses of five and even seven storeys high, large enough for two hundred
+people to live in, and the gardens and pleasure-grounds surrounding the
+city. The Mosque of ‘Amr in its midst was still the most striking of its
+buildings, which shows that there were as yet no great palaces or
+government houses. Kafúr’s own palace was outside, probably in the park
+called the “Garden of Kafúr,” though at one time he built a new palace,
+at the cost of 100,000 dinárs, by the pool of Karún, near the mosque of
+Ibn-Tulún; but the miasma from the stagnant water soon caused its
+desertion. The capital was of course very differently situated from the
+present Cairo. The Nile had then hardly begun the slow shifting of its
+bed towards the west which resulted in the formation of the island of
+Bulák or el-Gezíra. The river in the Ikhshíd’s time flowed under the
+walls of the castle of Babylon, skirted el-‘Askar, and passed by the
+points now known as the Bab-el-Luk and Bab-el-Hadíd.[29] All the
+districts of Masr-el-‘Atíka, Kasr-el-‘Eyny, Kasr-ed-Dubára, and Bulák
+were then under water, and the capital spread along the banks of the
+Nile and stretched inland to near the mosque of Ibn-Tulún.
+
+[Illustration: STREET IN OLD MISR]
+
+The best description is that of the Persian Násir-i-Khursau, who visited
+Misr in 1047, eighty years after Kafúr’s death, it is true, but it is
+not probable that very important changes had taken place in the
+interval. He knows nothing of el-Katái‘, and from his description of
+Misr as a city built on high ground, and other indications, it is
+evident that in his day “the Wards” faubourg was included in Misr and
+that there were still houses there in spite of the devastation that
+followed the fall of the House of Tulún. The mosque of Ibn-Tulún “on the
+outskirts of the town” was then as now surrounded by a double wall more
+solid than any the traveller had seen except at Amid and Mayyafarikin,
+and a minaret was certainly standing at that time.[30] There were
+altogether seven mosques in the old city, of which that of ‘Amr was the
+chief, with its _mihráb_ covered with white marble on which was engraved
+the entire text of the Korán, and its court crowded with professors and
+students and a multitude of people of all kinds, who used it as a
+general meeting place for business. It had lately been purchased by the
+Fátimid caliph Hákim, of whom we shall hear presently, for 100,000
+dinárs (the mosque of Ibn-Tulún had cost him only 35,000), and he had
+made some restorations and presented a magnificent silver lamp carrying
+seven hundred lights. So huge was this work of art that a door had to be
+broken down to get it into the mosque. The chief kády still held his
+court there.
+
+Outside, the gates opened into the bazars. On the north was the Street
+of Lamps, the like of which the traveller had seen nowhere else; he was
+amazed at the cut rock-crystal, tortoise-shell, and other delicate work
+he saw there displayed, besides ivory tusks, ostrich feathers, and other
+products of the Sudán and Abyssinia. On one day, to be precise, the 18th
+of December 1048, he counted the following flowers and fruits and
+vegetables in the markets of Misr: red roses, lilies, narcissi, bitter
+and sweet oranges, lemons, apples, jasmine, melons, _dastbuyas_,
+bananas, olives, dates, grapes, sugar-cane, mad-apples, gourds,
+_badrangs_, onions, garlic, carrots, and beetroot, though they belonged
+to different seasons: “but Egypt,” he adds, “is a land of great extent
+which produces the fruits both of hot and cold climates, and the
+products of all the provinces are brought to the capital and are readily
+sold in the markets.” Pottery he found manufactured of so fine a quality
+that he could see his hand through it, and so skilfully coloured that it
+resembled the iridescent fabric called _bukalamún_. There was also a
+green transparent glass of costly price. (All this is amply confirmed by
+the fragments which have been found among the rubbish heaps of the old
+city.) He saw great bowls of Damascus copper; one woman owned five
+thousand of them which she let out at a franc (dirhem) a month at the
+borrower’s risk. He was pleased to discover that there was no need to
+carry one’s bottle or paper to the bazars of the druggists or
+ironmongers: they themselves supplied the wherewithal to contain their
+wares; and what was more extraordinary, the shopkeepers sold at a fixed
+price, instead of haggling for a bargain, and if one of them cheated he
+was set on a camel and marched through the bazar to the ringing of a
+bell, crying aloud, “I have deceived and am punished! May the like
+chastisement befall other liars!” All the shopkeepers rode on donkeys
+from their houses to their shops, and asses stood for hire at the street
+corners to the number (he was told) of 50,000. Only soldiers rode
+horses.
+
+The city stretched along the Nile bank, and kiosks and pavilions
+overlooked the river, whence one could draw up water by a rope. Sakkás
+carried it then as now in great pitchers on their backs, or on camels.
+Some of the houses were seven storeys high, and on the top of one of
+these was a terrace garden of orange and other fruit trees, watered by a
+sákiya turned by a bull that had been conveyed to the housetop when a
+calf. The houses were so large (30 cubits square) that 350 people could
+occupy a single house. Some of the covered streets and bazars had to be
+constantly lighted by lamps, since no sunlight penetrated to them. To
+cross to the island there was a bridge of thirty-six boats, but at that
+time there was no second bridge connecting Roda with Giza, and one had
+to take a boat or ferry. Fortunately there were more boats to be had at
+Misr than either at Baghdád or Basra. The inhabitants of the city, says
+Násir-i-Khusrau, were enjoying great prosperity in 1048, and in honour
+of a royal accouchement they decorated the town with such splendour that
+he would not hope to be believed if he described it. Indeed, he never
+knew so peaceful and orderly a country as Egypt, and tells the story of
+a rich Christian he met at Misr, who owned innumerable cargoes and vast
+estates, and who, when appealed to by the vezír in a year of scarcity,
+informed him that he had enough corn in his granaries to supply the
+capital for six years. The rents of the occupiers of a single khan or
+inn, called the Dar-el-Wezír, brought in 12,000 dinárs a year, and there
+were said to be two hundred such buildings.
+
+The city which the Persian philosopher described in 1047-8 was probably
+little changed in the remaining century of its prosperity. The
+foundation of Káhira, or Cairo proper, had once more separated the
+official and court circles from Misr, eighty years before the visit of
+Násir-i-Khusrau, and yet the old capital retained its flourishing
+position as the commercial metropolis. There is no reason to suppose
+that it decayed during the hundred and twenty years that were left to
+it. We have already anticipated the course of history, in describing
+Misr in the eleventh century, and it will be well to finish the subject
+by relating its destruction in the twelfth. In 1168 Amalric, the Latin
+King of Jerusalem, advanced upon Cairo, intent upon the conquest of
+Egypt, which the Crusaders believed to be essential to their safety in
+Palestine. In November he took Bilbeys, and stained his name by
+massacring every man, woman, and child. Fear of similar atrocities and
+the danger of affording the invader valuable cover close to Cairo
+induced Sháwar, the vezír of the Fátimid caliph of Egypt, to order the
+burning of Misr. On the 12th of November, “twenty thousand naphtha
+barrels and ten thousand torches were lighted. The fire lasted fifty-
+four days, and its traces may still be found in the wilderness of
+sandheaps stretching over miles of buried rubbish on the south side of
+Cairo. The people fled ‘as from their very graves’; the father abandoned
+his children, the brother his twin; and all rushed to Cairo for dear
+life. The hire of a camel for the mile or two of transit cost thirty
+pieces of gold”[31] in that crisis of panic. The smoke rose in dense
+black clouds to the sky, and compelled the invaders to camp at a
+distance. The cruel measure may have been necessary, though Cairo was
+saved by other means; but as we look out upon the desolate sandhills
+that mark the site of the vanished Town of the Tent and recall the peace
+and prosperity witnessed by the Persian traveller, it seems as if a
+thousand Crusaders in Cairo would be a lighter sacrifice than the loss
+of the old city of Misr.
+
+Though the town never really recovered from the fatal day of its
+burning, it must not be supposed that no efforts were made to rebuild
+it. People are not so easily transplanted from their old seats, and as
+soon as the Crusaders were driven away the inhabitants began to search
+for their blackened homes and tried to make them fit to live in. Ibn-
+Gubeyr, the Spanish Arab, who visited Misr in 1183, only fourteen years
+after the great fire, found a less melancholy scene than we should be
+led to expect from the account of the fifty-four days’ burning. He was
+comfortably entertained at the Inn of Master Worthy (Funduk Aby-th-
+Thaná) in the Street of Lamps,—so called because formerly inhabited by
+nobles who had each a lamp before his door—which still stood close to
+the Mosque of ‘Amr, and though there were sad signs of the late
+destruction, the people had rebuilt many of the ruined houses, “and the
+new buildings are in continuous lines which form a great city with the
+remains of the former town lying beyond and all around it, close by,
+showing how great was its extent in earlier days.”[32] The attempt to
+restore the old city did not succeed. A sign of the diminishing
+population is seen in the fact that although ten colleges were founded
+in and about Misr by Saladin and his successors, in the belief that the
+town would recover, not a single mosque for congregational worship was
+built there after the great fire. Cairo was rapidly taking its place,
+and when Ibn-Sa‘íd visited Misr about 1240 he was distressed at its
+blackened walls, ruined houses, and general state of dirt and neglect.
+There were still plenty of people in the narrow crooked streets, and
+pedlers hawking their wares among the students and children in the Old
+Mosque, which was covered with cobwebs and littered with refuse; the
+slovenly quays of Fustát were still frequented by much shipping, and
+there were sugar and soap factories still at work.[33] But the ruin was
+universal, the final decay had set in, and the glory of Misr was
+transferred to Cairo.
+
+
+
+
+                               CHAPTER V
+
+                                _Cairo_
+
+
+THE foundation of Cairo proper, as distinguished from the earlier city
+of Misr and its faubourgs, marks a revolution infinitely more profound
+than a mere change of dynasty or shifting of site. The Fátimid conquest,
+which created the new city, was a revolution in religion, in statecraft,
+and in culture. The theological differences that had turned the mosque
+of ‘Amr into a bear-garden in the time of the Ikhshíd were hair-
+splittings compared with the breach between the old orthodoxy and the
+heresy of the newcomers. In its inner essence, Shi‘ism, the religion of
+the Fátimids, is not Mohammedanism at all. It merely took advantage of
+an old schism in Islám to graft upon it a totally new and largely
+political movement. The schism arose out of the succession to the
+caliphate, and resolved itself into the old antagonism between the
+theories of popular election and divine right. The orthodox party (or
+Sunnis) held that the election of the first three caliphs, Abu-Bekr,
+‘Omar and ‘Othmán, was constitutional in Islám; the Shí‘a maintained
+that the divine right of succession to the Prophet’s mantle rested with
+his own family, that is to say with his daughter Fátima’s husband ‘Aly
+and their offspring, the only surviving descendants of Mohammad. ‘Aly in
+turn became the fourth caliph, but he was bitterly opposed, and in the
+end murdered; his children, the Prophet’s grandsons, were ousted from
+the succession; one of them, Hoseyn, endeavouring to assert his rights,
+was defeated and slain, and the tragedy of the “martyrdom” at Kerbela
+has ever since excited the deepest passions of the Shí‘a at the annual
+representations of the Persian Passion Play in the month of Moharram.
+
+The ruthless persecution of the “holy family” by the Omayyad caliphs
+stimulated an enthusiastic sympathy with their misfortunes, but since
+none of their descendants showed any political genius, the occasional
+risings in favour of the ‘Alids were scarcely more important than the
+last attempts in Scotland to revive the claims of the Pretender. The
+movement would probably have died out as an element in politics, and
+become a mere tradition or sentiment, but for the new development given
+to it in the ninth century by an obscure Persian, half conjurer, half
+eye-doctor, named ‘Abdallah, son of Meymún. This man, who abhorred the
+Arabs and their caliphs, devised a scheme by which the very religion of
+Islám should become the instrument of its own destruction, and the
+Persians should recover their power by the unconscious aid of their
+conquerors. His doctrine, whilst making use of the ‘Alid sentiment of
+divine right, was such that not only the enthusiasts who still wept over
+the tragedy of Kerbela, but all shades of dissenters from rigid
+Mohammedanism might embrace. He taught that God has always been
+incarnate in some spiritual leader or “Imám,” such as Adam, Abraham, and
+so on to ‘Aly. The world has never been without an Imám; but—and here
+came the stroke of genius—the Imám is not always visible in the flesh.
+The series of spiritual leaders descended in apostolic succession from
+‘Aly was broken, but not the less was there a hidden Imám, who would
+reveal himself to mankind in his own good time. When he appeared all
+would recognize “the Mahdy,” and abandon the self-styled caliphs who
+usurped his authority. Meanwhile those who awaited his coming must
+strive to prepare men for it. Though the Imám be hidden, his doctrine
+must be zealously preached, and in the absence of the mysterious being
+in whom the secrets of the Most High are deposited, his missionaries
+must go forth and call men to the truth.
+
+A widespread and admirably organized propaganda was instituted; a secret
+society, skilfully graduated in advancing degrees of initiation, worked
+underground throughout the Mohammedan world, but with special success in
+Arabia, Mesopotamia, and North Africa. The _dá‘is_ or missionaries were
+carefully chosen and trained to teach such doctrines as their converts
+could bear. To the rude and uneducated they would preach what seemed the
+plain lessons of the Korán, always coupled with the imminent approach of
+that mysterious and attractive personality, the Mahdy. To the
+philosophic they would use arguments suited to their special views, and
+leading them up through the progressive stages of initiation, would
+finally land them in a philosophy of complete negation. These
+missionaries had nothing in common with Muslims: they were atheists
+among themselves, and all things to all men. Their aims were
+political—to upset Islám through itself, to dispossess the Muslims, and
+to grasp their power. They made use of all forms of religion
+indifferently; all were equally false to them, and all were serviceable
+tools to their purpose. They cared not what means they used to secure
+proselytes, to whom they confided only so much of their system as they
+could safely assimilate. They employed the hallowed name of ‘Aly, and
+preached the immediate advent of a Messiah, not because they believed in
+either or in any caliphate or spiritual incarnation, but because if the
+multitude is to be made to dance one must harp on some string, and these
+strings happened to twang harmoniously in the ears of the people.
+
+Three signal successes rewarded the brilliant propaganda of the Shí‘a
+(or Isma‘ílian) missionaries. The first was the Carmathian domination of
+Arabia, Mesopotamia and Syria, in the ninth and tenth centuries; the
+second was its offshoot, the Fátimid caliphate of North Africa and
+Egypt; the last was the dreaded Wehmgericht of the Isma‘ílians or
+“Assassins” in Persia and the Lebanon. Here we have chiefly to do with
+the second, though both the Carmathians and the Assassins had their
+influence upon Egypt.
+
+The Fátimid caliphate, taking its name from ‘Aly’s wife, the daughter of
+the Prophet, was the most powerful and conspicuous result of Shí‘a
+proselytism. Among the credulous Berbers the missionary had an easy
+field of conquest, and when he produced a reputed descendant of ‘Aly and
+Fátima in the person of “the Mahdy” ‘Obeydallah at Kayrawán, the Arab
+capital of what is now called Tunisia, in 910, the revolution was
+triumphant. The whole of Barbary, from Fez in Morocco to the frontier of
+Egypt, which he twice invaded, bowed before the sway of the Mahdy.
+Inheriting by conquest the possessions of the Aghlabid dynasty of Tunis,
+who for more than a century had been the great naval power of the
+central Mediterranean and held Sicily, Sardinia, Corsica and Malta, the
+Fátimid fleets ravaged the coasts of France and Italy, plundering,
+burning, and kidnapping wherever they went. The fourth caliph of the
+Mahdy’s line, el-Mo‘izz, the conqueror of Egypt, was a singularly able,
+upright, politic, and intelligent man, an orator, a linguist who knew
+Greek as well as Arabic and the Berber tongue, and to all appearance a
+just and honest Muslim of the Shí‘a sect.[34] There was so careful a
+distinction between esoteric and overt doctrine among the Shí‘a that it
+is impossible to be certain, but the probability is that Mo‘izz, like
+most of his successors, did not share the extreme views of the advanced
+degrees of the initiate, but held Koranic doctrines tempered by ‘Alid
+views and allegorical interpretation.
+
+Such was the Fátimid caliph who, after a progress throughout his African
+dominions, and carrying his arms even to the shore of the Atlantic
+(959), at length resolved to achieve the conquest of Egypt, which his
+grandfather had vainly attempted, and which was the goal of his own
+ambition. The barren land and unruly tribes of Barbary were not to be
+compared with the fertile valley and splendid commerce of Egypt, and his
+plans were carefully laid for the invasion. The conquest was an easy
+triumph. Gawhar, his Roman slave from the Eastern empire, led his
+100,000 men from Kayrawán in February 969. Alexandria capitulated on
+liberal terms. The Egyptians, exhausted by a distressing famine followed
+by plague (of which more than half a million people died in and around
+Misr), led by no competent chief, despoiled by a mutinous soldiery, and
+influenced by secret sympathizers with the Fátimids, made scarcely an
+effort to resist. There were a few skirmishes at Giza, and then Gawhar
+forced the passage of the Nile, the defenders fled, and the women of
+Misr implored mercy. A full amnesty rewarded submission, pillage was
+interdicted, and the Fátimid army rode into Misr on the 5th of August.
+
+“That very night Gawhar laid the foundations of a new city, or rather
+fortified palace, destined for the reception of his sovereign. He was
+encamped on the sandy waste which stretched north-east of Fustát, on the
+road to Heliopolis, and there, at a distance of about a mile from the
+river, he marked out the boundaries of the new capital. There were no
+buildings, save the old ‘Convent of the Bones,’ nor any cultivation
+except the beautiful park called ‘Kafúr’s Garden,’ to obstruct his
+plans. A square [about 1200 yards each way] was pegged out with poles,
+and the Maghraby astrologers, in whom Mo‘izz reposed extravagant faith,
+consulted together to determine the auspicious moment for the opening
+ceremony. Bells were hung on ropes from pole to pole, and at the signal
+of the sages their ringing was to announce the precise moment when the
+labourers were to turn the first sod. The calculations of the
+astrologers were, however, anticipated by a raven, who perched on one of
+the ropes and set the bells jingling, upon which every mattock was
+struck into the earth, and the trenches were opened. It was an unlucky
+hour: the planet Mars (el-Káhir) was in the ascendant; but it could not
+be undone, and the place was accordingly named after the hostile planet,
+el-Káhira, ‘the martial’ or ‘triumphant,’ in the hope that the sinister
+omen might be turned to a triumphant issue. Cairo, as Káhira has come to
+be called, may fairly be said to have outlived all astrological
+prejudices. The name of the ‘Abbásid caliph was at once expunged from
+the Friday prayers at the old mosque of ‘Amr; the black ‘Abbásid robes
+were proscribed, and the preacher, in pure white, recited the _khutba_
+for the Imám Mo‘izz, _emír el-muminín_, and invoked blessings on his
+ancestors, ‘Aly and Fátima and all their holy family. The call to prayer
+from the minarets was adapted to Shí‘a taste. The joyful news was sent
+to the Fátimid caliph on swift dromedaries, together with the heads of
+the slain. Coins were struck with the special formulas of the Fátimid
+creed—‘‘Aly is the noblest of [God’s] delegates, the vezír of the best
+of apostles’; ‘the Imám Ma‘add calls men to profess the Unity of the
+Eternal’—in addition to the usual dogmas of the Mohammedan faith. For
+two centuries the mosques and the mint proclaimed the shibboleth of the
+Shí‘a.”[35]
+
+But the change was far more than a substitution of one creed for
+another: indeed, thanks no doubt to the politic tolerance of the
+conqueror and the discreet avoidance of extreme Shí‘a doctrines, the
+people accepted the new régime without any outburst of orthodox
+fanaticism, except when the new comers flaunted the Moharram festival in
+memory of the Kerbela “martyrs” in their very faces. The majority
+remained unconverted to the new formulas; at least they welcomed the
+restoration of orthodoxy two centuries later with equal phlegm. The real
+change was political. Cairo was no longer the capital of a province of
+the old caliphate, or even of a virtually independent principality
+connected with that caliphate: it was the capital of a rival Power, and
+that power a Mediterranean Empire. It is true the empire soon lost its
+outlying African provinces and European islands, and shrank to the
+dimensions of the principality of Ibn-Tulún; but the strength and the
+wealth and commerce of the Fátimid kingdom were something new. The
+rivalry between Cairo and Baghdád, between the vigorous young caliphate
+of the Shí‘a and the decaying hierarchy of the Sunnis, had far-reaching
+effects in politics and in civilization. The naval power and European
+connexions of the Fátimids introduced a new element into foreign policy,
+gave a stimulus to trade, and modified in various ways the civilization
+of Egypt and Syria.
+
+On the other hand undoubtedly the isolation of Cairo tended to a
+development of a separate culture which was not to its advantage. Heresy
+cut it off from the great centres of intellectual life in the Arabian
+world, from Baghdád, Damascus and Cordova. The old intercourse, which
+brought students and professors of all parts of the Muslim empire
+together in the mosques of every great city, was impossible in a capital
+where the mosques were in the hands of heretics. Hence Cairo was out of
+intimate touch with the progress of Muslim studies in the eleventh and
+twelfth centuries, and few of the leaders of Arabic thought or
+literature were found under Fátimid rule. In some branches, such as
+philosophy and physical and medical science, one would expect to find
+good results from the influence of Shí‘a free-thinking, and undoubtedly
+some progress was made, especially by Jewish and Christian physicians;
+but these exceptions do not outweigh the general loss entailed by
+isolation from the rest of the intellectual world. A little later the
+heretics of Cairo might have profited much by their intercourse with
+Europe, but in the tenth and eleventh centuries Europe had little to
+teach.
+
+The class that gained most by the change of government was that of the
+Christian Copts. Hitherto they had had their ups and downs according to
+the disposition and rapacity of different Arab and Turkish governors;
+but with the advent of the Fátimid caliphs they entered upon a period of
+unusual toleration and even favour. The new rulers, with one notorious
+exception, were exceedingly well disposed towards their Christian
+subjects, and many churches were built or restored during their reigns.
+
+The caliph el-‘Azíz, son of Mo‘izz, who reigned from 975 to 996, had a
+Christian wife, two of his brothers-in-law were Melekite patriarchs, and
+the Jacobite patriarch Ephraim and Severus bishop of Ushmuneyn were his
+particular friends. The bishop was encouraged to come to the palace and
+discuss theology with the chief kády, and the patriarch was allowed to
+restore the church of St Mercurius (Abu-s-Seyfeyn, “the two-sworded”)
+outside Misr. “In ancient times,” we are told by an Armenian writer,
+“there had been a church dedicated to Saint Mercurius, on the bank of
+the river, but it was ruined and turned into a storehouse for sugar-
+canes. Then, in the time of this patriarch, enquiries were made about
+the creed of the Christians, whether they believed in the truth or in a
+lie. So the Christians assembled and went out to the mountain, and the
+Muslims and Jews went out at the same time on account of a certain
+event. Many of the Muslim _sayyids_ came forward, and prayed, and cried
+_Allahu akbar_, and implored the assistance of God, but no sign appeared
+to them. Then the Jews followed them, and still no result followed. Then
+the patriarch came forward, and the tanner, for whom God had performed a
+miracle, followed him; and all the orthodox people followed them. They
+prayed to the most high God, and burnt incense, and cried _Kyrie
+eleison_ three times; and God showed his wonders, and the mountain
+moved: namely, that part of the Mukattam hills which is near the hill of
+Al-Kabsh, between Cairo and Misr. This miracle took place through the
+faith of the tanner, who had plucked out his eye in the presence of
+Al-‘Aziz and the chief men of his government and the kadis of the
+Muslims. When Al-‘Aziz had witnessed this great miracle, he said: ‘It is
+enough, O patriarch; we recognize what God has done for you’; and then
+he added: ‘Desire of me what thou choosest, and I will do it for thee.’
+The patriarch, however, refused with thanks; but Al-‘Aziz begged him to
+ask for something, and did not cease until the patriarch had asked for a
+certain church which had fallen into ruin. So Al-‘Aziz commanded that
+this church should be restored for the patriarch, and it is said to have
+been the church of Saint Mercurius.”[36] The patriarch would not accept
+the offer of money for the restoration, but paid for it himself, and the
+work was carried out under a guard of the caliph’s troops to protect the
+Christians from the “common people of the Muslims,” who had no patience
+with such concessions to the “polytheists.”
+
+One of the vezírs or prime-ministers of ‘Azíz was a converted Jew,
+another was the Christian Ibn-Nestorius. The Muslims naturally resented
+this unusual toleration, and lampooned the caliph, but the harím was on
+the side of the Christians, and as usual had its way. Even under the
+caliph Hákim, the exception referred to, who certainly at one time
+persecuted the Copts cruelly, the great posts of state were still held
+by Christians; and though there was much confiscation and extortion
+under the vezír Yazúry in the middle of the eleventh century, it seems
+to have arisen more from fiscal necessities than from religious
+antipathy. The great influence of the Armenian vezírs in the latter part
+of that century evidently promoted a good feeling, for in the twelfth we
+find the caliph Háfiz receiving lectures in history twice a week from
+the Armenian patriarch, and several of the later caliphs would visit the
+shaded gardens of Coptic monasteries, where they were hospitably
+welcomed by the monks and made suitable returns for their cheer. We read
+of handsome contributions for the support of convents and churches. The
+far from exemplary caliph Ámir even had a monk for his right-hand man,
+and used often to use a pavilion which he had built at a monastery near
+Giza as a hunting lodge, paying 1000 dirhems to the monks at every
+visit. He took pleasure in standing in the priest’s place in their
+church, but scrupulously entered backwards in order to avoid the
+appearance of bowing when passing through the low door. The last of the
+Fátimid caliphs, el-‘Ádid, had also his favourite monastic retreat in
+the convent of the Virgin some miles out of Cairo, where he would take
+the air and gaze upon the “blessed Nile.”[37]
+
+If the churches were cared for, the mosques were not neglected; and
+though the Fátimid period is not rich in the multitude of mosques
+erected by private benefactors which distinguishes the later Mamlúk
+period, it boasts at least the two greatest congregational mosques
+(_gámi‘_) of Cairo proper, both of which were among the early
+preoccupations of the new dynasty. Gawhar’s first step, after beginning
+the walls of the palace-city of Káhira, was to lay the foundations of
+the mosque which stands to this day, known to all the world as el-Azhar,
+“the Resplendent.” The day of its foundation was Sunday the 3rd of
+April, 970, and it was finished on the 24th of June, 972. In 988 it was
+specially devoted to the use of the learned and became what it has been
+ever since, one of the chief Universities of Islám. Here to this day
+multitudes of students gather from all parts of the Muslim world, from
+the Gold Coast to the Malay States, each nation to the special _riwák_
+or portico assigned to its use, and here they receive from learned
+sheykhs instruction in the various branches of the old Arabic
+curriculum—theology, exegesis, traditions, jurisprudence, grammar,
+prosody, logic, rhetoric, algebra, etc. Over nine thousand students
+still (1901) attend the lectures of 239 professors in the Azhar, and not
+one of them is called upon to pay a piastre in fees. The learned men of
+Cairo and many foreign cities willingly impart their knowledge without
+reward, and eke out a living by private tuition and copying manuscripts.
+The foreign students not only pay no fees but receive rations of food
+from certain bequests. One may regret the limited scope and fanatical
+tendency of the Azhar lectures, but at least it is a noble example of
+free education, open to the poorest, no matter what his race or
+language, and given to all without distinction of class. The knots of
+students sitting round their master in earnest attention, or swaying to
+and fro as they commit his dicta to memory, are a spectacle not easily
+forgotten. In every detail they carry us back to the Middle Ages of
+Arabic culture, and show us a zeal for learning, neither tainted by
+prize-hunting nor cramped by examinations, which may teach even Western
+universities something that they lack.
+
+Very little of the Azhar represents the original building. It has been
+repeatedly restored, and was largely reconstructed in the eighteenth and
+the middle of the nineteenth century, and, though there are some fine
+Kufic friezes and keelform (Persian) arches characteristic of the
+Fátimid period, its present aspect is modern. The square court, however,
+covers the same ground as it did when in 973 the caliph Mo‘izz, after
+making his splendid entry, preceded by the coffins of his ancestors,
+into the new city built by his faithful general, and totally ignoring
+the old metropolis then _en fête_ for his reception, himself conducted
+the prayers on the festival following the fasting month, delivered the
+_Khutba_ or sermon with his wonted unction, and then headed the
+procession of his troops, escorted by his four sons in armour, and
+preceded by two elephants, back to the palace which Gawhar had prepared
+for him. The fortified enclosure which has given its name to Cairo,
+though sometimes called _el-Medína_, “the City,” was never intended to
+be an Egyptian metropolis. It was to be the residence of the caliph and
+his court, his slaves and officials, and his African troops. The public
+of Misr had no access to it; none might pass through the gates without a
+permit, and even ambassadors from foreign states were obliged to
+dismount and were led into the palace between guards after the Byzantine
+custom. Káhira was in fact a royal compound or enclosure, not a public
+city. Its high walls and guarded gates symbolized the seclusion and
+mystery in which the sacred person of the caliph was wrapped, and its
+familiar epithet “the Guarded City” (el-Káhira el-Mahrúsa) illustrates
+its privacy.
+
+The original walls were built of large bricks, nearly two feet long and
+fifteen inches broad, and the thickness of the walls was such that two
+horsemen could ride abreast upon them. The Topographer in 1400 measured
+the last fragment of this first wall, and says that none of it
+afterwards remained to be seen.[38] The original enclosure was about 100
+feet smaller every way than the later enclosure built in 1087, and we
+may easily realize the length of the city of Gawhar by remembering that
+the present Bab-el-Futúh (with the mosque of el-Hákim) and the Bab-
+Zuweyla (with the mosque of el-Muayyad) stand a little outside the
+original enclosure; whilst its breadth extended from the Bab-el-
+Ghureyyib beyond the Azhar on the east to the Khalíg or canal on the
+west. The western boundary running beside the canal is still recorded in
+the street called Beyn-es-Sureyn, “Between the walls,” at the top of the
+Musky. The enclosure was thus about 1200 yards each way, and formed an
+area of less than half a square mile.
+
+About the centre was the square called Beyn-el-Kasreyn, “Between the
+Palaces,” a name still preserved in the original site in part of the
+street known as the Coppersmiths’ Market (Suk-en-Nahhasín), now flanked
+by several noble mosques of much later date. The name explains itself:
+the square, which was far broader than the present thoroughfare, and
+formed a parade ground on which ten thousand troops could be marshalled,
+separated the two palaces which faced it, and served as the meeting
+place of the city. The Great Palace of Mo‘izz lay on the east—the Khán-
+el-Khalíly stands on a corner of its vast ground, and the Hasaneyn at
+another corner—and the Lesser West Palace, built by ‘Azíz a little
+later, faced it on the other side (where the Máristán of Kalaún occupies
+a portion of its site), and on the back looked upon the spacious “Garden
+of Kafúr,” where the Ikhshíd once had his pleasure-house. Makrízy
+devotes nearly two hundred pages to the description of these wonderful
+palaces. “We read of four thousand chambers;—of the Golden Gate which
+opened to the Golden Hall, a gorgeous pavilion where the caliph, seated
+on his golden throne, surrounded by his chamberlains and gentlemen-in-
+waiting (generally Greeks or Sudánís), surveyed from behind a screen of
+golden filigree the festivals of Islám;—of the Emerald Hall with its
+beautiful pillars of marble;—the Great Diván, where he sat on Mondays
+and Thursdays at a window beneath a cupola;—and the Porch where he
+listened every evening while the oppressed and wronged came below and
+cried the _credo_ of the Shí‘a till he heard their griefs and gave
+redress.”
+
+These various buildings composing the Great Palace were not the work of
+a single year or of one ruler. Gawhar began the palace on the same night
+that he marked out the foundations of the city, in July 969; two gates
+were finished in the following March, and a wall was carried round the
+palace in 970-1. Writing of the wall three-quarters of a century later,
+Násir-i-Khusrau says that from outside the city the palace of the
+caliphs looked like a mountain, by reason of its lofty mass of
+buildings; but when one drew near one could see nothing of it on account
+of its high wall.[39] This original palace was designed by the caliph
+Mo‘izz himself, but it did not comprise half the splendid halls
+described by the Topographer. The next caliph ‘Azíz built the “Golden
+Hall” and the “Great Diván,” as well as the smaller Western Palace and
+the Pearl Pavilion in Kafúr’s Garden. Later caliphs and vezírs added and
+altered, and the “Splendid Palaces” (el-Kusúr ez-Záhira), as they were
+collectively called, included numerous separate mansions or suites of
+rooms of various dates. The Great Palace alone had ten gates, besides a
+subterraneous passage by which the caliph could cross on his mule, led
+by slave girls, to the Western Palace, which was specially reserved for
+the harím. In the eleventh century there were twelve thousand servants
+in the Palaces, and including the women the inmates were reckoned at
+thirty thousand.
+
+M. Ravaisse has reconstructed the Fátimid palaces, and even drawn plans
+of them from the Topographer’s descriptions, in two elaborate
+memoirs,[40] and though some of the details must be regarded as
+tentative and open to revision, the general results probably represent
+the actual arrangement of the Fátimid city. According to these
+interesting researches the Great East Palace comprised principally three
+large quadrangles of unequal sizes forming three quarters of a square,
+the fourth or N.E. quarter being occupied by the Court of the Festival,
+an open space between the Great Palace and the Palace of the Vezírs,
+where the people could make merry on the ‘Id days. This Great Palace,
+flanked by the Vezirate and the Azhar, covered the space from the
+present Khan-el-Khalíly and Hasaneyn to the Gemalíya street (where the
+monastic mosque of Beybars the Gashnekír stands). The various halls,
+apartments, and court offices were arranged about the quadrangles, and
+stables and stores formed outbuildings. On the other side of the Beyn-
+el-Kasreyn, the West Palace ran from where the Maristán now stands to
+the Hárat Bargawán, with two wings jutting forward at each end to
+enclose the Beyn-el-Kasreyn; whilst the space between the West Palace
+and the west wall was filled by the spacious Garden of Kafúr with its
+various kiosques looking on the canal. The rest of the city enclosure,
+outside the palaces, was occupied by the quarters (Hára) of the various
+divisions of the Fátimid army, such as the Gawdaris, the Deylemis, the
+Kitáma, the Barkis, the Utúfis, the Zawíla, and the north and south
+Greek quarters (Hárat-er-Rúm), and so forth. The gates of the city were
+the (old) Gates of Succour, Bab-en-Nasr, and of Conquests, Bab-el-Futúh,
+on the north; the Gate of the Bridge (B.-el-Kántara) leading to Gawhar’s
+bridge over the canal, the B.-el-Farag, also called the Gate of the
+Sha‘ríya (a Berber tribe), and the Gate of Sa‘áda, named after a general
+of el-Mo‘izz, and the Wicket Gate (Bab-el-Khawkha) on the west, opening
+to the canal; the old double Gate of Zuweyla[41] on the south; and on
+the east the Burnt Gate (B.-el-Mahrúk, so called because burnt down by
+some fugitive Mamlúks in the thirteenth century), the New Gate (B.-el-
+Gedíd, built by Hákim), and the Gate of the Barka troops (B.-el-
+Barkíya), now known as the B.-el-Ghureyyib.
+
+Some of the modern superstitions connected with the Gate of Zuweyla have
+been mentioned before, but it has always been a haunted spot, and the
+fact that executions took place just outside did not improve its
+reputation. The Topographer records that the original gate, which stood
+beside the “oratory of Shem, the son of Noah,” consisted of two arches,
+one of which was known as the “Gate of the Arch.” This was the gate
+through which el-Mo‘izz entered when he made his state progress into the
+new city of Káhira, and all the people followed his example: but the
+other arch was considered unlucky and no one cared to go under it. “This
+[second] gate no longer remains,” says Makrízy, “nor is there any trace
+of it, but the place where it stood is called el-Haggarín, where musical
+instruments, as drums, lutes, and such-like are sold; and it is still
+notorious among the people that whoever passes that way will not
+accomplish his wishes. Some say that the reason of this saying is
+because it is the place of sale for musical instruments, which are held
+in disrepute, and the abode of musicians and male and female singers;
+but the case is not as they pretend, for the saying was current among
+the people of el-Káhira from the time when el-Mo‘izz entered, before
+this place was a market for musical instruments and the haunt of the
+disorderly.”[42]
+
+Such topographical details are chiefly interesting to the antiquary. We
+must search the records of travellers for more graphic descriptions.
+Strangers unfortunately were rare in so jealously secluded a sanctum as
+the Fátimid palace, and there are consequently few travellers’ pictures
+to add to the researches of the Topographer. The Persian Násir-i-Khusrau
+was indeed admitted in 1047, but he is disappointingly discreet in his
+account, and we gain only a confused but gorgeous impression of the
+great throne-room with hunting-scenes carved on the gold throne, which
+was screened by gold lattice and approached by silver steps. The best
+description occurs in William of Tyre’s account of the mission of the
+Crusaders in 1167, when Amalric was posing as the protector of the
+caliph, though it may well be that the palace had greatly changed in the
+two centuries that had passed since its foundation. “The introduction of
+Christian ambassadors to the sacred presence, where few even of the most
+exalted Muslims were admitted, was unprecedented; but Amalric was in a
+position to dictate his own terms. Permission was granted, and Hugh of
+Cæsarea with Geoffrey Fulcher the Templar were selected for the unique
+embassy. The vezír himself conducted them with every detail of oriental
+ceremony and display to the Great Palace of the Fátimids. They were led
+by mysterious corridors and through guarded doors, where stalwart
+Sudánis saluted with naked swords. They reached a spacious court, open
+to the sky, and surrounded by arcades resting on marble pillars; the
+panelled ceilings were carved and inlaid in gold and colours; the
+pavement was rich mosaic. The unaccustomed eyes of the rude knights
+opened wide with wonder at the taste and refinement that met them at
+every step;—here they saw marble fountains, birds of many notes and
+wondrous plumage, strangers to the western world; there, in a further
+hall, more exquisite even than the first, ‘a variety of animals such as
+the ingenious hand of the painter might depict, or the license of the
+poet invent, or the mind of the sleeper conjure up in the visions of the
+night,—such, indeed, as the regions of the East and the South bring
+forth, but the West sees never, and scarcely hears of.’
+
+“At last, after many turns and windings, they reached the throne room,
+where the multitude of the pages and their sumptuous dress proclaimed
+the splendour of their lord. Thrice did the vezír, ungirding his sword,
+prostrate himself to the ground, as though in humble supplication to his
+god; then, with a sudden rapid sweep, the heavy curtains broidered with
+gold and pearls were drawn aside, and on a golden throne, robed in more
+than regal state, the caliph sat revealed.
+
+“The vezír humbly presented the foreign knights, and set forth in lowly
+words the urgent danger from without, and the great friendship of the
+king of Jerusalem. The caliph, a swarthy youth emerging from
+boyhood,—_fuscus, procerus corpore, facie venusta,_—replied with suave
+dignity. He was willing, he said, to confirm in the amplest way the
+engagements made with his beloved ally. But when asked to give his hand
+in pledge of faithfulness, he hesitated, and a thrill of indignation at
+the stranger’s presumption ran through the listening court. After a
+pause, however, the caliph offered his hand—gloved as it was—to Sir
+Hugh. The blunt knight spoke him straight: ‘My lord, troth has no
+covering: in the good faith of princes, all is naked and open.’ Then at
+last, very unwillingly, as though derogating from his dignity, the
+caliph, forcing a smile, drew off the glove and put his hand in Hugh’s,
+swearing word by word to keep the covenant truly and in all good
+faith.”[43]
+
+There is no doubt that the Fátimid caliphs were the most sumptuous
+monarchs that ever ruled in Egypt. Mo‘izz himself was no sybarite. He
+attended personally and assiduously to the details of administration,
+looked to the justice of the law courts, managed the army upon which his
+power depended, and built a new dock at Maks, lower down the river than
+the former dockyards of Roda and Misr, and near the present Ezbekíya.
+Maks remained the dock and port of Cairo until the shifting of the Nile
+bed brought Bulák to the surface. Six hundred ships were soon afterwards
+built there, and some of Mo‘izz’s vessels were seen in 1047 by Násir-i-
+Khusrau beached at Maks, and were found to measure about 275 feet in
+length by 110 feet in the beam.[44] But hard-working and prudent as he
+was, he loved display. He would go in state to cut the dam of the canal,
+and spent large sums on the brocaded covering for the Kaaba at Mekka—the
+holy city now acknowledged his supremacy—which was exhibited to the
+people at the annual Feast of Sacrifice. The palace buildings were all
+planned by his own hands; Gawhar had only been his clerk of the works;
+and the profusion of the new city argued the luxurious taste and the
+prodigious resources of the caliph. The wealth of the Fátimids recorded
+by the historians seems almost incredible. We read of two daughters of
+Mo‘izz, one of whom left about a million and a half in gold (2,700,000
+dinárs), whilst the other’s numerous jewel-rooms and coffers,
+containing, among others, five sacks of emeralds, 3000 silver vessels,
+and 30,000 Sicilian embroideries, exhausted forty pounds of wax in
+sealing them up for her executors. Mo‘izz himself bought a silk curtain
+from Persia for nearly £12,000, on which the countries of the world were
+depicted and their cities; and his wife spent much treasure in 966 on
+her mosque in the Karáfa, designed by el-Hasan the Persian and decorated
+by Basra painters.
+
+One advantage of heresy was the toleration of artistic ideas that were
+abhorrent to the orthodox, and the Fátimids encouraged, if not portrait
+painting, at least the representation of human beings in art, which was
+held to be distinctly forbidden by the Prophet.[45] The mosque of the
+cemetery called the Karáfa, however, transcended anything ever attempted
+before in Egypt, if we except the stories of Khumáraweyh’s palace in
+“the Wards.” Its plan was the ordinary square quadrangle surrounded by
+cloisters, like the Azhar, but the decoration was remarkable. The
+fourteen square doors leading into the _liwán_ or sanctuary were
+surmounted by arches resting on triple marble columns, painted blue,
+red, and green; the ceilings were also painted in various colours by
+artists from Basra. Opposite the middle door was an arch on which a
+bridge was painted, with steps of various colours, which looked real.
+Painters used to come to see it, but they could not copy it. We read of
+two rival artists, el-Kasír and Ibn-‘Azíz of Chaldæa, protégés of the
+vezír el-Yazúry, who painted figures, the first of a dancing girl in a
+white dress, standing against the black background of an arch, seeming
+as though she stood inside it, and the second a similar girl in red who
+appeared to be standing out in front of a yellow arch. There was in a
+house in the Karáfa a picture by el-Kettámy, one of the decorators of
+this mosque, which represented Joseph in the pit so that he seemed to
+stand out in relief.[46]
+
+The money to pay for the outgoings of the palace, with its twenty to
+thirty thousand inmates, and all the luxury it implied, was partly
+obtained by a more rigorous collection of the taxes and arrears than
+heretofore, and by the substitution of a central tax office in the old
+emírate house next to the mosque of Ibn-Tulún in place of the wasteful
+and corrupt system of local collectors and tax-farmers. In a single day
+the city of Misr (still in its prime) contributed from £26,000 to
+£62,000 in taxes, according to the season. All taxes had to be paid in
+the new Fátimid coinage, and the ‘Abbásid money was put out of currency.
+
+The next caliph el-‘Azíz was noted for his judgment in gems, and set a
+number of new fashions in gold-thread turbans, jewelled harness scented
+with ambergris, and gold-inlaid armour for his horses, and luxuries for
+the table, such as truffles from Mukattam and fish fresh from the sea.
+Like Khumáraweyh he was fond of strange beasts, and imported birds and
+animals from the Sudán. But he shared with his father the statesmanlike
+qualities that no luxury could enfeeble. He built a fleet to fight the
+emperor Basil; personally waged a successful campaign in orthodox Syria,
+which never became reconciled to the Fátimid supremacy; and he gave
+Egypt an interval of unbroken peace. His name was commemorated in the
+Friday prayer in the mosques from Arabia to the Atlantic, and he never
+failed to stand before the people in the Azhar and conduct the service
+as their spiritual as well as temporal head.
+
+[Illustration: RUINED MOSQUE OF EL-HAKIM]
+
+The mosque known as el-Hákim’s owed its foundation at the close of 990
+to el-‘Azíz and his vezír Ibn-Killis, who completed it sufficiently to
+hold the Friday prayers there a year later. The decoration, minarets,
+and other accessories were not finished till the reign of his son el-
+Hákim, who set the work in hand in 1003, and placed the final
+inscription on the pulpit in March 1013. Hence this second
+congregational mosque of Káhira, originally known as the “New Mosque” or
+“The Brilliant” (el-Anwar, in obvious imitation of the name of el-
+Azhar), took its most usual title from el-Hákim. In the course of its
+history it has suffered even worse indignities than the Old Mosque of
+‘Amr. When the Crusaders occupied Cairo in 1167 they turned part of the
+mosque of el-Hákim into a church. Under the Ayyúbid restoration of
+orthodox Islam, the Azhar was disused for a time, as being the chief
+seat of heresy, and the mosque of el-Hákim became the official place of
+worship. Afterwards it seems to have been used for stables, and in the
+summer of 1303 it was terribly shattered by a great earthquake, and
+restored in the following year by Beybars the Taster. By the time that
+the Topographer wrote his account of it about 1420, the mosque was again
+in ruins, by fire and neglect, and its roof was crumbling piece by
+piece. Since then it has fallen on still more evil days. Its court has
+served in turn as a rope-walk, a drying ground, a common throughfare, a
+playground, which you entered through a café, a brewery, or a bead
+factory. The only honourable use it has been turned to is that of a
+Museum of Arab Art, which for the past twenty years has occupied part of
+the arcades of the east end, where the noble arches and Kufic
+inscriptions still preserve something of their ancient grandeur, and
+formed a fit shrine for many beautiful and curious works of Saracenic
+art.
+
+Melancholy as this vast empty court surrounded by decayed walls and
+ruined arches appears in the present day, there are points of great
+interest in the mosque of el-Hákim. The arches are the only exceptions
+to the Persian shape (“keelform”—two arcs terminating in tangential
+lines _at each end_) which is otherwise universal in the architecture of
+the Fátimid period. This is doubtless due to its early date and obvious
+imitation of the mosque of Ibn-Tulún. Still more remarkable are its
+minarets, commonly called _mibkharas_ or censers from their peculiar
+shape. The heavy square bases, however, have nothing to do with the
+original minarets, the lower parts of which, built of carefully dressed
+stone, with traces of Fátimid inscriptions, may still be traced inside
+these ugly buttresses. A minute examination made by Herz Bey and M. van
+Berchem established beyond a doubt the fact that the brick minarets
+belong to the hasty restoration of 1304, after the earthquake. Beybars
+did not trouble to rebuild the minarets in their former style, but put
+brick tops, and probably shored up the old bases with the clumsy cubical
+casings which have puzzled so many archæologists and suggested strange
+theories of the early forms of minarets. The cubes may be later,
+however, and may have had some connexion with the military defences of
+the neighbouring city gate. The remains of the original stone minarets
+inside these casings are specially interesting since they are the only
+definite evidence we possess (save the small brick minaret of the mosque
+el-Guyúshy) as to the construction of minarets of the Fátimid epoch, of
+which Makrízy was evidently unaware when he wrote that no stone minarets
+were erected previously to that of Kalaún in 1284. They are precisely
+similar in construction to the later Mamlúk minarets, starting from a
+square base, changing to an octagon, resolved into a cylinder. A spiral
+staircase within led up to windows whence the muezzins chanted the call
+to prayer.[47]
+
+The caliph Hákim is one of the best known characters in Egyptian
+history, yet a character so contradictory and bizarre that his
+biographers are inevitably reduced to the weak conclusion of explaining
+his conduct by the unsatisfactory solution of mania. He was the only son
+of the exemplary ‘Azíz and his Christian wife,—the sister of two
+patriarchs,—and is another witness to the truth of the saying that
+clergymen’s relations are no better than other folk. Emerging from the
+upper branches of a fig tree at the age of eleven to enter upon the
+dazzling lustre of the throne, the boy had an unfortunate training. His
+governor, the Slavonian eunuch Bargawán,—whose name is still to be read
+in one of the lanes off the Beyn-el-Kasreyn—amused himself in the Pearl
+Palace in the Garden of Kafúr, whilst the Berber and Turkish troops
+fought each other in the streets. One of Hákim’s early experiences was
+the presentation of the Berber general’s head by the victorious Turkish
+guard. It was but a short step to the murder of the regent, and after
+four years of very lax tutelage the youth of fifteen assumed full
+powers.
+
+“As the young caliph came more before the public, the eccentricities of
+his character began to appear. His strange face, with its terrible blue
+eyes, made people shrink; his big voice made them tremble. His tutor had
+called him ‘a lizard,’ and he had a creepy slippery way of gliding among
+his subjects that explained the nickname. He had a passion for darkness,
+would summon his council to meet at night, and would ride about the
+streets on his grey ass night after night, spying into the ways and
+opinions of the people under pretence of inspecting the market weights
+and measures. Night was turned into day by his command. All business and
+catering was ordered to take place after sunset. The shops had to be
+opened and the houses illuminated to serve his whim, and when the poor
+people overdid the thing and began to frolic in the unwonted hours,
+repressive orders were issued; women forbidden to leave their homes, and
+men to sit in the booths. Shoemakers were ordered to make no outdoor
+boots for women, so that they might not have the wherewithal to stir
+abroad, and the ladies of Cairo were not only enjoined on no account to
+allow themselves to be seen at the lattice-windows, but might not even
+take the air on the flat roofs of their houses. Stringent regulations
+were issued about food and drink. Hákim was a zealous teetotaller, as
+all Muslims are expected to be. Beer was forbidden, wine was
+confiscated, vines cut down, even dried raisins were contraband;
+malukhíya (Jews’ mallow) was not to be eaten, and honey was seized and
+poured into the Nile. Games, such as the Egyptian chess, were
+prohibited, and the chessboards burnt. Dogs were to be killed wherever
+found in the streets, but the finest cattle could not be slaughtered
+save at the Feast of Sacrifice. Those who ventured to disobey these
+decrees were scourged and beheaded, or put to death by some of the novel
+forms of torture which the ingenious caliph delighted in inventing. A
+good many of these strange regulations were no doubt inspired by a
+genuine reforming spirit, but it was the spirit of a mad reformer. The
+lively ladies of Cairo have always needed a tight hand over them, but
+who could expect to restrain a woman by confiscating her boots? The
+prohibition of intoxicating liquors, gambling, and public amusements,
+was in keeping with the character of a sour and bitter puritan, and was
+doubtless intended as much to improve the morals as to vex the souls of
+his subjects. But the nightly wanderings, the needless restrictions and
+harassing regulations concerning immaterial details, were signs of an
+unbalanced mind. Hákim may have meant well according to his lights, but
+his lights were strangely prismatic.”
+
+It is difficult to discover the method in this madness. At first
+Christians were tolerated; then, about 1005, began a course of
+contemptible persecution, petty annoyances, foolish badges and liveries,
+and other humiliations, followed by wholesale confiscations and
+destruction of churches. But the Muslims fared almost as ill. Vezírs,
+whether Christians or Muslims, were indiscriminately assassinated or
+executed. The great Gawhar’s son was treacherously murdered in the
+palace. Officials of all grades and all creeds were barbarously tortured
+and wantonly killed. A distinguished general, after putting down a
+rebellion which kept Egypt in a tumult for two years, happened to
+disturb Hákim when he was cutting up a murdered child, and paid for his
+indiscretion with his life. Yet at the very time when these horrors were
+being enacted, the young caliph was busily superintending the decoration
+of the mosque that bears his name,[48] and also founding the remarkable
+institution called the “Hall of Science” (Dar-el-‘Ilm), in the precincts
+of the Great Palace, where learned men of all shades of opinion met
+together and discussed everything under the sun with the resources of a
+well-appointed library. These meetings of a parliament of religions
+recall the debates of Akbar’s later “Hall of Worship” at Agra, nor is
+this the only point of resemblance between the two sovereigns,
+contrasted as they are in most respects. Akbar allowed himself to be
+worshipped as a deity, and Hákim came at last to a similar result, and
+both were led to it by Shí‘a influences.
+
+No doubt those long lonely rides on his grey ass about the desolate
+Mukattam hills, those nights in the observatory on the slopes where he
+worked out his astrological chimeras, ministered to a mind deeply imbued
+with the mystical teaching of the Shí‘a. He was the Imám, through whom
+God revealed Himself to the ignorant world; he was the only possessor of
+the divine secrets; it was an easy step, and a logical, to argue that he
+was the incarnation of the deity—that he was God. It took more than
+twenty years to bring him to this point, but aided by the preaching of
+some Persian mystics he arrived there about 1018. It is true his
+preachers had poor success in their mission of proclaiming the divinity
+of Hákim. One was set upon and murdered to the joy of the orthodox;
+others desecrated the Old Mosque of ‘Amr with their blasphemy, and the
+people rose and slew them; Darazy, who afterwards gave his name to the
+strange sect of the Druzes in the Lebanon, was hunted to the palace and
+with difficulty saved by the caliph’s personal interposition and ready
+lie. Nobody accepted the new doctrine, monstrous to orthodox ears; and
+probably the bulk of the people were not even moderate Shí‘a but really
+Sunnis of the old school. Misr was in an uproar, and within an ace of a
+revolution; but the negro troops did their savage work, the old capital
+was looted, houses were burst open, young girls dragged away, and a
+reign of terror silenced the outcry. The tortured people gathered in the
+mosques and prayed for help.
+
+Help came, but from an unexpected quarter. The black troops had gone too
+far, and their rivals, the Berbers and Turks, less out of humanity than
+mere jealousy of power, joined together in suppressing the common enemy.
+Even Hákim lost his control over the army. He also set a powerful
+influence against him in the harím. He slandered his sister’s chastity.
+The Princess Royal refused after this to stand between her brother and
+his fate. A conspiracy was formed and when, on the 13th of February
+1021, Hákim took one of his accustomed rides to the hills, dauntless and
+unconcerned as ever, he never returned. His ass and his coat, slashed
+with dagger cuts, were found, but his body had disappeared. For a long
+time people fearfully expected his return, as the Druzes in the Lebanon
+do to this day.
+
+After so horrible a nightmare Cairo stood in sore need of rest. It came,
+but not at once. Military tyranny was succeeded by the corrupt rule of a
+court clique; a terrible famine in 1025 drove the starving people to
+highway robbery; the treasury was exhausted, the very slaves of the
+palace mutinied, and Syria was in open revolt, whilst the new caliph,
+Hákim’s son, amused himself with singers and dancers and bricked up
+young girls to starve to death in the mosque. The luck of the Fátimids
+was not yet exhausted, however; and good Niles, a vigorous suppression
+of the Syrian rebellion by an energetic viceroy, and a temporary
+quieting down of the soldiers’ jealousies, gave Egypt a quarter of a
+century of comparative tranquillity. The valley of the Nile was now
+almost all that was left to the Fátimids. Their great Barbary dominions
+had completely fallen away by 1046, and the old Mediterranean supremacy
+had departed for ever. Syria was held with difficulty by force of arms,
+and though Arabia, from Medina to the Yemen and Hadramawt, yielded
+homage to the Egyptian caliphs, its Shí‘a emír was nothing less than an
+independent sovereign. The extraordinary fact that for forty weeks in
+1058-9 the Fátimid caliph was prayed for in the mosques of orthodox
+Baghdád[49] testifies to political intrigues in the eastern caliphate
+rather than to any real access of power to the Fátimids.
+
+In Egypt, however, they were still undisturbed. A new caliph, el-
+Mustánsir, a baby of eight months, succeeded to the throne in 1036, and
+kept it, by no special virtue or effort of his own, until 1094, and his
+long occupation—it can hardly be called reign—comprised alternations of
+surprising prosperity and desperate distress. In spite of the evil
+influence of his mother, a Sudány black, who imported many of her savage
+compatriots to overawe the capital, the country enjoyed exceptional
+tranquillity in the middle of the eleventh century. We have the evidence
+of Násir-i-Khusrau, in 1047-9, who states unconditionally that Egypt was
+then in affluence, and that he had never known such tranquillity and
+security as he saw there. The caliph Mustansir was exceedingly popular,
+and no one went in fear of violence or rapacity from his government.
+Order reigned supreme, and the very jewellers and moneychangers did not
+trouble to shut the doors of their shops against thieves. The shops in
+Cairo itself were reckoned at over twenty thousand, and all were the
+property of the caliph, and paid him from two to ten dinárs a month. He
+owned, it was said, 20,000 houses, five or six storeys high, let out in
+lodgings, at monthly rents averaging eleven dinárs (or £70 a year). The
+houses were well built of good stone, not brick, and were separated by
+delightful gardens. There were then no city walls (the first walls
+having fallen to ruin, and the second not built till forty years later),
+but the lofty houses themselves, says the traveller, were almost like
+fortifications, and each palace or mansion was a castle by itself.[50]
+There was a space of a mile between Cairo and Misr, covered with gardens
+and country-houses, but flooded at the time of the inundation so that it
+looked like a sea.
+
+The Persian saw one of the great ceremonies of the Cairo year, the
+cutting of the dam of the canal at Misr by Mustansir in person. The
+caliph rode at the head of ten thousand horsemen, whose saddles and
+harness and horse-armour were adorned with gold and precious stones,
+with silken housings embroidered with the caliph’s name. Led camels bore
+litters richly decorated, and even the mules had their share of jewelled
+harness. Regiment after regiment the army defiled towards the mouth of
+the canal: Berbers of the Kitáma tribe, 20,000 strong, descended from
+the veterans of Mo‘izz; Maghrabis, 15,000; Masmúda, 20,000; Turks and
+Persians, called “the Easterns,” though born in Egypt, 10,000; Bedawis
+from the Higáz, 15,000; Sudány blacks, 30,000; slaves, chamberlains,
+officials of all ranks, poets and doctors, princes from Morocco, from
+the Yemen, from Nubia, Abyssinia, Asia Minor, Georgia, Turkistan, and
+even the sons of a sultan of Delhi, whose mother had settled at Cairo.
+The caliph himself, a handsome and amiable-looking young man, clean
+shaved, and dressed in a long robe of pure white, rode a mule without
+any ornaments. Three hundred Persians of Deylem on foot, dressed in
+Greek brocade, formed his escort, carrying axes and pikes. A great
+dignitary bore the parasol of state beside him, and eunuchs burned
+incense on either hand. All the people fell on their faces as the caliph
+passed to the silken tent at the mouth of the canal, and as soon as he
+cast a javelin at the dam they fell to with pick and shovel, and the
+Nile flowed in. Then all the world went sailing on the river in great
+joy, headed by a boatful of deaf and dumb for the sake of luck.
+
+The Persian was fortunate in the time of his sojourn in Egypt. Very evil
+days were in store for it, in which Cairo suffered its first spoliation
+since its foundation a century before. For nine years (1050-8) an able
+vezír, el-Yazúry, kept the upper hand over the various factions. He did
+his best to deal with the ever-recurring menace of famine, and it is
+possible that the ruins of “Joseph’s granaries” near Masr-el-‘Atíka,
+which Benjamin of Tudela mentions as early as 1170, represent the
+storehouses for corn which he laid up against years of scarcity. In
+those days there was no Willcocks or Scott Moncrieff to plan barrages
+and dams, and make the great river the servant of the poorest felláh. If
+the Nile at the season of inundation did not rise above the lines on the
+Nilometer at Roda known by the ominous names of the degrees of Munkir
+and Nakír, the two angels of the grave, a famine inevitably ensued, and
+with the famine came too often plague, and misery and hunger led to
+disorder and crime. The cause and effect recurred with the regularity of
+a machine. Yazúry’s granaries staved off the danger for a while at the
+capital; but after he was poisoned in 1058, there was no one to control
+the warring factions. Forty changes of vezírs in nine years show the
+instability of the government. The caliph listened to the advice of
+anybody, and men of straw formed his council. The real rulers were the
+Turkish troops, who united with the Berbers and drove the hated Sudánis
+out of Cairo. The blacks established themselves in Upper Egypt, where
+their license terrified the people and prevented cultivation; the
+Berbers, expelled in turn, overran the Delta and deliberately destroyed
+the irrigation system in order to starve the fellahín. Meanwhile the
+Turks looted the capital, despoiled the beautiful palaces of the
+caliphs, dispersed their priceless collections[51] of works of art,
+precious stones and jewellery, and worst of all broke up their
+incomparable library of 100,000 manuscripts—some of them books which
+orientalists still search for in vain—and used these treasures of
+learning to mend their boots, to light their fires, or even threw them
+wantonly out on the rubbish heaps.
+
+Upper and Lower Egypt being held by predatory bands of Sudánis and
+Berbers, the capital was cut off from supplies when the great famine
+began in 1066. Seven years it lasted without a sign of relief, and Egypt
+was nearly ruined. Terror of the disbanded troops in the provinces
+paralysed the fellahín, and nothing was done to mitigate the effects of
+the low Niles or to sow for the next season. Cairo and Misr, deprived of
+their usual supplies from the provinces, felt the scarcity most
+severely. We read of £8 being paid for a loaf of bread, of a house
+bartered for a quarter of flour, of ladies of quality throwing away
+their useless jewellery which no one would take in exchange for food,
+and of horses, asses, and even dogs and cats, bought at high prices and
+hungrily devoured. Soon there was not a beast to be killed, and the
+caliph’s stable was brought so low that his starved grooms could only
+muster three sorry nags. The people began to kidnap and eat each other.
+Human flesh was sold by the butchers. Then came the plague and mowed
+down every soul in house after house with its sudden secret scythe.
+Famine and plague are no respecters of persons. The great suffered alike
+with the poor. Proud noblemen tried to earn a crust of bread by serving
+in the public baths. The caliph himself, despoiled by the Turks and
+deserted by his household—even his wife and daughters fled to Baghdád to
+escape the pest—owed his daily rations of two loaves to the charity of a
+scholar’s daughter.
+
+Those seven lean years of indescribable misery and crime had never
+before been approached in Egypt. At last they came to an end. The
+harvest of 1073 was bountiful, the leader of the Turks was “cut in
+pieces small,” and a great vezír came to the rescue of the tottering
+State (1074). This was Bedr el Gemály, for whom the caliph sent in his
+distress. Bedr was an Armenian, but not a Christian, and began his
+career as a slave. His marked ability had raised him to such high
+offices as the governorship of Damascus and afterwards of ‘Akka (Acre).
+He was the man for the crisis, and by a fortunate omen a Korán reader
+was actually reciting to the caliph the verse, “And God has helped you
+with Bedr——”[52] when Bedr entered the presence. “Had you read any
+more,” cried the delighted caliph, “your head would have been cut off.”
+The famous general made short work of the Turkish oligarchy. The leaders
+were all killed, by a treacherous but salutary trick, in a single night.
+The reign of terror in Cairo was over. Bedr was appointed commander-in-
+chief, vezír of the sword and pen, chief kády, and director of the Shí‘a
+propaganda—generalissimo, prime minister, cardinal, and lord chancellor
+in one. He first brought back order in the capital, and then marched
+through the provinces, defeating, slaughtering and subduing Berbers,
+Sudánis, and Arabs, till law reigned supreme from Alexandria to Aswán.
+The peasantry, restored to peace and security, laboured their lands
+again, the revenue rose by leaps and bounds, and for twenty years the
+country enjoyed plenteous prosperity.
+
+Cairo benefited incalculably by the large and noble policy of the great
+Armenian. For a century since the days when ‘Azíz built the West Palace
+and the Pavilion of the Pearl, there had been few important additions to
+its architecture. Hákim, indeed, had finished his father’s mosque, and
+built the Hall of Science. Mustansir’s favourite residence was his
+country palace at Heliopolis, where he had a kiosk modelled after the
+holy but distinctly ugly Kaaba of Mekka, with a pool of wine to
+represent the well of Zemzem; and there he made merry, with exceedingly
+unorthodox sarcasms upon the black stone and bad water of the Arabian
+original. With the rule of Bedr, Cairo once more heard the sound of the
+trowel. In view of the recent invasion and spoliation of the city by
+insurgent troops the first necessity was to fortify it for defence. The
+old wall of sun-burnt brick had practically disappeared in the growth of
+the town which now spread outside the three gates built by Gawhar. These
+gates were now taken down and rebuilt of stone (1187-91) so as to
+enclose a larger area—the Greek Quarter at the south, for example, was
+now taken within the wall—and a new wall of brick was carried round the
+city. It was afterwards enlarged by Saladin, but some of the wall of
+Bedr still remains. On the north it still connects the Bab-en-Nasr with
+the Bab-el-Futúh, and extends to a bastion about 330 feet west of the
+latter, and to a re-entering angle some 200 feet east of the Bab-en-
+Nasr. There is also a piece of the wall among the houses near the Bab-
+Zuweyla on the south face of the enclosure, and as late as 1842 a
+portion of the west wall was still to be seen at the west side of the
+Ezbekíya.
+
+[Illustration: GATE OF SUCCOUR: BAB-EN-NASR]
+
+The three great gates stand practically unchanged, though the towers of
+the Zuweyla gate were shortened to receive the minarets of the mosque of
+el-Muayyad in the fifteenth century. These gates are the most impressive
+monuments of the Fátimid period, but they are Byzantine, not Saracenic.
+According to the Armenian chronicler Abu-Sálih, a Copt, “John the Monk,”
+planned the walls and gates for the Armenian vezír; but whatever share
+he had in designing the lie of the walls, he could never have been the
+architect of these Norman-looking gates.[53] The Topographer is
+evidently right in stating that they were built by three brothers from
+Edessa—a city full of Armenians where Bedr, with his Syrian experience,
+would naturally seek his architects—each of whom built one gate. The
+statement is amply confirmed, not only by the style, which clearly
+belongs to the Syrian-Byzantine school, but also by various mason’s
+marks in Greek letters, Ζ̲, Η, Η’, etc. In short, as M. van Berchem has
+pointed out, the gates and enceinte of Cairo belong to what is called
+the Templars’ (as distinguished from the French) style of military
+architecture,—“the great Byzantine and Saracenic school of which the
+chief characteristics may be traced in various countries and at divers
+epochs, at Constantinople, Nicæa, Brusa, Adalia, and the Pamphylian
+cities, in the old Arab fortresses of northern Syria, in the style of
+the Templars and the military buildings of the post-crusade Saracens,
+such as the enceinte of Jerusalem,” etc. The leading features of the
+style are square bastions and square or round headed openings,
+contrasting with the Persian arches of the Fátimid mosques and the round
+bastions of Saladin’s wall. The curtains run to a thickness of eleven to
+thirteen feet, and contain archers’ chambers and other apparatus for
+defence. The gates consist of a vaulted passage, with round arch,
+between towers containing an ingenious arrangement of shooting floors
+and connected by a cross-passage above the arch, with a place for
+launching stones or grenades upon the enemy. A fine spiral staircase,
+admirable cornices, some sculptured shields, and a magnificent Kufic
+inscription[54] adorn the Bab-en-Nasr. The inscription (like another on
+the Bab-el-Futúh) expresses the Shí‘a creed, but has nevertheless
+sustained eight centuries of orthodox rule in Egypt unchanged. The three
+great gates are noble monuments of one of the greatest vezírs of
+mediæval Cairo.
+
+For nearly sixty years Egypt enjoyed the inestimable benefits of
+Armenian rule. Bedr died in 1094, the year also of the caliph
+Mustánsir’s death, but the vezír’s son el-Afdal succeeded to his
+father’s power, and governed Egypt till 1121, when he was assassinated
+by order of the caliph Amir. Afdal’s son Abu-‘Aly held supreme power in
+1131 in the name of “the expected Mahdy,”—thus reverting to the old
+Shí‘a theory of the hidden Imám and ignoring all claims of the Fátimid
+dynasty. When he in turn was murdered on his way to the polo field,
+Yanis, an Armenian slave of Afdal’s, became vezír, and after him Bahrám,
+an Armenian Christian, retained the office until 1137. By this time the
+growing influence of the Armenians had led to their holding every post
+worth having in all the government departments, and their excessive
+assumption of authority led to a natural reaction. Bahrám and 2000 of
+his fellow-countrymen were expelled, and the heyday of the Armenians was
+over. They deserved well of the country, and had ruled, on a whole, both
+wisely and large-mindedly. Firm and yet mild, the virtual sovereignty of
+Bedr and his son had rendered immense services to Egypt. If they
+accumulated vast wealth—Afdal is said to have left over £3,000,000 in
+gold, and the milk of his herds of cows was farmed in one year for
+£15,750—they earned their fortunes by hard and intelligent work; they
+were just and generous, and the Copts had much to thank them for. Even
+Abu-‘Aly, with his eccentric revival of the doctrine of the concealed
+Imám, who actually figured on the coinage, inherited the wise tradition
+of his father and grandfather, and showed himself tolerant and mild, a
+good friend to the Christians, and a patron of learning.
+
+[Illustration: MINARETS OVER GATE OF ZUWEYLA]
+
+From the time of Bedr, Egypt, it will be realized, had become a country
+ruled no longer by caliphs but by vezírs. It was the old story of the
+Merovingian _major domo_ translated into Arabic. Indeed, since the
+terrible despotism of Hákim no caliph had exercised personal authority
+in the great affairs of state, except el-Amir, who tried for a few years
+to be his own prime-minister, with the help, however, of the monk Ibn-
+Kenna, but the experiment was not a success. The monk became too
+inflated, and was scourged to death. El-Ámir’s cruelty made him
+detested, and one day as he was riding back from the Hawdag, or
+“Litter,” the country-house on the island of Roda in which he consulted
+the desert tastes of his Bedawy bride, he was assassinated by some
+Isma‘ílian Assassins (1130). He had at least the virtue to found a
+mosque, the Gámi‘ el-Akmar (Grey Mosque), in Beyn-el-Kasreyn. After this
+the caliphs resigned themselves to a succession of vezírs, who were
+themselves the instruments of military factions. The spiritual sanctity
+and seclusion of the Fátimid pontiffs were still observed, as we have
+seen in the description of the embassy of the two knights, but one must
+believe that this reverence had degenerated into something like a farce.
+The murders of Ámir and Záfir; the early imprisonment of Háfiz, and his
+later thraldom to his drunken negro guards, who killed the gallant
+Rudwán, vezír, soldier, and poet, in front of the Grey Mosque, and who
+made the caliph poison his own son by the hands of his Christian
+physician; the awful scene of bloodshed in the very palace, amid which
+the baby Fáïz was exhibited to the trembling court as their spiritual
+Imám[55]—these do not point to any real reverence for the mystical
+caliphate of the Shí‘a. Fainéant caliphs had long been known at Baghdád,
+and their rivals on the Nile were equally shadows of a mighty name.
+
+The last horror was too much even for the long-suffering people of
+Cairo. The murder of the caliph Záfir shortly after the murder of the
+Kurd vezír Ibn-es-Salár; the massacre in the palace; the peculiar
+unnaturalness of the crimes on the part of a kinsman and boonfellow; the
+atrocious brutality of exposing the child-caliph of four years to the
+terror of such a scene of blood and anguish, roused a storm of
+vengeance. The new vezír, ‘Abbás, the instigator, fled from a hail of
+stones, and was killed near the Dead Sea; the actual assassin, Nasr, was
+delivered up by the Templars of Palestine, for a blood-money of £30,000,
+to the women of the palace, who tortured him, and sent him through the
+streets of Cairo, maimed and blinded, to be crucified alive at the Bab-
+Zuweyla. In their desperate straits the women had sent locks of their
+hair to the governor of Ushmuneyn in Upper Egypt, and the emír Talái‘,
+son of Ruzzík, responded gallantly to the appeal (1154). Waving the
+eloquent tresses he rode into Cairo, followed by an Arab guard, and when
+he had assumed the vezirate in the Dar-el-Mamún,[56] the capital
+recovered its confidence. Talái‘, who followed the custom of recent
+vezírs and styled himself “king,” el-Melik es-Sálih, was the last
+buttress of the falling dynasty. He was a man of culture, a poet,
+accessible, generous, and politic. His mosque, still to be seen near the
+Bab-Zuweyla, bears witness to his pious munificence. He tried his best
+to turn aside from Egypt the storm that was threatening from the
+political complications in Syria and Palestine; but the palace women
+found that they had called to their rescue an austere moralist, and
+ungratefully put him to death. “His last words were a regret that he had
+not conquered Jerusalem and exterminated the Franks, and a warning to
+his son to beware of Sháwar, the Arab governor of Upper Egypt. The
+regret and the warning were well founded. Sháwar deposed and executed
+the vezír’s son Ruzzík at the beginning of 1163, and within the year the
+Christian king of Jerusalem was in Egypt.”
+
+Before turning to the invasion of Cairo by the Crusaders, the conquest
+by Saladin, and the end of the Fátimids in the death of the last caliph
+el-‘Adid, a few words must be said on the remains of the city which the
+falling dynasty had created and maintained in exceptional splendour. Of
+all their buildings only the three great gates, part of the walls, and
+the remains of four[57] mosques, bear witness to the Fátimids. The
+palaces have utterly gone: they were not used by their successors, and
+gradually fell to ruin. “O censurer of my love for the sons of Fatima,”
+wrote Omára, the poet, before 1174, “join in my tears over the desolate
+halls of the twin Palaces.” The Hall of Science, the Dar-el-Mamún, the
+Palace of the Vezírs, and all the other mansions and pleasure houses of
+the Shí‘a caliphs and their court have disappeared. There was no wanton
+or general destruction: the buildings were simply deserted and neglected
+under the new orthodox régime, and neglected houses soon fall to ruin.
+Of the few remaining monuments, the oldest that can be regarded as
+authentic is the mosque of el-Hákim—for the Azhar retains little of its
+original architecture or decoration. The Akmar mosque in Beyn-el-Kasreyn
+built by the caliph Ámir is remarkable as the first mosque built of
+stone: the earlier mosques were all of brick. Only the façade, however,
+is of stone, well-shaped and joined, and finely sculptured. The interior
+arches are of brick on marble pillars. “Small and ruined as it is, it
+has the feature, unique among Fátimid mosques, of a fine façade
+(unfortunately hidden by a formless erection which the Monuments
+Commission has vainly sought to obtain power to remove), very unlike the
+ordinary plain exterior of the early mosques, and deserving special
+notice for the shell ornament of its fluted niche, the rosette of open
+tracery composed of inscriptions and ornaments, and the side niches,
+surmounted by a Kufic frieze.”[58] Two inscriptions giving the name of
+el-Amir and the date 519 A.H. (1125) belong to the foundation, and two
+others record the restoration of the mosque by the emír Yelbugha es-
+Sálimy in 799 (1396), but this restoration fortunately made but slight
+alterations in this interesting building. The mosque of the vezír Talái‘
+ibn Ruzzík, near the Bab-Zuweyla (1160), though much dilapidated, shows
+a notable advance in decorative skill, and the rich detail of its
+arabesques is scarcely surpassed by any later work. Fátimid decoration
+is well illustrated by several important examples in the Museum of Arab
+Art. Especially to be studied are the panelled doors with fine foliate
+carving and inscriptions (of el-Hákim) from the Azhar mosque; and the
+three _mihrabs_ or prayer niches, two of which came from the Azhar (one
+bears an inscription recording its erection there by el-Ámir in 1125),
+and the third from the chapel of Seyyida Rukeyya of about 1135. The last
+is a marvel of intricate geometrical panel-work and arabesque and Kufic
+ornament.
+
+[Illustration: MOSQUE OF EL-GUYUSHY]
+
+Unhappily, if heterodox opinions encouraged artistic development, they
+also led to the destruction of its achievements. Had the Fátimids not
+been heretics, their beautiful palaces with their thousands of exquisite
+works of art might have been preserved by their successors. As it was,
+they all bore “the mark of the Beast,” and the pious folk of later times
+were only too eager to efface all memories of the schismatic caliphs who
+had lavished their fabulous wealth with admirable taste upon the
+embellishment of their city.
+
+
+
+
+                               CHAPTER VI
+
+                           _Saladin’s Castle_
+
+
+CAIRO at the beginning of the thirteenth century was a very different
+city from the Fátimid royal compound. It covered a much larger space,
+included a number of new buildings of a character unknown in Egypt
+before, and it possessed a citadel. All these changes were due to
+Saladin, though he did not live to see them completed. To trace in
+detail the causes which led to the invasion of Egypt by the Crusading
+king of Jerusalem and the expulsion of the Franks by the armies of Nur-
+ed-din, sultan of Damascus, would carry us far away from our proper
+subject. The principal element in the political situation was the
+partition of the Fátimid province of Syria between two new and
+aggressive powers, the Crusaders and the Seljúk Turks. The gradual
+infiltration of Turkish officers into the Baghdád caliphate had ended in
+a great invasion of this race, led by the Seljúks, who not only subdued
+the whole of Persia and Mesopotamia in the middle of the eleventh
+century and made the ‘Abbásid caliph their tool, but overran the Fátimid
+dominions in Syria, which had always been loosely held, took possession
+of Damascus in 1076, and were only prevented from invading Egypt by the
+bribes and warlike preparations of the Armenian vezír Bedr el-Gemály.
+The Seljúk empire broke up at the close of the century; but its Syrian
+fragment, under the brilliant leadership of the Atabeg Zengy and his son
+Nur-ed-din, was little less formidable to the Fátimid authority than the
+undiminished empire of the Seljúks. Meanwhile a fresh complication was
+introduced into Syrian politics by the beginning of the Crusades, the
+recovery of Jerusalem by the Christians in 1099, and the establishment
+there of the Latin Kingdom. Step by step the Fátimid garrisons were
+driven south. The Armenian Afdal, Bedr’s son, after attempting
+negotiations, fought a series of campaigns in Palestine, but the advance
+of the Crusaders was not to be stayed. Tripolis fell in 1109, Tyre
+followed in 1124, and after a long interval Ascalon, the last Fátimid
+outpost, surrendered in 1153. The Crusaders now touched the Egyptian
+frontier, and their fortresses at Karak and Montréal, by the Dead Sea,
+intercepted communications with Syria.
+
+[Illustration: CAIRO BEFORE 1200]
+
+Of the two powers, the Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem and the Turkish
+Sultanate of Damascus, neither was strong enough to crush the other.
+Egypt was the key of the situation. If either power could obtain
+possession of the Nile, it would take its rival on the flank and win the
+mastery. The natural combination would of course be between the two
+Muslim states of Damascus and Cairo; but religious sectarianism barred
+the way. Nur-ed-din was a zealous Muslim of the orthodox school, and
+would have no traffic with Shí‘a heretics. The vezírs Ibn-es-Salár and
+Talái‘ did indeed open a diplomatic correspondence with the king of
+Damascus, but received little encouragement. It was not till his hand
+was forced by the actual presence of a Crusading army at Cairo that Nur-
+ed-din at last sent his troops to Egypt. The interference was due to the
+quarrels of rival vezírs who were struggling over the remains of the
+Fátimid power. One of these, Sháwar, expelled by Dirghám, appealed to
+Nur-ed-din, and Dirghám sought the alliance of Amalric, the king of
+Jerusalem, who had already invaded Egypt to claim the yearly
+subsidy—_annua tributi pensio_ as William of Tyre describes it—which the
+decrepit Fátimid government had recently paid as blackmail to its
+Christian neighbour. Sháwar returned in 1164 supported by a Syrian army
+commanded by Shirkúh, with his nephew Saladin on his staff. Dirghám,
+defeated at Bilbeys, made another stand at Cairo, where he held the
+Fátimid city whilst Sháwar and the Syrians occupied Misr. Popular as
+Dirghám had been—he was a brave Arab, who had fought the Crusaders at
+Gaza and commanded the Barkíya battalion of the Fátimid army—he ruined
+his cause by laying hands on the _wakf_ (pious benefactions) to meet his
+military necessities. His followers fell away, and the caliph withheld
+his countenance. The final scene was tragical:—
+
+“Driven to bay, for the last time he sounded the ‘assembly.’ In vain
+‘the drums beat and the trumpets blared, _ma-sha-llah!_ on the
+battlements’; no man answered. In vain the desperate emir, surrounded by
+his bodyguard of 500 horse, all that remained to him of a powerful army,
+stood suppliant before the caliph’s palace for a whole day, even until
+the sunset call to prayer, and implored him by the memory of his
+forefathers to stand forth at the window and bless his cause. No answer
+came; the guard itself gradually dispersed, till only thirty troopers
+were left. Suddenly a warning cry reached him: ‘Look to thyself and save
+thy life!’—and lo! Sháwar’s trumpets and drums were heard, entering from
+the Gate of the Bridge. Then at last the deserted leader rode out
+through the Zuweyla Gate: the fickle folk hacked off his head, and bore
+it in triumph through the streets; his body they left to be worried by
+the curs. Such was the tragic end of a brave and gallant gentleman,
+poet, and paladin.”
+
+As soon as Dirghám was disposed of, the treacherous Sháwar turned upon
+his deliverers, and called in the aid of Amalric to drive away the
+Syrians. After a prolonged conflict, an armistice was eventually
+arranged, and both armies, Christian and Syrian, retired from Egypt
+without immediate result. But the invasion was the beginning of a
+permanent occupation. On their return to Damascus the Syrian troops
+described the weakness of the Fátimid rule and urged upon Nur-ed-din the
+importance of the conquest of Egypt. The cautious sultan was slow to
+move, but when the news came that Amalric was again intriguing with
+Sháwar, the Syrian army set out a second time for the Nile and crossed
+it just as the Crusaders came up (1167). Amalric, however, succeeded in
+getting possession of Cairo, and made the treaty with the caliph which
+was the occasion of the memorable audience of the two knights described
+above (p. 131). Shirkúh, on the other hand, overran Upper Egypt, and
+Saladin held Alexandria for seventy-five days. Then another truce was
+arranged, and the two armies went back respectively to Syria and
+Palestine. The Franks, however, left a Resident at Cairo and manned the
+guards of the gates, quartering a garrison in the mosque of el-Hákim;
+and the representations of these spectators of the weakness and
+distraction of the government of Egypt brought Amalric back in the
+following year with the definite intention of annexing the land. This
+breach of faith, followed by a barbarous massacre at Bilbeys, so alarmed
+the Egyptians that they sent urgent entreaties to Nur-ed-din—the caliph
+even plied him with the touching argument of tresses of his wives’
+hair—and for the third time, at the beginning of 1169, Shirkúh and
+Saladin arrived in Egypt. This time they stayed for good. Amalric
+retired without even giving battle; Sháwar, after plotting the murder of
+his rescuers, was arrested and executed; Shirkúh was appointed vezír,
+and on his death two months later Saladin was invested with the robe of
+office in March 1169.
+
+As vezír of the Shí‘a caliph and at the same time viceroy of the
+orthodox king of Damascus, Saladin’s position was clearly untenable, and
+though he carried on the business of state for two years in this
+anomalous situation it was obvious that the Fátimid caliphate must come
+to an end. The last of the Fátimids was dying, and the opportunity was
+taken to make the necessary change. At the Friday prayers on the 10th of
+September 1171, the ‘Abbásid caliph of Baghdád was duly proclaimed in
+the mosques of Cairo. A similar ceremony is described by an Arab
+traveller from Spain twelve years later.
+
+“In one of these Friday Mosques,” says Ibn-Gubeyr, “the Sermon was
+preached to-day. The Preacher herein followed the Sunny rite, beginning
+his sermon with an invocation conjointly for the Companions, the
+Followers and their fellows, also for the Mothers of the Faithful, who
+are the Wives of the Prophet, and for his two noble uncles Hamza and
+el-‘Abbás;—further, he preached so fine a sermon and so moving a
+discourse that hard hearts were humbled and dry eyes shed tears. He
+delivered his sermon robed in black, as is the ‘Abbásid rule; for he
+wore a black cloak over which hung a _taylasan_ or veil of fine black
+linen, such as in Spain would be called an _ihrám_; his turban also was
+black, and he was girt with a sword. As he ascended the pulpit, he
+struck a blow on the step with the ferule of his scabbard, when he first
+began to go up, such as the congregation might hear, and as though it
+were a call to silence, and in the midst of his ascent he struck another
+blow, and when he reached the top, a third; after which he pronounced
+the blessing, turning first to the right and then to the left, standing
+there between two black banners that had white marks on them, which were
+fixed in the upper part of the pulpit. On this occasion, further, he
+invoked a blessing first on the ‘Abbásid caliph, who is en-Násir-li-
+dini-llah, the son of el-Mustady, and next he prayed for the restorer of
+his power, Yúsuf, son of Ayyúb, who is the Sultan Saladin, and then for
+his brother and heir apparent, Abu-Bekr, who is named Seyf-ed-din
+(Saphadin).”[59]
+
+The congregation who first heard this bidding-prayer in 1171 showed
+little surprise, and there was scarcely a murmur. The Shí‘a propaganda
+had probably been attended with little success in Cairo, and the bulk of
+the people retained their leanings to the orthodox creed, in spite of
+two centuries of dominant heresy. At least, the revolution was
+accomplished without a shock. The last of the Fátimid caliphs passed
+away without hearing of his deposition. His relations were kept in
+luxurious captivity, and his slaves and household dispersed. The palaces
+were too magnificent for Saladin’s modest wants, and he quartered the
+officers of his army there, and himself occupied the House of the
+Vezírs. The great library of 120,000 books, which had been studiously
+collected since the dispersal of the earlier library a century before,
+was given to the learned chancellor, Kády el-Fádil. The treasure was
+distributed or sold. The palaces and every memory of the Fátimids
+gradually disappeared, save their mosques, and orthodoxy once more
+reigned supreme in Egypt.
+
+The career of the great champion of Islám was made chiefly outside
+Egypt. Of Saladin’s reign of twenty-four years—for reign it was from the
+beginning, though nominally subject to the king of Damascus for the
+first five years—he spent but eight at Cairo, and his greatest triumphs,
+as well as his few reverses, took place in Syria, Mesopotamia, and
+Palestine. When he left Cairo on the 11th of May, 1182, and the great
+officers of the court came to his stirrup to bid him farewell, as the
+cavalcade halted by the Lake of the Abyssinians, a voice was heard above
+the music and the singing: “Enjoy,” it cried in the classical lines of
+an Arab poet,
+
+
+  “Enjoy the perfume of the ox-eyes of Nejd;
+
+   After to-night there will be no more ox-eyes.”
+
+
+The evil omen came true: there were no more ox-eyes in Egypt for him,
+and Cairo saw him never again. He conquered the land of the Euphrates;
+held kingly state at Damascus, which he had annexed after the death of
+Nur-ed-din; won his great victory at Hittín over the Crusaders;
+recovered Jerusalem, sacred to him as well as to Christians, and brought
+all the Holy Land to his feet; and fought the long duel with the
+chivalry of Europe which wavered about ‘Akka for two years, and ended in
+the running fight with Richard of England that has made Saladin a
+household name even in Europe. After the last dash upon Jaffa and its
+repulse, the treaty of peace was signed, and in the following March,
+1193, Saladin died and was buried at Damascus.
+
+“The Holy War was over; the five years’ contest ended. Before the great
+victory at Hittin in July, 1187, not an inch of Palestine west of the
+Jordan was in the Muslims’ hands. After the Peace of Ramla in September,
+1192, the whole land was theirs, except a narrow strip of coast from
+Tyre to Jaffa. At the Pope’s appeal all Christendom had risen in arms.
+The Emperor, the Kings of England, France and Sicily, Leopold of
+Austria, the Duke of Burgundy, the Count of Flanders, hundreds of famous
+barons and knights of all nations, had joined with the King and Princes
+of Palestine and the indomitable brothers of the Temple and Hospital, in
+the effort to deliver the Holy City and restore the vanished Kingdom of
+Jerusalem. The Emperor was dead, the Kings had gone back; many of their
+noblest followers lay buried in the Holy Land: but Jerusalem was still
+the city of Saladin, and its titular king reigned over a slender realm
+at Acre. All the strength of Christendom concentrated in the Third
+Crusade had not shaken Saladin’s power. When the trials and sufferings
+of the five years’ war were over, he still reigned unchallenged from the
+mountains of Kurdistan to the Libyan desert, and far beyond these
+borders the King of Georgia, the Catholicos of Armenia, the Sultan of
+Koniya, the Emperor of Constantinople, were eager to call him friend and
+ally.”[60]
+
+Brief as was Saladin’s residence at Cairo, none of its rulers has left
+more lasting traces of his influence. It is to him that the capital owed
+the form and extent it has borne ever since, until comparatively recent
+times. Its most conspicuous feature, the Citadel, was Saladin’s
+creation, and its most pervasive architectural form, the Medresa, was
+his introduction. All these changes were due to his initiative, and
+when, after eight years, he went away, and thenceforth continually
+called upon Egypt to send its contingents to his yearly campaigns, he
+left behind him officers and kinsmen who carried out the great works he
+had begun. These works were partly defensive, and partly religious. The
+defensive works were the Citadel, the new wall, and the great dike, and
+all three are original features. Hitherto the various rulers of Egypt
+had contented themselves with building official or royal suburbs, each
+half a mile or so further to the north-east. Even the Fátimid “city” of
+Káhira, as we have seen, was an official and palatial residence of the
+caliphs, not a metropolis of Egypt. Saladin was the first to elaborate a
+comprehensive plan of a great capital. Instead of following the example
+of earlier sovereigns and building a new suburb, he resolved to unite
+the existing inhabited districts within one great wall, and to crown the
+whole by a citadel. The burned city of Misr was then struggling to rise
+from its ashes, like the phœnix, and renew its youth: Saladin resolved
+to help it. The scattered settlements upon the site of the ruined
+faubourgs were also to be gathered in, and the port of Maks was to be
+joined to its city by a wall, as Peiraeus was to Athens. The enclosing
+wall was to be of stone, and to prolong the defences of Bedr the
+Armenian to Maks on the west and to the hill of Mukattam on the south,
+and thence to run round the remains of the old Town of the Tent till it
+touched the Nile.
+
+The great scheme was never completed: its author was busy on his Syrian
+campaigns, and probably his representatives at Cairo had enough to do to
+raise men and money for his support without carrying out more building
+than was absolutely necessary. It is also possible that further
+reflection convinced him or his deputies that the plan of enclosing so
+decayed a town as Misr was hardly worth the cost of a couple of miles of
+wall. What was actually accomplished was this: the wall of Bedr on the
+north was prolonged from its terminus at the canal to the Nile, where
+the fortified tower of Maks was erected; on the east the old wall was
+prolonged southwards to the Bab-el-Wezír, near the wall of the new
+Citadel;—the Sultan’s death stopped the work before a junction had been
+made, and the south and west walls were not even begun. A large part of
+Saladin’s walls still stands: though often lost among houses, they can
+be traced between the canal and the Iron Gate (Báb-el-Hadíd, formerly
+called the Bab-el-Bahr, or Nile Gate, beside the fort of Maks, which has
+disappeared), where the contrast between the last square bastion of the
+Fátimid wall and the neighbouring rounded bastion of Saladin’s curtain,
+with its bosses, watch-towers, and loopholes, is clearly marked. The
+same characteristics are seen on the east wall which separates the city
+from the Káit-Bey cemetery, until a modern style appears at the Bab-el-
+Wezír.[61] A portion of the wall at the N.E. angle, with the Burg ez-
+Zafar, lies outside in the desert, showing that here only has the modern
+city shrunk within its twelfth century limits.
+
+The walls were but a development of the earlier enceinte of Bedr. The
+Citadel was a new idea. It may have been partly inspired by Saladin’s
+dislike to the palaces so intimately associated with the schismatic
+caliphs, for though he did not live to dwell in the Citadel, except for
+a brief visit, there can be no doubt that he intended to make it his
+residence, as his successors did. But the obvious explanation of the
+fortress is to be found in his Syrian experience. There every important
+city had its _Kal‘a_ or castle, and nothing could be more natural than
+that Saladin, looking with a soldier’s eye at the jutting spur of
+Mukattam, should at once have recognized it as the proper place for a
+citadel. It is true that whilst commanding Cairo from its height of 250
+feet, the fortress is itself commanded by higher positions on Mukattam;
+but this would hardly injure its efficiency in days of stone-slings and
+short-ranged mangonels. It was a strong enough position for twelfth
+century engineers, and no pains were spared to make it impregnable from
+beneath, in case of an insurrection in the city. The work was begun in
+1176-7 under the direction of the eunuch Karakúsh, one of Saladin’s most
+faithful emírs, who in spite of great services and warlike deeds has by
+a strange freak of fortune come to be associated with the ribald antics
+of Karakúsh, the Oriental Punch. It was not till six years later that
+the founder’s inscription was set up which still surmounts the “Gate of
+Steps” (Bab-el-Mudarrag) in the original (west) part of the Citadel,
+where we read how “the building of this splendid Castle,—hard by Cairo
+the Guarded, on the terrace which joins use to beauty, and space to
+strength, for those who seek the shelter of his power,—was ordered by
+our master the King Strong-to-aid, _Saláh-ed-dunya wa-d-din_ (Saladin),
+Conquest-laden, Yúsuf, son of Ayyúb, Restorer of the Empire of the
+Caliph; with the direction of his brother and heir the Just King
+(el-‘Adil) Seyf-ed-din Abu-Bekr Mohammad, friend of the Commander of the
+Faithful; and under the management of the Emír of his Kingdom and
+Support of his Empire Karakúsh son of ‘Abdallah, the slave of el-Melik
+en-Násir, in the year 579” (1183-4).
+
+The smaller pyramids of Giza were used as quarries for the stone, and
+the masonry was executed in part by Frank or European prisoners taken in
+Saladin’s wars. The Spanish traveller Ibn-Gubeyr, who visited Cairo in
+1183, saw the building in progress. “Both the workmen,” he says, “whose
+forced labour is employed for building the Citadel and their overseers
+are Christian prisoners of war of the Franks; their number is so great
+as cannot be reckoned, and but for them there would be no means of
+carrying out these works, for only they can support the toil and heavy
+labour of sawing the marble, dressing the great blocks of stone, and of
+quarrying the fosse which encompasses the wall of the Citadel, which
+fosse is cut like a ditch in the solid rock with crowbars, a wonder of
+wonders for ever. Elsewhere there is another building of the Sultan
+which is being carried out by the Frank prisoners who work here; but
+even those of the Muslims, who give their service in these and similar
+public works, must do it at their own cost, for there is no pay given to
+any who work here.” Corvée labour was no new thing in Egypt, however
+strange it may have appeared to a visitor from Spain.
+
+[Illustration: CASTLE OF THE RAM: KAL‘AT-EL-KEBSH]
+
+The Citadel was not finished till 1207-8, when Saladin’s nephew el-Kámil
+was king. As the chief residence and stronghold of every successive
+ruler down to 1850, it has been frequently altered and enlarged by
+several of the Mamlúk Sultans, and finally by Mohammad ‘Aly Pasha, and
+none of the mosques or vestiges of palaces on it belongs to Saladin’s
+age. The old mosque was built by en-Násir in 1318; the more conspicuous
+mosque with slender Turkish minarets was begun by Mohammad ‘Aly in 1824.
+The “Hall of Yúsuf,” believed to be Saladin’s, was part of a Mamlúk
+palace. The interior towers are not original, and the gateway opening on
+the Rumeyla was built in the middle of the 18th century. Still there is
+much remaining of the original structures, besides the famous “Well of
+the Winding Stairs,” 280 feet deep, which was excavated by Karakúsh.
+Saladin’s walls are still preserved in a large part of the enceinte,
+though it needs some architectural knowledge to distinguish them from
+later additions and restorations, and some of the internal passages and
+constructions date from the foundation. The prevalent use of round,
+slightly truncated, and well-projected bastions, commanding a long
+stretch of the curtain, the absence of interior chambers or low
+loopholes in the curtain, and the _arc brisé_ or square openings,
+besides certain technical peculiarities in the masonry, reveal the
+original work, and associate it with the Franco-Syrian rather than the
+Byzantine school.
+
+The last work of defence was the great dike of Giza on the west bank of
+the Nile. Ibn-Gubeyr describes it as a gigantic undertaking. “The
+Sultan,” he says, “to his glory and as a lasting work that shall serve
+the need of the Muslims, has begun to build a great dike of arches to
+the westward of Misr, and at a distance from it of seven miles. This
+forms a continuation of the embankment which, beginning opposite Misr,
+runs along the side of the Nile like a hill that has been flattened on
+the ground: after traversing which you come at the end of six miles to
+the dike continuing it. This dike consists of forty arches, each of the
+largest size of bridge-arches, and runs in the direction of the delta
+which extends thence to Alexandria. It is a wonderful work, and such as
+only a king of great foresight would emprise, as a precaution against
+sudden attack by an enemy from the Alexandrian frontier at the time of
+the inundation, when, the land being under water, the usual road becomes
+impassable for troops. The dike thus forms a causeway available at all
+seasons of need.”[62] The object of this defence is evident. Saladin had
+not forgotten the history of the successive Fátimid invasions from the
+Libyan side, when there was nothing to stop them from marching straight
+to the Nile, and he determined to be forearmed. Ibn-Gubeyr mentions that
+there were fears of an attack from the Almohades, who after subduing all
+Morocco and southern Spain, had conquered Algeria, Tunis, and Tripoli in
+1158, till the frontier of their victorious leader ‘Abd-el-Mumin
+actually touched the western border of Egypt. Saladin did well to take
+precautions, though the threatened invasion never came.
+
+These defensive works against external enemies were accompanied by other
+measures taken with a view to internal order and content. It must not be
+supposed that the new régime had no difficulties to contend with.
+However well disposed the mass of the people may have been towards a
+ruler who showed himself so magnanimous, generous, and yet indomitable
+as Saladin, the traditions of two centuries were not to be uprooted in a
+day. The partisans of the Fátimid family were numerous and active.
+Before the death of el-‘Ádid, there was a formidable rising of the black
+troops, abetted by the caliph himself, and Saladin had hard work to put
+it down. The Sudánis were at last driven to bay and slaughtered for two
+days till they cried quarter, when they were banished the city. The part
+called el-Mansuríya, outside the Zuweyla Gate, that had been covered
+with their barracks, was utterly burned down, and the site turned into
+gardens; so that a few years later, when Saladin rode from the palace to
+the new Citadel, he passed between trees and flowers, and standing at
+the mosque of Ibn-Tulún he could see the Gate of Zuweyla with no
+building intervening. Other conspiracies followed, supported by the
+Franks who threatened Alexandria, and stern measures were needed before
+the new sultan felt his power secure. So long as there was a strong
+party sympathizing with the captive survivors of the fallen dynasty
+there would always be danger.
+
+How zealous the Shí‘a still were may be judged by the scene described by
+the Spanish traveller in the famous shrine which preserved the head of
+the martyr Hoseyn, in the mosque adjoining the Great Palace of the
+Fátimids. “The Head is preserved in a chest of silver buried
+underground, over which a mighty building has been erected such as any
+description thereof must fail to portray, for the understanding cannot
+compass it. Its walls are tapestried with brocades of various kinds, and
+it is set round with what are like great columns, the same being white
+candles, though some are of smaller size, the most being set in
+candlesticks of pure silver or of silver gilt. Above are suspended
+silver lamps, and the whole of the part above this is set with the like
+of golden apples, and so arranged as to resemble [the chapel at Medina
+where the Prophet is buried called] er-Roda; and by the beauty and
+magnificence thereof it rivets the sight, for herein are all kinds of
+rare variegated marbles wonderfully wrought in mosaic work such as no
+imagination can depict, nor can he who would describe it attain thereto
+with any description. The entrance to this chapel is through a mosque
+that is the equal of it in regard to the pleasure of the eye and the
+rare sight that it affords, for all its walls are of marble after the
+fashion above described. To the right of the chapel (where the Head is),
+and to the left of it, are two chambers, through which you enter the
+same, and each of these is in every particular similar to this last, and
+curtains in brocade stuff of wondrous workmanship are here hung on all
+sides. But the most curious of the many things that we saw was on
+entering this most blessed mosque; for a stone is set in the wall facing
+him who enters, which is so extremely black and lustrous that the whole
+person is reflected therein, as though it were in an Indian steel mirror
+newly polished. And we saw the people kissing this blessed tomb (where
+the Head of Hoseyn is buried), embracing it with their arms and
+prostrating themselves upon it, after which they would lay their hands
+on the pall that covers it and then, crowding one on another, circle
+round, praying, weeping, and supplicating Allah—to whom be praise—for
+the blessing that pertains to this holy grave, humbling themselves
+before Him in such fashion as melts the heart and overcomes the feelings
+of the spectator; for this is a wonderful matter and a sight that is
+awful in its aspect. May Allah cause us to benefit by the blessing
+vouchsafed to this holy Oratory!”[63]
+
+Such a demonstration, recalling the hysterical emotions of the Persian
+Passion Play, shows that twelve years after the deposition and death of
+the last Fátimid caliph Shí‘a fanaticism was still ardent in Cairo.
+Saladin’s mode of dealing with it was characteristic of his
+statesmanship. Despite his gentle and chivalrous nature he was quite
+capable of fierce persecution “for righteousness’ sake.” A Muslim of the
+Muslims, rigidly orthodox, and deeply imbued with the puritanical ideas
+of the theologians with whom he loved to converse, he had no toleration
+for heretics and infidels. The grievous confiscation and destruction
+which the Copts and their churches suffered in the orthodox reformation
+showed that Saladin’s magnanimity did not extend to matters of faith.
+But in the case of the Shí‘a he had to deal with a more powerful and
+dangerous movement, which had two centuries of dominance behind it, and
+he met it not by overt persecution but by a counter propaganda. The
+people of Cairo must be taught the true religion, and then there would
+be little fear of heresy. At the time of his accession there was not a
+single college in Egypt where orthodox theology was taught. This want
+was at once supplied, and Saladin began the foundation of those
+_Medresas_ or theological colleges which have ever since been the
+leading architectural feature of Cairo.
+
+In 1176 he established the first _Medresa_ ever built in Egypt. It was
+next to the shrine of the Imám Sháfi‘y, the founder of the school of
+orthodoxy to which most Egyptian Muslims have since belonged. The tomb-
+mosque may still be visited in the wilderness of graves to the south of
+Cairo, but the college has long disappeared. In 1183 the shrine is
+described as “a magnificent oratory of vast size, and strongly built,
+standing opposite to a Medresa,” so large and so surrounded by buildings
+as to resemble “a township with its dependencies. Over against it is the
+_hammám_ with all other needful offices, and the building and additions
+are still going on at a cost not to be counted. The Sheykh Negm-ed-din
+el-Khabushány himself oversees it, being imám of the mosque, a pious
+learned man. The sultan of the land, Saladin, has munificently supplied
+all that is required therefor, commanding that the buildings shall be
+well cared for and beautified, and all expenses set down to him. . . .
+We met this Khabushány and gained the blessing of his prayers—his fame
+had reached us even in Andalusia. We visited him in his mosque and also
+at his private dwelling within the precincts, a small house with a
+narrow court, and here he offered up prayer for us when we left. In all
+Egypt we did not meet his equal.”[64]
+
+Besides the Sháfi‘y College, Saladin built a medresa close to the
+stronghold of the enemy, the shrine of Hoseyn, turned the old palace of
+Mamún into the Seyf-ed-din college for the Hanafy divines, and built
+another for the Sháfi‘is and a fifth for the Málikis in Misr. In
+recording his benefactions one must not forget his hospitals. Everyone
+knows the Maristan or hospital of the Mamlúk Sultan Kalaún in the Suk-
+en-Nahhasín, but it is not generally known that this noble institution
+was anticipated by Saladin. To quote Ibn-Gubeyr again:—
+
+“Among the famous institutions of this Sultan which we saw was the
+Maristán or Hospital, which stands in the city of Cairo. It is one of
+the great palaces there, spacious and magnificent, and the Sultan has
+been prompted to the meritorious deed of establishing this hospital
+solely by the hope of gaining favour with God and recompense in the
+world to come. He has appointed here an administrator, a man of
+knowledge, in whose charge a provision of drugs has been placed, with
+power to compound potions with these according to diverse recipes, and
+to prescribe them. In the chambers of this palace couches have been
+placed, which the sick folk make use of as beds, these being fully
+provided with bed clothes, and the administrator has under him servants
+who are charged with the duty of inquiring into the condition of the
+sick folk morning and evening, and these last receive food and medicines
+according as their state requires. Opposite this hospital is another,
+separate therefrom, for women who are sick, and they also have persons
+who attend on them: while adjacent to these two hospitals is another
+building with a spacious court, in which are chambers with iron
+gratings, which serve for the confinement of those who are mad, and
+these also are visited daily by persons who examine their condition and
+supply them with what is needful to ameliorate the same. The Sultan
+himself inspects the state of these various institutions, investigating
+everything and asking questions, verifying the statements with care and
+trouble even to the uttermost; and in Misr also there is another
+hospital, exactly after the pattern of the one just described.
+
+“Between Misr and Cairo stands the great mosque called after its
+founder, Ahmad ibn Tulún, which is one of those from ancient times used
+for the Friday prayers. It is admirably built and very spacious, being
+at the present day set apart by the Sultan as a dwelling-place for
+strangers from the Western lands, where they may abide and hold their
+assemblies, the Sultan having provided monthly rations for their
+support. And one of the most remarkable matters related to us is this
+which we heard from a person cognizant of the facts, namely, that the
+Sultan allows the strangers entirely to govern themselves, and lays no
+hand on any one of them, for they elect from among themselves their
+governor, and to his rule they conform, submitting to his judgment in
+all cases of disputes that arise in their affairs. They are people who
+seek to live in piety and peacefulness, being solely occupied in the
+worship of the Lord, and thus, through the favour of the Sultan, they
+may gain grace enabling them to hold the better part in the way of
+righteousness. Indeed there is no one either of the great mosques, or of
+the lesser mosques, or any one among the diverse chapels that are built
+over the tombs of saints, neither any of the various colleges or
+schools, but is the object of the grace of the Sultan, and aid in money
+from the public treasury is freely given to all who frequent these
+places, or have their abode there by reason of necessity, in relief of
+their needs.”
+
+The institution of the Medresa by Saladin marks a conspicuous change in
+the architecture of Cairo. Hitherto the mosques had been of one form
+only, that of the _Gámi‘_ (commonly pronounced _gama_, and meaning a
+place of assembly) or congregational mosque, where alone the Friday
+prayers (_gum‘a_) and sermon take place. The form was specially adapted
+to the meeting of large congregations. There was the ample east end or
+sanctuary, where a considerable number of worshippers could kneel under
+cover; and in case of a great crowd, as on certain festivals, there was
+the great open court where a multitude could prostrate themselves
+towards the _kibla_. The arcades round the court served for professors
+to hold classes, and as shelter for fakírs and mendicants; but these are
+no essential parts of the gámi‘, which, as its name implies, is a place
+of congregational worship. There were only four such buildings when Ibn-
+Gubeyr visited Cairo, and these were the gámi‘s el-Azhar, el-Hákim, Ibn-
+Tulún, and ‘Amr. The few others that existed, such as el-Akmar and es-
+Sálih Talái‘, and perhaps two or three less important and probably
+ruined, though built in the gámi‘ form and used at one time for
+congregational worship, fell into disuse when the death of their
+founders or some other cause removed them from the list of fashionable
+churches. New gámi‘s were always being built from time to time, as we
+shall see in the next chapter, and they always formed, and form, the
+leading mosques of Cairo; but they were not by any means the only kind
+of mosque.
+
+The word mosque itself comes, through the old Italian _meschita_ (Span.
+_mesquita_) and later _moschea_, from the Arabic _Mesgid_, which means a
+place of worship, but does not imply a congregation. Comparatively few
+mosques were known as mesgids, and such as bore the name were small
+buildings used chiefly for private prayer.[65] Another term, more
+commonly employed, is _Záwiya_, which means properly an ingle or nook,
+but in its application to mosques differs hardly at all from mesgid,
+unless the not unusual assignation of a záwiya as a hospice for poor
+students or devotees constitute a difference. Both the mesgid and the
+záwiya were comparatively insignificant edifices, and it may be doubted
+whether any ordinary visitor to Cairo has noticed a single example of
+either, except as a decorative feature in a by-street.
+
+The buildings which everyone knows and which everyone calls “mosques”
+are really colleges, _medresas_. They include most of the famous
+architectural gems of the city—such as Sultan Hasan, Barkuk, Ibn-Muzhir,
+Násir, Kalaún, and so forth, and they differ altogether from the gámi‘
+both in form and object. They were not intended or used for
+congregational worship, but were expressly built for the purpose of
+theological training; and this purpose radically influences their form.
+Instead of the great open court where vast congregations could muster on
+Fridays, there is only a small central square, and in most cases this
+was originally covered by a flat roof of painted planks and joists, with
+perhaps a small cupola or skylight in the centre. The sides, instead of
+being surrounded by long arcades or cloisters, are formed of four
+transepts each spanned by a single lofty arch. The transept towards the
+east, forming the liwán for prayer, is deeper than the other three, and
+is furnished with mihráb, pulpit, tribune, and other accessories for
+worship; since worship takes place there, or may do so, though not as a
+rule the regular Friday congregations of the gámi‘. Each of the four
+transepts was originally assigned—or ready to be assigned—to one of the
+four orthodox schools, Sháfi‘y, Máliky, Hánafy, and Hánbaly, and in each
+there might be found a group of students following the instruction of
+the professor of the particular school. These professors and students
+often had lodgings in the college, and there were also a variety of
+lecture rooms, libraries, laboratories, and other adjuncts built in the
+spaces that intervened between the cruciform interior and the
+rectangular exterior. The subjoined sketch representing the later
+medresa of Sultan Hasan (1359) will give a general idea of the
+arrangement.
+
+[Illustration: PLAN OF MEDRESA]
+
+This then was Saladin’s method of counteracting heretical tendencies by
+building and endowing a number of orthodox colleges—state-supported
+theological seminaries or divinity schools. The idea was not his own: he
+brought it with him from Syria, where his former sovereign Nur-ed-din
+had been zealous in founding similar colleges for Hanafis at Damascus
+and other cities; and Nur-ed-din himself only followed the example of
+the pattern of the age in Asia, the great Seljúk Sultan Melik Shah,
+whose vezír, the scarcely less famous Nizám-el-Mulk, the friend of ‘Omar
+Khayyám, had established the splendid Nizamíya college at Baghdád. The
+introduction of colleges into Egypt, however natural and inevitable in
+the pupil of such masters, was little less than a revolution in culture
+as well as in architecture. The old stigma of heresy removed, and these
+new colleges founded, the wave of intellectual commerce once more flowed
+to Cairo from all parts of the Muslim world. The chief control in Egypt
+during Saladin’s long absence was vested in his brother or son, subject
+to the counsels of his chancellor, the Kády el-Fádil, an Arab of
+Ascalon, a learned scholar and a wise man, whose very ornate dispatches
+concealed a vast amount of sound sense. Under his influence foreign
+students began again to frequent the mosques of Cairo, and Egypt
+rejoined the comity of Islám. Professors from remote cities of Persia or
+even from beyond the Oxus met the learned men of Cordova and Seville. In
+1176, for example, there arrived “a stranger from Xativa in distant
+Andalusia, drawn eastward by the fame of the revival of learning: it was
+Ibn-Firro, who had composed a massy poem of 1173 verses upon the _variae
+lectiones_ in the Korán, simply ‘for the greater glory of God.’ This
+marvel of erudition modestly confessed that his memory was burdened with
+enough sciences to break down a camel. Nevertheless, when it came to
+lecturing to his crowded audiences, he never uttered a superfluous word.
+It was no wonder that the Kády el-Fádil, chief judge and governor of
+Egypt under Saladin, lodged him in his own house and buried him in his
+private mausoleum. The presence of such philosophers tempered with cool
+wisdom the impetuous fire of the predatory chiefs. Many of the great
+soldiers of that age delighted in the society of men of culture. Nur-ed-
+din was devoted to the society of the learned, and poets and men of
+letters gathered round his court; whilst Saladin took a peculiar
+pleasure in the conversation of grave theologians and solemn
+jurists.”[66] “I found him,” wrote ‘Abd-el-Latíf, the Baghdád physician,
+“a great prince, whose appearance inspired at once respect and love, who
+was approachable, deeply intellectual, gracious, and noble in his
+thoughts. . . . I found him surrounded by a large concourse of learned
+men who were discussing various sciences. He listened with pleasure and
+took part in their conversation.” It was not the least of Saladin’s
+titles to fame that he brought the collegiate mosque to Cairo. The
+training of the medresa may have been narrow and bigoted, but it was the
+system of the whole Muslim world, and its adoption put Cairo in touch
+with the thought of the other leading centres of Islám.
+
+
+
+
+                              CHAPTER VII
+
+                          _The Dome Builders_
+
+
+                      1. THE MAMLUKS OF THE RIVER
+
+
+SALADIN had raised Cairo once more to the rank of an imperial capital.
+By his fortifications he had strengthened it against attack, and by his
+theological foundations he had united it to the great comity of Muslim
+culture. He had no doubt added seriously to the responsibilities of
+future rulers of Egypt, who found themselves engaged in controversy,
+diplomacy, or war with the minor rulers of Syrian cities, members of
+Saladin’s kindred, as well as with the Franks of the coast of Palestine,
+who had not yet abandoned the dream of “_Gerusalemme liberata_,” and
+were now fully aware that the road to the Holy City, circuitous as it
+might seem, lay through Egypt. It is no part of the story of Cairo to
+relate the campaigns waged by Saladin’s brilliant brother, el-‘Ádil
+Seyf-ed-din—“the noble Saphadin” of the _Talisman_, the friend of King
+Richard, who actually gave the accolade of Christian knighthood to one
+of Saphadin’s sons, as Humphrey of Toron had given it before to Saladin
+himself. Succeeding, after a brief interval, to his brother’s empire in
+1200, el-‘Ádil soon showed that the loss of the hero was not
+irreparable. He had loyally served Saladin as his right hand for a
+quarter of a century, and for another quarter of a century he held
+together the empire which his nephews and cousins were doing their best
+to shatter into fragments. He prudently kept on terms with the Franks by
+the cession of a couple of ports in Palestine, and such hostilities as
+took place in spite of his concessions did not lower his prestige. He is
+described by one who knew him as a man of immense experience and
+information and much foresight, physically robust and high-spirited, and
+capable of eating a whole lamb at a meal. A contemporary Arabic poet
+dwells on his extraordinary alertness and personal control of every part
+of his wide dominions—
+
+
+  A Monarch, whose majestic air
+
+  Fills all the range of sight, whose care
+
+  Fills all the regions everywhere;
+
+      Who such a ward doth keep
+
+  That, save where he doth set his lance
+
+  In rest to check the foe’s advance,
+
+  His eye with bright and piercing glance
+
+      Knows neither rest nor sleep.
+
+
+Even his vigilance, however, could not avert that periodical calamity of
+mediæval Egypt an insufficient inundation of the Nile, and its usual
+concomitants plague, pestilence, and famine. This happened in 1201 and
+was repeated in 1202, and the results were exceptionally disastrous. We
+have the appalling narrative of an eye-witness of undoubted veracity and
+professional experience for this time of horror:—
+
+“The Baghdád physician, ‘Abd-el-Latíf, who lived at Cairo for ten years
+(1194-1204), attending the professors’ lectures at the Azhar mosque,
+records the terrible experiences of the famine. The distress was so
+desperate that the inhabitants emigrated in crowds, whole quarters and
+villages were deserted, and those who remained abandoned themselves to
+atrocious practices. People habitually ate human flesh, even parents
+killed and cooked their own children, and a wife was found eating her
+dead husband raw. Men waylaid women in the streets to seize their
+infants. The very graves were ransacked for food. This went on from end
+to end of Egypt. The roads were deathtraps, assassination and robbery
+reigned unchecked, and women were outraged by the multitude of
+reprobates whom anarchy and despair had set loose. Free girls were sold
+at five shillings apiece, and many women came and implored to be bought
+as slaves to escape starvation. An ox sold for 70 dinárs and corn was
+over ten shillings the bushel. The corpses lay unburied in the streets
+and houses, and a virulent pestilence spread over the delta. In the
+country and on the caravan routes flocks of vultures, hyenas, and
+jackals mapped the march of death. Men dropped down at the plough,
+stricken with the plague. In one day at Alexandria an imám said the
+funeral prayers over 700 persons, and in a single month a property
+passed to forty heirs in rapid succession. The depreciation of property
+was disastrous. Owing to the decrease of population, house-rent in Cairo
+fell to one-seventh of its former price, and the carvings and furniture
+of palaces were broken up to feed the oven-fires. Violent earthquakes,
+which were also felt throughout Syria and as far north as Armenia, shook
+down countless houses, devastated whole cities, and increased the
+general misery.”
+
+The invasion of John de Brienne, who captured Damietta, kept Egypt in a
+tremor of anxiety for three years (1218-21); but el-‘Adil, who died at
+the beginning of the trouble, left a singularly able successor in his
+son el-Kámil; the Crusaders departed in ignominy; and when some years
+later the emperor Frederick II. himself “took the cross” and came to
+Palestine, the prudent sultan not only let the emperor crown himself in
+Jerusalem without striking a blow, but actually concluded (1229) a
+general defensive alliance with Frederick against even the Franks of
+Syria. The Holy City was surrendered to the Christians with the road to
+it, but the Muslims retained the sacred enclosure of the Mosque of
+‘Omar, which was all they cared for. The treaty was the most singular
+ever concluded between a Christian and a Muslim power; but it must be
+remembered that the Pope had called Frederick “a follower of Mohammad,”
+and the emperor’s correspondence with the Arab philosopher Ibn-Sab‘in
+and the metaphysical debates he held with Kámil’s ambassadors point to
+“emancipated views” that in the case of less eminent people commonly
+conducted them to the stake. Frederick was much admired by Muslim
+writers, and for his part Kámil had shown himself broad-minded. He had
+entertained the emperor’s envoy, bishop Bernard, at Cairo, released the
+poor prisoners taken in the “Children’s Crusade,” and loyally stood by
+his treaty. It is not surprising that good Muslims regarded him in much
+the same light as the bishop of Rome held the emperor. They were wrong,
+however, for Kámil was a thorough Muslim, and had only treated with the
+“infidel” in the cause of peace. His college, the Dar-el-Hadíth or
+Kamilíya, some relics of which still stand in Beyn-el-Kasreyn, bears
+evidence to his zeal for orthodox Islám, whilst his father’s
+intellectual powers shone in the son when he took part in the meetings
+of the learned at his palace on Thursday evenings. To him Cairo owed the
+completion of the Citadel, where he took up his residence, and Egypt was
+improved in cultivation by his assiduous superintendence and enlargement
+of the canals and dikes.
+
+The new régime of the Ayyúbids or successors of Saladin had introduced
+something besides an imperial sway and a revival of orthodox learning:
+it had brought with it a feudal system that dominated Egypt, for better
+or for worse, for six hundred years, and vitally affected the social
+conditions, arts, literature, and material aspect of Cairo. The _Mamlúk_
+period may be said to begin with Saladin. It is true of course that
+there had been mamlúks, _i.e._ white slaves, long before, and many of
+them had attained to power. Ibn-Tulún, or at least his father, was a
+mamlúk, and many of the later governors belonged to the same class of
+emancipated slaves whether Turks or Greeks, from Turkistan or from Asia
+Minor. Under the Fátimid caliphs slaves had risen to the highest rank.
+Gawhar, the founder of Cairo, was a Greek or a Slav—it is not certain
+which—and we have seen how the Armenian slave Bedr became practically
+master of Egypt. Slavery in the East is no disgrace; on the contrary the
+relationship ranks far above mere hired service. The slave is regarded
+almost as a son, and we find an amusing instance of this feeling in the
+undoubted slur that attached to a famous emír (Kusún) in the fourteenth
+century, because he had the misfortune _not_ to be a slave, like the
+rest of his world. The Fátimid armies were full of such mamlúks, and
+they acquired rank and lands. But the system had not reached the
+completeness that we see under Saladin’s successors. The great champion
+of Islám was brought up in the mamlúk system, as organized by the
+Seljúks and their followers, whose power rested upon a military basis
+formed by hired or purchased troops, paid by grants of fiefs, lands,
+castles, towns, or even whole provinces, held on strict condition of
+military service. The higher feudatories sublet parts of their fiefs to
+minor vassals, who had to furnish a certain number of men to their lord,
+just as he had to bring his contingent to aid the sultan in his wars.
+This system was adopted in all the provinces governed by officers of the
+Seljúk empire. Nur-ed-din, who sprang from the Seljúk officers, carried
+it out in Syria; Saladin, trained under Nur-ed-din, brought it to Egypt,
+where the land and villages were parcelled out among the generals of his
+armies, who lived on them during the winter, and joined their overlord
+at the head of their retainers each year as soon as the campaigning
+season opened.
+
+We find this feudal system in force in Egypt from the arrival of Saladin
+and his Turkish troops down to the accession of Mohammad ‘Aly in the
+nineteenth century. It took a dominant place in Cairo when el-‘Adil’s
+grandson, es-Sálih, established a picked battalion of mamlúks in the new
+palace and barracks which he built on the island of Roda, opposite Misr.
+From their quarters on the river (_el-bahr_) they were known as the
+Bahry or Nilotic Mamlúks. Their splendid valour at the battle of
+Mansúra, when under the leading of Beybars they drove back the finest
+chivalry in Europe, decided the fate of the disastrous Crusade of Louis
+IX. Thenceforward they ruled Egypt for a century and a half, and in
+spite of much lawlessness, tyranny, intrigue, and slaughter, the reign
+of the Bahry Mamlúks is among the glorious pages in the history of
+Cairo. Their triumph at Mansúra was not the less remarkable because they
+were then under the sovereignty of a woman. Queens are rare in
+Mohammedan history, for the blessed Prophet had a prejudice against
+them; but among the three or four Muslim women that have held the
+sceptre, queen Sheger-ed-durr—“Spray of Pearls” is the translation of
+her charming name—holds the first place. She was only a slave, and her
+lord and husband, es-Sálih, grandson of el-‘Adil, died in the midst of
+the campaign with the Crusaders; but she at once took command, kept the
+sultan’s death secret till his son could be fetched from the other end
+of the empire, controlled the government, organized the defence, gave
+instructions to the generals and governors at her levees, and with
+wonderful courage and wisdom held the state together. When the heir
+arrived (1250) she surrendered her regency, but on the assassination of
+the brutal young man by the exasperated mamlúks within two months,
+“Spray of Pearl” resumed her authority, and honourably observed the
+treaty of ransom with St Louis, who probably owed his life to the high-
+minded queen.
+
+[Illustration: ISLAND OF ER-RODA]
+
+She possessed great qualities, and she had the title, such as it was,
+that was conveyed by her having borne a son to the late Ayyúbid sultan.
+The baby was dead, but she still based her claim to rule upon her
+motherhood, and her signature and her coins[67] bore a string of
+feminine titles ending with “Mother of the victorious King Khalíl,”
+though the little “king” had never been conscious of his royalty.
+
+She was not long left to rule alone. The idea of queenship was too
+repugnant to Muslim prejudices, and the caliph of Baghdád interfered
+with all the authority of a pope. “If they had no man among them,” he
+wrote to the emírs of Cairo, “he would send them one.” So the commander-
+in-chief, Aybek, was chosen to marry the queen, and a joint-king, a
+child of Saladin’s kindred, was appointed to keep up the figment of the
+departed dynasty. But “Spray of Pearls” still ruled, in fact though not
+in name. She kept her hold on the exchequer, and evidently treated her
+new husband with scant respect. Like a true woman however, she could be
+jealous; she made him divorce another wife, and when Aybek ventured to
+propose a fresh marriage with a princess of Mosil the queen gave way to
+a regrettable act of resentment; having lured him by fair words to the
+Citadel—the facts unhappily cannot be softened—she had him murdered in
+the bath (1257). Her punishment was speedy and terrible. In three days
+all was over. The mamlúks shut her up in the Red Tower, where she
+vindictively pounded her jewels in a mortar that they might adorn no
+other woman, and then she was dragged before the wife whom she had made
+Aybek divorce, and there and then beaten to death with the women’s
+clogs. For days her body lay in the Citadel ditch for the curs to worry,
+till some good Samaritan buried it. Her tomb may still be seen beside
+the chapel of Sitta Nefísa, and a pious hand of these latter days has
+shrouded it with a cloth on which the Arabic name of “Spray of Pearls”
+is worked in gold.
+
+The rule of the Bahry Mamlúks now began, without further pretence of
+joint-kingship with one of Saladin’s house, though not without
+opposition and intrigue from members of the family in Syria, nor without
+hostility from the Arabs of Egypt, who got up a national movement and
+were put down with great severity. The bare list of the twenty-three
+sultans of the Bahry dynasty—all Turks, and most from Kipchak—who
+succeeded Aybek and ruled from 1257 to 1382 is misleading unless one
+takes the conditions of their rule into account. Of the twenty-three,
+only four reigned for any considerable period, and the four reigns of
+Beybars, Kalaún, en-Násir, and Hasan, account for more than half the sum
+of all the twenty-three reigns. A sultan was nothing more than the chief
+mamlúk, elected by his comrades, _primus inter pares_ indeed, but with a
+distinct understanding that they were his peers. For example, when Lagín
+was elected sultan by a conspiracy of the emírs, they marched at his
+stirrup and did him fealty, but they made him swear, and then swear
+again, that he would remain one of themselves, act only by their
+counsel, and never favour his own mamlúks to the detriment of the rest:
+and when he broke his oath by making a favourite, they murdered him. It
+was only a very strong man who could hold the dangerous position for
+long, as Beybars did, partly by the prestige of his brilliant campaigns
+in Syria; and after the strong man’s death, which as likely as not
+happened by design, his son would be set on the throne as a stop-gap
+whilst the rival emírs tried their strength, arranged their
+combinations, and bought off competitors. Then the strongest of them, or
+the most diplomatic, would remove the warming-pan and ascend the throne,
+to hold it as long as he could; after which the same process would be
+renewed.
+
+We must at least give the mamlúks their due as a splendid soldiery. Four
+times they had to meet the most formidable of all possible invasions,
+the repeated advance of the Mongol hordes led by Ginghiz Kaan’s
+successors, and four times they rolled them back. Kutuz was the first to
+bear the brunt. Hulagu’s Mongol envoys came to Cairo with insulting
+demands of submission: Kutuz cut off their heads and hung them up at the
+Zuweyla Gate; then marched into Syria, routed the Mongols in a glorious
+victory at Goliath’s Well in 1260, and rid the land of them. Beybars
+swam the Euphrates at the head of his troops and defeated the Mongols at
+Bira in 1273; then turning west he slew seven thousand of the enemy at
+Abu-lusteyn and seated himself on the Seljúk throne, which they had
+usurped, at Cæsarea of Cappadocia. Kalaún stemmed another invasion in
+1281. Mustering every man he could enrol, mamlúks of the guard,
+Turkmáns, desert Bedawis, Arabs from the Euphrates and the Higáz, backed
+by the steady veterans of the old principality of Hamáh which still
+owned a prince of Saladin’s blood, the sultan won a decisive battle at
+Emesa, and freed Syria once more from the locust-cloud of devouring
+Mongols. Again they returned in the time of his son en-Násir, and this
+time the Egyptian army sustained a terrible reverse at the battle of the
+Treasurer’s Ghyll near Emesa in 1299. Damascus was lost, and the Mongol
+envoys appeared at Cairo to treat for the respectful submission of the
+sultan. But the mamlúks had not lost heart; the armourers of Cairo were
+busy, recruits were pouring in, and remounts were in such demand that
+the price of a horse rose at a bound from £12 to £40. Syria was in a
+panic, after an orgy of Mongol license; but the great emírs, Beybars
+Gashnekír and the other mamlúk chiefs, rode proudly on to victory. Once
+more the opposing armies met, in the plain of Marg-es-Suffar, in 1303,
+and for the fourth time, and the last, the Mongols were driven out of
+Syria. “Násir returned to Cairo in a wave of glory. Messengers had
+announced the news, and the emírs vied with one another in setting up
+costly pavilions, or grand stands, richly decorated and furnished, along
+the route of his procession. Workmen were forbidden to do anything but
+set up these triumphal erections. Rooms along the route were let at from
+£2 to £4 for the day. Silken carpets were laid in the street; and the
+proud sultan rode between the brilliant façades and admired the nobles’
+pavilions, while troops of Mongol prisoners in chains, each with a
+fellow Mongol’s head hanging from his neck, completed the triumph. So
+noisy were the rejoicings and so deafening the tumult of drums and music
+throughout Egypt, that nothing short of an earthquake sobered the
+people.”
+
+Nor was it the Mongols alone who felt the edge of the mamlúks’ steel.
+Beybars the Great—a blue-eyed Turk from Kipchak afflicted by a cataract
+which caused him to fetch but £20 in the slave market—despite his humble
+beginnings, had the courage and the zeal of a second Saladin. He waged
+the Holy War for ten years in Palestine, where the Franks were disposed
+to league with the Mongols. He seized and razed Cæsarea and Arsúf in
+1265, and dragged their defenders in cruel ignominy to Cairo, where they
+were paraded with reversed banners and broken crosses. Jerusalem had
+been recovered from the Christians twenty years before, but the embers
+of Crusading zeal still smouldered feebly on the coast and at a few
+inland fortresses. Beybars resolved to extinguish the last flicker.
+Jaffa fell in 1268, Belfort surrendered, and Antioch, the Christian
+capital of northern Syria, was stormed and burnt to the ground; three
+years later the great fortress of the Hospitallers, Crac des Chevaliers,
+lowered its flag, and the Teutonic knights lost Montfort.[68] Even
+Cyprus, whence the Franks got their supplies, was invaded by the mamlúk
+fleet. The mountain fastnesses of the dreaded Assassins were seized and
+disarmed, and the Wehmgericht sank into impotence. Before Beybars died
+his commands were obeyed from the Pyramus and the Euphrates to the south
+of Arabia and the fourth cataract of the Nile. The Holy Cities of Mekka,
+Medina, and Jerusalem were his; he held the ports of Sawákin and ‘Aydháb
+on the Red Sea; the Arabs of the desert were his servants, the chiefs of
+Barbary paid him tribute; the great Khan of the Golden Horde on the
+Volga was his sworn ally and sent him his daughter in marriage—Mongol
+though he was, Baraka Khan was the inveterate foe of the Mongols of
+Persia who had overrun Syria;—embassies were exchanged with the Eastern
+Emperor, who permitted a mosque to be restored at Constantinople, while
+Beybars supplied him with a patriarch; diplomatic and commercial
+relations were established with Manfred of Sicily, James of Aragon,
+Alfonso of Seville, Charles of Anjou. To crown his glory he revived the
+old ‘Abbásid caliphate, extinguished at Baghdad by the Mongols in 1258;
+brought a meek representative of the sacred line to Cairo and housed him
+in great state in the Citadel, as the supreme legitimate pontiff of
+Islám, and humbly received at the caliph’s hands the purple robe and
+black turban and golden chain and anklets which betokened a sovereign
+recognized by the spiritual power. Henceforward there was ever a caliph
+at Cairo—however _fainéant_—till the Ottoman conquest and the assumption
+of the caliphate by the Sultans of Turkey in 1538.[69]
+
+A great soldier and a consummate if perfidious diplomatist, Beybars was
+also an able and laborious administrator. Under him the land was quietly
+if not quite godly governed, and his energy was unbounded. He seemed to
+be in several places at once, so rapid and secret were his journeys, and
+it was a favourite device of his to lie hidden in the Citadel for days
+together, watching his deputies, when he was believed to be in Syria all
+the time. “The greater part of his reign was spent in campaigns outside
+Egypt, but he generally passed the winter months at Cairo, whilst his
+troops rested and rains or snow hindered marching, and he devoted these
+intervals to improving the country and the capital. It was not only in
+founding and restoring mosques and colleges, or rebuilding the Hall of
+Justice at the foot of the Citadel, that he showed his public interest.
+He enlarged the irrigation canals and dug new ones, made roads and
+bridges, fortified Alexandria and repaired the pharos, and protected the
+mouths of the Nile from the risk of foreign invasion. He revived the
+Egyptian fleet, built forty war galleys, and maintained 12,000 regular
+troops—not reckoning, one must assume, the Arab and Egyptian militia or
+occasional levies. His heavy war expenses entailed heavy taxation; and
+though with a view to popularity he began his reign by remitting the
+oppressive taxes imposed by Kutuz to the amount of 600,000 dinárs a
+year, he found himself compelled to increase the fiscal burdens as his
+campaigns developed. Yet we read more often of old taxes repealed than
+of fresh duties imposed, and his treasury was filled less by the imposts
+of Egypt than by the contributions from the conquered cities and
+districts of Syria, the tribute of vassal states and tribes, and the
+valuable custom-dues of the ports.
+
+“His government was enlightened, just and strict. He met the severe
+famine of 1264 by measures at once wise and generous, by regulating the
+sale of corn, and by undertaking, and compelling his officers and emírs
+to undertake, the support of the destitute for three months. He allowed
+no wine (though the tax on it used to produce 6000 dinárs a year), beer,
+or hashish in his dominions; he attempted to eradicate contagious
+diseases by scientific isolation; he was strict with the morals of his
+subjects, shut up taverns and brothels, and banished the European women
+of the town; though, personally, he was addicted to the Tatar kumiz, and
+was suspected of oriental depravity. He was no sybarite, whatever his
+vices; no man was more full of energy and power of work. If his days
+were often given to hunting or polo, lance-play or marksmanship, his
+nights were devoted to business. A courier who arrived at daybreak
+received the answering dispatches by the third hour, with invariable
+punctuality.” Sometimes over fifty dispatches were dictated, signed and
+sealed late in the night, after a fatiguing march. There was a mail
+twice a week carried by relays of horses, besides a well-organized
+pigeon-post.
+
+It was no wonder that such a man was adored by the people, who thought
+him the ideal of a gallant and generous soldier-king, and who still
+listen with delight to the romance in which the story-teller of the
+cafés of Cairo clothes the great deeds of the ever popular Záhir
+Beybars. Even the devout admired a king who endowed religious
+foundations and held an even balance between the four contending schools
+of orthodox divines, from each of which he nominated a separate kády.
+Only the emírs and officers dreaded one who, if he was true as steel to
+a good servant, never forgave a bad one, and whose restless suspicion
+watched their every move. It was inevitable that some day one of the
+many grudges should be paid off, and after seventeen years of a
+resplendent reign Beybars died in 1277 by a cup of poison which he had
+apparently made ready for another.
+
+Beybars was the true founder of the mamlúk power and the organizer of
+the mamlúk system. Since the day when he led the charge of the Bahry
+guard against Louis of France at the battle of Mansúra, he had
+sedulously watched over the army, stimulated recruiting from fresh
+blood, and encouraged good service by liberal distribution of fiefs. His
+was the foreign policy maintained in Egypt for many years, and his court
+formed the pattern for succeeding kings. A very magnificent and
+ceremonious court it was, where the sultan sat surrounded by the great
+officers of state and of the household,—Viceroy, Commander-in-chief,
+Major domo, Captain of the Guard, Armour-bearer, Master of the Horse,
+Cup-bearer, Taster, Master of the Wardrobe, Grand Huntsman, Polo-bearer,
+Slipper-holder, Lord of the Seat; the Master of the Halberds with his
+Gentlemen at Arms; the Adjutant-General with his thirty Lords of the
+Drums, each followed by forty troopers and a band of ceremony of ten
+drums, four trumpets, and two hautbois; the eunuch guards, equerries and
+chamberlains, secretaries and court physicians, judges and divines. All
+these functionaries had their allowances, fiefs, or appanages; a lord of
+the drums, for instance, would draw an income of about £16,000 a year;
+and the expenses of the royal household may be judged by the estimate
+that 20,000 lbs. of food were daily prepared in the larder, and that the
+daily cost in meat and vegetables in the time of en-Násir was from £800
+to £1200.
+
+The great officers of the court and of the army were of course the most
+powerful men next to the sultan, and each deemed himself a fit successor
+to the throne. On their loyalty, and especially on that of the
+bodyguard, a brigade of several thousand picked men who held in fief a
+large part of Egypt, rested the safety and power of the sultan, who
+stood more or less at their mercy. Each of the great lords, were he an
+officer of the guard, or a court official, or merely a private nobleman,
+was a mamlúk sultan in miniature. He, too, had his guard of slaves, who
+waited at his door to escort him in his rides abroad, were ready at his
+behest to attack the public baths and carry off the women, defended him
+when a rival lord besieged his palace, and followed him valiantly as he
+led the charge of his division on the field of battle. These great
+lords, with their retainers, were a constant menace to the reigning
+sultan. A coalition would be formed among a certain number of
+disaffected nobles, with the support of some of the officers of the
+household or of the guard, and their retainers would mass in the
+approaches to the royal presence, while a trusted cupbearer or other
+officer, whose duties permitted him access to the king’s person, would
+strike the fatal blow or administer the insidious cup; and the
+conspirators would forthwith elect one of their number to succeed to the
+vacant throne. This was not effected without a struggle; the royal guard
+was not always to be bribed or overcome, and there were generally other
+nobles whose interests attached them to the reigning sovereign rather
+than to any possible successor, except themselves, and who would be sure
+to oppose the plot. Then there would be a street fight; the terrified
+people would close their shops, run to their houses, and shut the great
+gates which isolated the various quarters and markets of the city; and
+the rival factions of mamlúks would ride through the streets that
+remained open, pillaging the houses of their adversaries, carrying off
+women and children, holding pitched battles in the road, or discharging
+arrows and spears from the windows upon the enemy in the street below.
+These things were of constant occurrence, and the life of the merchant
+classes of Cairo must have been exciting. We read how the great bazar,
+called the Khan-el-Khalíly, was sometimes shut up for a week while these
+contests were going on in the streets without, and the rich merchants of
+Cairo huddled trembling behind the stout gates.
+
+There were fine doings of this kind when Ketbugha deposed the child-king
+Násir, for a time. The Ashrafis—or mamlúks of the late sultan, el-Ashraf
+Khalíl—raised a revolt and besieged the Citadel. Then Ketbugha’s troops
+rode out to quell the tumult and slashed through the ranks; the rebels
+were blinded, maimed, drowned, beheaded, nailed to the gate of Zuweyla;
+and so a new reign began (1294). A plague followed, when seven hundred
+corpses were carried out of one gate of Cairo in a single day. A fresh
+conspiracy was formed, Ketbugha fled, and the viceroy Lagín was elected
+sultan in his place. The streets which had lately been shambles were now
+_en fête_ with decorations, for the new sultan was a generous man and
+promised to remit taxes; bread was cheap and Lagín was popular.
+
+The idea of hereditary succession was wholly foreign to the mamlúk
+system; yet it presented the only correction to these scenes of violent
+supercession, and after a time some sort of hereditary title seems to
+have been established. Kalaún had been succeeded by his son Khalíl, and
+then by a younger son en-Násir Mohammad in 1293, and though the last, as
+a mere child, was temporarily deposed, he came back in 1298 after the
+murder of his brother-in-law Lagín. After another trial of usurpation by
+Beybars Gashnekír (the Taster) in 1308, Násir was restored and began a
+third reign which lasted thirty-one years (1310-1341), and after his
+death his incapable descendants sat on the throne, with little or no
+real authority, till the close of the dynasty. Thus from 1279 to 1382
+Egypt was ruled, except for six or seven years, by members of one
+family, the House of Kalaún. The founder of this family, whose history
+refutes the theory that these foreigners were unprolific in Egypt, was
+himself a notable figure, a brave general, a prudent statesman, and a
+great encourager of commerce. His passports to traders were in force as
+far as India and China, and he did all he could to develop the commerce
+of Egypt. Like most of the mamlúk sultans he was a notable builder. It
+is extraordinary how these men of war, in the midst of alarums and
+intrigues, took a delight in architecture. The brilliant queen, first of
+the mamlúks, built (1250) the tomb-mosque over her husband Sálih, which
+still stands on part of the site of the old palace of the Fátimids in
+Beyn-el-Kasreyn. Beybars founded a college in 1262 on another part of
+the palace called the “Hall of the Tent,” and also a great mosque
+outside the Bab-el-Futúh in 1267-9, both of which still exist, though
+the college is a ruin, and the mosque was used, _infandum!_ as a bake-
+house for the French troops a century ago, and recently as a slaughter-
+house for the British army of occupation. Kalaún, stirred by a dangerous
+illness, vowed to build a hospital, and his Maristán is still to be seen
+in the Nahhasín, though no longer used for its original purpose: it was
+a madhouse less than a hundred years ago. It stands beside his mosque
+and tomb, the latter notable for its exquisite plaster tracery and red
+granite pillars, and for the oddly decorated stone minaret and fine
+inscription. Ibn-Tulún and Saladin had built hospitals, and Kalaún
+carried on the good tradition of these pious benefactors. Cubicles for
+patients were ranged round two courts, and at the sides of another
+quadrangle were wards, lecture rooms, library, baths, dispensary, and
+every necessary appliance of those days of surgical science. There was
+even music to cheer the sufferers; while readers of the Korán afforded
+the consolations of the faith. Rich and poor were treated alike, without
+fees, and sixty orphans were supported and educated in the neighbouring
+school. People still visit the tomb where the good sultan and his son
+en-Násir lie buried, to touch their clothes in sure belief that they
+will be cured of sundry diseases and disabilities.
+
+[Illustration: “JOSEPH’S HALL”: PALACE OF EN-NASIR IN CITADEL, WITH HIS
+MOSQUE IN BACKGROUND]
+
+The long reign of en-Násir was a golden age of mamlúk architecture.
+However much this sultan may have profited by the sense of tranquillity
+which hereditary title inspired, he owed his long tenure of the
+precarious throne partly to his personal qualities. “This self-
+possessed, iron-willed man—absolutely despotic, ruling alone—physically
+insignificant, small of stature, lame of a foot, and with a cataract in
+the eye—with his plain dress and strict morals, his keen intellect and
+unwearied energy, his enlightened tastes and interests, his shrewd
+diplomacy degenerating into fruitless deceit, his unsleeping suspicion
+and cruel vengefulness, his superb court, his magnificent buildings—is
+one of the most remarkable characters of the Middle Ages. His reign was
+certainly the climax of Egyptian culture and civilization.” He carried
+on the traditions of Beybars and Kalaún; maintained the alliance with
+the Golden Horde and married a princess from the Volga, the lady
+Tulbíya, whose tomb may still be seen, with that of another of his
+wives, in the eastern cemetery; he preserved the normal boundaries of
+the empire, from the Pyramus and Euphrates to Sawákin and Aswán, and
+arranged, if not alliances, diplomatic connexions with the emperor of
+Constantinople and the king of Bulgaria, as well as the rulers of
+Abyssinia and Arabia. He married eleven daughters to the highest nobles,
+and each wedding cost him half a million. Násir was not only a
+statesman; he was a farmer, trainer, and sportsman, who would pay £4000
+for a horse, kept a systematic stud-book, knew all his horses’
+pedigrees, prices, and ages, and broke in three thousand fillies every
+year with Bedawy grooms, for the races in which he and his emírs took
+the keenest possible interest. He kept thirty thousand sheep, and
+imported the finest breeds from abroad, and like most of the sultans he
+was devoted to falconry. Ibn-Batúta, who saw him in 1326, describes
+Násir as a king “of noble character and great virtues,” beneficent to
+pilgrims and assiduous in his duty of sitting in appeal twice a week to
+hear causes and complaints in person. Under his rule Egypt thrived;
+vexatious taxes were repealed, a new survey of the land was made,
+millers and bakers who tried to raise prices in bad years were scourged,
+and when his son-in-law, the great emír Kusún was reported to him for
+extortion, the sultan smote him with the flat of his sword and flogged
+his factor. Prices were kept down by his vigilance, wine-bibing and
+immorality were severely punished, and if Násir recouped himself by
+sweeping confiscations among the nobles, and cut down the “tall poppies”
+remorselessly, the people gained by the new method, and prospered
+exceedingly.
+
+Even to the Copts Násir was indulgent, though the Christians were never
+so well used under mamlúk rule as they had been under the Fátimids and
+in the time of el-Kámil. At the time of Saladin’s invasion there had
+been a great destruction of churches, due rather to the burning of Misr
+and the turmoil of war than to any fanaticism of the conquerors. Saladin
+himself was no friend to Christians; he was too rigid a Muslim to be
+tolerant; but he did not persecute them. The flight or expulsion of the
+Armenian patriarch and his followers was more probably the result of the
+close association of the Armenians with the Fátimid government than of
+religious bigotry. But the Holy War in Palestine, though waged against
+the Latin branch of the church catholic, reacted unfavourably upon the
+Copts, and Saladin’s brother el-‘Adil was stern and tyrannical towards
+his Christian subjects. His son el-Kámil often interceded for them
+successfully, and when he came to the throne of Egypt himself, he
+displayed a spirit of toleration rare indeed in that age. He received St
+Francis of Assisi courteously, when the good friar came to teach him the
+truth as he perceived it, and the Christians of Egypt unanimously
+regarded Kámil as the kindest ruler they had ever known. His son es-
+Sálih seems to have followed in his steps during his short reign, for he
+wrote to Innocent IV to express his regret that he could not converse
+with the Dominicans by reason of his ignorance of Latin.
+
+The Crusade of Louis IX naturally upset these amicable relations, and it
+is not surprising that the Muslims wreaked their vengeance upon many
+churches in Egypt. Nor was the temper of the succeeding mamlúk sultans,
+excited by repeated victories over the remnant of the Franks in Syria,
+conducive to a good understanding with their Christian subjects. The new
+colleges founded by Saladin and his successors were working a change in
+Cairo, and a fanatical spirit was encouraged by the teachers of these
+divinity schools, whose influence grew stronger as time went on. In 1280
+all the Coptic scribes employed at the war-office were dismissed and
+their places supplied by Muslims. In 1301 the old humiliating sumptuary
+rules prescribing distinctive dresses and the like were revived. In 1321
+occurred a series of outbreaks which brought terrible persecution on the
+Christians. The disturbance began when en-Násir’s workmen, digging a
+lake called Nasir’s Pool, near the Lion’s Bridge (west of the Lúk and
+close to the mosque of Taybars) undermined the church of ez-Zuhry, which
+en-Násir had commanded to be respected. Without the knowledge of the
+government the people rushed to the church one Friday after prayers and
+utterly demolished it. Thence they went to the church of St Mina in the
+Hamra and sacked it, and did the like to the “Church of the Maidens” by
+the seven watermills, dragging out the nuns, and pillaging and burning
+everything. The sultan was indignant when the smoke of the burning
+churches told the tale of disaster, and sent troops at once to coerce
+the mob. Meanwhile news arrived of the destruction of two other churches
+in the quarters of Zuweyla and of the Greeks, and it was found that the
+mob was attacking the Mo‘allaka in the fortress of Babylon. Here the
+sultan’s troops happily arrived in time to protect the church. There was
+evidently a popular excitement difficult to quell. Wild fakírs got up in
+the mosques and shouted “Down with the infidels’ churches! To the
+foundations! To the foundations!” The same thing was going on all over
+Egypt; at Alexandria, at Damascus, at Kus, churches were burning.
+
+A month later mysterious fires began to break out at Cairo. One after
+the other great conflagrations burst forth, and a strong wind carried
+the flames far and wide. People went up the minarets and cried to God,
+thinking that the whole city would be burnt down, and there was groaning
+and weeping over the loss of homes and possessions. Every effort was
+made to extinguish the fires. All the water-carriers were impressed, and
+twenty-four emírs of the highest rank worked at the head of the lines of
+men carrying water from the baths and cisterns, and demolishing acres of
+fine houses to clear a space round the burning buildings. The street
+from the Deylem quarter to the Gate of Zuweyla ran with water like a
+river. No sooner was one fire extinguished than another began. Almost
+every day witnessed a fresh conflagration.
+
+It was noticed that these fires were apparently aimed at mosques, and
+that they were the work of incendiaries was evident from clothes soaked
+in oil and pitch and naphtha that were discovered. A Christian was
+caught at the mosque of ez-Záhir with packets of naphtha and pitch,
+which he was lighting in the mosque. Put to the torture he confessed
+that the conflagrations were the organized work of Christians. Two
+monks, under torture, admitted that they had set the fires afoot to
+avenge the destruction of the churches. The Coptic patriarch was called
+in, and, with tears, denounced the incendiaries as wild enthusiasts who
+were paying off the foolish church-destroyers in their own coin. He was
+sent back to his house in honour. The populace however were in no mood
+to see a patriarch respected, and would gladly have torn him in pieces,
+but for the sultan’s guard. As it was they burned four monks from the
+Melekite “Convent of the Mule” (el-Kuseyr) in the Mukattam hills. Two
+Christians caught in the act of arson were by the sultan’s orders burnt
+alive in a pit in the presence of an exulting multitude, and an innocent
+Coptic secretary, passing by, only escaped being thrown to the flames by
+hasty apostasy. The mob was becoming dangerous, and the sultan, who,
+though much alarmed, had done his utmost to calm the people, took strong
+measures. Troops were sent through the whole of Cairo with orders to
+charge the crowds and spare none. The news had preceded them, and they
+found the bazars closed and the streets deserted. Not a man was to be
+seen between the Citadel and the Gate of Succour. Some two hundred were
+arrested near the Nile, and brought before the sultan, who ordered them
+to be executed or to lose their hands. In vain they pleaded innocence;
+even the emírs interceded for them; en-Násir was resolved to make an
+example of somebody. Gallows were set up all the way from the Gate of
+Zuweyla to the Rumeyla, and there the unlucky Muslims were hung by their
+hands in order to teach other people not to raise an uproar.
+
+The result of this excitement was the revival of the old regulations as
+to dress which Násir had endeavoured to drop since 1301. Any Christian
+found riding a horse or wearing a white turban might be killed at sight.
+The Copts were compelled to wear blue turbans, to carry a bell round
+their necks at the baths, and to ride only the ass, and that with the
+face to the tail. The emírs were not allowed to employ Christian
+servants, nor were the Copts any more to hold posts in the government
+offices. They hardly dared to show themselves abroad, and a great many
+became Muslims. This was probably the worst persecution since the days
+of el-Hákim, three centuries before, but it must be admitted that there
+was grave provocation on both sides, and that the outrages sprang from
+popular fury, not from the fanaticism of the rulers. Similar
+persecution, though scarcely on so large a scale, went on throughout the
+mamlúk period, and the Copts, who had perhaps waxed over-fat and kicked
+during the tolerant epoch of the later Fátimids, paid dearly for their
+past favour. They were gradually reduced to the state of suffering
+insignificance from which they are only now being to some extent raised.
+
+Whilst churches were being thus destroyed mosques were rising with
+amazing prodigality. There never was such a harvest for the builder and
+the architect as in the reign of en-Násir. The sultan set the example
+himself. He was a man of fine taste and high culture, the patron of
+scholars, and the intimate friend of the learned historian Abu-l-Fida,
+whom he restored to the princedom of Hamáh, which had been held by his
+family since the days of his ancestor, Saladin’s brother. It was an age
+of brilliant artistic production, and the immense sums spent by the
+sultan and his emírs on building and decorative works show that the
+wealth of the country was vast, and was nobly expended. Some of Násir’s
+own furniture has been preserved—there are two exquisite inlaid-silver
+tables of his in the Arab Museum at Cairo—and his two chief buildings,
+the college in Beyn-el-Kasreyn (1304), next to the Maristán, with its
+Gothic gateway brought from ‘Akka by his brother Khalíl, and the old
+mosque (1318) in the Citadel, are worthy memorials of his taste, though
+unhappily they show but few traces of their original splendour. The
+great dome which once surmounted the Citadel mosque has fallen in, and
+most of the marble mosaics which adorned the kibla have vanished, as
+well as the iron grille which enclosed the sultan’s place of prayer
+(_maksúra_). There is still a range of clerestory windows all round the
+mosque, but the tracery and stained glass is almost all gone; yet the
+ten great granite columns, and the marble mosaics on the south wall, and
+other relics, show what the mosque must once have been. Its most
+remarkable feature is the coating of the minarets with green tiles,
+which may probably be ascribed to the Tatar influence of Násir’s wife,
+who belonged to the royal family of the Golden Horde. That the Citadel
+mosque is not wholly destroyed is due to the care of Colonel C. M.
+Watson, C.M.G., who rescued it from the degradation of an army
+storehouse, and removed the wooden partitions which had been set up when
+the beautiful building was converted into a prison. There was once a
+“Hall of Columns” belonging to Násir’s “Striped Palace” of black and
+white stone in the Citadel (which cost, it is said, twenty millions, but
+the figure is incredible), which still stood three quarters of a century
+ago; the fortress was largely rearranged and added to in his reign, and
+the aqueduct which brought the Nile water to the citadel, though
+commonly ascribed to Saladin and probably a reconstruction of some
+Ayyúbid conduit, was Násir’s work (1311), afterwards restored in stone
+by el-Ghúry. He also built a mosque beside the shrine of Seyyida Nefísa,
+the Kubbat-en-Nasr near the Red Hill, and other chapels.
+
+[Illustration: AQUEDUCT AND HOUSE OF THE “SEVEN WATERMILLS”]
+
+Where the sultan led, the court followed. The emírs of that day were
+never content till they had built a mosque, a college, or a tomb-chapel,
+to celebrate their piety and lay up riches where they stood most in need
+of a balance. The Moorish traveller, Ibn-Batúta, who was at Cairo in
+1326, was impressed by the zealous emulation of the emírs in founding
+mosques and monasteries for recluses, such as the Khankah or convent of
+Beybars Gashnekír, still standing, and he gives a curious account of the
+monastic rules.[70] One cannot count the colleges (medresas), he says,
+and he is lost in admiration of the great hospital of Kalaún, with its
+excellent apparatus and drugs, and its revenue amounting, he was told,
+to 1000 dinárs a day. More than forty mosques and colleges were erected
+between 1320 and 1360—more than a fourth of the total number recorded
+from the Arab conquest to the time of Makrízy—and many of them still
+survive to bear witness to the munificence of the great nobles of the
+time. Such are the mosques (_gami‘_) of the emír Hoseyn (founded A.H.
+719, A.D. 1319), Almás, the chamberlain (730), Kusún (730), Beshták
+(736), Altunbugha el-Maridány, the cupbearer (740), Aslam, the armour-
+bearer (746), Aksunkur (747), Arghún el-Isma‘íly (748), Mangak, the
+proconsul (750), Sheykhú (750); the colleges (_medresa_) of Almelik, the
+polo-master (719), Sengar el-Gáwaly (723), Ahmad, the master of the
+ceremonies (Mihmandár, 725), Akbugha, the major domo (734), Sarghitmish,
+captain of the guard (757); the monasteries (_Khankáh_) of Kusún (736),
+el-Gáwaly (723), Sheykhú (756); besides the mosque of “the Lady Miska”
+(a slave of Násir’s named Hadak, 740), the college of Násir’s daughter,
+the Lady Tatar el-Higazíya (761), and the great mosque of his son Sultan
+Hasan facing the Citadel (757-60).
+
+[Illustration: MOSQUE OF SULTAN HASAN]
+
+To describe these mosques of the Násiry epoch in detail would demand a
+whole volume. Some of them indeed are sadly ruined and present but
+fragments of their original building. Some, like Aksunkur’s and el-
+Isma‘íly’s were restored, the one with much taste by Ibrahím Agha in
+1652; the other, with none, fifty years ago by one of the Khedivial
+family. But even in what remains of the original work of the twenty-one
+mosques enumerated above there is so much variety in plan, in treatment
+of the parts, and in decoration, that no verbal description can take the
+place of ocular study on the spot. Almost every one of these buildings
+deserves separate and attentive examination. Three features, however,
+may here be signalized as characteristic. The old mosques had no
+external decoration; their enclosing walls were plain, and only in the
+late Fátimid mosque el-Akmar do we find the beginning of a façade. The
+mamlúk mosques, copying no doubt the buildings of the Crusaders in
+Palestine, generally present fine façades, with sunk panels, portals in
+recess, and decorative cornice and crownwork. The next characteristic is
+the development of the minaret, which becomes more graceful, is built of
+well-faced stone, and shows delicate articulations and gradations of
+tapering from the square to the polygon and cylinder, with skilful use
+of “stalactite” or pendentive treatment of angles and transitions and
+supports for the balconies. The third is the construction of large
+domes. Hitherto small cupolas over the mihráb or above the entrance were
+the utmost achievements of the earlier architects. The feature of a
+great dome was introduced by Saladin’s successors, for example in the
+dome of the tomb-mosque of esh-Sháfi‘y in the Karáfa, and probably in
+other edifices, but too little remains of the Ayyúbid period to permit
+of very exact definition.
+
+The mamlúks were dome-builders _par excellence_. A large proportion of
+their mosques and colleges were also the founders’ tombs; the tomb-
+chapel adjoined the main building, and the dome, as we have said, is
+pre-eminently a sepulchral canopy. From the mamlúk period begins that
+adornment of the city with those beautiful bulbs which still form its
+dominant architectural note. From the plain dome with a small cupola on
+top comes the fluted dome, and next the dome covered with ornament,
+chevrons, arabesques, or geometrical _entrelacs_, all chiselled in the
+stone. The most elaborate ornament belongs to the work of the Circassian
+sultans of the fifteenth century, but already in the fourteenth the dome
+had taken its place among the leading features of Saracenic
+architecture.
+
+As an example of the fourteenth century style we cannot do better than
+take the great mosque of Sultan Hasan, which includes most of the
+characteristics of the Násiry epoch, and displays them on the grandest
+scale. Sultan Hasan,—who sat on the throne from 1347 to 1351, was
+deposed by the emírs, and then restored from 1354 to 1361,—was far from
+an interesting or estimable character, and his mosque was his one good
+deed. It was built between 1356 and 1359 (A.H. 757-760) and is said to
+have cost him 1000 dinárs a day, but one distrusts the round figures of
+Eastern chroniclers. The sultan was so charmed with his masterpiece that
+he cut off the architect’s hand in the vague idea that its loss would
+cripple his genius and prevent his repeating his success. The mosque is
+of the usual form of medresa, a cross formed of a central court and four
+deep transepts or porticoes, and the founder’s tomb may be compared to a
+lady-chapel behind the chancel or eastern portico. The outside does not
+of course reveal the cruciform character of the interior, since the
+angles are filled with numerous rooms and offices.[71] The prevailing
+impression from without is one of great height, compared with other
+mosques. The walls are 113 feet high and built of fine cut stone from
+the pyramids, and have the peculiarity, rare in Saracen architecture, of
+springing from a socle. Windows—two with horseshoe arches, the rest
+simple grilles—slightly relieve the monotony of the broad expanse of
+wall; but the most beautiful feature is the splendid cornice built up of
+six tiers of stalactites each overlapping the one below, which crowns
+the whole wall. There are some graceful pilasters or engaged columns at
+the angles, and a magnificent portal set in an arched niche, 66 feet
+high, vaulted in a half sphere which is worked up to by twelve tiers of
+pendentives. Bold arabesque medallions and borders, geometrical panels,
+and corner columns with stalactite capitals, enrich this stately gate.
+
+[Illustration: GATEWAY OF SULTAN HASAN’S MOSQUE]
+
+Inside, the first impression again is of size rather than detail. The
+great span of the four arches—that at the east is 90 feet high and
+nearly 70 wide—is unmatched in Cairo, but the plaster coating of the
+interior of the transepts detracts from the general effect, nor are the
+mosaics and marbles, handsome as they are, equal in delicacy of design
+or harmony of colour to many others in the _mihrábs_ of earlier and
+later mosques. The black, white, and yellow panels are too garish, and
+so is the colouring of the pulpit; but the concave niche itself is
+singularly rich in decoration, and the tribune, instead of being as
+usual an unpretentious wood platform, stands upon graceful stone columns
+of alternate drums of coloured marbles. A fine Kufic inscription forms a
+frieze round the top of the walls. The tomb-chamber, entered from the
+sanctuary by a noble door plated with arabesques in bronze, is
+surrounded by a marble dado 25 feet high, above which is the Throne-
+Verse from the Korán carved in wood, whilst the angles are gradually
+worked up to the circle of the dome by stalactites also carved in wood
+and much decayed. In the centre is the plain marble grave of the
+founder. The dome itself is comparatively modern, and quite unworthy of
+the great mosque. The original great dome, admired by Pietro della Valle
+in 1616, collapsed in 1660. There were to have been four minarets, but
+scarcely was the third built when it fell (1360), crushing some three
+hundred children in the school below. Thirty-three days later Sultan
+Hasan was murdered. Of the two that then remained, one minaret became
+ruined and was rebuilt too short in 1659. The great bronze lanterns and
+many of the enamelled glass lamps are preserved in the Arab Museum; and
+the fine bronze-plated entrance door was removed by el-Muáyyad to his
+own mosque in 1410.
+
+The mosque of Sultan Hasan suffered greatly from its position. Its wide
+terrace-roof was an excellent post of vantage for cannon and musketry
+during the constant émeutes of the Mamlúk period, and shots were
+frequently exchanged between it and the Citadel down to the time of
+Mohammad ‘Aly: some of the balls may still be seen in the masonry.
+Barkúk found the mosque so dangerous as a place of attack that he
+demolished its handsome steps and closed the great door. At one time it
+remained closed for half a century, and the students and worshippers had
+to slink in by a window or a side-door. The tall minaret was even used
+in the middle of the fifteenth century to support a tight-rope stretched
+to the Citadel on which a European gymnast disported himself to the
+tremulous delight of the populace. In a quieter situation the mosque
+might have escaped injury, but even as it is, scarred with bullets and
+lopped of its original dome and minarets, it remains the most superb if
+not the most beautiful monument of Saracenic art in the fourteenth
+century.
+
+[Illustration: TOMB-MOSQUE OF BARKUK AND FARAG]
+
+
+                      2. THE MAMLÚKS OF THE FORT.
+
+
+When the feeble descendants of en-Násir, after enduring rather than
+enjoying a mock sovereignty for forty years under the tyranny of a
+series of powerful emírs—Kusún, Sheykhú, Sarghitmish, and the rest—gave
+way to the usurpation of the emír Barkúk in 1382, the change made little
+difference in the government of Egypt. The hereditary principle was
+gone, indeed, and was never reaffirmed until the latter part of the
+nineteenth century; and the new dynasty consisted of isolated emírs, who
+sometimes bequeathed their throne to a son until some other emír deposed
+him, but who never founded a royal house like that of Kalaún. The new
+line was known as the Burgy Mamlúks, or “slaves of the fort,” because
+they belonged to a brigade of troops which had been quartered in the
+Citadel ever since their original enrolment by Kalaún a century before.
+They are also called the “Circassian Sultans,” from their common race,
+for none of them were Turks, though two were Greeks. There was little to
+choose, however, in character, between the Circassians and their Turkish
+predecessors, and the change on the whole was for the worse. The sultans
+of the new line were even more at the mercy of the leaders of military
+factions than before. The mamlúk guard of each king formed a distinct
+party, calling itself after his throne-title—as Ashrafy, Muáyyady,
+Násiry—and after his death or deposition they remained a separate factor
+in politics and contributed to the bloodshed, confusion, and intrigues
+of the period. The sultans could scarcely restrain their own soldiery,
+much less these formidable relics of their predecessors, and the
+frequent changes of rulers show how unstable the royal authority had
+become. Six of the twenty-three Burgy sultans reigned for 103 out of the
+total of 134 years covered by the dynasty, leaving but thirty-one years
+for the remaining seventeen, or less than two years apiece.
+
+The character of the rulers was much the same as before, but everything
+was on a meaner scale. There was hardly one warrior-king among them, and
+this accounts in a large degree for the lack of the prestige that had
+kept a soldier like Beybars or Kalaún on the throne. The Circassians
+were not soldiers but schemers; they relied less upon success in war or
+personal courage than on ruse, chicanery, and corruption, to retain
+their hold of power. The Greek Khushkadam excelled the rest in his
+adroit management of the contending factions and the heavy bribes he
+extorted in the sale of public offices. The governorship of Damascus
+cost its possessor 45,000 dinárs in fees to the sultan, and his previous
+post was sold to another man for 10,000. Ministers of state were put out
+of the way if their enemies made it worth the Greek’s while, and the
+ceremonious visits of this ingenious sultan were apt to be expensive to
+those he honoured with a call. Throughout the domination of the
+Circassian dynasty corruption reigned unchecked; justice was bought and
+sold; and even the Sheykh-el-Islám, the religious chief justice, stole
+trust-money. The soldiers, who were purchased white slaves, Greeks,
+Circassians, Turks and Mongols, ran riot in the streets, insomuch that
+decent women dared not leave their houses and the fellahín feared to
+bring their stock to market lest it should fall a prey to the mamlúks or
+the government. In the country the population diminished under the
+oppression of the troops; in the capital there was seldom peace or
+order, and sometimes rival factions pounded each other from the Citadel
+ramparts and the opposite roof of Sultan Hasan’s mosque, barricaded the
+streets, and made cockpits of the bazars, where processions of rebels
+nailed to camel-saddles till they died were no uncommon sights.
+
+In spite of this corruption and violence the Burgy sultans contrived not
+only to preserve the power of Egypt but even to enlarge its dominions
+and greatly extend its trade. They withstood the invasion of Tamerlane
+boldly in 1399, though in the end they found it politic to accept his
+terms; but at least the great conqueror never ventured to attack Egypt.
+They fought several campaigns in Asia Minor, where for some time they
+secured the submission of Karaman, Cæsarea, Iconium, and Larenda. They
+even conquered Cyprus—a nest of the pirates who disturbed the Egyptian
+shipping—in 1426, with a fleet of galleys built at their port of Bulák,
+not long risen from the Nile; and King James of Lusignan, captured at
+the battle of Chierocitia, was brought in triumph to the Citadel of
+Cairo, with the crown of Cyprus and his disgraced standards, and made to
+kiss the ground before the Sultan Bars-Bey. He was ransomed by the
+Venetian consul and European merchants, and rode through the streets and
+bazars in great state, after becoming a vassal of the Egyptian king.
+Cyprus paid tribute until the end of the Circassian dynasty, but several
+attempts upon Rhodes in 1440-4 were successfully repelled by the
+knights. To the end of the dynasty the Egyptian frontier still extended
+north as far as the Pyramus and Euphrates.
+
+Among the strange anomalies of Oriental history none perhaps is more
+surprising than the combination of extreme corruption and savage cruelty
+with exquisite refinement in material civilization and an admirable
+devotion to art which we see in the mamlúk sultans. The Circassians were
+not inferior to their Turkish forerunners as great architects.
+Personally some of the second line of sultans were men of considerable
+culture. Barkúk, Muáyyad, Gakmak, and Káit-Bey were fond of learned
+society and literary talents; Bars-Bey, though he knew little Arabic,
+liked to listen to Turkish histories read to him by el-‘Ayny; and
+Timurbugha the Greek was a philologist, historian, and theologian. They
+were also good Muslims, fasted regularly and even supererogatorily,
+abstained from wine, made pilgrimages, and insured their place in the
+next world by building mosques, colleges, hospitals, schools, and every
+kind of religious establishment, in this. El-Muáyyad, for example,
+though utterly unable to control the disorders of his time, “was
+personally a devout man and a learned, a good musician, poet, and
+orator, scrupulous in the observance of the rules of his religion, very
+simple and unpretentious in his dress and mode of life, bearing himself
+in all religious functions as a plain Muslim among fellow worshippers,
+and robing himself in common white wool in mourning for the pestilence
+that ravaged the land.” The eastern arcade of his splendid mosque
+(1415-21) is still preserved in the Sukkaríya street, and a number of
+boys may there be seen at their lessons under the brilliant gold
+inscriptions and frescoes of the sanctuary, which has been carefully
+restored by Herz Bey, who discovered traces of the original polychromy
+beneath the whitewash of ages. The minarets of the mosque are built on
+the flanking towers of the Zuweyla gate. There is also a ruined hospital
+(el-Maristán el-Muáyyady, 1418), near the Citadel, that commemorates his
+pious benefactions. Bars-Bey’s great mosque, the Ashrafiya (1423), is
+still a place where congregations meet, at the corner of the Musky,
+where one turns into the Ghuríya. Barkúk built (1386) an exquisite
+medresa in Beyn-el-Kasreyn, which has recently been restored by Herz
+Bey; and his tomb-mosque with the two domes, begun by himself but
+completed by his son, the Sultan Farag, in 1410, is one of the most
+picturesque features in that beautiful group of fawn-coloured domes and
+slender minarets, the eastern cemetery. But the gem of the group is the
+perfect tomb-mosque (1472) of Káit-Bey, which represents the highest
+achievement of the later mamlúk school. The admirable arabesques of its
+shapely dome, the skilfully graduated transitions of its stately minaret
+from square to octagon, and from octagon to circle, with every ingenuity
+of stalactite concealment of angles, and the fine inlaid marbles in the
+_liwán_, are treasures of indestructible beauty even after centuries of
+neglect and spoliation.
+
+[Illustration: EASTERN CEMETERY: SO-CALLED “TOMBS OF THE CALIPHS”]
+
+Káit-Bey, whose long reign of twenty-eight years (1468-96) was
+phenomenal in this quickly changing dynasty, had worked his way up from
+the usual humble beginning. Bought by Bars-Bey for twenty-five guineas,
+he had passed from master to master, and rank to rank, till he became
+commander-in-chief, under the Greek Timurbugha, of an army which cost
+the state nearly £300,000 a year—a very large military budget for the
+fifteenth century. “He was an expert swordsman, and an adept at the
+javelin play. His career had given him experience and knowledge of the
+world; he possessed courage, judgment, insight, energy, and decision.
+His strong character dominated his mamlúks, who were devoted to him, and
+overawed competitors. His physical energy was sometimes displayed in
+flogging the president of the council of state or other high officials
+with his own arm, with the object of extorting money for the treasury.
+Such contributions and extraordinary taxation were absolutely necessary
+for the wars in which he was obliged to engage. Not only was the land
+taxed to one-fifth of the produce, but an additional tenth (half-a-
+dirhem per ardebb of corn) was demanded. Rich Jews and Christians were
+remorselessly squeezed. There was much barbarous inhumanity, innocent
+people were scourged, even to the death, and the chemist ‘Aly ibn el-
+Marshúshy was blinded and deprived of his tongue, because he could not
+turn dross into gold.
+
+“The Sultan had the reputation of miserliness, yet the list of his
+public works, not only in Egypt, but in Syria and Arabia, shows that he
+spent the revenue on admirable objects. His two mosques at Cairo—one
+outside among the so-called ‘Tombs of the Caliphs’ (1472), the other
+near Ibn-Tulún (1475)—and his wekálas or caravanserais are among the
+most exquisite examples of elaborate arabesque ornament applied to the
+purest Saracenic architecture. He diligently restored and repaired the
+crumbling monuments of his predecessors, as numerous inscriptions in the
+mosques, the schools, the Citadel, and other buildings of Cairo
+abundantly testify. He was a frequent traveller, and journeyed in Syria,
+to the Euphrates, in Upper and Lower Egypt, besides performing the
+pilgrimages to Mekka and Jerusalem; and wherever he went he left traces
+of his progress in good roads, bridges, mosques, schools,
+fortifications, or other pious or necessary works. No reign, save that
+of en-Násir ibn Kalaún, in the long list of mamlúk sultans, was more
+prolific in architectural construction or in the minor industries of
+art. The people suffered for the cost of his many buildings, but a later
+age has recognized their matchless beauty.”[72]
+
+[Illustration: MOSQUE OF KAIT-BEY IN EASTERN CEMETERY]
+
+In the buildings of Káit-Bey and his contemporaries we see the
+perfection of the art of pure arabesque and elaborate geometrical
+ornament. In the early days of Saracenic architecture the ornament was
+worked in soft gypsum or plaster, and the use of a tool (never a mould)
+in the soft material gave extraordinary freedom and boldness to the
+lines—for example, in the scroll-work of the mosque of Ibn-Tulún.
+Plaster continued to be the base of decorative friezes and borders
+throughout the Fátimid period: it may be seen in the original arcades of
+the Azhar and in the eastern sanctuary of el-Hákim. The most exquisite
+specimen of plaster ornament, however, is seen in the tomb-mosque of
+Kalaún, where the borders of the arches that supported the original
+dome, and of the clerestory windows above, are formed of a delicate
+lace-like tracery in plaster foliate designs, broadly treated and worked
+into a pattern so continuous that it is almost impossible to break off
+at any middle point. After en-Násir, who also used stucco, however, it
+was generally abandoned in favour of stone, though we still see
+admirable examples of plaster decoration in the dome of Aksunkur and the
+beautiful designs in the cupola of el-Fadawíya. In the mosque of the
+Sultan Hasan all the sculpture except the Kufic frieze is in stone, and
+as the material is unyielding we find at once a certain hardness of
+treatment, a loss of freedom in the lines, and a tendency to substitute
+geometrical design for the pure arabesque of earlier work. The stone
+pulpit erected by Káit-Bey in 1483 in Barkúk’s tomb-mosque is one of the
+finest examples of geometrical chiselling in Cairo. Its side view is
+triangular, like the wooden pulpits of other mosques, but instead of
+carved or inlaid wooden panels making up the designs on each side, the
+whole is of stone slabs, admirably joined, and chiselled with
+geometrical figures produced outwards, so as to cover the whole surface
+with a network of interlacing lines forming a star-like pattern, the
+interstices of which are filled with floral arabesques. Similar carving
+enriches the walls of the staircase and the canopy of this unique
+pulpit.
+
+Káit-Bey was the most scrupulous of all Cairo architects: he allowed no
+detail of his numerous edifices to be neglected, and the wealth of
+ornament which he lavished upon them was all cut in limestone or
+marble.[73] One may realize the richness of this decoration in his
+mosque within the city, near Ibn-Tulún’s, where the chief arch is formed
+of twenty-three blocks of stone on each side, alternately red and white,
+and every one of the white blocks is covered with arabesque or
+geometrical designs, no two of which appear to be alike. The arabesques
+consist of the usual trefoil surrounded by very beautifully intertwined
+foliage conventionally treated. The geometrical patterns, though at
+first sight composed of irregular pentagons and hexagons, are all
+symmetrically arranged, and form one elaborate design. On the spandrils
+of the arch will be noticed medallions—there are many such in
+Cairo—containing the name of the Sultan and a benediction upon him. A
+broad band of Koranic inscription, separated by arabesque patterns, runs
+as a frieze under the sculptured cornice. The general effect of the
+whole is wonderfully rich, and there is hardly a space that is not
+filled by some delicate design. Even in his wekálas, or inns, Káit-Bey
+was no less careful in details. Few buildings in Cairo are more fertile
+in varied designs than his wekála in the street on the south side of the
+Azhar. The interior, unhappily, is deserted and in decay, but once, no
+doubt, it was richly ornamented. The façade is still in good
+preservation, and deserves careful study by all who wish to understand
+arabesque and geometrical ornament at its best.[74] When we say at its
+best, some objection may be taken to the fact that certain designs are
+systematically repeated in reverse, in contrast to the honest way of the
+older artists who scorned to repeat themselves. But by the time of Káit-
+Bey the beauty of uniformity had been realized, and it was seen that a
+certain symmetry and recurrence of the designs really improved their
+effect. This change was part of the general tendency towards symmetrical
+finish and architectural proportion, which distinguishes the later from
+the earlier Mamlúk style. There is, however, abundant variety in the
+numerous panels of arabesque and geometrical ornament which form the
+borders above the thirteen shops of the inn front, in the superb arched
+gateway in the centre, and in the beautiful engaged column in the
+corner, next the sebíl or fountain, with its carved drums and stalactite
+capital. In its original state this wekála must have been a noble
+building: even as it is, one may call it almost a text-book of Saracenic
+decoration.
+
+[Illustration: TOMB-MOSQUES]
+
+Indeed the epoch of Káit-Bey was almost a repetition of the great
+building epoch of en-Násir. The Circassian mosques are usually the
+favourites with architects as well as with the unprofessional sight-
+seer: their exquisite proportions, delicate minarets, beautifully
+sculptured domes, elaborate stalactites in portals, cornices, and
+wherever angles had to be masked, and their rich marble mosaics and
+incrustated kiblas, are perfect in taste and disposition. Besides the
+two exquisite mosques of Káit-Bey, those of the emírs Ezbek el-Yúsufy
+(1495), Kheyr Bek (1502), and the Master of the Horse (emír akhór) Kany
+Bek (1503), are full of fine work, whilst for a little gem of the best
+Circassian type nothing is better worth seeing than the Medresa of Kady
+Abu-Bekr ibn Muzhir or Mazhar (1480) which has been restored with
+exceptional skill by the Commission for the Preservation of the Arab
+Monuments, whose architect, Herz Bey, has devoted the greatest pains to
+tracing the original colours and designs and faithfully reproducing
+them. Another careful restoration is that of the mosque of the emír
+Kagmás el-Isháky (1481), and both show conspicuous improvement upon the
+earlier experiments in restoring the Barkukíya medresa.
+
+It is to be noticed that, in the majority of the medresas of the
+fifteenth century, the original cruciform shape is considerably
+modified. The medresa, though still a college, gradually usurped the
+position of the gámi‘ or congregational mosque. Friday prayers were held
+in the medresa, since few new gámi‘s were erected—the most important
+were those of Muáyyad, Bars-Bey and Ezbek—and the court and the eastern
+transept (sanctuary or chancel) were enlarged, whilst the side transepts
+became smaller, and even dwindled to mere recesses. Probably the
+reduction of the side transepts was due in some measure to the fact that
+only two of the four orthodox schools, the Sháfi‘y and the Hánafy, had
+any great following in Egypt, and there was thus no necessity for the
+retention of the original plan of four separate lecture halls. The
+result is that we find under the Circassian Sultans that a compromise
+has been made between the gámi‘ and the medresa, and the form of the
+latter has been modified to suit the requirements of the former. This
+modified medresa form is almost universal in the Circassian period of
+architecture, and the salient features—the enlargement of the sanctuary
+and the diminishing of the side transepts—is particularly conspicuous in
+the medresa of Kagmás.[75]
+
+[Illustration: TOMBS OF THE MAMLUKS]
+
+Even to the end, when the Ottoman conquest was obviously at hand, the
+Circassian mamlúks retained much of their vigour and all their aesthetic
+powers. There are few more interesting figures in their line than the
+old sultan el-Ghúry, called to the throne in 1501, after four
+incompetent rulers in as many years had succeeded Káit-Bey. He was a man
+of bold decision and boundless energy. He restored order in the anarchy
+of Cairo, levied ten months’ taxes at a stroke to replenish his
+treasury; taxed water-wheels, boats, camels, Jews, Christians, servants,
+every possible source; increased the customs-dues, confiscated vast
+estates and levied enormous death-duties. Having restored the revenue,
+and earned an evil name for extortion, he proceeded to spend it on great
+public works. Canals, roads, fortifications on the coast, the
+strengthening of the Citadel of Cairo, the improvement of the pilgrims’
+route to Mekka, these were among his good deeds. His college (1503) and
+tomb-mosque (where, however, he is not buried) still face each other at
+opposite sides of the street that bears his name, the Ghuríya, though
+badly mauled by the injudicious restoration of thirty years ago. He also
+built a minaret for the Azhar, the mosque of the Nilometer on the island
+of Roda, the Sebíl-el-Muminín or Fountain of the Faithful in the
+Rumeyla, the watermills at Masr-el-‘Atíka, and restored the aqueduct to
+the Citadel. He was sumptuous in his court, and generous to poets and
+musicians, whilst he mulcted the heirs of his nobles and robbed orphans
+of their dower. Fully alive to the importance of the Indian trade, then
+menaced by the Portuguese, he furnished a fleet in the Red Sea and sent
+it to India, where with the help of the governor of Diu it defeated the
+interloping senhors under the younger Almeida in an engagement off Chaul
+in 1508. Finally, but too late, he led his army into Syria to do battle
+with the advancing Ottomans, and fell fighting at the age of seventy-six
+on the fatal field of Marg Dábik, near Aleppo, where the desertion of
+the two wings under Kheyr Bek and el-Ghazzály left the old sultan alone
+with his bodyguard to be trampled under the horses of the troopers he
+vainly tried to rally (24th August, 1516). An engagement near Heliopolis
+to the north of Cairo completed the rout of the mamlúks. Tumán Bey tried
+to make a stand against the invaders at the Bab-en-Nasr, but Selím took
+him in the flank, and after hand to hand fighting in the streets, the
+Citadel was stormed, Tumán was crucified at the Gate of Zuweyla, and
+Egypt became a province of the Ottoman Empire.
+
+[Illustration: SKETCH PLAN SHOWING THE GROWTH OF CAIRO]
+
+
+
+
+                              CHAPTER VIII
+
+                    _The City of the Arabian Nights_
+
+
+IN the preceding chapter we finished the story of Cairo as the capital
+of an independent state, and described some of the beautiful buildings
+with which the Mamlúk Sultans and nobles adorned the city. But the life
+of a town does not consist in the doings of the court, and we should
+form a very incomplete picture of mediæval Cairo if we looked no deeper
+than the Sultans and their mosques and colleges and tombs. Though
+trampled under the hoofs of the dominant troopers, the city had a
+vigorous life of its own, a life of prosperous commerce, of social
+enjoyment, and of literary culture. Cairo society was no longer the
+limited palace coterie cooped up within the high walls of the Fátimid
+palaces. It spread on all sides save the east. It had flowed out beyond
+the northern gates, and formed the new suburb of the Hoseyníya, where
+many mosques and chapels grew up. It had spread to the west over the
+space between the old Fátimid wall and the Nile, and the river had
+conveniently receded and allowed the new port of Bulák and a whole
+colony of houses to be formed on what had been the Nile bed till the
+wreck of the good ship _Elephant_ helped to make a sand bank, called the
+Elephant’s Isle (Gezírat-el-Fil), which altered the river’s course and
+provided an excellent building site. To the south the space between the
+Fátimid walls and the Citadel and the mosque of Ibn-Tulún, where only
+gardens and summer villas and pools flooded at high Nile had been seen
+in Saladin’s day, was now covered with houses, among which rose the
+domes and minarets of the mamlúks.
+
+The expansion of the city may readily be traced in the Topographer’s
+careful record of the building of mosques, which necessarily implies a
+neighbouring population. The mosque of Yúnus (c. A.H. 719) and of Ibn-
+et-Tabbákh (“the son of [Násir’s] cook,” 746), in the quarter of el-Luk,
+point to the recession of the Nile which formerly ran close by. In the
+same way the foundation of the mosques of Ibn-Gházy (741) and et-Tawáshy
+(745) on the outside (or west) of the old Bab-el-Bahr, and the Záwiya of
+Abu-s-Su‘úd (c. 724) outside the Bab-el-Kantara, point to a westward
+extension, though here the land was not formerly under water. The great
+expansion to the north, caused by the upheaval of the Elephant’s Isle,
+before 1200 A.D., and the emergence of Bulák a century later, may be
+fully traced in the annals of the mosques. Makrízy tells us that the
+Elephant’s Isle was flooded only at high Nile, and during the rest of
+the year it was a links of sandbanks and coarse grass, where the mamlúks
+used to practise archery, in their unhappy ignorance of golf. But as the
+Nile receded “people began in 1313 to erect houses, in consequence of
+the improvements made in that part by en-Násir,” who had dug the new
+canal then known as the Khalíg en-Násiry and now as the Isma‘ilíya,
+which drained the tract; “and a proclamation was made in Káhira and Misr
+inviting every one to build there without delay. So the emírs and
+soldiers and merchants and common folk built houses there, and Bulák was
+created at this period.”[76] He adds that water was drawn from the Nile
+by a sákiya wheel which stood on the spot where the mosque of el-Khatíry
+was afterwards built, which shows that the river has not retreated much
+since, for it still runs very near this mosque, which was founded by
+Aydemir in 737 on a site which was under water thirty years before.
+Other mosques at Bulák were those of Ibn-Sárim and el-Básity (817).
+
+Behind or east of Bulák, on what is now called the ‘Abbasíya road, was a
+plot of land beside the Elephant’s Isle, known as Ard-et-Tabbála or the
+“demesne of the tamburina,” because it was presented by the caliph
+Mustansir to a singing girl who celebrated the glories of the Fátimids
+to the accompaniment of her drum. There also houses began to be built,
+and the mosque of el-Keymakhty was founded there, on the New Canal, in
+A.H. 790. Before this another mosque, that of el-Asyúty, had been
+erected about 740 on the Elephant’s Isle, as well as that of Sarúga on
+the New Canal near the Pool of er-Ratly. Still further to the east we
+find a number of mosques rising in the new quarters outside the old city
+walls. Such were the gámi‘s of Almelik (732) and Ibn-el-Felek in the
+Hoseyníya quarter, those of Akúsh and Ibn-el-Maghraby on the canal
+outside; the convents of Yúnus, Algibugha (c. 750) and Ibn-Ghuráb (798),
+and the Záwiyas of el-Ga‘bary (c. 687), Nasr (c. 719), el-Kalendaríya
+(c. 722), and el-Khiláty (c. 737), outside the Bab-en-Nasr, all of which
+testify to the expansion of the city towards the north.
+
+Cairo had in fact attained much the same dimensions as it measured fifty
+years ago, before the new European suburbs near the Nile were developed.
+There was probably little difference either in outward aspect or in the
+life of the middle and lower classes between the Cairo of the fifteenth
+century and the city which Europeans such as Wilkinson, Burckhardt,
+Lane, John Phillip, and Hay visited and described or painted in the
+first half of the nineteenth. Some of Hay’s and his companion’s, O. B.
+Carter’s, drawings, sketched about 1830, are here reproduced, and they
+may fairly be taken as true representations of a town which still
+retained its essential mediæval characteristics.
+
+How different Cairo must then have appeared to the newly arrived
+visitor, who landed at Bulák after coming through the Mahmudíya Canal
+from Alexandria and then ascending the Nile. There was a mile’s ride
+from the river bank at Bulák to the Bab-el-Hadíd by which you entered
+Cairo at the north-west corner, and instead of the crowded villa suburb
+of to-day, there was scarcely a house to be seen. “Two principal roads,”
+writes Lane,[77] “of nearly the same length lead from Bulák to Cairo;
+the northern, which is somewhat irregular, but is the chief route of
+commerce [there were of course no railways then], leads to the Bab-el-
+Hadíd; and the southern, after having crossed two canals, enters the
+western side of the Ezbekíya. We pass the picturesque mosque of
+Abu-l-‘Ola on our right as we enter the latter road. The French, during
+their occupation of Egypt, raised this road, intending also to continue
+it through the town as far as the Citadel. It is straight and wide, but
+very uneven, and wanting a row of trees on its southern side to shade
+it. It is raised a few feet above the level of the plain, so as to be
+above the reach of the inundation. On either side during the inundation
+are marshes and inundated fields. These, as soon as the waters have
+subsided, are sown with corn, beans, trefoil, etc. Here and there are
+clusters of palm trees, and a few sycamores and acacias. The plain was
+formerly bounded on the east by extensive mounds of rubbish [doubtless
+the ruins of Maks], behind which the capital was nearly concealed. The
+road crosses two canals, over each of which is a stone bridge. . . .
+Along the western side of the second canal, on the right of the road, is
+a long ridge of rubbish. From the top of this ridge, about a quarter of
+a mile from the gate of the Ezbekíya, we obtain a view of Cairo.”
+
+This was how one approached Cairo in the first half of the nineteenth
+century. The description reads drearily enough, but it has the merit of
+showing what the place was like before the European builder took it in
+hand. When the traveller plodded along the uneven road between the bean-
+fields in 1835 he was traversing precisely the same scene as had been
+trodden by the mamlúk horsemen for centuries, and he was approaching a
+city which was still to all intents the city of the Arabian Nights.
+There is no manner of doubt, from internal evidence, that it was in
+Cairo that these famous tales took their definite shape. Their origins
+have of course been traced to a large extent in Persia and India, but
+their final form and colour are Egyptian. Though many of the scenes are
+laid at Baghdád, where the famous Harún er-Rashíd played so conspicuous
+and erratic a part, it is obvious to any student of the topography that
+the writers were very imperfectly acquainted with the caliph’s city. It
+is Cairo that they know and describe, whatever names they please to give
+to their scenes. There are incidental touches that make it probable that
+the Arabian Nights assumed their present form, in all essentials, before
+the middle of the fourteenth century. The latest historical personage
+mentioned is Saladin, and there are many reasons for believing that the
+tales were collected and written very nearly in their final shape during
+the revival of letters that ennobled the golden age of mamlúk
+civilization on the Nile. The society they describe is precisely what we
+know of mamlúk times: it is orthodox Muslim society of the Cairene type.
+
+It may be wondered that there should be any speculation at all about the
+date of so famous a book; but the explanation is simple. Scholars and
+learned men in the East have always looked with contempt upon stories
+such as these, which are wholly devoid of the literary preciosity which
+was the special pride of the true man of letters. Hence they did not
+deign even to mention the Thousand and One Nights, save in two or three
+slight references which do not determine the date of the existing
+redaction. The Nights were written for the people, for the audiences who
+gathered in the coffee-shops to listen to the professional reciter, for
+the large uneducated middle class of Cairo. This is what constitutes
+their special merit in the eyes of the student of mediæval Egypt. The
+doings of kings and emírs we learn from the detailed pages of Makrízy
+and many other scholarly writers: it is from the Thousand and One Nights
+that we gain our insight into the life of the people—a life divided from
+that of the great by a gulf over which the Oriental historian rarely
+leaps. The tales are above all the adventures of merchants and shop-
+keepers. We are introduced no doubt to caliphs and sultans and vezírs,
+as well as to the ginn, ’efrits and márids and other members of the
+spirit-world; but the real actors in the stories are traders, men who
+keep shop and who have ventures upon the seas, and often make voyages
+themselves. Sindibad might easily have heard many of his own adventures
+from the lips of the motley crowd that gathered on the quays at Misr
+from all parts of the known world. Ibn-Sa‘íd stood and watched the
+shipping in 1246 and noticed vessels arriving from all lands: “as for
+the merchandise from the Mediterranean and the Red Sea that comes to
+Misr it is past describing; here is it bonded, not at Cairo, and hence
+it is distributed throughout Egypt.” What was true of Misr and Maks was
+also true of their successor, the fourteenth century port at Bulák. It
+was from Bulák that ‘Aly of Cairo, after spending all his inheritance
+making merry with his wife on the island of Roda, took ship for Damietta
+and set forth on his quest of a new fortune. The constantly recurring
+references to commercial voyages and great profits are exactly what
+would occur to a people whose wealth was made not only by a prodigiously
+fertile soil, but by a copious foreign trade.
+
+What the transit trade of Egypt was worth in mamlúk times may be judged
+from a few facts. A single vessel clearing cargo at Alexandria paid
+£21,000 in customs. The great Italian republics found it necessary to
+maintain consular agents in Egypt, and that there was a wealthy colony
+of European merchants is shown by their being able, headed by the consul
+of Venice, to guarantee the king of Cyprus’s ransom of £100,000. The
+Venetians had enjoyed special privileges in Egypt since the time of
+el-‘Adil, in 1208, who allowed them to build a mart (funduk) of their
+own at Alexandria; the Pisans had a consul there; and the concessions to
+Venice were renewed in 1238. On the other side, in the Red Sea, there
+were the ports of Suez, Tor, Koseyr, ‘Aydháb, Dehlek and Sawákin, where
+the mamlúk sultans levied customs of a tenth _ad valorem_. The Indian
+trade had greatly developed under the later mamlúk sultans, and there
+was much rivalry and a tariff war between the Arabian and Egyptian ports
+in the Red Sea in the effort to secure the heavy customs dues, which
+were pressed beyond the customary tenth. In 1426 we read of forty
+vessels from India and Persia paying £36,000 in duties at Gidda, the
+port of Mekka, which, like Yenbu‘, was then Egyptian. Nor were the
+government duties limited to importation. There were certain monopolies:
+sugar, pepper, wood, metalwork could be sold only at government
+warehouses, at government prices, subject to duty. A consignment of
+pepper that was bought at Cairo for fifty dinárs was sold to Europeans
+at Alexandria for one hundred and thirty under government regulations.
+The Venetians, after vain consular remonstrance, sent a fleet to
+Alexandria to bring away all their merchants, and Bars-Bey was obliged
+to reduce his exorbitant terms.
+
+How much store the Circassian sultans set by the transit trade between
+India and Europe has been seen in the vigorous effort made by el-Ghúry
+to crush the Portuguese in the Arabian Sea as soon as he realized the
+dangerous rivalry of the Cape route. Indeed the transit trade must have
+been a chief source of wealth. As Mr Cameron, our consul at Port Sa‘íd,
+has well put it, the mamlúk sultans, “masters of both Egypt and Syria,
+held the ports and caravan routes between Europe and her Indian trade,
+and levied customs dues on every bale of Oriental produce which arrived
+from the Persian Gulf and the Red Sea for transfer to the harbours
+between Alexandria and Alexandretta and for transhipment to Venice.
+Until the discovery of the Cape route in 1498, and its subsequent
+development, they enjoyed the monopoly of the entire volume of Indian
+trade with the Levant; and Venice, by her commercial capitulations with
+them, was their sole agent on the continent. Let us try and estimate
+what this monopoly meant. An Arab merchant like Sindbad the Sailor, . .
+. buys £10,000 worth of raw silks, nutmegs, pepper, indigo, cloves, and
+mace in Persia or at Calicut and lands them at Basra or Suez. The sea
+route up the Persian Gulf would be shorter than the voyage up the Red
+Sea; but the caravan road from Basra to Aleppo would be more perilous
+than the short journey across Egypt. At landing, the customs would
+amount to some £4000 [this is much above the mark], and the goods would
+then be worth, say, £20,000. A second Arab merchant on the Mediterranean
+coast [or perhaps at the wharves of Bulák] would sell the consignment
+for £30,000 to the Venetian, who would have to pay another £5000 customs
+dues before he could clear his cargo. Thus, whether in customs or in
+tolls, or in presents to local governors and escorts, a quarter of the
+£35,000 paid by the Venetian would go to the mamlúk sultan and
+aristocracy merely for the privilege of transit.”[78]
+
+It was not the government alone that made the profit. The Cairo merchant
+who brought the precious bales from India and the Spice Islands, or at
+least bought them from the Indian traders at the Red Sea ports, made his
+fortune too. The Thousand and One Nights are full of such successful
+ventures. Did not the Second Sheykh, who led the Two Black Hounds,
+describe how “we then prepared merchandise and hired a ship and embarked
+our goods, and proceeded on our voyage for the space of a whole month,
+at the end of which we arrived at a city where we sold our merchandise,
+and for every piece of gold we gained ten”? Such fortunate speculations
+were no doubt of everyday occurrence, and the trade represented by these
+ventures did not all go out of the capital: a large part found its way
+into the bazars to be retailed to the good people of Cairo and to
+minister to the luxurious tastes of the thousands of hangers-on to the
+mamlúk court. We can form but a meagre notion of the mediæval _funduk_
+from the present bazars. A _funduk_, or _khan_, or _wekála_—there is
+little difference between the three terms—is a great collection of
+warehouses and shops, generally surrounding a court, but sometimes more
+like a covered arcade, where the merchants keep their reserves of
+stores, and where traders find lodgings for themselves and stabling for
+their beasts between their journeys. One great mediæval khan is still
+familiar to every tourist—the Khan el-Khalíly or “Turkish bazar,” built
+by Garkas el-Khalíly, the Master of the Horse of Sultan Barkúk in 1400
+on the site once occupied by the graves of the Fátimid caliphs, whose
+bones were dug up and carted away on asses to the rubbish-mounds outside
+the eastern Gate. Another khan, the Hamzáwy, or cloth market, is also
+well known; and two of Káit-Bey’s wekálas, the façades of which are
+finely ornamented with arabesque panels and intricate geometrical
+designs, and wooden medallions carved with the sultan’s name, still
+remain beside the Azhar and in the Surugíya. When Lane described Cairo
+in 1835 there were about two hundred wekálas, and even now one can
+scarcely pass down a street without finding one of these big courts
+surrounded by rooms—the inn of the east—opening out through a tall
+gateway.
+
+In the fifteenth century the khans of Cairo were busy marts of the
+merchants; and the mamlúk emírs, who had clear ideas as to the value of
+house property, emulated one another in building handsome wekálas, every
+room of which might be expected to bring in a substantial rent. There
+was the khan of Mesrúr, one of the most famous. The young man in the
+Story of the Humpback “put up” there, and stored his merchandise, and
+after a night’s rest took some of his goods and went to the “kaysaríya
+of Garkas,” another famous market of mediæval Cairo dating from Fátimid
+days, to sell to the merchants. “Do as other merchants,” said the sheykh
+of the brokers to the stranger; “sell thy merchandise upon credit for a
+certain period, employing a scrivener, a witness, and a moneychanger,
+and receive a portion of the profits every Thursday and Monday: so shalt
+thou make of every piece of silver two—besides thou wilt have leisure to
+enjoy the amusements of Egypt and its Nile.” So the young man followed
+his advice and left his goods to be sold for him, whilst he lived
+joyously at the khan of Mesrúr, breakfasted on wine and chicken and
+mutton and sweetmeats, and perfumed himself elegantly, till he met the
+damsel at the shop of Bedr-ed-din, the gardener, and there happened what
+fate had decreed, to be a warning to such as would be admonished. That
+the young man should have his hand cut off by the executioner at the
+Gate of Zuweyla was exactly what might be expected in the days of the
+mamlúks. This khan of Mesrúr (or rather two khans, one large and the
+other small) was built on a part of the site of the Fátimid Great Palace
+where the slaves used to be sold, by Mesrúr, a favourite slave of
+Saladin, who left it as a legacy for the benefit of the poor. The larger
+building had a hundred rooms, and was the chief resort of merchants from
+Syria,—“the most renowned and greatest of the khans,” says the
+Topographer, but its prosperity declined after the tribulation of Syria
+at the hands of Tamerlane, “its honour departed and many of its
+apartments were ruined.”
+
+[Illustration: SLAVE MARKET]
+
+Another famous khan was that of Bilál, a slave of es-Sálih, the grand-
+nephew of Saladin, so favoured that the sultan Kalaún used to say, “God
+have mercy on our late master es-Sálih! I used to carry the slippers of
+this eunuch Bilál whilst he went into the presence!” The slave was very
+rich and abounded in good deeds, many poets praised him and were amply
+rewarded, and among his worthy acts was the building of the khan, where
+the merchants would deposit their chests of great value. “I used to
+enter this funduk,” says Makrízy, “and lo! around it were chests piled,
+little and great, so that only a small space was left in the middle, and
+these chests contained gold and silver enough to amaze one.” Then there
+was the “Khan of the Sebíl,” outside the Bab-el-Futúh, founded by
+Saladin’s vezír, Karakúsh, for “sons of the road,” poor wayfarers, who
+were received without payment; and the Wekála Kusún, built by Násir’s
+son-in-law, near the mosque of el-Hákim, where Syrian merchants stored
+oil, and sesame, and soap, and preserves, and pistachio-nut, almonds,
+syrups, and the like, every store-room being let by the emír’s order at
+no more than five dirhems of silver, without extortion, and no one being
+turned away. It was a busy place in Makrízy’s time, very popular on
+account of its cheapness, full of people and bales of goods, and noisy
+with the shouts of the porters. There were 360 lodgings above the store-
+rooms, all occupied, and 4000 people lived there. The Tatar devastation
+of Syria ruined this khan too. Opposite the Zuweyla Gate stood the
+fruit-market where the produce of the gardens round Cairo was sold; it
+was roofed over, like most of the bazars in former days, to keep off the
+rays of the sun, and the fruit, which smelt like the gardens of
+Paradise, was tastefully arranged and decorated with flowers and sweet
+herbs.[79]
+
+There were many more great buildings of this kind, the history of which
+is related by the laborious Topographer, whose descriptions enable us
+almost to reconstruct in imagination the city of the fifteenth century.
+Cairo was a sumptuous and beautiful place in those days. The old mamlúk
+palaces—of which we have but relics in the huge blank walls of Beshták’s
+palace, the fine gateway of Yeshbek’s _dar_ next to Sultan Hasan’s
+mosque, and the better preserved mansions of Káit-Bey and of the emír
+Mamáy (known as the Beyt-el-kady)—were then in their full glory. The
+various quarters were still separated by their strong gates barred at
+night. The súks were shaded by matting or wooden roofs, and the lattice-
+windows with their delicate tracery overhung the streets. Makrízy
+enumerates and describes 37 _Háras_ or quarters, 30 districts (_khutt_),
+65 streets (_darb_), 21 by-streets and alleys (_zukák_ and _khawkha_),
+49 squares or _places_ (_rahba_), 50 markets (_suk_), 23 great markets
+(_kaysaríya_), 11 hostelries (_khan, funduk, wekála_), 55 famous palaces
+and mansions (_kasr, dar_), 44 public baths (_hammám_), 28 closes and
+gardens (_hakar, bustán_), 11 racecourses (_meydán_), and numerous
+pleasure-houses or belvederes (_manzara_).
+
+Many of the streets still run in their old places, and some of their
+names survive, such as the Salíba or cross-ways, Beyn-el-Kasreyn, Beyn-
+es-Sureyn, Harat Bargawán, Suk-es-Siláh, Khan-el-Khalíly, Darb-el-Asfar,
+Habbaníya, Khurunfísh. The old quarters of Cairo have changed much less
+than the old parts of London; but the reason is melancholy. London has
+changed because it has grown; Cairo remained comparatively unaltered
+because it was slowly decaying. The loss of much of the Indian trade,
+the dependence upon Turkey, the misrule of pashas and mamlúk beys, all
+tended to reduce the prosperity of the city which had flourished
+exceedingly under the Turkish and Circassian sultans.
+
+With decline of trade came decline in the arts. There is still a little
+good work made in Cairo in brass chasing, jewellery, and silk weaving,
+but it is a poor relic of what once went on there. One has only to visit
+the Arab Museum to realize what magnificent work the artists of Cairo
+produced in the mamlúk period. The arts were closely related to the
+mosques, which attained their greatest perfection of ornament in the
+same period, and the chief objects in the museum were once parts of the
+decoration or furniture of the mosques. The beautiful inlaid and chased
+silver and brass tables, with delicate designs in open tracery, Koran
+cases, lamps and chandeliers, bowls, censers, candlesticks, enamelled
+glass lamps with inscriptions in blue picked out with carmine and gold,
+generally came from mosques and centre round the fourteenth century. The
+carved panels inlaid with ivory and ebony and choice woods once enriched
+the doors and pulpits of the mosques, and the cast bronze bosses and cut
+brass filigree work belong chiefly to the same period. There are many
+admirable examples of these arts in the South Kensington Museum, and the
+British Museum possesses an unsurpassed collection of Saracenic metal
+work. There is unhappily no “Market of the Inlayers” now at Cairo, as
+there was in Makrízy’s time. This silver and gold inlay of arabesques
+and inscriptions on a brass base was one of the most elaborate and
+characteristic of Saracenic arts. It was not Egyptian in origin, but
+derived from the old Sasanian silversmiths of Mesopotamia. The oldest
+specimens we know came from Mosil on the Tigris, which was a famous home
+of metal-workers, within reach of the mines of the Taurus country. No
+doubt these Mosil smiths were attracted to Cairo in the flourishing days
+of the mamlúk sultans, or even earlier. At least it is certain that some
+of their finest work was done for the Egyptian market, and even bears
+the names of well-known Cairene rulers and emírs. There is the casket,
+for example, engraved with the name and titles of el-‘Adil II, Saladin’s
+grand-nephew, who sat on the throne of Egypt from 1238 to 1240, and was
+succeeded by es-Sálih, the husband of “Spray of Pearls.” It is in the
+Mosil style of the earliest period; the sides are ornamented with dotted
+eight-foils (exactly resembling the ornament on the silver coins of the
+family of Saladin) containing hunting scenes, a combat with a lion, a
+horseman with falcon on wrist (which is covered with the falconer’s
+glove), etc.; the intervening ground is decorated with fine arabesques,
+and an inscription on the bevel of the lid gives the name and titles of
+the sultan. On the top are personifications of the six planets (of
+Arabian science) surrounding the sun (the seventh):—the Moon, a seated
+figure holding a crescent; Mercury, with his writing materials; Venus, a
+woman playing on the lyre; Mars, a warrior brandishing a sword and
+holding a bleeding head; Jupiter, a throned judge; and Saturn, patron of
+thieves, with his bludgeon and purse. Outside these is a band of the
+twelve signs of the Zodiac, represented much in the usual manner. On the
+bottom of the box is an inscription stating that it was made “for the
+royal wardrobe of el-‘Adil.”
+
+The hunting-scenes and representations of human figures and animals are
+characteristic of Mesopotamian silver work, and we see medallions of
+two-headed eagles on a splendid inlaid perfume-burner in the British
+Museum, “made,” as the silver letters inform us, “by order of his
+excellency, the generous, the exalted lord, the great emír, the
+honourable master, marshal, warrior for the faith, warden of Islám,
+mighty, heaven-supported, victorious, Full Moon of the Faith Beysary,
+mamlúk of ez-Záhir (Beybars),” etc. The date must be before 1279, and
+the vessel carries us back to the days of Kalaún and the beginning of
+mamlúk splendour. Beysary was one of the greatest and most sumptuous of
+the early mamlúk emírs, and his perfume burner was typical of the
+luxurious refinements of his palace. He valued his comfort more than
+ambition, and twice refused the precarious honour of the throne during
+the unsettled period succeeding Kalaún’s death, when the sultanate was
+open to the strongest emír. Even so he could not escape the consequences
+of being wealthy and distinguished, and in spite of his retiring
+character he was suspected of pretensions to power, fleeced of his
+treasures, and often confined to the dungeons of the Citadel. His
+palace, which stood in Beyn-el-Kasreyn, covered four acres, and
+possessed the richest mosaics and the handsomest carved doors in Cairo.
+Bedr-ed-din Beysary was indeed the most sumptuous man of his time. He
+loved to surround himself with beautiful things, and his slave body-
+guard was the best appointed of the day. No fortune could support his
+lavish extravagance. He not only spent upon himself, but gave prodigally
+to all who asked him. Hospitality was his foible, and his gifts to the
+poor ran in round sums of five hundred or a thousand dirhems (say
+francs) to each applicant. He would daily distribute three thousand
+pounds of meat, and a single present consisted of a thousand pieces of
+gold, five thousand bushels of corn, and a thousand hundredweight of
+honey. One of his mamlúks used every day to draw ninety pounds of meat
+and seventy rations of barley, which it is to be presumed neither he nor
+his horses could possibly digest. Naturally Beysary was perpetually in
+debt. The constant amount of his liabilities is placed at 400,000
+dirhems, for as soon as one debt was paid off, the generous soul
+hastened to contract another of the same figure. A considerable part of
+his expenditure must have gone in table equipage, for it is recorded
+that he never drank twice out of the same cup; and as Makrízy mentions
+that at one time this thirteenth century epicure was wholly given over
+to wine and hazard, the number of cups required must have been
+considerable. But a great and cultivated emír needed more than cups for
+his comfort: he must have inlaid tables on which to put the broad brass
+tray incrusted with chased silver and gold, which carried his service of
+the forbidden fruit of the grape; he must have his beautiful hall
+lighted by candles placed in elaborate stands, covered with silver
+inlay; his very tubs and cooking-pots must be chased with arabesques and
+complicated designs, and his palace must be perfumed with incense rising
+from perfume-burners on which the artist had engraved representations of
+horsemen at the chase, hounds and quarry, falcons and waterfowl, and all
+the decorative subjects of the Saracen silversmith.
+
+[Illustration: IN THE DARB-EL-AHMAR]
+
+The earliest and finest examples of metal work connected with the names
+of Cairo kings and nobles are of Mosil origin, though very probably made
+in Cairo in the “Market of the Inlayers” by artists who had been
+attracted to the court. There was undoubtedly an early Fátimid art of a
+similar character, but beyond a very few rare examples, such as the
+Bayeux casket at Paris and some specimens of cut crystal at Venice, we
+know almost nothing of its style. Under the mamlúk sultans, however,
+Cairo soon acquired a school of her own, which seems to have possessed
+traditions coming from a different source than that of Mosil. The Cairo
+style is what we see on the numerous trays, bowls, cups, censers, and
+other vessels of the mamlúks of Egypt of the fourteenth and fifteenth
+centuries, preserved in our museums and private collections. Some points
+of resemblance to the Mosil work may be noticed, but the new elements
+are very distinct. The figures of horsemen and seated princes have for
+the most part disappeared, as it was natural they should when the
+Turkish princes became habituated to the puritanical prescriptions of
+Islám concerning the treatment of living things in art; but borders
+representing beasts of the chase, and a ground covered with wild duck
+and other fowl, still remain. The prevalence of the duck, which was
+easily explicable in the swamps of Mesopotamia, finds another _raison
+d’être_ in Egypt, for the founder of the line of sultans who ruled in
+Cairo for nearly a century was a Turk of Kipchak, whose name, Kalaún,
+means in his native Mongol tongue “duck.” We may compare Abbot Islip’s
+plastic puns on his own name in his chapel in Westminster Abbey. The
+ornament of the mamlúk metalwork is essentially different in style from
+that of Mosil. The inscriptions are arranged in broad bands, with large
+surfaces of silver inlay, divided by medallions filled with the sultan’s
+name on a fess, or else by some heraldic coat of arms borne by the
+owner, among which the cup and polo-stick (indicating the court offices
+of cup-bearer and polo-master), the lozenge, and a curious imitation of
+a hieroglyphic inscription common on the ancient monuments of Egypt, but
+doubtless unintelligible to the copyists, are the most usual. Round the
+medallions are belts of flowers and leaves, reminding one of the designs
+of Damascus tiles; and similar leaves and flowers, interspersed with
+birds, cover the ground. The execution is no less admirable than the
+design. There was no scamped work among these Saracen smiths. They cut
+away the whole design in the brass, and undercut the edges to hold the
+thin plates of silver or gold, to be hammered and burnished in, which
+formed the design; and they chased with the graver every plate of
+silver, were it only a pin’s head in size, with wings or eyes or floral
+scrolls—a work of infinite labour; and then they covered the
+interstices, where the brass showed, with a black bituminous composition
+which set off the precious metal to advantage. Much of the silver and
+coating has been lost by wear and time, and it is difficult to realize
+the beauty of the original state of most of the vessels and trays that
+have come down to us; but a careful examination only reveals more fully
+the exquisite skill, care, and fine honest workmanship that no time or
+injury can destroy.
+
+This art of silver inlay, like architecture and wood and ivory carving
+and every other variety of æsthetic expression, culminated in the
+wonderful efflorescence of art and culture in the reign of en-Násir,
+Kalaún’s son, in the first half of the fourteenth century. Whenever in
+any museum we see a fine specimen of metalwork, we may be almost sure to
+find the name of a Násiry emír—that is a courtier or mamlúk of en-
+Násir—in its inscription, and sometimes even the name of the sultan
+himself.
+
+The Topographer tells us that in his day, in the early part of the
+fifteenth century, this beautiful art had fallen into disrepute. It
+used, he says, to be a favourite taste, and “we have seen inlaid work
+(_keft_) in such quantities that it could not be counted; there was
+hardly a house in Cairo or Misr that had not many pieces of inlaid
+copper,”—he means brass. A stand of inlaid bowls and plates ranged on a
+frame of carved wood and ivory was a usual part of a bride’s trousseau,
+and cost as much as two hundred dinárs. But, he adds, “the art is now
+lacking in Misr; . . . the demand for this inlaid copper-work has fallen
+off in our times, and since many years the people have turned away from
+buying what was to be sold of it, so that but a small remnant of the
+workers of inlay subsists in this market.”[80]
+
+The art was not dead, however; it had merely passed on elsewhere. The
+heritage which Cairo received from Mosil was bequeathed to Venice. We
+have seen that the Venetians were the European agents of the Egyptian
+merchants, and it is not too much to say that Venice was half an
+oriental city. Italy was full of Eastern influences. We know that a
+twelfth century poet lamented that Pisa was “delivered over to Moors,
+Indians and Turks”; that there was a via Sarracena at Ferrara, and
+Lucera was deeply tinged with Muslim traditions, dating from Frederick
+II’s importation of Saracen archers. But Venice felt this influence most
+of all. Her commerce and colonies brought her merchants into relations
+with the artistic work of the East; her ambassadors brought home the
+splendid gifts of the mamlúk sultans; and she soon began to import the
+artists as well as the art. The _opus Salomonis_ or Jews’ work was the
+name given to this Saracenic style, often referred to in early romances.
+Chaucer had heard of it, for he writes in Sir Thopas:—
+
+
+  “And over that a fyn hawberk
+
+   Was all i-wrought of jewes work.”
+
+
+Especially did Venice excel in the chasing of great salvers in the
+Saracenic manner, though with considerable differences both in design
+and in technique. The silver is applied chiefly in narrow threads
+instead of broad plates, and the designs are chiefly arabesque, whilst
+the forms of the vessels show marked improvement upon the somewhat crude
+outlines of the Cairo silversmith. Native Italian artists began to copy
+the art introduced by Mahmúd the Kurd and his Saracen comrades. They
+called themselves Azzimine, _i.e._ workers in the Persian style _all’
+Agemina_—for it has long been the fashion to miscall every form of
+Saracenic art Persian—and we read of Italian artists, such as Giorgio
+Ghisi Azzimina of Mantua, and Paulus Ageminius, who excelled in the art
+which had been imported from Egypt.
+
+We have singled out the silver-inlay from among the arts of mediæval
+Cairo because it is a branch in which the development can be traced with
+certainty by a series of dated examples. But the chief decorative arts
+of the mosque builders were wood-carving and marble mosaic. The
+beautiful panelled work of mosque pulpits and doors, originally
+suggested, no doubt, by the necessity of small surfaces in a hot climate
+where warping had to be prevented, are among the most characteristic
+forms of Cairo ornament; and the use of variegated marbles in the
+mihrábs of the mosques produces a rich (if sometimes rather glaring)
+effect, which was imitated in the dados of the houses of the nobles, now
+unhappily for the most part destroyed. The extensive use of wood in
+Cairo architecture is the more remarkable when it is considered how
+little suitable wood grows in Egypt. On the other hand the dry climate,
+though it warps, preserves timber for centuries. The original wooden
+ties of the pillars of Ibn-Tulún’s mosque have stood for more than a
+thousand years and are still sound, and a portion even of the ceiling of
+the arcades has been preserved. This wooden ceiling shows that in the
+ninth century the same method was used as is seen in all periods of
+Saracenic art previous to the introduction of European styles. It
+consists of joists of palm trunks sawn in two, with the three exposed
+sides faced with planks to square the outline. The hollows between the
+squared joists were divided by cross pieces into shallow compartments or
+“coffers.” In private houses the joists were often left uncovered in
+their natural half-round shape. Whether planked or left in the round,
+the joists and the coffers between were coated with plaster, generally
+laid on canvas, and the plaster was painted with arabesques in deep
+blue, carmine, and gold. These coffered ceilings, which may still be
+seen in many houses, have a wonderfully rich effect with their deep
+tones of red and blue, lighted up by gold outlines; and the transition
+from the ceiling to the walls is skilfully masked by arching and
+stalactite pendentives, richly painted with similar designs. Inferior to
+the coffered ceilings, but still very effective, are those composed of
+boards nailed flat across the joists and covered with a thin coating of
+stucco, worked into arabesque and floral patterns, and then painted and
+gilt; or with a geometrical design formed by appliqué strips of wood,
+gilt shaded with red, the interstices being filled with arabesques in
+painted stucco.
+
+Wood-carving had ample opportunities for display in the pulpits, Korán
+desks, interior doors and cupboards of mosques. Some of the oldest
+examples, from the mosques of Ibn-Tulún and el-Hákim, may be seen in the
+Arab Museum at Cairo, and the deep volutes carved in the panels are
+clearly of Byzantine origin, resembling the still earlier but undated
+panels found in the tract of ‘Ayn-es-Síra, south of Cairo. In the
+thirteenth century the style alters. Instead of the bold foliate designs
+we find more intricate and delicate ornament distributed in much smaller
+geometrical panels. A peculiarly beautiful example is the Sheykh’s tomb-
+casing of 1216, of which one side is in the Museum at South Kensington,
+and the other three in the Arab Museum. Another is the carved casing of
+the tomb of es-Sálih Ayyúb (1249):—“the little panels are formed into
+hexagonal stars and delicately carved, and here appears the
+representation of fruit-stalks, which is a common feature in thirteenth
+century wood-carving. The mihráb or prayer niche from the chapel of
+Seyyida Rukeyya, which belongs probably to the same century, deserves
+special notice for its characteristic ornamentation of stems branching
+out of a vase.”[81] But it was under the Mamlúk Sultans, and especially
+in the great period of en-Násir that wood-carving attained its most
+exquisite development. Woods of different colours were employed to
+produce the effect of relief, and inlay was largely adopted in place of
+carving in the solid block. Sometimes each little carved panel was set
+in a frame of ebony beading, which was itself carved, and often
+consisted of two or three distinct frames, one outside the other; whilst
+the central design was hardly ever the same in two panels out of many
+hundreds. The amount of careful work demanded in carving and putting
+together a large surface of this intricate panelling must have been
+immense. Many beautiful examples may be seen in the mosques, and even
+finer are the carved doors in wood and ivory panelling in the Coptic
+churches of Babylon, from which there can be little doubt that the
+Muslims learnt the art; but to see Mamlúk carving at its best one need
+not leave London. A large number of the very finest specimens were taken
+away from their lawful guardians during the reign of the Khedive
+Isma‘íl, and even earlier, and have found their way to the Museum at
+South Kensington. There we may study at leisure some of the rich yet not
+over-elaborate arabesque carvings abstracted from the pulpit set up in
+the mosque of Ibn-Tulún by Lagín in 1296; others of extraordinary beauty
+from the mosque of el-Maridány, 1339, absurdly set in the top of a
+French table; others, probably from the pulpit of the mosque of Kusún,
+also set in coarse modern framework, but preserving all the delicate
+grace of the arabesque carvings absolutely intact; and finally the
+complete pulpit bearing the inscription of Káit-Bey, but from what
+mosque is not known. The whole forms a singularly rich and beautiful
+exhibition of Saracenic wood-carving of the best period.[82]
+
+There are differences and even decadence in the series, however, and a
+careful study of the designs will show that the art reached its highest
+point in the carvings of el-Maridány, _i.e._ immediately after the reign
+of en-Násir. Sheykhú’s pulpit of 1358 is not so good; Sultan Hasan’s is
+of stone; el-Muáyyad’s of 1420 is distinctly inferior; and even Káit-
+Bey’s, prince though he was of Cairo builders, is not to be compared
+with the work of the middle of the fourteenth century. The designs have
+become less spontaneous, the lines are harder and more mechanical, and
+(as in stone carving) there is a tendency to repetition utterly foreign
+to the earlier work. Part of this may be explained by the introduction
+of ivory as the material for the inlaid panels, for ivory, though
+capable of even more delicate carving, is less easy to work in flowing
+lines. But the main cause was probably the preponderating attention
+given to carving in stone. No sooner does stone become the predominant
+material for decoration than wood-carving, like stucco-tooling, falls
+into comparative neglect. The middle of the fourteenth century was the
+parting of the ways. Stone became the favourite material, and the
+carvers of wood, if they did not lay aside the graver for the stone-
+chisel, at least moulded their style upon the harder outlines of the
+sculptors, and the result was deterioration.
+
+If wood-carving decayed after the middle of the fourteenth century,
+another branch of woodwork was notably developed. One charming feature
+of the exterior of a Cairo house is the _meshrebíya_ of delicate turned
+tracery. There is no reason to doubt that this kind of work is very old,
+but whether by reason of its fragility or the frequent conflagrations
+that afflicted the city, no ancient examples have been preserved. The
+few wooden lattices that still remain in the older mosques are of quite
+a different style: they are made of stout clumsy quarterings, divided
+into compartments filled by square or round upright balusters, such as
+are seen in the tomb of Kalaún. Others are mere grilles of large open
+squares, with no pretension to artistic design. A finer kind is seen in
+Lagín’s pulpit in the mosque of Ibn-Tulún (1296), where the mesh is
+close and the knobs are inlaid and carved. It is curious that the true
+meshrebíya, with its varied designs and lace-like effect, first appears
+in the screen of the sanctuary in the mosque of el-Maridány, which also
+shows the highest development of wood-carving. As the one art decayed,
+the other improved. There are fine examples of meshrebíya work of the
+early part of the fifteenth century, as in the pulpit of el-Muáyyad, but
+it attained its greatest perfection in the age of Káit-Bey, of which a
+fine specimen is preserved in the pulpit of Abu-Bekr ibn Muzhir. Most of
+the house meshrebíyas are comparatively modern, though it is impossible
+to fix their precise date. Their inevitable disappearance is an æsthetic
+loss that nothing can replace; but it must be admitted that they formed
+the most dangerous conductors of fire from house to house and street to
+street that the ingenuity of man could well devise.
+
+There is this to be said about every branch of artistic work of mediæval
+Cairo, whether it be architecture, carving in wood or stone, metal
+chasing, or glass—it is always distinctively original. The Saracens
+brought no art with them; indeed they appear to have been singularly
+lacking in the æsthetic sense. They learned their arts from their
+foreign subjects, yet they invariably introduced an element of
+differentiation which marks their work as characteristically Saracenic.
+They learned their metal chasing from Persia, but they soon made it
+their own; they copied Byzantine and Coptic wood-carving, and added the
+essential personal equation which constitutes a distinct art; they found
+glass making and blowing in Egypt, acquired the secrets of enamelling
+and gilding from Constantinople, and then produced a style of enamelled
+lamps totally unlike any other in the world. It is not only a variation
+in design or shape that makes the difference: the whole character of the
+work, in every branch of Saracenic art, is distinct and absolutely _sui
+generis_. They were not only wonderful assimilators, they also had the
+genius of development on original lines. Perhaps the strangest part of
+the matter is that the highest development was achieved in the troubled
+times of singularly uncultivated and sanguinary foreign masters. Yet the
+age of the Mamlúk Sultans was the Saturnian age of Mohammedan Egypt in
+art and also in literature. For it must not be forgotten that some of
+the greatest names in Muslim theology, jurisprudence, criticism, and
+history were associated as kádis or professors with the mosques and
+medresas of Cairo, and that the mamlúk period produced or encouraged
+such writers as Ibn-Khaldún, Nuweyry, Ibn-Dukmák, Makrízy, Ibn-Hagar,
+el-‘Ayny, Ibn-‘Arab-shah, Abu-l-Mahásin, es-Suyúty, and Ibn-Iyás, who
+either were born in Egypt, or, like Abu-l-Fida, spent many years in
+Cairo. The fifteenth century was perhaps the most prolific period in
+Egyptian literature, and this activity was more than rivalled in the
+neighbouring province of Syria under the same sultans.
+
+
+
+
+                               CHAPTER IX
+
+                           _Beys and Pashas_
+
+
+NO one has had the heart to write the history of Egypt during the three
+centuries of its subjection to the Sultans of Turkey, from its conquest
+by Selím the Grim in 1516 to Mohammad ‘Aly’s foundation of a virtually
+independent dynasty in 1805. The annals of this period are monotonous,
+and the great figures of the earlier mamlúk period are wanting. The
+whole action seems to be played upon a smaller stage by inferior
+performers. The incentives to public spirit supplied by foreign wars
+were withdrawn from a merely provincial government, and the profuse
+expenditure and sumptuous luxury of a sovereign court no longer
+stimulated art and handicrafts or quickened the emulation of the emírs.
+The cramping influence of dependence and the grasping fiscal policy of
+the Ottoman empire destroyed much of the old magnificence of the
+mamlúks. Yet there was no such vivid contrast between Cairo under the
+pashas and the city that Makrízy describes as has sometimes been
+imagined. Everything in the East changes by almost imperceptible
+degrees, and the mills of God in Egypt grind with the tedious slowness
+of the creaking sákiyas of the country. Deterioration there was, but it
+came very gradually. The emírs were still the dominant power, and the
+chief difference was that instead of a sultan elected by themselves they
+had over them a pasha appointed by the Sublime Porte. The pasha’s
+authority was checked by a council of mamlúk emírs—or beys, as they came
+to be called—and he was frequently deposed by them or by the intrigues
+of the mutinous soldiery. Though a pasha might arrive with a suite of
+twelve hundred persons, and scatter handkerchiefs full of gold coins on
+festal occasions, he could seldom make head against the military
+oligarchy. The chief mamlúk, or sheykh-el-beled (mayor of the city) as
+he was entitled, was a far more powerful personage than the pasha. The
+emírs were much what they had been under the Circassian dynasty: they
+were not the same men, because Selím had massacred as many as he could
+catch, but they were similar—Turks, Georgians, Circassians, risen from
+slavery to office and rank,—and they maintained great state in their
+palaces beside the Ezbekíya lake or on the Birket-el-Fil, in the
+Crossway, or the Street of Arms; were followed by large bands of
+retainers, and carried on their jealousies, civil wars, and street
+fights with as much fervour as before. A new element of discord was
+introduced by the Turkish battalions of ‘Azabs and Janizaries in the
+Citadel barracks, and the commanders of these troops became the most
+powerful emírs in Egypt. But these too were of precisely the same
+character as the earlier mamlúks, and save for the absence of a
+controlling influence such as a strong sultan sometimes exerted, but a
+delegated pasha almost never, there was little to choose between the
+state of Cairo under the new régime and its anarchic condition under the
+impotent direction of most of the later Circassian kings.
+
+Egypt in fact was still ruled by mamlúks. Its pashas were perpetually
+changed, and lived in terror of their own garrison; the emírs held the
+real power, and used it in the old way for their own benefit and for the
+ruin by exile or execution of their rivals. They formed themselves into
+powerful cliques, such as the Kásimis and the Fikáris, and their
+retainers fought each other in the streets, and besieged the government
+‘Azab troops for months together. They had already discovered that the
+Citadel could be commanded by artillery on the hill behind. We read in
+Gabárty’s chronicle of bands of troops fortifying themselves in the
+mosques of Ibn-Tulún, Almás, Mahmudíya, and so forth, and discharging
+cannon balls from the adjacent minarets. The anarchy at times was
+indescribable; streets were deserted, houses plundered, and no man dared
+to go as far as Bulák or Old Misr; then followed an interval of
+tranquillity assured by the temporary supremacy of some great lord. It
+is difficult to discover any very notable distinction between these
+later emírs and those of the golden age of mamlúk civilization. Their
+opportunities were less, because they could no longer carry on wars in
+Syria or Asia Minor in their own behoof, for the contingents that were
+constantly drafted in Egypt for foreign service were merely employed as
+an insignificant part of the Ottoman armies. But their characters,
+occupations, and tastes appear to have been much what they had been for
+the preceding two centuries. There was a difference in degree but not in
+kind: they were not as a rule such big men with large opportunities as
+their forerunners, but in race, in character, in action, they were the
+same.
+
+Indeed some of them were remarkable personages fit to compare with those
+of the old school. ‘Othmán Bey Dhu-l-fikár, for example, in the first
+half of the eighteenth century,—after playing a bold part in the faction
+fight that centred round his patron Dhu-l-fikár Bey and Cherkes Bey, and
+seeing eleven emírs of rank done to death in the palace of the
+Defterdár, himself narrowly escaping with a sabre-cut in his
+turban,—became the most eminent noble in Cairo, with power to raise his
+own mamlúks to the rank of emír. He was chief of the pilgrimage (emír-
+el-hagg), one of the most coveted posts in Egypt, in 1739; and when ‘Aly
+el-Gelfy the deputy[83] was assassinated, ‘Othmán Bey deposed the pasha
+and appointed Rudwán to be deputy over the ‘Azab battalions. ‘Othmán was
+the first emír who ventured to invite the pasha of Egypt to a feast in
+his palace, and the other nobles were completely subject to him. He held
+a court in his own house to decide causes of complaint, and,
+incorruptible himself, he severely punished any cases of extortion or
+oppression that came before him, watched the market-inspector closely,
+prescribed a fixed tariff for bread and other necessaries of life, and
+insisted on the due payment of pious benefactions to their proper uses.
+Lofty in character, of noble ideas and thoughts, just, able,
+disinterested, of honest life, and proud as Lucifer, he left such an
+impression behind him, when the intrigues of his rivals banished him
+from Egypt, that he created an era: one heard people say, “such a thing
+happened so many years after the departure of ‘Othmán Bey,” or “I was
+such and such an age when ‘Othmán Bey left.”
+
+Rudwán el-Gelfy, just referred to, was another notable figure of the
+eighteenth century. Whilst he and another deputy, Ibrahím, held office,
+the country enjoyed absolute peace, food was cheaper than was ever known
+before, and plenty reigned in all classes. In those days every great man
+kept open house twice a day, noon and evening, in a spacious hall to
+which all might enter. The lord and his guests sat at the head of the
+table, and his mamlúks and followers lower down, as it were “below the
+salt,” and it was held disgraceful to refuse admission to any stranger
+who presented himself. On feast days great dishes of rice and honey or
+milk were distributed to the poor, and sweetmeats were served on Fridays
+and festivals. One of Rudwán’s houses was on the Ezbekíya, on the border
+of the lake (as it then was, at least at high Nile). Its halls were
+surmounted by cunningly designed domes, in which gold arabesques on a
+blue ground harmonized with stained glass of many colours in charming
+combination. He built kiosks in a garden beside the canal, where he had
+laid out a lake and cascade, and there, when his ambition was satisfied,
+he took his pleasure, which savoured, it must be confessed, of debauch.
+Indeed Rudwán was no stern moralist, like ‘Othmán Bey, but allowed a
+considerable licence to the fair ladies of Cairo. The police had his
+orders not to disturb them or baulk their admirers,[84] and “Cairo then
+resembled a land of gazelles, a paradise of houris and darlings; its
+inhabitants drank their fill in the cup of delight, as though there were
+no reckoning to be paid on the day of judgment.” No wonder that poets
+sang his praises in such verses as “the Impurpled Wine” and “the Perfume
+of Paradise.” Rudwán’s palace is no more to be seen in the Ezbekíya, but
+his gate, the Bab-el-‘Azab, leading into the Citadel from the Rumeyla,
+preserves his memory. His end was tragic. Conspirators surrounded his
+house in the street of Kusún, and bullets began to pour in whilst he was
+engaged in the meditative process of having his head shaved. He fought
+while he had strength, and then, with a broken leg, struggled on
+horseback and fled to die in upper Egypt. He was the last great
+commander of the ‘Azabs.
+
+It was not only the emírs who owned such splendid houses as Rudwán.
+Another house on the Ezbekíya belonged to a famous merchant, Ahmad esh-
+Sharáiby (the apothecary), whose family had produced emírs and owned
+mamlúks. They possessed immense wealth, and they used it as high-minded,
+honest gentlefolk. Learned men frequented their house, which was full of
+rare manuscripts as well as ordinary works of reference. Whatever book
+was in the market, if it was not in their library they bought it
+regardless of the price; and once there it was immediately placed at the
+disposal of every visitor. A scholar was sure to find any book he
+required in the Sharáiby library, and he was at liberty to carry it off
+on loan, or even to keep it altogether; for the princely merchants would
+never think of asking its return, but would merely seek out and buy
+another copy. From the scholar’s point of view it seems impossible to
+improve upon this system. The members of this family were more than
+enlightened book collectors and book lenders: they were strict observers
+of the austere rule of the Málikis, tenacious of sound morals, and
+exclusive in their connexions. They married only among their own large
+family circle, and their daughters never left the house except when they
+were married or borne to their grave. It was well to be cautious in days
+when the luxurious Rudwán was encouraging amatory adventures, and when a
+party of high-born dames, riding out to “smell the air,” as Cairo ladies
+do now, at the proper season, were set upon near the Ezbekíya and
+stripped of their jewels and every garment they had on. But the Sharáiby
+folk, though strict, could unbend. When marriage feasts were afoot, for
+example, they gave splendid entertainments, but so careful were they of
+their daughters that they waited till all the guests were safely engaged
+in prayer at the mosque of Ezbek[85] opposite the house, and then
+hurried the bride off to her husband’s abode under guard of a discreet
+body of matrons: after which there was plenty of gunfiring and torch
+waving, and all was merry.
+
+[Illustration: STREET NEAR BAB-EL-KHARK]
+
+The family had the custom of appointing one of their number trustee of
+all their property and business. It was his duty to collect the rents,
+gather the harvest and crops, receive the profits of their ventures, and
+pay all expenses, including the family’s dress and pocket-money. At the
+end of the year he drew up his balance sheet and paid each member his
+share. This excellent plan was not likely to last for ever, and one is
+not surprised to learn that at last the younger members quarrelled over
+the accounts, and the joint-stock company broke up in disorder. This was
+no doubt an exceptional family; but there were many of the kind, and
+there are some yet in Cairo, sterling honest folk, who walk in the old
+paths and guard a severe self-respect.
+
+The zeal for books displayed by this family casts an interesting light
+upon the education and learning of the times. During the earlier mamlúk
+days many important libraries had been formed in Cairo, partly from the
+spoils of Syrian mosques, and if we are to take as evidence the long
+biographies of numerous sheykhs, professors, divines, historians, and
+poets, related with enthusiastic admiration by el-Gabarty, there was a
+vast deal of intellectual energy expended in Egypt in the seventeenth
+and eighteenth centuries, though perhaps it was hardly in the first rank
+of original genius. He reports a curious conversation, however, in 1750,
+between Ahmad pasha, a governor of mathematical tastes, and the sheykh
+‘Abdallah esh-Shubrawy, of the Azhar. The pasha remarked that he had
+continually heard of the wonderful merits of Egypt as the home of
+learning, but he would like to see the results. “True, O my master,”
+replied the sheykh, “Egypt is as you have heard, the mine of sciences
+and knowledge.” “But where are they?” asked the pasha. “As far as I can
+see, you know nothing but law and metaphysic and other less important
+studies, and disdain practical science altogether.” The sheykh had to
+admit that at the Azhar they did not teach mathematics, beyond
+arithmetic, which was useful for the law of inheritance. “How about
+astronomy?” suggested the pasha. “It is needed for the hours of prayer,
+times of fast, and many other things.” The sheykh admitted that few
+studied astronomy, which demanded special aptitudes, and instruments,
+and physiological conditions, and a “sweet and tranquil disposition,”
+for its proper pursuit; but he said he could find the man whom the pasha
+wanted, though not in the Azhar. When the man appeared, it seems his
+arithmetical problems delighted the governor, who gave him a fur cloak,
+which the sage afterwards sold for 800 dinars. He drew beautiful sun-
+dials, on marble, to show the hours of prayer, with appropriate mottoes,
+and two of these were set up in the Azhar and on the roof of the mosque
+of the Imám esh-Sháfi‘y.[86] One gathers from this anecdote, as well as
+from the lists of works described by the historian, that study in Cairo
+at that time was rather zealous than profound, and that learning was
+decidedly in its decadence.
+
+Religion, on the other hand, was more powerful than ever. The annals of
+the pashalik are full of references to the influence of the Azhar
+professors and of the seyyids, and we hear of something very near a
+revolution when a Turkish preacher got up in the mosque of el-Muáyyad
+and fulminated against the invocation of saints, a popular accretion
+which is certainly no part of the creed of Mohammad. The preacher urged
+the crowd to demolish the cupolas over the saints’ tombs, and the
+orthodox professors of divinity had much trouble to silence him and
+appease the crowd. There was often a very severe regulation of public
+behaviour in deference to religious notions, and we find, for example, a
+stern prohibition of smoking in the streets. Police marched up and down
+three times a day, and if any smoker was caught he had to eat his pipe-
+bowl. An old custom, mentioned by Násir-i-Khusrau (above, p. 109), was
+still in force: a man who had falsified documents was paraded on
+camelback through the streets, whilst a crier proclaimed, “Behold the
+punishment of forgers!” The Cairenes were clearly very superstitious,
+and when in 1735 a circumstantial rumour went round that the
+Resurrection would certainly take place on the next Friday, in two days’
+time, they bade each other last farewells, and wandered about the fields
+and roads saying good-bye to the land they loved, whilst the people of
+Giza, moved by a superstition which ran in their minds from ages long
+before Islám was discovered, bathed hysterically in the Nile, both men
+and women. There was nothing but panic and repentance and prayer till
+Saturday—when behold! nothing had happened.
+
+An age that attached so much importance to religion was not likely to
+neglect its shrines. It is a mistake to ascribe the ruin of so many of
+the mosques of Cairo to the period of the Turkish pashas. On the
+contrary, the danger was that they might be “restored” out of all
+knowledge. Cairo is full of “Turkish” mosques, that is Turkish of the
+Othmanly style, which, if they cannot compare with the buildings of the
+earlier mamlúks, are nevertheless very creditable examples of their
+kind, and far superior to anything built, say, in England, during the
+past century. Indeed the mosques of Seyyida Safíya (1604) and of
+Mohammad Abu-dh-Dhahab (1774), are exceedingly noble buildings, and that
+little gem of Turkish mosaic work, el-Burdeyny, is beautiful in its own
+way. The architects of the Ottoman period abandoned the medresa style
+introduced by Saladin, which, as we have seen, had lost much of its
+original cruciform plan when the medresas were used as congregational
+mosques under the Circassian Mamlúks; but, whilst reverting to the older
+and simpler plan of the gámi‘, they modified it by substituting cupolas
+of Byzantine form for the level ceilings which formerly covered the
+sanctuary. In fact, the Ottoman mosque is practically a basilica. A
+special feature of the mosques and restorations of the Othmanly period
+is the introduction of faïence. The medresa of Aksunkur was restored by
+Ibrahím Aga in 1652, and the whole east wall covered with fine blue
+tiles, chiefly of the Damascus style, with a few so-called Rhodian,
+probably from Constantinople. It was not often that restoration proved
+so successful, and one has frequently to deplore the patching of Turkish
+additions upon the old masterpieces. Ahmad pasha restored the then
+dilapidated mosque of el-Muayyad in 1690; another pasha built the
+Arba‘ín mosque by the Karameydan Gate in 1704; Ahmad the deputy restored
+the Fátimid mosque of ez-Záfir, known as el-Fakahány, in 1735.
+
+But the prince of restorers was ‘Abd-er-Rahmán Kiahya (Ketkhuda), who
+enjoyed great influence before the time when ‘Aly Bey—himself the
+restorer of the dome of the tomb-mosque of Imám Sháfi‘y and builder of
+the Bulák bazar—deposing the reigning pasha made himself king of Egypt
+from 1768 to 1772. ‘Abd-er-Rahmán’s father, ‘Othmán Ketkhuda, had
+architectural tastes. Out of his very ill-gotten gains he built his
+mosque, school, and fountain by the Ezbekíya lake, and on the day of
+opening filled the great central basin and all the ewers he could
+collect with sherbet for the congregation. He also built the school for
+the blind at the Azhar, and other benefactions. His son, however, far
+surpassed him. Every tourist knows his little _sebíl_—elegant like its
+founder, who was dainty in person and dress, and very fair—at the end of
+Beyn-el-Kasreyn, with its tiles, and open arched school above; but this
+was the least of his works. He built a mosque outside the Bab-el-Futúh,
+and another by the Bab-el-Ghureyyib, with a cistern, fountain, and
+school; a great reservoir, with fountain and school, near the Ezbekíya
+cemetery, for the sakkas or water-carriers; rebuilt the chapels of
+Seyyida Zeyneb and Seyyida Sekína, and erected others near the Karáfa
+Gate, in the Musky, in the Hoseyníya quarter, and in the ‘Abdín street,
+etc. Of his restorations the best known is that of the Azhar, which owes
+its present aspect largely to ‘Abd-er-Rahmán’s work. He put in fifty
+marble columns supporting groins of faced stone covered with costly
+woods; erected a new _mihráb_ and pulpit, built the two archways, one
+with a school for orphans above it, the other with a minaret; set up a
+tomb in the court, added libraries, reading-rooms, kitchens, and other
+apartments for the benefit of students from Upper Egypt; enlarged the
+Taybarsíya and Akbughawíya medresas attached to the Azhar, and built the
+splendid portal between them, opposite the wekála of Káit-Bey; furnished
+_riwáks_ (or partitions) for students from Mekka and from the Sudán; and
+settled rents in trust for the maintenance of these benefactions,
+besides giving every day in Ramadán to the Azhar kitchen a large
+quantity of rice, butter, oil, and meal for the evening refreshment of
+the students after the day’s fast. ‘Abd-er-Rahmán also restored the
+mosque of the Imám Sháfi‘y, and paved the corridor with variegated
+marbles; repaired the tomb of Seyyida Nefísa and the Maristán of Kalaún
+(then a madhouse), but after pulling down the dome he neglected to
+rebuild it, and merely boarded it over, and so it remains to this day.
+He took great pains to trace the bequests left by the founder and his
+successors to the hospital, and succeeded in recovering the title-deeds
+and restoring the revenues. By whatever means he acquired his wealth,
+and it was said the means were not above suspicion, there was no end to
+this man’s charitable acts. At winter time he distributed woollen
+clothes to crowds of the blind, who always abound at Cairo, and also to
+the muezzins to protect them from cold when chanting the nightly calls
+to prayer. The poor clamoured about his door in the evenings of Ramadán,
+waiting for the plates of food which were never refused, and after the
+meal they went away happy with two loaves and two paras ready for next
+day’s breakfast. Altogether, ‘Abd-er-Rahmán Kiahya built or rebuilt
+eighteen mosques, besides chapels, fountains, schools, bridges, and
+every sort of edifice. He had an architectural passion, and fortunately
+excellent taste in its gratification, and the people well named him “the
+great benefactor.” He died at Cairo in 1776 at a great age, after twelve
+years’ exile in Arabia; for all his charity could not protect him from
+the suspicions of ‘Aly Bey. All the ‘ulema, professors, students, and
+poor of his numerous benefactions, escorted his splendid funeral to the
+Azhar, where he lies in the tomb which he had built near the south gate.
+
+The last great mosque built during the period of the pashalik was that
+of Mohammad Bey, known as Abu-dh-Dhahab, or “father of gold,” from his
+munificent way of scattering gold coins among the crowd. He was the
+favourite and trusted mamlúk of the great ‘Aly Bey, and he rewarded his
+patron by manœuvring his downfall and exile, and finally accomplishing
+his death. He was a brilliant soldier, fought successful campaigns in
+Arabia and Syria for his master, and achieved extraordinary popularity
+by his delightful manners and open hand. Egypt had peace whilst he held
+the reins of power, and the Sublime Porte, whilst appointing pashas as
+before, wisely left the real authority in the hands of the capable and
+popular emír. In 1774 Mohammad Bey founded his handsome _medresa_
+opposite the Azhar, and there he lies in his tomb. It was built on the
+plan of an earlier mosque at Bulák (the Senaníya), and was “a marvel of
+architecture and richness: gilded ceilings, marble porticoes, and
+stupendous dome, with bronze dormers admirably worked,” etc. There were
+porticoes for the Hanafis, Málikis, and Sháfi‘is, and celebrated doctors
+came to profess the law there, and, contrary to the usual custom,
+received salaries, some as much as 150 paras a day (you could sometimes
+buy a pound of meat for 2 paras), and none less than 10 paras a day and
+an annual gift of 50 bushels of corn. On the day of opening the great
+man clothed the divines with cloaks of sables or white fur, according to
+their rank—a handsome form of university hood.
+
+Mohammad Bey’s is the last of the great mosques of Cairo, with the
+exception of Mohammad Aly’s sumptuous and very effective mosque in the
+Citadel, where it forms a conspicuous feature in the view from every
+side. This, however, is too obviously a foreign importation, a child of
+Stambúl, to harmonize with the true Cairo style, and, though it is
+perhaps a narrow prejudice, we confess we can never quite reconcile
+ourselves to Ottoman architecture in the old mamlúk city.
+
+Enough has been said to show that it was not during the rule of pashas
+and beys that the mosques of Cairo suffered damage or demolition. They
+were well cared for. Their evil day came when Mohammad ‘Aly, a second
+but more successful ‘Aly Bey, made himself master of Egypt and
+inaugurated a new régime, compared with which the rule of the sternest
+of the mamlúks was mildness itself. It was Mohammad ‘Aly, who, in
+1808-1810, laid hands on the Wakfs or religious endowments, which the
+piety of many centuries had placed in trust for the maintenance of the
+mosques and colleges of Egypt, and amidst the tears and curses of all
+the ‘ulema of Cairo, deprived them of the right to control the sacred
+monuments confided to their charge. From this act of confiscation, when
+title-deeds were lost or destroyed, and trust-funds confused and
+malversed, dates the most serious decay of the monuments of Cairo. The
+Europeanizing movement of the nineteenth century, inevitable, and in
+many ways most desirable as it was, brought with it a large destruction
+of mosques and other historic buildings which impeded carriage-traffic
+or stood in the way of the new streets and squares which the viceroys of
+Egypt planned with little or no regard to existing antiquities. The
+Shari‘ Mohammad ‘Aly was the most flagrant example of a street cutting
+its way remorselessly through historic monuments, but similar vandalism
+occurred in almost every part of the city, and the department which
+attends to the alignment of the streets has often exercised its powers
+in the narrowest spirit of county-councildom. That much worse has not
+happened is wholly due to the vigilance and firmness of the “Commission
+for the Preservation of the Monuments of Arab Art,” an official body in
+which happily large powers are vested, and to which we owe the
+maintenance of a multitude of Saracenic monuments of every class and all
+periods, which, but for its timely interposition, would now have
+disappeared or have been on the high road to ruin. It is impossible to
+over-estimate the excellent and patient work of the Commission. The
+seventeen annual reports it has issued—solid volumes, with plans and
+illustrations—form a library of valuable information, and testify in
+every page to the care and sense of responsibility shown by the members.
+I may here be permitted to quote a report on the results and methods of
+the Commission which I made at Earl Cromer’s request in 1895, and which
+was published in his annual survey of the progress of Egypt presented to
+Parliament in 1896.
+
+
+                            _The Athenæum, London, December_ 12, 1895.
+
+“MY LORD,—In accordance with your Lordship’s invitation, I have the
+honour to submit a few remarks on the work of the Commission for the
+Preservation of Arab Monuments, of which I made a detailed examination
+in the summer of this year.
+
+The Commission was instituted by Decree of His Highness the late Khedive
+on the 18th December, 1881. Its duties were:—
+
+1. To make an inventory of the Arab monuments of Egypt which possess
+historical or artistic interest.
+
+2. To watch over the preservation of these monuments, and report to the
+Minister of Wakfs such repairs as were considered necessary for their
+maintenance.
+
+3. To prepare plans for such repairs and scrupulously superintend their
+execution.
+
+4. To see that plans of all the work executed should be preserved in the
+Ministry of Wakfs, and to indicate any fragments or detached objects
+which should be transferred to the Museum of Arab Art.
+
+Political disturbance prevented much being done before the close of
+1882; but when I made a general inspection of the Arab monuments of
+Cairo in January to March 1883, the Commission was in working order. I
+was then able to see the beginning of its labours, and am therefore in a
+position to compare the state of the monuments at the time when the
+Commission first took them seriously in hand with their present
+condition after the Commission has been over twelve years at work.
+
+I can state with confidence that, comparing the general state of the
+mosques in 1883 and 1895, they are in a far safer and better preserved
+condition now than they were twelve years ago. Several monuments that
+then seemed inevitably doomed to destruction have been strengthened and
+supported, and, generally speaking, weak places have been detected and
+repaired, whilst a more vigilant supervision and protection against
+vandalism and robbery now prevail. These happy results are especially
+due to the energy and archæological or technical knowledge of the late
+Rogers Bey, of Franz Pasha, and of his Excellency Yakub Artin Pasha,
+whose name will always be honourably associated with the intellectual
+progress of Egypt. Some of their French colleagues have also rendered
+useful services from time to time, and the presence on the Commission of
+successive Under-Secretaries of Public Works, and notably at the present
+time of Mr [now Sir] W. E. Garstin, has proved a valuable source of
+strength. The most vital appointment under the Commission is, of course,
+that of the Architect, who surveys the monuments, recommends such
+repairs as are necessary or desirable, and personally superintends their
+execution. Since the creation of the Special Department (Bureau Spécial)
+of the Commission, which was separated at the beginning of 1890 from the
+Bureau Technique of the Wakfs, Mr Max Herz [Hon. F. S. A.] has been the
+Architect in charge of the work of the Commission, and it is bare
+justice to say that to his industry and considerable technical and
+archæological attainments much of the present improved manner of
+supervising and preserving the monuments is undoubtedly due. Herz Bey
+joins to the technical training of an architect a familiarity with the
+history of Arab art, together with a genuine enthusiasm for his work.
+His “Catalogue of the Arab Museum,” published this year in French, but
+shortly to be reissued in an English translation [published, 1896],
+furnishes proofs of an extensive study of the periods of development of
+Arab or Saracenic art, and of the literature, Arabic and European,
+relating to this subject; and the complete restorations he has made of a
+few of the smaller mosques are evidence of his insight into Arab
+construction and decoration, of his technical skill, and of his
+scrupulous fidelity to the original design. On this vexed subject of
+restoration, however, I shall have something to say later; but whatever
+may be thought of the principle, it is impossible to doubt that in the
+appointment of Herz Bey the Commission has been exceptionally fortunate.
+
+_Preservation._ It must never be forgotten that the prime duty of the
+Commission is the preservation, not the restoration, of the monuments. A
+fairly complete list of the monuments which, on historical or artistic
+grounds, ought to be preserved has been drawn up by Sub-Committee 1, and
+the first obligation laid upon the Commission is to watch over the
+preservation of every monument in this list. So far as my observation
+went, its members are clearly alive to this obligation, and have
+endeavoured to fulfil it as far as their limited funds permitted. To
+enumerate the long catalogue of repairs, from the stablishing of the
+entire walls of a mosque to the removal of whitewash or dirt from a
+carved inscription or a mosaic, would extend these notes to an undue
+length. The details may be read in the excellent Annual Reports of the
+Commission, which, if they are scarcely as prompt in their appearance as
+they might be, leave little to be desired in point of accuracy or
+completeness. Much more, however, remains to be done, and many of the
+repairs already executed can only be regarded as temporary cheap make-
+shifts, pending the possibility of more thorough works when finances
+permit. The adequate and enduring preservation of the monuments is
+essentially a question of money. The Commission and its Architect know
+what ought to be done, but they cannot do it without an increased staff
+and a larger budget.
+
+Meanwhile, there are two or three points to which the attention of the
+Commission should, I think, be specially and immediately directed, since
+they can be dealt with even on the present insufficient annual grant.
+
+1. In cases where a thorough repair would be too costly to be undertaken
+on the present budget, there is a mode of preservation, in a literary
+and artistic sense, which ought to be invariably adopted when there is
+any risk of further immediate decay. The great mosque of Sultan Hasan is
+an instance in point. In such a case, where many thousands of pounds
+would be required for substantial preservation, the Commission cannot at
+present entertain the plans which have been drawn up for so elaborate a
+work. But what they can do is to prepare an exact record of the present
+state of the mosque, to draw full architectural plans and elevations,
+photograph every detail of ornament or inscription, reproduce mosaics
+and other coloured decoration in the colours of the originals, and
+generally to make it possible at any time to reproduce the entire mosque
+in its true proportions and exact details of ornament.[87] To students
+of the history of Arab art such a record would be invaluable, whilst it
+would make the task of preservation possible even should want of funds
+postpone the work till the mosque had fallen into much more lamentable
+decay. To prepare such records would necessitate an increase in the
+staff of the Commission, but if the memoirs were published, with
+adequate historical introductions and explanations, the sale would
+probably repay a large part of the expense. At the same time, these
+records should not of course be regarded as a substitute for actual
+preservation, or as a reason for deferring necessary repairs. They
+should be used merely as a safeguard against the total or partial
+obliteration of a monument by a sudden catastrophe (which might happen
+any day to one of the minarets of Sultan Hasan), not as a ground for
+refusing to avert the ruin.
+
+2. Another and much simpler precaution should be taken in the case of
+the numerous small mosques of Cairo which are more or less roofed in.
+These have generally windows of open tracery, or grille-work, and often
+a small opening in the centre over the court. The central opening should
+be covered with glass to keep out the weather, and the open windows
+should invariably be furnished with wire-netting outside to exclude the
+birds, which do much mischief in the interiors. All covered-in mosques
+require frequent inspection with this view, and every cranny which could
+admit rain or birds should be carefully stopped.
+
+3. A more expensive but absolutely necessary step is the compulsory
+expropriation of the shops or booths which cling like limpets to the
+façades of many of the mosques. The proprietors of these shops use the
+mosques behind as dust-bins, and throw their refuse and broken crockery
+through the windows. The appearance of the mosques, both inside and out,
+is seriously impaired by these excrescences which narrow the street
+(_e.g._, the Suk-en-Nahhasin), impede traffic, and prevent the façades
+of the mosques being seen in their true proportion and effect.
+
+In order to avoid the risk of any historical monument being overlooked
+and neglected, it would be well if the Commission were to divide Cairo
+into a certain number of definite quarters, and that the scheduled
+monuments in each quarter should be periodically visited by the Sub-
+Committee of Inspection and the architect at least once a year. The
+number of monuments in the list is so large, that it might be impossible
+to arrange more than one or two inspections of each in every season.
+Such visits should be recorded, with notes on the condition of each
+monument, in a special book.
+
+An important question is that of the private monuments, whether mosques,
+houses, _sebils_, _wekalas_, or other buildings. The Government
+apparently has no power either to compel owners to maintain and preserve
+the historical buildings which they inhabit or let, or to force them to
+sell. The few mediæval houses still standing in Cairo are artistically
+more valuable than the mosques maintained by private wakfs, for they
+form almost the sole remaining examples of the domestic style of Arab
+art. It is greatly to be wished that they could be brought under the
+control of the Commission, and if due compensation were made for
+ejectment or interference, the owners would have little ground for
+complaint.
+
+_Restoration._—The Commission has not confined its labours strictly to
+preservation, it has also undertaken the complete restoration of several
+monuments. There is a well-founded prejudice in artistic and
+archæological circles against restoration of any and every description;
+but I believe that an examination of some of the recent restorations
+carried out by Herz Bey would remove these natural and generally just
+apprehensions. This architect’s principle, as he explained it to me,
+appears sound and reasonable. It is this. No unique monument (_e.g._,
+the Mosque of Ibn-Tulun) or monument belonging to an architectural
+period of which there are very few examples (_e.g._, the Fátimid
+Mosques), must on any account be restored; preservation is the only
+possible treatment for such cases, and nothing more must be done than is
+absolutely necessary for the stability of the building, and its security
+from weather and other injury. But when there are numerous mosques of
+the same period, nearly resembling one another in style, and often even
+in detail of ornament (_e.g._, at the period of Kait-Bey), then a few
+may safely be selected for complete restoration at all points, so as to
+present as nearly as possible their original appearance, as when first
+opened for public worship. Herz Bey has given a few examples of his
+theory of restoration in mosques of a well-represented period. They are
+not equally successful, and it is evident from the latest specimens that
+experience has taught him much, especially in regard to colour. But I
+think the most rigid opponent of restoration would find very little to
+criticize in the careful and beautiful manner in which the little mosque
+of [Kády] Abu-Bekr ibn Muzhir in the Bargawan has been restored to
+almost its original condition; and whatever may be said about the
+tampering to which the mosque of el-Muayyad was subjected under a former
+régime, there is no doubt that the inscriptional frieze and the painted
+ceiling have been restored as perfectly and as scrupulously as skill and
+knowledge could attain. I can assert from personal observation that
+nothing can exceed the care and precautions which are observed by the
+architect of the Commission in order to make sure that he has really
+discovered the original design and colouring beneath centuries of dirt
+and whitewash, or the pains he takes to reproduce them faithfully. And I
+may here observe that the staff of the Commission includes workers in
+metal and wood, who are able to copy the designs so accurately, that it
+is almost impossible to distinguish them from the originals. (They are
+not yet successful in stained glass, however.) This merit has the
+obvious drawback that, unless great care is taken, the details of the
+monuments (_e.g._, the bronze bosses and plaques on doors, or the wood
+and ivory carvings and inlay work of doors and _minbars_) may be
+falsified.
+
+In recent restorations of Arabic inscriptions the inscription itself is
+made to tell the date of its restoration; but many small details of
+ornament are not distinguished at all from the original work whose gaps
+they supply. This defect calls for immediate correction before the
+distinction is forgotten by the restorers themselves. Every _plaque_ of
+metal or panel of wood or mosaic should bear an unmistakable
+distinguishing mark, such as the date of restoration in Arabic cyphers;
+and detailed plans of all restored monuments should be preserved in the
+archives of the Commission, in which the new portions should be clearly
+distinguished by colour or shading. If this rule is carefully observed I
+confess I can see nothing but advantage in the complete restoration of a
+_limited_ number of mosques _under the restrictions_ already mentioned.
+When the work is executed with the skill and honesty which one observes
+in the case of the Mosque of Abu-Bekr ibn Muzhir, there is no
+falsification but rather preservation in the most complete and
+satisfactory sense. The beauty of these restored mosques seems to appeal
+to the eyes of the worshippers, and there is no doubt that the Mosque of
+el-Muayyad has been far more frequented for prayer since its _liwan_ was
+restored to something of its original beauty and richness of gold and
+colour. This is a consideration to which the Ministry of Wakfs can
+hardly fail to attach considerable importance. At the same time there is
+possibly some risk of the vital work of preservation being sometimes
+neglected in order that restorations, which are naturally more
+interesting and effective to both the architect and the public, should
+be carried out.
+
+At present there are five mosques in course of restoration,[88] viz.,
+those of Zeyn-ed-din Yahya, near the Musky; Gami‘-el-Benat; of
+Asunbugha, in the Darb-es-Sa‘ada, and of Kagmas el-Ishaky; besides el-
+Muayyad and Abu-Bekr ibn Muzhir, which may be regarded as finished. Two
+of these mosques, however, are private wakfs, and are being paid for by
+private persons. Still, in my opinion, enough restoration has been
+undertaken for the present, and the chief attention of the Commission
+should be directed for the next two or three years to a fresh and
+complete examination of all the monuments on their list with a view to
+their thorough preservation. At all events the selection of a new mosque
+for complete restoration should be a subject of anxious thought, and
+should not be lightly undertaken. Restoration, it must be remembered, is
+costly, and cannot judiciously be embarked upon so long as the funds of
+the Commission are scarcely sufficient for preservation alone. . . .
+
+Such, my Lord, are the conclusions which suggested themselves to me
+after my inspection of the results of the Commission’s labours. I have
+confined my remarks to Cairo, because I had no opportunity this year to
+examine the work that has been done in other towns of Egypt. In Cairo,
+as I have endeavoured to show, the Commission has done excellent work,
+and has accomplished a great deal in face of inadequate funds and
+frequent obstruction and opposition. The few suggestions and criticisms
+I have ventured to make are trifles in comparison with the quantity and
+generally high quality of the work of preservation and restoration
+carried out under the authority of the Commission. In my opinion the
+Wakfs and the Public Works together should raise the annual budget of
+the Commission to £10,000, and then leave it to manage its own affairs,
+as it is fully competent to do. Were it possible to create a Ministry of
+Fine Arts, which should include the Archæological Directorate as well as
+the Commission, the Giza as well as the Arab Museum, this would probably
+be the most satisfactory course. But the consideration of so thorough a
+reconstruction is beyond the scope of the Report which your Lordship has
+asked me to submit.”
+
+To these remarks I have nothing to add. All subsequent observation has
+confirmed the belief that the Commission has done and is still doing a
+noble work for the monuments of Cairo. The passages omitted in the
+preceding extracts related to the financial status of the Commission,
+and the result of these recommendations is thus stated in Lord Cromer’s
+covering report, which also strongly supported the various suggestions
+offered for the better protection of the monuments, and added some
+excellent provisions for the inclusion of the Coptic churches in the
+field of operation of the Commission. Lord Cromer wrote:—
+
+“I have for long been well aware that the grants heretofore obtained
+from the Wakf Administration were inadequate, and that, if greater
+activity was to be displayed in this branch of the Administration,
+additional expenditure would have to be incurred. Indeed, one of the
+main objects I had in view in consulting Mr Stanley Lane-Poole was to
+obtain suggestions from him as to the best method of spending more
+money, supposing it to be available.
+
+“On receipt of Mr Stanley Lane-Poole’s Report, I placed myself in
+communication with the authorities of the Financial and Public Works
+Department with the result that a proposal was made to the Commissioners
+of the Public Debt that they should grant a sum of £20,000 from the
+Reserve Fund at their disposal to be spent under the direction of the
+Preservation Committee during the years 1896 and 1897. I am glad to say
+that this proposal was received by the Commissioners in a very friendly
+spirit. The money has been granted, and the details of the expenditure
+now alone remain to be settled. . . .
+
+“I should add that, in addition to the £20,000, which is to be spent
+exclusively on works of different sorts, the Egyptian Government has
+consented to give a permanent grant of £1000 a-year from the Treasury in
+order to provide for the additional staff which will without doubt be
+required.”
+
+The effects of this munificent addition to the funds placed at the
+disposal of the Commission have been far-reaching. The list of monuments
+that have benefited by the timely succour is too long to quote, but the
+repairs effected in the great mosque of el-Maridány at a cost of £4000
+must be specially mentioned: it was a work greatly needed, and the money
+has been well spent. Every visitor to Cairo is struck by the difference
+in the condition of the mosques since the Commission took them under its
+charge. Many which seemed doomed are now safe; others have their lives
+at least prolonged; and no fragment of Arab art, no vestige of the city
+wall, no piece of carving or inscription, is beneath the watchful care
+of the Commission. When a monument cannot be preserved, such fragments
+of ornament or inscriptions as remain are carefully gathered and
+transported to the Arab Museum, which itself is evidence of the good
+work that has been done in the past twenty years. These years have
+indeed been fruitful in serious labour to repair the injury which
+natural decay, and unnatural confiscation, neglect, and vandalism have
+worked in the past upon the relics of mediæval Cairo.
+
+[Illustration: A MUSLIM GRAVEYARD]
+
+
+
+
+                   RULERS AND MONUMENTS OF CAIRO[89]
+
+                               * * * * *
+
+
+                             1. ARAB PERIOD
+
+    A.D.    A.H.                                                   A.H.
+
+  640-868  20-254 Ninety-eight governors    †Mosque of ‘Amr           21
+                  under caliphs of
+                  Damascus and Baghdād
+
+                                             Town of the Tent         21
+                                            (el-Fusṭāṭ)
+
+                                             First Nilometer at       98
+                                            er-Rōḍa
+
+                                             Faubourg el-‘Askar      133
+
+                                            *Second Nilometer        247
+                                            at er-Rōḍa
+
+                           2. TURKISH PERIOD
+
+                             HOUSE OF ṬŪLŪN
+
+      868     254 Aḥmad ibn Ṭūlūn            Faubourg el-Ḳaṭāi‘      256
+
+                                             Palaces of          256 ff.
+                                            el-Ḳaṭāi‘
+
+                                             Māristān                259
+
+                                            *Mosque of Ibn-Ṭūlūn   263-5
+
+      883     270 Khumāraweyh b. Aḥmad       Palaces of          270 ff.
+                                            el-Ḳaṭāi‘
+
+      895     282 Geysh b. Khumāraweyh
+
+      896     283 Hārūn b. Khumāraweyh
+
+      904     292 Sheybān b. Aḥmad b. Ṭūlūn
+
+                           CALIPHS’ GOVERNORS
+
+  905-934 292-323 Thirteen governors
+
+                          HOUSE OF EL-IKHSHĪD
+
+      934     323 Moḥammad el-Ikhshīd        Palace in Kāfūr’s
+                                            Garden and at Rōḍa
+
+      946     334 Abū-l-Ḳāsim Ūngūr b.       Māristān at Fusṭāṭ      346
+                  el-Ikhshīd
+
+      960     349 Abū-l-Ḥasan ‘Aly b.        Mosque of el-Gīza       350
+                  el-Ikhshīd
+
+      966     355 Abū-l-Misk Kāfūr
+
+      968     358 Abū-l-Fawāris Aḥmad b.
+                  ‘Aly
+
+                           3. FĀṬIMID PERIOD
+
+      969     358 el-Mo‘izz                  Foundation of           358
+                                            el-Ḳāhira
+
+                                             Great East Palace,      358
+                                            etc.
+
+                                            *Mosque el-Azhar         359
+
+      975     365 el-‘Azīz                   West Palace, etc.
+
+                                            *Mosque of el-Ḥākim  380-403
+
+      996     386 el-Ḥākim                   Mosque of Rāshida     393-5
+
+                                               „  el-Maḳs
+
+     1021     411 eẓ-Ẓāhir
+
+     1036     427 el-Mustanṣir              *Mosque el-Guyūshy       478
+
+                                            *Bāb-en-Naṣr,        480-484
+                                            *Bāb-el-Futūḥ,
+                                            *Second wall,
+                                            *Bāb-Zuweyla
+
+                                             Mosque of Nilometer     485
+
+     1094     487 el-Musta‘ly
+
+     1101     495 el-Āmir                   *Mosque el-Aḳmar         519
+
+                                             Several mesgids
+                                            (Yānis, Kāfūry,
+                                            Bāb-el-Khawkha)
+
+                                            *Mihrābs of Azhar
+                                            and Seyyida Ruḳeyya
+
+     1131     524 el-Ḥāfiẓ
+
+     1149     544 eẓ-Ẓāfir                  †Mosque el-Afkhar        543
+
+     1154     549 el-Fāiz
+
+     1160     555 el-‘Āḍid                  *Mosque of eṣ-Ṣālih      555
+                                            Ṭalāi‘
+
+                          4. HOUSE OF SALADIN
+
+     1169     565 en-Nāṣir Ṣalāḥ-ed-dīn      Mosque of               566
+                  (Saladin) ibn Ayyūb       Negm-ed-dīn Ayyūb
+
+                                             College Nāṣirīya        566
+
+                                               „  Ḳamḥiya            566
+
+                                               „  Ḳuṭbīya            570
+
+                                               „  Ibn-el-Arsūfy      570
+
+                                               „  Suyūfīya           572
+
+                                             Citadel and 3rd         572
+                                            Wall begun
+
+                                             Māristān                575
+
+                                             College el-Fāḍilīya     580
+
+     1193     589 el-‘Azīz, son of Saladin   Mosque of            c. 591
+                                            Ibn-el-Benā
+
+                                             College Ushkushīya      592
+
+     1198     595 el-Manṣūr b. el-‘Azīz        „  Ghaznawīya
+
+     1200     596 el-‘Adil Seyf-ed-dīn         „  ‘Ādilīya
+
+                                               „  Sherīfīya          612
+
+     1218     615 el-Kāmil b. el-‘Ādil       Restor. of M. of        607
+                                            Shāfi‘y
+
+                                            *College Kāmilīya        622
+
+                                               „  Fakhrīya           622
+
+                                             Zāwiya Ḳaṣry         c. 633
+
+                                             M. Ibn-esh-Sheykhy   c. 633
+
+     1238     635 el-‘Ādil II. b. el-Kāmil   College Ṣayramīya    c. 636
+
+                                               „  Fāizīya            636
+
+     1240     637 eṣ-Ṣāliḥ Ayyūb b.            „  *Ṣāliḥīya          639
+                  el-Kāmil
+
+                                             Mosque, etc., of
+                                            er-Rōḍa
+
+     1249     647 el-Mu‘aẓẓam Tūrān-Shāh     Zāwiya Khaddām          647
+                  b. eṣ-Ṣāliḥ
+
+                           5. TURKISH MAMLŪKS
+
+     1250     648 Queen Sheger-ed-durr      *Tomb of eṣ-Ṣāliḥ        648
+
+     1250     648 el-Mo‘izz Aybek            College Ḳuṭbīya         650
+
+                                               „  Ṣāḥibīya           654
+
+     1257     655 el-Manṣūr ‘Aly b. Aybek
+
+     1259     657 el-Muẓaffar Ḳuṭuz
+
+     1260     658 eẓ-Ẓāhir Beybars          *College Ẓāhirīya        660
+
+                                             Meshhed el-Ḥoseyny      662
+
+                                             College Megdīya         663
+
+                                             Mosque el-Afram         663
+
+                                            *Mosque eẓ-Ẓāhir         665
+
+                                             College
+                                            Muhedhdhibīya
+
+                                               „  Fārikānīya         676
+
+     1277     676 es-Sa‘īd Baraka b.
+                  Beybars
+
+     1279     678 el-‘Ādil Selāmish b.
+                  Beybars
+
+     1279     679 el-Manṣūr Ḳalā’ūn         *College Manṣūrīya       684
+                                            and Māristān Ḳalā’ūn
+
+                                             Zāwiya el-Gemīzy        682
+
+                                               „  el-Ga‘bary         687
+
+                                               „  el-Halāwy          683
+
+                                             Convent                 688
+                                            el-Bunduḳdārīya
+
+     1290     689 el-Ashraf Khalīl b.       *Gate from ‘Akka
+                  Ḳalā’ūn
+
+     1293     693 en-Nāṣir Moḥammad b.
+                  Ḳalā’ūn
+
+     1294     694 el-‘Ādil Ketbughā
+
+     1296     696 el-Manṣūr Lāgīn            Restor. M. of           696
+                                            Ibn-Ṭūlūn
+
+                                             College Ṭafagīya     c. 698
+
+                                               „  Mangūtimurīya      698
+
+     1298     698 en-Nāṣir, second reign       „  *Nāṣirīya      699-703
+
+                                               „  Karāsunḳurīya      700
+
+                                               „  Gemālīya           703
+
+                                             Restor. of Ḥākim,     703-4
+                                            Azhar, Ṭalāi‘
+
+                                             Mosque of Ṭaybars       707
+
+     1308     708 el-Muẓaffar Beybars       *Convent of Beybars    706-9
+                  _Gāshnekīr_
+
+     1309     709 en-Nāṣir, third reign     *College Ṭaybarsīya      709
+
+                                             Zāwiya of el-Ḥimṣy      709
+
+                                             Mosque of el-Gāky       713
+
+                                            *Citadel palace,         713
+                                            aqueduct
+
+                                             College Sa‘īdīya        715
+
+                                             Convent of Arslān    c. 717
+
+                                            *Mosque of Citadel       718
+
+                                            *Mosque of emīr          719
+                                            Ḥoseyn
+
+                                            *College Ālmelikīya      719
+
+                                            *College Gāwalīya        723
+
+                                            *Tomb of Ordūtegīn       724
+
+                                            *College                 725
+                                            Mihmandāriya
+
+                                               „  Buktumurīya        726
+
+                                             Mosque of               729
+                                            el-Khazāny
+
+                                               „  *of Almās          730
+
+                                               „  el-Barḳīya         730
+
+                                            *Mosque of Ḳūṣūn         730
+
+                                               „  of Sārūgā       c. 730
+
+                                            *College Aḳbughawīya     734
+
+                                            *Tomb of Tāshtimur       734
+
+                                            *Palace of Beshtāk    c. 735
+
+                                            *Convent of Ḳūṣūn        736
+
+                                               „  at Siryāḳūs        736
+
+                                            †Mosque of Beshtāk       736
+
+                                               „  Aydemir            737
+
+                                               „  et-Turkmāny        738
+
+                                               „  *el-Māridāny       740
+
+     1341     741 el-Manṣūr Abū-Bekr}          „  *Sitta Miska       740
+                                    }
+                                    }          „  Ibn-Ghāzy          741
+                                    }
+     1341     742 el-Ashraf Kuguk   }
+                                    }
+     1342     742 en-Nāṣir Aḥmad    }sons
+                                    } of
+     1342     743 eṣ-Ṣāliḥ Ismā‘īl  }en-    Mosque of               745
+                                    }Nāṣir  eṭ-Ṭawāshy
+                                    }
+     1345     746 el-Ḳāmil Sha‘bān  }          „  Ibn-eṭ-Ṭabbākh     746
+                                    }
+     1346     747 el-Muẓaffar Ḥāggy }          „  *Kuguk             747
+                                    }
+     1347     748 en-Nāṣir Ḥasan    }          „  †Āḳsunḳur          747
+
+                                               „  †el-Ismā‘īly       748
+
+                                               „  *Ḳutlubugha        748
+
+                                               „  el-Asyūṭy       c. 749
+
+                                            *Convent of Umm-Anūk  c. 749
+
+                                               „  Algībughā       c. 750
+
+                                            *Mosque of Mangak        750
+
+                                               „  *Sheykhū           750
+
+                                             College of              750
+                                            el-Kharrūba
+
+                                            *Cistern of Lāgīn        750
+
+                                             College Ḳaysarānīya     751
+
+                                               „  Ṣaghīra            751
+
+     1351     752 eṣ-Ṣāliḥ Ṣāliḥ b. Nāṣir
+
+     1354     755 Ḥasan, second reign       *Convent of Sheykhū      756
+
+                                             College Fārisīya        756
+
+                                               „                     756
+                                            *Ṣarghitmishīya
+
+                                               „  *Sulṭān Ḥasan  757 ff.
+
+                                               „  Bedīrīya           758
+
+                                               „  *Ḥigāzīya          761
+
+                                               „  Beshīrīya          761
+
+                                               „  Sābiḳīya           763
+
+     1361     762 el-Manṣūr }                  „  Sābiḳīya           763
+                  Moḥammad  } grand-sons
+                            }     of
+     1363     764 el-Ashraf }  en-Nāṣir     *Tomb of Ṭulbīya         765
+                  Sha‘bān   }
+
+                                            *Mosque of Sha‘bān       771
+
+                                            *College Bubekrīya       772
+                                            (Asunbughā)
+
+                                            *College of Gāy          775
+                                            el-Yūsufy
+
+                                               „  Baḳrīya         c. 775
+
+     1376     778 el-Manṣūr ‘Aly b. Sha‘bān    „  Ibn-‘Irām          782
+
+     1381     783 eṣ-Ṣāliḥ Ḥāggy b.          Tomb of Umm-Ṣāliḥ       783
+                  Sha‘bān (dep. 1382,
+                  restored 1389-90)
+
+                         6. CIRCASSIAN MAMLŪKS
+
+     1382     784 eẓ-Ẓāhir Barḳūḳ           *Tomb of Anas            783
+
+                  [interrupted 791-2 by     *College of Aytmish      785
+                  Ḥāggy]
+
+                                            *College of Barḳūḳ       788
+
+                                            *Mosque of               790
+                                            Zeyn-ed-dīn
+
+                                            *College of Īnāl         795
+                                            _Ustāddār_
+
+                                               „  Maḥmūdīya          797
+
+                                               „  *Muḳbil            797
+                                            Zemāmīya
+
+                                               „  Ibn-Ghurāb         798
+
+     1399     801 en-Nāṣir Farag b. Barḳūḳ   M. of                   803
+                                            Ibn-‘Abd-eẓ-Ẓāhir
+
+                                            *College of Sūdūn        804
+
+                                               „  Mahally         c. 806
+
+     1405     808 el-Manṣūr ‘Abd-el-‘Azīz   *Convent and Tomb     803-13
+                  b. Barḳūḳ                 of Barḳūḳ and
+                                            Farag, and College
+                                            of Farag
+
+     1405     809 Farag, second reign       *College of              811
+                                            Gemāl-ed-dīn
+
+                                             Mosque of Hōsh          812
+                                            (Citadel)
+
+     1412     815 el-Musta‘īn (caliph)         „                     814
+                                            Birket-er-Raṭly
+
+     1412     815 el-Mu’ayyad Sheykh         M. of eḍ-Ḍiwa           815
+                                            (Citadel)
+
+                                             Mosque of el-Bāsiṭy     817
+
+                                               „  el-Ḥanafy          817
+
+                                               „  ez-Zāhid           818
+
+                                            *Māristān of             818
+                                            el-Mu’ayyad
+
+                                            *Mosque of            819-23
+                                            el-Mu’ayyad
+
+                                            *Coll. of                821
+                                            ‘Abd-el-Ghany
+
+                                             Mosque of el-Fakhry     821
+
+                                            *Coll. of Ḳāḍy           823
+                                            ‘Abd-el-Bāsiṭ
+
+     1421     824 el-Muẓaffar Aḥmad b.
+                  Sheykh
+
+     1421     824 eẓ-Ẓāhir Ṭaṭar
+
+     1421     824 eṣ-Ṣāliḥ Moḥammad b.
+                  Ṭaṭar
+
+     1422     825 el-Ashraf Bars-Bey        *College of Bars-Bey     827
+
+                                            *Mosque of Gāny-Bek      830
+
+                                            *College of Feyrūz       830
+
+                                            *Conv. and tomb of       835
+                                            Bars-Bey
+
+     1438     842 el-‘Azīz Yūsuf b.
+                  Bars-Bey
+
+     1438     842 eẓ-Ẓāhir Gaḳmaḳ           *College of              844
+                                            Taghry-Berdy
+
+                                            *Mosque of Ḳāny-Bey      845
+
+     1453     857 el-Manṣūr ‘Othmān b.      *M. and tomb Ḳāḍy     848-50
+                  Gaḳmaḳ                    Yaḥyā
+
+                                            *Mosque of Gaḳmaḳ        853
+
+     1453     857 el-Ashraf Īnāl            *Coll., Conv., tomb   855-60
+                                            of Īnāl
+
+     1461     865 el-Mu’ayyad Aḥmad b. Īnāl
+
+     1461     865 eẓ-Ẓāhir Khūshḳadam       *Tomb of Gāny-Bek        869
+
+                                            *Mosque of               870
+                                            Nūr-ed-dīn
+
+                                            *Mosque of Sūdūn      c. 870
+
+                                            *College of Ḳānim     c. 870
+
+     1467     872 eẓ-Ẓāhir Yel-Bey
+
+     1467     872 eẓ-Ẓāhir Timurbughā
+
+     1468     873 el-Ashraf Ḳā’it-Bey       *Mosque of Timrāz        876
+
+                                            *M. of Ezbek b.          880
+                                            Tutush
+
+                                            *Palace of Yeshbek       880
+
+                                            *Ḳā’it-Bey’s Coll.       879
+                                            and tomb
+
+                                               „  *Coll. in town     880
+
+                                               „  *Wekāla by         882
+                                            Azhar
+
+                                               „  *Sebīl             884
+
+                                               „  Wekāla, B.         885
+                                            en-Naṣr
+
+                                               „  *Wek.,          c. 885
+                                            Surūgīya
+
+                                               „  *Faḍawīya       c. 886
+                                            cupola
+
+                                               „  *Palace and        890
+                                            mekān
+
+                                               „  *Restor. of        890
+                                            S. gates
+
+                                               „  *Coll. at          896
+                                            er-Rōḍa
+
+                                            *Mosque of Gānim         883
+
+                                            *Coll. of Abū-Bekr       885
+                                            b. Muzhir
+
+                                            *Mosque of Ḳagmās        886
+
+                                            *Coll. of Ezbek          900
+                                            el-Yūsufy
+
+     1496     901 en-Nāṣir Moḥammad b.      *Palace of Mamāy         901
+                  Ḳā’it-Bey                 (Beyt-el-Ḳāḍy)
+
+     1498     904 eẓ-Ẓāhir Ḳānṣūh           *Tomb of Ḳānṣūh          904
+
+     1500     905 el-Ashraf Gānbalāt
+
+     1501     906 el-‘Ādil Ṭūmān-Bey
+
+     1501     906 el-Ashraf Ḳānṣūh el-Ghūry *Tomb el-‘Ādil           906
+                                            Ṭūmān-Bey
+
+                                            *Mosque of Kheyr-Bek     908
+
+                                            *Coll. Ḳāny-Bek          908
+                                            emīr akhōr
+
+                                            *Coll. of el-Ghūry       909
+
+                                            †Tomb-mosque of          909
+                                            el-Ghūry
+
+                                            *Tomb of Sūdūn        c. 910
+
+                                            *College of              911
+                                            Ḳāny-Bek Ḳarā
+
+                                             Restoration of
+                                            aqueduct to
+
+                                             Citadel                 911
+
+     1516     922 el-Ashraf Ṭumān-Bey
+
+     1517     922         ‘OTHMĀNLY CONQUEST OF EGYPT
+
+
+[Illustration: CAIRO.]
+
+
+
+
+           TABLE FOR CONVERTING HIJRA YEARS INTO ANNI DOMINI.
+
+
+  +----+----+-------+
+  |A.H.|A.D.|BEGINS |
+  +----+----+-------+
+  |   1| 622|Jy.  16|
+  |    |    |       |
+  |   2| 623|Jy.   5|
+  |    |    |       |
+  |   3| 624|Ju.  24|
+  |    |    |       |
+  |   4| 625|Ju.  13|
+  |    |    |       |
+  |   5| 626|Ju.   2|
+  |    |    |       |
+  |   6| 627|My.  23|
+  |    |    |       |
+  |   7| 628|My.  11|
+  |    |    |       |
+  |   8| 629|My.   1|
+  |    |    |       |
+  |   9| 630|Ap.  20|
+  |    |    |       |
+  |  10| 631|Ap.   9|
+  |    |    |       |
+  |  11| 632|M.   29|
+  |    |    |       |
+  |  12| 633|M.   18|
+  |    |    |       |
+  |  13| 634|M.    7|
+  |    |    |       |
+  |  14| 635|F.   25|
+  |    |    |       |
+  |  15| 636|F.   14|
+  |    |    |       |
+  |  16| 637|F.    2|
+  |    |    |       |
+  |  17| 638|Ja.  23|
+  |    |    |       |
+  |  18| 639|Ja.  12|
+  |    |    |       |
+  |  19| 640|Ja.   2|
+  |    |    |       |
+  |  20| 640|D.   21|
+  |    |    |       |
+  |  21| 641|D.   10|
+  |    |    |       |
+  |  22| 642|N.   30|
+  |    |    |       |
+  |  23| 643|N.   19|
+  |    |    |       |
+  |  24| 644|N.    7|
+  |    |    |       |
+  |  25| 645|O.   28|
+  |    |    |       |
+  |  26| 646|O.   17|
+  |    |    |       |
+  |  27| 647|O.    7|
+  |    |    |       |
+  |  28| 648|S.   25|
+  |    |    |       |
+  |  29| 649|S.   14|
+  |    |    |       |
+  |  30| 650|S.    4|
+  |    |    |       |
+  |  31| 651|Ag.  24|
+  |    |    |       |
+  |  32| 652|Ag.  12|
+  |    |    |       |
+  |  33| 653|Ag.   2|
+  |    |    |       |
+  |  34| 654|Jy.  22|
+  |    |    |       |
+  |  35| 655|Jy.  11|
+  |    |    |       |
+  |  36| 656|Ju.  30|
+  |    |    |       |
+  |  37| 657|Ju.  19|
+  |    |    |       |
+  |  38| 658|Ju.   9|
+  |    |    |       |
+  |  39| 659|My.  29|
+  |    |    |       |
+  |  40| 660|My.  17|
+  |    |    |       |
+  |  41| 661|My.   7|
+  |    |    |       |
+  |  42| 662|Ap.  26|
+  |    |    |       |
+  |  43| 663|Ap.  15|
+  |    |    |       |
+  |  44| 664|Ap.   4|
+  |    |    |       |
+  |  45| 665|M.   24|
+  |    |    |       |
+  |  46| 666|M.   13|
+  |    |    |       |
+  |  47| 667|M.    3|
+  |    |    |       |
+  |  48| 668|F.   20|
+  |    |    |       |
+  |  49| 669|F.    9|
+  |    |    |       |
+  |  50| 670|Ja.  29|
+  |    |    |       |
+  |  51| 671|Ja.  18|
+  |    |    |       |
+  |  52| 672|Ja.   8|
+  |    |    |       |
+  |  53| 672|D.   27|
+  |    |    |       |
+  |  54| 673|D.   16|
+  |    |    |       |
+  |  55| 674|D.    6|
+  |    |    |       |
+  |  56| 675|N.   25|
+  |    |    |       |
+  |  57| 676|N.   14|
+  |    |    |       |
+  |  58| 677|N.    3|
+  |    |    |       |
+  |  59| 678|O.   23|
+  |    |    |       |
+  |  60| 679|O.   13|
+  |    |    |       |
+  |  61| 680|O.    1|
+  |    |    |       |
+  |  62| 681|S.   20|
+  |    |    |       |
+  |  63| 682|S.   10|
+  |    |    |       |
+  |  64| 683|Ag.  30|
+  |    |    |       |
+  |  65| 684|Ag.  18|
+  |    |    |       |
+  |  66| 685|Ag.   8|
+  |    |    |       |
+  |  67| 686|Jy.  28|
+  |    |    |       |
+  |  68| 687|Jy.  18|
+  |    |    |       |
+  |  69| 688|Jy.   6|
+  |    |    |       |
+  |  70| 689|Ju.  25|
+  |    |    |       |
+  |  71| 690|Ju.  15|
+  |    |    |       |
+  |  72| 691|Ju.   4|
+  |    |    |       |
+  |  73| 692|My.  23|
+  |    |    |       |
+  |  74| 693|My.  13|
+  |    |    |       |
+  |  75| 694|My.   2|
+  |    |    |       |
+  |  76| 695|Ap.  21|
+  |    |    |       |
+  |  77| 696|Ap.  10|
+  |    |    |       |
+  |  78| 697|M.   30|
+  |    |    |       |
+  |  79| 698|M.   20|
+  |    |    |       |
+  |  80| 699|M.    9|
+  |    |    |       |
+  |  81| 700|F.   26|
+  |    |    |       |
+  |  82| 701|F.   15|
+  |    |    |       |
+  |  83| 702|F.    4|
+  |    |    |       |
+  |  84| 703|Ja.  24|
+  |    |    |       |
+  |  85| 704|Ja.  14|
+  |    |    |       |
+  |  86| 705|Ja.   2|
+  |    |    |       |
+  |  87| 705|D.   23|
+  |    |    |       |
+  |  88| 706|D.   12|
+  |    |    |       |
+  |  89| 707|D.    1|
+  |    |    |       |
+  |  90| 708|N.   20|
+  |    |    |       |
+  |  91| 709|N.    9|
+  |    |    |       |
+  |  92| 710|O.   29|
+  |    |    |       |
+  |  93| 711|O.   19|
+  |    |    |       |
+  |  94| 712|O.    7|
+  |    |    |       |
+  |  95| 713|S.   26|
+  |    |    |       |
+  |  96| 714|S.   16|
+  |    |    |       |
+  |  97| 715|S.    5|
+  |    |    |       |
+  |  98| 716|Ag.  25|
+  |    |    |       |
+  |  99| 717|Ag.  14|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 100| 718|Ag.   3|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 101| 719|Jy.  24|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 102| 720|Jy.  12|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 103| 721|Jy.   1|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 104| 722|Ju.  21|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 105| 723|Ju.  10|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 106| 724|My.  29|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 107| 725|My.  19|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 108| 726|My.   8|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 109| 727|Ap.  28|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 110| 728|Ap.  16|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 111| 729|Ap.   5|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 112| 730|M.   26|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 113| 731|M.   15|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 114| 732|M.    3|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 115| 733|F.   21|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 116| 734|F.   10|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 117| 735|Ja.  31|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 118| 736|Ja.  20|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 119| 737|Ja.   8|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 120| 737|D.   29|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 121| 738|D.   18|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 122| 739|D.    7|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 123| 740|N.   26|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 124| 741|N.   15|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 125| 742|N.    4|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 126| 743|O.   25|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 127| 744|O.   13|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 128| 745|O.    3|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 129| 746|S.   22|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 130| 747|S.   11|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 131| 748|Ag.  31|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 132| 749|Ag.  20|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 133| 750|Ag.   9|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 134| 751|Jy.  30|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 135| 752|Jy.  18|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 136| 753|Jy.   7|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 137| 754|Ju.  27|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 138| 755|Ju.  16|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 139| 756|Ju.   5|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 140| 757|My.  25|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 141| 758|My.  14|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 142| 759|My.   4|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 143| 760|Ap.  22|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 144| 761|Ap.  11|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 145| 762|Ap.   1|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 146| 763|M.   21|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 147| 764|M.   10|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 148| 765|F.   27|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 149| 766|F.   16|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 150| 767|F.    6|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 151| 768|Ja.  26|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 152| 769|Ja.  14|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 153| 770|Ja.   4|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 154| 770|D.   24|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 155| 771|D.   13|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 156| 772|D.    2|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 157| 773|N.   21|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 158| 774|N.   11|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 159| 775|O.   31|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 160| 776|O.   19|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 161| 777|O.    9|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 162| 778|S.   28|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 163| 779|S.   17|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 164| 780|S.    6|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 165| 781|Ag.  26|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 166| 782|Ag.  15|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 167| 783|Ag.   5|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 168| 784|Jy.  24|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 169| 785|Jy.  14|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 170| 786|Jy.   3|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 171| 787|Ju.  22|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 172| 788|Ju.  11|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 173| 789|My.  31|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 174| 790|My.  20|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 175| 791|My.  10|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 176| 792|Ap.  28|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 177| 793|Ap.  18|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 178| 794|Ap.   7|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 179| 795|M.   27|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 180| 796|M.   16|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 181| 797|M.    5|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 182| 798|F.   22|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 183| 799|F.   12|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 184| 800|F.    1|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 185| 801|Ja.  20|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 186| 802|Ja.  10|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 187| 802|D.   30|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 188| 803|D.   20|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 189| 804|D.    8|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 190| 805|N.   27|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 191| 806|N.   17|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 192| 807|N.    6|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 193| 808|O.   25|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 194| 809|O.   15|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 195| 810|O.    4|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 196| 811|S.   23|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 197| 812|S.   12|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 198| 813|S.    1|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 199| 814|Ag.  22|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 200| 815|Ag.  11|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 201| 816|Jy.  30|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 202| 817|Jy.  20|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 203| 818|Jy.   9|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 204| 819|Ju.  28|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 205| 820|Ju.  17|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 206| 821|Ju.   6|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 207| 822|My.  27|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 208| 823|My.  16|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 209| 824|My.   4|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 210| 825|Ap.  24|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 211| 826|Ap.  13|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 212| 827|Ap.   2|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 213| 828|M.   22|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 214| 829|M.   11|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 215| 830|F.   28|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 216| 831|F.   18|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 217| 832|F.    7|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 218| 833|Ja.  27|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 219| 834|Ja.  16|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 220| 835|Ja.   5|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 221| 835|D.   26|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 222| 836|D.   14|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 223| 837|D.    3|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 224| 838|N.   23|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 225| 839|N.   12|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 226| 840|O.   31|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 227| 841|O.   21|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 228| 842|O.   10|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 229| 843|S.   30|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 230| 844|S.   18|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 231| 845|S.    7|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 232| 846|Ag.  28|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 233| 847|Ag.  17|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 234| 848|Ag.   5|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 235| 849|Jy.  26|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 236| 850|Jy.  15|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 237| 851|Jy.   5|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 238| 852|Ju.  23|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 239| 853|Ju.  12|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 240| 854|Ju.   2|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 241| 855|My.  22|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 242| 856|My.  10|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 243| 857|Ap.  30|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 244| 858|Ap.  19|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 245| 859|Ap.   8|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 246| 860|M.   28|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 247| 861|M.   17|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 248| 862|M.    7|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 249| 863|F.   24|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 250| 864|F.   13|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 251| 865|F.    2|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 252| 866|Ja.  22|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 253| 867|Ja.  11|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 254| 868|Ja.   1|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 255| 868|D.   20|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 256| 869|D.    9|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 257| 870|N.   29|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 258| 871|N.   18|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 259| 872|N.    7|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 260| 873|O.   27|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 261| 874|O.   16|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 262| 875|O.    6|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 263| 876|S.   24|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 264| 877|S.   13|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 265| 878|S.    3|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 266| 879|Ag.  23|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 267| 880|Ag.  12|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 268| 881|Ag.   1|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 269| 882|Jy.  21|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 270| 883|Jy.  11|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 271| 884|Ju.  29|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 272| 885|Ju.  18|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 273| 886|Ju.   8|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 274| 887|My.  28|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 275| 888|My.  16|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 276| 889|My.   6|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 277| 890|Ap.  25|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 278| 891|Ap.  15|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 279| 892|Ap.   3|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 280| 893|M.   23|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 281| 894|M.   13|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 282| 895|M.    2|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 283| 896|F.   19|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 284| 897|F.    8|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 285| 898|Ja.  28|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 286| 899|Ja.  17|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 287| 900|Ja.   7|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 288| 900|D.   26|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 289| 901|D.   16|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 290| 902|D.    5|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 291| 903|N.   24|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 292| 904|N.   13|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 293| 905|N.    2|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 294| 906|O.   22|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 295| 907|O.   12|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 296| 908|S.   30|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 297| 909|S.   20|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 298| 910|S.    9|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 299| 911|Ag.  18|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 300| 912|Ag.  29|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 301| 913|Ag.   7|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 302| 914|Jy.  27|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 303| 915|Jy.  17|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 304| 916|Jy.   5|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 305| 917|Ju.  24|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 306| 918|Ju.  14|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 307| 919|Ju.   3|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 308| 920|My.  23|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 309| 921|My.  12|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 310| 922|My.   1|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 311| 923|Ap.  21|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 312| 924|Ap.   9|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 313| 925|M.   29|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 314| 926|M.   19|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 315| 927|M.    8|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 316| 928|F.   25|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 317| 929|F.   14|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 318| 930|F.    3|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 319| 931|Ja.  24|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 320| 932|Ja.  13|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 321| 933|Ja.   1|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 322| 933|D.   22|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 323| 934|D.   11|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 324| 935|N.   30|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 325| 936|N.   19|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 326| 937|N.    8|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 327| 938|O.   29|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 328| 939|O.   18|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 329| 940|O.    6|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 330| 941|S.   26|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 331| 942|S.   15|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 332| 943|S.    4|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 333| 944|Ag.  24|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 334| 945|Ag.  13|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 335| 946|Ag.   2|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 336| 947|Jy.  23|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 337| 948|Jy.  11|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 338| 949|Jy.   1|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 339| 950|Ju.  20|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 340| 951|Ju.   9|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 341| 952|My.  29|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 342| 953|My.  18|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 343| 954|My.   7|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 344| 955|Ap.  27|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 345| 956|Ap.  15|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 346| 957|Ap.   4|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 347| 958|M.   25|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 348| 959|M.   14|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 349| 960|M.    3|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 350| 961|F.   20|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 351| 962|F.    9|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 352| 963|Ja.  30|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 353| 964|Ja.  19|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 354| 965|Ja.   7|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 355| 965|D.   28|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 356| 966|D.   17|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 357| 967|D.    7|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 358| 968|N.   25|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 359| 969|N.   14|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 360| 970|N.    4|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 361| 971|O.   24|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 362| 972|O.   12|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 363| 973|O.    2|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 364| 974|S.   21|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 365| 975|S.   10|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 366| 976|Ag.  30|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 367| 977|Ag.  19|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 368| 978|Ag.   9|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 369| 979|Jy.  29|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 370| 980|Jy.  17|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 371| 981|Jy.   7|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 372| 982|Ju.  26|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 373| 983|Ju.  15|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 374| 984|Ju.   4|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 375| 985|My.  24|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 376| 986|My.  13|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 377| 987|My.   3|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 378| 988|Ap.  21|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 379| 989|Ap.  11|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 380| 990|M.   31|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 381| 991|M.   20|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 382| 992|M.    9|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 383| 993|F.   26|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 384| 994|F.   15|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 385| 995|F.    5|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 386| 996|Ja.  25|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 387| 997|Ja.  14|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 388| 998|Ja.   3|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 389| 998|D.   23|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 390| 999|D.   13|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 391|1000|D.    1|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 392|1001|N.   20|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 393|1002|N.   10|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 394|1003|O.   30|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 395|1004|O.   18|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 396|1005|O.    8|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 397|1006|S.   27|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 398|1007|S.   17|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 399|1008|S.    5|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 400|1009|Ag.  25|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 401|1010|Ag.  15|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 402|1011|Ag.   4|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 403|1012|Jy.  23|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 404|1013|Jy.  13|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 405|1014|Jy.   2|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 406|1015|Ju.  21|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 407|1016|Ju.  10|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 408|1017|My.  30|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 409|1018|My.  20|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 410|1019|My.   9|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 411|1020|Ap.  27|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 412|1021|Ap   17|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 413|1022|Ap.   6|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 414|1023|M.   26|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 415|1024|M.   15|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 416|1025|M.    4|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 417|1026|F.   22|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 418|1027|F.   11|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 419|1028|Ja.  31|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 420|1029|Ja.  20|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 421|1030|Ja.   9|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 422|1030|D.   29|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 423|1031|D.   19|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 424|1032|D.    7|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 425|1033|N.   26|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 426|1034|N.   16|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 427|1035|N.    5|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 428|1036|O.   25|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 429|1037|O.   14|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 430|1038|O.    3|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 431|1039|S.   23|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 432|1040|S.   11|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 433|1041|Ag.  31|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 434|1042|Ag.  21|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 435|1043|Ag.  10|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 436|1044|Jy.  29|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 437|1045|Jy.  19|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 438|1046|Jy.   8|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 439|1047|Ju.  28|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 440|1048|Ju.  16|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 441|1049|Ju.   5|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 442|1050|My.  26|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 443|1051|My.  15|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 444|1052|My.   3|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 445|1053|Ap.  23|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 446|1054|Ap.  12|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 447|1055|Ap.   2|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 448|1056|M.   21|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 449|1057|M.   10|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 450|1058|F.   28|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 451|1059|F.   17|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 452|1060|F.    6|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 453|1061|Ja.  26|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 454|1062|Ja.  15|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 455|1063|Ja.   4|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 456|1063|D.   25|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 457|1064|D.   13|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 458|1065|D.    3|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 459|1066|N.   22|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 460|1067|N.   11|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 461|1068|O.   31|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 462|1069|O.   20|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 463|1070|O.    9|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 464|1071|S.   29|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 465|1072|S.   17|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 466|1073|S.    6|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 467|1074|Ag.  27|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 468|1075|Ag.  16|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 469|1076|Ag.   5|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 470|1077|Jy.  25|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 471|1078|Jy.  14|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 472|1079|Jy.   4|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 473|1080|Ju.  22|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 474|1081|Ju.  11|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 475|1082|Ju.   1|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 476|1083|My.  21|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 477|1084|My.  10|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 478|1085|Ap.  29|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 479|1086|Ap.  18|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 480|1087|Ap.   8|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 481|1088|M.   27|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 482|1089|M.   16|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 483|1090|M.    6|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 484|1091|F.   23|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 485|1092|F.   12|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 486|1093|F.    1|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 487|1094|Ja.  21|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 488|1095|Ja.  11|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 489|1095|D.   31|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 490|1096|D.   19|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 491|1097|D.    9|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 492|1098|N.   28|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 493|1099|N.   17|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 494|1100|N.    6|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 495|1101|O.   26|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 496|1102|O.   15|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 497|1103|O.    5|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 498|1104|S.   23|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 499|1105|S.   13|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 500|1106|S.    2|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 501|1107|Ag.  22|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 502|1108|Ag.  11|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 503|1109|Jy.  31|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 504|1110|Jy.  20|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 505|1111|Jy.  10|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 506|1112|Ju.  28|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 507|1113|Ju.  18|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 508|1114|Ju.   7|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 509|1115|My.  27|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 510|1116|My.  16|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 511|1117|My.   5|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 512|1118|Ap.  24|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 513|1119|Ap.  14|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 514|1120|Ap.   2|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 515|1121|M.   22|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 516|1122|M.   12|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 517|1123|M.    1|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 518|1124|F.   19|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 519|1125|F.    7|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 520|1126|Ja.  27|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 521|1127|Ja.  17|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 522|1128|Ja.   6|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 523|1128|D.   25|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 524|1129|D.   15|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 525|1130|D.    4|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 526|1131|N.   23|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 527|1132|N.   12|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 528|1133|N.    1|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 529|1134|O.   22|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 530|1135|O.   11|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 531|1136|S.   29|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 532|1137|S.   19|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 533|1138|S.    8|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 534|1139|Ag.  28|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 535|1140|Ag.  17|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 536|1141|Ag.   6|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 537|1142|Jy.  27|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 538|1143|Jy.  16|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 539|1144|Jy.   4|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 540|1145|Ju.  24|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 541|1146|Ju.  13|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 542|1147|Ju.   2|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 543|1148|My.  22|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 544|1149|My.  11|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 545|1150|Ap.  30|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 546|1151|Ap.  20|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 547|1152|Ap.   8|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 548|1153|M.   29|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 549|1154|M.   18|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 550|1155|M.    7|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 551|1156|F.   25|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 552|1157|F.   13|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 553|1158|F.    2|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 554|1159|Ja.  23|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 555|1160|Ja.  12|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 556|1160|D.   31|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 557|1161|D.   21|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 558|1162|D.   10|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 559|1163|N.   30|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 560|1164|N.   18|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 561|1165|N.    7|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 562|1166|O.   28|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 563|1167|O.   17|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 564|1168|O.    5|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 565|1169|S.   25|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 566|1170|S.   14|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 567|1171|S.    4|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 568|1172|Ag.  23|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 569|1173|Ag.  12|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 570|1174|Ag.   2|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 571|1175|Jy.  22|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 572|1176|Jy.  10|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 573|1177|Ju.  30|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 574|1178|Ju.  19|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 575|1179|Ju.   8|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 576|1180|My.  28|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 577|1181|My.  17|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 578|1182|My.   7|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 579|1183|Ap.  26|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 580|1184|Ap.  14|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 581|1185|Ap.   4|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 582|1186|M.   24|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 583|1187|M.   13|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 584|1188|M.    2|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 585|1189|F.   19|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 586|1190|F.    8|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 587|1191|Ja.  29|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 588|1192|Ja.  18|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 589|1193|Ja.   7|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 590|1193|D.   27|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 591|1194|D.   16|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 592|1195|D.    6|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 593|1196|N.   24|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 594|1197|N.   13|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 595|1198|N.    3|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 596|1199|O.   23|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 597|1200|O.   12|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 598|1201|O.    1|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 599|1202|S.   20|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 600|1203|S.   10|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 601|1204|Ag.  29|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 602|1205|Ag.  18|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 603|1206|Ag.   8|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 604|1207|Jy.  28|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 605|1208|Jy.  16|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 606|1209|Jy.   6|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 607|1210|Ju.  25|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 608|1211|Ju.  15|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 609|1212|Ju.   3|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 610|1213|My.  23|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 611|1214|My.  13|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 612|1215|My.   2|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 613|1216|Ap.  20|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 614|1217|Ap.  10|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 615|1218|M.   30|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 616|1219|M.   19|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 617|1220|M.    8|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 618|1221|F.   25|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 619|1222|F.   15|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 620|1223|F.    4|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 621|1224|Ja.  24|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 622|1225|Ja.  13|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 623|1226|Ja.   2|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 624|1226|D.   22|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 625|1227|D.   12|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 626|1228|N.   30|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 627|1229|N.   20|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 628|1230|N.    9|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 629|1231|O.   29|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 630|1232|O.   18|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 631|1233|O.    7|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 632|1234|S.   26|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 633|1235|S.   16|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 634|1236|S.    4|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 635|1237|Ag.  24|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 636|1238|Ag.  14|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 637|1239|Ag.   3|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 638|1240|Jy.  23|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 639|1241|Jy.  12|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 640|1242|Jy.   1|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 641|1243|Ju.  21|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 642|1244|Ju.   9|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 643|1245|My.  29|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 644|1246|My.  19|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 645|1247|My.   8|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 646|1248|Ap.  26|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 647|1249|Ap.  16|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 648|1250|Ap.   5|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 649|1251|M.   26|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 650|1252|M.   14|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 651|1253|M.    3|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 652|1254|F.   21|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 653|1255|F.   10|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 654|1256|Ja.  30|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 655|1257|Ja.  19|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 656|1258|Ja.   8|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 657|1258|D.   29|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 658|1259|D.   18|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 659|1260|D.    6|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 660|1261|N.   26|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 661|1262|N.   15|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 662|1263|N.    4|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 663|1264|O.   24|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 664|1265|O.   13|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 665|1266|O.    2|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 666|1267|S.   22|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 667|1268|S.   10|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 668|1269|Ag.  31|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 669|1270|Ag.  20|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 670|1271|Ag.   9|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 671|1272|Jy.  29|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 672|1273|Jy.  18|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 673|1274|Jy.   7|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 674|1275|Ju.  27|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 675|1276|Ju.  15|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 676|1277|Ju.   4|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 677|1278|My.  25|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 678|1279|My.  14|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 679|1280|My.   3|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 680|1281|Ap.  22|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 681|1282|Ap.  11|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 682|1283|Ap.   1|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 683|1284|M.   20|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 684|1285|M.    9|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 685|1286|F.   27|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 686|1287|F.   16|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 687|1288|F.    6|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 688|1289|Ja.  25|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 689|1290|Ja.  14|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 690|1291|Ja.   4|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 691|1291|D.   24|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 692|1292|D.   12|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 693|1293|D.    2|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 694|1294|N.   21|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 695|1295|N.   10|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 696|1296|O.   30|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 697|1297|O.   19|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 698|1298|O.    9|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 699|1299|S.   28|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 700|1300|S.   16|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 701|1301|S.    6|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 702|1302|Ag.  26|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 703|1303|Ag.  15|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 704|1304|Ag.   4|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 705|1305|Jy.  24|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 706|1306|Jy.  13|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 707|1307|Jy.   3|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 708|1308|Ju.  21|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 709|1309|Ju.  11|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 710|1310|My.  31|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 711|1311|My.  20|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 712|1312|My.   9|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 713|1313|Ap.  28|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 714|1314|Ap.  17|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 715|1315|Ap    7|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 716|1316|M.   26|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 717|1317|M.   16|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 718|1318|M.    5|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 719|1319|F.   22|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 720|1320|F.   12|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 721|1321|Ja.  31|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 722|1322|Ja.  20|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 723|1323|Ja.  10|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 724|1323|D.   30|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 725|1324|D.   18|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 726|1325|D.    8|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 727|1326|N.   27|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 728|1327|N.   17|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 729|1328|N.    5|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 730|1329|O.   25|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 731|1330|O.   15|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 732|1331|O.    4|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 733|1332|S.   22|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 734|1333|S.   12|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 735|1334|S.    1|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 736|1335|Ag.  21|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 737|1336|Ag.  10|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 738|1337|Jy.  30|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 739|1338|Jy.  20|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 740|1339|Jy.   9|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 741|1340|Ju.  27|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 742|1341|Ju.  17|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 743|1342|Ju.   6|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 744|1343|My.  26|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 745|1344|My.  15|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 746|1345|My.   4|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 747|1346|Ap.  24|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 748|1347|Ap.  13|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 749|1348|Ap.   1|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 750|1349|M.   22|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 751|1350|M.   11|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 752|1351|F.   28|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 753|1352|F.   18|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 754|1353|F.    6|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 755|1354|Ja.  26|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 756|1355|Ja.  16|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 757|1356|Ja.   5|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 758|1356|D.   25|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 759|1357|D.   14|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 760|1358|D.    3|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 761|1359|N.   23|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 762|1360|N.   11|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 763|1361|O.   31|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 764|1362|O.   21|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 765|1363|O.   10|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 766|1364|S.   28|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 767|1365|S.   18|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 768|1366|S.    7|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 769|1367|Ag.  28|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 770|1368|Ag.  16|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 771|1369|Ag.   5|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 772|1370|Jy.  26|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 773|1371|Jy.  15|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 774|1372|Jy.   3|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 775|1373|Ju.  23|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 776|1374|Ju.  12|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 777|1375|Ju.   2|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 778|1376|My.  21|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 779|1377|My.  10|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 780|1378|Ap.  30|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 781|1379|Ap.  19|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 782|1380|Ap.   7|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 783|1381|M.   28|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 784|1382|M.   17|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 785|1383|M.    6|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 786|1384|F.   24|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 787|1385|F.   12|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 788|1386|F.    2|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 789|1387|Ja.  22|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 790|1388|Ja.  11|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 791|1388|D.   31|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 792|1389|D.   20|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 793|1390|D.    9|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 794|1391|N.   29|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 795|1392|N.   17|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 796|1393|N.    6|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 797|1394|O.   27|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 798|1395|O.   16|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 799|1396|O.    5|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 800|1397|S.   24|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 801|1398|S.   13|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 802|1399|S.    3|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 803|1400|Ag.  22|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 804|1401|Ag.  11|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 805|1402|Ag.   1|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 806|1403|Jy.  21|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 807|1404|Jy.  10|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 808|1405|Ju.  29|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 809|1406|Ju.  18|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 810|1407|Ju.   8|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 811|1408|My.  27|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 812|1409|My.  16|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 813|1410|My.   6|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 814|1411|Ap.  25|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 815|1412|Ap.  13|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 816|1413|Ap.   3|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 817|1414|M.   23|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 818|1415|M.   13|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 819|1416|M.    1|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 820|1417|F.   18|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 821|1418|F.    8|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 822|1419|Ja.  28|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 823|1420|Ja.  17|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 824|1421|Ja.   6|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 825|1421|D.   26|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 826|1422|D.   15|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 827|1423|D.    5|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 828|1424|N.   23|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 829|1425|N.   13|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 830|1426|N.    2|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 831|1427|O.   22|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 832|1428|O.   11|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 833|1429|S.   30|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 834|1430|S.   19|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 835|1431|S.    9|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 836|1432|Ag.  28|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 837|1433|Ag.  18|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 838|1434|Ag.   7|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 839|1435|Jy.  27|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 840|1436|Jy.  16|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 841|1437|Jy.   5|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 842|1438|Ju.  24|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 843|1439|Ju.  14|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 844|1440|Ju.   2|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 845|1441|My.  22|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 846|1442|My.  12|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 847|1443|My.   1|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 848|1444|Ap.  20|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 849|1445|Ap.   9|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 850|1446|M.   29|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 851|1447|M.   19|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 852|1448|M.    7|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 853|1449|F.   24|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 854|1450|F.   14|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 855|1451|F.    3|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 856|1452|Ja.  23|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 857|1453|Ja.  12|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 858|1454|Ja.   1|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 859|1454|D.   22|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 860|1455|D.   11|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 861|1456|N.   29|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 862|1457|N.   19|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 863|1458|N.    8|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 864|1459|O.   28|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 865|1460|O.   17|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 866|1461|O.    6|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 867|1462|S.   26|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 868|1463|S.   15|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 869|1464|S.    3|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 870|1465|Ag.  24|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 871|1466|Ag.  13|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 872|1467|Ag.   2|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 873|1468|Jy.  22|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 874|1469|Jy.  11|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 875|1470|Ju.  30|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 876|1471|Ju.  20|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 877|1472|Ju.   8|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 878|1473|My.  29|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 879|1474|My.  18|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 880|1475|My.   7|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 881|1476|Ap.  26|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 882|1477|Ap.  15|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 883|1478|Ap.   4|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 884|1479|M.   25|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 885|1480|M.   13|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 886|1481|M.    2|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 887|1482|F.   20|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 888|1483|F.    9|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 889|1484|Ja.  30|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 890|1485|Ja.  18|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 891|1486|Ja.   7|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 892|1486|D.   28|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 893|1487|D.   17|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 894|1488|D.    5|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 895|1489|N.   25|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 896|1490|N.   14|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 897|1491|N.    4|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 898|1492|O.   23|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 899|1493|O.   12|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 900|1494|O.    2|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 901|1495|S.   21|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 902|1496|S.    9|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 903|1497|Ag.  30|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 904|1498|Ag.  19|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 905|1499|Ag.   8|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 906|1500|Jy.  28|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 907|1501|Jy.  17|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 908|1502|Jy.   7|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 909|1503|Ju.  26|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 910|1504|Ju.  14|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 911|1505|Ju.   4|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 912|1506|My.  24|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 913|1507|My.  13|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 914|1508|My.   2|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 915|1509|Ap.  21|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 916|1510|Ap.  10|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 917|1511|M.   31|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 918|1512|M.   19|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 919|1513|M.    9|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 920|1514|F.   26|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 921|1515|F.   15|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 922|1516|F.    5|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 923|1517|Ja.  24|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 924|1518|Ja.  13|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 925|1519|Ja.   3|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 926|1519|D.   23|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 927|1520|D.   12|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 928|1521|D.    1|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 929|1522|N.   20|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 930|1523|N.   10|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 931|1524|O.   29|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 932|1525|O.   18|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 933|1526|O.    8|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 934|1527|S.   27|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 935|1528|S.   15|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 936|1529|S.    5|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 937|1530|Ag.  25|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 938|1531|Ag.  15|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 939|1532|Ag.   3|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 940|1533|Jy.  23|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 941|1534|Jy.  13|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 942|1535|Jy.   2|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 943|1536|Ju.  20|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 944|1537|Ju.  10|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 945|1538|My.  30|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 946|1539|My.  19|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 947|1540|My.   8|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 948|1541|Ap.  27|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 949|1542|Ap.  17|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 950|1543|Ap.   6|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 951|1544|M.   25|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 952|1545|M.   15|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 953|1546|M.    4|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 954|1547|F.   21|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 955|1548|F.   11|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 956|1549|Ja.  30|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 957|1550|Ja.  20|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 958|1551|Ja.   9|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 959|1551|D.   29|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 960|1552|D.   18|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 961|1553|D.    7|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 962|1554|N.   26|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 963|1555|N.   16|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 964|1556|N.    4|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 965|1557|O.   24|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 966|1558|O.   14|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 967|1559|O.    3|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 968|1560|S.   22|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 969|1561|S.   11|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 970|1562|Ag.  31|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 971|1563|Ag.  21|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 972|1564|Ag.   9|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 973|1565|Jy.  29|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 974|1566|Jy.  19|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 975|1567|Jy.   8|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 976|1568|Ju.  26|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 977|1569|Ju.  16|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 978|1570|Ju.   5|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 979|1571|My.  26|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 980|1572|My.  14|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 981|1573|My.   3|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 982|1574|Ap.  23|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 983|1575|Ap.  12|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 984|1576|M.   31|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 985|1577|M.   21|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 986|1578|M.   10|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 987|1579|F.   28|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 988|1580|F.   17|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 989|1581|F.    5|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 990|1582|Ja.  26|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 991|1583|Ja. 25*|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 992|1584|Ja.  14|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 993|1585|Ja.   3|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 994|1585|D.   23|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 995|1586|D.   12|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 996|1587|D.    2|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 997|1588|N.   20|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 998|1589|N.   10|
+  |    |    |       |
+  | 999|1590|O.   30|
+  |    |    |       |
+  |1000|1591|O.   19|
+  +----+----+-------+
+
+* Here the change to the Gregorian New Style occurs.
+
+
+
+
+                                 INDEX
+
+             [Cross references are within square brackets.]
+
+
+          A.
+
+  ‘Abbās, Fāṭimid vezīr, 158.
+
+  ‘Abbāsids [Caliphs].
+
+  ‘Abdallāh ibn Meymūn, Shī‘y, 114.
+
+  ‘Abdallāh ibn Ṭāhir, governor, 43, 67.
+
+  ‘Abdallāh ibn ez-Zubeyr, 35.
+
+  ‘Abd-el-‘Azīz, governor, 61.
+
+  ‘Abd-el-Ḥakam, Ibn, historian, 77, 185.
+
+  ‘Abd-el-Laṭīf, geographer, 191, 194.
+
+  ‘Abd-er-Raḥmān Kiaḥya, 298-301.
+
+  ‘Ab’dīn, 34, 299.
+
+  ‘Abid-esh-shera, 145.
+
+  Abī-th-Thanā, Funduḳ, 111.
+
+  Abū-‘Aly, vezīr, 154, 157.
+
+  Abū-Bekr [Muzhir].
+
+  Abū-dh-Dhahab [Moḥammad Bey].
+
+  Abū-l-Fidā, 220.
+
+  Abū-l-‘Ola, mosque, 260.
+
+  Abū-Sarga, church, 56.
+
+  Abū-s-Seyfeyn, church, 121.
+
+  Abū-s-Su‘ūd, mosque, 258.
+
+  Abulusteyn, 203.
+
+  Abyssinians’ lake (Birkat-el-Ḥabash), 172.
+
+  Academies, 97 [Medresa, Mosque].
+
+  Acre [‘Akkā].
+
+  Adhana, 86.
+
+  ‘Āḍid, el-, Fāṭimid caliph, 123, 169, 170, 181.
+
+  ‘Ādil, el-, Seyf-ed-dīn, Ayyūbid sultan, 176, 193-5, 263.
+
+  ‘Ādil, el-, II., casket, 272.
+
+  Afḍal, el-, Fāṭimid vezīr, 80, 154, 157.
+
+  Ageminius, 280.
+
+  Aghlabids of Tunis, 116.
+
+  Aḥmad [Ṭūlūn].
+
+  Aḥmad Pasha, 298.
+
+  Akbar, emperor, 142.
+
+  Aḳbughāwīya, medresa, 224, 299.
+
+  Akhdar, el-, mosque [Fakahany].
+
+  Akhōr, emīr, master of the horse, [Ḳāny Bek].
+
+  ‘Akkā (Acre), 149, 172, 205, 223.
+
+  Aḳmar, mosque, 157, 160, 227.
+
+  Aḳsunḳur, Mamlūk emīr, mosque, 223, 227, 245, 298.
+
+  Aḳūsh, Mamlūk emīr, mosque, 259.
+
+  Alexandria, 39, 40, 67, 117, 169, 180, 181, 195, 207, 263.
+
+  Alfonso, of Seville, 206.
+
+  Algibughā, Mamlūk emīr, mosque, 259.
+
+  ‘Alids, 114 _ff._
+
+  Almās, Mamlūk emīr, mosque, 224, 289.
+
+  Almelik, Mamlūk emīr, mosque, 224, 259.
+
+  Almohades, 180.
+
+  ‘Aly, caliph, 19, 113, 119.
+
+  ‘Aly Bey, 298-301.
+
+  ‘Aly el-Gelfy, ketkhudā, 290.
+
+  Amalric, k. of Jerusalem, 110, 130, 167-9.
+
+  Ambassadors, 125, 139-2, 204.
+
+  Amber, 94.
+
+  Amīr [Emīr].
+
+  Āmir, el-, Fāṭimid caliph, 97, 123, 157, 160, 163.
+
+  Amnis Trajanus, 40.
+
+  ‘Amr ibn el-‘Āṣy, conqueror of Egypt, 34-43, 59, 61; mosque, 33,
+  42-48, 66, 69, 89, 94, 97, 104, 107, 111, 142, 185, 188.
+
+  “Antar’s stable,” 41.
+
+  Anthropophagy, 148, 195.
+
+  Antioch, 86, 205.
+
+  Anwar, el-, mosque (el-Ḥākim), 137.
+
+  Aqueducts, 76, 77, 223, 253.
+
+  Arab conquest, 34 _ff._; tribes, 42, 60, 66, 67, 88.
+
+  Arabia, 144.
+
+  Arabian Nights [Thousand and One Nights].
+
+  Arch, keelform or Persian, 124, 138; pointed, 8, 85.
+
+  Archery, 258.
+
+  Architects, Christian, 78, 153.
+
+  Architecture—
+
+    Byzantine, 54, 83, 85, 153.
+
+    Franco-Syrian, 153, 175, 180.
+
+    Saracenic (Arab), 4 [Medresa, Mosque, Palace].
+
+    Turkish (Ottoman), 298-301.
+
+  Arḍ-eṭ-Ṭabbāla, 259.
+
+  Arghūn el-Ismā‘īly, Mamlūk emīr, mosque, 224, 227.
+
+  Ark in Coptic church, 55.
+
+  Armenians, 121, 122, 149-157, 216.
+
+  Armour, 94, 125; horse-, 134, 145.
+
+  Army, 34, 37, 42, 60, 76, 88, 89, 91, 92, 94, 109, 117, 139, 143, 144,
+  146, 147, 149, 158, 173, 197, 198, 203-5, 207, 209, 210, 235, 241,
+  288.
+
+  Arsūf, 205.
+
+  Artīn Pasha, Ya‘ḳūb, 304.
+
+  Arts, Saracenic, 271 _ff._
+
+  Ascalon, 167.
+
+  Ashraf, el- [Bars-Bey, Sha‘bān].
+
+  Ashrafīya mosque, 233, 250.
+
+  Ashrafy mamlūks, 210.
+
+  ‘Ashūra (10th Moḥarram), 22, 23.
+
+  ‘Aṣim, Ibn el-, poet, 100.
+
+  ‘Askar, el-, official faubourg, 32, 75, 89, 91; mosque, 65.
+
+  ‘Aṣmat-ed-dīn [Sheger-ed-durr].
+
+  Assassins (Ismā‘īlīs), 116, 137, 205.
+
+  Astrology, 118, 142.
+
+  Astronomy, 296.
+
+  Asunbughā, Mamlūk emīr, mosque, 311.
+
+  Aswān, 215.
+
+  Asyūṭy, el, mosque, 259.
+
+  Aybek, Mamlūk sultan, 201, 202.
+
+  Aydemir el-Khaṭīry, 259.
+
+  ‘Aydhāb, port on Red Sea, 205, 263.
+
+  ‘Ayn-eṣ-Ṣīra, 85, 282.
+
+  ‘Ayny, el-, historian, 238.
+
+  Ayyūb [Ṣāliḥ].
+
+  Ayyūbid dynasty, 196, 170-201.
+
+  Azab troops, 288-291.
+
+  ‘Azab [Bāb].
+
+  Azhar, el-, university mosque, 123-125, 163, 188, 245, 253, 296, 297,
+  299.
+
+  ‘Azīz, el-, Fāṭimid caliph, 121, 122, 126, 127, 134, 137.
+
+  ‘Azīz, Ibn, painter, 134.
+
+  Azzimina, 280.
+
+          B.
+
+  Bāb (gate)—
+
+    Bāb-el-‘Azab, 291.
+
+    B.-el-Baḥr or el-Ḥadīd, 107, 175, 258, 260.
+
+    B.-el-Barḳīya or el-Ghureyyib, 126, 129, 266, 299.
+
+    B.-el-Farag, 129.
+
+    B.-el-Futūḥ, 126, 129, 145, 150-154, 188, 299.
+
+    B.-el-Gedīd, 129.
+
+    B.-el-Ḳantara, 129, 145, 166, 188, 258.
+
+    B.-el-Ḳarāfa, 299.
+
+    B.-el-Kharḳ, 293.
+
+    B.-el-Khawkha, 129.
+
+    B.-el-Lūk, 107, 217, 258.
+
+    B.-el-Maḥrūḳ, 129.
+
+    B.-el-Mudarrag, 176.
+
+    B.-en-Naṣr, 129, 145, 150-154, 188, 219, 254, 259.
+
+    B.-Sa‘āda, 129, 188.
+
+    B.-el-Wezīr, 174, 175.
+
+    B.-Zuweyla (Zawīla), 10, 80, 126, 129, 145, 150-154, 158, 159, 168,
+    181, 188, 203, 211, 218, 219, 238, 254, 269, 270.
+
+  Babylon, fortress, 34, 37, 39, 40, 41, 48-57, 63, 107, 218.
+
+  Baghdād, 65, 72, 91, 92, 104, 119, 144, 148, 158, 164, 190, 201, 261.
+
+  Baḥr [Bāb].
+
+  Bahrām, Fāṭimid vezīr, 154.
+
+  Baḥry (Turkish) Mamlūks, 198-232.
+
+  Baḳār, el-, Ḳāḍy, 99.
+
+  Bakbak, 72.
+
+  Bakhtary, el-, 100.
+
+  Balsam, 50.
+
+  Banquets, 101, 102.
+
+  Baraka, khān of the Golden Horde, 206.
+
+  Barbara, St, church, 56.
+
+  Bargawān, Fāṭimid emīr, 139; quarter, 128, 145.
+
+  Barḳīya quarter, 128; troops, 168.
+
+  Barḳīya [Bāb].
+
+  Barḳūḳ, Mamlūk sultan, 235, 238, 266; medresa, 241, 250; tomb-mosque,
+  241, 245.
+
+  Bars-Bey, el-Ashraf, Mamlūk sultan, 237, 238; mosque, 238, 250.
+
+  Basil, emperor, 134.
+
+  Bāsiṭy, el-, mosque, 259.
+
+  Baṣra, el-, painters from, 133.
+
+  Bastions, 153, 179.
+
+  Bath (ḥammām), 17, 66, 148, 184.
+
+  Bath, Night of the (Leylat-el-Ghiṭās), 95.
+
+  Bāṭilīya quarter, 145.
+
+  Baṭūṭa, Ibn, 215, 224.
+
+  Bāzār (market, sūḳ), 24.
+
+  Beacon, Castle of the [Babylon].
+
+  Bedawīs, 146, 157, 215
+
+  Bedr-el-Gemāly, Fāṭimid vezīr, 80, 149-154, 157, 164, 174, 175.
+
+  Bedrooms, 17.
+
+  Beer, 140, 207.
+
+  Belvedere (manẓara), 90.
+
+  Benāt, Gāmi‘-el-, 311.
+
+  Benjamin of Tudela, 48, 146.
+
+  Berbers, 116, 139, 143, 146, 147, 148.
+
+  Berchem, M. van, 86, 138, 139, 153, 175, 253, 296.
+
+  Bernard, bishop of Palermo, 196.
+
+  Bersīm, 3.
+
+  Beshtāk, Mamlūk emīr, palace, 270; mosque, 224.
+
+  Beybars, eẓ-Ẓāhir, Mamlūk sultan, 198, 203, 205-9, 218, 273; mosque,
+  207, 212, 218.
+
+  Beybars el-Gashnekīr (taster), Mamlūk sultan, 128, 137, 138, 144, 204,
+  211; convent, 128.
+
+  Beyn-el-Ḳaṣreyn (square “between the two palaces”), 126, 128, 139,
+  157, 160, 188, 196, 212, 220, 273.
+
+  Beyn-es-Sūreyn (street “between the two walls”), 126.
+
+  Beysary, Mamlūk emīr, 273, 274.
+
+  Beyt-el-Ḳāḍy, chief judge’s court, 271.
+
+  Bilāl, khān of, 269.
+
+  Bilbeys, 34, 40, 110, 168, 169.
+
+  Bīra, el-, 203.
+
+  Birkat-el-Fīl (elephant’s lake), 288.
+
+  Birkat-el-Ḥabash (Abyssinians’ lake), 172.
+
+  Black robes, 118; troops [Sūdānīs].
+
+  Boats, 95, 109, 146.
+
+  Brass work [Metal work].
+
+  Brick, used for piers, 79.
+
+  Bridal procession, 3.
+
+  Bridges, 65, 96, 109.
+
+  Brienne, John de, 195.
+
+  Bronze [Metal work].
+
+  Buḳalamūn, 108.
+
+  Būlāḳ, 237, 257-260, 263, 299, 301.
+
+  Burdeyny, el-, mosque, 298.
+
+  Burg-eẓ-Ẓafar, 175.
+
+  Burgy (Circassian) Mamlūks, 228, 235-254.
+
+  Burko‘, 2.
+
+  Bustān, 271 [Gardens].
+
+  Butler, A. J., 37, 41, 54, 123.
+
+  Byzantine architecture, 54, 83, 85, 153.
+
+  Byzantine empire [Constantinople, Romans].
+
+          C.
+
+  Cæsaræa, 203, 237;—205.
+
+  Cage for caliph, 144.
+
+  Cairo proper [Ḳāhira].
+
+  Caliphs [‘Aly, ‘Omar].
+
+    „  ‘Abbāsid, 64-72, 86, 91, 94, 118, 144, 164, 170, 201, 206.
+
+    „  Fāṭimid, 92, 116-171; graves, 266.
+
+    „  Omayyad, 59.
+
+    „  Tombs of the, 241, 242.
+
+  Cameron, D. A., 264, 265.
+
+  Canals (Khalīg), 40, 132, 145, 146, 207, 258, 260.
+
+  Cantonments [‘Askar].
+
+  Carmathians (Ḳarmaṭis), 116, 117.
+
+  Carpet, Holy (Kiswa), 22.
+
+  Carter, O. B., 260.
+
+  Carving [Wood-carving].
+
+  Castle of the Beacon [Babylon].
+
+  Castle of the Mountain [Citadel].
+
+  Castle of the Ram, 90, 121.
+
+  Catholicos, 39.
+
+  Ceilings, painted, 281, 282.
+
+  Cemetery, eastern, 241, 242.
+
+    „  southern [Ḳarāfa].
+
+  Censers, 138, 273.
+
+  Charles of Anjou, 206.
+
+  Chaul, naval engagement off, 254.
+
+  Cherkes Bey, 289.
+
+  Chess, 140.
+
+  Chibouk [Shibūk].
+
+  Christians [Architects, Armenians, Copts].
+
+  Circassian Mamlūks, 228, 235-254.
+
+  Citadel, 27, 65, 175-180, 196, 223, 232, 237, 242, 253, 288, 290.
+
+  Cloisters in mosques, 47, 79.
+
+  Coins, 59, 119, 201, 301.
+
+  Colleges, 111 [Medresa].
+
+  Commerce, 262-270 [Trade].
+
+  Commission for the Preservation of the Monuments of Arab Art, 160,
+  303-314.
+
+  Conquest, Mosque of, 42.
+
+  Constantinople, 173, 215, 298.
+
+  Convents, 118, 123, 128, 259.
+
+  Coppersmiths’ bāzār [Sūḳ-en-Naḥḥāsīn].
+
+  Copts, 38, 39, 44, 61-64, 68, 109, 120-123, 157; churches, 53-57, 61;
+  art, 55, 62, 85; persecutions, 61-3, 69, 122, 141, 183, 216-220.
+
+  Corbett, E. K., 43.
+
+  Corvée labour, 179.
+
+  Court, Mamlūk, 209.
+
+    „  of house, 13.
+
+  Cromer, Earl, 303, 313, 314.
+
+  “Crown of Mosques,” 42.
+
+  Crusades, 110, 111, 137, 164-173, 176, 181, 195, 196, 198, 201, 205,
+  217, 227.
+
+  Cumhdach, 56.
+
+  Cyprus, 205, 237.
+
+  Cyrus, patriarch of Alexandria, 37, 38.
+
+          D.
+
+  Dā‘īs, Shī‘a missionaries, 115.
+
+  Dam of canal, cutting the, 132, 145, 146.
+
+  Damascus, 59, 65, 88, 93, 103, 108, 149, 164-173, 204, 236; tiles, 56,
+  278, 298.
+
+  Damietta, 93.
+
+  Dār (mansion, hall), 271.
+
+  Dār-el-‘Adl (Hall of Justice), 207.
+
+  Dār-el-Ḥadīth (Hall of Tradition), 196.
+
+  Dār-el-‘Ilm (Hall of Science), 142, 160.
+
+  Dār-el-Ma’mūn (Ma’mūn’s palace), 159, 160, 185.
+
+  Dār-el-Wezīr (Palace of Vezīrs), 128, 160, 171; also a khān at Miṣr,
+  110.
+
+  Darb (street), 271.
+
+  Darmūn, ed-, gate of, 76.
+
+  Defterdār, palace, 289.
+
+  Dehlek, Red Sea port, 263.
+
+  Deylemīs, quarter, 128, 145, 146, 218.
+
+  Dhahab, Abū-dh- [Moḥammad Bey].
+
+  Dikka (tribune of mosque), 80.
+
+  Dīnār (half-guinea), 59.
+
+  Diodorus, 50.
+
+  Ḍirghām, eḍ-, Fāṭimid vezīr, 167, 168.
+
+  Disert Ulidh, 62.
+
+  Divorce, 19, 99.
+
+  Docks, 96, 132.
+
+  Dome, in mosques, 83-85, 228; in Coptic churches, 54.
+
+  Dome of the Air (Ḳubbat-el-Ḥawā), 65, 68, 75.
+
+  Dominicans, 217.
+
+  Donkeys, 109.
+
+  Druzes, 142, 143.
+
+  Dukas, 92, 99.
+
+          E.
+
+  Earthquakes, 92, 104, 195.
+
+  “Easterns, the,” 146.
+
+  Edessa, architects from, 153.
+
+  Embāba, battles at, 43.
+
+  Emesa, battles at, 204.
+
+  Emīr Akhōr, master of the horse, [Ḳāny Bek].
+
+  Emīrate or Government House, 65, 75, 94.
+
+  Emīrs, Mamlūk, 209 _ff._, 224, 235 _ff._
+
+  Epiphany tank, 54.
+
+  Eudoxus, 49.
+
+  Euphrates, 75, 205, 215, 237.
+
+  Europe, trade with, 91, 263-5.
+
+  Eutychius, 96.
+
+  Evetts, B.T.A., 122, 123.
+
+  Ezbek ibn Tutush, mosque, 295.
+
+  Ezbek el-Yūsufy, mosque, 249, 250.
+
+  Ezbekīya, 150, 260, 288, 291, 292, 295, 299.
+
+          F.
+
+  Fāḍil, el-, Ḳāḍy, 171, 191.
+
+  Faïence, 298 [Tiles].
+
+  Fā’iz, el-, Fāṭimid caliph, 158.
+
+  Fakahāny, el-, mosque, 159, 298.
+
+  Falconry, 215, 273.
+
+  Famine, 117, 143, 148, 194, 195, 207.
+
+  Farag, Mamlūk sultan, 241.
+
+  Farag [Bāb].
+
+  Far‘ūn, Maṣṭaba [Pharaoh].
+
+  Fasts, 44, 57, 94.
+
+  Fāṭima, 113, 116, 119.
+
+  Fāṭimids [Caliphs].
+
+  Felek, Ibn-el-, mosque, 259.
+
+  Ferghāna, architect from, 85.
+
+  Feudal system in East, 197, 198.
+
+  Festivals and festivities, 22-26, 94, 101-103, 128, 146, 204.
+
+  Fieffees or grantees, 72, 197.
+
+  Fiḳārīs, 289.
+
+  Fīl (elephant) [Birkat Gezīrat].
+
+  Fires, 104, 110, 218.
+
+  Firro, Ibn, 191.
+
+  Flabellum, 55.
+
+  Fleet, 72, 93, 116, 132, 134, 207, 254.
+
+  Flowers, 87, 108; market, 270.
+
+  Forgers, 297.
+
+  Fortress, 175 [Citadel].
+
+  Fortress, Roman [Babylon].
+
+  Fountain [Sebīl].
+
+  Franz Pasha, 304.
+
+  Frederick II., 195, 196, 280.
+
+  Fruits, 108, 270.
+
+  Fulcher, Geoffrey, 130-132.
+
+  Fum-el-Khalīg [Dam].
+
+  Funduḳ (hostelry), 111, 263-271.
+
+  Furāt, Ibn-el-, poet, 99.
+
+  Fusṭāṭ (Miṣr, Maṣr), 32, 36, 40-48, 50, 59-61, 64-69, 76, 86, 89,
+  91-112, 132, 134, 148, 174, 185, 186, 279.
+
+  Futūḥ [Bāb].
+
+          G.
+
+  Ga‘bary, el-, mosque, 259.
+
+  Gabarṭy, el-, historian, 44, 289, 295, 296.
+
+  Gāmi‘ (congregational mosque), 123, 187.
+
+  Gardens, 20, 57, 87, 89, 93, 96, 109, 145.
+
+  Garkas el-Khalīly, 266.
+
+  Garstin, Sir W. E., 304.
+
+  Gāshnekīr (taster) [Beybars II].
+
+  Gate [Bāb]—of Succour [Bāb-en-Naṣr], of Conquests [Bāb-el-Futūḥ], of
+  the Bridge [Bāb-el-Ḳanṭara], of Iron [Bāb-el-Ḥadīd], of el-Ḳaṭāi‘, 76.
+
+  Gawdarīya quarter, 128, 145.
+
+  Gawhar, Fāṭimid general, 117-127, 132, 141.
+
+  Gedīd [Bāb].
+
+  Gelfy, el-, 290.
+
+  Gemālīya, 128.
+
+  George, church of St, 56.
+
+  Gezīra, el- (island of Būlāḳ), 107.
+
+  Gezīrat-el-Fīl (island of the elephant), 257, 258.
+
+  Ghāzy, Ibn, mosque, 258.
+
+  Ghurāb, Ibn, mosque, 259.
+
+  Ghureyyib [Bāb].
+
+  Ghūrīya street, 6, 159, 253.
+
+  Ghūry, el-, Ḳānṣūh, Mamlūk sultan, 253-4, 264; mosques, 253.
+
+  Gidda, 263.
+
+  Giorgio Ghisi, Azzimina, 280.
+
+  Gīza, el-, 41, 92, 96, 109, 117, 123, 176.
+
+  Gīza, el-, dike of, 180.
+
+  Glass, 108, 232, 272, 286.
+
+  Golden Horde, 205, 206, 215, 223.
+
+  Golden House, 61;—87.
+
+  Governors under caliphs, 59-72.
+
+  Granaries, 48, 146.
+
+  Greeks, 49, 75, 236, 238, 241.
+
+    „  quarters of the, 128, 150.
+
+  Grey mosque (el-Aḳmar), 157, 158.
+
+  Gubeyr, Ibn, 111, 171, 176-187.
+
+  Guyūshy, el-, mosque, 139.
+
+  Gypsum, decoration in, 79, 85.
+
+          H.
+
+  Ḥadīd [Bāb].
+
+  Ḥāfiẓ, el-, Fāṭimid caliph, 122.
+
+  Ḥagg, Emīr-el-, 290.
+
+  Haggarīn, el-, 129.
+
+  Hair, appeal by, 158, 169.
+
+  Ḥakar (close), 271.
+
+  Ḥākim, el-, Fāṭimid caliph, 122, 137, 139-143; mosque, 107, 126,
+  137-139, 160, 163, 169, 188, 245, 282.
+
+  Hall of Columns, 223.
+
+    „  of Justice, 207.
+
+    „  of the Ḳāḍy, 271.
+
+    „  of el-Ma’mūn, 159, 160, 185.
+
+    „  of Science, 142, 160.
+
+    „  of Tradition, 196.
+
+    „  of the Vezīrs, 128, 171.
+
+    „  of Yūsuf, 179, 223.
+
+  Ḥamāh, 204, 220.
+
+  Ḥammām [Bath].
+
+  Ḥamrā (“red” place), 42, 65, 217.
+
+  Ḥamzāwy khān (cloth-market), 266.
+
+  Ḥanafīs, 97, 301.
+
+  Ḥanbalīs, 97.
+
+  Ḥāra (quarter), 128, 271.
+
+  Ḥarbaweyh, Ibn, 93.
+
+  Ḥarīm, 17-21.
+
+  Hārūn-er-Rashīd, ‘Abbāsid caliph, 66, 67, 147, 261.
+
+  Ḥasan, Mamlūk sultan, mosque of, 190, 228-235, 237, 245, 284, 306,
+  307.
+
+  Ḥasaneyn, mosque and festival, 23-26, 128, 181-183, 185.
+
+  Hawdag, 97, 157.
+
+  Ḥawkal, Ibn, geographer, 104.
+
+  Hay, Robert, 259, 260.
+
+  Heliopolis (On), 35, 37, 49, 118, 150, 254.
+
+  Helwān, 61.
+
+  Heraclius, emperor, 37.
+
+  Herz Bey, Max, 138, 160, 231, 238, 250, 282, 305 _ff._
+
+  Ḥigāz, el-, 104, 204.
+
+  Ḥigāzīya, Ṭaṭar el-, mosque, 224.
+
+  Historians, 286.
+
+  Holy family, 49, 56.
+
+  Holy War, 172, 173, 205, 216.
+
+  Horse-armour, 134, 145.
+
+  Horse, statue, 94.
+
+  Ḥoseyn, the martyr, 23, 114, 147, 181-183, 185; festival, 23-26.
+
+  Ḥoseyn, Mamlūk emīr, mosque, 224.
+
+  Ḥoseynīya quarter, 257, 259, 299.
+
+  Houses, 9-17; 109, 145, 290, 292, 308.
+
+  Household of Mamlūk sultan, 209.
+
+  Hugh of Cæsarea, 130-132.
+
+  Hūlāgū, Mongol of Persia, 203.
+
+  Humphrey of Toron, 193.
+
+          I.
+
+  Ibn. _See_ under second name.
+
+  Ibrāhīm Aga, 227, 298.
+
+  Iḥrām, 170.
+
+  Ikhshīd, el- Moḥammad, 93-100.
+
+  Illuminations, 23, 24, 95, 101.
+
+  Imām (preacher or precentor), 170, 171, 297.
+
+  Imām, Shī‘a doctrine of the, 114-116, 154.
+
+  Incarnation, 114-116, 142, 143.
+
+  Incrustation [Metalwork].
+
+  Indian trade, 91, 211, 254, 263-5.
+
+  Industries, 271 _ff._
+
+  Inlaying, 272 _ff._
+
+  Inscriptions, 80, 85, 124, 138, 154, 160, 163, 245, 246.
+
+  Investiture, 94, 206.
+
+  Irish art, 54-56, 62.
+
+  Irrigation, 196, 207, 253.
+
+  Ismā‘īlīs (Shī‘a), 116, 157, 205.
+
+  Ismā‘īlīya canal, 258.
+
+  Ismā‘īly [Arghūn].
+
+  Italy, relations with, 263, 280 [Venice].
+
+  Ivory carving, 284.
+
+          J.
+
+  Jacobites, 38.
+
+  Jaffa, 172, 205.
+
+  James of Aragon, 206.
+
+  James of Lusignan, 237.
+
+  Janizaries, 288.
+
+  Jerusalem, 167, 172, 193, 196, 205.
+
+  Jews, 44, 50, 86, 120, 121, 122.
+
+  Jews’ work, 280.
+
+  John de Brienne, 195.
+
+  John the Monk, 153.
+
+  John of Nikiu, 34, 35.
+
+  Joseph’s granaries, 48, 146.
+
+  Joseph’s Hall, 179, 223.
+
+  Joseph’s Well, 179.
+
+          K.
+
+  Ka‘a, 17.
+
+  Ka‘ba, 132, 150.
+
+  Ḳāḍy, 33, 69.
+
+  Kāfūr, Ikhshīdid vezīr, 100-104.
+
+  Kāfūr, Garden of, 93, 104, 118, 126, 128, 139, 188.
+
+  Kagmās, Mamlūk emīr, mosque, 250, 311.
+
+  Ḳāhira, el- (Cairo proper), 118 _ff._
+
+  Ḳā’it-Bey, el-Ashraf, Mamlūk sultan, 238, 241-250; medallion, 246;
+  mosques, 242-249, 284, 285; pulpits, 245; palace, 270; wekālas, 246,
+  249, 266.
+
+  Ḳal‘at-el-Gebel (Castle of the Hill) [Citadel].
+
+  Ḳal‘at-el-Kebsh (Castle of the Ram), 90, 121.
+
+  Ḳalā’ūn, el-Manṣūr, Mamlūk sultan, 203, 204, 211, 212, 269, 273, 278;
+  Māristān, 126, 300; minaret, 139; mosques, 212, 245, 283, 285.
+
+  Ḳalendarīya, el-, mosque, 259.
+
+  Kāmil, el-, Ayyūbid sultan, 179, 195, 196, 216; medresa Kāmilīya, 196.
+
+  Ḳanāṭīr-el-Gīza, 180.
+
+  Ḳanṭara [Bāb].
+
+  Ḳāny Bek, emīr akhōr (master of the horse), 250.
+
+  Ḳarāfa, southern cemetery, 184, 185, 227; mosque of, 133, 134 [Bāb].
+
+  Ḳarāḳūsh, vezīr of Saladin, 176, 179; khān, 270.
+
+  Ḳarāḳūsh (Punch), 25, 176.
+
+  Ḳarmaṭīs [Carmathians].
+
+  Ḳārūn, pool of, 104.
+
+  Ḳāsimīs, 289.
+
+  Ḳaṣr (palace), 289.
+
+  Ḳaṣr-el-‘Ayny, 107.
+
+  Ḳaṣr-ed-Dubāra, 107.
+
+  Ḳaṣr-esh-Shawk, 145.
+
+  Ḳaṣr-esh-Shema‘, 41 [Babylon].
+
+  Ḳaṣr-Yūsuf (Joseph’s Hall), 179, 223.
+
+  Ḳaṣreyn [Beyn-el-Ḳaṣreyn].
+
+  Ḳaṭāi‘, el-, Ṭūlūnid faubourg, 33, 75, 76, 89, 107.
+
+  Ḳayrawān, 116, 117.
+
+  Ḳayṣarīya (great market), 266, 271.
+
+  Keelform arch, 124, 138.
+
+  Kells, Book of, 55.
+
+  Kenna, Ibn, monk, 157.
+
+  Kerbelā, 114, 119.
+
+  Ketkhudā (kiaḥyā, kikhyā), 290, 298, 299.
+
+  Kettāmy, el-, painter, 134.
+
+  Keymakhty, el-, mosque, 259.
+
+  Khabushāny, el-, 184.
+
+  Khalangy, el-, 91.
+
+  Khalāṭy, el-, 94.
+
+  Khalīg [Canal].
+
+  Khalīl, el-Ashraf, Mamlūk sultan, 210, 211, 223; ‘Akka gate.
+
+  Khalīly, Garkas el-, 266 [Khān].
+
+  Khān (inn), 109, 265-271.
+
+  Khān el-Khalīly, 24, 126, 128, 210, 266.
+
+  Khāriga, 19.
+
+  Kharḳ [Bāb].
+
+  Khaṭīb (preacher), 170, 171, 297.
+
+  Khaṭīry, el-, Aydemir, mosque, 258.
+
+  Khaṭma (recital of Ḳor’ān), 22, 25.
+
+  Khawkha, 271 [Bāb].
+
+  Kheyr Bek, 254; mosque, 250.
+
+  Khilāṭy, el-, mosque, 259.
+
+  Khumāraweyh ibn Aḥmad ibn Ṭūlūn, 87-89, 92.
+
+  Khūshḳadam, Mamlūk sultan, 236.
+
+  Khuṭba (bidding-prayer, sermon), 170, 171.
+
+  Khuṭṭ (district), 271.
+
+  Kiaḥyā (Kikhya), 290 [‘Abd-er-Raḥmān, ‘Othmān, Ruḍwān].
+
+  Ḳibla (point towards Mekka), 78, 80.
+
+  Kieman, Casr, 41.
+
+  Killis, Ibn, Fāṭimid vezīr, 137.
+
+  Kindy, el-, historian, 100.
+
+  King, title of Fāṭimid vezīrs, 159.
+
+  Kiosks, 95, 109, 291.
+
+  Kipchak, 202, 205.
+
+  Kiswa (holy carpet), 22.
+
+  Kitāma, 146; quarter, 128.
+
+  Kléber, general, 49.
+
+  Knighthood conferred on Muslims, 193.
+
+  Ḳor’ān, 67-69, 88, 97, 107, 149, 185, 212, 232, 246.
+
+  Ḳubbat-el-Ḥawā [Dome of the air].
+
+  Ḳubbat-en-Naṣr, 223.
+
+  Kufic [Inscriptions].
+
+  Kufīya, 2.
+
+  Ḳulla, 11.
+
+  Kumiz, 207.
+
+  Ḳuseyr, el-, convent, 219.
+
+  Ḳuseyr, Red Sea port, 263.
+
+  Ḳūṣūn, Mamlūk emīr, 197, 216, 235, 291; mosque, 224, 283, 296; wekāla,
+  270.
+
+  Ḳuṭb [Mutawelly].
+
+  Ḳuṭuz, Mamlūk sultan, 203, 207.
+
+          L.
+
+  Labour, forced, 179.
+
+  Lāgīn, Mamlūk sultan, 211; his restoration of mosque of Ibn-Ṭūlūn, 80,
+  83, 283, 285.
+
+  Lamps, 108; enamelled glass, 232, 272.
+
+  Lamps, Street of, at Miṣr, 108, 111.
+
+  Lane, E. W., 259, 266.
+
+  Larenda, 237.
+
+  Lattice [Meshrebīya].
+
+  Lectern, 56.
+
+  Le Strange, Guy, 111, 171.
+
+  Leylet-el-Ghiṭās, 95.
+
+  Libraries, 148, 171, 292, 295.
+
+  Lions’ Bridges, 42, 217.
+
+  Literature, 95, 98-100, 103, 120, 124, 295, 296.
+
+  Līwān (sanctuary, S.-E. end of mosque), 80.
+
+  Lock, 12.
+
+  Louis IX., crusade of, 198, 201, 217.
+
+  Lūḳ [Bāb].
+
+  Lunatics, 186, 300.
+
+          M.
+
+  Macer [Miṣr].
+
+  Mādarā’y, el-, treasurer, 92, 93.
+
+  Maghraby, Ibn-el-, mosque, 259.
+
+  Mahdy, el-, doctrine of, 115, 116, 154, 157.
+
+  Maḥmal, 22.
+
+  Maḥmūd el-Kurdy, 280.
+
+  Maḥmūdīya canal, 260.
+
+  Maḥmūdīya mosque, 289.
+
+  Maḥrūḳ [Bāb].
+
+  Maḥrūsa, el-, 125.
+
+  Maidens’ convent, 217.
+
+  Maḳrīzy, el-, topographer, 41 et passim.
+
+  Maḳs, el-, port of Cairo, 96, 132, 174, 175; mosques, 141, 189, 260.
+
+  Maḳṣūra (royal pew), 223.
+
+  Mālikīs (orthodox school of theology), 97, 185, 292.
+
+  Mamā’y, palace of Mamlūk emīr, 270.
+
+  Mamlūks, 197-301.
+
+  Ma’mūn, el-, ‘Abbāsid caliph, 68.
+
+  Ma’mūn, el-, Fāṭimid vezīr [Dār].
+
+  Mandara (manẓara, guest-room), 14.
+
+  Manfred, 206.
+
+  Mangak, Mamlūk emīr, mosque, 224.
+
+  Manṣūra, el-, battle, 198, 208.
+
+  Manṣūrīya, el-, quarter of Sūdānīs, 181.
+
+  Manṣūrīya medresa (Ḳalā’ūn), 83.
+
+  Manẓara (belvedere), 90, 271.
+
+  Marble mosaic, 246.
+
+  Marg-Dābiḳ, battle, 254.
+
+  Marg-es-Suffar, battle, 204.
+
+  Māridāny, el-, Mamlūk emīr, mosque, 224, 283-285, 314.
+
+  Māristāns, 126, 185, 186, 212, 224, 238, 300.
+
+  Marshūshy, el-, ‘Aly, 242.
+
+  Martyrs, Place of, 185.
+
+  Marwān, last Omayyad caliph, 64, 65.
+
+  Maskat vines, 99.
+
+  Masmūda, 145, 146.
+
+  Maṣr (for Miṣr, name of Egypt and of its capital), 33 [Fusṭāṭ, Miṣr].
+
+  Maṣr-el-‘Atīḳa (old Miṣr, “Old Cairo”), 34, 36, 41, 48, 107, 146, 253.
+
+  Maṣṭaba Far‘ūn (Pharaoh’s Seat), 90.
+
+  Mas‘ūdy, el-, historian, 95, 96.
+
+  Maṭarīya, el-, 48; battle, 49.
+
+  Medallion of Ḳā’it-Bey, 246.
+
+  Medīna, el-, 104, 144, 182, 205.
+
+  Medresa (academy, college), 111, 173, 183-192, 224, 250, 298 [Mosque].
+
+  Mekka, 22, 86, 104, 132, 205, 253, 263, 299.
+
+  Melekites (orthodox Greek church), 38, 39, 121, 219.
+
+  Melons, ‘Abdallāwy, 68.
+
+  Memdūd, Ibn, 66.
+
+  Memphis, 34, 37, 41.
+
+  Menageries, 75, 88, 134.
+
+  Menāẓir-el-Kebsh (belvederes of the ram), 90.
+
+  Mercurius, St., 121.
+
+  Mercury, lake of, 87.
+
+  Mesgid, 188 [Mosque].
+
+  Meshrebīya, 5, 11, 284, 285.
+
+  Mesopotamia, 86, 115, 116.
+
+  Mesrūr, khān of, 266, 268.
+
+  Metal-work, 108, 271-280, 310.
+
+  Meydān (racecourse), 75, 271.
+
+  Meymūn, Ibn, 114.
+
+  Mibkhara (censer), 138.
+
+  Mihmandār (master of the ceremonies), Aḥmad, Mamlūk emīr, mosque, 224.
+
+  Miḥrāb (niche for prayer in mosque), 80, 83, 163, 231, 299.
+
+  Mina, St, 217.
+
+  Minarets, 43, 83; of Ibn-Ṭūlūn, 83; of el-Ḥākim, 83, 138, 139; of
+  Ḳalā’ūn and Āḳbughā, 83; of el-Mu’ayyad, 153, 238; of Sultan Ḥasan,
+  232, 307.
+
+  Minbar [Pulpit].
+
+  Miska, Sitta, mosque, 224.
+
+  Miṣr (Maṣr), 34-36, 41, 42 [Fusṭāṭ].
+
+  Missionaries, Shī‘a, 115.
+
+  Mo‘allaḳa, el-, church, 56, 57, 218.
+
+  Moḥammad, the Prophet, 20, 95, 113.
+
+  Moḥammad ‘Aly, viceroy, 179, 302; mosque, 301; street, 302.
+
+  Moḥammad Bey, Abū-dh-Dhahab, 301.
+
+  Moḥammad el-Mādarā’y, treasurer, 92, 93.
+
+  Moḥammad ibn Suleymān, ‘Abbāsid general, 89.
+
+  Moḥammad ibn ez-Zubeyr, 36.
+
+  Moḥarram festival, 22, 23, 119.
+
+  Mo‘izz, el-, Fāṭimid caliph, 116-119, 125-127, 129, 132, 133, 147.
+
+  Mōlids (birthday festivals), 22.
+
+  Monasteries, 61, 123, 128.
+
+  Mongols, 203, 204, 236.
+
+  Monks, 62, 123, 219.
+
+  Monopolies, 264.
+
+  Mosaic, 246.
+
+  Mōṣil artists, 272 _ff._
+
+  Mosques:—
+
+    Abū-dh-Dhahab [Moḥammad Bey], 301.
+
+    Abū-l-‘Olā, 260.
+
+    Abū-s-Su‘ūd, 258.
+
+    Aḳbughā, 224, 299.
+
+    Akhdar [Fakahāny].
+
+    Aḳmar, 157, 160, 227.
+
+    Aḳsunḳur, 223, 224, 227, 245, 298.
+
+    Aḳūsh, 259.
+
+    Algibughā, 259.
+
+    Almās, 224, 289.
+
+    Almelik, 224, 259.
+
+    ‘Amr, 42-48, etc. [_q.v._].
+
+    Anwar [Ḥākim].
+
+    Arghūn el-Ismā‘īly, 224, 227.
+
+    Ashraf, 238, 250.
+
+    ‘Askar, 65.
+
+    Asunbugha, 311.
+
+    Asyūṭy, 259.
+
+    Aydemir [Khaṭīry].
+
+    Azhar, 123-5, etc. (_q.v._).
+
+    Barḳūḳ, 241, 250.
+
+      „  and Farag, 241, 245.
+
+    Bars-Bey, 238, 250.
+
+    Bāsiṭy, 259.
+
+    Benāt, 311.
+
+    Beshtāk, 224.
+
+    Beybars, Ẓāhir, 207, 212, 218.
+
+    Beybars, Gāshnekīr, 128.
+
+    Burdeyny, 298.
+
+    Emīr Akhōr [Ḳāny Bek].
+
+    Ezbek ibn Tutush, 295.
+
+    Ezbek el-Yūsufy, 249, 250.
+
+    Fakahāny, 159, 298.
+
+    Farag [Barḳūḳ].
+
+    Felek, Ibn-el-, 259.
+
+    Ga‘bary, 259.
+
+    Ghāzy, Ibn, 258.
+
+    Ghurāb, Ibn, 259.
+
+    Ghūry, 253.
+
+    Guyūshy, 139.
+
+    Ḥākim, 107, 126, 137-9 (_q.v._).
+
+    Ḥasan, 190, 224, 228-37, 245, 284, 306.
+
+    Ḥasaneyn, 128, 181-185.
+
+    Ḥigāzīya, 224.
+
+    Ḥoseyn, emīr, 224.
+
+    Ibrāhīm Aga (Aḳsunḳur), 227, 298.
+
+    Ismā‘īly [Arghūn].
+
+    Ḳagmās, 250, 311.
+
+    Ḳā’it-Bey, 242-9, 284, 285.
+
+    Ḳalā’ūn, 212, 245, 283, 285.
+
+    Ḳalendarīya, 259.
+
+    Kāmilīya, 196.
+
+    Ḳāny Bek, emīr Akhōr, 250.
+
+    Ḳarāfa, 133, 134.
+
+    Keymakhty, 259.
+
+    Khaṭīry, 258.
+
+    Kheyr Bek, 250.
+
+    Khilāṭy, 259.
+
+    Ḳūṣūn, 224, 283, 296.
+
+    Maghraby, Ibn-el-, 259.
+
+    Maḥmūdīya, 289.
+
+    Maḳs, 141, 189, 260.
+
+    Mangak, 224.
+
+    Māridāny, 224, 283-5, 314.
+
+    Mihmandār, 224.
+
+    Miska, Sitta, 224.
+
+    Moḥammad ‘Aly, 301.
+
+    Moḥammad Bey, 300.
+
+    Mu’ayyad, 232, 250, 284-5, 297, 311.
+
+    Muzhir (Mazhar) Abū-Bekr ibn, 250, 285, 309-311.
+
+    Nāṣir in Citadel, 179, 223.
+
+    „  Naḥḥāsīn, 220, 223.
+
+    Naṣr, 259.
+
+    Nefīsa, Seyyida, 202, 206, 223, 300.
+
+    Rāshida, 141.
+
+    Ṣāliḥ Ayyūb, 212, 282.
+
+    Ṣāliḥ Ṭalāi‘.
+
+    Ṣarghitmish, 224.
+
+    Ṣārim, Ibn-, 259.
+
+    Sāriyat-el-Gebel, 185.
+
+    Sārūgā, 259.
+
+    Sennānīya, 301.
+
+    Sengar el-Gāwaly, 224.
+
+    Seyf-ed-dīn, 185.
+
+    Shāfi‘y, Imām, 184, 225, 296, 298, 300.
+
+    Shem, 129.
+
+    Sheykhū, 224, 284.
+
+    Ṭabbākh, Ibn-eṭ, 258.
+
+    Ṭalāi‘ ibn Ruzzīk, 163, 167.
+
+    Ṭawāshy, 258.
+
+    Ṭaybars, 217, 299.
+
+    Ṭulbīya, 215.
+
+    Ṭūlūn, Aḥmad ibn, 77-86 [_q.v._].
+
+    Yūnus, 258, 259.
+
+    Ẓāhir [Beybars].
+
+    Zeyneb, Seyyida, 185, 299.
+
+    Zeyn-ed-dīn Yaḥyā, 311.
+
+    [See also Table of Monuments, pp. 317-22].
+
+  Mu’ayyad, el-, Mamlūk sultan, 238; mosque, 10, 126, 232, 250, 284,
+  285, 297, 298, 311.
+
+  Mudarrag [Bāb].
+
+  Muedhdhin or Muezzin (prayer crier), 43.
+
+  Muḳaṭṭam, el-, hills, 41, 42, 59, 65, 88, 121, 134, 142, 175, 219.
+
+  Muḳawḳis, el-, Roman governor of Egypt, 37-39.
+
+  Mule, Convent of the, 219.
+
+  Murād Bey, 43, 44.
+
+  Mūsā el-‘Abbāsy, governor, 67.
+
+  Muṣallā-l-‘Id (oratory of the Festival), 141.
+
+  Musebbiḥy, el-, author, 99, 100.
+
+  Museum of Arab Art, 85, 138, 163, 282, 304, 305, 312.
+
+  Museum, British, 272, 273.
+
+    „  South Kensington, 272, 282, 283.
+
+  Music, 102.
+
+  Musky street, 6, 126.
+
+  Mustanṣir, el-, Fāṭimid caliph, 144-154, 259.
+
+  Mutanebby, el-, poet, 100.
+
+  Mutawelly, Ḳuṭb el-, 10 [Bāb-Zuweyla].
+
+  Muwaffaḳ, el-, ‘Abbāsid, 86.
+
+  Muzhir (Mazhar), Abū-Bekr ibn, Ḳāḍy, mosque, 250, 285, 309-311.
+
+          N.
+
+  Naḥḥāsīn [Sūḳ].
+
+  Narthex, 54.
+
+  Nāṣir, en-, title of Saladin, 176.
+
+  Nāṣir, en-, Moḥammad, Mamlūk sultan, 90, 204, 209-228; mosque in
+  Citadel, 179, 223; mosque in Naḥḥāsīn, 220, 223; artistic epoch, 279,
+  282, 284.
+
+  Nāṣir, en-, pool of, 217.
+
+  Nāṣir-i-Khusrau, philosopher and traveller, 83, 107-110, 127, 129,
+  132, 144, 145.
+
+  Naṣr [Bāb, Ḳubba].
+
+  Naṣr ibn ‘Abbās, 158.
+
+  Nefīsa, Seyyida, 202, 206, 223, 300.
+
+  Nestorius, Ibn, Fāṭimid vezīr, 122.
+
+  Niche of mosque [Miḥrāb].
+
+  Night of the Bath, 95.
+
+  Nikiu, John, bishop of, 35.
+
+  Nile, change of bed, 107, 257, 259; festivals, 95, 96, 132, 146.
+
+  Nilometers, 61, 85, 96, 147; mosque of, 253.
+
+  Niẓām-el-mulk, Seljūḳ vezīr, college of, 190.
+
+  Nubians, 35, 36, 62.
+
+  Nūr-ed-dīn, sultan of Damascus, 167, 190, 191, 198.
+
+          O.
+
+  ‘Okba, 185.
+
+  Old Cairo [Maṣr-el-‘Atīḳa].
+
+  ‘Omar, caliph, 34, 40.
+
+  ‘Omar, secretary, 67.
+
+  ‘Omāra, poet, 160.
+
+  Omayyads [caliphs].
+
+  On, 49 [Heliopolis].
+
+  Osāma, treasurer, 96.
+
+  Osāma ibn Munkidh, Arab chief, 158.
+
+  ‘Othmān Bey Dhū-l-Fiḳār, 289, 290.
+
+  ‘Othmān Ketkhudā, 299.
+
+  ‘Othmānly (Osmānli, Ottoman) Turks, 49, 206; mosques, 298-301.
+
+          P.
+
+  Palaces, Fāṭimid, 126-8, 130, 131, 160; Mamlūk, 223, 270, 274,
+  288-290; Ṭūlūnid, 75, 76, 87, 88.
+
+  Patriarchs, 37, 38, 61, 62, 121, 122, 219.
+
+  Paulus Ageminius, 280.
+
+  Pavilions, 88, 127, 139.
+
+  Pelusium, 34.
+
+  Perfumes, 102, 134, 273.
+
+  Persia, Mongol khāns of, 203, 206.
+
+  Persian arch, 124, 138, 153; art, 133, 280; troops, 146.
+
+  Pharaoh’s Oven, 78; Seat, 90.
+
+  Physicians, 86, 120, 128.
+
+  Pictures, 53, 55, 133.
+
+  Pigeon post, 208; tower, 87.
+
+  Pilgrims, 22.
+
+  Plague, 117.
+
+  Planets, 273.
+
+  Plaster-work, 79, 85, 245.
+
+  Plato, 49.
+
+  Pococke, R., 41.
+
+  Poets, 98-101.
+
+  Polo, 76.
+
+  Pottery, 108.
+
+  Preacher, 170, 171, 297.
+
+  Professors, 97, 107, 124, 297, 300, 301.
+
+  Pulpit (minbar), 43, 57, 80, 283, 284, 299.
+
+  Punch (Ḳarāḳūsh), 25.
+
+          Q.
+
+  Quicksilver Lake, 87.
+
+          R.
+
+  Raḥba (square), 271.
+
+  Rā’ik, Ibn, 93.
+
+  Rain, prayers for, 44.
+
+  Ram, Castle of the, 90.
+
+  Ramaḍān, fast, 44, 57, 94.
+
+  Ramla, er-, Peace of, 172.
+
+  Rashīd [Hārūn].
+
+  Rāshida, mosque at, 141.
+
+  Raṭly, Birkat-el-, 259.
+
+  Ravaisse, M., 128.
+
+  Red [Ḥamrā]; tower, 202; sea, 205.
+
+  Rents, 145, 195, 266, 270.
+
+  Restoration of mosques, 309-312.
+
+  Revenue, 59.
+
+  Review, 94.
+
+  Rhodes, 237; tiles, 56, 298.
+
+  Riwāḳs (partitions in Azhar), 291.
+
+  Rōḍa, er-, Island, 61, 65, 94-96, 109, 132, 157, 198.
+
+  Rogers, E. T., 206, 304.
+
+  Romans (Eastern Empire), 34, 35, 39, 58, 86.
+
+  Ruḍwān, Fāṭimid vezīr, 158.
+
+  Ruḍwān el-Gelfy, 290, 291.
+
+  Ruḳeyya, Seyyida, 163.
+
+  Rūm, Ḥārat-er-, 128, 145.
+
+  Rumeyla, 75, 179, 219, 253.
+
+  Ruzzīk, 159 [Ṭalāi‘].
+
+          S.
+
+  Sa‘āda [Bāb].
+
+  Ṣafīya, Seyyida, mosque, 298.
+
+  Sāg (teak wood), 76.
+
+  Sa‘īd, Ibn, 44, 94, 96, 112, 262.
+
+  Sāḳiya (water-wheel), 258.
+
+  Saḳḳa (water carrier), 109, 299.
+
+  Saladin (Ṣalāḥ-ed-dīn), Ayyūbid sultan, 33, 159, 164-193, 198, 212,
+  216.
+
+  Sālār, Ibn es-, Fāṭimid vezīr, 158, 167.
+
+  Ṣalība (crossway) street, 288.
+
+  Ṣāliḥ, eṣ-, Ayyūb, 90, 198, 212, 217, 269; tomb, 212, 282.
+
+  Ṣāliḥ, eṣ- [Ṭalāi‘].
+
+  Ṣāliḥ, Abū-, 122, 153.
+
+  Salomonis opus, 280.
+
+  Sanctuary [Līwān].
+
+  Saphadin [‘Ādil].
+
+  Sarga, Abu-, 56.
+
+  Ṣarghitmish, Mamlūk emīr, 235; mosque, 224.
+
+  Ṣārim, Ibn, mosque, 259.
+
+  Sāriyat-el-Gebel, 185.
+
+  Sārūgā, mosque, 259.
+
+  Sawākin, 205, 215, 263.
+
+  Schefer, C., 107.
+
+  Schools or sects of Islām, 97, 190, 208, 300.
+
+  Screens, Coptic, 53-55, 57.
+
+  Sebīl (street fountain), 249, 253, 299.
+
+  Sebīl, khān of the, 270.
+
+  Sekīna, Seyyida, 299.
+
+  Selīm, ‘Othmānly sultan, 254.
+
+  Seljūḳs, sultans of western Asia, 164, 167, 190, 203.
+
+  Sennānīya, es-, mosque, 301.
+
+  Sengar el-Gāwaly, mosque, 224.
+
+  Sergius, St, 56.
+
+  Severus, bishop of el-Ushmūneyn, 121.
+
+  Seyf-ed-din, college, 185 [‘Ādil].
+
+  Seyfeyn, Abū-s-, 121.
+
+  Sha‘bān, el-Ashraf, Mamlūk sultan, 90.
+
+  Shāfi‘īs, 97, 185, 301.
+
+  Shāfi‘y, esh-, Imām, mosque, 184, 225, 296, 298, 300.
+
+  Sharā’iby family, 292.
+
+  Shāri‘ (street), 6.
+
+  Shāwar, Fāṭimid vezīr, 110, 159, 167-169.
+
+  Sheger-ed-durr, ‘Aṣmat-ed-dīn, Mamlūk queen, 198, 201, 202, 212.
+
+  Shem, son of Noah, muṣallā of, 129.
+
+  Sherbetly, 3.
+
+  Sheykh-el-beled, 288.
+
+  Sheykh-el-Islām, 236.
+
+  Sheykhū, Mamlūk emīr, 235; mosque, 224, 284.
+
+  Shī‘a, 113-120, 180-182.
+
+  Shibūk, 5, 288.
+
+  Shipbuilders’ island, 96.
+
+  Shīrkūh, 168-170.
+
+  Shops, 6-9, 24, 108, 145.
+
+  Shubrawy, esh-, Aḥmad, 295, 296.
+
+  Silversmiths, 272 _ff._
+
+  Slaves, 197, 236, 269, 288.
+
+  Slavonians, 139.
+
+  Smoking, 288.
+
+  Spain, refugees from, 67.
+
+  Statues, 87.
+
+  Stone-work, 138, 139, 245, 284.
+
+  Strabo, 49, 50.
+
+  Streets of Cairo, 271.
+
+  Striped decoration, 50.
+
+  Striped Palace (Ḳaṣr-el-Ablaḳ), 223.
+
+  Stucco-work, 79, 85, 245, 284.
+
+  Sūdān trade, 108, 134; students, 299.
+
+  Sūdānīs, black troops, 75, 89, 127, 130, 143, 144, 146, 147, 148, 181.
+
+  Suez, 263.
+
+  Sūḳ (bazar, market), 271;—Sūḳ-en-Naḥḥāsīn, 93, 126, 185.
+
+  Sukkarīya (sugar bāzār), 159, 238.
+
+  Sun-dials, 296.
+
+  Sunnīs (orthodox Muslims), 113, 119.
+
+  Superstition, 297.
+
+  Surūgīya, 266.
+
+  Syria, 75, 89, 93, 137, 143, 144, 164-173, 175, 196, 203-207, 217, 301
+  [Damascus].
+
+  Syrian trade, 269, 270.
+
+          T.
+
+  Ṭabary, eṭ-, historian, 95.
+
+  Ṭabāṭabā poets, 98.
+
+  Ṭabbākh, Ibn-eṭ-, mosque, 258.
+
+  Ṭāhir, Ibn, 43, 67.
+
+  Ṭalāi‘ ibn Rūzzīk, Fāṭimid vezīr, 158, 159; mosque, 163, 167.
+
+  Ṭamweyh, monastery, 61.
+
+  Ṭarsūs, 72, 75, 86.
+
+  Ṭawāshy, eṭ-, mosque, 258.
+
+  Taxes, 36, 60, 72, 134, 207, 216, 241, 253.
+
+  Ṭaybars, Mamlūk emīr, mosque, 217; medresa, 299.
+
+  Ṭaylasan, 170.
+
+  Templars, 158.
+
+  Ṭendunyās, 35.
+
+  Tent [Fusṭāṭ]; state tents, 148.
+
+  Textus case, 56.
+
+  Thedosius, edict of, 38.
+
+  _Thousand and One Nights_, 261-263.
+
+  Throne, ‘Abbāsid, 144.
+
+  Tiles, 56, 298, 299.
+
+  Tīmūr (Tamerlane), 237.
+
+  Tīmūrbughā, 238, 241.
+
+  Tombs, 83, 84, 89, 101, 184, 185, 228 [Mosque].
+
+  Ṭōr, eṭ-, 263.
+
+  Trade, transit, 91, 262-265.
+
+  Treasurers, 92, 93.
+
+  Treaty, Arab, 35-37.
+
+  Tripolis, 167, 205.
+
+  Truffles, 134.
+
+  Ṭulbīya, wife of en-Nāṣir, 215.
+
+  Ṭūlūn, Aḥmad ibn, 72-87, 197, 212; faubourg and palace, 75-77; mosque,
+  77-86, 107, 187, 188, 245, 281-3, 285, 289; Nilometer, 96.
+
+  Ṭūmān-Bey, 254.
+
+  Tunis, 116.
+
+  Turkish governors, 70 _ff._; troops, 139, 143, 147-149.
+
+  Tyre, 167.
+
+  Tyre, William of, 33, 130-132, 168.
+
+          U.
+
+  ‘Ulamā (learned men), 300, 302.
+
+  Umarā, Hārat-el- (emīrs’ quarter), 145.
+
+  Umm-Duneyn, 34, 35.
+
+  Umm-Khalīl, 201.
+
+  Umm-Kulthūm, 185.
+
+  Ustaddār (major domo).
+
+  ‘Uṭūfīya quarter, 128.
+
+  University [Azhar].
+
+          V.
+
+  Valle, Pietro della, 232.
+
+  Venice, consuls, 237, 263-265; art, 277, 279, 280.
+
+  Vezīrs’ Palace, 128, 171.
+
+  Vezīrs, Fāṭimid, 147 _ff._
+
+          W.
+
+  Waḳf (religious trusts), 302-5, 311-313.
+
+  Wālīs [Governors].
+
+  Walls of Cairo, 118, 123, 125-128, 150.
+
+  Wardān, 36.
+
+  Wards [Ḳaṭāi‘].
+
+  Watermills, the Seven, 42, 217.
+
+  Watson, Colonel C. M., 223.
+
+  Wekāla (hostelry), 265-267.
+
+  Well in Citadel, 179.
+
+  Wine, 98, 99, 102, 140, 207.
+
+  Women, 4, 11, 18-20, 117, 121, 122, 140, 141, 144, 159, 160, 198, 201,
+  202, 212, 215.
+
+  Wood-work, 281-285, 310.
+
+          Y.
+
+  Yānis, Fāṭimid vezīr, 154.
+
+  Yāzūry, el-, Fāṭimid vezīr, 122, 146-148.
+
+  Yelbughā, Mamlūk emīr, 160.
+
+  Yenbu‘, port of Mekka, 263.
+
+  Yeshbek, Mamlūk emīr, palace, 270.
+
+  Yeshkur, hill, 65, 75, 78, 90.
+
+  Yūnus, mosque, 258, 259.
+
+          Z.
+
+  Ẓāfir, eẓ-, Fāṭimid caliph, 158; mosque, 159.
+
+  Ẓāhir, eẓ-, Fāṭimid caliph, 148, 298.
+
+  Ẓāhir, eẓ- [Beybars Barḳūḳ].
+
+  Zawīla or Zuweyla [Bāb]; quarter, 128, 145, 218.
+
+  Zāwiya (chapel), 189, 259.
+
+  Zemzem, 150.
+
+  Zeyneb, Seyyida, 185, 299.
+
+  Zeyneby, ez-, poet, 99.
+
+  Zeyn-ed-dīn Yaḥya, mosque, 311.
+
+  Zeyn-el-‘Abidīn, 75, 185.
+
+  Ziggurat, 83.
+
+  Zikrs, 25.
+
+  Zodiac, 273.
+
+  Zubeyr, ez-, 36, 185.
+
+  Zuhry, ez-, church, 217.
+
+  Zuḳāḳ, 271.
+
+  Zureyḳ, 87.
+
+  Zuweyla [Bāb].
+
+
+                TURNBULL AND SPEARS, PRINTERS, EDINBURGH
+
+
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+
+[Footnote 1: See my _Cairo Sketches_ (Virtue, 1897), 120-140.]
+
+[Footnote 2: See _Cairo Sketches_, 174-5.]
+
+[Footnote 3: See my _History of Egypt in the Middle Ages_, 4.]
+
+[Footnote 4: On the very obscure subject of the Mukawkis see Dr A. J.
+Butler’s recent paper in the _Proc. Soc. Bibl. Archæology_, 1902, in
+which he seeks to identify the Mukawkis with Cyrus, the patriarch of
+Alexandria. This identification, however, finds no support from any
+Arabic authorities.]
+
+[Footnote 5: Dr Butler’s suggestion is rather strengthened by Pococke’s
+statement that in his time the Kasr-esh-Shema‘ was also known by the
+name of “Casr Kieman.” It is not, however, quite certain that this Kasr-
+esh-Shema‘ represents the principal part of Babylon. There was another
+Roman building on a rocky hill, formerly washed by the Nile, south-east
+of the Kasr-esh-Shema‘, which according to several Arabic writers quoted
+by Makrízy was the town of Misr or Babylon besieged by ‘Amr, and
+contained the fortress known as Kasr Babelyún. Possibly the remains of
+this are commemorated in “Antar’s Stable,” of which massive foundations
+exist. See Lane, _Cairo Fifty Years Ago_, 146. Traces of walls beside
+the bed of the Nile have been noticed south of Masr el-‘Atíka, and it is
+probable that here we have vestiges of the vanished pre-Muslim city of
+Misr, guarded by its two forts. That Misr was a northern extension of
+the old but decayed capital, Memphis, is not so impossible as it seems.
+The distance it is true between the present ruins of Memphis and the
+fortress of Babylon is over ten miles, but it must be remembered that
+Memphis once had a circuit of seventeen miles, and stretched as far as
+Giza.]
+
+[Footnote 6: In later times the Hamra became known as the quarter of the
+“Lions’ Bridges” (over the canal), so-called from the lions sculptured
+on them, and the quarter of the “Seven Watermills,” referring to the
+machines for raising the Nile water to the aqueduct. _Makrízy_, i. 286.]
+
+[Footnote 7: See Mr E. K. Corbett’s exhaustive and masterly essay on
+“the History of the Mosque of ‘Amr at Old Cairo” in _Journal of the
+Royal Asiatic Society_, N.S., xxii., 1891.]
+
+[Footnote 8: Lane, _Cairo Fifty Years Ago_, 142, 143.]
+
+[Footnote 9: Jeremiah xliii. 13.]
+
+[Footnote 10: See Dr A. J. Butler’s _Ancient Coptic Churches of Egypt_
+(i. 86-9), which for the first time presents a thorough and scholarly
+account of these wonderful monuments. Dr Butler’s zeal and research need
+no praise of mine to augment their value, but I cannot resist this
+opportunity of saying how grateful every one who is interested in the
+art of Egypt must be to his admirable and laborious investigations of
+every detail of Coptic antiquities. His work is the highest authority we
+possess on this fascinating subject, and from it much of this
+description is derived.]
+
+[Footnote 11: The dinár was a gold coin of about the weight of a half-
+guinea.]
+
+[Footnote 12: For the annals of the governors see my _History of Egypt
+in the Middle Ages_, 18-58.]
+
+[Footnote 13: _Korán_, xliv. 50, and vii. 133; _History_, 37, 38.]
+
+[Footnote 14: See _History_, 60-71; Makrízy, i. 313, 315.]
+
+[Footnote 15: He is called by Makrízy merely a Nasrány, Christian, but
+had he been a Greek he would certainly have been given the epithet Rúmy.
+El-Mas‘údy gives a long account of the conversations of an aged and very
+intelligent Copt of Upper Egypt, a great favourite with Ibn-Tulún, who
+used to spend much time in his company and learned many curious things
+from the ancient man.]
+
+[Footnote 16: See _Art of the Saracens in Egypt_, 54-59. The grilles are
+probably of later date.]
+
+[Footnote 17: The _liwán_ of the mosque of Ibn-Tulún has been
+considerably altered since its foundation. The vezír Bedr el-Gemály made
+some repairs in 1077, after the injuries inflicted during the troubles
+of el-Mustansir’s reign; and his son the vezír el-Afdal built a _mihráb_
+in 1094; but the chief restoration was made in 1296 by the Mamlúk Sultan
+Lagín, whose pulpit still stands in the mosque and bears his
+inscriptions.]
+
+[Footnote 18: Makrízy says (_Khitat_, ii. 284) that the minaret of the
+small mosque of Akbugha included in the Azhar buildings and erected in
+1331 was “the first minaret built of stone in the land of Egypt after
+the Mansuríya” of Kalaún; from which we infer that Kalaún’s minaret (of
+1284) was the first stone minaret known to the topographer. He would
+probably not call the tower of Ibn-Tulún strictly a minaret, and he
+evidently knew nothing of the stone minarets of the mosque of el-Hákim
+(see below, p. 138).]
+
+[Footnote 19: There is a small cupola over the niche, but this, like the
+pulpit and most of the decoration of the liwán, belongs to the
+restoration by Lagín in 1296. The central domed ablution tank is also a
+later addition, replacing the original marble basin resting on columns
+under a roof.]
+
+[Footnote 20: There are some remarkable specimens of arabesque
+woodcarving from the mosque of Ibn-Tulún in the Cairo Museum of Arab
+Art.]
+
+[Footnote 21: See M. van Berchem, _Notes d’Archéologie Arabe_, Extr. du
+Journal Asiatique, 125 (1891).]
+
+[Footnote 22: Makrízy, i. 318 ff.]
+
+[Footnote 23: This curious building, of which a drawing is given on p.
+177, was built (very probably on an ancient foundation) by Saladin’s
+great-nephew es-Sálih about 1245, and was used as a royal palace. Here
+the ‘Abbásid caliph Hakim was installed by Beybars. En-Násir rebuilt the
+Castle (or Belvedere) of the Ram in 1323, and the emír Sarghitmish lived
+there and built the gate and round towers. It was partly destroyed by
+el-Ashraf Sha‘ban, and then used for tenements. Makrízy ii. 133.]
+
+[Footnote 24: Ibn-Sa‘íd, ed. Tallqvist, Arabic text, 14.]
+
+[Footnote 25: The Ikhshíd had a passion for amber, and people used to
+give him quantities of it at the New Year and Spring festivals, and he
+would sell it for great sums. After his death his widow’s house was
+burnt down, and with it £50,000 worth of amber (Ibn-Sa‘íd).]
+
+[Footnote 26: Mas‘údy, _Murúg_, ii. 364, 365. He met the historian
+Eutychius at Misr, and it was there that he finished the work entitled
+_Kitáb et-Tenbíh_ in A.H. 345.]
+
+[Footnote 27: See my “Arab Classic,” in _Among my Books_, 90.]
+
+[Footnote 28: See _History_, 88, 89, and Dr Tallqvist’s excellent
+edition of part of Ibn-Sa‘id, 78 ff.]
+
+[Footnote 29: See Makrízy, ii. 177, 114, 115, 163, 185, etc.]
+
+[Footnote 30: Nasir-i-Khusrau, _Safar Náma_, ed. Schefer, 145 ff.]
+
+[Footnote 31: See my _Saladin_, 93, and see below, p. 169.]
+
+[Footnote 32: Ibn-Gubeyr, ed. Wright, 51. I owe this reference to Mr Guy
+le Strange.]
+
+[Footnote 33: Quoted in Makrízy, i. 341.]
+
+[Footnote 34: As evidence may be cited his complete breach with the
+Carmathians, although they were the source of the Fátimid revolution.
+Twice they invaded Egypt shortly after the Fátimid conquest, in 971 and
+again in 974, and even laid siege to Cairo, and forced their way through
+one of the gates. The invincible hostility of Mo‘izz to these Arabian
+brigands had doubtless a political basis, but had he held the advanced
+views of the Shí‘a propaganda he would hardly have quarrelled with its
+grand master.]
+
+[Footnote 35: See my _History_, 103, 104.]
+
+[Footnote 36: Abu-Sálih, ed. Evetts, fol. 35.]
+
+[Footnote 37: There are numerous notices of this intimacy between the
+caliphs and the Coptic monks in the work of the Armenian Christian Abu-
+Salih, written between 1173 and 1208, and excellently edited,
+translated, and annotated by Mr B. T. A. Evetts with the assistance of
+Dr A. J. Butler (_The Churches and Monasteries of Egpyt_, Anecdota Oxon,
+1895): see especially foll. 7_b_, 34_b_-36, 40_b_, 46_b_, 84_a_.]
+
+[Footnote 38: Makrízy, i. 377.]
+
+[Footnote 39: He is clearly referring to the _palace_ wall, for he
+distinctly says that the _city_ wall did not then exist. Ed. Schefer,
+128.]
+
+[Footnote 40: _Mémoires de la Mission archéologique française au Caire_,
+tomes i. and iii., to which every student of the Fátimid palaces should
+refer.]
+
+[Footnote 41: Zuweyla is the popular pronunciation; the correct form is
+Zawíla, the name of a Berber tribe.]
+
+[Footnote 42: Makrízy, i. 381.]
+
+[Footnote 43: William of Tyre, _Historia rerum in partibus transmarinis
+gestarum_, lib. xix., cap. 19, 20, epitomized in my _Saladin_, 86-88.
+The embassy is not recorded by the Arabic chroniclers.]
+
+[Footnote 44: _Safar Náma_, ed. Schefer, 126. Broad-bottomed tubs we
+should call these ships.]
+
+[Footnote 45: For details of Fátimid art and industries, see my _Art of
+the Saracens_, 10, 163, 201, 241, etc.]
+
+[Footnote 46: Makrízy, ii. 318.]
+
+[Footnote 47: See M. van Berchem, _Notes d’Archéologie arabe_ (1891),
+27-36.]
+
+[Footnote 48: El-Hákim also built the “Oratory of the Feast”
+(Musalla-l-‘Id) beside the Bab-en-Nasr, a mosque at Maks beside the
+Nile, and another in the district called Ráshida to the south of Katái‘,
+near Mukattam. See _History_, 126.]
+
+[Footnote 49: It was even believed that the ‘Abbásid caliph would be
+sent a prisoner to Cairo, and his Fátimid rival had a gilt cage
+constructed for him, and spent a couple of million dinárs in preparing
+the West Palace for his expected guest. The ‘Abbásid throne and royal
+robes and turban were actually deposited in Cairo, and remained there
+till the time of Saladin, who restored the robes, but the throne was
+kept, and afterwards set up in the mosque of Beybars the Gashnekír. See
+_History_, 139.]
+
+[Footnote 50: Násir-el-Khusrau states that the city was then divided
+into ten quarters, namely, the Hárat Bargawán, H. Zuweyla, H. el-
+Gawdaríya (certain troops originally from Barbary), H. el-Umara (of the
+emírs), H. ed-Deylima (Persians), H. er-Rum (Greeks), H. el-Batilíya
+(originally some of Gawhar’s veterans), Kasr-esh-Shawk (a subsidiary
+palace), ‘Abid-esh-Shera (bought slaves), H. el-Masámida (Masmúda
+Berbers). He mentions only five gates: the Bab en-Nasr, B. el-Futúh, B.
+el-Kantara, B. Zuweyla, and B. el-Khalíg.]
+
+[Footnote 51: Makrízy gives an inventory of the caliph’s _objets de
+virtù_ far too long to quote. It includes (apart from immense stores of
+precious stones, plate, crystal and gold vases, rich brocades and cloth
+of gold, and all kinds of pottery), cups of bezoar engraved with the
+name of Harún er-Rashíd, enamelled plates, the gift of a Roman emperor
+to ‘Azíz; the sword of the Prophet, the breastplate of the martyr
+Hoseyn, the sword of Mo‘izz, and quantities of jewelled daggers,
+javelins, and other arms; inlaid gold dishes, inkstands, etc.; chess
+boards worked in gold on silk, with gold and silver, ivory and ebony
+pieces; steel mirrors, amber cups, a table of sardonyx, a peacock of
+gold with eyes of ruby and feathers of enamel, an antelope spotted with
+pearls, and a turban, the jewels of which weighed 17 lbs.; thirty-eight
+state-barges, one of silver; the caliph Záhir’s tent of gold thread
+resting on silver poles, and the marquee of Yazúry, a mass of exquisite
+designs which took fifty artists nine years to complete, the pole of
+which was 120 feet high, and the circumference of the tent nearly 1000
+feet.]
+
+[Footnote 52: The verse of course refers to the battle of Bedr in the
+early career of Mohammad.]
+
+[Footnote 53: Abu-Sálih, f. 51_a_, Makrízy, i. 381. See the admirable
+_Notes_ of M. van Berchem (1891), 37-72, for an architectural
+examination of the walls and gates.]
+
+[Footnote 54: Published by Mr H. C. Kay, _Journal R. Asiatic Soc._,
+N.S., xviii., from a squeeze which he and I caused to be taken with some
+difficulty when we were at Cairo in 1883.]
+
+[Footnote 55: The scene is described by the Arab prince Osáma, who was
+at Cairo at the time, and was a friend of ‘Abbás, the murderer both of
+the vezír and of the caliph. See Derenbourg, _Vie d’Ousama_, 205-260.]
+
+[Footnote 56: This palace, founded by an earlier vezír, was turned into
+a college by Saladin. It stood near the present mosque of el-Ashraf in
+the Ghuríya street.]
+
+[Footnote 57: The mosque of ez-Záfir, founded by that caliph in 1129,
+still exists at the corner of the Sukkaríya, and is known as the Gámi‘
+el-Fakihiyín (or el-Fakahány), but it was entirely rebuilt in 1735.]
+
+[Footnote 58: Herz Bey, _Catalogue of the National Museum of Arab Art_,
+edited by S. Lane-Poole, xxiv.]
+
+[Footnote 59: _Ibn-Gubeyr_, ed. Wright, 46, 47. This and the following
+extracts from the travels of the Spanish Arab are translated by Mr Guy
+le Strange.]
+
+[Footnote 60: _Saladin_, 358-360.]
+
+[Footnote 61: See M. van Berchem, _Notes_ (1891), 55, 68-70.]
+
+[Footnote 62: Ibn-Gubeyr, ed. Wright, 49. See Makrízy, ii. 151, on the
+“Kanatír el-Giza.”]
+
+[Footnote 63: Ibn-Gubeyr, ed. Wright, 41, 42.]
+
+[Footnote 64: Ibn-Gubeyr, ed. Wright, 44, 45. This intelligent traveller
+to whom we owe so many interesting details of Saladin’s period, gives a
+curious description of the great Karáfa cemetery to the south of Cairo,
+which is one of the few places that carry one back to the days of the
+Arab conquest. Here lie the bones of most of the early warriors and
+poets and divines of the Town of the Tent, though nothing but tradition
+identifies their graves now. In Ibn-Gubeyr’s time the identification was
+evidently doubtful, for he declines to be responsible for what he has
+taken from the histories, though he adds, piously, that “their
+authenticity is above suspicion, if it please God.” Passing by such
+legendary tombs as those of the Prophet Sálih, and Reuben son of Jacob,
+and Pharaoh’s wife Asiya, we find descriptions of fourteen tombs of the
+male descendants of ‘Aly and five women, each in its own beautiful
+chapel with its keeper and endowment. Among them were Zeyn-el-‘Abidín,
+the son of the martyr Hoseyn, Zeyneb his great-granddaughter, and Umm-
+Kulthúm, the daughter of the sixth Imám Ga‘far es-Sádik. There were also
+the tombs of ‘Okba, the standard-bearer of the Prophet, of Abu-l-Hasan
+his goldsmith, of Sáriya of the Hill (who is also commemorated by a
+mosque in the Citadel, though there is nothing to connect him with
+Egypt), of two sons and a daughter of the caliph Abu-Bekr, of the son of
+ez-Zubeyr the general under ‘Amr, of Ibn-‘Abd-al-Hakam, of el-Gawhary;
+besides such notabilities as the Man of the Water-Pot, famous for
+wonders, the man who quoted the Korán when he was laid in his grave, the
+man who never spoke for forty years, and the bride to whom a miracle was
+vouchsafed when she unveiled to her husband. There was the Place of the
+Martyrs, where are buried the warriors who fell fighting for Islám under
+Sáriya, and the plain was dotted all over with the mounds of their
+graves. “All the buildings of the Karáfa, whether mosques or chapels,
+give hospitable shelter to all learned and pious strangers, as well as
+to mendicants, each building being provided with a grant of money, paid
+monthly on behalf of the Sultan, and the same in the case with the
+colleges both of Misr and Cairo. It was told us that the sum of those
+grants exceeded 2000 Egyptian dinárs a month, which is equal to 4000
+Morocco dinárs; and as to the great mosque of ‘Amr at Misr we were
+informed that its revenues amounted to about thirty Egyptian dinárs a
+day for its upkeep and the salaries of the guardians, precentors, and
+Korán readers.”—_Ibid._ 42-6.]
+
+[Footnote 65: Makrízy describes only nineteen _mesgids_ (apart from
+those in the Karáfa cemetery), as compared with eighty-seven _gámi‘s_;
+and all the nineteen seem to have been unimportant. They were chiefly of
+Fátimid or Ayyúbid foundation, and situate outside the Zuweyla, Nasr,
+Kantara, and Sa‘áda Gates, or in the garden of Kafúr, though three were
+in or near Beyn-el-Kasreyn. None of them is standing now. Makrízy
+enumerates twenty-five _Záwiyas_, all but one being Mamlúk foundations,
+of which seven were outside the Bab-en-Nasr or B. el-Futúh, four outside
+other gates, five at or near Maks. In short, mesgid would appear to be
+applied in the Topographer’s time chiefly to the earlier suburban
+chapels, and záwiya to outlying chapels of the Mamlúk period.]
+
+[Footnote 66: _Saladin_, 20.]
+
+[Footnote 67: The only coin known of Sheger-ed-durr is in the British
+Museum (see my _Catalogue of Oriental Coins_, iv. p. 136). Her surname
+was ‘Asmat-ed-din, “Defender of the Faith,” and her title Sultán.
+“Sultana” is not an Arabic title.]
+
+[Footnote 68: The extinction of the Crusaders was completed by the
+conquest of Margat and Tripolis by Kalaún, and the storming of ‘Akka by
+Khalíl in 1292: the few remaining cities fell immediately, and the work
+of the Crusaders was wiped out.]
+
+[Footnote 69: The tombs of two of the ‘Abbásid caliphs of Egypt and some
+of their relations were discovered by E. T. Rogers Bey in 1883, close to
+the mosque of Sitta Nefísa at the southern side of Cairo.]
+
+[Footnote 70: Ibn-Batúta, ed. Defremery, i. 71-4.]
+
+[Footnote 71: See plan, p. 190. Compare the elaborate work of Herz Bey,
+_La Mosquée du Sultan Hasan_, full of admirable photographs, drawings,
+reconstructions, and plans.]
+
+[Footnote 72: _History of Egypt in the Middle Ages_, 344.]
+
+[Footnote 73: Marble was not commonly used before the thirteenth
+century, when it began to be veneered on portals. It is best seen in
+tessellated pavements and mural mosaics. The latter, composed of pieces
+of various coloured marbles, were either set in mortar or let into a
+solid marble slab.]
+
+[Footnote 74: When I was in Cairo in 1883 I made paper squeezes
+(strengthened by layers of plaster of Paris mixed with glue) of the
+whole of the ornament of this wekála, and plaster casts made from these
+squeezes may now be examined in one of the galleries of the Museum at
+South Kensington.]
+
+[Footnote 75: See M. van Berchem, _Corpus Inscr. Arabic._, 533 ff., for
+an exhaustive discussion of the development of the _plan cruciforme
+déformé_.]
+
+[Footnote 76: Makrízy, ii. 130, 131.]
+
+[Footnote 77: _Cairo Fifty Years Ago_, 34, 35.]
+
+[Footnote 78: D. A. Cameron, _Egypt in the Nineteenth Century_, 14, 15.]
+
+[Footnote 79: Makrízy, ii. 91 _ff._]
+
+[Footnote 80: _Khitat_, ii. 105.]
+
+[Footnote 81: See Herz Bey, _Catalogue of the Arab Museum_, 47, 48, a
+little handbook which is invaluable to students of Saracenic art.]
+
+[Footnote 82: See my _Art of the Saracens_, 111-150, for detailed
+descriptions of these exquisite carvings.]
+
+[Footnote 83: By “deputy” is meant the Ketkhuda, commonly pronounced
+Kiahya, or in Egypt Kikhya, who was the deputy of the pasha, and often
+corresponded loosely with what we should call Minister of the Interior
+or Home Secretary.]
+
+[Footnote 84: Gabarty, ii. 124-143.]
+
+[Footnote 85: Pulled down in 1869. It was built by the famous emír Ezbek
+ibn Tutush, from whom the Ezbekíya took its name.]
+
+[Footnote 86: M. van Berchem describes some curious sun-dials in his
+_Notes d’Archéologie arabe_ (1892), 13-18. One was set up in the mosque
+of Ibn-Tulún in 696 (1296) by Lagín; another may still be seen in the
+mosque of Kusún, and is dated 785 (1383); a third exists in the tomb-
+mosque of Inál, and bears the date 871 (1466).]
+
+[Footnote 87: [This has been done in the case of Sultan Hasan in the
+sumptuous work, _La Mosquée du Sultan Hassan au Caire_, par Max Herz
+Bey, published by the Commission, 1899.]]
+
+[Footnote 88: All these are now completed.]
+
+[Footnote 89: Monuments still standing, or of which parts still remain,
+are distinguished by an asterisk. An obelus † indicates a restoration on
+the same site. b stands for ibn (son). Tables for converting Hijra dates
+into A.D. are given at the end.]
+
+*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 78916 ***
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+
+<body>
+<div style='text-align:center'>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 78916 ***</div>
+
+<div class="margins">
+<div class="transnote x-ebookmaker-drop">
+<p class="center">Large-size versions of illustrations are
+available by clicking on them.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class="x-ebookmaker-drop space-above2">
+</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter iw4b x-ebookmaker-drop">
+<figure id="cover"><a href="images/cover.jpg"><img alt="[Cover]"
+src="images/cover_thumb.jpg"></a>
+</figure>
+</div>
+
+<div class="page">
+<p class="center large"><em>The Story of Cairo</em>
+</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="page">
+<p class="center small space-above"><em>First Edition, April</em>
+1902</p>
+
+<p class="center small"><em>Second Edition, April</em> 1906</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="page">
+<p class="center small space-above"><em>All rights reserved</em>
+</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenterplate iw1">
+<figure id="i01"><a href="images/i01.jpg"><img alt="" src=
+"images/i01.jpg"></a>
+<p class="cp1">Cairo from the South-west: the Lake of the Elephant
+(Birkat-el-Fil)</p>
+</figure>
+</div>
+
+<div class="titlepage">
+<h1><em>The Story of</em> <span class=
+"red large letter-spaced01">Cairo</span></h1>
+
+<p class="nind space-below1 spaced15 word-spaced03"><span class=
+"word-spaced05"><span class="large"><em>by</em></span> <span class=
+"xxlarge"><em>Stanley Lane-Poole</em></span></span><br>
+<span class="large"><em>Litt.D. M.A. Professor of Arabic<br>
+at Trinity College Dublin</em></span>
+</p>
+
+<div class="figdecor width-full">
+<figure><a href="images/title.jpg"><img alt="[Decoration]" src=
+"images/logo.jpg" class="iw6"></a>
+</figure>
+</div>
+
+<p class="publisher"><span class="word-spaced04"><em>London:</em>
+<span class="red xlarge"><em>J. M. Dent &
+Co.</em></span></span><br>
+<em>Aldine House</em> 29 <em>and</em> 30 <em>Bedford Street<br>
+Covent Garden W.C.</em> <span class="word-spaced8"><img alt="*"
+src="images/decor2.jpg" class="iwdecor2"> <img alt="*" src=
+"images/decor2.jpg" class="iwdecor2"> 1906</span></p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="chap">
+
+<div class="page">
+<div class="linegrp-container">
+<div class="linegrp">
+<div class="group">
+<div class="line indent0 sc">He who hath not seen Cairo hath not
+seen the World.</div>
+
+<div class="line indent0 sc">Her Soil is Gold;</div>
+
+<div class="line indent0 sc">Her Nile is a Marvel;</div>
+
+<div class="line indent0 sc">Her Women are as the bright-eyed
+Houris of Paradise;</div>
+
+<div class="line indent0 sc">Her houses are Palaces, and her Air is
+soft, with an odour above Aloes, refreshing the Heart;</div>
+
+<div class="line indent0 sc">And how should Cairo be otherwise,
+when she is the Mother of the World?</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="chap">
+
+<h2 class="large"><span class="pagenum" id=
+"Page_vii">[vii]</span><a id="pref"></a>PREFACE</h2>
+
+<p class="dcap space-above15">CAIRO is in the fullest sense a
+mediæval city. It had no existence before the Middle Ages; its
+vigorous life as a separate Metropolis almost coincides with the
+arbitrary millennium of the middle period of history; and it still
+retains to this day much of its mediæval character and aspect. The
+aspect is changing, but not the life. The amazing improvements of
+the past twenty years have altered the Egyptian’s material
+condition, but scarcely as yet touched his character. We have given
+him public order and security, solvency without too heavy taxation,
+an efficient administration, even-handed justice, the means of
+higher education, and above all to every man his fair share of the
+enriching Nile, χρυσορρόης in the truest sense, without which
+nothing else avails. For all these, and especially the last, the
+peasant is grateful in his way, when their merits are pointed out
+to him; but not so the Cairene. The immediate blessings of the
+irrigation engineer are not so prominently brought to bear upon his
+pressing wants, and for the other reforms of the Firengy he cares
+very little. I should be sorry to draw any discourteous comparisons
+with “the Ethiop,” but whatever time and association with Europeans
+may do for the comely, and to my taste none too swarthy, skin of my
+Cairo friend, I am convinced that he will keep his old unregenerate
+mediæval heart in spite of us all.</p>
+
+<p>Happily for purposes of study (I am not treating of<span class=
+"pagenum" id="Page_viii">[viii]</span> ethics), the East changes
+very slowly, and the soul of the Eastern not at all. The Cairo
+jeweller, who will chaffer with you for an hour over a few
+piastres, though he mixes reluctantly, shrinkingly, in the crazy,
+bustling twentieth century life of Europe that rushes past him, is
+not of it. In his heart of hearts he looks back longingly to the
+glorious old days of the Mamlúks, to which he essentially belongs,
+and regrets the excitements of those stirring times. What good, he
+asks, comes of all this “worry”? Justice? More often a man had need
+of a little injustice, and a respectable tradesman could usually
+buy that from the Kady before these new tribunals were set up. As
+to fixed taxes and no extortion, that is chiefly a matter for the
+stupid fellahín; and after all the old system worked beautifully
+when you shirked payment, and your neighbour was bastinadoed for
+your share. Then all this fiddling with water and drains and
+streets; what is it all for? When Willcocks or Price Bey have put
+pipes and patent traps and other godless improvements into the
+mosques, will one’s prayers be any better than they were in the
+pleasant pervasive odour of the old fetid tanks? The streets are
+broader, no doubt, to let the Firengis, Allah blacken their faces!
+roll by in their two-horsed ‘arabíyas and splash the Faithful with
+mud; but for this wonderful boon they have taken away the
+comfortable stone benches from before the shops, and the Cairo
+tradesman misses his old seat, where unlimited <em>keyf</em> and
+the meditative shibúk once whiled away the leisure of his never
+pressing avocations. No; pure water and drains, and bicycles and
+tramcars, and a whole array of wretched little black-coated efendis
+pretending to imitate the Káfirs may be all very well in their
+place, but they are ugly, uninteresting things, and life at Cairo
+has been desperately dull since they came in.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_ix">[ix]</span>In one of the
+suggestive essays in his delightful book on “Asia and Europe,” Mr
+Meredith Townsend has shown how <em>interesting</em> life must have
+been in India before England introduced order and all the virtues.
+The picture might have been drawn in Cairo with trifling
+alterations. Life undoubtedly was interesting in the old
+unregenerate days. There were events then; something to see and
+think of, and possibly fly from; plenty of blood and assassination,
+perhaps, but then you could always shut and bar the strong gates of
+the quarter, when the Mamlúks or the Berbers, or, worst of all, the
+black Sudánis, were on the war-path. Now the gates are taken away,
+and there are no cavalcades of romantic troopers, beautiful to
+behold in their array, to ravish your household and give colour to
+life. In those days it was possible for any man of brain and luck
+to rise to power and wealth, such wealth as all Cairo could not
+furnish in these blank and honest times; promotion was ever at
+hand, and the way was open to the strong, the cunning, and the
+rich. What were a holocaust of victims, an orgy of rapine, even the
+deadly ravages of periodical plague and famine, in comparison with
+the great occasions, the gorgeous pomp, the endless opportunities,
+the infinite variety of those unruly and tumultuous but never
+tedious days?</p>
+
+<p>This is what the true Cairene meditates in his heart. His ideas,
+for good or ill, are not as our ideas; they date back from the
+Middle Ages, like his dress, his religion, his social habits, his
+turns of speech, his calm insouciance, his impenetrable reserve,
+his inveterate negation of “worry.” Outside the official class he
+is still the same man whom we saw keeping shop or taking his
+venture to sea in the faithful mirror of the Arabian Nights. Even
+his city preserves its mediæval tone. Much has been destroyed by
+time or innovation,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_x">[x]</span> but
+the European fringe is still a fringe, and the old Muslim city for
+the present defies western influences. It has been rebuilt time
+after time, and every fresh rebuilding will take away more of its
+charm; but enough remains to show us what Cairo was five hundred
+years ago. The crowded streets of the old quarters, the immemorial
+character of the houses and markets, above all the historical
+monuments, carry us back to the Middle Ages.</p>
+
+<p>The aim of these pages is to clothe the vestiges of the mediæval
+city with the associations that lend them their deepest interest.
+Many of the buildings of Cairo, especially the later mosques of the
+Mamlúk period, are exquisitely beautiful, and may be admired as
+works of art without regard to their history. But there are many
+more, ruined courts, crumbling arcades, mere fragments of walls or
+inscriptions, which appeal rather to the archæological than the
+æsthetic sense, and must be almost meaningless until their story is
+revealed. In tracing the growth of Cairo I have tried to surround
+the remains of its buildings with the atmosphere of their historic
+associations. Mere topography has charms for the antiquary alone;
+it is only when the material growth of a city is interwoven with
+the life of its people and the character of its rulers that
+topography acquires an interest for all. At the same time I have
+sought to keep closely to the subject—the growth and life of the
+city. This is no general history of Egypt, and many things are
+passed by because they bear no intimate relation to the development
+of its capital.</p>
+
+<p>The authorities upon which I rely are sufficiently cited in the
+footnotes. The greatest Arabic source is of course the elaborate
+<em>Khitat</em> of el-Makrízy, frequently referred to as “the
+Topographer,” who wrote in the early years of the fifteenth
+century, but used various topographical and historical works of
+much<span class="pagenum" id="Page_xi">[xi]</span> earlier date,
+many of which are not otherwise accessible. The remarkable
+accuracy, completeness, and research of his detailed description of
+Cairo need no praise of mine: they are universally recognised.
+Other writers, such as el-Mas‘údy, Násir-i-Khusrau, ‘Abd-el-Latíf,
+Ibn-Gubeyr (the extracts from whom I owe to the kindness of my
+friend, Mr Guy le Strange, the historian of Baghdád, and our most
+learned authority on the geography of the caliphate), Ibn-Sa‘íd,
+Ibn-Dukmak, es-Suyúty, Abu-l-Mahásin, el-Isháky, el-Gabárty, fill
+up the picture, and add valuable, personal, and contemporary
+touches. Lane’s “Cairo Fifty Years Ago” has the merit of presenting
+an account of the city as it was in 1835, before the Europeanizing
+movement begun by Mohammad ‘Aly, and carried to the extreme by
+Isma‘íl, had had time to work much change in the characteristic
+aspect of the town. In archæology I am especially beholden to the
+researches of MM. Max van Berchem, Ravaisse, and Casanova. One
+exception I must note to the generally full references to my
+sources. There is something repugnant, if not to modesty at least
+to the sense of propriety, in frequently citing one’s own books.
+Writing constantly on the subject of Cairo, its art, its monuments,
+and its history, for many years past, it was inevitable that I
+should sometimes repeat what I have said before: indeed, when we
+have written what we have to say in the best shape that we are able
+to devise, it seems mere affectation to try to seek a different
+form of expression. I have therefore quoted, but sparingly, from my
+“Art of the Saracens in Egypt” (published for the Committee of
+Council in 1886), my “Cairo Sketches” (3rd ed., Virtue, 1898), my
+“History of Egypt in the Middle Ages” (Methuen, 1901), and any
+extracts to which no footnote is appended must be understood to
+refer to<span class="pagenum" id="Page_xii">[xii]</span> one of
+these books, generally the “History.” I trust I may be permitted to
+say that for a more complete account of the history than would be
+possible or desirable in the present volume the student should
+consult the last of the three books above cited. Were there any
+other work in English of similar scope I would gladly substitute
+its title. For a much more detailed narrative of the history of the
+Copts than could be here included the reader may turn to Mrs
+Butcher’s “Story of the Church of Egypt” (2 vols., Smith, Elder &
+Co., 1897), a work full of sympathy and appreciation for a
+neglected and persecuted community, though open to criticism in its
+Mohammedan relations.</p>
+
+<p>I have not troubled the reader with an elaborate system of
+transliteration of Arabic names. An acute accent is used merely to
+show where the principal accent falls, not necessarily to indicate
+a long vowel. The vowels are to be pronounced as in Italian, and
+the letter <em>g</em> is employed to represent the Arabic consonant
+that in Cairo is pronounced hard (as in <em>get</em>), but
+elsewhere usually soft (as <em>j</em> in <em>jet</em>). Those who
+are curious to know the exact transliteration should turn to the
+index, where every Arabic word is given in roman letters with
+diacritical points and distinction of the long vowels.</p>
+
+<p>The illustrations have been chosen with a view to showing the
+mediæval city as far as possible before it suffered its European
+change. Nothing could be better for this purpose than the drawings
+made between 1826 and 1838 by Robert Hay of Linplum and by his
+companion Owen B. Carter (about 1830), the originals of which are
+preserved in the Print Room of the British Museum, and some were
+lithographed in Hay’s “Illustrations of Cairo.” These represent the
+mediæval remains as no modern sketches could depict<span class=
+"pagenum" id="Page_xiii">[xiii]</span> them, but Mr J. A. Symington
+has skilfully supplemented them, when no older drawings could be
+obtained.</p>
+
+<p>In conclusion I should wish to draw attention to what I have
+said in the last chapter on the subject of the Commission for the
+Preservation of the Monuments of Arab Art. To its vigilance and
+unremitting labours during the past twenty years we owe the fact
+that the mosques and other remains of Saracenic architecture are
+secure from demolition, and, as far as the conditions admit,
+guarded from decay. Never in the history of Cairo have its
+monuments been in such safe keeping, and everyone must be grateful
+to each member of this invaluable committee. In the last five
+years, since Lord Cromer used his influence to improve its
+financial position, the Commission has been enabled to undertake
+very comprehensive works of scientific restoration, and all who
+visit Cairo should make a point of examining the results of its
+labours and inspecting the collections gathered under the care of
+its chief architect, Herz Bey, in the Museum of Arab Art.</p>
+
+<p class="right pad-right2">STANLEY LANE-POOLE.</p>
+
+<div class="sign1">
+<p><span class="sc">Trinity College, Dublin</span>,<br>
+<em>January 31st</em>, 1902.</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="chap">
+
+<h2 class="large"><span class="pagenum" id=
+"Page_xv">[xv]</span>CONTENTS</h2>
+
+<table class="toc">
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="tdc sect1"><a href="#c01">CHAPTER I</a>
+</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td class="tdr med width6">PAGE</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl hang1 sect2"><em>The Two Cities</em>
+</td>
+<td class="tdr sect2">1-31</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="ind1 pad4">The European and the Egyptian Cairo, <a href=
+"#Page_1">1</a>—Oriental Scenes, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>—The
+Conservative Tradesman, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>—His Shop, <a href=
+"#Page_7">7</a>, and Home, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>—The Zuweyla
+Gate, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>—A Private House, <a href=
+"#Page_11">11</a>—The Mandara, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>—Bedrooms,
+<a href="#Page_17">17</a>—Daily Life, <a href=
+"#Page_18">18</a>—Women’s Life, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>—Cairo
+Festivities, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>—The Hasaneyn, <a href=
+"#Page_23">23</a>—The Mohammad ‘Aly Street, <a href=
+"#Page_27">27</a>—View from the Citadel, <a href=
+"#Page_28">28</a>.</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="tdc sect1"><a href="#c02">CHAPTER II</a>
+</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl hang1 sect2"><em>The Town of the Tent</em>
+</td>
+<td class="tdr sect2">32-58</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="ind1 pad4">Successive Cities at Cairo, <a href=
+"#Page_32">32</a>—Arab Conquest, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>—Treaty
+of Amnesty, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>—The Ancient Misr, <a href=
+"#Page_36">36</a>—Babylon and the Mukawkis, <a href=
+"#Page_37">37</a>—The Copts, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>—Foundation
+of Fustat, “the Tent,” <a href="#Page_40">40</a>—Settlements of the
+Arab Tribes, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>—The Mosque of ‘Amr, <a href=
+"#Page_42">42</a>—The Fortress of Babylon, <a href=
+"#Page_48">48</a>—The Coptic Churches, <a href=
+"#Page_53">53</a>.</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="tdc sect1"><a href="#c03">CHAPTER III</a>
+</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl hang1 sect2"><em>The Faubourgs</em>
+</td>
+<td class="tdr sect2">59-90</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="ind1 pad4">The Caliphs’ Governors, <a href=
+"#Page_59">59</a>—Helwan, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>—Treatment of
+Christians, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>—Monasticism, <a href=
+"#Page_62">62</a>—Conservatism of the Copts, <a href=
+"#Page_64">64</a>—The ‘Abbasid Faubourg el-‘Askar, <a href=
+"#Page_65">65</a>—‘Abbasid Governors, Ibn-Memdud, <a href=
+"#Page_66">66</a>—‘Abdallah ibn Tahir, <a href=
+"#Page_67">67</a>—The Caliph Mamun in Egypt, <a href=
+"#Page_68">68</a>—Persecutions of Muslims and Copts, <a href=
+"#Page_69">69</a>—The Turkish Governors, <a href=
+"#Page_70">70</a>—Their encouragement of Art, <a href=
+"#Page_71">71</a>—Ahmad ibn Tulun, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>—The
+new Faubourg el-Katai‘, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>—The Aqueduct,
+<a href="#Page_77">77</a>—Mosque of Ibn-Tulun, <a href=
+"#Page_78">78</a>—Sources of Saracen Architecture, <a href=
+"#Page_85">85</a>—Ibn-Tulun’s Wars, <a href=
+"#Page_86">86</a>—Khumaraweyh’s Palaces, <a href=
+"#Page_87">87</a>—Egypt recovered by the Caliphs, <a href=
+"#Page_89">89</a>—The Castle of the Ram, <a href=
+"#Page_90">90</a>.</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="tdc sect1"><span class="pagenum" id=
+"Page_xvi">[xvi]</span><a href="#c04">CHAPTER IV</a>
+</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl hang1 sect2"><em>Misr</em>
+</td>
+<td class="tdr sect2">91-112</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="ind1 pad4">Misr-Fustat the Commercial Capital, <a href=
+"#Page_91">91</a>—The Madara’y Ministers, <a href=
+"#Page_92">92</a>—The Ikhshid, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>—Mas‘udy in
+Egypt, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>—The Island of Roda, <a href=
+"#Page_96">96</a>—Divines at Misr, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>—Poets,
+<a href="#Page_98">98</a>—Kafur’s Court, <a href=
+"#Page_100">100</a>—Mohammedan Revels, <a href=
+"#Page_102">102</a>—Kafur’s Government, <a href=
+"#Page_103">103</a>—Misr in the 10th and 11th Centuries, <a href=
+"#Page_104">104</a>—Nasir-i-Khusrau’s Description, <a href=
+"#Page_107">107</a>—The Burning of Misr, <a href=
+"#Page_110">110</a>—Partial Recovery, Ibn-Sa‘id’s Description,
+<a href="#Page_111">111</a>.</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="tdc sect1"><a href="#c05">CHAPTER V</a>
+</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl hang1 sect2"><em>Cairo</em>
+</td>
+<td class="tdr sect2">113-163</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="ind1 pad4">The Shi‘a Revolution, <a href=
+"#Page_113">113</a>—The Fatimid Caliphate, <a href=
+"#Page_116">116</a>—el-Mo‘izz, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>—Conquest
+of Egypt, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>—Foundation of el-Kahira,
+Cairo, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>—Effects of the Revolution,
+<a href="#Page_119">119</a>—The Copts under the Fatimids, <a href=
+"#Page_120">120</a>—el-‘Aziz, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>—The Azhar
+University Mosque, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>—The Palace-city,
+<a href="#Page_125">125</a>—The Great Palace, <a href=
+"#Page_127">127</a>—The Gates of Cairo, <a href=
+"#Page_129">129</a>—Bab-Zuweyla, <a href=
+"#Page_129">129</a>—William of Tyre’s description of the Fatimid
+Court, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>—The Port of Maks and the Fleet,
+<a href="#Page_132">132</a>—Wealth and Art and Luxury of the
+Fatimids, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>—Mosque of el-Hakim, <a href=
+"#Page_137">137</a>—The Caliph Hakim, <a href=
+"#Page_139">139</a>—The Hall of Science, <a href=
+"#Page_142">142</a>—Apotheosis of Hakim, <a href=
+"#Page_142">142</a>—Military Tyranny and Loss of Provinces,
+<a href="#Page_144">144</a>—Cairo in 1047—Cutting the Dam, <a href=
+"#Page_145">145</a>—el-Yazury, <a href=
+"#Page_146">146</a>—Spoliation by the Turks, <a href=
+"#Page_147">147</a>—The Seven Years’ Famine, <a href=
+"#Page_148">148</a>—Bedr el-Gemaly, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>—The
+Second Wall and Gates of Cairo, <a href=
+"#Page_150">150</a>—Armenian Ministers, <a href=
+"#Page_154">154</a>—The Rule of Vezirs, <a href=
+"#Page_157">157</a>—Murders and Military Despotism, <a href=
+"#Page_158">158</a>—Ibn-Ruzzik, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>—Fatimid
+Architecture, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>.</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="tdc sect1"><a href="#c06">CHAPTER VI</a>
+</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl hang1 sect2"><em>Saladin’s Castle</em>
+</td>
+<td class="tdr sect2">164-192</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="ind1 pad4">Causes of the Invasion of Egypt, <a href=
+"#Page_164">164</a>—Turks and Crusaders, <a href=
+"#Page_167">167</a>—Shawar and Dirgham, <a href=
+"#Page_168">168</a>—Amalric and Shirkuh in Egypt, <a href=
+"#Page_169">169</a>—Saladin Vezir, deposition of the Fatimid
+Caliph, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>—Saladin’s Campaigns, <a href=
+"#Page_172">172</a>—His Work at Cairo, <a href=
+"#Page_173">173</a>—The New Walls, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>—The
+Citadel, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>—The Dike of Giza, <a href=
+"#Page_180">180</a>—Risings at Cairo, <a href=
+"#Page_181">181</a>—The Head of Hoseyn, <a href=
+"#Page_182">182</a>—Saladin establishes Medresas or Orthodox
+Colleges, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>—Ibn-Gubeyr’s Account,
+<a href="#Page_184">184</a>—The Hospitals, <a href=
+"#Page_186">186</a>—Characteristics of Mosques and Medresas,
+<a href="#Page_187">187</a>—Results of the Restoration of Orthodoxy
+and encouragement of Learning, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>.</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="tdc sect1"><span class="pagenum" id=
+"Page_xvii">[xvii]</span><a href="#c07">CHAPTER VII</a>
+</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl hang1 sect2"><em>The Dome Builders</em>
+</td>
+<td class="tdr sect2">193-254</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="ind1 pad4">Saphadin el-‘Adil, <a href=
+"#Page_193">193</a>—Great Famine, <a href=
+"#Page_194">194</a>—Invasion of Crusaders, <a href=
+"#Page_195">195</a>—Frederick II and Kamil, <a href=
+"#Page_196">196</a>—The Mamluk System, <a href=
+"#Page_197">197</a>—Queen Sheger-ed-durr and the Bahry Mamluks,
+<a href="#Page_198">198</a>—Crusade of Louis IX, <a href=
+"#Page_201">201</a>—(i) The Turkish Mamluks, <a href=
+"#Page_202">202</a>—Their Wars against Mongols, <a href=
+"#Page_203">203</a>, and Franks, <a href=
+"#Page_205">205</a>—Revival of ‘Abbasid Caliphate, <a href=
+"#Page_206">206</a>—Beybars, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>—The Mamluk
+Court, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>—Turbulence of Emirs, <a href=
+"#Page_210">210</a>—The House of Kalaun, <a href=
+"#Page_211">211</a>—En-Nasir, <a href=
+"#Page_212">212</a>—Toleration of Christians, <a href=
+"#Page_216">216</a>—Popular Fanaticism, <a href=
+"#Page_217">217</a>—Incendiaries, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>—Nasir
+and Abu-l-Fida, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>—Artistic Production,
+<a href="#Page_220">220</a>—Mosques, <a href=
+"#Page_223">223</a>—Emirs’ Mosques, <a href=
+"#Page_224">224</a>—Early Mamluk Style of Architecture, <a href=
+"#Page_227">227</a>—Sultan Hasan, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>—His
+Great Mosque, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>—(ii) The Circassian
+Mamluks, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>—Corruption, <a href=
+"#Page_236">236</a>—Wars, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>—Cultivated
+Tastes, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>—Architecture, <a href=
+"#Page_238">238</a>—Kait-Bey, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>—His
+Buildings, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>—Mosque <em>intra muros</em>,
+<a href="#Page_246">246</a>—Wekala, <a href=
+"#Page_249">249</a>—Mosques of Emirs and of Kady Ibn-Muzhir,
+<a href="#Page_250">250</a>—The Modified Medresa, <a href=
+"#Page_250">250</a>—Buildings of el-Ghury, <a href=
+"#Page_253">253</a>—Ottoman Conquest, <a href=
+"#Page_254">254</a>.</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="tdc sect1"><a href="#c08">CHAPTER VIII</a>
+</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl hang1 sect2"><em>The City of the Arabian Nights</em>
+</td>
+<td class="tdr sect2">257-286</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="ind1 pad4">Expansion of Cairo, <a href=
+"#Page_257">257</a>—Rise of Bulak, <a href=
+"#Page_258">258</a>—Suburban Mosques, <a href=
+"#Page_259">259</a>—The Approach from Bulak, <a href=
+"#Page_260">260</a>—The Thousand and One Nights redacted in Cairo,
+<a href="#Page_261">261</a>—The Transit Trade of Egypt, <a href=
+"#Page_263">263</a>—Merchants’ Inns, <a href=
+"#Page_265">265</a>—The Khan el-Khalily, <a href=
+"#Page_266">266</a>—The Khan of Mesrur, <a href=
+"#Page_269">269</a>—The Wekala Kusun and the Flower Market,
+<a href="#Page_270">270</a>—Streets and Quarters, <a href=
+"#Page_271">271</a>—The Art of Silver Inlay, <a href=
+"#Page_272">272</a>—Cairo Metal Work, <a href=
+"#Page_277">277</a>—Venice, <a href=
+"#Page_279">279</a>—Wood-carving, <a href=
+"#Page_281">281</a>—Meshrebiya turning, <a href=
+"#Page_284">284</a>—Characteristics of Saracenic Art, <a href=
+"#Page_285">285</a>—Men of Letters in the Mamluk Period, <a href=
+"#Page_286">286</a>.</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="tdc sect1"><a href="#c09">CHAPTER IX</a>
+</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl hang1 sect2"><em>Beys and Pashas</em>
+</td>
+<td class="tdr sect2">287-314</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="ind1 pad4">Mamluk Emirs (Beys) still in power, <a href=
+"#Page_287">287</a>—Pasha helpless, <a href=
+"#Page_288">288</a>—Street Fights, <a href=
+"#Page_289">289</a>—‘Othman Bey, <a href="#Page_289">289</a>—Rudwan
+el-Gelfy, <a href="#Page_290">290</a>—The Sharaiby family, <a href=
+"#Page_292">292</a>—Libraries, <a href="#Page_295">295</a>—State of
+Learning, <a href="#Page_296">296</a>—Fanaticism and
+Superstition,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_xviii">[xviii]</span>
+<a href="#Page_297">297</a>—Mosques of the Ottoman Period, <a href=
+"#Page_298">298</a>—‘Aly Bey, <a href=
+"#Page_298">298</a>—‘Abd-er-Rahman Kiahya, <a href=
+"#Page_298">298</a>—Mohammad Bey Abu-dh-Dhahab, <a href=
+"#Page_301">301</a>—Mohammad ‘Aly, <a href=
+"#Page_302">302</a>—Confiscation of Wakf Trusts, <a href=
+"#Page_302">302</a>—The Commission for the Preservation of the
+Monuments of Arab Art, <a href="#Page_303">303</a>—Report to Lord
+Cromer, <a href="#Page_303">303</a>—Preservation, <a href=
+"#Page_305">305</a>—Restoration, <a href="#Page_309">309</a>—Lord
+Cromer’s Action, <a href="#Page_313">313</a>—Grants from the Public
+Debt Commissioners and the Egyptian Government, <a href=
+"#Page_313">313</a>.</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl hang1 sect2 sect15top"><em><a href=
+"#app1">Rulers</a> and Monuments of Cairo</em>
+</td>
+<td class="tdr sect2 sect15top">317-322</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl hang1 sect05top sect2"><em><a href="#app2">Table</a>
+for converting Hijra Years into Anni Domini</em>
+</td>
+<td class="tdr sect05top sect2">323-327</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl hang1 sect05top sect2"><a href=
+"#ind"><em>Index</em></a>
+</td>
+<td class="tdr sect05top sect2">329-340</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<hr class="chap">
+
+<h2 class="large"><span class="pagenum" id=
+"Page_xix">[xix]</span>ILLUSTRATIONS</h2>
+
+<table class="toi">
+<tr>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td class="tdr med">PAGE</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl hang1 sectabove"><em>Lake of the Elephant:
+Birkat-el-Fil.</em>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl-top pad4 sectbelow"><em>O. B. Carter</em> (c.
+1830)</td>
+<td class="tdr-bot sectbelow"><a href=
+"#i01"><em>Frontispiece</em></a>
+</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl hang1 sectabove"><em>Court of a Private House.</em>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl-top pad4 sectbelow"><em>J. A. Symington</em>
+(1902)</td>
+<td class="tdr-bot sectbelow"><a href="#i02">15</a>
+</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl hang1 sectabove"><em>The Citadel.</em>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl-top pad4 sectbelow"><em>J. A. Symington</em>
+</td>
+<td class="tdr-bot sectbelow"><a href="#i03">29</a>
+</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl hang1 sectabove"><em>Court of the Mosque of
+‘Amr.</em>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl-top pad4 sectbelow"><em>J. A. Symington</em>
+</td>
+<td class="tdr-bot sectbelow"><a href="#i04">45</a>
+</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl hang1 sectabove"><em>Gate of Kasr-esh-Shema‘
+(Babylon).</em>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl-top pad4 sectbelow"><em>O. B. Carter</em>
+</td>
+<td class="tdr-bot sectbelow"><a href="#i05">51</a>
+</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl hang1 sectabove"><em>Tower of the Mosque of
+Ibn-Tulun.</em>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl-top pad4 sectbelow"><em>O. B. Carter</em>
+</td>
+<td class="tdr-bot sectbelow"><a href="#i06">73</a>
+</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl hang1 sectabove"><em>Within the Mosque of
+Ibn-Tulun.</em>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl-top pad4 sectbelow"><em>J. A. Symington</em>
+</td>
+<td class="tdr-bot sectbelow"><a href="#i07">81</a>
+</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl hang1 sectabove"><em>Detail of Ornament in Mosque of
+Ibn-Tulun.</em>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl-top pad4 sectbelow"><em>J. A. Symington</em>
+</td>
+<td class="tdr-bot sectbelow"><a href="#i08">84</a>
+</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl hang1 sectabove"><em>Street in Old Misr.</em>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl-top pad4 sectbelow"><em>J. A. Symington</em>
+</td>
+<td class="tdr-bot sectbelow"><a href="#i09">105</a>
+</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl hang1 sectabove"><em>Ruined Mosque of el-Hakim.</em>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl-top pad4 sectbelow"><em>J. A. Symington</em>
+</td>
+<td class="tdr-bot sectbelow"><a href="#i10">135</a>
+</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl hang1 sectabove"><em>Gate of Succour:
+Bab-en-Nasr.</em>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl-top pad4 sectbelow"><em>O. B. Carter</em>
+</td>
+<td class="tdr-bot sectbelow"><a href="#i11">151</a>
+</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl hang1 sectabove"><em>Minarets over Gate of
+Zuweyla.</em>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl-top pad4 sectbelow"><em>O. B. Carter</em>
+</td>
+<td class="tdr-bot sectbelow"><a href="#i12">155</a>
+</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl hang1 sectabove"><em>Mosque of el-Guyushy.</em>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl-top pad4 sectbelow"><em>O. B. Carter</em>
+</td>
+<td class="tdr-bot sectbelow"><a href="#i13">161</a>
+</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl hang1 sectabove"><em>Plan of Cairo before</em>
+1200.</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl-top pad4 sectbelow"><em>After Ravaisse, etc.</em>
+</td>
+<td class="tdr-bot sectbelow"><a href="#i14">165</a>
+</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl hang1 sectabove"><em>Castle of the Ram:
+Kal‘at-el-Kebsh.</em>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl-top pad4 sectbelow"><em>O. B. Carter</em>
+</td>
+<td class="tdr-bot sectbelow"><a href="#i15">177</a>
+</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl hang1 sectabove"><span class="pagenum" id=
+"Page_xx">[xx]</span><em>Plan of Medresa.</em>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl-top pad4 sectbelow"><em>After Murray</em>
+</td>
+<td class="tdr-bot sectbelow"><a href="#i16">190</a>
+</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl hang1 sectabove"><em>Island of er-Roda.</em>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl-top pad4 sectbelow"><em>Robert Hay</em> (c.
+1830)</td>
+<td class="tdr-bot sectbelow"><a href="#i17">199</a>
+</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl hang1 sectabove"><em>“Joseph’s Hall”: Palace of
+en-Nasir in Citadel, with his Mosque in background.</em>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl-top pad4 sectbelow"><em>Robert Hay</em>
+</td>
+<td class="tdr-bot sectbelow"><a href="#i18">213</a>
+</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl hang1 sectabove"><em>Aqueduct and House of the Seven
+Watermills.</em>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl-top pad4 sectbelow"><em>Robert Hay</em>
+</td>
+<td class="tdr-bot sectbelow"><a href="#i19">221</a>
+</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl hang1 sectabove"><em>Mosque of Sultan Hasan.</em>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl-top pad4 sectbelow"><em>O. B. Carter</em>
+</td>
+<td class="tdr-bot sectbelow"><a href="#i20">225</a>
+</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl hang1 sectabove"><em>Gateway of Sultan Hasan’s
+Mosque.</em>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl-top pad4 sectbelow"><em>O. B. Carter</em>
+</td>
+<td class="tdr-bot sectbelow"><a href="#i21">229</a>
+</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl hang1 sectabove"><em>Tomb-Mosque of Barkuk and
+Farag.</em>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl-top pad4 sectbelow"><em>J. A. Symington</em>
+</td>
+<td class="tdr-bot sectbelow"><a href="#i22">233</a>
+</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl hang1 sectabove"><em>Eastern Cemetery: so-called
+“Tombs of the Caliphs.”</em>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl-top pad4 sectbelow"><em>J. A. Symington</em>
+</td>
+<td class="tdr-bot sectbelow"><a href="#i23">239</a>
+</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl hang1 sectabove"><em>Mosque of Kait-Bey.</em>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl-top pad4 sectbelow"><em>J. A. Symington</em>
+</td>
+<td class="tdr-bot sectbelow"><a href="#i24">243</a>
+</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl hang1 sectabove"><em>Tomb-Mosques.</em>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl-top pad4 sectbelow"><em>J. A. Symington</em>
+</td>
+<td class="tdr-bot sectbelow"><a href="#i25">247</a>
+</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl hang1 sectabove"><em>Tombs of the Mamluks.</em>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl-top pad4 sectbelow"><em>J. A. Symington</em>
+</td>
+<td class="tdr-bot sectbelow"><a href="#i26">251</a>
+</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl hang1 sectabove"><em>Sketch-plan showing growth of
+Cairo.</em>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl-top pad4 sectbelow"><em>After E. W. Lane</em>
+(1835)</td>
+<td class="tdr-bot sectbelow"><a href="#i27">256</a>
+</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl hang1 sectabove"><em>Slave Market.</em>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl-top pad4 sectbelow"><em>O. B. Carter (figures by H.
+Warren)</em>
+</td>
+<td class="tdr-bot sectbelow"><a href="#i28">267</a>
+</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl hang1 sectabove"><em>In the Darb-el-Ahmar.</em>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl-top pad4 sectbelow"><em>J. A. Symington</em>
+</td>
+<td class="tdr-bot sectbelow"><a href="#i29">275</a>
+</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl hang1 sectabove"><em>Street near Bab-el-Khark.</em>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl-top pad4 sectbelow"><em>O. B. Carter</em>
+</td>
+<td class="tdr-bot sectbelow"><a href="#i30">293</a>
+</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl hang1 sectabove"><em>A Muslim Graveyard.</em>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl-top pad4 sectbelow"><em>J. A. Symington</em>
+</td>
+<td class="tdr-bot sectbelow"><a href="#i31">315</a>
+</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl hang1 sectabove"><em>Map of Cairo</em>
+</td>
+<td class="tdr-bot sectabove"><a href="#map"><em>At end</em></a>
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<hr class="chap">
+
+<p class="center xxlarge space-above pb"><span class="pagenum" id=
+"Page_1">[1]</span>The Story of Cairo</p>
+
+<div class="figdecor iwdecor1">
+<figure><img alt="[Decoration]" src="images/decor1.jpg">
+</figure>
+</div>
+
+<h2 class="nopb letter-spaced01"><a id="c01"></a>CHAPTER I</h2>
+
+<p class="sch1"><em>The Two Cities</em>
+</p>
+
+<p class="dcap">THERE are two Cairos, distinct in character, though
+but slenderly divided in site. There is a European Cairo, and there
+is an Egyptian Cairo. The last was once El-Káhira, “the
+Victorious,” founded under the auspices of the planet Mars, but it
+is now so little conquering, indeed has become so subdued, that one
+hears it spoken of as “the native quarters,” or even in Indian
+fashion as “the bazars.” In truth European Cairo knows little of
+its mediæval sister. Thousands of tourists, mounted on thousands of
+donkeys, do indeed explore “the native quarters” every winter, but
+these do not belong to European Cairo; birds of passage they are,
+not inhabitants. The true resident, who has his cool shaded house
+and breezy balcony in the Isma‘ilíya quarter, surrounded by
+hundreds of similar comfortable villas, does not by any chance ride
+donkeys, and is only dragged to “the bazars” rarely and with
+obvious reluctance by the importunity of some enthusiastic visitor.
+But even in European Cairo there are signs that another Cairo, an
+Oriental, Muslim Cairo, exists not far away. Let the English colony
+keep never so closely to itself and<span class="pagenum" id=
+"Page_2">[2]</span> ignore “the native quarters,” except as objects
+for just government and wise reforms, it cannot walk abroad, or
+even open its ears in its own chambers, without becoming conscious
+of the true Oriental world in which it lives but of which it is
+not. Go to the Post Office, a few minutes’ walk from most of the
+hotels, and you are at once in a medley of East and West.</p>
+
+<p>A German nursemaid, accompanied by the little daughter of the
+family, is asking for letters at the <em>arrivée</em> window, and
+an old sheykh in <em>kaftán</em> and turban is negotiating a
+money-order or a registered letter at the next bureau. Over the way
+a row of public letter-writers sit at their tables on the sideway,
+gravely imperturbable, awaiting illiterate correspondents. In the
+street, omnibuses and tram-cars rumble by, blowing strident horns;
+but the passengers who sit on the seats beneath the awning are not
+Europeans—they are Egyptians, efendis, clerks, shopkeepers,
+sheykhs, often simple fellahín come to town on business and driving
+in from Bulák or Kasr-en-Nil. On the footpaths—always uneven and
+often muddy, in curious contrast to the roads, which are kept clean
+by circular brushes and little girl scavengers—the European
+element, Greek, German, Italian, chiefly, is intimately blended
+with the Oriental: Sudány women closely veiled with the white
+<em>burko‘</em>, which sets off their swarthy brows and black eyes
+to advantage; Egyptian girls in blue gowns and black veils hanging
+loose and allowing the well-formed neck and line of cheek and chin
+to be seen, whilst concealing the only part a woman scrupulously
+hides in the East, her mouth; horrible blear-eyed old harridans,
+veiled with immaculate precision, squatting in rows against the
+house-fronts; Bedawis striding along in the roadway with the
+striped <em>kufíya</em> wound round their heads;<span class=
+"pagenum" id="Page_3">[3]</span> strings of camels tied together,
+laden with <em>bersím</em>, the rich fodder of Egypt, and driven by
+the smallest of urchins; petty Government clerks, or efendis, clad
+in <em>stambúly</em> and <em>tarbúsh</em>, hunched up on
+donkey-back; all classes and ages and sexes mingled together in a
+jostling, perspiring, but good-tempered crowd; and everywhere the
+pungent pervasive odour of the East.</p>
+
+<p>Even in the European quarters you still meet the veritable
+Eastern sights and sounds. As you look out of your hotel window you
+will see a native musician sauntering by, twanging the lute of the
+country; then a sound like the tinkling of baby cymbals informs you
+that the <em>sherbétly</em> is going his round, with his huge
+glass-jar slung at his side, from which he dispenses (to the
+unwary) sweet sticky drinks of liquorice juice or orange syrup in
+the brass saucers which he clinks unceasingly in his hand. Late at
+night sounds of Eastern life invade your pillow: the “rumble of a
+distant drum” tells you that a wedding party is perambulating the
+streets, and if you have the curiosity to sally forth you will be
+rewarded by one of the characteristic sights of Cairo, in which old
+and new are oddly blended. Probably a circumcision festival is
+combined with the wedding to save expense; and the procession will
+be headed by the barber’s sign, a wooden frame raised aloft,
+followed by two or three gorgeously caparisoned camels—regular
+stage-properties hired out for such occasions—carrying drummers,
+and leading the way for a series of carriages crammed with little
+boys, each holding a neat white handkerchief to his mouth, to keep
+out the devil and the evil eye. Then comes a closed carriage
+covered all over with a big cashmere shawl, held down firmly at the
+sides by brothers and other relations of the imprisoned bride; then
+more carriages and a general crowd of sympathizers. More rarely the
+bride is borne in a cashmere-covered<span class="pagenum" id=
+"Page_4">[4]</span> litter swung between two camels, fore and aft;
+the hind camel must tuck his head under the litter, and is probably
+quite as uncomfortable as the bride, who runs a fair chance of
+sea-sickness in her rolling palankin. In the old days the bride
+walked through the streets under a canopy carried by her friends,
+but this is now quite out of fashion, and European carriages are
+rapidly ousting even the camel-litters. But the cashmere shawl and
+the veil will not soon be abandoned. The Egyptian woman is, at
+least in public, generally modest. She detects a stranger’s glance
+with magical rapidity, even when to all appearance looking the
+other way, and forthwith the veil is pulled closer over her mouth
+and nose. When she meets you face to face, she does not drop her
+big eyes in the absurd fashion of Western modesty; she slowly turns
+them away from you: it is annihilating.</p>
+
+<p>As soon as you have turned your back on the European suburb and
+the hotel region, and escaped from the glass shop fronts and Greek
+dealers of the Musky, the real Eastern city begins to dominate you.
+It is quite easy to lose oneself in the quaint old streets of
+Muslim Cairo when only an occasional passer-by reminds one that
+Europe is at the gates. A large part of Cairo is very little
+spoilt: it is still in a great degree the city of the Arabian
+Nights.</p>
+
+<p>In that stall round the corner who knows but that the immortal
+Barber is recounting the adventures of his luckless brothers to the
+impatient lover on the shaving stool? At this very moment the Three
+Royal Mendicants may be entertaining the fair Portress and her
+delightful sisters with the story of their calamities, and if you
+wait till night you may even see the “good” Harún er-Rashíd
+himself—though it is true he lived at Baghdád—coming on his
+stealthy midnight rambles with prudent Ga‘far at his heels and
+black Mesrúr<span class="pagenum" id="Page_5">[5]</span> to clear
+the way. A few streets away from the European quarters it is easy
+to dream that we are acting a part in the moving histories of the
+Thousand and One Nights, which do in fact describe Cairo and its
+people as they were in the Middle Ages, and as they are in a great
+measure still. In its very dilapidation the city assists the
+illusion. The typical Eastern houses falling to ruins, which no one
+thinks of repairing, are the natural homes of ‘Efríts and
+mischievous Ginn, who keep away god-fearing tenants. But if in its
+ruined houses, far more in what remains of its glorious monuments
+does Cairo transport us to the golden age of Arabian art and
+culture. Among its mosques and colleges and the scanty remnants of
+its palaces are the purest examples of Saracenic architecture that
+can be seen in all the once wide empire of Islam. Damascus and
+Ispahan, Agra and Delhi, Cordova and Granada, Brusa and
+Constantinople, possess elements of beauty and features of style
+which Cairo has not, and they enlarge and complete our
+understanding of Arab art; but to view that art in its purity,
+uncorrupted by the mechanical detail of the Alhambra, unspoilt by
+the over-elaboration of Delhi, we must study the mosques and tombs
+of Cairo.</p>
+
+<p>The blessed conservatism of the East has happily maintained much
+of the old city in its beautiful ruinous unprogressive disorder.
+There are of course new houses and rebuilt fronts and even glass
+window-sashes; the exquisite <em>meshrebíyas</em> with their
+intricate turned lattice work are nearly all gone to make way for
+Italian <em>persiennes</em>, and the stone benches in front of the
+shops have disappeared in deference to the modern exigencies of
+carriages. But the general aspect of the streets has not seriously
+altered in recent years, and the people who press through the
+crowded lanes, or sit in their little cells of shops at the receipt
+of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_6">[6]</span> custom, are
+unchanged. They dress as their ancestors dressed ages ago; their
+ideas and education are much what they always were, though the new
+schools are gradually infusing more modern notions; they are still
+as calm and easy-going and procrastinating as ever. The only
+conspicuous change is the dethronement of the time-honoured
+<em>shibúk</em>,—the long pipe of meditation and stately leisure
+and “asphodel and moly” and all that is implied in the ineffable
+dreamland of <em>keyf</em>,—in favour of the restless undignified
+cigarette; but <em>nargílas</em> and cocoa-nut pipes for hashísh
+are still in full play among the lower classes. The tradespeople
+are the conservative element in Egypt, as everywhere else. The
+upper classes are becoming every year less Oriental in outward
+appearance and habits. They dance with “infidel” ladies, wear Frank
+clothes, and delight in the little French pieces played in the
+Ezbekíya garden. Even their national coffee cups are made in
+Europe, and save for the red tarbúsh, and certain mental and moral
+idiosyncracies difficult to eliminate and unnecessary to describe,
+the Egyptian gentleman might almost pass muster in a Parisian
+crowd. It is the tradesman who recalls the past, keeps up the old
+traditions, and walks in the old paths. The course of the world
+runs slowly in the working East, and the Cairene shopkeeper has
+placidly stood still whilst the Western world joined in the
+everlasting “move on” of modern civilization.</p>
+
+<p>“We shall find this stand-still mortal in one of the main
+thoroughfares of the city. Leaving the European quarter behind, and
+taking little note of the Greek and Italian shops in the renovated
+Musky, we turn off to the right into the Ghuríya—one of those
+larger but still narrow streets which are distinguished with the
+name of <em>shari‘</em> or thoroughfare. Such a street is lined on
+either side with little box-like shops, which<span class="pagenum"
+id="Page_7">[7]</span> form an unbroken boundary on either hand,
+except where a mosque door, or a public fountain, or the entrance
+to another street interrupts for a brief space the row of stores.
+None of the private doors or windows we are accustomed to in Europe
+breaks the line of shops. For a considerable distance all the
+traders deal in the same commodity—be it sugar-plums or slippers.
+The system has its advantages, for if one dealer be too dear, the
+next may be cheap; and the competition of many contiguous salesmen
+brings about a salutary reduction in prices. On the other hand, it
+must be allowed that it is fatiguing to have to order your coat in
+half-a-dozen different places—to buy the cloth in one direction,
+the buttons in another, the braid in a third, the lining in a
+fourth, the thread in a fifth, and then to have to go to quite
+another place to find a tailor to cut it out and sew it together.
+And as each dealer has to be bargained with, and generally smoked
+with, if not coffeed with, if you get your coat ordered in a single
+morning you may count yourself expeditious.</p>
+
+<p>“In one of these little cupboards that do duty for shops, we may
+or may not find the typical tradesman we are seeking. It may chance
+he has gone to say his prayers, or to see a friend, or perhaps he
+did not feel inclined for business to-day; in which case the
+folding shutters of his shop will be closed, and as he does not
+live anywhere near, and as, if he did, there is no bell, no private
+door, and no assistant, we may wait there for ever, so far as he is
+concerned, and get no answer to our inquiries. His neighbour next
+door, however, will obligingly inform us that the excellent man
+whom we are seeking has gone to the mosque, and we accordingly
+betake ourselves to our informer and make his acquaintance
+instead.</p>
+
+<p>“Our new friend is sitting in a recess some five feet square,
+and rather more than six feet high, raised a<span class="pagenum"
+id="Page_8">[8]</span> foot or two from the ground; and within this
+narrow compass he has collected all the wares he thinks he is
+likely to sell, and has also reserved room for himself and his
+customers to sit down and smoke cigarettes while they bargain. Of
+course his stock must be very limited, but then all his neighbours
+are ready to help him; and if you cannot find what you want within
+the compass of his four walls, he will leave you with a cigarette
+and a cup of coffee, or perhaps Persian tea in a tumbler, while he
+goes to find the <em>desideratum</em> among the wares of his
+colleagues round about.</p>
+
+<p>“Meanwhile, you drink your scalding aromatic coffee and watch
+the throng that passes by: the ungainly camels, laden with
+brushwood or green fodder, which seem to threaten to sweep
+everything and everybody out of the street;—the respectable
+towns-people, mounted on grey or brown asses, ambling along
+contentedly, save when an unusually severe blow from the inhuman
+donkey-boy running behind makes their beasts swerve incontinently
+to the right or left, as though they had a hinge in their
+middle;—the grandees in their two-horse carriages, preceded by
+breathless runners, who clear the way for their masters with shrill
+shouts—“Shemálak, ya weled!” (“To thy left, O boy!”) “Yemínik, ya
+Sitt!” (“To thy right, O lady!”) “Iftah ‘eynak, ya Am!” (“Open
+thine eye, O uncle!”) and the like;—the women with trays of
+eatables on their heads, the water-carrier with goat-skin under
+arm, and the vast multitude of blue-robed men and women who have
+something or other to do, which takes them indeed along the street,
+but does not take them very hurriedly. In spite of the apparent
+rush and crush, the crowd moves slowly, like everything else in the
+East.</p>
+
+<p>“Our friend returns with the desired article; we approve it,
+guardedly, and with cautious tentative<span class="pagenum" id=
+"Page_9">[9]</span> aspect demand, ‘How much?’ The answer is always
+at least twice the fair price. We reply, first by exclaiming, ‘I
+seek refuge with God’ (from exorbitance), and then by offering
+about half the fair price. The dealer shakes his head, looks
+disappointed with us, shows he expected better sense in people of
+our appearance, puts aside his goods, and sits down to another
+cigarette. After a second ineffectual bid, we summon our donkey and
+prepare to mount. At this moment the shopman relents, and reduces
+his price; but we are obdurate, and begin riding away. He pursues
+us, agrees almost to our terms; we return, pay, receive our
+purchase, commend him to the protection of God, and wend our way
+on.</p>
+
+<p>“But if, instead of going on, we accompany our late antagonist
+in the bargain to his own home, we shall see what a middle-class
+Cairene house is like. Indeed, a middle-class dwelling in Cairo may
+sometimes chance to be a palace, for the modern Pasha despises the
+noble mansions that were the pride and delight of better men than
+he in the good old days of the Mamlúks, and prefers to live in
+shadeless ‘Route No. 29,’ or thereabouts, in the modern
+bricklayer’s paradise known as the Isma‘ilíya quarter; and hence
+the tradesman may sometimes occupy the house where some great Bey
+of former times held his state, and marshalled his retainers, when
+he prepared to strike a blow for the precarious throne that was
+always at the command of the strongest battalions. But all Cairene
+houses of the old style are very much alike: they differ only in
+size and in the richness or poverty of the decoration; and if our
+merchant’s home is better than most of its neighbours, we have but
+to subtract a few of the statelier rooms, and reduce the scale of
+the others, to obtain a fair idea of the houses on either hand and
+round about.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_10">[10]</span>“The street we now
+enter is quite different from that we have left. We have been doing
+our shopping in the busy Cheapside of Cairo, and in full view of
+the lofty façade of the mosque of the Mamlúk Sultan El-Muáyyad. Its
+two minarets stand upon a fine old gate called Bab Zawíla (or
+commonly Zuweyla), which people now-a-days generally prefer to call
+the Bab el-Mutawélly, because it is believed to be a favourite
+resort of the mysterious Kutb el-Mutawélly, or pope (for the time
+being) of all the saints. This very holy personage is gifted with
+powers of invisibility and of instantaneous change of place: he
+flies unseen from the top of the Kaaba at Mekka to the Bab Zuweyla,
+and there reposes in a niche behind the wooden door. True believers
+tell their beads as they pass this niche, and the curious peep in
+to see if the saint be there; and if you have a headache, there is
+no better cure than to drive a nail into the door; while a sure
+remedy for the toothache is to pull out the tooth and hang it up on
+the same venerated spot. Perhaps pulling the tooth out might of
+itself cure the ache; but the suggestion savours of impiety, and at
+any rate it is safer to fix the molar up. The door bristles with
+unpleasing votive offerings of this sort, and if they were all
+successful the Kutb must be an excellent doctor.</p>
+
+<p>“The street thus barred by the Bab Zuweyla is, for Cairo, a
+broad one; and shops, mosques, wekálas (or caravanserais), and
+fountains form its boundaries. In complete contrast, the street we
+are now to enter, as we turn down a by-lane and then wheel sharply
+to the left, has no shops, though there is a little mosque,
+probably the tomb of a venerated saint, at the corner. Its broad
+bands of red and white relieve the deep shadows of the lane, each
+side of which is composed of the tall backs of houses, with nothing
+to vary the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_11">[11]</span>
+white-washed walls except the closely grated windows. On either
+hand still narrower alleys open off, sometimes mere
+<em>culs-de-sac</em>, but often threading the city for a
+considerable distance. In these solitary courts we may still see
+the <em>meshrebíyas</em> which are becoming so rare in the more
+frequented thoroughfares. The best lattices are reserved for the
+interior windows of the house, which look on the inner court or
+garden; but there are not a few streets in Cairo where the
+passenger still stops to admire tier upon tier and row after row of
+meshrebíyas which give a singularly picturesque appearance to the
+houses.</p>
+
+<p>“The name is derived from the root which means to drink (which
+occurs in ‘sherbet’), and is applied to lattice windows because the
+porous water-bottles are often placed in them to cool. Frequently
+there is a little semi-circular niche projecting out of the middle
+of the lattice for the reception of a <em>kulla</em> or carafe. The
+delicately turned nobs and balls, by which the patterns of the
+lattice-work are formed, are sufficiently near together to conceal
+whatever passes within from the inquisitive eyes of opposite
+neighbours, and yet there is enough space between them to allow
+free access of air. A meshrebíya is, indeed, a cooling place for
+human beings as well as water-jars, and at once a convent-grating
+and a spying-place for the women of the harím, who can watch their
+Lovelace through the meshes of the windows without being seen in
+return. Yet there are convenient little doors that open in the
+lattice-work if the inmates choose to be seen even as they see; and
+the fair ladies of Cairo are not always above the pardonable vanity
+of letting a passer-by discover that they are fair.</p>
+
+<p>“In one of these by-lanes we stop before an arched doorway, and
+tie our donkey to the ring beside it. The door is a study in
+itself. The upper part is<span class="pagenum" id=
+"Page_12">[12]</span> surrounded by arabesque patterns, which form
+a square decoration above it, often very tasteful in the case of
+the older doorways. Sometimes the wooden door itself has arabesques
+on it, and the inscription ‘God is the Creator, the Eternal,’ which
+is a charm against sickness and demons and the evil eye, and also
+serves as a <em>memento mori</em> to the master of the house
+whenever he comes home. There is no bell, for the prophet declared
+that a bell is the devil’s musical instrument, and that where a
+bell is the angels do not resort—and sometimes there is no knocker,
+so we batter upon the door with our stick or fist. It generally
+takes several knockings to make oneself heard; but this is not a
+land where people hurry overmuch—did not our lord Mohammad, upon
+whom be peace, say that ‘haste came from the devil’—so we conform
+to the ways of the land, and console ourselves with the antithetic
+text, ‘God is with the patient.’ At last a fumbling sound is heard
+on the other side, the doorkeeper is endeavouring to fit a stick,
+with little wire pins arranged upon it in a certain order, into
+corresponding holes bored at the end of a deep mortice in the
+sliding bolt of the door. These are the key and lock of Cairo. The
+sliding bolt runs through a wooden staple on the door into a slot
+in the jamb. When it is home, certain movable pins drop down from
+the staple into holes in the sliding bolt and prevent its being
+drawn back. The introduction of the key with pins corresponding to
+the holes in the bolt lifts the movable pins and permits the bolt
+to be slidden back. Nothing could be clumsier or more easy to pick.
+A piece of wax at the end of a stick will at once reveal the
+position of the pins, and the rest is simple.</p>
+
+<p>“Within is a passage, which bends sharply after the first yard
+or two, and bars any view into the interior from the open door. At
+the end of this passage we<span class="pagenum" id=
+"Page_13">[13]</span> emerge into an open court, with a well of
+brackish water in a shady corner, and perhaps an old sycamore. Here
+is no sign of life; the doors are jealously closed, the windows
+shrouded by those beautiful screens of net-like woodwork which
+delight the artist and tempt the collector. The inner court is
+almost as silent and deserted as the guarded windows which overlook
+the street. We shall see nothing of the domestic life of the
+inhabitants; for the women’s apartments are carefully shut off from
+the court, into which open only the guest rooms and other masculine
+and semi-public apartments. After the bustle of the street this
+quiet and ample space is very refreshing, and one feels that the
+Egyptian architects have happily realized the requirements of
+Eastern life. They make the streets narrow and overshadow them with
+projecting meshrebíyas, because the sun beats down too fiercely for
+the wide street of European towns to be endurable. But they make
+the houses themselves spacious and surround them with courts and
+gardens, because without air the heat of the rooms in summer would
+be intolerable. The Eastern architect’s art lies in so constructing
+your house that you cannot look into your neighbour’s windows, nor
+he into yours; and the obvious way of attaining this end is to
+build the rooms round a high open court, and to closely veil the
+windows with lattice blinds, which admit a subdued light and
+sufficient air, and permit an outlook without allowing the passing
+stranger to see through. The wooden screens and secluded court are
+necessary to fulfil the requirements of the Mohammedan system of
+separating the sexes.</p>
+
+<p>“The lower rooms, opening directly off the court, are those into
+which a man may walk with impunity and no risk of meeting any of
+the women. Into one of these lower rooms our host conducts us, with
+polite entreaty to do him the honour of making ourselves
+at<span class="pagenum" id="Page_14">[14]</span> home. It is the
+guest-room, or <em>mandara</em>, and serves as an example of the
+ordinary dwelling-room of the better sort. The part of the room
+where we enter is of a lower level than the rest, and if it be a
+really handsome house we shall find this lower part paved with
+marble mosaic and cooled by a fountain in the middle; while
+opposite the door is a marble slab raised upon arches, where the
+water-bottles, coffee-cups, and washing materials are kept.</p>
+
+<p>“We leave our outer shoes on the marble before we step upon the
+carpeted part of the room. It is covered with rugs, and furnished
+by a low divan round three sides. The end wall is filled by a
+meshrebíya, which is furnished within with cushions, while above it
+some half-dozen windows, composed of small pieces of coloured glass
+let into a framework of stucco, so as to form a floral pattern,
+admit a half-light. The two sides, whitewashed where there is
+neither wood nor tiles, are furnished with shallow cupboards with
+doors of complicated geometrical panelling. Small arched niches on
+either side of the cupboards, and a shelf above, are filled with
+jars and vases, and other ornaments. The ceiling is formed of
+planks laid on massive beams and generally painted a dark red, but
+in old houses the ceilings are often beautifully decorated. There
+are no tables, chairs, or fireplaces, or indeed any of the things a
+European understands to be furniture. When a meal is to be eaten, a
+little table is brought in; if the weather be cold a brazier of
+red-hot charcoal is kindled; instead of chairs the Cairene tucks
+his legs up under him on the divan—an excellent method of getting
+the cramp, for Europeans.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenterplate iw5">
+<figure id="i02"><a href="images/i02.jpg"><img src='images/i02.jpg'
+alt=''></a>
+<p class="cp2">COURT OF A PRIVATE HOUSE</p>
+</figure>
+</div>
+
+<p>“There is often another reception-room, raised above the ground,
+but entered by steps from the court, into which it looks through an
+open arched front; and<span class="pagenum" id=
+"Page_17">[17]</span> frequently a recess in the court, under one
+of the upper rooms, is furnished with a divan for hot weather. A
+door opens out of the court into the staircase leading to the harím
+rooms, and here no man but the master of the house may penetrate.
+‘<em>Harím</em>’ means what is ‘prohibited’ to other men, and what
+is ‘sacred’ to the master himself. The harím rooms are the domestic
+part of the house. When a man retires there he is in the bosom of
+his family, and it would need a very urgent affair to induce the
+doorkeeper to summon him down to anyone who called to see him.
+Among the harím apartments there is generally a large sitting-room,
+like the mandara, called the <em>ká‘a</em>, with perhaps a cupola
+over it; and in front of the ká‘a is a vestibule, which serves as a
+ventilating and cooling place, for a sloping screen over an open
+space on the roof of this room is so turned as to conduct the cool
+north breezes into the house in hot weather; and here the family
+often sleep in summer.</p>
+
+<p>“There are no bedrooms in a Mohammedan house, or rather no rooms
+furnished as bedrooms, for there are plenty of separate chambers
+where the inmates sleep, but not one of them has any of what we
+conceive to be the requisites of bedroom furniture. The only
+fittings the Cairene asks for the night consist of a mattress and
+pillow, and perhaps a blanket in winter and a mosquito-net in
+summer, the whole of which he rolls up in the morning and deposits
+in some cupboard or side room; whereupon the bedroom becomes a
+sitting-room. There is another important department of the
+harím—the bathroom—not a mere room with a fixed bath in it, but a
+suite of complicated heated stone apartments, exactly resembling
+the public Turkish baths. It is only a large house that boasts this
+luxury, however, and most people go out to bathe, if they care to
+bathe at all.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_18">[18]</span>“The inhabitants
+of a house, such as that described, lead a dreary monotonous life;
+fortunately, however, they are not often conscious of its
+emptiness. The master rises very early, for the Muslim must say the
+daybreak prayers. A pipe and a cup of coffee is often all he takes
+before his light mid-day meal, and he generally reserves his
+appetite for the chief repast of the day—the supper or dinner—which
+he eats soon after sunset. If he is in business he spends the day
+in more or less irregular attendance at his shop, smokes almost
+incessantly either the new-fangled Turkish cigarette, or the
+traditional <em>shibúk</em>, with its handsome amber mouthpiece,
+its long cherry-wood stem, and red-clay bowl filled with mild
+Gébely or Latakía tobacco. If he has no special occupation, he
+amuses himself with calling on his friends, or indulges in long
+dreamy hours in the warm atmosphere of the public bath, where the
+vapour of the hot-water tanks, and the dislocation of each
+particular joint in the shampooing, and the subsequent interval of
+cooling and smoking and coffee, are all exceedingly delightful in a
+hot climate. When he goes out, a man of any position or wealth
+never condescends to walk; as a rule he rides a donkey, sometimes a
+horse; but the donkey is far the more convenient in crowded
+streets. Indeed, an Egyptian ass of the best breed is a fine
+animal, and fetches sometimes as much as a hundred guineas; his
+paces are both fast and easy, and it is not difficult to write a
+letter on the pummel of one of these ambling mounts.</p>
+
+<p>“While their lord is paying his calls or attending to his shop,
+the women of his household make shift to pass the time as best they
+may. In spite of popular ideas on the subject, Mohammedans seldom
+have more than one wife, though they sometimes add to their regular
+marriage a left-handed connexion with an Abyssinian or other
+slave-girl. Efforts, however, are being made<span class="pagenum"
+id="Page_19">[19]</span> to put down the traffic in slaves, and if
+the trade be really suppressed, as it is already in law, the
+Cairene will become monogamous. The late Khedive himself set an
+excellent example in this, as in most other respects, and the
+better sort of Muslims are, to say the least, as moral as ordinary
+Christians. Facility of divorce is the real difficulty. Men will
+not keep several wives, because it costs a good deal to allow them
+separate houses or suites of rooms, and plurality does not conduce
+to domestic harmony; but they do not hesitate to divorce a wife
+when they are tired of her, and take a new one in her place. It is
+said the caliph ‘Aly thus married and divorced two hundred women in
+his time; and a certain dyer of Baghdád even reached the
+astonishing total of nine hundred wives: he died at the good old
+age of eight-five, and if he married at fifteen, he would have had
+a fresh spouse for every month during seventy years of conjugal
+felicity. Divorce was so easy that there seems no great reason why
+he should not have married nine thousand. One lady is said to have
+reduced the fatiguing ceremony of wedlock to extremely convenient
+dimensions. The man said to her <em>Khitb</em>, and she replied
+<em>Nikh</em>, and the wedding was over! Thus did she marry forty
+husbands, and her son Khárija was sorely puzzled to identify his
+father. A governor of Upper Egypt was no mean disciple of these
+illustrious leaders; but the habit has become more and more
+uncommon.</p>
+
+<p>“There would be much more excuse for the women to demand
+polyandria than for the men to ask for polygynaecia; for while the
+husband can go about and enjoy himself as he pleases, the women of
+his family are often hard pushed to it to find any diversion in
+their dull lives. Sometimes they make up a party and engage a whole
+public bath; and then the screams of<span class="pagenum" id=
+"Page_20">[20]</span> laughter bear witness how the girls of Egypt
+enjoy a romp. Or else the mistress goes in state to call upon some
+friends, mounted upon the high ass, enveloped in a balloon of black
+silk, her face concealed, all but the eyes, by a white veil, and
+attended by a trusty manservant. These visits to other haríms are
+the chief delights of the ladies of Cairo: unlimited gossip,
+sweetmeats, inspection of toilettes, perhaps some singers or
+dancers to hear and behold—these are their simple joys. They have
+no education whatever, and cannot understand higher or more
+intellectual pleasures than those their physical senses can
+appreciate: to eat, to dress, to chatter, to sleep, to dream away
+the sultry hours on a divan, to stimulate their husband’s
+affections and keep him to themselves—this is to <em>live</em>, in
+a harím. An Englishwoman asked an Egyptian lady how she passed her
+time. ‘I sit on this sofa,’ she answered, ‘and when I am tired, I
+cross over and sit on that.’ Embroidery is one of the few
+occupations of the harím; but no lady thinks of busying herself
+with the flower-garden which is often attached to the house.
+Indeed, the fair houris we imagine behind the lattice-windows are
+very dreary, uninteresting people; they know nothing, and take but
+an indifferent interest in anything that goes on; they are just
+beautiful—a few of them—and nothing more.</p>
+
+<p>“In truth the Egyptian ladies cannot venture to give themselves
+airs; they suffer from the low opinion which all Mohammedans
+entertain of the fair sex. The unalterable iniquity of womankind is
+an incontrovertible fact among the men of the East; it is part of
+their religion. Did not the blessed Prophet say, ‘I stood at the
+gate of Paradise, and lo! most of its inhabitants were the poor:
+and I stood at the gates of Hell, and lo! most of its inhabitants
+were women?’ Is it not, moreover, a physiological fact that
+woman<span class="pagenum" id="Page_21">[21]</span> was made out of
+a <em>crooked</em> rib of Adam; which would break if you tried to
+bend it, and if you left it alone it would always remain crooked?
+And is it not related that when the Devil heard of the creation of
+woman, he laughed with delight, and said, ‘Thou art half of my
+host, and thou art the depositary of my secret, and thou art my
+arrow with which I shoot and miss not!’ It is no wonder that a
+learned doctor gave advice to his disciple, before he entered upon
+any serious undertaking, to consult ten intelligent persons among
+his particular friends, or if he have not more than five such
+friends, let him consult each of them twice; or if he have not more
+than one friend, he should consult him ten times, at ten different
+visits; if he have not one to consult, let him return to his wife
+and consult her, and whatever she advises him to do, let him do the
+contrary: so shall he proceed rightly in his affair and attain his
+object. Following in the steps of this pious Father, the Muslims
+have always treated women as an inferior order of beings, necessary
+indeed, and ornamental, but certainly not entitled to respect or
+deference. Hence they rarely educate their daughters; hence they
+seek in their wives beauty and docility, and treat them either as
+pretty toys, to be played with and broken and cast away, or as
+useful links in the social economy, good to bear children and order
+a household.”<a id="FNanchor_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_1" class=
+"fnanchor">[1]</a></p>
+
+<p>The fatal blot upon Muslim society is this contempt of women,
+which far more than counterbalances the good effects of the
+Mohammedan doctrine of the equality of all true believers in the
+sight of God, and the ease of manner and independence of opinion
+which result from the sense of fraternity in the sacred bond of
+Islám. The picture we have drawn of the daily life of the Cairene
+is perhaps too sombre, and we<span class="pagenum" id=
+"Page_22">[22]</span> should watch our tradesman at his revels in
+order to understand the brighter side of his life. It is true these
+excitements are strictly connected with his religion, but so are
+the Roman Catholic holidays, and if one must dissipate it is
+soothing to the conscience to do it under the auspices of a saint.
+The Muslim, however, takes an unnatural delight in pious
+celebrations. The wedding guest of Cairo has his own importunate
+Ancient Mariner in the <em>Khatma</em> or recital of the entire
+Korán, from cover to cover, which a worthy bridegroom frequently
+provides for the entertainment of his friends. When the people of
+Cairo wish to go in for serious dissipation they visit the graves
+of their relations, and then, in houses expressly reserved for
+cheerful mourners, they listen to the chanting of the holy book.
+<em>Voilà un terrible humeur d’homme!</em> <em>Tristes</em> as we
+are said to be in England in our manner of amusing ourselves, even
+an Ibsen audience would stand aghast at the Muslim’s staid
+diversions. He certainly makes the most of curiously unpromising
+materials. The feast of St Simon and St Jude does not perhaps
+suggest exhilaration to an unimaginative Englishman, but your
+Cairene will intensely enjoy, in his sedate way, the holidays of
+his religion. There are plenty of them, and a Cairo <em>Mólid</em>
+or “birthday” is not a one-day’s festival, like mere Christian
+feasts, but lasts sometimes as long as nine days at a stretch.
+Every tourist knows some of them, such as the Kiswa or Holy Carpet
+procession, and the passing of the Mahmal with the pilgrim caravan
+to Mekka, and they are worth seeing, if they happen to fall within
+the “season”—for the Muslim year still retains the unreformed lunar
+calendar, which shifts continually and carries the feasts round
+with it. There is hardly a week in the year however without some
+special rite or spectacle. It may be the <em>Ashúra</em>
+or<span class="pagenum" id="Page_23">[23]</span> 10th of Moharram
+(the first month), when people eat cakes in honour of Hoseyn, the
+martyred son of ‘Aly, and pay their homage at the mosque of the
+Hasaneyn, where the martyr’s head is supposed to rest, and watch
+the amazing antics of the dervishes. “Since Hoseyn, in whose honour
+it is held (combining with his elder brother, Hasan, to form the
+‘Hasaneyn’), is especially the saint of the heretical Persians, and
+has given rise, through no merit of his own, to more schisms in the
+Mohammedan world than any other person, it is strange that the
+Cairenes, who are almost all orthodox Sunnis, should pay such
+particular reverence to this feast. But the truth is, they are glad
+of any excuse for a holiday; and, after all, was not our lord
+Hoseyn the grandson of the Prophet? and is he to be given over
+wholly to those heretical dogs of Shi‘a? Whatever the argument,
+Hoseyn is deeply revered in Cairo, and his Molid is one of the
+sights of the capital that most delight the European visitor.
+Nothing more picturesque and fairylike can be imagined than the
+scenes in the streets and bazars of Cairo on the great night of the
+Hasaneyn. The curious thing was that in the winter after
+Tell-el-Kebír, when I stood—for riding was impossible—in the midst
+of the dense throng in the Musky, and struggled into the by-street
+that leads to the Kady’s court and the mosque of the Hasaneyn,
+there was not a sign of ill-humour or fanaticism in spite of the
+presence of many Europeans. A more good-natured crowd was never
+seen. It might have been expected that at least some slight
+demonstration would have been made against the Europeans who
+wandered about the gaily illuminated streets; but English ladies
+walked through the bazars, English officers and tourists mingled in
+the throng and even reached the doors of the sacred mosque itself
+without the slightest molestation or even remark. Once or twice a
+woman<span class="pagenum" id="Page_24">[24]</span> might have been
+heard sarcastically inviting some Christian to ‘bless the Prophet’;
+but if the Christian charitably replied, ‘God bless and save him,’
+she was nonplussed; and even if he did not know the proper answer,
+nothing came of it. The general good-nature inspired by the
+festival obliterated all memories of war and heresy, and it may
+safely be asserted that no English mob could have been trusted to
+behave in so orderly and friendly a manner in the presence of a
+detested minority.</p>
+
+<p>“The scene, as I turned into one of the narrow lanes of the
+great Khan El-Khalíly, or Turkish bazar, which fronts the mosque of
+the Hasaneyn, was like a picture in the Arabian Nights. The long
+bazar was lighted by innumerable chandeliers and coloured lamps and
+candles, and covered by awnings of rich shawls and stuffs from the
+shops beneath; while, between the strips of awning, one could see
+the sombre outlines of the unlighted houses above, in striking
+contrast to the brilliancy and gaiety below. The shops had quite
+changed their character. All the wares which were usually littered
+about had disappeared; the trays of miscellaneous daggers and rings
+and spoons and whatnot, were gone; and each little shop was turned
+into a tastefully furnished reception-room. The sides and top were
+hung with silks and cashmeres, velvets, brocades, and embroideries
+of the greatest beauty and rarity—costly stuffs, which the most
+inquisitive purchaser never managed to see on ordinary occasions.
+The whole of the sides of the bazar formed one long blaze of gold
+and light and colour. And within each shop the owner sat surrounded
+by a semicircle of friends, all dressed in their best, very clean
+and superbly courteous—for the Cairo tradesman is always a
+gentleman in mien, even when he is cheating you most outrageously.
+The very man with whom you haggled hotly in the morning
+will<span class="pagenum" id="Page_25">[25]</span> now invite you
+politely to sit down with him and smoke; at his side is a little
+ivory or mother-of-pearl table, from which he takes a bottle of
+some sweet drink flavoured with almonds or roses, and offers it to
+you with finished grace.</p>
+
+<p>“Seated in the richly-hung recess, you can see the throng
+pushing by—the whole population, it seems, of Cairo, in their best
+array and merriest temper. All at once the sound of drums and pipes
+is heard, and a band of dervishes, chanting benedictions on the
+Prophet and Hoseyn, pass through the delighted crowd. On your left
+is a shop—nay, a throne-room in miniature—where a story-teller is
+holding an audience spell-bound as he relates, with dramatic
+gestures, some favourite tale. Hard by, a holy man is revolving his
+head solemnly and unceasingly, as he repeats the name of God, or
+some potent text from the Korán. In another place, a party of
+dervishes are performing a <em>zikr</em>, or a complete recital of
+the Korán is being chanted by swaying devotees. The whole scene is
+certainly unreal and fairylike. We can imagine ourselves in the
+land of the Ginn or in the City of Brass, but not in Cairo or in
+the nineteenth century.</p>
+
+<p>“Outside the khan, dense masses of the people are crowding into
+the mosque of the Hasaneyn, where specially horrible performances
+take place, and where the tour of the shrine of Hoseyn must be
+made. Near by, a string of men are entering a booth; we follow, and
+find tumblers at work, and a performing pony, and a clown who
+always imitates the feats of the gymnasts, always fails
+grotesquely, and invariably provokes roars of laughter. In another
+booth Karakúsh is carrying on his intrigues: this Egyptian Punch is
+better manipulated than our own, whom he nearly resembles; but he
+is not so choice in his language or behaviour, and we are glad
+before long to leave a place where the jokes<span class="pagenum"
+id="Page_26">[26]</span> are rather broad, and certain saltatory
+insects unusually active. People of the lower class however care
+nothing for these drawbacks; they laugh till their sides ache at
+Karakúsh’s sallies, and whatever they see, wherever they go,
+whomever they meet, whatsoever their cares and their poverty, on
+this blessed night of the Hasaneyn they are perfectly happy. An
+Egyptian crowd is very easily amused: the simplest sights and
+oldest jests delight it; and it is enough to make a fastidious
+European regret his niceness to see how these simple folk enjoy
+themselves upon so small an incentive.”<a id=
+"FNanchor_2"></a><a href="#Footnote_2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a></p>
+
+<p>This is what one goes to Cairo to see, the real Eastern life in
+its Eastern setting. A scene like this repays one for many dreary
+calls, many tepid dances in the region of hotels. You may get hotel
+life, club life, polo and tennis, and even golf, excellently at
+Cairo—the European Cairo—but these things are common to all “winter
+resorts.” In the “bazars,” among the people, you get something that
+the Isma‘ilíya quarter cannot give, that no other place can quite
+rival, something that painters love and that kindles the
+imagination. After all, the most interesting things are always the
+unfamiliar, and the first plunge into Egypt is a revelation of
+fresh ideas, new tones in colour, and the pungent odours of a
+strange native life.</p>
+
+<p>It is in the “bazars” that one feels most the shock of contact
+with the unfamiliar; but, in a less intimate yet deeply impressive
+way, to drink in the full inspiration of the Muslim city one must
+climb to the ramparts of the Citadel about sunset and slowly absorb
+the wonderful panorama that spreads below and around. Unhappily, to
+get there one usually passes along the most terribly defaced street
+in all Cairo. The worst<span class="pagenum" id=
+"Page_27">[27]</span> destruction took place, one is thankful to
+remember, before England took the reins of Egypt. It was Isma‘íl,
+under French influence, who made that unspeakable atrocity, the
+“Boulevard Mohammad ‘Aly,” which cut through some of the most
+beautiful quarters, ruined palaces and gardens, and chopped off
+half of a noble mosque in order to preserve the tasteless accuracy
+of its straight line. Along its side are ranged mean and uneven
+offices and tenements, neither Europeanly regular nor Orientally
+picturesque. Old wine and new bottles are in close connexion. A
+Muslim school elbows a “Grog Shop for Army and Navy.” Under the
+shadow of the stately mosque of Sultan Hasan an Arab barber is
+cutting hair with a modern clipping machine. A gaily painted harím
+carriage, guarded by eunuchs, stands at the door of the mosque: on
+the panel is a sham coat-of-arms, that last infirmity of Turkish
+minds—though for that matter heraldic bearings were used in Egypt
+at least seven hundred years ago. Solemn sheykhs pace slowly along
+without any sign of surprise at these strange sights. Overhead the
+guns boom out a salute, for it is the Great Festival, the <em>‘Id
+el-kebír</em>, from Saladin’s Citadel; but the garrison are not
+stalwart Turkmáns or wild Kurds, in picturesque garb and with
+clanking spear and mace, such as the great Soldan led against
+Richard of the Lion-heart, but British “tommies” unbecomingly
+attired in khaki. The Citadel itself is an arsenal of modern arms
+and stores, and English officers rule where once the Mamlúk Beys
+were massacred. Old and new are ever clashing in the mediæval
+fortress, and Private Ortheris mounts guard over the mosque of a
+Mamlúk Sultan.</p>
+
+<p>But once we stand on the ramparts the flaring contrasts vanish
+and the jarring note is still. All in that wide range beneath the
+eye is of the East Eastern. The European touches are too small at
+such<span class="pagenum" id="Page_28">[28]</span> a distance to
+mar the purely Oriental tone. Countless domes and minarets, a
+glimpse of arched cloisters, a wilderness of flat-roofed houses,
+yellow and white and brown, with sloped pents to admit the cool
+breezes below; a patch of green here and there, with dark-leaved
+sycamores, revealing some of the many gardens of the old city, and
+beyond, a fringe of palms and a streak of silver where “the long
+bright river” rolls sleepily on between its brown banks; in the
+distance, against the ridge of the Libyan horizon, in the carmine
+glory of the sinking sun, stand the everlasting pyramids, “like the
+boundary marks of the mighty waste, the Egyptian land of shades.”
+One after the other the tall forms of slender minarets separate
+themselves from the bewildering chaos of roofs and domes, and
+display their varied grace. Each has its story of victory or exile,
+of famine and invasion, of learning and piety, to tell. On the
+right, northwards, the fine towers of Muáyyad above the Zuweyla
+gate recall a hundred deeds and legends of that famous portal, once
+the main entrance of the caliphs’ palace-city. Beyond them rise the
+minarets of the Nahhasín, a perfect gallery of Saracen art, and
+again beyond, the turrets of Hákim’s great quadrangle. In front in
+the foreground stands Sultan Hasan, the largest and most imposing
+of Mamlúk mosques, and a little to the left one looks into the vast
+arcaded square of Ibn-Tulún, with its queer corkscrew tower
+overhanging the billowy mounds that reveal where Fustát lay a
+thousand years ago. Still more to the left a line of arches shows
+where the aqueduct that has brought water to the Citadel for five
+centuries stretches to the Nile, and behind we can look down upon
+the cluster of ruined domes and minarets of the southern Karáfa—the
+“Tombs of the Mamlúks”—and catch a glimpse of the old fortress of
+Egyptian Babylon and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_31">[31]</span>
+the mosque of the conqueror ‘Amr. Looking over the Mamlúk minarets
+we can see the dim outlines of the cairns of Dahshúr and the
+conspicuous form of Sakkára’s step-pyramid, separated from the
+Saracen domes by only fifteen miles of space but five millenniums
+of time; and as the glow of the sunset fades away the evening
+clouds gather in the west and the desert beyond takes up their
+shades of grey and blue like a vast mid-African ocean.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenterplate iw1">
+<figure id="i03"><a href="images/i03_large.jpg"><img src=
+'images/i03.jpg' alt=''></a>
+<p class="cp2">THE CITADEL</p>
+</figure>
+</div>
+
+<p>Here we realize Cairo for the first time as a city of the Middle
+Ages, and more than that, a city with an heritage from the dawn of
+history. It is true it has not the exquisite setting of the
+seven-hilled queen of the Bosporus; it is not even built about the
+Nile, which the silts of centuries have breasted away from the
+walls it once laved: but as one looks out from the battlements of
+the Castle one perceives that there are other oceans than those of
+water, and that the capital of Egypt can have no more fitting frame
+than the deserts which are her shield and the pyramids her
+title-deeds to her inheritance from the remote past. “He who hath
+not seen Cairo,” said the Jewish hakím, “hath not seen the world.
+Her soil is gold; her Nile is a marvel; her women are as the
+bright-eyed houris of Paradise; her houses are palaces, and her air
+is soft with an odour above aloes, refreshing the heart: and how
+should Cairo be otherwise when she is the Mother of the World?”</p>
+
+<hr class="chap">
+
+<h2><span class="pagenum" id="Page_32">[32]</span><a id=
+"c02"></a>CHAPTER II</h2>
+
+<p class="sch1"><em>The Town of the Tent</em>
+</p>
+
+<p class="dcap">IN the view from the Citadel one sees an
+essentially mediæval city, but of all the Arab buildings there is
+not one that in its present state dates back to the Arab conquest.
+Before the Muslims invaded Egypt in 640 there was no Cairo, and
+strictly speaking there was none till three centuries later than
+that, when the Greek general laid the foundations of the
+palace-city of the Fátimid caliphs and it received the name
+el-Káhira, which Europeans twisted into Cahere, Caire, and Cairo.
+But this is merely a pedantry of terms, and one might as well
+restrict London to the City and refuse the name to Westminster and
+Mayfair. There was a Muslim capital from the days of the conquest,
+and though it was not called Cairo it was close to the present
+city, which is merely an expansion of the original town. The
+history of its growth will appear as we study its several stages
+and monuments, and for the moment a bare enumeration of the
+successive foundations will suffice. First rose the original Arab
+settlement, Fustát, the Town of the Tent, in 641. To this was added
+in 751 a north-eastern suburb, the official residence of the
+governors and their troops, hence named el-‘Áskar, “the
+Cantonments.” A new royal faubourg, or small city, was built still
+more to the north-east by the first independent Muslim King of
+Egypt, Ibn-Tulún, about 860, and was known by the<span class=
+"pagenum" id="Page_33">[33]</span> name of el-Katái‘, “the Wards,”
+because it was divided into separate quarters for different nations
+and classes. So far the three towns were practically contiguous,
+and ‘Askar and Katái‘ were but the Chelsea and St James’s of the
+City, the commercial capital, Fustát.</p>
+
+<p>The fourth foundation was still further to the north-east, and a
+considerable vacant space was left between it and the almost
+destroyed faubourg of Katái‘, in order to preserve the safety and
+seclusion of the sacred caliphs for whom it was built in 969. This
+last was the true Cairo, el-Káhira, but it was not the commercial
+and residential capital, any more than ‘Askar or Katái‘ had been.
+Fustát, resting on the Nile bank, was still the emporium of trade
+and the metropolis alike of business and of culture, whilst Káhira
+was but a palace, a barrack, and a seat of government. When the
+mediæval chroniclers, such as William of Tyre, write of
+“Macer”—meaning Masr (properly Misr) the usual Arabic name both for
+Egypt and for its capital—they refer not to Káhira but to Fustát,
+or as it was commonly called Misr-el-Fustát. The Emír or Caliph or
+Sultan might dwell and rule at any suburb he pleased to build, but
+the old capital remained the real metropolis throughout. There the
+Kádis sat in judgment in the “Old Mosque”; there the coins of the
+realm were issued; and there resided the bulk of the citizens who
+were not attached to the palace. It was only when Fustát was
+deliberately burned in 1168, to save it from giving cover to the
+Crusaders, that Káhira took its place as the real capital as well
+as the official centre of Egypt.</p>
+
+<p>Saladin was the creator of Cairo as we know it. It was he who
+planned the wall that was to enclose not only Káhira but the
+Citadel and what remained of Katái‘ and Fustát, and from his time
+began the building over the space intervening between
+the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_34">[34]</span> Citadel and the
+palace of Káhira which gradually filled up the Cairo which we now
+see. The growth of the city thus consisted mainly of three
+successive expansions towards the north-east, accompanied by decay
+of abandoned suburbs, and ending in a general enclosure of the
+chief inhabited portions. Since the days of Saladin, whatever
+remained of Fustát has vanished, and only a straggling village
+called Masr-el-Atíka or “Old Masr,” and known to Europeans as “Old
+Cairo,” has risen near its site, which is easily traced by the
+immense rubbish-heaps. On the other hand a new town has grown up
+between Káhira and the Nile under European influences, but with
+this, pleasant winter city as it is, the Mediæval Town has nothing
+to do.</p>
+
+<p>The narrative of the Arab invasion of Egypt is in many points
+exceedingly obscure, owing to the circumstances that the Arabs did
+not begin to write history till more than two centuries later, and
+that our only almost contemporary authority, John, bishop of Nikiu,
+has come down to us in a corrupt translation. The Arabs under the
+command of ‘Amr ibn el-‘Asy entered Egypt not more than 4000 strong
+in December 639, in the caliphate of ‘Omar, the second successor of
+the prophet Mohammad; and after taking Pelusium and Bilbeys by
+siege, and fighting a battle with the Romans at Umm-Duneyn, a
+suburb which stood near the present ‘Abdin palace, attacked the
+city of “Misr” or “Babylon of Egypt.” This city was a northern
+extension or successor of the decayed but then still existing
+Egyptian capital Memphis, about twelve miles distant from the
+present Cairo, and had grown up under the protection of the Roman
+fortress of Babylon. It was evidently strongly defended, for the
+Arab general had to summon reinforcements, till his army mustered
+12,000, before he could attack it.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_35">[35]</span>“‘Amr divided his
+forces into three corps, one of which he posted to the north of
+Babylon; the second was stationed at Tendunyas [probably the
+Umm-Duneyn of the Arabic writers], and the third withdrew
+northwards to Heliopolis, in the hope of tempting the Romans out of
+their fortifications, upon which the other two corps were to fall
+on their rear or flank. The manœuvre succeeded. The Romans marched
+out of their fortifications, and attacked the Saracens at
+Heliopolis, but, being themselves taken in rear by the other
+divisions, were routed and driven to the Nile, when they took to
+their boats and fled down the river. Upon this the Muslims occupied
+Tendunyas, the garrison of which had perished in the battle, except
+300 men, who shut themselves up in the fort, whence they retired by
+boat to Nikiu. The taking of Tendunyas was evidently followed by,
+or synonymous with, the taking of the whole city of Misr, except
+its citadel, which was blockaded; for John of Nikiu, from whose
+almost contemporary chronicle this account is taken, mentions no
+subsequent siege or conquest of the city of Misr, but only the
+reduction of the fortress.”<a id="FNanchor_3"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_3" class="fnanchor">[3]</a></p>
+
+<p>Whatever this city of Misr or Tendunyas may have been, it
+vanishes from history as soon as it is conquered. The last we hear
+of it is in the treaty of capitulation granted by ‘Amr, which ran
+as follows:—</p>
+
+<p>“In the name of God, the Compassionate, the Merciful, this is
+the amnesty which ‘Amr ibn el-‘Asy granted to the people of Misr,
+as to themselves, their religion, their goods, their churches and
+crosses, their lands and waters: nothing of these shall be meddled
+with or minished; the Nubians shall not be permitted to dwell among
+them. And the people of Misr, if<span class="pagenum" id=
+"Page_36">[36]</span> they enter into this treaty of peace, shall
+pay the poll-tax, when the inundation of their river has subsided,
+fifty millions. And each one of them is responsible for [acts of
+violence that] robbers among them may commit. And as for those who
+will not enter into this treaty, the sum of the tax shall be
+diminished [to the rest] in proportion, but we have no
+responsibility towards such. If the rise of the Nile is less than
+usual, the tax shall be reduced in proportion to the decrease.
+Romans and Nubians who enter into this treaty shall be treated in
+the like manner. And whoso rejects [it] and chooses to go away, he
+is protected until he reach a place of safety or leave our kingdom.
+The collection of the taxes shall be by thirds, one third at each
+time. For [sureties for] this covenant stand the security and
+warranty of God, the warranty of His Prophet, and the warranty of
+the Caliph, the commander of the faithful, and the warranty of the
+[true] believers. . . . Witnessed by ez-Zubeyr and his sons
+‘Abdallah and Mohammad, and written by Wardan.”</p>
+
+<p>The Arab historians connect this treaty—which has all the
+appearance of being an authentic document, literally
+copied—expressly with the surrender of the city of Misr after the
+battle of Heliopolis; but as Misr means Egypt as well as its
+capital the document itself only proves that the Arab conqueror
+accorded very generous terms to the people of Egypt; it says
+nothing explicit as to the town of Misr, the name of which was
+shortly to be transferred to Fustát, whilst the place thereof was
+known no more. The only explanation seems to be that the Egyptian
+city decayed as the Arab town grew, and that the population
+migrated to the neighbouring and more prosperous settlement. The
+remains of walls south of “Old Misr” may represent part of the
+site. The disappearance<span class="pagenum" id=
+"Page_37">[37]</span> of an Egyptian town is unhappily far from
+unprecedented. Memphis itself has vanished, all save a few traces
+of walls and fallen statues; “hundred-gated” Thebes survives only
+in her temples; and the reason is that the ancient Egyptian built
+his abode of perishable sun-dried brick, and lavished his massive
+stone work only upon the tombs of the great dead and the temples of
+the immortal gods.</p>
+
+<p>Whatever became of the city, a fortress of Babylon stands to
+this day. Its reduction cost the Arabs a seven months’ siege. The
+battle of Heliopolis was won in the late summer of 640, and it was
+not till April 641 that the fortress was conquered. A leading part
+in the surrender of the place is ascribed to a mysterious
+personage, “the Mukawkis,” as the Arabs termed the governor of
+Egypt.<a id="FNanchor_4"></a><a href="#Footnote_4" class=
+"fnanchor">[4]</a> According to the Arab traditions it was he who
+negotiated the treaty cited above, which secured to the Egyptians
+freedom of religion and security of life, and when the Byzantine
+emperor Heraclius repudiated the treaty, the Mukawkis stuck to his
+word and threw in his lot with the Arabs, whose valour and simple
+earnestness deeply impressed him. When his envoys returned from an
+embassy to the Saracens’ camp, he asked them what manner of men the
+Muslims were, and they answered, “We found a people who love death
+better than life, and set humility above pride, who have no desire
+or enjoyment in this world, who sit in the dust and eat upon their
+knees, but frequently and thoroughly wash, and humble themselves in
+prayer; a people in whom the stronger can scarce be distinguished
+from the weaker, or the<span class="pagenum" id=
+"Page_38">[38]</span> master from the slave.” Such a character was
+new to the Egyptians, who had long suffered under the corruption
+and luxury of the Eastern Roman Empire, and, whatever part the
+Mukawkis personally may have played in what has been called the
+betrayal of Christian Egypt, it is certain that the population
+abetted the invaders.</p>
+
+<p>Although Christianity had been the official religion of Egypt
+since the Edict of Theodosius in 379, there was still a strong
+leaven of the old local cults, and, more important still, there was
+a vigorous tendency to nationalism both of church and state. The
+rule of Byzantium had never been gracious to the Egyptian province;
+the Orthodox Church had been tyrannous; and when at the Council of
+Chalcedon in 451 the Eutychian heresy maintained by the Egyptian
+bishops was formally condemned, the schism became irrevocable. From
+that time forward there were two churches in Egypt, the State
+Church (or Orthodox Greek), supported from Constantinople, and
+known as the Melekite or “Royalist,” and the national church,
+afterwards called Jacobite, and generally known as the Coptic
+Church. Copt is etymologically the same word as Egyptian (Greek,
+Aiguptios; Arabic, Kibt and Kubt; English, Copt), and the Coptic
+Church means nothing less than the Church of Egypt as separated by
+the adoption of the heresy of Eutyches. The Egyptian Christians
+were as much Copts before as after the Council of Chalcedon; but it
+was their devotion to a metaphysical definition, which very few of
+them could possibly understand, that made them a distinct church,
+and to this they owe at once their misfortunes and their historical
+interest. By their adhesion to the first Nicæan doctrine of the
+single nature of Christ they exposed themselves to persecution and
+courted isolation, and sharing in none of the developments of
+the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_39">[39]</span> other churches,
+they preserved in their scanty and neglected community, unchanged
+for nearly fifteen hundred years, the ancient tradition and ritual
+of the fifth century. It was their implacable hatred of the
+Royalists that threw them into the arms of the Muslim invaders. By
+the advice of their exiled patriarch they helped the Arabs from the
+moment of their setting foot upon Egyptian soil. Eager to rid
+themselves of Byzantine rule, and still more of the Royalist
+hierarchy, they embraced they knew not what as a preferable
+alternative; and after the Mukawkis, aided, according to tradition,
+by a <em>catholicos</em> (probably Cyrus, Royalist patriarch of
+Alexandria), had succeeded in obtaining a generous amnesty from the
+Arab general, the Copts rendered every aid to the Muslims, assisted
+them with labour at bridge-making, and brought them supplies. They
+soon discovered that they had only exchanged masters, but the Arab,
+despite his haughty assumption of superiority and his occasional
+outbursts of persecution, was a gentler tyrant than the Roman of
+the Lower Empire.</p>
+
+<p>Deprived of all support from the population, the Roman garrison
+of Babylon surrendered in April 641. The Delta was quickly overrun,
+and the Romans fell back upon Alexandria, which, distracted by
+factions and deprived of competent leaders, yielded to panic, and
+eagerly accepted ‘Amr’s magnanimous terms. By the surrender of the
+Roman capital in October 641, the Arab conquest of Egypt was
+complete. There was no further resistance worthy the name. The
+Muslims spread over the land up to the first cataract of the Nile,
+and Egypt became a province of the caliphate.</p>
+
+<p>On his return from Alexandria ‘Amr founded the Town of the Tent.
+The great port on the Mediterranean was no suitable capital for
+Arab tribes,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_40">[40]</span> whose
+inexperience magnified the terrors of the deep. Alexandria,
+moreover, was liable at the period of Nile inundation to be cut off
+from the centre of Arab power at Medina, and the caliph ‘Omar, not
+yet inspired by dreams of a vast Muslim empire, was chiefly anxious
+to keep in touch with the army of Egypt. ‘Amr indeed wished to
+retain Alexandria as the capital. “Behold an abode made ready for
+us,” he said. But when the caliph heard of it, he asked, “Will
+there be water between me and the army of the Muslims?” and the
+answer was, “Yes, O commander of the faithful, there will be the
+Nile,” so he set his face against Alexandria. He regarded the new
+conquest as a barrack rather than a colony. ‘Amr accordingly was
+bidden to choose a more central position, and found it some ten
+miles north of the remains of the ancient capital of Memphis, on
+the site of the camp which lay before the castle of Babylon. An old
+canal, the Amnis Trajanus, had formerly connected Babylon with the
+Red Sea at Suez, running past Bilbeys and the Crocodile Lake, and
+this was immediately cleared of silt and reopened, so that tribute
+and corn were sent by water to Arabia, and close relations were
+thus maintained with the caliph.</p>
+
+<p>The Town of the Tent owes its name to a pretty legend, which may
+very probably be true. When ‘Amr led his Arabs against the old
+capital of Egypt, he pitched his tent on the spot where his mosque
+now stands. After the surrender of the castle of Babylon he marched
+upon Alexandria; but when the soldiers went to strike his tent,
+they found that a dove had laid her eggs within and was sitting on
+her nest. ‘Amr at once declared the spot sacred, and ordered them
+not to disturb her; and when on the return from the conquest of
+Alexandria the army set about building quarters for themselves,
+‘Amr bade them settle around his still<span class="pagenum" id=
+"Page_41">[41]</span> standing tent, and the first Arab city of
+Egypt was ever afterwards known as el-Fustát, “the Tent,” or
+Misr-el-Fustát, or simply Misr. The whole space between the Nile
+and the hill Mukattam, on a spur of which stands the present
+Citadel, was bare at that time. There was nothing but “waste land
+and sown fields,” and no buildings except some churches or
+convents, and the Roman fortress of Babylon, or Babelyún, known to
+the Arabs to this day as the Kasr-esh-Shema‘ or “Castle of the
+Beacon,” because (says the Topographer, el-Makrízy) “this Kasr was
+illuminated on the summit with candles [in Arabic <em>shema‘</em>]
+on the first night of every month,” to serve as a kalendar; but it
+is possible, as Dr Butler has suggested, that the name is merely a
+corruption of Kasr-el-<em>Khemi</em>, the “Castle of Egypt,” and
+that the beacon story was invented to explain it.<a id=
+"FNanchor_5"></a><a href="#Footnote_5" class="fnanchor">[5]</a></p>
+
+<p>Why ‘Amr did not occupy the old city of Misr we<span class=
+"pagenum" id="Page_42">[42]</span> do not know: everything
+connected with that vanished town is a mystery. Elsewhere the Arabs
+had no scruple about taking possession of older cities, such as
+Damascus and Edessa; but in Egypt they preferred to take fresh
+ground. Misr may have been too small; or it is possible that the
+caliph’s orders that they were not to acquire property and take
+root in the country led to the original occupation of the bare
+stretch of land between Babylon and the Mukattam hills. The first
+settlement undoubtedly resembled a temporary camp rather than a
+city. They wanted plenty of space to separate the various tribes
+who composed the Arab army, and who, despite their Muslim
+brotherhood, were liable to recall their ancient jealousies. The
+site they chose was ample and almost unencumbered. The tract was
+known as the three Hamras or “red” spots<a id=
+"FNanchor_6"></a><a href="#Footnote_6" class="fnanchor">[6]</a>—the
+Nearer, the Middle, and the Further Hamra—apparently from the red
+standard which was set up in the midst.</p>
+
+<p>The Arab clans divided the three tracts amongst them and laid
+out their settlements, from the fortress to where the mosque of
+Ibn-Tulún now stands. In the midst was the general’s house, and
+close to it rose the first mosque built in Egypt, the “Mosque of
+Conquest,” the “Crown of Mosques,” as it was proudly called, but
+known later as the “Old Mosque,” and now as the Mosque of ‘Amr. It
+was originally a very plain oblong room, about 200 feet long by 56
+wide, built of rough brick, unplastered, with a low roof supported
+probably by a few columns, with holes for light. There was no
+minaret, no niche for prayer,<span class="pagenum" id=
+"Page_43">[43]</span> no decoration, no pavement. Even the pulpit
+which ‘Amr set up was removed when the caliph wrote in reproach,
+“Is it not enough for thee to stand whilst the Muslims sit at thy
+feet?” For it was the duty of the conqueror to recite the prayers
+and preach the Friday sermon in this humble building. It soon
+became too small for the growing population of Fustát, and was
+enlarged in 673 by taking in part of the house of ‘Amr; and at the
+same time raised stations—the germ of the minaret—were erected at
+the corners for the muézzins to recite the call to prayer.
+Twenty-five years later the entire mosque was demolished by a later
+governor who rebuilt it on a larger scale. So many and thorough
+have been the repairs and reconstructions that there is probably
+not a foot of the original building now in existence. What we see
+to-day is practically the mosque rebuilt in 827 by ‘Abdallah ibn
+Táhir, and restored by Murád Bey in 1798, just before he engaged
+the French in the “battle of the Pyramids” at Embába. It is four
+times the size of the original mosque, and different in every
+respect.<a id="FNanchor_7"></a><a href="#Footnote_7" class=
+"fnanchor">[7]</a></p>
+
+<p>The “Old Mosque,” as the Topographer calls it, was intensely
+revered in early times. It was there that the chief Kady held his
+court, and learned men congregated in its arcades. It was a
+rallying point for orthodoxy in times of schism and obtrusive
+heresies. When Fustát was burned in 1168 the mosque escaped, though
+much injured, and Saladin restored it; “where he found wood and
+stone he left marble.” But it was as hopeless to maintain its
+popularity, when the town it belonged to was in ashes, as it would
+be to induce the dwellers in Belgravia to<span class="pagenum" id=
+"Page_44">[44]</span> attend the services at Bow Bells. Fustát
+mostly in ruins, the congregation dispersed, and the mosque of ‘Amr
+fell upon evil days. Ibn-Sa‘íd, a Moorish traveller of the
+thirteenth century, found the sacred building covered with cobwebs,
+and scrawled over with the ribald <em>graffiti</em> of loafers and
+vagabonds, the remains of whose victuals littered the floor. There
+were few worshippers, and much unseemliness. “Musicians, and
+ape-leaders, and conjurers, and mountebanks, and dancing-girls,”
+says the historian Gabárty in the eighteenth century, desecrated
+the court, and so decrepit did the building become that even these
+abandoned it. If Murád Bey had not been “anxious about his soul,”
+for very good reasons, and made peace with his conscience by
+spending some of his ill-gotten gains upon the pious work of
+restoration, the “Crown of Mosques” would have disappeared
+altogether. In the early part of the nineteenth century it was
+still a favourite place of prayer for the people of Cairo on the
+last Friday of the Fast of Ramadán. “It is believed that God will
+receive with particular favour the prayers which are offered up in
+this ancient mosque; therefore, when the Nile is tardy in rising,
+and the people fear a scanty inundation and a consequent scarcity,
+the principal Sheykhs and Imáms and learned and devout Muslims of
+the metropolis are ordered to betake themselves to the mosque of
+‘Amr to pray for an increase of the river, together with the
+priests of the various Christian churches and their congregations,
+and likewise the Jews; each of these persuasions arranged by
+itself, without the mosque. Public prayers were thus offered up for
+rain in this consecrated spot by Muslims, Christians and Jews, in a
+time of unusual drought about twenty years ago [<em>i.e.</em>
+1825-8], and on the following day it rained.”<a id=
+"FNanchor_8"></a><a href="#Footnote_8" class="fnanchor">[8]</a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenterplate iw4"><span class="pagenum" id=
+"Page_45">[45]</span>
+<figure id="i04"><a href="images/i04.jpg"><img src='images/i04.jpg'
+alt=''></a>
+<p class="cp2">COURT OF THE MOSQUE OF ‘AMR</p>
+</figure>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_47">[47]</span>The outside of the
+oldest mosque in Egypt is not impressive. Among the rubbish-hills
+that mark the site of the Town of the Tent, its long grey walls,
+without windows or the least attempt at ornament, look dreary, and
+the two plain minarets are equally unpretentious. But within,
+despite decay and the loneliness of neglect, the vast empty court
+of some forty thousand square feet, surrounded by colonnades, and
+the forest of columns supporting the roof of the east end, the
+special place of prayer, wholly dominate all mean details. Crowded
+with worshippers in the rhythmic bowings of the Muslim ritual it
+must have been a wonderful and solemn vision. The arches are of
+various ages, and the columns, taken from churches, show the most
+diverse capitals, not always put the right side up; the arcades do
+not run parallel to the walls, like cloisters round a cathedral
+close, but open at right angles into the court. Wooden beams
+stretch from column to column to support hanging lamps, of which
+eighteen thousand were lighted every night in former times, and the
+effect in the long vistas must have been superb. Those nights of
+illumination are long over, and the conqueror’s mosque is a
+melancholy ruin, the loneliness of which appeals to the imagination
+to people it with the zealous groups of scholars and divines,
+fanatics and doctors learned in the law, fakírs and holy men, who
+once bowed before its deserted <em>kibla</em>. Not even the mark of
+the blessed Prophet’s <em>kurbág</em> on the grey marble of the
+pillar, which, urged by the blow—despite all considerations of
+chronology—flew through the air from Mekka when ‘Amr was building
+the mosque, nor the twin test columns between which only true
+believers can squeeze (and even a Turkish soldier stuck and almost
+died), avail to attract worshippers to the old shrine except on
+very special occasions. Yet it is prophesied that the<span class=
+"pagenum" id="Page_48">[48]</span> fall of the mosque of ‘Amr will
+be the sign of the downfall of Islám, and it is strange that a
+superstitious people are not more careful of their omens.</p>
+
+<p>The original mosque of the Arab conqueror has gone, but at least
+its representative stands on the hallowed site. One cannot say as
+much for Fustát, the Town of the Tent, which he founded. Whatever
+may remain of this great city, which was the capital and the
+river-port of Egypt for five centuries, lies hidden under the
+wilderness of sand-hills which cover the débris and kitchen-middens
+of the mediæval town. Here, after a strong wind has stirred the
+sand, you may sometimes chance to pick up curious fragments of
+glass and pottery, Roman lamps, coins, glass-bottle stamps with
+inscriptions recording the names of eighth century governors, and
+such-like relics of what was once Fustát. Of its houses, its
+governors’ palaces, its baths and schools, not a stone or brick
+remains. The “granaries of Joseph” certainly date back at least to
+that later Joseph, Saladin, for Benjamin of Tudela saw them in
+1170; but Masr-el-Atíka, or “Old Cairo,” is built on land which was
+covered by the Nile in the days when Fustát was the capital. The
+rest is desolation. We shall catch many glimpses of its history in
+chapters to come, and read the descriptions of it written by
+Persian and Moorish travellers from the east and the west, but such
+descriptions do not enable us to realize the vanished Arab
+city.</p>
+
+<p>One monument, however, of the age of the conquest still
+survives, but it is not Arab. The Roman fortress of Babylon, the
+“Castle of the Beacon,” stands where it once overlooked the
+Muslims’ tents and saw the Arab capital growing up beneath its
+walls. To understand why it was called Babylon, or as some say
+Bab-li-On, “the gate of On,” we must go to Mataríya, a few miles
+north of Cairo, where stands<span class="pagenum" id=
+"Page_49">[49]</span> a solitary obelisk, sole relic of On or
+Heliopolis, the “City of the Sun.” In the plain of Mataríya, before
+this lonely stone, the Turks fought the final battle that won Cairo
+from the Mamlúks in 1517, and here Kléber gained his victory in
+1800 over the Turks. There stood the famous temple of On of which
+Potipherah, the father of Joseph’s wife, was priest; here Pianchi,
+the Ethiopian priest-king, eight centuries <span class=
+"sc2">B.C.</span>, washed at the “Fountain of the Sun,” and made
+offerings of white bulls, milk, perfume, incense, and all kinds of
+sweet-scented woods, and entering the temple “saw his father Ra
+[the sun-god] in the sanctuary.” Heliopolis was the university of
+the most ancient civilization in the world, the forerunner of all
+the schools of Europe. Here, in all probability, Moses was
+instructed by the priests of Ra in “all the wisdom of the
+Egyptians”; here, too, Herodotus cross-questioned the same
+priesthood with varying success; here Plato came to study, and
+Eudoxus the mathematician to learn astronomy; and here Strabo was
+shown the houses where the famous Greeks had lived. Of this seat of
+learning and focus of religion nothing but the obelisk remains.
+“The images of Beth-Shemesh” (the “House of the Sun”) have indeed
+been “broken,” and “the houses of the Egyptians’ gods” have been
+“burned with fire.”<a id="FNanchor_9"></a><a href="#Footnote_9"
+class="fnanchor">[9]</a></p>
+
+<p>Beside the obelisk is an ancient sycamore, riven with age and
+hacked with numberless names, beneath which tradition hath it that
+the Holy Family rested in their flight into Egypt, and it is hence
+known as the “Virgin’s Tree.” Near by is a spring of fresh water—a
+rare sight in this brackish land—which, it is said, became sweet
+because the Bambino was bathed there. From the spots where the
+drops fell from his swaddling<span class="pagenum" id=
+"Page_50">[50]</span> clothes, after they, too, had been washed in
+this sacred spring, sprang up balsam-trees, which, it was believed,
+flourished nowhere else. There is no evidence for these fancies,
+and, of course, the sycamore is but a descendant of the supposed
+original, as it was not planted till after 1672. But the
+circumstances that a temple was built by the Hebrew Onias for the
+worship of his countrymen near here, and that Jewish gardeners were
+brought here for the culture of the balsam-trees, give the tale a
+certain fitness.</p>
+
+<p>Heliopolis is no more, but its guardian fortress, the “gate of
+On” still defies time and the restorers’ hands, and the name of
+Babylon of Egypt, applied to the capital (Fustát) as well as the
+fort, appears frequently in the mediæval chronicles and romances.
+When Richard Cœur de Lion defeated Saladin, the romance
+relates,</p>
+
+<div class="linegrp-container">
+<div class="linegrp">
+<div class="group">
+<div class="line indent0">“The cheff Sawdon off Hethenysse</div>
+
+<div class="line indent0">&nbsp;To Babyloyne was flowen, I
+wysse.”</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Whether or not there is any foundation for the tradition
+reported by Strabo and Diodorus that the castle was first built by
+exiles from the greater Babylon of Chaldæa, the present fortress
+dates from the third or possibly the second century of our era. The
+exterior is imposing, though the walls have been injured, and the
+sand has buried their feet. The greater part of the oblong outline
+is still sufficiently distinguishable, and five bastions and two
+circular towers are well preserved. The walls are built in the
+usual Roman manner, five courses of stone alternating with three of
+brick—the origin, probably, of the striped red and yellow
+decoration of the Muslim mosques and houses—and their massive
+aspect even now makes one realize how much the capture of such a
+stronghold must have meant to the early Arabs.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenterplate iw3"><span class="pagenum" id=
+"Page_51">[51]</span>
+<figure id="i05"><a href="images/i05.jpg"><img src='images/i05.jpg'
+alt=''></a>
+<p class="cp2">GATE OF KASR-ESH-SHEMA‘</p>
+</figure>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_53">[53]</span>When we enter the
+stronghold the strange character of the fortress grows upon us.
+Passing through narrow lanes, narrower and darker and dustier even
+than the back alleys of Cairo, we are struck by the deadly
+stillness of the place. The high houses that shut in the street
+have little of the lattice ornament that adorns the thoroughfares
+of Cairo; the grated windows are small and few, and but for an
+occasional heavy door half open, and here and there the sound of a
+voice in the recesses of the houses, we might question whether the
+fortress was inhabited at all. Nothing, certainly, indicates that
+these plain walls contain six sumptuous churches, with their
+dependent chapels, each of which is full of carvings, pictures,
+vestments and furniture, which in their way cannot be matched. A
+Coptic church is like a Mohammedan harím—it must not appear from
+the outside. Just as the studiously plain exterior of many a Cairo
+house reveals nothing of the latticed court within, surrounded by
+rooms where inlaid dados, tiles, carved and painted ceilings, and
+magnificent carpets, glow in the soft light of the stained windows,
+so a Coptic church makes no outward show. High walls hide
+everything from view. The Copts are shy of visitors, and the plain
+exteriors are a sufficient proof of their desire to escape that
+notice which in bygone days aroused cupidity and fanaticism.</p>
+
+<p>After passing through a strong gateway, and traversing a
+vestibule, or ascending some stairs, you find yourself in a small
+but beautifully finished basilica, gazing at a carved choir-screen
+that any cathedral in England might envy. In the dim light you see
+rows of valiant saints looking down at you from above the sanctuary
+and over the screens, and great golden texts in Coptic and Arabic,
+to the glory of God; while above, the arches of the triforium over
+the aisles show where other treasures of art are probably to be
+found.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_54">[54]</span> The general
+plan of a Coptic church is basilican, but there are many points of
+wide divergence from the strict pattern; the Byzantine feature of
+the dome is almost universal, and sometimes the whole building is
+roofed over with a cluster of a dozen domes. The church consists of
+a nave and side aisles, waggon-vaulted (exactly like the early
+Irish churches, and like no others), and very rarely has transepts,
+or approaches the cruciform shape. The sparse marble columns that
+divide the nave from the aisles generally return round the west
+end, and form a narthex or counterchoir, where is sunk the Epiphany
+tank, once the scene of complete immersions, but now used only for
+the feet-washing of Maundy Thursday. The church is also divided
+cross-wise into three principal sections, besides the narthex. The
+rearmost is the women’s place, whom the judicious Copts put behind
+the men, and thereby prevent any disturbance of devotions much more
+effectually than if the two sexes were ranged side by side as in
+some Western churches. A lattice-work screen divides the women’s
+portion from the men’s, which is always much larger and more richly
+decorated, and the men’s division is similarly partitioned off from
+the choir by another screen, while the altars, three in number, are
+placed each in a separate apse, surmounted by a complete (not
+semicircular) dome, and veiled by the most gorgeous screen of all,
+formed of ivory and ebony crosses and geometrical panels, superbly
+carved with arabesques, and surmounted by pictures and golden texts
+in Coptic and Arabic letters.<a id="FNanchor_10"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_10" class="fnanchor">[10]</a> During the celebration
+the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_55">[55]</span> central folding
+doors are thrown back, the silver-embroidered curtain is withdrawn,
+and the high altar is displayed to the adoring congregation, just
+as it is in the impressive ceremonial of St Isaac’s cathedral at St
+Petersburg. The carved doors and the silver-thread curtain, the
+swinging lamps and pendent ostrich eggs, prepare us for something
+more gorgeous than the nearly cubical plastered brick or stone
+altar, with its silk covering, and the invariable recess in the
+east side, which originally had a more mystic signification, but is
+now only used for the burying of the cross in a bed of rose-leaves
+on Good Friday, whence it will be disinterred on Easter-day. The
+Coptic altar stands detached from the wall of the sanctuary, which
+is often coated with slabs of coloured marble, like the dados one
+sees in the mosques, or with mosaic of the peculiar Egyptian style;
+while above are painted panels or frescoes representing the twelve
+apostles, with Christ in the midst in the act of benediction. Over
+the altar spreads a canopy or baldacchino, which is also richly
+painted with figures of angels. The central sanctuary with its
+altar is divided off from the side altars by lattice screens.</p>
+
+<p>A curious part of the furniture is the Ark, which holds the
+chalice during the rite of consecration; and scarcely less
+interesting is the flabellum, or fan for keeping gnats off the
+chalice, which is often exquisitely fashioned of repoussé silver.
+Similar fans are represented in the Irish Book of Kells. There is
+never a crucifix, but reliquaries are not uncommon, though their
+place is not on the altar. The Coptic church<span class="pagenum"
+id="Page_56">[56]</span> forbids the worship of relics, but every
+church has its bolster full of them, and the devout believer
+attaches considerable importance to their curative properties.
+Sometimes the most beautiful object in metal-work in a Coptic
+church is the silver textus-case—corresponding to the Irish
+<em>cumhdach</em>—in which the copy of the Gospels is supposed to
+be sealed up, though generally a few leaves alone remain inside. It
+is often a fine example of silver chasing and repoussé work, and is
+reverently brought from the altar where it reposes to the
+officiating deacon, who places it on the lectern while he reads
+from another copy. The lectern itself is a favourite subject for
+decoration. That from the Mu‘állaka church, now in the Coptic
+cathedral at Cairo, is covered with the beautiful inlaid and carved
+panelling which is familiar in the doors and pulpits of
+mosques.</p>
+
+<p>Of the six churches contained within the fortress of Babylon,
+three are of the highest interest; for, though the Greek church of
+St George, perched on the top of the round tower, is finely
+decorated with Damascus and Rhodian tiles and silver lamps, the
+Roman tower itself, with its central well, great staircase, and
+curious radiating chambers, is more interesting than the church
+above it. Of the three principal Coptic churches, that of St
+Sergius, or Abu-Sarga, is the most often visited, on account of the
+tradition that it was in its crypt that the Holy Family rested when
+they journeyed to the land of Egypt. The crypt is certainly many
+centuries older than the church above it, which dates from the
+tenth century. The church itself is notable for a fine screen, and
+close to it a remarkable specimen of early Coptic figure-carving,
+with representations of the nativity and of warrior saints in high
+relief. Another example of this style of deep carving exists in the
+triforium of the church of Saint Barbara.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_57">[57]</span>Besides Abu-Sarga
+and Kadísa-Barbára, there remains a third and very interesting
+Coptic church to be mentioned. This is suspended between two
+bastions of the Roman wall, over a gate with a classical pediment
+and a sculptured eagle. It is called from its position the
+Mu‘állaka or “hanging” church. It is remarkable in many ways,
+partly for being the oldest of the Babylon churches, and partly on
+account of the entire absence of domes. The Mu‘állaka has other
+peculiarities: it has absolutely no choir—the daïs in front of the
+shallow eastern apses has to serve the purpose; and it is double
+aisled on the north side.—The carved screen in the north aisle has
+the unique property of being filled in with thin ivory panels,
+which must have shone with a rosy tint when the lamps behind were
+lighted. The sculptured pulpit is especially beautiful; it stands
+on “fifteen delicate Saracenic columns, arranged in seven pairs,
+with a leader.” Not the least curious part about the “suspended”
+church is its hanging garden, where the bold experiment of planting
+palms in mid air has succeeded in perpetuating the tradition that
+it was here that the Virgin first broke fast with a meal of dates
+on her arrival in Egypt.</p>
+
+<p>This is not the place to enter into the doctrine and ritual of
+the Coptic church. The appalling Lenten fast of the Copts, which
+lasts fifty-five days, and involves total abstinence from food from
+sunrise to sunset during each of those days, no doubt suggested the
+only less rigorous Muslim fast of Ramadán. The Coptic sacrament of
+matrimony has certain elements of the grotesque in it; but most of
+the ceremonial of the church possesses a dignity and the sweet
+savour of antiquity which must redeem any minor absurdities. No one
+can stand unmoved in a Coptic church during the celebration of the
+Mass, or hear the worshippers<span class="pagenum" id=
+"Page_58">[58]</span> shout with one voice, just as they did some
+fifteen hundred years ago, the loud response, “I believe This is
+the Truth,” without emotion. Through fiery persecution they have
+clung to their truth with a heroism that is only the more wonderful
+when we consider their weakness; and however partial and ignorant
+their interpretation of truth, we cannot withhold the respect that
+is the due of those who have come out of great tribulation and
+remained steadfast to their faith.</p>
+
+<hr class="chap">
+
+<h2><span class="pagenum" id="Page_59">[59]</span><a id=
+"c03"></a>CHAPTER III</h2>
+
+<p class="sch1"><em>The Faubourgs</em>
+</p>
+
+<p class="dcap">BY the Arab conquest in 640 Egypt became a province
+of the caliphate, and was ruled, like the other provinces, by
+governors appointed by the caliphs. The first four successors of
+Mohammad retained Medina, the Arabian city of his adoption, as
+their seat of government; but after the murder of ‘Aly, the fourth
+caliph, the dynasty of the Omayyads transferred the centre of power
+to Damascus. From Damascus therefore came most of the thirty
+governors who held rule over the land of Egypt during the ninety
+years of the Omayyad caliphate. Some of them were sons or brothers
+of the reigning caliphs, and most were naturally court favourites,
+inexperienced in the art of government, and ignorant of everything
+save their religion and their language. The object of the sovereign
+pontiff at Damascus was to get as much revenue as he could out of
+the subject provinces, and Egypt especially was regarded in the
+light of a valuable milch-cow. ‘Amr, the conqueror, was the first
+governor, and from his new capital of Fustát he sent out his
+officers and collected about £6,000,000 from a population estimated
+at from six to eight millions. When the old warrior died at the age
+of ninety and was buried in the Mukattam hills he is said to have
+left seventy sacks of <em>dinárs</em><a id=
+"FNanchor_11"></a><a href="#Footnote_11" class="fnanchor">[11]</a>
+or something like ten tons<span class="pagenum" id=
+"Page_60">[60]</span> of gold, which his conscientious sons
+declined to inherit.</p>
+
+<p>However this may be, it is certain that the governors looked
+chiefly to the revenue, and did little for the country but draw the
+not very burdensome land and capitation taxes, and accumulate such
+pickings as might be safely diverted to their own use. A governor
+whose average tenure of office was three and a half years, and
+whose future livelihood often depended wholly on his savings, was
+under serious temptation to make the most of his brief
+opportunities. There were good <em>wális</em> and bad, but the
+shortness of their tenure and their absolute dependence upon the
+caliph at Damascus restricted their powers and energies, and they
+generally contented themselves with keeping order and rendering
+tribute to their pontifical Cæsar. The position was not easy. There
+were some thousands of Arab soldiers at Fustát and Alexandria and
+some other towns, constantly increased, however, by the troops
+brought into the country by successive governors; but all the rest
+of the population was Christian and resolved to remain so. Indeed,
+any wholesale conversion was much to be deprecated, since it
+implied the loss of the poll-tax of a guinea a head which was
+levied only from non-Muslims. Still, it was dangerous to be in so
+marked a minority, and we find that about ninety years after the
+conquest, a governor, despairing of any considerable accession of
+native Egyptians to the Muslim ranks, was driven to import 5000
+Arabs into the Delta. It was only by very slow degrees and after
+much intermarriage and many partial immigrations that Egypt became
+Muslim, and for a long time the Arabs were practically confined to
+the large towns.</p>
+
+<p>Fustát itself must soon have attracted a numerous Coptic
+population from the decaying Egyptian towns in the neighbourhood,
+not only in wives for the conquerors,<span class="pagenum" id=
+"Page_61">[61]</span> but in officials. All the details of
+government were naturally in the hands of the subject people. The
+desert Arabs knew nothing beyond the patriarchal rule of the clan,
+and they adopted everywhere the system they found prevailing in a
+conquered territory. Roman offices were translated into Arabic
+equivalents, and the Copts, a race of born clerks and accountants,
+managed all the departments. For half a century the government
+books and public documents were written in Coptic. Usefulness does
+not necessarily compel toleration, and the Christians did not
+always escape persecution in spite of their official services. They
+were better treated, however, than is sometimes imagined. Grateful
+for their assistance in the stress of the invasion ‘Amr granted
+privileges to the Jacobites and recalled their exiled patriarch.
+Another governor allowed the Copts to build a church at Fustát
+beside the bridge that connected the capital with the island of
+Roda, and a third, ‘Abd-el-‘Azíz, son of the caliph Marwán, bought
+the monastery at Tamweyh from the monks for over £10,000 when he
+wanted a country house. He went there in order to be cured of
+elephantiasis in the sulphur springs of Helwán, between Cairo and
+Memphis, and it is curious to consider how nearly this modern
+health-resort (now moved further towards the desert) became the
+capital of Egypt. ‘Abd-el-‘Azíz was so charmed with the climate of
+Helwán that he built mosques there (695), a palace, known as the
+“Golden House” from its gilt dome, and a glass winter-garden,
+planted trees, made a lake and aqueduct, and constructed a
+Nilometer. Hitherto the lower Nile had been measured at Memphis,
+but in 716 a new Nilometer was set up on the island of Roda, where
+a second was afterwards built at the upper end of the island in
+861. Subsequent governors, however, did not share the
+ideas<span class="pagenum" id="Page_62">[62]</span> of
+‘Abd-el-‘Azíz either in regard to the charms of Helwán or in
+relation to the Copts, and we read of a vexatious system of
+passports, badges for monks, fines and tortures, and destruction of
+sacred pictures, which excited such indignation that the people
+rose in rebellion in the east of the Delta, and the Christian king
+of Nubia marched into Egypt to demand the release of an imprisoned
+patriarch.</p>
+
+<p>These Muslim persecutions were not a whit more cruel than the
+contemporary Christian persecutions of the Jews, but this does not
+make them the more defensible. The monks seem to have especially
+excited the fanaticism of the early Muslims, whose puritanism found
+no place for monastic rules. In later times the Shí‘a caliphs of
+Cairo took very kindly to the Coptic monks, but it was not so in
+the cruder and fiercer age of the Arab conquests. Monasticism was a
+potent force in Egypt from very early days. The followers of St
+Mark in the third century had settled in scattered communities all
+over the Delta, and had already begun to formulate what is known as
+“the Egyptian rule.” We do not yet know how much we owe to these
+remote hermits. Some have held that Irish Christianity, the great
+civilizing agent of the early Middle Ages among the northern
+nations, was the child of the Egyptian Church. Seven Egyptian monks
+are buried at Disert Ulidh, and there is much in the ceremonies and
+architecture of early Ireland that reminds one of still earlier
+Christian remains in Egypt. Everyone knows that the handicraft of
+the Irish monks in the ninth and tenth centuries far excelled
+anything that could be found elsewhere in Europe; and if the
+Byzantine-looking decoration of their splendid gold and silver work
+and their superb illuminations can be traced to the teaching of
+Egyptian missionaries, we have more to thank the Copts for
+than<span class="pagenum" id="Page_63">[63]</span> has been
+imagined. That Arab architecture owes to them much of its
+decorative charm is among the commonplaces of the history of
+art.</p>
+
+<p>Such considerations naturally could not influence a people so
+wholly dead to artistic ideas as the Arabs. To them the Coptic
+monks were merely candidates for clerkships and owners of secret
+hoards to be squeezed for the benefit of the faithful. Any thought
+of fellowship or amity was out of the question, and the fact that
+persecution was not more general and consistent must be ascribed to
+the indolence or good nature of individual governors, and to the
+prudent maxim that deprecates the slaughter of the goose that lays
+golden eggs. Now and again we read of cruel massacres and tortures,
+and destruction of churches, and next we hear of permission granted
+for the building or restoration of a church. We find the Copts
+quietly meeting in the fortress of Babylon, which they always
+occupied, to elect a patriarch; and almost at the same moment
+appear notices of humiliating sumptuary rules, a distinguishing
+garb of some ridiculous colour, and wooden effigies of the devil
+hung over Coptic doors. Every now and then some rising, or a mere
+street quarrel, would be made the pretext for a wholesale massacre,
+when many churches were razed to the ground.</p>
+
+<p>In spite of persecution, in spite of the apostasy of the weaker
+brethren, the Church still preserved a painful existence. There is
+something truly heroic in the constancy of these ignorant
+people—for the Coptic priesthood was never famous for learning—to
+the faith of their forefathers. They still persevered in the
+celebration of the rites of their religion, though the loop-holed
+walls, massive doors, and secret passages of their surviving
+churches testify to the perils that attended such solemnities. From
+time to time many<span class="pagenum" id="Page_64">[64]</span> of
+them waxed rich, as the gorgeous adornments of these churches show;
+for their masters could not do without their skill in reckoning and
+scriveners’ work. Aided by this monopoly, and supported by a dogged
+adherence to their ancient faith, the Copts present to this day the
+curious spectacle of a people who have stood still for ages, and,
+through many centuries of varying persecution, have preserved their
+individuality and their traditions. They are still a people apart,
+less mixed with alien blood than any other inhabitants of the Nile
+valley; their features recall those of the ancient Egyptians, as we
+see them on the monuments, much more than do the faces of the
+Muslim population. And not only in person but in language the Copts
+are a remnant of ancient Egypt. Their tongue, preserved in their
+liturgy and recited to-day in their churches, is the lineal
+descendant of the language of the hieroglyphics and of the Rosetta
+stone. For ordinary purposes of course they use the Arabic of their
+neighbours, but the sacred speech of their religion is still partly
+understood by the priests, and retains its place of honour before
+the Arabic translation in the services of the church. By another
+curious freak of conservatism they preserve this ancient language,
+not in the script that belonged to it—the cursive development of
+the picture writing of the monuments—but in the bold uncial
+character of early Greek manuscripts. A people of the race of the
+Pharaohs, speaking the words of Ramses, writing them with the
+letters of Cadmus, and embalming in the sentences thus written a
+creed and liturgy which twelve centuries of persecution have not
+been able to wrest from them or alter a jot, are indeed a curiosity
+of history.</p>
+
+<p>The Omáyyad caliphs were superseded by the ‘Abbásids in 750, and
+Fustát was the scene of the final struggle. Marwán, the last caliph
+of the fallen<span class="pagenum" id="Page_65">[65]</span>
+dynasty, fled to Egypt, and setting fire to Fustát and the bridge
+that joined it to the island of Roda, escaped to the west bank. His
+precautions were vain. The ‘Abbásid general and the men of Khurasán
+soon found the means of crossing, and Marwán’s head was sent round
+the towns in evidence of the change of power. Usurpers have an
+invincible repugnance to dwelling in the houses of the usurped. The
+‘Abbásid caliphs left Damascus and built themselves a famous new
+capital at Baghdád; and their governors in Egypt, abandoning the
+House of the Emírate at Fustát, established a new official suburb,
+a Versailles of the Egyptian Paris, on the place where the pursuing
+army had encamped, and named it el-‘Askar or “the Cantonments.” The
+site was a little to the north-east of Fustát, on a part of the
+Further Hamra, which had been occupied by three tribes at the time
+of the Arab conquest, but had since been abandoned and become
+desert. Here a faubourg grew up, which extended from Fustát to the
+hill of Yeshkur, on which the mosque of Ibn-Tulún now stands. A
+mosque was soon built, and a palace for the governor as well as
+barracks for his troops. Streets and quarters and large mansions
+clustered round the new fashionable centre, where the sixty-five
+<em>wális</em> who represented the ‘Abbásid caliphs for 118 years
+had their seat of government. One of them, Hátim, in 810 built
+himself a summer palace called the “Dome of the Air”
+(Kubbat-el-Hawa) on a spur of the Mukattam, where the Citadel of
+Cairo is now built, and thither the emírs of Egypt often resorted
+to enjoy the cool breeze. The new faubourg was merely the quarter
+of the officials and court circles, and did not diminish the
+importance of Fustát as the metropolis of Egypt.</p>
+
+<p>Not a trace is left of this suburb, and the record
+of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_66">[66]</span> the governors who
+lived there is almost equally fleeting.<a id=
+"FNanchor_12"></a><a href="#Footnote_12" class="fnanchor">[12]</a>
+They had a more difficult task than their predecessors under the
+Omayyads, and had to suppress insurrections of Mohammedan
+schismatics as well as risings among the Arab tribes and the Copts.
+Fustát bore unpleasant witness to the revolts in the thousands of
+rebels’ heads that were exhibited, and the courage of hesitating
+heretics was damped by the sight of their leader’s skull hung up in
+the mosque of ‘Amr. The history of the century from 750 to 860 is
+one long chronicle of “sedition, privy conspiracy and rebellion,
+false doctrine, heresy and schism,” but the disturbances hardly
+affected the prosperous capital. The vagaries of some of the
+governors were much more vexatious to the quiet citizens. Abu-Sálih
+ibn Memdúd, in 779, was a middlesome martinet, who showed great
+energy in putting down brigandage in the country, and was so
+satisfied with his measures that he convinced himself of the
+impossibility of theft in the towns. Confiding in this belief he
+ordered the people of Fustát to leave their doors and shops open
+all night, with no more protection than a net to keep the dogs out;
+he abolished the office of the watchman who used to guard the
+bathers’ clothes at the public baths, and proclaimed that if
+anything were lost he would replace it himself. It is said that
+when a man went to the bath he would call out “O Abu-Sálih, take
+care of my clothes!” and no one would dare to touch them. Such
+security argued great vigilance on the governor’s part, but his
+absurd laws of dress and general interference irritated the people,
+and his severity was worse than the evils it put down.</p>
+
+<p>A story is told of the famous caliph Harún-er-Rashíd, which
+would scarcely invite respect for his nominees.<span class=
+"pagenum" id="Page_67">[67]</span> One governor of his time, Musa
+the ‘Abbásid, “was a man of great official experience, and
+well-disposed towards the Copts, whom he allowed to rebuild their
+ruined churches. When it was reported that he was harbouring
+designs against the caliph [whom, as one of the family, he might
+possibly succeed], Harún exclaimed, with his usual levity, ‘By
+Allah, I will depose him, and in his place I will set the meanest
+creature of my court.’ Just then ‘Omar, the secretary of the
+caliph’s mother, came riding on his mule. ‘Will you be governor of
+Egypt?’ asked Ga‘far the Barmecide. ‘Oh, yes,’ said ‘Omar. No
+sooner said than done, ‘Omar rode his mule to Fustát, followed by a
+single slave carrying his baggage. Entering the governor’s house
+(at ‘Askar), he took his seat in the back row of the assembled
+court. Musa, not knowing him, asked his business, whereat ‘Omar
+presented him with the caliph’s dispatch. On reading it, Musa
+exclaimed in Koranic phrase, ‘God curse Pharaoh, who said, Am I not
+King of Egypt?’ and forthwith delivered up the government to ‘the
+meanest creature.’”</p>
+
+<p>On the other hand a really capable ruler was sometimes sent from
+Baghdad. Such was ‘Abdallah the son of Táhir, governor of Khurasán
+in northern Persia (where he afterwards founded a dynasty), whose
+task in Egypt was to drive out a troublesome multitude of refugees
+from Spain, who had seized Alexandria, and, joined by a hot-headed
+Arab tribe, set the government at defiance. ‘Abdallah, in the
+course of his mission, was compelled to attack the preceding
+governor, who refused to be superseded, and Fustát was blockaded
+(826). A curious incident of the leaguer was the arrival one night
+in the invader’s camp of a thousand slaves and a thousand slave
+girls, each of whom brought a thousand dinárs in a purse. ‘Abdallah
+refused the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_68">[68]</span> bribe,
+and starved the garrison out. Unfortunately, when his work was done
+he returned to Persia, and Egypt lost a rare example of “a just and
+humane governor, a man of learning, and a staunch friend to poets.”
+A reminiscence of his rule may still be tasted at any Cairo hotel
+in the ‘Abdalláwi melons which he first introduced. A greater than
+he visited ‘Askar when the caliph Mamún, son of Harún-er-Rashíd,
+and himself a noted patron of learning and philosophy, came in
+person in 832 to put down a determined revolt of the Copts in the
+Delta, and did the work so thoroughly and so relentlessly that
+there never again was a national movement amongst them; and partly
+by their conversion to Islam, partly by the settlement of Arabs on
+the land and in the villages, instead of only in the large cities,
+Egypt began at last to become preponderantly a Mohammedan country.
+It was the first time that an ‘Abbásid caliph had visited the Nile,
+the praises of which poets had constantly been dinning in his ears;
+and when el-Mamún surveyed the view from the “Dome of the Air,” he
+was frankly disappointed. Using the same phrase from the Korán as
+the superseded governor, he exclaimed, “God curse Pharaoh for
+saying Am I not king of Egypt? If only he had seen Chaldæa and its
+meadows!” “Say not so,” rejoined a divine, “for it is also written,
+‘we have brought to nought what Pharaoh and his folk reared and
+built so skilfully,’ and what must have been those things which God
+destroyed, if these be but their remnants!”<a id=
+"FNanchor_13"></a><a href="#Footnote_13" class=
+"fnanchor">[13]</a></p>
+
+<p>The caliph’s visit, if it put an end to Coptic insurrection,
+brought other troubles in its train. His interest in metaphysical
+and theological speculation, which encouraged the study of Greek
+philosophy at Baghdád, led him among other things to adopt the
+doctrine of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_69">[69]</span> the
+createdness of the Korán, which was flat against all orthodox
+Muslim theory. The hated doctrine was made a test question for the
+kádis or theological judges, and the consequences to those who
+indulged conscientious scruples were distressing. A non-conforming
+chief kády of Fustát was shorn of his beard—the worst indignity he
+could suffer—and whipped through the city on an ass. The orthodox
+professors of the Hánafy and Sháfi‘y schools were driven out of the
+mosque of ‘Amr in disgrace. The contumely was the less deserved
+inasmuch as in those days the judges were the one healthy feature
+of the Egyptian government. Upright and incorruptible, as a rule,
+and independent of the governor, the chief kády, who may be called
+the lord chancellor and primate of Egypt in one, was a firm if
+narrow interpreter and administrator of the sacred law, and would
+resign his office sooner than submit to his judgments being
+overruled. He was not, however, disposed to check his people’s
+fanaticism, and the suppression of the Christian revolt was
+followed by worse persecution than ever. An orthodox reaction began
+after Mamún’s death, and a new caliph issued a number of petty
+regulations for the humiliation of the Copts (850). They were
+ordered “to wear honey-coloured clothes with distinguishing
+patches, use wooden stirrups, and set up wooden images of the devil
+or an ape or dog over their doors; the girdle, the symbol of
+femininity, was forbidden to women, and ordered to be worn by men:
+crosses must not be shown, nor processional lights carried in the
+streets,” and so forth. The object of course was to furnish
+opportunities for fines and extortion.</p>
+
+<p>There is no need to dwell further upon the period of Arab rule
+at Fustát and ‘Askar. The Arab governors left little trace, and
+though it is to be regretted that not a single specimen of their
+buildings has come down to<span class="pagenum" id=
+"Page_70">[70]</span> us, as links in the history of Saracenic art,
+it is not probable that these edifices were remarkable. The Arabs
+have never done anything in art by themselves. What is called “Arab
+art” in Spain was due to a mixture of other and more gifted races,
+and in Egypt we find no Mohammedan art until the caliphs began to
+appoint Turks as Governors. One hears a great deal about the
+misgovernment of the Turk in the present day; but be it good or
+bad, it is never denied that he can govern. In the Middle Ages it
+would almost appear that the Turks were the only people who
+possessed the art of governing. The greatest ruler of Western Asia
+in the eleventh century—the Seljúk emperor, Melik Shah—was a Turk.
+The so-called Moghuls of India, Babar and Akbar, were Turks. When
+Europe was split up by jealous and ignoble rivalries, the great
+Turkish sultans of Constantinople wielded power from the Danube to
+the Indian Ocean, and from the Caucasus to the Atlas. Most curious
+it is that wherever there was Turkish rule in the Middle Ages, art
+and letters flourished. Indeed, in many parts art can hardly be
+said to have reawakened till the Turk came to inspire it. It was
+not that he could do anything notable himself in art or letters,
+for at least among the Turkish rulers of Egypt—and with an interval
+of less than two hundred years its rulers have been almost all
+Turks for the past eleven centuries—it would be hard to point to
+many who were distinguished for cultivation; it was rather that
+their strong hand preserved the order that is essential to the work
+of culture, and their unscrupulous levies produced the money, that
+was needed for the beautiful and grandiose buildings in which they
+loved to see their power and wealth reflected. Many of them
+probably had a genuine love of art, most of them were fond of
+luxury and display, and delighted to surround themselves with
+the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_71">[71]</span> costly products
+of exquisite workmanship; and a good many, no doubt, believed that
+the endowment of sanctuaries might expiate the sins of a life,
+remembering the words of the Prophet, “Whosoever builds for God a
+place of worship, be it only as the nest of a grouse, God buildeth
+for him a house in Paradise.” Whatever the cause, the fact remains
+that the influence of the Turk is found in the artistic energy of
+every part of the East from the Bosporus to the Ganges. It was to
+the Turks of Delhi and Agra that we owe the Kutb Minár, the Taj,
+the intricate graces of Fathpur Sikri; Turks built the Atala Mesjid
+at Jaunpur, the mosques of Ahmadabad, of Gaur, of Bijapur; Seljúk
+Turks were the founders of the noble buildings of Kóniya,
+Kaysaríya, Sivás, and other cities of Asia Minor; Othmanly Turks
+built the shrines of Brusa and the imperial mosques, second indeed,
+but only second, to St Sophia at Constantinople. In Egypt we find
+the same thing: the first example of distinctively Saracenic art
+appears only when the Turk assumed the sceptre. Up to 856 every
+governor of Egypt was an Arab, and, with the doubtful exception of
+the mosque of ‘Amr, not a single monument attests their public
+spirit. From 856 the governors were Turks, and twenty years later
+rose the mosque of Ibn-Tulún, the first and most remarkable
+monument of Arab art in the country.</p>
+
+<p>It would take us far from Cairo to explain how the Turks came to
+be rulers of Egypt. The movement was part of that overflow of the
+peoples of Central Asia which has been going on from the beginning
+of history; but it was assisted by the policy of the caliphs.
+Alarmed at the growing power of provincial dynasts in Persia, and
+threatened by turbulent Arab tribes in Mesopotamia, the ‘Abbásids
+imported a guard of mercenaries recruited from the slave markets of
+the Oxus, and for a while rejoiced in the protection of these
+stalwart young Turks.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_72">[72]</span>
+The old question, <em>Quis custodiet?</em> soon arose, and the
+luxurious and effeminate caliphs of Baghdád realized too late that
+in purchasing these valiant slaves they had virtually condemned
+themselves to slavery. The Turkish captain of the bodyguard became
+the <em>maire du palais</em> of the Baghdád <em>roi fainéant</em>,
+the offices of State were seized by the Turks, and the government
+of the western provinces was confided to their friends. At first
+they contented themselves with the profits without the cares of
+office, and a series of Turkish emírs, living at Baghdád or
+elsewhere in Mesopotamia, held the fief and drew the surplus
+revenue of Egypt through Arab deputy-governors. But in 856 the
+deputy as well as the fieffee was a Turk, and in 868 the Turkish
+fieffee Bakbak sent his stepson, Ahmad ibn Tulún, to govern Egypt
+as his representative.</p>
+
+<p>Ahmad, the son of Tulún, was thirty-three years of age when he
+arrived at Fustát, and combined in a remarkable degree the military
+and administrative ability of his race with the culture of his
+adopted civilization. He had studied under the learned professors
+of Baghdád, and even journeyed to Tarsus for the benefit of special
+lectures. In matters of Arabic philology and Koranic doctrine he
+was critically expert. But beyond this he was a man of boundless
+energy, an unerring judge of character, who knew how to choose and
+use his subordinates. His justice, if stern, was incorruptible, and
+his generosity was superb. “Give to every one who holds out the
+hand” was his motto, and every month he devoted a thousand dinárs
+to charity. He came to Egypt penniless, save for a loan from a
+friend; but when he died he left ten million dinárs in the
+treasury, an immense establishment of slaves and horses, and a
+hundred ships of war. Yet he accomplished his economies without
+increasing the taxes. Indeed he abolished various imposts, and his
+revenues were due chiefly to<span class="pagenum" id=
+"Page_75">[75]</span> the pains he took to encourage cultivation
+and to give the fellahín better security in their land. For the
+first time since the Arab conquest Egypt became a powerful and
+sovereign State. Ahmad soon threw over all save a nominal
+dependence on the caliphate, and after overcoming intrigues and
+subduing three rebellions in Egypt, he marched into Syria, and
+occupied the whole country as far as Tarsus and the Euphrates,
+fought the armies both of the caliphate and of the Romans of the
+Cilician frontier, and united under his sole authority the broad
+stretch of territory from Barka in Libya to the borders of the
+Byzantine empire in Asia Minor, and from the Euphrates to the first
+cataract of the Nile.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenterplate iw5">
+<figure id="i06"><a href="images/i06.jpg"><img src='images/i06.jpg'
+alt=''></a>
+<p class="cp2">TOWER OF THE MOSQUE OF IBN-TULUN</p>
+</figure>
+</div>
+
+<p>Side by side with this imperial policy Ahmad expended infinite
+labour and wealth upon the embellishment of his capital. “The
+government house at el-‘Askar, the official suburb of Fustát, was
+too small to house his numerous retinue and army. He was not
+content, either, with a mere governor’s palace. In 870 he chose a
+site on the hill of Yeshkur [at the north-east extremity of ‘Askar,
+next to the House of the Emirate], levelled the graves of the
+Christian cemetery there, and founded the royal suburb of
+el-Katái‘, or ‘the Wards,’ so called because each class or
+nationality (as household servants, Greeks, Sudánis) had a distinct
+quarter assigned to it. The new town stretched from the present
+Rumeyla beside the Citadel to the shrine of Zeyn-el-‘Abidin, and
+covered a square mile. The new palace was built below the old ‘Dome
+of the Air,’ and had a great garden and a spacious enclosed
+horse-course or Meydán adjoining it, with mews and a menagerie; the
+government house was on the south of the great mosque, which still
+stands, and there was a private passage which led from the
+residence to the oratory of the emír. A separate<span class=
+"pagenum" id="Page_76">[76]</span> palace held the harím, and there
+were magnificent baths, markets, and all apparatus of
+luxury.”<a id="FNanchor_14"></a><a href="#Footnote_14" class=
+"fnanchor">[14]</a></p>
+
+<p>The generals and officers built their houses round about, and
+great mansions soon covered the new site. The bazars were even
+better than at Fustát, well built and filled with choice wares. The
+Meydán, where Ahmad and his captains played mall or polo, became
+the favourite resort of the town, and if one asked anybody where he
+was going the answer was sure to be “To the Meydán.” It was entered
+by a number of gates, restricted to special classes, such as the
+Gate of the Nobles, the Gate of the Harím, or named after some
+peculiarity, as the Gate of Lions, which was surmounted by two
+lions in plaster, the Sag Gate, made of teak, the Gate of
+ed-Darmún, so called because a huge black chamberlain of that name
+mounted guard there. Only Ahmad himself could ride through the
+central arch of the great triple gate: his 30,000 troops passed
+through the side arches. On review days he stationed himself on a
+daïs and watched the crowd come in by the Polo Gate (Bab
+es-Sawáliga) and pass out by the Gate of Lions, above which he had
+a balcony, whence on the night of the great festival he could
+survey the whole faubourg and see what the people were about. The
+view from this belvedere reached to the gate of Fustát and to the
+Nile, and it was a favourite resort of the emír.</p>
+
+<p>The palace was supplied with water from a spring in the southern
+desert by means of an aqueduct, the traces of which may still be
+seen—not that of many arches running from the Citadel to the Nile,
+which belongs to a much later date. The people, in Eastern fashion,
+naturally found fault with the quality of the pure water to which
+their own muddy wells and turgid<span class="pagenum" id=
+"Page_77">[77]</span> Nile had not accustomed them. Rumours of this
+reached Ibn-Tulún, and he sent for the learned doctor Mohammad Ibn
+‘Abd-el-Hakam to resolve these suspicions. “I was one night in my
+house,” he related, “when a slave of Ibn-Tulún’s came and said,
+‘The emir wants thee.’ I mounted my horse in a panic of terror, and
+the slave led me off the high road. ‘Where are you taking me?’ I
+asked. ‘To the desert,’ was the reply; ‘the emir is there.’
+Convinced that my last hour was come, I said, ‘God help me! I am an
+aged and feeble man: do you know what he wants with me?’ The slave
+took pity on my fears and said, ‘Beware of speaking disrespectfully
+of the aqueduct.’ We went on till suddenly I saw torch-bearers in
+the desert, and Ibn-Tulún on horseback at the door of the aqueduct,
+with great wax candles burning before him. I forthwith dismounted
+and salaamed, but he did not greet me in return. Then I said, ‘O
+emir, thy messenger hath grievously fatigued me, and I thirst; let
+me, I beg, take a drink.’ The pages offered me water, but I said,
+‘No, I will draw for myself.’ I drew water while he looked on, and
+drank till I thought I should have burst. At last I said, ‘O emir,
+God quench thy thirst at the rivers of Paradise! for I have drunk
+my fill, and know not which to praise most, the excellence of this
+cool, sweet, clear water, or the delicious smell of the aqueduct.’
+‘Let him retire,’ said Ibn-Tulún, and the slave whispered, ‘Thou
+hast hit the mark.’”</p>
+
+<p>The monument which has immortalized Ibn-Tulún, however, is his
+mosque, the only building of all his sumptuous little city that has
+survived the buffets of civil war and the slow detrition of
+neglect. It is the most interesting monument of Mohammedan Egypt,
+and forms a landmark in the history of architecture. Two features
+specially distinguish it: it was built<span class="pagenum" id=
+"Page_78">[78]</span> entirely of new materials, instead of the
+spoils of old churches and temples, and it is the earliest instance
+of the use of the pointed arch throughout a building, earlier by at
+least two centuries than any in England. They are true pointed
+arches, with a very slight return at the spring, but not enough to
+suggest the horse-shoe form. The Topographer relates how Ahmad
+lighted upon a treasure in the Mukattam hills, at a place called
+“Pharaoh’s Oven,” and resolved to build with it a mosque large
+enough to hold the vast congregations that then overcrowded the
+mosque of el-‘Askar. He chose for the site the flat-topped rocky
+hill of Yeshkur, a sure place for prayers to be answered, since it
+was believed to be the spot where Moses held converse with Jehovah.
+Here the foundations were laid in 876 (263 <span class=
+"sc2">A.H.</span>), and two years later the work was finished and
+public prayers were held in the presence of the emír. Ibn-Tulún was
+at first in a difficulty how to procure the three hundred columns
+needed to support the arcades, but his architect, who was a
+Christian and doubtless a Copt,<a id="FNanchor_15"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_15" class="fnanchor">[15]</a> and was at the time in
+prison for some offence, wrote to him that he would undertake to
+build him a mosque of the size he required without columns. He was
+brought before the emír who said, “Woe to thee! what is this that
+thou sayest respecting the building of the mosque?” “I will draw
+the plan for the prince,” answered the Christian, “that he may see
+it with his eyes, with no columns save the two beside the
+<em>kibla</em>.” They brought him skins and he drew the plan. Such
+a<span class="pagenum" id="Page_79">[79]</span> design was
+evidently quite new in mosque building, but Ahmad saw its merits at
+once, arrayed the designer in a robe of honour, and gave him
+100,000 dinárs to carry out his plan. When it was done he gave him
+10,000 more, and the total cost is stated to have amounted to
+120,000 dinárs or about £63,000. The use of brick arches and piers,
+instead of marble columns, was due partly to the emír’s reluctance
+to deprive the Christian churches of so many pillars, but even more
+to his anxiety to make his mosque safe from fire. He was told that
+if he built it of “mortar and cinders and red brick well burnt” it
+would resist fire better than if constructed of marble, and the
+fact remains that the mosque has withstood the conflagrations that
+devastated the rest of the faubourg. The adoption of the new plan
+of brick piers, instead of columns, led to the employment of the
+pointed arch, and the exclusion of marble suggested the plaster or
+stucco decoration which still preserves its original admirable
+designs.</p>
+
+<p>Five rows of arches form the cloister at the Mekka or south-east
+side, and two rows on the other sides; arches and piers are alike
+coated with gypsum, and the ornaments on the arches and round the
+stone grilles or windows are all worked by hand in the plaster. The
+difference between the soft flexuousness of this work, done with a
+tool in the moist plaster, and the hard mechanical effect of the
+designs impressed with a mould in the Alhambra is striking: it is
+the difference between the artist and the artisan. On the simple
+rounded capitals of the engaged columns built at the corner of each
+arch there is a rudimentary bud and flower pattern, and on either
+side of the windows between the arches facing the court, which also
+are pointed and have small engaged columns, is a rosette, and a
+band of rosettes runs round the court beneath the crenellated
+parapet.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_80">[80]</span> The inner
+arches are differently treated. “Round the arches and windows runs
+a knop and flower pattern, which also runs across from spring to
+spring of arch beneath the windows, and a band of the same ornament
+runs all along above the arches, in place of the rosettes, which
+only occur in the face fronting the court; over this band and
+likewise running along the whole length of all the inner arcades is
+a Kufic inscription carved in wood, and above this is the usual
+crenellated parapet. The arcades are roofed over with sycamore
+planks resting on heavy beams. In the rearmost arcade the back wall
+is pierced with pointed windows, which are filled, not with
+coloured glass, but with grilles of stone forming geometrical
+designs with central rosettes or stars.”<a id=
+"FNanchor_16"></a><a href="#Footnote_16" class=
+"fnanchor">[16]</a></p>
+
+<p>The general form of the mosque is similar to that of ‘Amr as
+restored, the form of every mosque in Cairo from the ninth to the
+thirteenth century. The great square court, covering three acres of
+ground, gave room for the largest assembly, whilst the covered
+arcades offered shelter from the sun to the ordinary congregation
+and to the groups of students, ascetics, and beggars who have
+always made their home in mosques. The south-east arcade or
+<em>liwán</em>, with its deeper aisles, was the special
+sanctuary,<a id="FNanchor_17"></a><a href="#Footnote_17" class=
+"fnanchor">[17]</a> where the <em>mihráb</em> or niche in the wall
+showed the direction (<em>kibla</em>) of Mekka, towards which the
+prayers of the faithful must turn, and the pulpit (<em>minbar</em>)
+and platform (<em>dikka</em>) gave the<span class="pagenum" id=
+"Page_83">[83]</span> preacher and the precentors vantage to make
+their voices heard throughout the crowd of worshippers. So far
+there is nothing original about the mosque. The form may have been
+adopted by the Arabs from ancient Semitic temples, or the great
+court may represent the atrium of the Byzantine basilica and the
+liwán the basilica itself, only supported on pillars instead of
+vaulted roofs, with a relic of the apse in the concave
+<em>mihráb</em>; but it was too obviously suited to the
+requirements of the climate to need any curious derivation.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenterplate iw5">
+<figure id="i07"><a href="images/i07_large.jpg"><img src=
+'images/i07.jpg' alt=''></a>
+<p class="cp2">WITHIN THE MOSQUE OF IBN-TULUN</p>
+</figure>
+</div>
+
+<p>The dome and minaret, so characteristic of later Cairo mosques,
+are here wanting. The odd-looking corkscrew tower with external
+winding staircase, like the Assyrian ziggurat, has a fellow in the
+tower of Samarra on the Tigris, from which it was doubtless copied,
+but the upper part has probably been restored; though the tower of
+Ibn-Tulún was certainly in existence in 1047, when it is mentioned
+by Násir-i-Khusrau. But it is hardly a minaret in the common sense
+of the term.<a id="FNanchor_18"></a><a href="#Footnote_18" class=
+"fnanchor">[18]</a> There is no dome, because the dome has nothing
+to do with prayer, and therefore nothing with a mosque.<a id=
+"FNanchor_19"></a><a href="#Footnote_19" class="fnanchor">[19]</a>
+“It is simply the roof of a tomb, and only exists where there is a
+tomb to be covered, or at least where it was intended that a tomb
+should be.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_84">[84]</span> Only when
+there is a chapel attached to a mosque, containing the tomb of the
+founder or his family, is there a dome, and it is no more closely
+connected with the mosque itself than is the grave it covers:
+neither is necessary to a place of prayer. It happens, however,
+that a large number of the mosques of Cairo are mausoleums,
+containing a chamber with the tomb of the founder, and the
+profusion of domes to be seen, when one looks down upon the city
+from the battlements of the Citadel, has brought about the not
+unnatural mistake of thinking that every mosque must have a dome.
+Most mosques with tombs have domes, but no mosque that was not
+intended to contain a tomb ever had one in the true sense. The
+origin of the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_85">[85]</span> dome
+may be traced to the cupolas which surmount the graves of
+Babylonia, many of which must have been familiar to the Arabs [and
+still more to the Turks], who preserved the essentially sepulchral
+character of the form and never used it, as did the Copts and
+Byzantines, to say nothing of Western architects, to roof a church
+or its apse.”</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<figure id="i08"><a href="images/i08.jpg"><img src='images/i08.jpg'
+alt='' class="iw7"></a>
+<p class="cp2">DETAIL OF ORNAMENT IN MOSQUE OF IBN-TULUN</p>
+</figure>
+</div>
+
+<p>But if there is little originality in the shape of the mosque,
+its pointed arches and its decoration are worth studying. Pointed
+arches occur also in the second Nilometer on the island of Roda, as
+rebuilt in 861, some fifteen years earlier than the mosque of
+Ibn-Tulún, and the architect of this building is stated to have
+been a native of Ferghána on the Iaxartes. There is nothing to
+prove that this arch was derived from the Coptic style. On the
+other hand the bold and free plaster decoration, designed by the
+Coptic architect, was undoubtedly borrowed from the ornament of his
+countrymen. The Arabs have never been artists or even skilled
+craftsmen. They imported Persians and Greeks to build for them and
+decorate their houses and mosques, but above all they employed the
+Copts, who have been the deft workmen of Egypt through thousands of
+years of her history. A comparison of the plaster work of Ibn-Tulún
+with the Coptic carvings preserved in the Cairo Museum of
+Antiquities and those from the tombs of ‘Ayn-es-Síra in the Arab
+Museum shows clearly the source of the floral decoration, which
+belongs to the Byzantine school of Syria and Egypt. The Kufic
+inscriptions carved in the solid wood are a purely Arab addition,
+and one that afterwards developed into a leading decorative feature
+in Saracenic art.<a id="FNanchor_20"></a><a href="#Footnote_20"
+class="fnanchor">[20]</a> The geometrical ornament<span class=
+"pagenum" id="Page_86">[86]</span> of the open grilles is also
+Byzantine, as M. Bourgouin has established in his exhaustive
+treatise on the <em>entrelacs</em>, but it is not certain that they
+belong to the original building, and the star polygons suggest that
+the grilles may have been part of the later restoration.<a id=
+"FNanchor_21"></a><a href="#Footnote_21" class=
+"fnanchor">[21]</a></p>
+
+<p>Home interests did not interfere with Ibn-Tulún’s imperial
+ambitions. He played a conspicuous part in Mesopotamian politics,
+and almost succeeded in getting the caliph into his hands. The
+oppressed head of Islam would have gladly escaped from his
+tyrannous brother el-Muwaffak, but the scheme failed, and Egypt
+lost the opportunity of becoming the seat of the caliphate. The
+result was that the ambitious emir was publicly cursed in every
+mosque of Mesopotamia. He also failed to capture the sacred city of
+Mekka, but his reign ended in some glorious campaigns against the
+Roman emperor, in which the Egyptian forces defeated the enemy near
+Tarsus, killed (it is said) 60,000 Christians, and captured immense
+spoils of gold and silver crucifixes, jewels, and sacred vessels.
+The success turned the general’s head, and Ahmad himself had to
+march north to bring his viceroy to obedience. “It was a severe
+winter, and his opponent dammed the river, flooded the country, and
+nearly drowned the besieging army at Adhana. Ibn-Tulún was forced
+to retire to Antioch, where a copious indulgence in buffalo milk,
+following upon the exposure and privations of the campaign, brought
+on a dysentery. He was carried in a litter to Fustát, where he grew
+worse. In sickness the fierce emir was a terror to his doctors. He
+refused to follow their orders, flouted their prescribed diet, and
+when he found himself still sinking, he had their heads chopped
+off, or flogged them till they died. In vain Muslims, Jews,
+and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_87">[87]</span> Christians
+offered up public prayers for his recovery. Korán and Tora and
+Gospel could not save him; and he died in May, 884, before he had
+reached the age of fifty.”</p>
+
+<p>His sumptuous capital received many notable additions from his
+successor Khumáraweyh, who fully shared his father’s passion for
+splendid building as well as his imperial policy. He enlarged the
+palace, and turned the Meydán into a garden, which he planted with
+rare trees and exquisite roses. The stems of the trees were thought
+unsightly, and he coated them with sheets of copper gilt, between
+which and the trunk leaden pipes supplied water not only to the
+trees but to the canals and fountains that irrigated the garden by
+means of water wheels. There were beds of basil carefully cut to
+formal patterns, red, blue, and yellow water-lilies and
+gilliflowers, exotic plants from all countries, apricots grafted
+upon almond trees, and various horticultural experiments. A
+pigeon-tower in the midst was stocked with turtle-doves,
+wood-pigeons, and all sorts of birds of rich plumage or sweet song,
+who made a cheerful concert as they perched on the ladders set
+against the walls or skimmed over the pools and rivulets. In the
+palace he adorned the walls of his “Golden House” with gold and
+ultra-marine, and there set up his statue and those of his wives in
+heroic size, admirably carved in wood, and painted and dressed to
+the life with gold crowns and jewelled ears and turbans. In front
+of the palace he laid out a lake of quicksilver, by the advice of
+his physician, who recommended it as a cure for his lord’s
+insomnia. It was fifty cubits each way, and cost immense sums. Here
+the prince lay on an air-bed, linked by silk cords to silver
+columns on the margin, and as he rocked and courted sleep his
+blue-eyed lion Zureyk faithfully guarded his master. Long after
+the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_88">[88]</span> palace had
+disappeared people use to come and dig for the costly mercury that
+had formed the emir’s cradle.</p>
+
+<p>There was also a pavilion as large as the “Dome of the Air,”
+with a new device in curtains, and splendid carpets, and a view
+over gardens, town, and Nile. In another kiosk, built by his
+father, men chanted the Korán, proclaimed the hours of prayer, and
+recited verses sacred and profane, pious and amorous, <em>tristes
+et gais, tour à tour</em>, whilst the prince sat at table with his
+ladies, surrounded by musicians. As the solemn call to prayer
+echoed through the merry din, he would lay aside his cup and bow
+his head to the earth in prostration, for he was an orthodox though
+very irregular Muslim. The Topographer<a id=
+"FNanchor_22"></a><a href="#Footnote_22" class="fnanchor">[22]</a>
+expatiates for pages on the wonders of Khumáraweyh’s menagerie of
+lions and lionesses, leopards, elephants and giraffes; his vast
+stables, for which whole districts were set apart to grow the
+necessary fodder; the lavish luxury of his kitchen, which cost
+£12,000 a month; and the splendour of his household troops,
+recruited from the predatory Arabs of the Delta. So brave, so
+terrible, and so gallant a figure was this superb prince that his
+subjects dared not speak, much less sneeze, as he passed by. It is
+melancholy to think that of all this glory nothing remained after a
+few years but the traces of the quicksilver.</p>
+
+<p>“Neither the lion nor his bodyguard of vigorous young Arabs
+could save the voluptuous prince from the jealousies of his harím.
+Early in 896 some domestic intrigue ended in his being murdered at
+Damascus. His murderers were crucified, and amid loud lamentations
+his body was buried beside his father’s, not far from his stately
+palace, under Mount Mukattam. Seven Korán readers were engaged in
+reciting the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_89">[89]</span> sacred
+book at the tomb of Ibn-Tulún, and when the bearers brought the
+body of Khumáraweyh and began to lower it into the tomb, they
+happened to be chanting the verse, ‘Seize him and hurl him into the
+fire of Hell.’”</p>
+
+<p>His dynasty did not long survive him. Two young sons were ill
+able to withstand the efforts of the caliph to recover the rich
+provinces of Syria and Egypt which Ahmad and his son had held in
+sovereign power for thirty years. In 905 the ‘Abbásid general,
+Mohammad ibn Suleymán, entered Katái‘, massacred the black troops
+of the Tulúnids, and demolished the beautiful faubourg. ‘Askar
+became once more the seat of government, as it had been under
+earlier ‘Abbásid emirs, but Katái‘, what was left of it after the
+invading army had plundered it for four months, gradually decayed;
+its hundred thousand houses (if we are to believe the historians)
+fell by degrees, and the prodigious famine and anarchy of the time
+of Mustansir in the eleventh century finished the ruin. We shall
+hear of this terrible reign of chaos in a later chapter; but though
+it is anticipating the course of the story the final destruction of
+the two faubourgs must be noted here. These quarters had become so
+ruinous by 1070 that a wall was built all the way from the new
+palace of Káhira to Fustát—or in other words from the Gate of
+Zuweyla to near the mosque of ‘Amr—in order that the caliph, when
+he rode out, might not be distressed by the sight of the dead
+cities. The ruins of Katái‘ and ‘Askar became as it were a quarry
+from which people got the materials for building elsewhere; the
+whole space between the new Cairo and Fustát reverted to a state of
+desert, except for a few gardens and country houses, and though,
+after 1125, the people began to build houses outside the gate of
+Zuweyla, the rest of the site of the faubourgs<span class="pagenum"
+id="Page_90">[90]</span> remained unoccupied, save about the mosque
+of Ibn-Tulún, down to the day when Makrízy wrote in 1424.</p>
+
+<p>It was no wonder that the place beside the hill of Yeshkur,
+known as the “Castle of the Ram,”<a id="FNanchor_23"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_23" class="fnanchor">[23]</a> where “Pharaoh’s Seat”
+once stood, and Abraham slew his sacrifice, became the haunt of the
+Ginn. In the eighteenth century an ancient sarcophagus, belonging
+to a lady of the XXVIth Dynasty, still occupied the site of the
+Mastaba Fara‘ún, and anything brought there, were it but a handful
+of dates, immediately turned into gold. But now the alchemy is
+exhausted, the sarcophagus is in the British Museum, where no such
+miracle has been known to happen, and even the Ginn have deserted
+the spot.</p>
+
+<hr class="chap">
+
+<h2><span class="pagenum" id="Page_91">[91]</span><a id=
+"c04"></a>CHAPTER IV</h2>
+
+<p class="sch1"><em>Misr</em>
+</p>
+
+<p class="dcap">ON the downfall of the House of Tulún Egypt
+reverted to the dependent position of a province of the Baghdád
+caliphate. “The Wards” having been laid low by the conquerors, the
+new governors took up their residence in ‘Askar, but the name was
+soon dropped, and the “cantonments” became merged in the city of
+Fustát or Misr. During the whole time of the rise and decay of the
+official suburbs, Misr, the real metropolis of Egypt, had been
+increasing in prosperity. The segregation of the troops and palace
+officials at the faubourgs, whilst depriving the towns-folk of a
+certain amount of trade, relieved them from the violence of the
+black soldiery and the tyranny of the bureaux, and left them free
+to pursue their commerce. A large part of the Indian and Arabian
+trade with Europe, which afterwards developed to great importance,
+passed through Misr, and the quays were laden with the wares of
+many foreign lands. It is true, for thirty years after the ruin of
+the Tulúnids, Egypt and its capital were a prey to military
+despotism, and the caliphs’ generals, weakly controlled from
+distant Baghdád, did what seemed best in their own eyes. These were
+wild times in Misr, when a hotheaded youth, el-Khalángy, upholding
+the claims of the fallen dynasty with the enthusiastic approval of
+the mob, drove out the hated troops, seized the capital<span class=
+"pagenum" id="Page_92">[92]</span> and Alexandria, and even
+defeated a fresh army from Baghdád, till, after eight months of
+amazing impudence, he was betrayed and executed (906). As if this
+were not enough diversion for a generation, the schismatic Fátimid
+caliphs of Kayrawán offered the good people of Misr the spectacle
+of an African army marching through Egypt, and even attacking the
+camp across the river at Gíza, where the Baghdád army of
+occupation, under the command of Dukas the Greek, lay timidly
+intrenched. The Africans were at last driven out (920), but the
+state of the country did not improve. The Turkish governor had to
+quarter his troops in his own palace for his protection, and, when
+he died, “his son was hooted out of the country by the army
+clamouring for arrears of pay; the treasurer Madará‘y was in
+hiding; rival governors contended for power, mustered their troops,
+and skirmished over the distracted land; and a fearful earthquake,
+which laid many houses and villages low, followed by a portentous
+shower of meteors, added to the terror of the populace.”</p>
+
+<p>The people who profited most in the confusion were the lords
+treasurers, who seem to have done what they pleased with the
+revenue. Three members of the talented family of Madará’y, taking
+their name from their original village of Madaráya, near Basra on
+the Tigris, successively held the lucrative post of treasurer or
+comptroller of the taxes, and one of them enjoyed this office not
+only under Khumáraweyh and his two sons, but also under some of the
+caliphs’ governors, and afterwards under two of the succeeding
+dynasty. In spite of several reverses of fortune, Mohammad Madará’y
+contrived to scrape together the not contemptible income of over
+£200,000 a year, without counting his rents. But if he largely
+received, he greatly gave. Every month he distributed a<span class=
+"pagenum" id="Page_93">[93]</span> hundred thousand pounds’ weight
+of meal to the poor; he freed many thousands of slaves, endowed
+charitable and religious foundations, and spent from £60,000 to
+£80,000 on each of his twenty-one annual pilgrimages to Mekka; for
+he was a devout man, diligent in prayer and fasting, with the Korán
+ever in his hand. It was said of his vast charity during the
+pilgrimage that there was not a soul in Mekka who did not sleep in
+repletion by his beneficence. Madará’y and the great judge
+Ibn-Harbaweyh, who used to receive seated even the state visits of
+the governors, were two bright exceptions in a crowd of petty
+tyrants.</p>
+
+<p>At last another strong Turk took the reins. If Mohammad “the
+Ikhshíd,” who derived his title from his ancestors the kings of
+Ferghána on the Iaxartes, did not leave any monument in Misr to
+rival that of his great predecessor Ibn-Tulún, and if his cautious
+policy was content with a kingdom extending no further than
+Damascus, instead of to the Euphrates, he at least restored order
+in Egypt, kept the African invaders at a distance, waged on the
+whole successful war in Syria, and maintained kingly state in his
+beautiful palace in the “Garden of Kafúr,” west of the present
+Nahhasín. A delightful trait of chivalry is recorded in his war
+with Ibn-Ráik, a Turkish chief, who dominated Syria for a time.
+This emír was “so distressed to find the corpse of one of the
+Ikhshíd’s brothers among the slain that he sent his own son to his
+adversary as an atonement, to be dealt with as he chose. Not to be
+outdone in generosity, the Ikhshíd clothed the intended sacrifice
+in robes of honour, and sent him back in all courtesy to his
+father. Of course the youth married the daughter of his chivalrous
+host.”</p>
+
+<p>In the summer of 935 the people of Misr saw the procession of
+the Ikhshíd’s war-vessels advancing up the Nile from Damietta, and
+occupying the island of<span class="pagenum" id=
+"Page_94">[94]</span> Roda, which was connected with the city by a
+bridge of boats; and in August the troops entered the capital and
+plundered it for two days, till called to order by their stern
+master. After the anarchy of the past thirty years the firm if
+rapacious hand of the new ruler was a grateful change, and the
+enthusiastic son of el-Khaláty, who jumped upon the carved wooden
+horse that stood before his palace, and let fly a pigeon sweetly
+anointed with musk and rosewater at the new emír, expressed the
+sentiments of the people.<a id="FNanchor_24"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_24" class="fnanchor">[24]</a> The Old Mosque of ‘Amr
+recovered its former importance as the chief place of worship, and
+the Ikhshíd furnished it with beautiful new rush-mats, lamps and
+perfumes, and himself attended the service in state on the last
+night of Ramadán, clad in white, and followed by five hundred
+squires carrying maces and torches. On the following day, the
+Lesser Festival, he held a review, after the example of Ibn-Tulún.
+The army, numbering 400,000, marched by all day long, followed by
+the household corps of 8000 mamlúks in shining armour, beneath the
+daïs at the gate of the Government House. On the second day of the
+feast the emír attended the prayers at the mosque, and held open
+house for the people. When the caliph sent the Ikhshíd an official
+robe of honour, with necklace and bracelets, the streets and bazars
+were decked with rich cloth and rugs, and the doors of the Old
+Mosque were covered with gold brocade, as the emír dressed in his
+new robe pranced in stately procession to the Wednesday
+prayers.<a id="FNanchor_25"></a><a href="#Footnote_25" class=
+"fnanchor">[25]</a></p>
+
+<p>Those were glorious days in Misr, and the people<span class=
+"pagenum" id="Page_95">[95]</span> almost forgot the immense
+confiscations and severities of the new régime in the enjoyment of
+its refulgence. Arabic literature began to flourish in the capital
+beside the Nile, though still far from rivalling the intellectual
+supremacy of the caliphs’ city on the Tigris, where Persian
+influences had produced a quickening of varied studies that were
+long in finding their way to the more orthodox capital of Egypt.
+Arabic learning was still in its infancy in the days of the
+Ikhshíd. Poetry indeed had never died, though it had become
+mannered and imitative; but history had only begun to be written,
+science was scarcely touched upon save in the distorted form of
+astrology, and the great names of Arabic literature had hardly
+begun to make themselves known. The lives of the Prophet were
+gradually being enlarged into wider histories, and two of the
+earliest and the most famous chroniclers, Tabary and Mas‘údy, were
+contemporaries of the Ikhshíd. Mas‘údy indeed visited Egypt in 942,
+and though, greatly to our loss, he does not describe the capital
+as he saw it, he gives a vivid account of the “Night of the Bath,”
+a Christian festival adopted by the Muslims, which shows us how the
+people of Misr could make merry. “The Leylat el-Ghitás,” he says,
+“is one of the great ceremonies and the people all go to it on foot
+on the 10th of January. I was present in 350 [942 <span class=
+"sc2">A.D.</span>] when the Ikhshíd lived at his house called “The
+Elect” in the island that divides the Nile. He commanded that the
+bank of the island and that of Fustát should be illuminated each
+with a thousand torches, besides the illuminations of private
+people. Muslims and Christians by hundreds of thousands thronged
+the Nile on boats or looked from kiosks over the river or from the
+banks, all emulous for pleasure and outdoing each other in their
+display and dress, gold and silver vessels and jewels. The sound of
+music was heard all about, with singing and dancing.<span class=
+"pagenum" id="Page_96">[96]</span> It was a splendid night, the
+best in all Misr for beauty and gaiety. The doors of the separate
+quarters were left open [instead being barred as usual at sunset],
+and most people bathed in the Nile confident in its power [on that
+night] of preventing and curing all illnesses.”<a id=
+"FNanchor_26"></a><a href="#Footnote_26" class=
+"fnanchor">[26]</a></p>
+
+<p>The traveller tells how people came to the Ikhshíd and begged to
+be allowed to dig for treasure, the clue to which they said they
+had found in ancient manuscripts; but when permission was given the
+treasure-seekers found only caves full of statues of bone and
+dust—in short, they had opened some mummy-pits. Mas‘údy mentions
+the two Nilometers on the island of Roda, which he calls “the
+island of the shipbuilders;” the first built by Osáma and still in
+general use; the second made, or rather restored, by Ibn-Tulún,
+being used only for very high Niles; and he saw the bridges
+connecting Misr with the island and the island with Gíza on the
+west bank. He met merchants from Constantinople at Misr, but of the
+city itself he tells us nothing. From Ibn-Sa‘íd and others,
+however, we learn that the Ikhshíd built a new dockyard at Misr,
+which took the place of the inconvenient docks on the island of
+Roda, where a garden and pleasure-house were laid out instead; and
+it was characteristic of his parsimony that when the estimate was
+laid before him he exclaimed, “What? Thirty thousand dinárs for a
+pleasure-garden!” and immediately cut the cost down to five
+thousand. As the dockyard of Roda was superseded by that of Misr,
+so was the latter replaced by the port of Maks, a mile lower down
+the river, in the next generation. The Ikhshíd’s economical
+pleasure-house on the island has left no traces; but Roda was a
+favourite resort of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_97">[97]</span>
+successive rulers, and his building was doubtless pulled down to
+make way for the Hawdag or “litter-pavilion” of el-Amir and the
+more elaborate constructions of the Ayyúbids.</p>
+
+<p>The great business of men of learning in those days was the
+interpretation of the sacred law as laid down in the Korán, in the
+traditions of the Prophet, and in the decisions of the canonical
+theologians. A Mohammedan lawyer was necessarily a divine, since
+the law depended on revelation, and the earliest scholars of Misr
+were chiefly theological jurisconsults. Of the four recognized
+schools of orthodoxy—the Hánafy, Máliky, Sháfi‘y and Hánbaly—the
+Málikis and the Sháfi‘is each had fifteen porticoes in the mosque
+of ‘Amr, to only three for the Hánafis, and the great court rang
+with their disputes. To us their distinctions may seem trivial, but
+to the Muslims of that age they were quite as vital as the
+<em>filioque</em> was to the Orthodox Eastern Church or the
+difference between ἐκ and ἐν to the Copts. The divines waxed so
+furious in their arguments in the Old Mosque that the Ikhshíd was
+obliged for a season to take away their rush mats and cushions and
+close the mosque except at prayer time. Mosques were then, as some
+are still, the academies of Islam, and not merely divinity schools.
+In the old days before Mohammad the Arabian poets used to recite
+their verses at the great fairs before critical audiences of their
+countrymen. In Mohammedan times the criticism of authors was
+equally public but in a different fashion. “When a man had produced
+something he thought particularly good, he hastened to the mosque
+to share it with his critics. He was sure to find them there,
+doctors learned in the law, poets, commentators, seated
+cross-legged on their carpets in the arched porticos round the
+court, expounding the refinements of style to a circle of squatting
+students. To this audience he<span class="pagenum" id=
+"Page_98">[98]</span> would recite his latest achievement, proud
+but tremulous. It must have been a searching ordeal, for the
+listeners were some of them rivals and all of them keen critics, on
+the alert for the least flaw, the slightest halt in the rhythm, the
+smallest lapse from the purity of the classical idiom. They had,
+too, a way of expressing their opinions which was more forcible
+than kind. There was a hot debate, much citing of precedents and
+quoting of the Masters, exploring of memory, and examination of
+texts. The new comer defended his diction and produced his
+authorities; the rest cut him up in remorseless verbal
+vivisection.”<a id="FNanchor_27"></a><a href="#Footnote_27" class=
+"fnanchor">[27]</a></p>
+
+<p>It was not only theology that echoed in the Mosque of ‘Amr in
+the days of the Ikhshíd. Though the long list of worthies whose
+biographies Ibn-Sa‘íd unrolls in his “String of Trinkets of the
+Fustát Bride” consists preponderantly of lawyers and divines, men
+primed with serried precedents and tenacious of the authentic
+tracing of traditions, these were not all. There were the family of
+Tabátaba, famous descendants of ‘Aly, poets every one, whose verse
+is full of the love of nature and of love itself, and not a little
+of the joys of wine, always forbidden but not the less dear to the
+poets of all ages of Islám. Did not one of these poets sing
+something like this?—</p>
+
+<div class="linegrp-container">
+<div class="linegrp">
+<div class="group">
+<div class="line indent0">Grigs chirp in the sand,</div>
+
+<div class="line indent2">The moon is on high,</div>
+
+<div class="line indent0">The breeze curls the runnel,</div>
+
+<div class="line indent2">Clouds fleck the sky,</div>
+
+<div class="line indent0">Great trees swing with joy</div>
+
+<div class="line indent2">And merrily crack:</div>
+
+<div class="line indent0">Now brim me the beaker</div>
+
+<div class="line indent2">E’er life turns its back!</div>
+
+<div class="line indent0">No friendship’s so knit</div>
+
+<div class="line indent2">That time cannot split.</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="nind"><span class="pagenum" id="Page_99">[99]</span>There
+was Abu-l-Fadl of the distinguished family of el-Furát, who, though
+a mighty authority on traditions, did not disdain, any more than
+many other learned doctors, to write a good verse now and then,
+though his vein might be serious:—</p>
+
+<div class="linegrp-container">
+<div class="linegrp">
+<div class="group">
+<div class="line indent0">Whose soul is dark, a quiet life is his,
+no night’s unease;</div>
+
+<div class="line indent0">When the storm breaks, it spares the low
+but fells the tallest trees.</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="nind">Even Mansúr the lawyer condescended to a somewhat
+staid vein of verse, though it was he who stirred up such a turmoil
+by his pronouncement on the question of the legal maintenance of
+divorced wives in the days of governor Dukas that he had to be
+protected by troops, and there was a terrible scene of swords drawn
+and knives about his bier when the people believed that he had been
+murdered by a judge who disagreed with him. The Kády el-Bakár, the
+aged court poet, had such a fund of delightful anecdote that the
+Ikhshíd would often send for him of an evening and beg for a story,
+“were it only a finger’s length.” It was this genial old bard who
+wrote the lines about the morning cup and the enjoyment of that
+good comrade, life, ending</p>
+
+<div class="linegrp-container">
+<div class="linegrp">
+<div class="group">
+<div class="line indent0">Allah! give me not peace! O God, I ask
+not content—</div>
+
+<div class="line indent0">Only a waist to embrace and a wine cup
+never spent!</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="nind">Misr had its merits in this respect, for ez-Zeyneby
+wrote:—</p>
+
+<div class="linegrp-container">
+<div class="linegrp">
+<div class="group">
+<div class="line indent0">My home is in Fustát; blame me ye who
+chide.</div>
+
+<div class="line indent0">Where the Muskat vines are, there do I
+abide.</div>
+
+<div class="line indent0">Egypt, I’ll not leave thee: reason need I
+hide?</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The celebrated author el-Musébbihy comes rather<span class=
+"pagenum" id="Page_100">[100]</span> later, for he was not born
+till 977, but his work is typical of the tenth century in Egypt.
+Thirty books he wrote, numbering nearly forty thousand pages, and
+their subjects ranged over poetry and criticism, the history of
+Egypt and religion, treatises on wine and joviality, on choice
+repasts and cookery, on astrology and demons, dreams, wishes and
+oaths, anecdotes and maxims, besides subjects that are best
+described as “curious.” Literature owed much to the pleasure-loving
+court of the Abyssinian slave Kafúr (<em>i.e.</em> “Camphor”), who
+after the Ikhshíd’s death in 946 ruled the land for twenty-two
+years, first as regent over his late master’s two sons, who lived
+and died in luxurious and inactive obscurity, and for the last two
+or three years as titular prince of Egypt. There are few quainter
+figures in history than this jolly black eunuch, with his huge
+paunch, his bandy legs, and his immense cloven underlip, of which
+his guest, the poet el-Mutanebby, last of the classic Arabians,
+made such fun when he found that his panegyrics of the black prince
+brought him less returns—large as they were—than he expected.
+“Kafúr was at once the Lucullus and the Maecenas of his age. He had
+contrived to acquire some cultivation, as most clever slaves did,
+and he loved to surround himself with poets and critics, and listen
+to their discussions of an evening, or make them read him the
+history of the caliphs of old.” Serious scholars attended his
+réunions. There might be seen el-Kindy, the chronicler of the
+“Excellencies of Egypt” (Fadáil Misr), to whom Makrízy owed so
+much; el-Bakhtary the learned grammarian, as well as Ibn-el-‘Ásim,
+whose light lyrics won him the title of the “castanettist of the
+soul.” Kafúr could appreciate them all. Like all blacks he
+delighted in music. He had control of vast sums of money, and he
+scattered it liberally among his<span class="pagenum" id=
+"Page_101">[101]</span> literary friends, who repaid him in fulsome
+flattery. When the “castanettist of the soul” explained in choice
+verse that the frequent earthquakes of the time were due to Egypt’s
+dancing for joy at Kafúr’s virtues, the pleased Ethiopian threw him
+a thousand dinárs. On his table, “Camphor” was lavish; he had the
+black’s jolly sensuality. The daily provision for his kitchen
+consisted in 100 sheep, 100 lambs, 250 geese, 500 fowls, 1000
+pigeons and other birds, and 100 jars of sweets. The daily
+consumption amounted to 1700 lb. of meat, besides fowls and sweets,
+and 50 skins of liquor were allowed to the servants alone. A
+favourite drink was quince-cider, for which the kády of Asyút sent
+50,000 quince-apples every season.<a id="FNanchor_28"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_28" class="fnanchor">[28]</a></p>
+
+<p>In spite of a stern and unimaginative religion, in spite of
+fatalism and all its paralysing effects, the mediæval Arabs managed
+to enjoy life, just as their forefathers of the desert did. The
+wonderful thing about this old Mohammedan society is that it was
+what it was in spite of Mohammedanism. With all their prayers and
+fasts and irritating ritual, the Muslims of the Middle Ages
+contrived to amuse themselves. Even in their religion they found
+opportunities for enjoyment. They made the most of the festivals of
+the faith, and put on their best clothes and made up parties—to
+visit the tombs, perhaps, but to visit them cheerfully—and they
+“tipped” all their servants that they too might go out and amuse
+themselves in the gaily illuminated streets filled with dancers and
+singers and reciters, or in the mosques where the dervishes were
+performing their strange and revolting rites. Such diversions gave
+a relish to life,—even though a man had his destiny inscribed in
+the sutures of his skull and some ascetic souls found a consolation
+in staring<span class="pagenum" id="Page_102">[102]</span> at a
+blank wall till they saw the name of Allah blazing on it.</p>
+
+<p>But the great amusement of the mediæval Muslim was feasting. It
+is true the Arabs did not understand scientific cookery or æsthetic
+gastronomy; they drank to get drunk and ate to get full. We read of
+a public banquet where the table was covered with 21 enormous
+dishes, each containing 21 baked sheep, three years old and fat,
+and 350 pigeons and fowls, all piled up together to the height of a
+man, and covered in with dried sweetmeats. Between these dishes
+were 500 smaller <em>plats</em>, each holding seven fowls and the
+usual complement of sweetmeats. The table was strewn with flowers
+and cakes of bread, and two grand edifices of sweetmeats, each
+weighing 17 cwt., were brought in on shoulder poles. A man might
+eat a sheep or two without being too remarkable. And if he ate
+hugely, he washed it down with plenty of wine, in spite of all the
+Prophet’s laws. The Arab’s cup held a good pint, and he refilled it
+pretty often. Hence the majority of the banquets described in the
+Arabian histories end under the table, or would do so if there were
+any tables of the right kind.</p>
+
+<p>There are redeeming points, however, in all this gluttony and
+sottishness. The Arabs did not tope moodily in solitude. They liked
+a jovial company round them, and plenty of flowers and sweet scents
+on the board; they dressed very carefully, and perfumed their
+beards with civet and sprinkled themselves with rosewater; while
+ambergris, burning in a censer, diffused a delicious fragrance
+through the room. Nor was the feast complete without music, and the
+voices of singing-men and singing-women. A ravishing slave-girl,
+with a form like the Oriental willow and a face like the full moon,
+sang soft sad Arabian melodies to the accompaniment of the lute,
+till the guests rolled<span class="pagenum" id=
+"Page_103">[103]</span> over with ecstasy. And rarely was a banquet
+considered perfect without the presence of a wit—such a wit as no
+longer exists; no mere punster, though he could pun on occasion,
+but a man of letters, well stored with the literature of the Arabs,
+able to finish a broken quotation, and of fine taste in his
+compositions and recitations. It was, indeed, the heyday of
+literary men. So intense was the devotion of the caliphs and vezírs
+to poetry and song, that they would refuse nothing to the poet who
+pleased them. A beggar who gave an answer in a neatly-turned verse
+would have his jar filled with gold; and a man of letters who made
+a good repartee was likely to have his mouth crammed with jewels,
+and his whole wardrobe replenished. One poet left behind him a
+hundred complete suits of robes of honour, two hundred shirts, and
+five hundred turbans.</p>
+
+<p>But Kafúr was much more than an epicure and a dilettante. Strong
+as a horse, but gentle as a giant, his hard work and unfailing
+good-humour were phenomenal. He was no mean statesman and devoted
+much time and pains to the management of public business, working
+often far into the night, and then throwing himself on his knees,
+crying, “O God, give no created thing power over me!” His justice,
+clemency, open-handedness, and piety were renowned, and though he
+left immense wealth in gold and precious stones, slaves and beasts,
+he used his possessions in a large-minded and charitable spirit. He
+died in 968, and on his grave at Damascus was written—</p>
+
+<div class="linegrp-container">
+<div class="linegrp">
+<div class="group">
+<div class="line indent0">“How fares it with thee, Kafúr, alone in
+the grave amid the rattle of the hail, who once didst revel in the
+din of battling hosts?</div>
+
+<div class="line indent0">Men’s feet now trample over thy head,
+where of old the lions of the sandy waste crouched before
+thee.”</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_104">[104]</span>The warlike
+epitaph was not very apposite, for Kafúr, brave as he was, cannot
+be described as a successful general, in spite of two victories in
+his earlier days in Syria. It was to the credit of his
+statesmanship and his officers that the whole of the kingdom, now
+extending to the northern frontier of Syria and including the Higáz
+with the holy cities of Mekka and Medína, was preserved in
+undiminished prosperity and rarely ruffled peace throughout his
+regency and reign, and this in spite of several bad Niles and
+consequent scarcity, portentous earthquakes, and a disastrous fire
+which consumed 1700 houses in Misr in 954. The big black eunuch
+knew how to keep order. Unhappily, like most great autocrats, he
+left no successor, and the weakness of the government of the new
+prince, the infant grandchild of the Ikhshíd, invited the invasion
+which the Fátimid caliphs had long been preparing.</p>
+
+<p>We have no description worth quoting of the city of Misr during
+this prosperous period. The traveller Ibn-Hawkal gives a brief
+account of it a little later (978), and estimates its size as about
+a third of Baghdád. He notes its handsome markets, its narrow
+streets, with brick houses of five and even seven storeys high,
+large enough for two hundred people to live in, and the gardens and
+pleasure-grounds surrounding the city. The Mosque of ‘Amr in its
+midst was still the most striking of its buildings, which shows
+that there were as yet no great palaces or government houses.
+Kafúr’s own palace was outside, probably in the park called the
+“Garden of Kafúr,” though at one time he built a new palace, at the
+cost of 100,000 dinárs, by the pool of Karún, near the mosque of
+Ibn-Tulún; but the miasma from the stagnant water soon caused its
+desertion. The capital was of course very differently situated from
+the present Cairo. The Nile had then<span class="pagenum" id=
+"Page_107">[107]</span> hardly begun the slow shifting of its bed
+towards the west which resulted in the formation of the island of
+Bulák or el-Gezíra. The river in the Ikhshíd’s time flowed under
+the walls of the castle of Babylon, skirted el-‘Askar, and passed
+by the points now known as the Bab-el-Luk and Bab-el-Hadíd.<a id=
+"FNanchor_29"></a><a href="#Footnote_29" class="fnanchor">[29]</a>
+All the districts of Masr-el-‘Atíka, Kasr-el-‘Eyny, Kasr-ed-Dubára,
+and Bulák were then under water, and the capital spread along the
+banks of the Nile and stretched inland to near the mosque of
+Ibn-Tulún.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenterplate iw6">
+<figure id="i09"><a href="images/i09.jpg"><img src='images/i09.jpg'
+alt=''></a>
+<p class="cp2">STREET IN OLD MISR</p>
+</figure>
+</div>
+
+<p>The best description is that of the Persian Násir-i-Khursau, who
+visited Misr in 1047, eighty years after Kafúr’s death, it is true,
+but it is not probable that very important changes had taken place
+in the interval. He knows nothing of el-Katái‘, and from his
+description of Misr as a city built on high ground, and other
+indications, it is evident that in his day “the Wards” faubourg was
+included in Misr and that there were still houses there in spite of
+the devastation that followed the fall of the House of Tulún. The
+mosque of Ibn-Tulún “on the outskirts of the town” was then as now
+surrounded by a double wall more solid than any the traveller had
+seen except at Amid and Mayyafarikin, and a minaret was certainly
+standing at that time.<a id="FNanchor_30"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_30" class="fnanchor">[30]</a> There were altogether
+seven mosques in the old city, of which that of ‘Amr was the chief,
+with its <em>mihráb</em> covered with white marble on which was
+engraved the entire text of the Korán, and its court crowded with
+professors and students and a multitude of people of all kinds, who
+used it as a general meeting place for business. It had lately been
+purchased by the Fátimid caliph Hákim, of whom we shall hear
+presently, for 100,000 dinárs (the mosque of Ibn-Tulún had cost him
+only 35,000), and he had made some restorations<span class=
+"pagenum" id="Page_108">[108]</span> and presented a magnificent
+silver lamp carrying seven hundred lights. So huge was this work of
+art that a door had to be broken down to get it into the mosque.
+The chief kády still held his court there.</p>
+
+<p>Outside, the gates opened into the bazars. On the north was the
+Street of Lamps, the like of which the traveller had seen nowhere
+else; he was amazed at the cut rock-crystal, tortoise-shell, and
+other delicate work he saw there displayed, besides ivory tusks,
+ostrich feathers, and other products of the Sudán and Abyssinia. On
+one day, to be precise, the 18th of December 1048, he counted the
+following flowers and fruits and vegetables in the markets of Misr:
+red roses, lilies, narcissi, bitter and sweet oranges, lemons,
+apples, jasmine, melons, <em>dastbuyas</em>, bananas, olives,
+dates, grapes, sugar-cane, mad-apples, gourds, <em>badrangs</em>,
+onions, garlic, carrots, and beetroot, though they belonged to
+different seasons: “but Egypt,” he adds, “is a land of great extent
+which produces the fruits both of hot and cold climates, and the
+products of all the provinces are brought to the capital and are
+readily sold in the markets.” Pottery he found manufactured of so
+fine a quality that he could see his hand through it, and so
+skilfully coloured that it resembled the iridescent fabric called
+<em>bukalamún</em>. There was also a green transparent glass of
+costly price. (All this is amply confirmed by the fragments which
+have been found among the rubbish heaps of the old city.) He saw
+great bowls of Damascus copper; one woman owned five thousand of
+them which she let out at a franc (dirhem) a month at the
+borrower’s risk. He was pleased to discover that there was no need
+to carry one’s bottle or paper to the bazars of the druggists or
+ironmongers: they themselves supplied the wherewithal to contain
+their wares; and what was more extraordinary, the
+shopkeepers<span class="pagenum" id="Page_109">[109]</span> sold at
+a fixed price, instead of haggling for a bargain, and if one of
+them cheated he was set on a camel and marched through the bazar to
+the ringing of a bell, crying aloud, “I have deceived and am
+punished! May the like chastisement befall other liars!” All the
+shopkeepers rode on donkeys from their houses to their shops, and
+asses stood for hire at the street corners to the number (he was
+told) of 50,000. Only soldiers rode horses.</p>
+
+<p>The city stretched along the Nile bank, and kiosks and pavilions
+overlooked the river, whence one could draw up water by a rope.
+Sakkás carried it then as now in great pitchers on their backs, or
+on camels. Some of the houses were seven storeys high, and on the
+top of one of these was a terrace garden of orange and other fruit
+trees, watered by a sákiya turned by a bull that had been conveyed
+to the housetop when a calf. The houses were so large (30 cubits
+square) that 350 people could occupy a single house. Some of the
+covered streets and bazars had to be constantly lighted by lamps,
+since no sunlight penetrated to them. To cross to the island there
+was a bridge of thirty-six boats, but at that time there was no
+second bridge connecting Roda with Giza, and one had to take a boat
+or ferry. Fortunately there were more boats to be had at Misr than
+either at Baghdád or Basra. The inhabitants of the city, says
+Násir-i-Khusrau, were enjoying great prosperity in 1048, and in
+honour of a royal accouchement they decorated the town with such
+splendour that he would not hope to be believed if he described it.
+Indeed, he never knew so peaceful and orderly a country as Egypt,
+and tells the story of a rich Christian he met at Misr, who owned
+innumerable cargoes and vast estates, and who, when appealed to by
+the vezír in a year of scarcity, informed him that he had
+enough<span class="pagenum" id="Page_110">[110]</span> corn in his
+granaries to supply the capital for six years. The rents of the
+occupiers of a single khan or inn, called the Dar-el-Wezír, brought
+in 12,000 dinárs a year, and there were said to be two hundred such
+buildings.</p>
+
+<p>The city which the Persian philosopher described in 1047-8 was
+probably little changed in the remaining century of its prosperity.
+The foundation of Káhira, or Cairo proper, had once more separated
+the official and court circles from Misr, eighty years before the
+visit of Násir-i-Khusrau, and yet the old capital retained its
+flourishing position as the commercial metropolis. There is no
+reason to suppose that it decayed during the hundred and twenty
+years that were left to it. We have already anticipated the course
+of history, in describing Misr in the eleventh century, and it will
+be well to finish the subject by relating its destruction in the
+twelfth. In 1168 Amalric, the Latin King of Jerusalem, advanced
+upon Cairo, intent upon the conquest of Egypt, which the Crusaders
+believed to be essential to their safety in Palestine. In November
+he took Bilbeys, and stained his name by massacring every man,
+woman, and child. Fear of similar atrocities and the danger of
+affording the invader valuable cover close to Cairo induced Sháwar,
+the vezír of the Fátimid caliph of Egypt, to order the burning of
+Misr. On the 12th of November, “twenty thousand naphtha barrels and
+ten thousand torches were lighted. The fire lasted fifty-four days,
+and its traces may still be found in the wilderness of sandheaps
+stretching over miles of buried rubbish on the south side of Cairo.
+The people fled ‘as from their very graves’; the father abandoned
+his children, the brother his twin; and all rushed to Cairo for
+dear life. The hire of a camel for the mile or two of transit cost
+thirty pieces of gold”<a id="FNanchor_31"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_31" class="fnanchor">[31]</a> in that crisis
+of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_111">[111]</span> panic. The smoke
+rose in dense black clouds to the sky, and compelled the invaders
+to camp at a distance. The cruel measure may have been necessary,
+though Cairo was saved by other means; but as we look out upon the
+desolate sandhills that mark the site of the vanished Town of the
+Tent and recall the peace and prosperity witnessed by the Persian
+traveller, it seems as if a thousand Crusaders in Cairo would be a
+lighter sacrifice than the loss of the old city of Misr.</p>
+
+<p>Though the town never really recovered from the fatal day of its
+burning, it must not be supposed that no efforts were made to
+rebuild it. People are not so easily transplanted from their old
+seats, and as soon as the Crusaders were driven away the
+inhabitants began to search for their blackened homes and tried to
+make them fit to live in. Ibn-Gubeyr, the Spanish Arab, who visited
+Misr in 1183, only fourteen years after the great fire, found a
+less melancholy scene than we should be led to expect from the
+account of the fifty-four days’ burning. He was comfortably
+entertained at the Inn of Master Worthy (Funduk Aby-th-Thaná) in
+the Street of Lamps,—so called because formerly inhabited by nobles
+who had each a lamp before his door—which still stood close to the
+Mosque of ‘Amr, and though there were sad signs of the late
+destruction, the people had rebuilt many of the ruined houses, “and
+the new buildings are in continuous lines which form a great city
+with the remains of the former town lying beyond and all around it,
+close by, showing how great was its extent in earlier days.”<a id=
+"FNanchor_32"></a><a href="#Footnote_32" class="fnanchor">[32]</a>
+The attempt to restore the old city did not succeed. A sign of the
+diminishing population is seen in the fact that although ten
+colleges were founded in and about Misr by Saladin and
+his<span class="pagenum" id="Page_112">[112]</span> successors, in
+the belief that the town would recover, not a single mosque for
+congregational worship was built there after the great fire. Cairo
+was rapidly taking its place, and when Ibn-Sa‘íd visited Misr about
+1240 he was distressed at its blackened walls, ruined houses, and
+general state of dirt and neglect. There were still plenty of
+people in the narrow crooked streets, and pedlers hawking their
+wares among the students and children in the Old Mosque, which was
+covered with cobwebs and littered with refuse; the slovenly quays
+of Fustát were still frequented by much shipping, and there were
+sugar and soap factories still at work.<a id=
+"FNanchor_33"></a><a href="#Footnote_33" class="fnanchor">[33]</a>
+But the ruin was universal, the final decay had set in, and the
+glory of Misr was transferred to Cairo.</p>
+
+<hr class="chap">
+
+<h2><span class="pagenum" id="Page_113">[113]</span><a id=
+"c05"></a>CHAPTER V</h2>
+
+<p class="sch1"><em>Cairo</em>
+</p>
+
+<p class="dcap">THE foundation of Cairo proper, as distinguished
+from the earlier city of Misr and its faubourgs, marks a revolution
+infinitely more profound than a mere change of dynasty or shifting
+of site. The Fátimid conquest, which created the new city, was a
+revolution in religion, in statecraft, and in culture. The
+theological differences that had turned the mosque of ‘Amr into a
+bear-garden in the time of the Ikhshíd were hair-splittings
+compared with the breach between the old orthodoxy and the heresy
+of the newcomers. In its inner essence, Shi‘ism, the religion of
+the Fátimids, is not Mohammedanism at all. It merely took advantage
+of an old schism in Islám to graft upon it a totally new and
+largely political movement. The schism arose out of the succession
+to the caliphate, and resolved itself into the old antagonism
+between the theories of popular election and divine right. The
+orthodox party (or Sunnis) held that the election of the first
+three caliphs, Abu-Bekr, ‘Omar and ‘Othmán, was constitutional in
+Islám; the Shí‘a maintained that the divine right of succession to
+the Prophet’s mantle rested with his own family, that is to say
+with his daughter Fátima’s husband ‘Aly and their offspring, the
+only surviving descendants of Mohammad. ‘Aly in turn became the
+fourth caliph, but he was bitterly opposed, and in the end
+murdered; his children,<span class="pagenum" id=
+"Page_114">[114]</span> the Prophet’s grandsons, were ousted from
+the succession; one of them, Hoseyn, endeavouring to assert his
+rights, was defeated and slain, and the tragedy of the “martyrdom”
+at Kerbela has ever since excited the deepest passions of the Shí‘a
+at the annual representations of the Persian Passion Play in the
+month of Moharram.</p>
+
+<p>The ruthless persecution of the “holy family” by the Omayyad
+caliphs stimulated an enthusiastic sympathy with their misfortunes,
+but since none of their descendants showed any political genius,
+the occasional risings in favour of the ‘Alids were scarcely more
+important than the last attempts in Scotland to revive the claims
+of the Pretender. The movement would probably have died out as an
+element in politics, and become a mere tradition or sentiment, but
+for the new development given to it in the ninth century by an
+obscure Persian, half conjurer, half eye-doctor, named ‘Abdallah,
+son of Meymún. This man, who abhorred the Arabs and their caliphs,
+devised a scheme by which the very religion of Islám should become
+the instrument of its own destruction, and the Persians should
+recover their power by the unconscious aid of their conquerors. His
+doctrine, whilst making use of the ‘Alid sentiment of divine right,
+was such that not only the enthusiasts who still wept over the
+tragedy of Kerbela, but all shades of dissenters from rigid
+Mohammedanism might embrace. He taught that God has always been
+incarnate in some spiritual leader or “Imám,” such as Adam,
+Abraham, and so on to ‘Aly. The world has never been without an
+Imám; but—and here came the stroke of genius—the Imám is not always
+visible in the flesh. The series of spiritual leaders descended in
+apostolic succession from ‘Aly was broken, but not the less was
+there a hidden Imám, who would reveal himself to mankind in
+his<span class="pagenum" id="Page_115">[115]</span> own good time.
+When he appeared all would recognize “the Mahdy,” and abandon the
+self-styled caliphs who usurped his authority. Meanwhile those who
+awaited his coming must strive to prepare men for it. Though the
+Imám be hidden, his doctrine must be zealously preached, and in the
+absence of the mysterious being in whom the secrets of the Most
+High are deposited, his missionaries must go forth and call men to
+the truth.</p>
+
+<p>A widespread and admirably organized propaganda was instituted;
+a secret society, skilfully graduated in advancing degrees of
+initiation, worked underground throughout the Mohammedan world, but
+with special success in Arabia, Mesopotamia, and North Africa. The
+<em>dá‘is</em> or missionaries were carefully chosen and trained to
+teach such doctrines as their converts could bear. To the rude and
+uneducated they would preach what seemed the plain lessons of the
+Korán, always coupled with the imminent approach of that mysterious
+and attractive personality, the Mahdy. To the philosophic they
+would use arguments suited to their special views, and leading them
+up through the progressive stages of initiation, would finally land
+them in a philosophy of complete negation. These missionaries had
+nothing in common with Muslims: they were atheists among
+themselves, and all things to all men. Their aims were political—to
+upset Islám through itself, to dispossess the Muslims, and to grasp
+their power. They made use of all forms of religion indifferently;
+all were equally false to them, and all were serviceable tools to
+their purpose. They cared not what means they used to secure
+proselytes, to whom they confided only so much of their system as
+they could safely assimilate. They employed the hallowed name of
+‘Aly, and preached the immediate advent of a Messiah, not because
+they believed in either or in any caliphate<span class="pagenum"
+id="Page_116">[116]</span> or spiritual incarnation, but because if
+the multitude is to be made to dance one must harp on some string,
+and these strings happened to twang harmoniously in the ears of the
+people.</p>
+
+<p>Three signal successes rewarded the brilliant propaganda of the
+Shí‘a (or Isma‘ílian) missionaries. The first was the Carmathian
+domination of Arabia, Mesopotamia and Syria, in the ninth and tenth
+centuries; the second was its offshoot, the Fátimid caliphate of
+North Africa and Egypt; the last was the dreaded Wehmgericht of the
+Isma‘ílians or “Assassins” in Persia and the Lebanon. Here we have
+chiefly to do with the second, though both the Carmathians and the
+Assassins had their influence upon Egypt.</p>
+
+<p>The Fátimid caliphate, taking its name from ‘Aly’s wife, the
+daughter of the Prophet, was the most powerful and conspicuous
+result of Shí‘a proselytism. Among the credulous Berbers the
+missionary had an easy field of conquest, and when he produced a
+reputed descendant of ‘Aly and Fátima in the person of “the Mahdy”
+‘Obeydallah at Kayrawán, the Arab capital of what is now called
+Tunisia, in 910, the revolution was triumphant. The whole of
+Barbary, from Fez in Morocco to the frontier of Egypt, which he
+twice invaded, bowed before the sway of the Mahdy. Inheriting by
+conquest the possessions of the Aghlabid dynasty of Tunis, who for
+more than a century had been the great naval power of the central
+Mediterranean and held Sicily, Sardinia, Corsica and Malta, the
+Fátimid fleets ravaged the coasts of France and Italy, plundering,
+burning, and kidnapping wherever they went. The fourth caliph of
+the Mahdy’s line, el-Mo‘izz, the conqueror of Egypt, was a
+singularly able, upright, politic, and intelligent man, an orator,
+a linguist who knew Greek as well as Arabic and the Berber tongue,
+and to all appearance a just and honest Muslim<span class="pagenum"
+id="Page_117">[117]</span> of the Shí‘a sect.<a id=
+"FNanchor_34"></a><a href="#Footnote_34" class="fnanchor">[34]</a>
+There was so careful a distinction between esoteric and overt
+doctrine among the Shí‘a that it is impossible to be certain, but
+the probability is that Mo‘izz, like most of his successors, did
+not share the extreme views of the advanced degrees of the
+initiate, but held Koranic doctrines tempered by ‘Alid views and
+allegorical interpretation.</p>
+
+<p>Such was the Fátimid caliph who, after a progress throughout his
+African dominions, and carrying his arms even to the shore of the
+Atlantic (959), at length resolved to achieve the conquest of
+Egypt, which his grandfather had vainly attempted, and which was
+the goal of his own ambition. The barren land and unruly tribes of
+Barbary were not to be compared with the fertile valley and
+splendid commerce of Egypt, and his plans were carefully laid for
+the invasion. The conquest was an easy triumph. Gawhar, his Roman
+slave from the Eastern empire, led his 100,000 men from Kayrawán in
+February 969. Alexandria capitulated on liberal terms. The
+Egyptians, exhausted by a distressing famine followed by plague (of
+which more than half a million people died in and around Misr), led
+by no competent chief, despoiled by a mutinous soldiery, and
+influenced by secret sympathizers with the Fátimids, made scarcely
+an effort to resist. There were a few skirmishes at Giza, and then
+Gawhar forced the passage of the Nile, the defenders fled, and the
+women of Misr implored mercy. A full<span class="pagenum" id=
+"Page_118">[118]</span> amnesty rewarded submission, pillage was
+interdicted, and the Fátimid army rode into Misr on the 5th of
+August.</p>
+
+<p>“That very night Gawhar laid the foundations of a new city, or
+rather fortified palace, destined for the reception of his
+sovereign. He was encamped on the sandy waste which stretched
+north-east of Fustát, on the road to Heliopolis, and there, at a
+distance of about a mile from the river, he marked out the
+boundaries of the new capital. There were no buildings, save the
+old ‘Convent of the Bones,’ nor any cultivation except the
+beautiful park called ‘Kafúr’s Garden,’ to obstruct his plans. A
+square [about 1200 yards each way] was pegged out with poles, and
+the Maghraby astrologers, in whom Mo‘izz reposed extravagant faith,
+consulted together to determine the auspicious moment for the
+opening ceremony. Bells were hung on ropes from pole to pole, and
+at the signal of the sages their ringing was to announce the
+precise moment when the labourers were to turn the first sod. The
+calculations of the astrologers were, however, anticipated by a
+raven, who perched on one of the ropes and set the bells jingling,
+upon which every mattock was struck into the earth, and the
+trenches were opened. It was an unlucky hour: the planet Mars
+(el-Káhir) was in the ascendant; but it could not be undone, and
+the place was accordingly named after the hostile planet,
+el-Káhira, ‘the martial’ or ‘triumphant,’ in the hope that the
+sinister omen might be turned to a triumphant issue. Cairo, as
+Káhira has come to be called, may fairly be said to have outlived
+all astrological prejudices. The name of the ‘Abbásid caliph was at
+once expunged from the Friday prayers at the old mosque of ‘Amr;
+the black ‘Abbásid robes were proscribed, and the preacher, in pure
+white, recited the <em>khutba</em> for the Imám Mo‘izz, <em>emír
+el-muminín</em>, and invoked blessings<span class="pagenum" id=
+"Page_119">[119]</span> on his ancestors, ‘Aly and Fátima and all
+their holy family. The call to prayer from the minarets was adapted
+to Shí‘a taste. The joyful news was sent to the Fátimid caliph on
+swift dromedaries, together with the heads of the slain. Coins were
+struck with the special formulas of the Fátimid creed—‘‘Aly is the
+noblest of [God’s] delegates, the vezír of the best of apostles’;
+‘the Imám Ma‘add calls men to profess the Unity of the Eternal’—in
+addition to the usual dogmas of the Mohammedan faith. For two
+centuries the mosques and the mint proclaimed the shibboleth of the
+Shí‘a.”<a id="FNanchor_35"></a><a href="#Footnote_35" class=
+"fnanchor">[35]</a></p>
+
+<p>But the change was far more than a substitution of one creed for
+another: indeed, thanks no doubt to the politic tolerance of the
+conqueror and the discreet avoidance of extreme Shí‘a doctrines,
+the people accepted the new régime without any outburst of orthodox
+fanaticism, except when the new comers flaunted the Moharram
+festival in memory of the Kerbela “martyrs” in their very faces.
+The majority remained unconverted to the new formulas; at least
+they welcomed the restoration of orthodoxy two centuries later with
+equal phlegm. The real change was political. Cairo was no longer
+the capital of a province of the old caliphate, or even of a
+virtually independent principality connected with that caliphate:
+it was the capital of a rival Power, and that power a Mediterranean
+Empire. It is true the empire soon lost its outlying African
+provinces and European islands, and shrank to the dimensions of the
+principality of Ibn-Tulún; but the strength and the wealth and
+commerce of the Fátimid kingdom were something new. The rivalry
+between Cairo and Baghdád, between the vigorous young caliphate of
+the Shí‘a and the decaying hierarchy of the Sunnis, had
+far-reaching<span class="pagenum" id="Page_120">[120]</span>
+effects in politics and in civilization. The naval power and
+European connexions of the Fátimids introduced a new element into
+foreign policy, gave a stimulus to trade, and modified in various
+ways the civilization of Egypt and Syria.</p>
+
+<p>On the other hand undoubtedly the isolation of Cairo tended to a
+development of a separate culture which was not to its advantage.
+Heresy cut it off from the great centres of intellectual life in
+the Arabian world, from Baghdád, Damascus and Cordova. The old
+intercourse, which brought students and professors of all parts of
+the Muslim empire together in the mosques of every great city, was
+impossible in a capital where the mosques were in the hands of
+heretics. Hence Cairo was out of intimate touch with the progress
+of Muslim studies in the eleventh and twelfth centuries, and few of
+the leaders of Arabic thought or literature were found under
+Fátimid rule. In some branches, such as philosophy and physical and
+medical science, one would expect to find good results from the
+influence of Shí‘a free-thinking, and undoubtedly some progress was
+made, especially by Jewish and Christian physicians; but these
+exceptions do not outweigh the general loss entailed by isolation
+from the rest of the intellectual world. A little later the
+heretics of Cairo might have profited much by their intercourse
+with Europe, but in the tenth and eleventh centuries Europe had
+little to teach.</p>
+
+<p>The class that gained most by the change of government was that
+of the Christian Copts. Hitherto they had had their ups and downs
+according to the disposition and rapacity of different Arab and
+Turkish governors; but with the advent of the Fátimid caliphs they
+entered upon a period of unusual toleration and even favour. The
+new rulers, with one notorious<span class="pagenum" id=
+"Page_121">[121]</span> exception, were exceedingly well disposed
+towards their Christian subjects, and many churches were built or
+restored during their reigns.</p>
+
+<p>The caliph el-‘Azíz, son of Mo‘izz, who reigned from 975 to 996,
+had a Christian wife, two of his brothers-in-law were Melekite
+patriarchs, and the Jacobite patriarch Ephraim and Severus bishop
+of Ushmuneyn were his particular friends. The bishop was encouraged
+to come to the palace and discuss theology with the chief kády, and
+the patriarch was allowed to restore the church of St Mercurius
+(Abu-s-Seyfeyn, “the two-sworded”) outside Misr. “In ancient
+times,” we are told by an Armenian writer, “there had been a church
+dedicated to Saint Mercurius, on the bank of the river, but it was
+ruined and turned into a storehouse for sugar-canes. Then, in the
+time of this patriarch, enquiries were made about the creed of the
+Christians, whether they believed in the truth or in a lie. So the
+Christians assembled and went out to the mountain, and the Muslims
+and Jews went out at the same time on account of a certain event.
+Many of the Muslim <em>sayyids</em> came forward, and prayed, and
+cried <em>Allahu akbar</em>, and implored the assistance of God,
+but no sign appeared to them. Then the Jews followed them, and
+still no result followed. Then the patriarch came forward, and the
+tanner, for whom God had performed a miracle, followed him; and all
+the orthodox people followed them. They prayed to the most high
+God, and burnt incense, and cried <em>Kyrie eleison</em> three
+times; and God showed his wonders, and the mountain moved: namely,
+that part of the Mukattam hills which is near the hill of Al-Kabsh,
+between Cairo and Misr. This miracle took place through the faith
+of the tanner, who had plucked out his eye in the presence of
+Al-‘Aziz and the chief men of his government and the kadis of
+the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_122">[122]</span> Muslims. When
+Al-‘Aziz had witnessed this great miracle, he said: ‘It is enough,
+O patriarch; we recognize what God has done for you’; and then he
+added: ‘Desire of me what thou choosest, and I will do it for
+thee.’ The patriarch, however, refused with thanks; but Al-‘Aziz
+begged him to ask for something, and did not cease until the
+patriarch had asked for a certain church which had fallen into
+ruin. So Al-‘Aziz commanded that this church should be restored for
+the patriarch, and it is said to have been the church of Saint
+Mercurius.”<a id="FNanchor_36"></a><a href="#Footnote_36" class=
+"fnanchor">[36]</a> The patriarch would not accept the offer of
+money for the restoration, but paid for it himself, and the work
+was carried out under a guard of the caliph’s troops to protect the
+Christians from the “common people of the Muslims,” who had no
+patience with such concessions to the “polytheists.”</p>
+
+<p>One of the vezírs or prime-ministers of ‘Azíz was a converted
+Jew, another was the Christian Ibn-Nestorius. The Muslims naturally
+resented this unusual toleration, and lampooned the caliph, but the
+harím was on the side of the Christians, and as usual had its way.
+Even under the caliph Hákim, the exception referred to, who
+certainly at one time persecuted the Copts cruelly, the great posts
+of state were still held by Christians; and though there was much
+confiscation and extortion under the vezír Yazúry in the middle of
+the eleventh century, it seems to have arisen more from fiscal
+necessities than from religious antipathy. The great influence of
+the Armenian vezírs in the latter part of that century evidently
+promoted a good feeling, for in the twelfth we find the caliph
+Háfiz receiving lectures in history twice a week from the Armenian
+patriarch, and several of the later caliphs would visit the shaded
+gardens<span class="pagenum" id="Page_123">[123]</span> of Coptic
+monasteries, where they were hospitably welcomed by the monks and
+made suitable returns for their cheer. We read of handsome
+contributions for the support of convents and churches. The far
+from exemplary caliph Ámir even had a monk for his right-hand man,
+and used often to use a pavilion which he had built at a monastery
+near Giza as a hunting lodge, paying 1000 dirhems to the monks at
+every visit. He took pleasure in standing in the priest’s place in
+their church, but scrupulously entered backwards in order to avoid
+the appearance of bowing when passing through the low door. The
+last of the Fátimid caliphs, el-‘Ádid, had also his favourite
+monastic retreat in the convent of the Virgin some miles out of
+Cairo, where he would take the air and gaze upon the “blessed
+Nile.”<a id="FNanchor_37"></a><a href="#Footnote_37" class=
+"fnanchor">[37]</a></p>
+
+<p>If the churches were cared for, the mosques were not neglected;
+and though the Fátimid period is not rich in the multitude of
+mosques erected by private benefactors which distinguishes the
+later Mamlúk period, it boasts at least the two greatest
+congregational mosques (<em>gámi‘</em>) of Cairo proper, both of
+which were among the early preoccupations of the new dynasty.
+Gawhar’s first step, after beginning the walls of the palace-city
+of Káhira, was to lay the foundations of the mosque which stands to
+this day, known to all the world as el-Azhar, “the Resplendent.”
+The day of its foundation was Sunday the 3rd of April, 970, and it
+was finished on the 24th of June, 972. In 988 it was specially
+devoted<span class="pagenum" id="Page_124">[124]</span> to the use
+of the learned and became what it has been ever since, one of the
+chief Universities of Islám. Here to this day multitudes of
+students gather from all parts of the Muslim world, from the Gold
+Coast to the Malay States, each nation to the special
+<em>riwák</em> or portico assigned to its use, and here they
+receive from learned sheykhs instruction in the various branches of
+the old Arabic curriculum—theology, exegesis, traditions,
+jurisprudence, grammar, prosody, logic, rhetoric, algebra, etc.
+Over nine thousand students still (1901) attend the lectures of 239
+professors in the Azhar, and not one of them is called upon to pay
+a piastre in fees. The learned men of Cairo and many foreign cities
+willingly impart their knowledge without reward, and eke out a
+living by private tuition and copying manuscripts. The foreign
+students not only pay no fees but receive rations of food from
+certain bequests. One may regret the limited scope and fanatical
+tendency of the Azhar lectures, but at least it is a noble example
+of free education, open to the poorest, no matter what his race or
+language, and given to all without distinction of class. The knots
+of students sitting round their master in earnest attention, or
+swaying to and fro as they commit his dicta to memory, are a
+spectacle not easily forgotten. In every detail they carry us back
+to the Middle Ages of Arabic culture, and show us a zeal for
+learning, neither tainted by prize-hunting nor cramped by
+examinations, which may teach even Western universities something
+that they lack.</p>
+
+<p>Very little of the Azhar represents the original building. It
+has been repeatedly restored, and was largely reconstructed in the
+eighteenth and the middle of the nineteenth century, and, though
+there are some fine Kufic friezes and keelform (Persian) arches
+characteristic of the Fátimid period,<span class="pagenum" id=
+"Page_125">[125]</span> its present aspect is modern. The square
+court, however, covers the same ground as it did when in 973 the
+caliph Mo‘izz, after making his splendid entry, preceded by the
+coffins of his ancestors, into the new city built by his faithful
+general, and totally ignoring the old metropolis then <em>en
+fête</em> for his reception, himself conducted the prayers on the
+festival following the fasting month, delivered the <em>Khutba</em>
+or sermon with his wonted unction, and then headed the procession
+of his troops, escorted by his four sons in armour, and preceded by
+two elephants, back to the palace which Gawhar had prepared for
+him. The fortified enclosure which has given its name to Cairo,
+though sometimes called <em>el-Medína</em>, “the City,” was never
+intended to be an Egyptian metropolis. It was to be the residence
+of the caliph and his court, his slaves and officials, and his
+African troops. The public of Misr had no access to it; none might
+pass through the gates without a permit, and even ambassadors from
+foreign states were obliged to dismount and were led into the
+palace between guards after the Byzantine custom. Káhira was in
+fact a royal compound or enclosure, not a public city. Its high
+walls and guarded gates symbolized the seclusion and mystery in
+which the sacred person of the caliph was wrapped, and its familiar
+epithet “the Guarded City” (el-Káhira el-Mahrúsa) illustrates its
+privacy.</p>
+
+<p>The original walls were built of large bricks, nearly two feet
+long and fifteen inches broad, and the thickness of the walls was
+such that two horsemen could ride abreast upon them. The
+Topographer in 1400 measured the last fragment of this first wall,
+and says that none of it afterwards remained to be seen.<a id=
+"FNanchor_38"></a><a href="#Footnote_38" class="fnanchor">[38]</a>
+The original enclosure was about 100 feet smaller every
+way<span class="pagenum" id="Page_126">[126]</span> than the later
+enclosure built in 1087, and we may easily realize the length of
+the city of Gawhar by remembering that the present Bab-el-Futúh
+(with the mosque of el-Hákim) and the Bab-Zuweyla (with the mosque
+of el-Muayyad) stand a little outside the original enclosure;
+whilst its breadth extended from the Bab-el-Ghureyyib beyond the
+Azhar on the east to the Khalíg or canal on the west. The western
+boundary running beside the canal is still recorded in the street
+called Beyn-es-Sureyn, “Between the walls,” at the top of the
+Musky. The enclosure was thus about 1200 yards each way, and formed
+an area of less than half a square mile.</p>
+
+<p>About the centre was the square called Beyn-el-Kasreyn, “Between
+the Palaces,” a name still preserved in the original site in part
+of the street known as the Coppersmiths’ Market (Suk-en-Nahhasín),
+now flanked by several noble mosques of much later date. The name
+explains itself: the square, which was far broader than the present
+thoroughfare, and formed a parade ground on which ten thousand
+troops could be marshalled, separated the two palaces which faced
+it, and served as the meeting place of the city. The Great Palace
+of Mo‘izz lay on the east—the Khán-el-Khalíly stands on a corner of
+its vast ground, and the Hasaneyn at another corner—and the Lesser
+West Palace, built by ‘Azíz a little later, faced it on the other
+side (where the Máristán of Kalaún occupies a portion of its site),
+and on the back looked upon the spacious “Garden of Kafúr,” where
+the Ikhshíd once had his pleasure-house. Makrízy devotes nearly two
+hundred pages to the description of these wonderful palaces. “We
+read of four thousand chambers;—of the Golden Gate which opened to
+the Golden Hall, a gorgeous pavilion where the caliph, seated on
+his golden throne, surrounded by his chamberlains and
+gentlemen-in-waiting (generally<span class="pagenum" id=
+"Page_127">[127]</span> Greeks or Sudánís), surveyed from behind a
+screen of golden filigree the festivals of Islám;—of the Emerald
+Hall with its beautiful pillars of marble;—the Great Diván, where
+he sat on Mondays and Thursdays at a window beneath a cupola;—and
+the Porch where he listened every evening while the oppressed and
+wronged came below and cried the <em>credo</em> of the Shí‘a till
+he heard their griefs and gave redress.”</p>
+
+<p>These various buildings composing the Great Palace were not the
+work of a single year or of one ruler. Gawhar began the palace on
+the same night that he marked out the foundations of the city, in
+July 969; two gates were finished in the following March, and a
+wall was carried round the palace in 970-1. Writing of the wall
+three-quarters of a century later, Násir-i-Khusrau says that from
+outside the city the palace of the caliphs looked like a mountain,
+by reason of its lofty mass of buildings; but when one drew near
+one could see nothing of it on account of its high wall.<a id=
+"FNanchor_39"></a><a href="#Footnote_39" class="fnanchor">[39]</a>
+This original palace was designed by the caliph Mo‘izz himself, but
+it did not comprise half the splendid halls described by the
+Topographer. The next caliph ‘Azíz built the “Golden Hall” and the
+“Great Diván,” as well as the smaller Western Palace and the Pearl
+Pavilion in Kafúr’s Garden. Later caliphs and vezírs added and
+altered, and the “Splendid Palaces” (el-Kusúr ez-Záhira), as they
+were collectively called, included numerous separate mansions or
+suites of rooms of various dates. The Great Palace alone had ten
+gates, besides a subterraneous passage by which the caliph could
+cross on his mule, led by slave girls, to the Western Palace, which
+was specially reserved for the harím. In the eleventh century there
+were twelve thousand servants in the Palaces, and
+including<span class="pagenum" id="Page_128">[128]</span> the women
+the inmates were reckoned at thirty thousand.</p>
+
+<p>M. Ravaisse has reconstructed the Fátimid palaces, and even
+drawn plans of them from the Topographer’s descriptions, in two
+elaborate memoirs,<a id="FNanchor_40"></a><a href="#Footnote_40"
+class="fnanchor">[40]</a> and though some of the details must be
+regarded as tentative and open to revision, the general results
+probably represent the actual arrangement of the Fátimid city.
+According to these interesting researches the Great East Palace
+comprised principally three large quadrangles of unequal sizes
+forming three quarters of a square, the fourth or N.E. quarter
+being occupied by the Court of the Festival, an open space between
+the Great Palace and the Palace of the Vezírs, where the people
+could make merry on the ‘Id days. This Great Palace, flanked by the
+Vezirate and the Azhar, covered the space from the present
+Khan-el-Khalíly and Hasaneyn to the Gemalíya street (where the
+monastic mosque of Beybars the Gashnekír stands). The various
+halls, apartments, and court offices were arranged about the
+quadrangles, and stables and stores formed outbuildings. On the
+other side of the Beyn-el-Kasreyn, the West Palace ran from where
+the Maristán now stands to the Hárat Bargawán, with two wings
+jutting forward at each end to enclose the Beyn-el-Kasreyn; whilst
+the space between the West Palace and the west wall was filled by
+the spacious Garden of Kafúr with its various kiosques looking on
+the canal. The rest of the city enclosure, outside the palaces, was
+occupied by the quarters (Hára) of the various divisions of the
+Fátimid army, such as the Gawdaris, the Deylemis, the Kitáma, the
+Barkis, the Utúfis, the Zawíla, and the north and south Greek
+quarters (Hárat-er-Rúm), and so forth. The gates of the city
+were<span class="pagenum" id="Page_129">[129]</span> the (old)
+Gates of Succour, Bab-en-Nasr, and of Conquests, Bab-el-Futúh, on
+the north; the Gate of the Bridge (B.-el-Kántara) leading to
+Gawhar’s bridge over the canal, the B.-el-Farag, also called the
+Gate of the Sha‘ríya (a Berber tribe), and the Gate of Sa‘áda,
+named after a general of el-Mo‘izz, and the Wicket Gate
+(Bab-el-Khawkha) on the west, opening to the canal; the old double
+Gate of Zuweyla<a id="FNanchor_41"></a><a href="#Footnote_41"
+class="fnanchor">[41]</a> on the south; and on the east the Burnt
+Gate (B.-el-Mahrúk, so called because burnt down by some fugitive
+Mamlúks in the thirteenth century), the New Gate (B.-el-Gedíd,
+built by Hákim), and the Gate of the Barka troops (B.-el-Barkíya),
+now known as the B.-el-Ghureyyib.</p>
+
+<p>Some of the modern superstitions connected with the Gate of
+Zuweyla have been mentioned before, but it has always been a
+haunted spot, and the fact that executions took place just outside
+did not improve its reputation. The Topographer records that the
+original gate, which stood beside the “oratory of Shem, the son of
+Noah,” consisted of two arches, one of which was known as the “Gate
+of the Arch.” This was the gate through which el-Mo‘izz entered
+when he made his state progress into the new city of Káhira, and
+all the people followed his example: but the other arch was
+considered unlucky and no one cared to go under it. “This [second]
+gate no longer remains,” says Makrízy, “nor is there any trace of
+it, but the place where it stood is called el-Haggarín, where
+musical instruments, as drums, lutes, and such-like are sold; and
+it is still notorious among the people that whoever passes that way
+will not accomplish his wishes. Some say that the reason of this
+saying is because it is the place of sale for musical
+instruments,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_130">[130]</span> which
+are held in disrepute, and the abode of musicians and male and
+female singers; but the case is not as they pretend, for the saying
+was current among the people of el-Káhira from the time when
+el-Mo‘izz entered, before this place was a market for musical
+instruments and the haunt of the disorderly.”<a id=
+"FNanchor_42"></a><a href="#Footnote_42" class=
+"fnanchor">[42]</a></p>
+
+<p>Such topographical details are chiefly interesting to the
+antiquary. We must search the records of travellers for more
+graphic descriptions. Strangers unfortunately were rare in so
+jealously secluded a sanctum as the Fátimid palace, and there are
+consequently few travellers’ pictures to add to the researches of
+the Topographer. The Persian Násir-i-Khusrau was indeed admitted in
+1047, but he is disappointingly discreet in his account, and we
+gain only a confused but gorgeous impression of the great
+throne-room with hunting-scenes carved on the gold throne, which
+was screened by gold lattice and approached by silver steps. The
+best description occurs in William of Tyre’s account of the mission
+of the Crusaders in 1167, when Amalric was posing as the protector
+of the caliph, though it may well be that the palace had greatly
+changed in the two centuries that had passed since its foundation.
+“The introduction of Christian ambassadors to the sacred presence,
+where few even of the most exalted Muslims were admitted, was
+unprecedented; but Amalric was in a position to dictate his own
+terms. Permission was granted, and Hugh of Cæsarea with Geoffrey
+Fulcher the Templar were selected for the unique embassy. The vezír
+himself conducted them with every detail of oriental ceremony and
+display to the Great Palace of the Fátimids. They were led by
+mysterious corridors and through guarded doors, where stalwart
+Sudánis saluted with naked swords. They reached a spacious court,
+open<span class="pagenum" id="Page_131">[131]</span> to the sky,
+and surrounded by arcades resting on marble pillars; the panelled
+ceilings were carved and inlaid in gold and colours; the pavement
+was rich mosaic. The unaccustomed eyes of the rude knights opened
+wide with wonder at the taste and refinement that met them at every
+step;—here they saw marble fountains, birds of many notes and
+wondrous plumage, strangers to the western world; there, in a
+further hall, more exquisite even than the first, ‘a variety of
+animals such as the ingenious hand of the painter might depict, or
+the license of the poet invent, or the mind of the sleeper conjure
+up in the visions of the night,—such, indeed, as the regions of the
+East and the South bring forth, but the West sees never, and
+scarcely hears of.’</p>
+
+<p>“At last, after many turns and windings, they reached the throne
+room, where the multitude of the pages and their sumptuous dress
+proclaimed the splendour of their lord. Thrice did the vezír,
+ungirding his sword, prostrate himself to the ground, as though in
+humble supplication to his god; then, with a sudden rapid sweep,
+the heavy curtains broidered with gold and pearls were drawn aside,
+and on a golden throne, robed in more than regal state, the caliph
+sat revealed.</p>
+
+<p>“The vezír humbly presented the foreign knights, and set forth
+in lowly words the urgent danger from without, and the great
+friendship of the king of Jerusalem. The caliph, a swarthy youth
+emerging from boyhood,—<em>fuscus, procerus corpore, facie
+venusta,</em>—replied with suave dignity. He was willing, he said,
+to confirm in the amplest way the engagements made with his beloved
+ally. But when asked to give his hand in pledge of faithfulness, he
+hesitated, and a thrill of indignation at the stranger’s
+presumption ran through the listening court. After a pause,
+however, the caliph offered his hand—gloved as it was—to Sir Hugh.
+The<span class="pagenum" id="Page_132">[132]</span> blunt knight
+spoke him straight: ‘My lord, troth has no covering: in the good
+faith of princes, all is naked and open.’ Then at last, very
+unwillingly, as though derogating from his dignity, the caliph,
+forcing a smile, drew off the glove and put his hand in Hugh’s,
+swearing word by word to keep the covenant truly and in all good
+faith.”<a id="FNanchor_43"></a><a href="#Footnote_43" class=
+"fnanchor">[43]</a></p>
+
+<p>There is no doubt that the Fátimid caliphs were the most
+sumptuous monarchs that ever ruled in Egypt. Mo‘izz himself was no
+sybarite. He attended personally and assiduously to the details of
+administration, looked to the justice of the law courts, managed
+the army upon which his power depended, and built a new dock at
+Maks, lower down the river than the former dockyards of Roda and
+Misr, and near the present Ezbekíya. Maks remained the dock and
+port of Cairo until the shifting of the Nile bed brought Bulák to
+the surface. Six hundred ships were soon afterwards built there,
+and some of Mo‘izz’s vessels were seen in 1047 by Násir-i-Khusrau
+beached at Maks, and were found to measure about 275 feet in length
+by 110 feet in the beam.<a id="FNanchor_44"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_44" class="fnanchor">[44]</a> But hard-working and
+prudent as he was, he loved display. He would go in state to cut
+the dam of the canal, and spent large sums on the brocaded covering
+for the Kaaba at Mekka—the holy city now acknowledged his
+supremacy—which was exhibited to the people at the annual Feast of
+Sacrifice. The palace buildings were all planned by his own hands;
+Gawhar had only been his clerk of the works; and the profusion of
+the new<span class="pagenum" id="Page_133">[133]</span> city argued
+the luxurious taste and the prodigious resources of the caliph. The
+wealth of the Fátimids recorded by the historians seems almost
+incredible. We read of two daughters of Mo‘izz, one of whom left
+about a million and a half in gold (2,700,000 dinárs), whilst the
+other’s numerous jewel-rooms and coffers, containing, among others,
+five sacks of emeralds, 3000 silver vessels, and 30,000 Sicilian
+embroideries, exhausted forty pounds of wax in sealing them up for
+her executors. Mo‘izz himself bought a silk curtain from Persia for
+nearly £12,000, on which the countries of the world were depicted
+and their cities; and his wife spent much treasure in 966 on her
+mosque in the Karáfa, designed by el-Hasan the Persian and
+decorated by Basra painters.</p>
+
+<p>One advantage of heresy was the toleration of artistic ideas
+that were abhorrent to the orthodox, and the Fátimids encouraged,
+if not portrait painting, at least the representation of human
+beings in art, which was held to be distinctly forbidden by the
+Prophet.<a id="FNanchor_45"></a><a href="#Footnote_45" class=
+"fnanchor">[45]</a> The mosque of the cemetery called the Karáfa,
+however, transcended anything ever attempted before in Egypt, if we
+except the stories of Khumáraweyh’s palace in “the Wards.” Its plan
+was the ordinary square quadrangle surrounded by cloisters, like
+the Azhar, but the decoration was remarkable. The fourteen square
+doors leading into the <em>liwán</em> or sanctuary were surmounted
+by arches resting on triple marble columns, painted blue, red, and
+green; the ceilings were also painted in various colours by artists
+from Basra. Opposite the middle door was an arch on which a bridge
+was painted, with steps of various colours, which looked real.
+Painters used to come to<span class="pagenum" id=
+"Page_134">[134]</span> see it, but they could not copy it. We read
+of two rival artists, el-Kasír and Ibn-‘Azíz of Chaldæa, protégés
+of the vezír el-Yazúry, who painted figures, the first of a dancing
+girl in a white dress, standing against the black background of an
+arch, seeming as though she stood inside it, and the second a
+similar girl in red who appeared to be standing out in front of a
+yellow arch. There was in a house in the Karáfa a picture by
+el-Kettámy, one of the decorators of this mosque, which represented
+Joseph in the pit so that he seemed to stand out in relief.<a id=
+"FNanchor_46"></a><a href="#Footnote_46" class=
+"fnanchor">[46]</a></p>
+
+<p>The money to pay for the outgoings of the palace, with its
+twenty to thirty thousand inmates, and all the luxury it implied,
+was partly obtained by a more rigorous collection of the taxes and
+arrears than heretofore, and by the substitution of a central tax
+office in the old emírate house next to the mosque of Ibn-Tulún in
+place of the wasteful and corrupt system of local collectors and
+tax-farmers. In a single day the city of Misr (still in its prime)
+contributed from £26,000 to £62,000 in taxes, according to the
+season. All taxes had to be paid in the new Fátimid coinage, and
+the ‘Abbásid money was put out of currency.</p>
+
+<p>The next caliph el-‘Azíz was noted for his judgment in gems, and
+set a number of new fashions in gold-thread turbans, jewelled
+harness scented with ambergris, and gold-inlaid armour for his
+horses, and luxuries for the table, such as truffles from Mukattam
+and fish fresh from the sea. Like Khumáraweyh he was fond of
+strange beasts, and imported birds and animals from the Sudán. But
+he shared with his father the statesmanlike qualities that no
+luxury could enfeeble. He built a fleet to fight the emperor Basil;
+personally waged a successful campaign in orthodox<span class=
+"pagenum" id="Page_137">[137]</span> Syria, which never became
+reconciled to the Fátimid supremacy; and he gave Egypt an interval
+of unbroken peace. His name was commemorated in the Friday prayer
+in the mosques from Arabia to the Atlantic, and he never failed to
+stand before the people in the Azhar and conduct the service as
+their spiritual as well as temporal head.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenterplate iw3">
+<figure id="i10"><a href="images/i10.jpg"><img src='images/i10.jpg'
+alt=''></a>
+<p class="cp2">RUINED MOSQUE OF EL-HAKIM</p>
+</figure>
+</div>
+
+<p>The mosque known as el-Hákim’s owed its foundation at the close
+of 990 to el-‘Azíz and his vezír Ibn-Killis, who completed it
+sufficiently to hold the Friday prayers there a year later. The
+decoration, minarets, and other accessories were not finished till
+the reign of his son el-Hákim, who set the work in hand in 1003,
+and placed the final inscription on the pulpit in March 1013. Hence
+this second congregational mosque of Káhira, originally known as
+the “New Mosque” or “The Brilliant” (el-Anwar, in obvious imitation
+of the name of el-Azhar), took its most usual title from el-Hákim.
+In the course of its history it has suffered even worse indignities
+than the Old Mosque of ‘Amr. When the Crusaders occupied Cairo in
+1167 they turned part of the mosque of el-Hákim into a church.
+Under the Ayyúbid restoration of orthodox Islam, the Azhar was
+disused for a time, as being the chief seat of heresy, and the
+mosque of el-Hákim became the official place of worship. Afterwards
+it seems to have been used for stables, and in the summer of 1303
+it was terribly shattered by a great earthquake, and restored in
+the following year by Beybars the Taster. By the time that the
+Topographer wrote his account of it about 1420, the mosque was
+again in ruins, by fire and neglect, and its roof was crumbling
+piece by piece. Since then it has fallen on still more evil days.
+Its court has served in turn as a rope-walk, a drying ground, a
+common throughfare, a playground, which you entered through a café,
+a brewery, or a<span class="pagenum" id="Page_138">[138]</span>
+bead factory. The only honourable use it has been turned to is that
+of a Museum of Arab Art, which for the past twenty years has
+occupied part of the arcades of the east end, where the noble
+arches and Kufic inscriptions still preserve something of their
+ancient grandeur, and formed a fit shrine for many beautiful and
+curious works of Saracenic art.</p>
+
+<p>Melancholy as this vast empty court surrounded by decayed walls
+and ruined arches appears in the present day, there are points of
+great interest in the mosque of el-Hákim. The arches are the only
+exceptions to the Persian shape (“keelform”—two arcs terminating in
+tangential lines <em>at each end</em>) which is otherwise universal
+in the architecture of the Fátimid period. This is doubtless due to
+its early date and obvious imitation of the mosque of Ibn-Tulún.
+Still more remarkable are its minarets, commonly called
+<em>mibkharas</em> or censers from their peculiar shape. The heavy
+square bases, however, have nothing to do with the original
+minarets, the lower parts of which, built of carefully dressed
+stone, with traces of Fátimid inscriptions, may still be traced
+inside these ugly buttresses. A minute examination made by Herz Bey
+and M. van Berchem established beyond a doubt the fact that the
+brick minarets belong to the hasty restoration of 1304, after the
+earthquake. Beybars did not trouble to rebuild the minarets in
+their former style, but put brick tops, and probably shored up the
+old bases with the clumsy cubical casings which have puzzled so
+many archæologists and suggested strange theories of the early
+forms of minarets. The cubes may be later, however, and may have
+had some connexion with the military defences of the neighbouring
+city gate. The remains of the original stone minarets inside these
+casings are specially interesting since they are the only definite
+evidence we possess (save the small brick minaret of the mosque
+el-Guyúshy)<span class="pagenum" id="Page_139">[139]</span> as to
+the construction of minarets of the Fátimid epoch, of which Makrízy
+was evidently unaware when he wrote that no stone minarets were
+erected previously to that of Kalaún in 1284. They are precisely
+similar in construction to the later Mamlúk minarets, starting from
+a square base, changing to an octagon, resolved into a cylinder. A
+spiral staircase within led up to windows whence the muezzins
+chanted the call to prayer.<a id="FNanchor_47"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_47" class="fnanchor">[47]</a></p>
+
+<p>The caliph Hákim is one of the best known characters in Egyptian
+history, yet a character so contradictory and bizarre that his
+biographers are inevitably reduced to the weak conclusion of
+explaining his conduct by the unsatisfactory solution of mania. He
+was the only son of the exemplary ‘Azíz and his Christian wife,—the
+sister of two patriarchs,—and is another witness to the truth of
+the saying that clergymen’s relations are no better than other
+folk. Emerging from the upper branches of a fig tree at the age of
+eleven to enter upon the dazzling lustre of the throne, the boy had
+an unfortunate training. His governor, the Slavonian eunuch
+Bargawán,—whose name is still to be read in one of the lanes off
+the Beyn-el-Kasreyn—amused himself in the Pearl Palace in the
+Garden of Kafúr, whilst the Berber and Turkish troops fought each
+other in the streets. One of Hákim’s early experiences was the
+presentation of the Berber general’s head by the victorious Turkish
+guard. It was but a short step to the murder of the regent, and
+after four years of very lax tutelage the youth of fifteen assumed
+full powers.</p>
+
+<p>“As the young caliph came more before the public, the
+eccentricities of his character began to appear. His strange face,
+with its terrible blue eyes, made<span class="pagenum" id=
+"Page_140">[140]</span> people shrink; his big voice made them
+tremble. His tutor had called him ‘a lizard,’ and he had a creepy
+slippery way of gliding among his subjects that explained the
+nickname. He had a passion for darkness, would summon his council
+to meet at night, and would ride about the streets on his grey ass
+night after night, spying into the ways and opinions of the people
+under pretence of inspecting the market weights and measures. Night
+was turned into day by his command. All business and catering was
+ordered to take place after sunset. The shops had to be opened and
+the houses illuminated to serve his whim, and when the poor people
+overdid the thing and began to frolic in the unwonted hours,
+repressive orders were issued; women forbidden to leave their
+homes, and men to sit in the booths. Shoemakers were ordered to
+make no outdoor boots for women, so that they might not have the
+wherewithal to stir abroad, and the ladies of Cairo were not only
+enjoined on no account to allow themselves to be seen at the
+lattice-windows, but might not even take the air on the flat roofs
+of their houses. Stringent regulations were issued about food and
+drink. Hákim was a zealous teetotaller, as all Muslims are expected
+to be. Beer was forbidden, wine was confiscated, vines cut down,
+even dried raisins were contraband; malukhíya (Jews’ mallow) was
+not to be eaten, and honey was seized and poured into the Nile.
+Games, such as the Egyptian chess, were prohibited, and the
+chessboards burnt. Dogs were to be killed wherever found in the
+streets, but the finest cattle could not be slaughtered save at the
+Feast of Sacrifice. Those who ventured to disobey these decrees
+were scourged and beheaded, or put to death by some of the novel
+forms of torture which the ingenious caliph delighted in inventing.
+A good many of these strange regulations were no doubt inspired by
+a genuine reforming<span class="pagenum" id="Page_141">[141]</span>
+spirit, but it was the spirit of a mad reformer. The lively ladies
+of Cairo have always needed a tight hand over them, but who could
+expect to restrain a woman by confiscating her boots? The
+prohibition of intoxicating liquors, gambling, and public
+amusements, was in keeping with the character of a sour and bitter
+puritan, and was doubtless intended as much to improve the morals
+as to vex the souls of his subjects. But the nightly wanderings,
+the needless restrictions and harassing regulations concerning
+immaterial details, were signs of an unbalanced mind. Hákim may
+have meant well according to his lights, but his lights were
+strangely prismatic.”</p>
+
+<p>It is difficult to discover the method in this madness. At first
+Christians were tolerated; then, about 1005, began a course of
+contemptible persecution, petty annoyances, foolish badges and
+liveries, and other humiliations, followed by wholesale
+confiscations and destruction of churches. But the Muslims fared
+almost as ill. Vezírs, whether Christians or Muslims, were
+indiscriminately assassinated or executed. The great Gawhar’s son
+was treacherously murdered in the palace. Officials of all grades
+and all creeds were barbarously tortured and wantonly killed. A
+distinguished general, after putting down a rebellion which kept
+Egypt in a tumult for two years, happened to disturb Hákim when he
+was cutting up a murdered child, and paid for his indiscretion with
+his life. Yet at the very time when these horrors were being
+enacted, the young caliph was busily superintending the decoration
+of the mosque that bears his name,<a id="FNanchor_48"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_48" class="fnanchor">[48]</a> and also founding the
+remarkable institution called the “Hall<span class="pagenum" id=
+"Page_142">[142]</span> of Science” (Dar-el-‘Ilm), in the precincts
+of the Great Palace, where learned men of all shades of opinion met
+together and discussed everything under the sun with the resources
+of a well-appointed library. These meetings of a parliament of
+religions recall the debates of Akbar’s later “Hall of Worship” at
+Agra, nor is this the only point of resemblance between the two
+sovereigns, contrasted as they are in most respects. Akbar allowed
+himself to be worshipped as a deity, and Hákim came at last to a
+similar result, and both were led to it by Shí‘a influences.</p>
+
+<p>No doubt those long lonely rides on his grey ass about the
+desolate Mukattam hills, those nights in the observatory on the
+slopes where he worked out his astrological chimeras, ministered to
+a mind deeply imbued with the mystical teaching of the Shí‘a. He
+was the Imám, through whom God revealed Himself to the ignorant
+world; he was the only possessor of the divine secrets; it was an
+easy step, and a logical, to argue that he was the incarnation of
+the deity—that he was God. It took more than twenty years to bring
+him to this point, but aided by the preaching of some Persian
+mystics he arrived there about 1018. It is true his preachers had
+poor success in their mission of proclaiming the divinity of Hákim.
+One was set upon and murdered to the joy of the orthodox; others
+desecrated the Old Mosque of ‘Amr with their blasphemy, and the
+people rose and slew them; Darazy, who afterwards gave his name to
+the strange sect of the Druzes in the Lebanon, was hunted to the
+palace and with difficulty saved by the caliph’s personal
+interposition and ready lie. Nobody accepted the new doctrine,
+monstrous to orthodox ears; and probably the bulk of the people
+were not even moderate Shí‘a but really Sunnis of the old school.
+Misr was in an uproar, and within an ace of a
+revolution;<span class="pagenum" id="Page_143">[143]</span> but the
+negro troops did their savage work, the old capital was looted,
+houses were burst open, young girls dragged away, and a reign of
+terror silenced the outcry. The tortured people gathered in the
+mosques and prayed for help.</p>
+
+<p>Help came, but from an unexpected quarter. The black troops had
+gone too far, and their rivals, the Berbers and Turks, less out of
+humanity than mere jealousy of power, joined together in
+suppressing the common enemy. Even Hákim lost his control over the
+army. He also set a powerful influence against him in the harím. He
+slandered his sister’s chastity. The Princess Royal refused after
+this to stand between her brother and his fate. A conspiracy was
+formed and when, on the 13th of February 1021, Hákim took one of
+his accustomed rides to the hills, dauntless and unconcerned as
+ever, he never returned. His ass and his coat, slashed with dagger
+cuts, were found, but his body had disappeared. For a long time
+people fearfully expected his return, as the Druzes in the Lebanon
+do to this day.</p>
+
+<p>After so horrible a nightmare Cairo stood in sore need of rest.
+It came, but not at once. Military tyranny was succeeded by the
+corrupt rule of a court clique; a terrible famine in 1025 drove the
+starving people to highway robbery; the treasury was exhausted, the
+very slaves of the palace mutinied, and Syria was in open revolt,
+whilst the new caliph, Hákim’s son, amused himself with singers and
+dancers and bricked up young girls to starve to death in the
+mosque. The luck of the Fátimids was not yet exhausted, however;
+and good Niles, a vigorous suppression of the Syrian rebellion by
+an energetic viceroy, and a temporary quieting down of the
+soldiers’ jealousies, gave Egypt a quarter of a century of
+comparative tranquillity. The valley of the Nile was
+now<span class="pagenum" id="Page_144">[144]</span> almost all that
+was left to the Fátimids. Their great Barbary dominions had
+completely fallen away by 1046, and the old Mediterranean supremacy
+had departed for ever. Syria was held with difficulty by force of
+arms, and though Arabia, from Medina to the Yemen and Hadramawt,
+yielded homage to the Egyptian caliphs, its Shí‘a emír was nothing
+less than an independent sovereign. The extraordinary fact that for
+forty weeks in 1058-9 the Fátimid caliph was prayed for in the
+mosques of orthodox Baghdád<a id="FNanchor_49"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_49" class="fnanchor">[49]</a> testifies to political
+intrigues in the eastern caliphate rather than to any real access
+of power to the Fátimids.</p>
+
+<p>In Egypt, however, they were still undisturbed. A new caliph,
+el-Mustánsir, a baby of eight months, succeeded to the throne in
+1036, and kept it, by no special virtue or effort of his own, until
+1094, and his long occupation—it can hardly be called
+reign—comprised alternations of surprising prosperity and desperate
+distress. In spite of the evil influence of his mother, a Sudány
+black, who imported many of her savage compatriots to overawe the
+capital, the country enjoyed exceptional tranquillity in the middle
+of the eleventh century. We have the evidence of Násir-i-Khusrau,
+in 1047-9, who states unconditionally that Egypt was then in
+affluence, and that he had never known such tranquillity and
+security as he saw there. The caliph Mustansir was exceedingly
+popular, and no one went in fear of violence or rapacity from his
+government.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_145">[145]</span> Order
+reigned supreme, and the very jewellers and moneychangers did not
+trouble to shut the doors of their shops against thieves. The shops
+in Cairo itself were reckoned at over twenty thousand, and all were
+the property of the caliph, and paid him from two to ten dinárs a
+month. He owned, it was said, 20,000 houses, five or six storeys
+high, let out in lodgings, at monthly rents averaging eleven dinárs
+(or £70 a year). The houses were well built of good stone, not
+brick, and were separated by delightful gardens. There were then no
+city walls (the first walls having fallen to ruin, and the second
+not built till forty years later), but the lofty houses themselves,
+says the traveller, were almost like fortifications, and each
+palace or mansion was a castle by itself.<a id=
+"FNanchor_50"></a><a href="#Footnote_50" class="fnanchor">[50]</a>
+There was a space of a mile between Cairo and Misr, covered with
+gardens and country-houses, but flooded at the time of the
+inundation so that it looked like a sea.</p>
+
+<p>The Persian saw one of the great ceremonies of the Cairo year,
+the cutting of the dam of the canal at Misr by Mustansir in person.
+The caliph rode at the head of ten thousand horsemen, whose saddles
+and harness and horse-armour were adorned with gold and precious
+stones, with silken housings embroidered with the caliph’s name.
+Led camels bore litters richly decorated, and even the mules had
+their share of jewelled harness. Regiment after regiment the
+army<span class="pagenum" id="Page_146">[146]</span> defiled
+towards the mouth of the canal: Berbers of the Kitáma tribe, 20,000
+strong, descended from the veterans of Mo‘izz; Maghrabis, 15,000;
+Masmúda, 20,000; Turks and Persians, called “the Easterns,” though
+born in Egypt, 10,000; Bedawis from the Higáz, 15,000; Sudány
+blacks, 30,000; slaves, chamberlains, officials of all ranks, poets
+and doctors, princes from Morocco, from the Yemen, from Nubia,
+Abyssinia, Asia Minor, Georgia, Turkistan, and even the sons of a
+sultan of Delhi, whose mother had settled at Cairo. The caliph
+himself, a handsome and amiable-looking young man, clean shaved,
+and dressed in a long robe of pure white, rode a mule without any
+ornaments. Three hundred Persians of Deylem on foot, dressed in
+Greek brocade, formed his escort, carrying axes and pikes. A great
+dignitary bore the parasol of state beside him, and eunuchs burned
+incense on either hand. All the people fell on their faces as the
+caliph passed to the silken tent at the mouth of the canal, and as
+soon as he cast a javelin at the dam they fell to with pick and
+shovel, and the Nile flowed in. Then all the world went sailing on
+the river in great joy, headed by a boatful of deaf and dumb for
+the sake of luck.</p>
+
+<p>The Persian was fortunate in the time of his sojourn in Egypt.
+Very evil days were in store for it, in which Cairo suffered its
+first spoliation since its foundation a century before. For nine
+years (1050-8) an able vezír, el-Yazúry, kept the upper hand over
+the various factions. He did his best to deal with the
+ever-recurring menace of famine, and it is possible that the ruins
+of “Joseph’s granaries” near Masr-el-‘Atíka, which Benjamin of
+Tudela mentions as early as 1170, represent the storehouses for
+corn which he laid up against years of scarcity. In those days
+there was no Willcocks or Scott Moncrieff to plan
+barrages<span class="pagenum" id="Page_147">[147]</span> and dams,
+and make the great river the servant of the poorest felláh. If the
+Nile at the season of inundation did not rise above the lines on
+the Nilometer at Roda known by the ominous names of the degrees of
+Munkir and Nakír, the two angels of the grave, a famine inevitably
+ensued, and with the famine came too often plague, and misery and
+hunger led to disorder and crime. The cause and effect recurred
+with the regularity of a machine. Yazúry’s granaries staved off the
+danger for a while at the capital; but after he was poisoned in
+1058, there was no one to control the warring factions. Forty
+changes of vezírs in nine years show the instability of the
+government. The caliph listened to the advice of anybody, and men
+of straw formed his council. The real rulers were the Turkish
+troops, who united with the Berbers and drove the hated Sudánis out
+of Cairo. The blacks established themselves in Upper Egypt, where
+their license terrified the people and prevented cultivation; the
+Berbers, expelled in turn, overran the Delta and deliberately
+destroyed the irrigation system in order to starve the fellahín.
+Meanwhile the Turks looted the capital, despoiled the beautiful
+palaces of the caliphs, dispersed their priceless collections<a id=
+"FNanchor_51"></a><a href="#Footnote_51" class="fnanchor">[51]</a>
+of works<span class="pagenum" id="Page_148">[148]</span> of art,
+precious stones and jewellery, and worst of all broke up their
+incomparable library of 100,000 manuscripts—some of them books
+which orientalists still search for in vain—and used these
+treasures of learning to mend their boots, to light their fires, or
+even threw them wantonly out on the rubbish heaps.</p>
+
+<p>Upper and Lower Egypt being held by predatory bands of Sudánis
+and Berbers, the capital was cut off from supplies when the great
+famine began in 1066. Seven years it lasted without a sign of
+relief, and Egypt was nearly ruined. Terror of the disbanded troops
+in the provinces paralysed the fellahín, and nothing was done to
+mitigate the effects of the low Niles or to sow for the next
+season. Cairo and Misr, deprived of their usual supplies from the
+provinces, felt the scarcity most severely. We read of £8 being
+paid for a loaf of bread, of a house bartered for a quarter of
+flour, of ladies of quality throwing away their useless jewellery
+which no one would take in exchange for food, and of horses, asses,
+and even dogs and cats, bought at high prices and hungrily
+devoured. Soon there was not a beast to be killed, and the caliph’s
+stable was brought so low that his starved grooms could only muster
+three sorry nags. The people began to kidnap and eat each other.
+Human flesh was sold by the butchers. Then came the plague and
+mowed down every soul in house after house with its sudden secret
+scythe. Famine and plague are no respecters of persons. The great
+suffered alike with the poor. Proud noblemen tried to earn a crust
+of bread by serving in the public baths.<span class="pagenum" id=
+"Page_149">[149]</span> The caliph himself, despoiled by the Turks
+and deserted by his household—even his wife and daughters fled to
+Baghdád to escape the pest—owed his daily rations of two loaves to
+the charity of a scholar’s daughter.</p>
+
+<p>Those seven lean years of indescribable misery and crime had
+never before been approached in Egypt. At last they came to an end.
+The harvest of 1073 was bountiful, the leader of the Turks was “cut
+in pieces small,” and a great vezír came to the rescue of the
+tottering State (1074). This was Bedr el Gemály, for whom the
+caliph sent in his distress. Bedr was an Armenian, but not a
+Christian, and began his career as a slave. His marked ability had
+raised him to such high offices as the governorship of Damascus and
+afterwards of ‘Akka (Acre). He was the man for the crisis, and by a
+fortunate omen a Korán reader was actually reciting to the caliph
+the verse, “And God has helped you with Bedr——”<a id=
+"FNanchor_52"></a><a href="#Footnote_52" class="fnanchor">[52]</a>
+when Bedr entered the presence. “Had you read any more,” cried the
+delighted caliph, “your head would have been cut off.” The famous
+general made short work of the Turkish oligarchy. The leaders were
+all killed, by a treacherous but salutary trick, in a single night.
+The reign of terror in Cairo was over. Bedr was appointed
+commander-in-chief, vezír of the sword and pen, chief kády, and
+director of the Shí‘a propaganda—generalissimo, prime minister,
+cardinal, and lord chancellor in one. He first brought back order
+in the capital, and then marched through the provinces, defeating,
+slaughtering and subduing Berbers, Sudánis, and Arabs, till law
+reigned supreme from Alexandria to Aswán. The peasantry, restored
+to peace and security, laboured their lands again, the revenue
+rose<span class="pagenum" id="Page_150">[150]</span> by leaps and
+bounds, and for twenty years the country enjoyed plenteous
+prosperity.</p>
+
+<p>Cairo benefited incalculably by the large and noble policy of
+the great Armenian. For a century since the days when ‘Azíz built
+the West Palace and the Pavilion of the Pearl, there had been few
+important additions to its architecture. Hákim, indeed, had
+finished his father’s mosque, and built the Hall of Science.
+Mustansir’s favourite residence was his country palace at
+Heliopolis, where he had a kiosk modelled after the holy but
+distinctly ugly Kaaba of Mekka, with a pool of wine to represent
+the well of Zemzem; and there he made merry, with exceedingly
+unorthodox sarcasms upon the black stone and bad water of the
+Arabian original. With the rule of Bedr, Cairo once more heard the
+sound of the trowel. In view of the recent invasion and spoliation
+of the city by insurgent troops the first necessity was to fortify
+it for defence. The old wall of sun-burnt brick had practically
+disappeared in the growth of the town which now spread outside the
+three gates built by Gawhar. These gates were now taken down and
+rebuilt of stone (1187-91) so as to enclose a larger area—the Greek
+Quarter at the south, for example, was now taken within the
+wall—and a new wall of brick was carried round the city. It was
+afterwards enlarged by Saladin, but some of the wall of Bedr still
+remains. On the north it still connects the Bab-en-Nasr with the
+Bab-el-Futúh, and extends to a bastion about 330 feet west of the
+latter, and to a re-entering angle some 200 feet east of the
+Bab-en-Nasr. There is also a piece of the wall among the houses
+near the Bab-Zuweyla on the south face of the enclosure, and as
+late as 1842 a portion of the west wall was still to be seen at the
+west side of the Ezbekíya.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenterplate iw3"><span class="pagenum" id=
+"Page_151">[151]</span>
+<figure id="i11"><a href="images/i11.jpg"><img src='images/i11.jpg'
+alt=''></a>
+<p class="cp2">GATE OF SUCCOUR: BAB-EN-NASR</p>
+</figure>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_153">[153]</span>The three great
+gates stand practically unchanged, though the towers of the Zuweyla
+gate were shortened to receive the minarets of the mosque of
+el-Muayyad in the fifteenth century. These gates are the most
+impressive monuments of the Fátimid period, but they are Byzantine,
+not Saracenic. According to the Armenian chronicler Abu-Sálih, a
+Copt, “John the Monk,” planned the walls and gates for the Armenian
+vezír; but whatever share he had in designing the lie of the walls,
+he could never have been the architect of these Norman-looking
+gates.<a id="FNanchor_53"></a><a href="#Footnote_53" class=
+"fnanchor">[53]</a> The Topographer is evidently right in stating
+that they were built by three brothers from Edessa—a city full of
+Armenians where Bedr, with his Syrian experience, would naturally
+seek his architects—each of whom built one gate. The statement is
+amply confirmed, not only by the style, which clearly belongs to
+the Syrian-Byzantine school, but also by various mason’s marks in
+Greek letters, <span class="underline">Ζ</span>, Η, Η’, etc. In
+short, as M. van Berchem has pointed out, the gates and enceinte of
+Cairo belong to what is called the Templars’ (as distinguished from
+the French) style of military architecture,—“the great Byzantine
+and Saracenic school of which the chief characteristics may be
+traced in various countries and at divers epochs, at
+Constantinople, Nicæa, Brusa, Adalia, and the Pamphylian cities, in
+the old Arab fortresses of northern Syria, in the style of the
+Templars and the military buildings of the post-crusade Saracens,
+such as the enceinte of Jerusalem,” etc. The leading features of
+the style are square bastions and square or round headed openings,
+contrasting with the Persian arches of the Fátimid mosques and the
+round bastions of Saladin’s<span class="pagenum" id=
+"Page_154">[154]</span> wall. The curtains run to a thickness of
+eleven to thirteen feet, and contain archers’ chambers and other
+apparatus for defence. The gates consist of a vaulted passage, with
+round arch, between towers containing an ingenious arrangement of
+shooting floors and connected by a cross-passage above the arch,
+with a place for launching stones or grenades upon the enemy. A
+fine spiral staircase, admirable cornices, some sculptured shields,
+and a magnificent Kufic inscription<a id="FNanchor_54"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_54" class="fnanchor">[54]</a> adorn the Bab-en-Nasr. The
+inscription (like another on the Bab-el-Futúh) expresses the Shí‘a
+creed, but has nevertheless sustained eight centuries of orthodox
+rule in Egypt unchanged. The three great gates are noble monuments
+of one of the greatest vezírs of mediæval Cairo.</p>
+
+<p>For nearly sixty years Egypt enjoyed the inestimable benefits of
+Armenian rule. Bedr died in 1094, the year also of the caliph
+Mustánsir’s death, but the vezír’s son el-Afdal succeeded to his
+father’s power, and governed Egypt till 1121, when he was
+assassinated by order of the caliph Amir. Afdal’s son Abu-‘Aly held
+supreme power in 1131 in the name of “the expected Mahdy,”—thus
+reverting to the old Shí‘a theory of the hidden Imám and ignoring
+all claims of the Fátimid dynasty. When he in turn was murdered on
+his way to the polo field, Yanis, an Armenian slave of Afdal’s,
+became vezír, and after him Bahrám, an Armenian Christian, retained
+the office until 1137. By this time the growing influence of the
+Armenians had led to their holding every post worth having in all
+the government departments, and their excessive assumption of
+authority led to a natural reaction. Bahrám and 2000 of his
+fellow-countrymen were expelled, and the heyday of the Armenians
+was over. They deserved well of the<span class="pagenum" id=
+"Page_157">[157]</span> country, and had ruled, on a whole, both
+wisely and large-mindedly. Firm and yet mild, the virtual
+sovereignty of Bedr and his son had rendered immense services to
+Egypt. If they accumulated vast wealth—Afdal is said to have left
+over £3,000,000 in gold, and the milk of his herds of cows was
+farmed in one year for £15,750—they earned their fortunes by hard
+and intelligent work; they were just and generous, and the Copts
+had much to thank them for. Even Abu-‘Aly, with his eccentric
+revival of the doctrine of the concealed Imám, who actually figured
+on the coinage, inherited the wise tradition of his father and
+grandfather, and showed himself tolerant and mild, a good friend to
+the Christians, and a patron of learning.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenterplate iw5">
+<figure id="i12"><a href="images/i12_large.jpg"><img src=
+'images/i12.jpg' alt=''></a>
+<p class="cp2">MINARETS OVER GATE OF ZUWEYLA</p>
+</figure>
+</div>
+
+<p>From the time of Bedr, Egypt, it will be realized, had become a
+country ruled no longer by caliphs but by vezírs. It was the old
+story of the Merovingian <em>major domo</em> translated into
+Arabic. Indeed, since the terrible despotism of Hákim no caliph had
+exercised personal authority in the great affairs of state, except
+el-Amir, who tried for a few years to be his own prime-minister,
+with the help, however, of the monk Ibn-Kenna, but the experiment
+was not a success. The monk became too inflated, and was scourged
+to death. El-Ámir’s cruelty made him detested, and one day as he
+was riding back from the Hawdag, or “Litter,” the country-house on
+the island of Roda in which he consulted the desert tastes of his
+Bedawy bride, he was assassinated by some Isma‘ílian Assassins
+(1130). He had at least the virtue to found a mosque, the Gámi‘
+el-Akmar (Grey Mosque), in Beyn-el-Kasreyn. After this the caliphs
+resigned themselves to a succession of vezírs, who were themselves
+the instruments of military factions. The spiritual sanctity and
+seclusion of the Fátimid pontiffs were still observed, as we have
+seen in the description<span class="pagenum" id=
+"Page_158">[158]</span> of the embassy of the two knights, but one
+must believe that this reverence had degenerated into something
+like a farce. The murders of Ámir and Záfir; the early imprisonment
+of Háfiz, and his later thraldom to his drunken negro guards, who
+killed the gallant Rudwán, vezír, soldier, and poet, in front of
+the Grey Mosque, and who made the caliph poison his own son by the
+hands of his Christian physician; the awful scene of bloodshed in
+the very palace, amid which the baby Fáïz was exhibited to the
+trembling court as their spiritual Imám<a id=
+"FNanchor_55"></a><a href="#Footnote_55" class=
+"fnanchor">[55]</a>—these do not point to any real reverence for
+the mystical caliphate of the Shí‘a. Fainéant caliphs had long been
+known at Baghdád, and their rivals on the Nile were equally shadows
+of a mighty name.</p>
+
+<p>The last horror was too much even for the long-suffering people
+of Cairo. The murder of the caliph Záfir shortly after the murder
+of the Kurd vezír Ibn-es-Salár; the massacre in the palace; the
+peculiar unnaturalness of the crimes on the part of a kinsman and
+boonfellow; the atrocious brutality of exposing the child-caliph of
+four years to the terror of such a scene of blood and anguish,
+roused a storm of vengeance. The new vezír, ‘Abbás, the instigator,
+fled from a hail of stones, and was killed near the Dead Sea; the
+actual assassin, Nasr, was delivered up by the Templars of
+Palestine, for a blood-money of £30,000, to the women of the
+palace, who tortured him, and sent him through the streets of
+Cairo, maimed and blinded, to be crucified alive at the
+Bab-Zuweyla. In their desperate straits the women had sent locks of
+their hair to the governor of Ushmuneyn in Upper Egypt, and the
+emír Talái‘, son of Ruzzík, responded gallantly to<span class=
+"pagenum" id="Page_159">[159]</span> the appeal (1154). Waving the
+eloquent tresses he rode into Cairo, followed by an Arab guard, and
+when he had assumed the vezirate in the Dar-el-Mamún,<a id=
+"FNanchor_56"></a><a href="#Footnote_56" class="fnanchor">[56]</a>
+the capital recovered its confidence. Talái‘, who followed the
+custom of recent vezírs and styled himself “king,” el-Melik
+es-Sálih, was the last buttress of the falling dynasty. He was a
+man of culture, a poet, accessible, generous, and politic. His
+mosque, still to be seen near the Bab-Zuweyla, bears witness to his
+pious munificence. He tried his best to turn aside from Egypt the
+storm that was threatening from the political complications in
+Syria and Palestine; but the palace women found that they had
+called to their rescue an austere moralist, and ungratefully put
+him to death. “His last words were a regret that he had not
+conquered Jerusalem and exterminated the Franks, and a warning to
+his son to beware of Sháwar, the Arab governor of Upper Egypt. The
+regret and the warning were well founded. Sháwar deposed and
+executed the vezír’s son Ruzzík at the beginning of 1163, and
+within the year the Christian king of Jerusalem was in Egypt.”</p>
+
+<p>Before turning to the invasion of Cairo by the Crusaders, the
+conquest by Saladin, and the end of the Fátimids in the death of
+the last caliph el-‘Adid, a few words must be said on the remains
+of the city which the falling dynasty had created and maintained in
+exceptional splendour. Of all their buildings only the three great
+gates, part of the walls, and the remains of four<a id=
+"FNanchor_57"></a><a href="#Footnote_57" class="fnanchor">[57]</a>
+mosques, bear witness to the Fátimids.<span class="pagenum" id=
+"Page_160">[160]</span> The palaces have utterly gone: they were
+not used by their successors, and gradually fell to ruin. “O
+censurer of my love for the sons of Fatima,” wrote Omára, the poet,
+before 1174, “join in my tears over the desolate halls of the twin
+Palaces.” The Hall of Science, the Dar-el-Mamún, the Palace of the
+Vezírs, and all the other mansions and pleasure houses of the Shí‘a
+caliphs and their court have disappeared. There was no wanton or
+general destruction: the buildings were simply deserted and
+neglected under the new orthodox régime, and neglected houses soon
+fall to ruin. Of the few remaining monuments, the oldest that can
+be regarded as authentic is the mosque of el-Hákim—for the Azhar
+retains little of its original architecture or decoration. The
+Akmar mosque in Beyn-el-Kasreyn built by the caliph Ámir is
+remarkable as the first mosque built of stone: the earlier mosques
+were all of brick. Only the façade, however, is of stone,
+well-shaped and joined, and finely sculptured. The interior arches
+are of brick on marble pillars. “Small and ruined as it is, it has
+the feature, unique among Fátimid mosques, of a fine façade
+(unfortunately hidden by a formless erection which the Monuments
+Commission has vainly sought to obtain power to remove), very
+unlike the ordinary plain exterior of the early mosques, and
+deserving special notice for the shell ornament of its fluted
+niche, the rosette of open tracery composed of inscriptions and
+ornaments, and the side niches, surmounted by a Kufic
+frieze.”<a id="FNanchor_58"></a><a href="#Footnote_58" class=
+"fnanchor">[58]</a> Two inscriptions giving the name of el-Amir and
+the date 519 <span class="sc2">A.H.</span> (1125) belong to the
+foundation, and two others record the restoration of the mosque by
+the emír Yelbugha es-Sálimy in 799 (1396), but this restoration
+fortunately made but<span class="pagenum" id=
+"Page_163">[163]</span> slight alterations in this interesting
+building. The mosque of the vezír Talái‘ ibn Ruzzík, near the
+Bab-Zuweyla (1160), though much dilapidated, shows a notable
+advance in decorative skill, and the rich detail of its arabesques
+is scarcely surpassed by any later work. Fátimid decoration is well
+illustrated by several important examples in the Museum of Arab
+Art. Especially to be studied are the panelled doors with fine
+foliate carving and inscriptions (of el-Hákim) from the Azhar
+mosque; and the three <em>mihrabs</em> or prayer niches, two of
+which came from the Azhar (one bears an inscription recording its
+erection there by el-Ámir in 1125), and the third from the chapel
+of Seyyida Rukeyya of about 1135. The last is a marvel of intricate
+geometrical panel-work and arabesque and Kufic ornament.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenterplate iw2">
+<figure id="i13"><a href="images/i13.jpg"><img src='images/i13.jpg'
+alt=''></a>
+<p class="cp2">MOSQUE OF EL-GUYUSHY</p>
+</figure>
+</div>
+
+<p>Unhappily, if heterodox opinions encouraged artistic
+development, they also led to the destruction of its achievements.
+Had the Fátimids not been heretics, their beautiful palaces with
+their thousands of exquisite works of art might have been preserved
+by their successors. As it was, they all bore “the mark of the
+Beast,” and the pious folk of later times were only too eager to
+efface all memories of the schismatic caliphs who had lavished
+their fabulous wealth with admirable taste upon the embellishment
+of their city.</p>
+
+<hr class="chap">
+
+<h2><span class="pagenum" id="Page_164">[164]</span><a id=
+"c06"></a>CHAPTER VI</h2>
+
+<p class="sch1"><em>Saladin’s Castle</em>
+</p>
+
+<p class="dcap">CAIRO at the beginning of the thirteenth century
+was a very different city from the Fátimid royal compound. It
+covered a much larger space, included a number of new buildings of
+a character unknown in Egypt before, and it possessed a citadel.
+All these changes were due to Saladin, though he did not live to
+see them completed. To trace in detail the causes which led to the
+invasion of Egypt by the Crusading king of Jerusalem and the
+expulsion of the Franks by the armies of Nur-ed-din, sultan of
+Damascus, would carry us far away from our proper subject. The
+principal element in the political situation was the partition of
+the Fátimid province of Syria between two new and aggressive
+powers, the Crusaders and the Seljúk Turks. The gradual
+infiltration of Turkish officers into the Baghdád caliphate had
+ended in a great invasion of this race, led by the Seljúks, who not
+only subdued the whole of Persia and Mesopotamia in the middle of
+the eleventh century and made the ‘Abbásid caliph their tool, but
+overran the Fátimid dominions in Syria, which had always been
+loosely held, took possession of Damascus in 1076, and were only
+prevented from invading Egypt by the bribes and warlike
+preparations of the Armenian vezír Bedr el-Gemály. The Seljúk
+empire broke up at the close of the century; but its Syrian
+fragment, under the brilliant leadership of the Atabeg Zengy and
+his son<span class="pagenum" id="Page_167">[167]</span> Nur-ed-din,
+was little less formidable to the Fátimid authority than the
+undiminished empire of the Seljúks. Meanwhile a fresh complication
+was introduced into Syrian politics by the beginning of the
+Crusades, the recovery of Jerusalem by the Christians in 1099, and
+the establishment there of the Latin Kingdom. Step by step the
+Fátimid garrisons were driven south. The Armenian Afdal, Bedr’s
+son, after attempting negotiations, fought a series of campaigns in
+Palestine, but the advance of the Crusaders was not to be stayed.
+Tripolis fell in 1109, Tyre followed in 1124, and after a long
+interval Ascalon, the last Fátimid outpost, surrendered in 1153.
+The Crusaders now touched the Egyptian frontier, and their
+fortresses at Karak and Montréal, by the Dead Sea, intercepted
+communications with Syria.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenterplate iw5">
+<figure id="i14"><a href="images/i14.jpg"><img src='images/i14.jpg'
+alt=''></a>
+<p class="cp3">CAIRO BEFORE 1200</p>
+</figure>
+</div>
+
+<p>Of the two powers, the Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem and the
+Turkish Sultanate of Damascus, neither was strong enough to crush
+the other. Egypt was the key of the situation. If either power
+could obtain possession of the Nile, it would take its rival on the
+flank and win the mastery. The natural combination would of course
+be between the two Muslim states of Damascus and Cairo; but
+religious sectarianism barred the way. Nur-ed-din was a zealous
+Muslim of the orthodox school, and would have no traffic with Shí‘a
+heretics. The vezírs Ibn-es-Salár and Talái‘ did indeed open a
+diplomatic correspondence with the king of Damascus, but received
+little encouragement. It was not till his hand was forced by the
+actual presence of a Crusading army at Cairo that Nur-ed-din at
+last sent his troops to Egypt. The interference was due to the
+quarrels of rival vezírs who were struggling over the remains of
+the Fátimid power. One of these, Sháwar, expelled by Dirghám,
+appealed to Nur-ed-din, and Dirghám sought the alliance of Amalric,
+the king<span class="pagenum" id="Page_168">[168]</span> of
+Jerusalem, who had already invaded Egypt to claim the yearly
+subsidy—<em>annua tributi pensio</em> as William of Tyre describes
+it—which the decrepit Fátimid government had recently paid as
+blackmail to its Christian neighbour. Sháwar returned in 1164
+supported by a Syrian army commanded by Shirkúh, with his nephew
+Saladin on his staff. Dirghám, defeated at Bilbeys, made another
+stand at Cairo, where he held the Fátimid city whilst Sháwar and
+the Syrians occupied Misr. Popular as Dirghám had been—he was a
+brave Arab, who had fought the Crusaders at Gaza and commanded the
+Barkíya battalion of the Fátimid army—he ruined his cause by laying
+hands on the <em>wakf</em> (pious benefactions) to meet his
+military necessities. His followers fell away, and the caliph
+withheld his countenance. The final scene was tragical:—</p>
+
+<p>“Driven to bay, for the last time he sounded the ‘assembly.’ In
+vain ‘the drums beat and the trumpets blared, <em>ma-sha-llah!</em>
+on the battlements’; no man answered. In vain the desperate emir,
+surrounded by his bodyguard of 500 horse, all that remained to him
+of a powerful army, stood suppliant before the caliph’s palace for
+a whole day, even until the sunset call to prayer, and implored him
+by the memory of his forefathers to stand forth at the window and
+bless his cause. No answer came; the guard itself gradually
+dispersed, till only thirty troopers were left. Suddenly a warning
+cry reached him: ‘Look to thyself and save thy life!’—and lo!
+Sháwar’s trumpets and drums were heard, entering from the Gate of
+the Bridge. Then at last the deserted leader rode out through the
+Zuweyla Gate: the fickle folk hacked off his head, and bore it in
+triumph through the streets; his body they left to be worried by
+the curs. Such was the tragic end of a brave and gallant gentleman,
+poet, and paladin.”</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_169">[169]</span>As soon as
+Dirghám was disposed of, the treacherous Sháwar turned upon his
+deliverers, and called in the aid of Amalric to drive away the
+Syrians. After a prolonged conflict, an armistice was eventually
+arranged, and both armies, Christian and Syrian, retired from Egypt
+without immediate result. But the invasion was the beginning of a
+permanent occupation. On their return to Damascus the Syrian troops
+described the weakness of the Fátimid rule and urged upon
+Nur-ed-din the importance of the conquest of Egypt. The cautious
+sultan was slow to move, but when the news came that Amalric was
+again intriguing with Sháwar, the Syrian army set out a second time
+for the Nile and crossed it just as the Crusaders came up (1167).
+Amalric, however, succeeded in getting possession of Cairo, and
+made the treaty with the caliph which was the occasion of the
+memorable audience of the two knights described above (<a href=
+"#Page_131">p. 131</a>). Shirkúh, on the other hand, overran Upper
+Egypt, and Saladin held Alexandria for seventy-five days. Then
+another truce was arranged, and the two armies went back
+respectively to Syria and Palestine. The Franks, however, left a
+Resident at Cairo and manned the guards of the gates, quartering a
+garrison in the mosque of el-Hákim; and the representations of
+these spectators of the weakness and distraction of the government
+of Egypt brought Amalric back in the following year with the
+definite intention of annexing the land. This breach of faith,
+followed by a barbarous massacre at Bilbeys, so alarmed the
+Egyptians that they sent urgent entreaties to Nur-ed-din—the caliph
+even plied him with the touching argument of tresses of his wives’
+hair—and for the third time, at the beginning of 1169, Shirkúh and
+Saladin arrived in Egypt. This time they stayed for good. Amalric
+retired without even giving battle; Sháwar, after plotting the
+murder of his rescuers, was<span class="pagenum" id=
+"Page_170">[170]</span> arrested and executed; Shirkúh was
+appointed vezír, and on his death two months later Saladin was
+invested with the robe of office in March 1169.</p>
+
+<p>As vezír of the Shí‘a caliph and at the same time viceroy of the
+orthodox king of Damascus, Saladin’s position was clearly
+untenable, and though he carried on the business of state for two
+years in this anomalous situation it was obvious that the Fátimid
+caliphate must come to an end. The last of the Fátimids was dying,
+and the opportunity was taken to make the necessary change. At the
+Friday prayers on the 10th of September 1171, the ‘Abbásid caliph
+of Baghdád was duly proclaimed in the mosques of Cairo. A similar
+ceremony is described by an Arab traveller from Spain twelve years
+later.</p>
+
+<p>“In one of these Friday Mosques,” says Ibn-Gubeyr, “the Sermon
+was preached to-day. The Preacher herein followed the Sunny rite,
+beginning his sermon with an invocation conjointly for the
+Companions, the Followers and their fellows, also for the Mothers
+of the Faithful, who are the Wives of the Prophet, and for his two
+noble uncles Hamza and el-‘Abbás;—further, he preached so fine a
+sermon and so moving a discourse that hard hearts were humbled and
+dry eyes shed tears. He delivered his sermon robed in black, as is
+the ‘Abbásid rule; for he wore a black cloak over which hung a
+<em>taylasan</em> or veil of fine black linen, such as in Spain
+would be called an <em>ihrám</em>; his turban also was black, and
+he was girt with a sword. As he ascended the pulpit, he struck a
+blow on the step with the ferule of his scabbard, when he first
+began to go up, such as the congregation might hear, and as though
+it were a call to silence, and in the midst of his ascent he struck
+another blow, and when he reached the top, a third; after which he
+pronounced the blessing, turning first to the right and
+then<span class="pagenum" id="Page_171">[171]</span> to the left,
+standing there between two black banners that had white marks on
+them, which were fixed in the upper part of the pulpit. On this
+occasion, further, he invoked a blessing first on the ‘Abbásid
+caliph, who is en-Násir-li-dini-llah, the son of el-Mustady, and
+next he prayed for the restorer of his power, Yúsuf, son of Ayyúb,
+who is the Sultan Saladin, and then for his brother and heir
+apparent, Abu-Bekr, who is named Seyf-ed-din (Saphadin).”<a id=
+"FNanchor_59"></a><a href="#Footnote_59" class=
+"fnanchor">[59]</a></p>
+
+<p>The congregation who first heard this bidding-prayer in 1171
+showed little surprise, and there was scarcely a murmur. The Shí‘a
+propaganda had probably been attended with little success in Cairo,
+and the bulk of the people retained their leanings to the orthodox
+creed, in spite of two centuries of dominant heresy. At least, the
+revolution was accomplished without a shock. The last of the
+Fátimid caliphs passed away without hearing of his deposition. His
+relations were kept in luxurious captivity, and his slaves and
+household dispersed. The palaces were too magnificent for Saladin’s
+modest wants, and he quartered the officers of his army there, and
+himself occupied the House of the Vezírs. The great library of
+120,000 books, which had been studiously collected since the
+dispersal of the earlier library a century before, was given to the
+learned chancellor, Kády el-Fádil. The treasure was distributed or
+sold. The palaces and every memory of the Fátimids gradually
+disappeared, save their mosques, and orthodoxy once more reigned
+supreme in Egypt.</p>
+
+<p>The career of the great champion of Islám was made chiefly
+outside Egypt. Of Saladin’s reign of twenty-four years—for reign it
+was from the beginning, though<span class="pagenum" id=
+"Page_172">[172]</span> nominally subject to the king of Damascus
+for the first five years—he spent but eight at Cairo, and his
+greatest triumphs, as well as his few reverses, took place in
+Syria, Mesopotamia, and Palestine. When he left Cairo on the 11th
+of May, 1182, and the great officers of the court came to his
+stirrup to bid him farewell, as the cavalcade halted by the Lake of
+the Abyssinians, a voice was heard above the music and the singing:
+“Enjoy,” it cried in the classical lines of an Arab poet,</p>
+
+<div class="linegrp-container">
+<div class="linegrp">
+<div class="group">
+<div class="line indent0">“Enjoy the perfume of the ox-eyes of
+Nejd;</div>
+
+<div class="line indent0">&nbsp;After to-night there will be no
+more ox-eyes.”</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="nind">The evil omen came true: there were no more ox-eyes
+in Egypt for him, and Cairo saw him never again. He conquered the
+land of the Euphrates; held kingly state at Damascus, which he had
+annexed after the death of Nur-ed-din; won his great victory at
+Hittín over the Crusaders; recovered Jerusalem, sacred to him as
+well as to Christians, and brought all the Holy Land to his feet;
+and fought the long duel with the chivalry of Europe which wavered
+about ‘Akka for two years, and ended in the running fight with
+Richard of England that has made Saladin a household name even in
+Europe. After the last dash upon Jaffa and its repulse, the treaty
+of peace was signed, and in the following March, 1193, Saladin died
+and was buried at Damascus.</p>
+
+<p>“The Holy War was over; the five years’ contest ended. Before
+the great victory at Hittin in July, 1187, not an inch of Palestine
+west of the Jordan was in the Muslims’ hands. After the Peace of
+Ramla in September, 1192, the whole land was theirs, except a
+narrow strip of coast from Tyre to Jaffa. At the Pope’s appeal all
+Christendom had risen in arms. The Emperor, the Kings of England,
+France and Sicily,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_173">[173]</span>
+Leopold of Austria, the Duke of Burgundy, the Count of Flanders,
+hundreds of famous barons and knights of all nations, had joined
+with the King and Princes of Palestine and the indomitable brothers
+of the Temple and Hospital, in the effort to deliver the Holy City
+and restore the vanished Kingdom of Jerusalem. The Emperor was
+dead, the Kings had gone back; many of their noblest followers lay
+buried in the Holy Land: but Jerusalem was still the city of
+Saladin, and its titular king reigned over a slender realm at Acre.
+All the strength of Christendom concentrated in the Third Crusade
+had not shaken Saladin’s power. When the trials and sufferings of
+the five years’ war were over, he still reigned unchallenged from
+the mountains of Kurdistan to the Libyan desert, and far beyond
+these borders the King of Georgia, the Catholicos of Armenia, the
+Sultan of Koniya, the Emperor of Constantinople, were eager to call
+him friend and ally.”<a id="FNanchor_60"></a><a href="#Footnote_60"
+class="fnanchor">[60]</a></p>
+
+<p>Brief as was Saladin’s residence at Cairo, none of its rulers
+has left more lasting traces of his influence. It is to him that
+the capital owed the form and extent it has borne ever since, until
+comparatively recent times. Its most conspicuous feature, the
+Citadel, was Saladin’s creation, and its most pervasive
+architectural form, the Medresa, was his introduction. All these
+changes were due to his initiative, and when, after eight years, he
+went away, and thenceforth continually called upon Egypt to send
+its contingents to his yearly campaigns, he left behind him
+officers and kinsmen who carried out the great works he had begun.
+These works were partly defensive, and partly religious. The
+defensive works were the Citadel, the new wall, and the great dike,
+and all three are original features. Hitherto the various rulers of
+Egypt had<span class="pagenum" id="Page_174">[174]</span> contented
+themselves with building official or royal suburbs, each half a
+mile or so further to the north-east. Even the Fátimid “city” of
+Káhira, as we have seen, was an official and palatial residence of
+the caliphs, not a metropolis of Egypt. Saladin was the first to
+elaborate a comprehensive plan of a great capital. Instead of
+following the example of earlier sovereigns and building a new
+suburb, he resolved to unite the existing inhabited districts
+within one great wall, and to crown the whole by a citadel. The
+burned city of Misr was then struggling to rise from its ashes,
+like the phœnix, and renew its youth: Saladin resolved to help it.
+The scattered settlements upon the site of the ruined faubourgs
+were also to be gathered in, and the port of Maks was to be joined
+to its city by a wall, as Peiraeus was to Athens. The enclosing
+wall was to be of stone, and to prolong the defences of Bedr the
+Armenian to Maks on the west and to the hill of Mukattam on the
+south, and thence to run round the remains of the old Town of the
+Tent till it touched the Nile.</p>
+
+<p>The great scheme was never completed: its author was busy on his
+Syrian campaigns, and probably his representatives at Cairo had
+enough to do to raise men and money for his support without
+carrying out more building than was absolutely necessary. It is
+also possible that further reflection convinced him or his deputies
+that the plan of enclosing so decayed a town as Misr was hardly
+worth the cost of a couple of miles of wall. What was actually
+accomplished was this: the wall of Bedr on the north was prolonged
+from its terminus at the canal to the Nile, where the fortified
+tower of Maks was erected; on the east the old wall was prolonged
+southwards to the Bab-el-Wezír, near the wall of the new
+Citadel;—the Sultan’s death stopped the work before a junction
+had<span class="pagenum" id="Page_175">[175]</span> been made, and
+the south and west walls were not even begun. A large part of
+Saladin’s walls still stands: though often lost among houses, they
+can be traced between the canal and the Iron Gate (Báb-el-Hadíd,
+formerly called the Bab-el-Bahr, or Nile Gate, beside the fort of
+Maks, which has disappeared), where the contrast between the last
+square bastion of the Fátimid wall and the neighbouring rounded
+bastion of Saladin’s curtain, with its bosses, watch-towers, and
+loopholes, is clearly marked. The same characteristics are seen on
+the east wall which separates the city from the Káit-Bey cemetery,
+until a modern style appears at the Bab-el-Wezír.<a id=
+"FNanchor_61"></a><a href="#Footnote_61" class="fnanchor">[61]</a>
+A portion of the wall at the N.E. angle, with the Burg ez-Zafar,
+lies outside in the desert, showing that here only has the modern
+city shrunk within its twelfth century limits.</p>
+
+<p>The walls were but a development of the earlier enceinte of
+Bedr. The Citadel was a new idea. It may have been partly inspired
+by Saladin’s dislike to the palaces so intimately associated with
+the schismatic caliphs, for though he did not live to dwell in the
+Citadel, except for a brief visit, there can be no doubt that he
+intended to make it his residence, as his successors did. But the
+obvious explanation of the fortress is to be found in his Syrian
+experience. There every important city had its <em>Kal‘a</em> or
+castle, and nothing could be more natural than that Saladin,
+looking with a soldier’s eye at the jutting spur of Mukattam,
+should at once have recognized it as the proper place for a
+citadel. It is true that whilst commanding Cairo from its height of
+250 feet, the fortress is itself commanded by higher positions on
+Mukattam; but this would hardly injure its efficiency in days of
+stone-slings and short-ranged mangonels. It was a strong
+enough<span class="pagenum" id="Page_176">[176]</span> position for
+twelfth century engineers, and no pains were spared to make it
+impregnable from beneath, in case of an insurrection in the city.
+The work was begun in 1176-7 under the direction of the eunuch
+Karakúsh, one of Saladin’s most faithful emírs, who in spite of
+great services and warlike deeds has by a strange freak of fortune
+come to be associated with the ribald antics of Karakúsh, the
+Oriental Punch. It was not till six years later that the founder’s
+inscription was set up which still surmounts the “Gate of Steps”
+(Bab-el-Mudarrag) in the original (west) part of the Citadel, where
+we read how “the building of this splendid Castle,—hard by Cairo
+the Guarded, on the terrace which joins use to beauty, and space to
+strength, for those who seek the shelter of his power,—was ordered
+by our master the King Strong-to-aid, <em>Saláh-ed-dunya
+wa-d-din</em> (Saladin), Conquest-laden, Yúsuf, son of Ayyúb,
+Restorer of the Empire of the Caliph; with the direction of his
+brother and heir the Just King (el-‘Adil) Seyf-ed-din Abu-Bekr
+Mohammad, friend of the Commander of the Faithful; and under the
+management of the Emír of his Kingdom and Support of his Empire
+Karakúsh son of ‘Abdallah, the slave of el-Melik en-Násir, in the
+year 579” (1183-4).</p>
+
+<p>The smaller pyramids of Giza were used as quarries for the
+stone, and the masonry was executed in part by Frank or European
+prisoners taken in Saladin’s wars. The Spanish traveller
+Ibn-Gubeyr, who visited Cairo in 1183, saw the building in
+progress. “Both the workmen,” he says, “whose forced labour is
+employed for building the Citadel and their overseers are Christian
+prisoners of war of the Franks; their number is so great as cannot
+be reckoned, and but for them there would be no means of carrying
+out these works, for only they can support the toil and
+heavy<span class="pagenum" id="Page_179">[179]</span> labour of
+sawing the marble, dressing the great blocks of stone, and of
+quarrying the fosse which encompasses the wall of the Citadel,
+which fosse is cut like a ditch in the solid rock with crowbars, a
+wonder of wonders for ever. Elsewhere there is another building of
+the Sultan which is being carried out by the Frank prisoners who
+work here; but even those of the Muslims, who give their service in
+these and similar public works, must do it at their own cost, for
+there is no pay given to any who work here.” Corvée labour was no
+new thing in Egypt, however strange it may have appeared to a
+visitor from Spain.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenterplate iw2">
+<figure id="i15"><a href="images/i15.jpg"><img src='images/i15.jpg'
+alt=''></a>
+<p class="cp2">CASTLE OF THE RAM: KAL‘AT-EL-KEBSH</p>
+</figure>
+</div>
+
+<p>The Citadel was not finished till 1207-8, when Saladin’s nephew
+el-Kámil was king. As the chief residence and stronghold of every
+successive ruler down to 1850, it has been frequently altered and
+enlarged by several of the Mamlúk Sultans, and finally by Mohammad
+‘Aly Pasha, and none of the mosques or vestiges of palaces on it
+belongs to Saladin’s age. The old mosque was built by en-Násir in
+1318; the more conspicuous mosque with slender Turkish minarets was
+begun by Mohammad ‘Aly in 1824. The “Hall of Yúsuf,” believed to be
+Saladin’s, was part of a Mamlúk palace. The interior towers are not
+original, and the gateway opening on the Rumeyla was built in the
+middle of the 18th century. Still there is much remaining of the
+original structures, besides the famous “Well of the Winding
+Stairs,” 280 feet deep, which was excavated by Karakúsh. Saladin’s
+walls are still preserved in a large part of the enceinte, though
+it needs some architectural knowledge to distinguish them from
+later additions and restorations, and some of the internal passages
+and constructions date from the foundation. The prevalent use of
+round, slightly truncated, and well-projected bastions, commanding
+a long stretch of the curtain, the absence of interior<span class=
+"pagenum" id="Page_180">[180]</span> chambers or low loopholes in
+the curtain, and the <em>arc brisé</em> or square openings, besides
+certain technical peculiarities in the masonry, reveal the original
+work, and associate it with the Franco-Syrian rather than the
+Byzantine school.</p>
+
+<p>The last work of defence was the great dike of Giza on the west
+bank of the Nile. Ibn-Gubeyr describes it as a gigantic
+undertaking. “The Sultan,” he says, “to his glory and as a lasting
+work that shall serve the need of the Muslims, has begun to build a
+great dike of arches to the westward of Misr, and at a distance
+from it of seven miles. This forms a continuation of the embankment
+which, beginning opposite Misr, runs along the side of the Nile
+like a hill that has been flattened on the ground: after traversing
+which you come at the end of six miles to the dike continuing it.
+This dike consists of forty arches, each of the largest size of
+bridge-arches, and runs in the direction of the delta which extends
+thence to Alexandria. It is a wonderful work, and such as only a
+king of great foresight would emprise, as a precaution against
+sudden attack by an enemy from the Alexandrian frontier at the time
+of the inundation, when, the land being under water, the usual road
+becomes impassable for troops. The dike thus forms a causeway
+available at all seasons of need.”<a id="FNanchor_62"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_62" class="fnanchor">[62]</a> The object of this defence
+is evident. Saladin had not forgotten the history of the successive
+Fátimid invasions from the Libyan side, when there was nothing to
+stop them from marching straight to the Nile, and he determined to
+be forearmed. Ibn-Gubeyr mentions that there were fears of an
+attack from the Almohades, who after subduing all Morocco and
+southern Spain, had conquered Algeria, Tunis, and Tripoli in 1158,
+till the frontier of their victorious leader
+‘Abd-el-Mumin<span class="pagenum" id="Page_181">[181]</span>
+actually touched the western border of Egypt. Saladin did well to
+take precautions, though the threatened invasion never came.</p>
+
+<p>These defensive works against external enemies were accompanied
+by other measures taken with a view to internal order and content.
+It must not be supposed that the new régime had no difficulties to
+contend with. However well disposed the mass of the people may have
+been towards a ruler who showed himself so magnanimous, generous,
+and yet indomitable as Saladin, the traditions of two centuries
+were not to be uprooted in a day. The partisans of the Fátimid
+family were numerous and active. Before the death of el-‘Ádid,
+there was a formidable rising of the black troops, abetted by the
+caliph himself, and Saladin had hard work to put it down. The
+Sudánis were at last driven to bay and slaughtered for two days
+till they cried quarter, when they were banished the city. The part
+called el-Mansuríya, outside the Zuweyla Gate, that had been
+covered with their barracks, was utterly burned down, and the site
+turned into gardens; so that a few years later, when Saladin rode
+from the palace to the new Citadel, he passed between trees and
+flowers, and standing at the mosque of Ibn-Tulún he could see the
+Gate of Zuweyla with no building intervening. Other conspiracies
+followed, supported by the Franks who threatened Alexandria, and
+stern measures were needed before the new sultan felt his power
+secure. So long as there was a strong party sympathizing with the
+captive survivors of the fallen dynasty there would always be
+danger.</p>
+
+<p>How zealous the Shí‘a still were may be judged by the scene
+described by the Spanish traveller in the famous shrine which
+preserved the head of the martyr Hoseyn, in the mosque adjoining
+the Great Palace of the Fátimids. “The Head is
+preserved<span class="pagenum" id="Page_182">[182]</span> in a
+chest of silver buried underground, over which a mighty building
+has been erected such as any description thereof must fail to
+portray, for the understanding cannot compass it. Its walls are
+tapestried with brocades of various kinds, and it is set round with
+what are like great columns, the same being white candles, though
+some are of smaller size, the most being set in candlesticks of
+pure silver or of silver gilt. Above are suspended silver lamps,
+and the whole of the part above this is set with the like of golden
+apples, and so arranged as to resemble [the chapel at Medina where
+the Prophet is buried called] er-Roda; and by the beauty and
+magnificence thereof it rivets the sight, for herein are all kinds
+of rare variegated marbles wonderfully wrought in mosaic work such
+as no imagination can depict, nor can he who would describe it
+attain thereto with any description. The entrance to this chapel is
+through a mosque that is the equal of it in regard to the pleasure
+of the eye and the rare sight that it affords, for all its walls
+are of marble after the fashion above described. To the right of
+the chapel (where the Head is), and to the left of it, are two
+chambers, through which you enter the same, and each of these is in
+every particular similar to this last, and curtains in brocade
+stuff of wondrous workmanship are here hung on all sides. But the
+most curious of the many things that we saw was on entering this
+most blessed mosque; for a stone is set in the wall facing him who
+enters, which is so extremely black and lustrous that the whole
+person is reflected therein, as though it were in an Indian steel
+mirror newly polished. And we saw the people kissing this blessed
+tomb (where the Head of Hoseyn is buried), embracing it with their
+arms and prostrating themselves upon it, after which they would lay
+their hands on the pall that covers it and then,
+crowding<span class="pagenum" id="Page_183">[183]</span> one on
+another, circle round, praying, weeping, and supplicating Allah—to
+whom be praise—for the blessing that pertains to this holy grave,
+humbling themselves before Him in such fashion as melts the heart
+and overcomes the feelings of the spectator; for this is a
+wonderful matter and a sight that is awful in its aspect. May Allah
+cause us to benefit by the blessing vouchsafed to this holy
+Oratory!”<a id="FNanchor_63"></a><a href="#Footnote_63" class=
+"fnanchor">[63]</a></p>
+
+<p>Such a demonstration, recalling the hysterical emotions of the
+Persian Passion Play, shows that twelve years after the deposition
+and death of the last Fátimid caliph Shí‘a fanaticism was still
+ardent in Cairo. Saladin’s mode of dealing with it was
+characteristic of his statesmanship. Despite his gentle and
+chivalrous nature he was quite capable of fierce persecution “for
+righteousness’ sake.” A Muslim of the Muslims, rigidly orthodox,
+and deeply imbued with the puritanical ideas of the theologians
+with whom he loved to converse, he had no toleration for heretics
+and infidels. The grievous confiscation and destruction which the
+Copts and their churches suffered in the orthodox reformation
+showed that Saladin’s magnanimity did not extend to matters of
+faith. But in the case of the Shí‘a he had to deal with a more
+powerful and dangerous movement, which had two centuries of
+dominance behind it, and he met it not by overt persecution but by
+a counter propaganda. The people of Cairo must be taught the true
+religion, and then there would be little fear of heresy. At the
+time of his accession there was not a single college in Egypt where
+orthodox theology was taught. This want was at once supplied, and
+Saladin began the foundation of those <em>Medresas</em> or
+theological colleges which have ever since been the leading
+architectural feature of Cairo.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_184">[184]</span>In 1176 he
+established the first <em>Medresa</em> ever built in Egypt. It was
+next to the shrine of the Imám Sháfi‘y, the founder of the school
+of orthodoxy to which most Egyptian Muslims have since belonged.
+The tomb-mosque may still be visited in the wilderness of graves to
+the south of Cairo, but the college has long disappeared. In 1183
+the shrine is described as “a magnificent oratory of vast size, and
+strongly built, standing opposite to a Medresa,” so large and so
+surrounded by buildings as to resemble “a township with its
+dependencies. Over against it is the <em>hammám</em> with all other
+needful offices, and the building and additions are still going on
+at a cost not to be counted. The Sheykh Negm-ed-din el-Khabushány
+himself oversees it, being imám of the mosque, a pious learned man.
+The sultan of the land, Saladin, has munificently supplied all that
+is required therefor, commanding that the buildings shall be well
+cared for and beautified, and all expenses set down to him. . . .
+We met this Khabushány and gained the blessing of his prayers—his
+fame had reached us even in Andalusia. We visited him in his mosque
+and also at his private dwelling within the precincts, a small
+house with a narrow court, and here he offered up prayer for us
+when we left. In all Egypt we did not meet his equal.”<a id=
+"FNanchor_64"></a><a href="#Footnote_64" class=
+"fnanchor">[64]</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_185">[185]</span>Besides the
+Sháfi‘y College, Saladin built a medresa close to the stronghold of
+the enemy, the shrine of Hoseyn, turned the old palace of Mamún
+into the Seyf-ed-din college for the Hanafy divines, and built
+another for the Sháfi‘is and a fifth for the Málikis in Misr. In
+recording his benefactions one must not forget his hospitals.
+Everyone knows the Maristan or hospital of the Mamlúk Sultan Kalaún
+in the Suk-en-Nahhasín, but it is not generally known that this
+noble<span class="pagenum" id="Page_186">[186]</span> institution
+was anticipated by Saladin. To quote Ibn-Gubeyr again:—</p>
+
+<p>“Among the famous institutions of this Sultan which we saw was
+the Maristán or Hospital, which stands in the city of Cairo. It is
+one of the great palaces there, spacious and magnificent, and the
+Sultan has been prompted to the meritorious deed of establishing
+this hospital solely by the hope of gaining favour with God and
+recompense in the world to come. He has appointed here an
+administrator, a man of knowledge, in whose charge a provision of
+drugs has been placed, with power to compound potions with these
+according to diverse recipes, and to prescribe them. In the
+chambers of this palace couches have been placed, which the sick
+folk make use of as beds, these being fully provided with bed
+clothes, and the administrator has under him servants who are
+charged with the duty of inquiring into the condition of the sick
+folk morning and evening, and these last receive food and medicines
+according as their state requires. Opposite this hospital is
+another, separate therefrom, for women who are sick, and they also
+have persons who attend on them: while adjacent to these two
+hospitals is another building with a spacious court, in which are
+chambers with iron gratings, which serve for the confinement of
+those who are mad, and these also are visited daily by persons who
+examine their condition and supply them with what is needful to
+ameliorate the same. The Sultan himself inspects the state of these
+various institutions, investigating everything and asking
+questions, verifying the statements with care and trouble even to
+the uttermost; and in Misr also there is another hospital, exactly
+after the pattern of the one just described.</p>
+
+<p>“Between Misr and Cairo stands the great mosque called after its
+founder, Ahmad ibn Tulún, which is<span class="pagenum" id=
+"Page_187">[187]</span> one of those from ancient times used for
+the Friday prayers. It is admirably built and very spacious, being
+at the present day set apart by the Sultan as a dwelling-place for
+strangers from the Western lands, where they may abide and hold
+their assemblies, the Sultan having provided monthly rations for
+their support. And one of the most remarkable matters related to us
+is this which we heard from a person cognizant of the facts,
+namely, that the Sultan allows the strangers entirely to govern
+themselves, and lays no hand on any one of them, for they elect
+from among themselves their governor, and to his rule they conform,
+submitting to his judgment in all cases of disputes that arise in
+their affairs. They are people who seek to live in piety and
+peacefulness, being solely occupied in the worship of the Lord, and
+thus, through the favour of the Sultan, they may gain grace
+enabling them to hold the better part in the way of righteousness.
+Indeed there is no one either of the great mosques, or of the
+lesser mosques, or any one among the diverse chapels that are built
+over the tombs of saints, neither any of the various colleges or
+schools, but is the object of the grace of the Sultan, and aid in
+money from the public treasury is freely given to all who frequent
+these places, or have their abode there by reason of necessity, in
+relief of their needs.”</p>
+
+<p>The institution of the Medresa by Saladin marks a conspicuous
+change in the architecture of Cairo. Hitherto the mosques had been
+of one form only, that of the <em>Gámi‘</em> (commonly pronounced
+<em>gama</em>, and meaning a place of assembly) or congregational
+mosque, where alone the Friday prayers (<em>gum‘a</em>) and sermon
+take place. The form was specially adapted to the meeting of large
+congregations. There was the ample east end or sanctuary, where a
+considerable number of worshippers could kneel under cover; and in
+case of a<span class="pagenum" id="Page_188">[188]</span> great
+crowd, as on certain festivals, there was the great open court
+where a multitude could prostrate themselves towards the
+<em>kibla</em>. The arcades round the court served for professors
+to hold classes, and as shelter for fakírs and mendicants; but
+these are no essential parts of the gámi‘, which, as its name
+implies, is a place of congregational worship. There were only four
+such buildings when Ibn-Gubeyr visited Cairo, and these were the
+gámi‘s el-Azhar, el-Hákim, Ibn-Tulún, and ‘Amr. The few others that
+existed, such as el-Akmar and es-Sálih Talái‘, and perhaps two or
+three less important and probably ruined, though built in the gámi‘
+form and used at one time for congregational worship, fell into
+disuse when the death of their founders or some other cause removed
+them from the list of fashionable churches. New gámi‘s were always
+being built from time to time, as we shall see in the next chapter,
+and they always formed, and form, the leading mosques of Cairo; but
+they were not by any means the only kind of mosque.</p>
+
+<p>The word mosque itself comes, through the old Italian
+<em>meschita</em> (Span. <em>mesquita</em>) and later
+<em>moschea</em>, from the Arabic <em>Mesgid</em>, which means a
+place of worship, but does not imply a congregation. Comparatively
+few mosques were known as mesgids, and such as bore the name were
+small buildings used chiefly for private prayer.<a id=
+"FNanchor_65"></a><a href="#Footnote_65" class="fnanchor">[65]</a>
+Another term, more commonly employed, is<span class="pagenum" id=
+"Page_189">[189]</span> <em>Záwiya</em>, which means properly an
+ingle or nook, but in its application to mosques differs hardly at
+all from mesgid, unless the not unusual assignation of a záwiya as
+a hospice for poor students or devotees constitute a difference.
+Both the mesgid and the záwiya were comparatively insignificant
+edifices, and it may be doubted whether any ordinary visitor to
+Cairo has noticed a single example of either, except as a
+decorative feature in a by-street.</p>
+
+<p>The buildings which everyone knows and which everyone calls
+“mosques” are really colleges, <em>medresas</em>. They include most
+of the famous architectural gems of the city—such as Sultan Hasan,
+Barkuk, Ibn-Muzhir, Násir, Kalaún, and so forth, and they differ
+altogether from the gámi‘ both in form and object. They were not
+intended or used for congregational worship, but were expressly
+built for the purpose of theological training; and this purpose
+radically influences their form. Instead of the great open court
+where vast congregations could muster on Fridays, there is only a
+small central square, and in most cases this was originally covered
+by a flat roof of painted planks and joists, with perhaps a small
+cupola or skylight in the centre. The sides, instead of being
+surrounded by long arcades or cloisters, are formed of four
+transepts each spanned by a single lofty arch. The transept towards
+the east, forming the liwán for prayer, is deeper than the other
+three, and is furnished with mihráb, pulpit, tribune, and other
+accessories for worship; since worship takes place there, or may do
+so, though not as a rule the regular Friday congregations of the
+gámi‘. Each of the four transepts was<span class="pagenum" id=
+"Page_190">[190]</span> originally assigned—or ready to be
+assigned—to one of the four orthodox schools, Sháfi‘y, Máliky,
+Hánafy, and Hánbaly, and in each there might be found a group of
+students following the instruction of the professor of the
+particular school. These professors and students often had lodgings
+in the college, and there were also a variety of lecture rooms,
+libraries, laboratories, and other adjuncts built in the spaces
+that intervened between the cruciform interior and the rectangular
+exterior. The subjoined sketch representing the later medresa of
+Sultan Hasan (1359) will give a general idea of the
+arrangement.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter iw6">
+<figure id="i16"><a href="images/i16.jpg"><img src='images/i16.jpg'
+alt=''></a>
+<p class="cp2">PLAN OF MEDRESA</p>
+</figure>
+</div>
+
+<p>This then was Saladin’s method of counteracting heretical
+tendencies by building and endowing a number of orthodox
+colleges—state-supported theological seminaries or divinity
+schools. The idea was not his own: he brought it with him from
+Syria, where his former sovereign Nur-ed-din had been<span class=
+"pagenum" id="Page_191">[191]</span> zealous in founding similar
+colleges for Hanafis at Damascus and other cities; and Nur-ed-din
+himself only followed the example of the pattern of the age in
+Asia, the great Seljúk Sultan Melik Shah, whose vezír, the scarcely
+less famous Nizám-el-Mulk, the friend of ‘Omar Khayyám, had
+established the splendid Nizamíya college at Baghdád. The
+introduction of colleges into Egypt, however natural and inevitable
+in the pupil of such masters, was little less than a revolution in
+culture as well as in architecture. The old stigma of heresy
+removed, and these new colleges founded, the wave of intellectual
+commerce once more flowed to Cairo from all parts of the Muslim
+world. The chief control in Egypt during Saladin’s long absence was
+vested in his brother or son, subject to the counsels of his
+chancellor, the Kády el-Fádil, an Arab of Ascalon, a learned
+scholar and a wise man, whose very ornate dispatches concealed a
+vast amount of sound sense. Under his influence foreign students
+began again to frequent the mosques of Cairo, and Egypt rejoined
+the comity of Islám. Professors from remote cities of Persia or
+even from beyond the Oxus met the learned men of Cordova and
+Seville. In 1176, for example, there arrived “a stranger from
+Xativa in distant Andalusia, drawn eastward by the fame of the
+revival of learning: it was Ibn-Firro, who had composed a massy
+poem of 1173 verses upon the <em>variae lectiones</em> in the
+Korán, simply ‘for the greater glory of God.’ This marvel of
+erudition modestly confessed that his memory was burdened with
+enough sciences to break down a camel. Nevertheless, when it came
+to lecturing to his crowded audiences, he never uttered a
+superfluous word. It was no wonder that the Kády el-Fádil, chief
+judge and governor of Egypt under Saladin, lodged him in his own
+house and buried him in his private mausoleum.<span class="pagenum"
+id="Page_192">[192]</span> The presence of such philosophers
+tempered with cool wisdom the impetuous fire of the predatory
+chiefs. Many of the great soldiers of that age delighted in the
+society of men of culture. Nur-ed-din was devoted to the society of
+the learned, and poets and men of letters gathered round his court;
+whilst Saladin took a peculiar pleasure in the conversation of
+grave theologians and solemn jurists.”<a id=
+"FNanchor_66"></a><a href="#Footnote_66" class="fnanchor">[66]</a>
+“I found him,” wrote ‘Abd-el-Latíf, the Baghdád physician, “a great
+prince, whose appearance inspired at once respect and love, who was
+approachable, deeply intellectual, gracious, and noble in his
+thoughts. . . . I found him surrounded by a large concourse of
+learned men who were discussing various sciences. He listened with
+pleasure and took part in their conversation.” It was not the least
+of Saladin’s titles to fame that he brought the collegiate mosque
+to Cairo. The training of the medresa may have been narrow and
+bigoted, but it was the system of the whole Muslim world, and its
+adoption put Cairo in touch with the thought of the other leading
+centres of Islám.</p>
+
+<hr class="chap">
+
+<h2><span class="pagenum" id="Page_193">[193]</span><a id=
+"c07"></a>CHAPTER VII</h2>
+
+<p class="sch1"><em>The Dome Builders</em>
+</p>
+
+<h3 class="space-above1">1. THE MAMLUKS OF THE RIVER</h3>
+
+<p class="dcap">SALADIN had raised Cairo once more to the rank of
+an imperial capital. By his fortifications he had strengthened it
+against attack, and by his theological foundations he had united it
+to the great comity of Muslim culture. He had no doubt added
+seriously to the responsibilities of future rulers of Egypt, who
+found themselves engaged in controversy, diplomacy, or war with the
+minor rulers of Syrian cities, members of Saladin’s kindred, as
+well as with the Franks of the coast of Palestine, who had not yet
+abandoned the dream of “<em>Gerusalemme liberata</em>,” and were
+now fully aware that the road to the Holy City, circuitous as it
+might seem, lay through Egypt. It is no part of the story of Cairo
+to relate the campaigns waged by Saladin’s brilliant brother,
+el-‘Ádil Seyf-ed-din—“the noble Saphadin” of the <em>Talisman</em>,
+the friend of King Richard, who actually gave the accolade of
+Christian knighthood to one of Saphadin’s sons, as Humphrey of
+Toron had given it before to Saladin himself. Succeeding, after a
+brief interval, to his brother’s empire in 1200, el-‘Ádil soon
+showed that the loss of the hero was not irreparable. He had
+loyally served Saladin as his right hand for a quarter of a
+century, and for another quarter of a century he<span class=
+"pagenum" id="Page_194">[194]</span> held together the empire which
+his nephews and cousins were doing their best to shatter into
+fragments. He prudently kept on terms with the Franks by the
+cession of a couple of ports in Palestine, and such hostilities as
+took place in spite of his concessions did not lower his prestige.
+He is described by one who knew him as a man of immense experience
+and information and much foresight, physically robust and
+high-spirited, and capable of eating a whole lamb at a meal. A
+contemporary Arabic poet dwells on his extraordinary alertness and
+personal control of every part of his wide dominions—</p>
+
+<div class="linegrp-container">
+<div class="linegrp">
+<div class="group">
+<div class="line indent0">A Monarch, whose majestic air</div>
+
+<div class="line indent0">Fills all the range of sight, whose
+care</div>
+
+<div class="line indent0">Fills all the regions everywhere;</div>
+
+<div class="line indent4">Who such a ward doth keep</div>
+
+<div class="line indent0">That, save where he doth set his
+lance</div>
+
+<div class="line indent0">In rest to check the foe’s advance,</div>
+
+<div class="line indent0">His eye with bright and piercing
+glance</div>
+
+<div class="line indent4">Knows neither rest nor sleep.</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Even his vigilance, however, could not avert that periodical
+calamity of mediæval Egypt an insufficient inundation of the Nile,
+and its usual concomitants plague, pestilence, and famine. This
+happened in 1201 and was repeated in 1202, and the results were
+exceptionally disastrous. We have the appalling narrative of an
+eye-witness of undoubted veracity and professional experience for
+this time of horror:—</p>
+
+<p>“The Baghdád physician, ‘Abd-el-Latíf, who lived at Cairo for
+ten years (1194-1204), attending the professors’ lectures at the
+Azhar mosque, records the terrible experiences of the famine. The
+distress was so desperate that the inhabitants emigrated in crowds,
+whole quarters and villages were deserted, and those who remained
+abandoned themselves to atrocious<span class="pagenum" id=
+"Page_195">[195]</span> practices. People habitually ate human
+flesh, even parents killed and cooked their own children, and a
+wife was found eating her dead husband raw. Men waylaid women in
+the streets to seize their infants. The very graves were ransacked
+for food. This went on from end to end of Egypt. The roads were
+deathtraps, assassination and robbery reigned unchecked, and women
+were outraged by the multitude of reprobates whom anarchy and
+despair had set loose. Free girls were sold at five shillings
+apiece, and many women came and implored to be bought as slaves to
+escape starvation. An ox sold for 70 dinárs and corn was over ten
+shillings the bushel. The corpses lay unburied in the streets and
+houses, and a virulent pestilence spread over the delta. In the
+country and on the caravan routes flocks of vultures, hyenas, and
+jackals mapped the march of death. Men dropped down at the plough,
+stricken with the plague. In one day at Alexandria an imám said the
+funeral prayers over 700 persons, and in a single month a property
+passed to forty heirs in rapid succession. The depreciation of
+property was disastrous. Owing to the decrease of population,
+house-rent in Cairo fell to one-seventh of its former price, and
+the carvings and furniture of palaces were broken up to feed the
+oven-fires. Violent earthquakes, which were also felt throughout
+Syria and as far north as Armenia, shook down countless houses,
+devastated whole cities, and increased the general misery.”</p>
+
+<p>The invasion of John de Brienne, who captured Damietta, kept
+Egypt in a tremor of anxiety for three years (1218-21); but
+el-‘Adil, who died at the beginning of the trouble, left a
+singularly able successor in his son el-Kámil; the Crusaders
+departed in ignominy; and when some years later the emperor
+Frederick II. himself “took the cross” and came<span class=
+"pagenum" id="Page_196">[196]</span> to Palestine, the prudent
+sultan not only let the emperor crown himself in Jerusalem without
+striking a blow, but actually concluded (1229) a general defensive
+alliance with Frederick against even the Franks of Syria. The Holy
+City was surrendered to the Christians with the road to it, but the
+Muslims retained the sacred enclosure of the Mosque of ‘Omar, which
+was all they cared for. The treaty was the most singular ever
+concluded between a Christian and a Muslim power; but it must be
+remembered that the Pope had called Frederick “a follower of
+Mohammad,” and the emperor’s correspondence with the Arab
+philosopher Ibn-Sab‘in and the metaphysical debates he held with
+Kámil’s ambassadors point to “emancipated views” that in the case
+of less eminent people commonly conducted them to the stake.
+Frederick was much admired by Muslim writers, and for his part
+Kámil had shown himself broad-minded. He had entertained the
+emperor’s envoy, bishop Bernard, at Cairo, released the poor
+prisoners taken in the “Children’s Crusade,” and loyally stood by
+his treaty. It is not surprising that good Muslims regarded him in
+much the same light as the bishop of Rome held the emperor. They
+were wrong, however, for Kámil was a thorough Muslim, and had only
+treated with the “infidel” in the cause of peace. His college, the
+Dar-el-Hadíth or Kamilíya, some relics of which still stand in
+Beyn-el-Kasreyn, bears evidence to his zeal for orthodox Islám,
+whilst his father’s intellectual powers shone in the son when he
+took part in the meetings of the learned at his palace on Thursday
+evenings. To him Cairo owed the completion of the Citadel, where he
+took up his residence, and Egypt was improved in cultivation by his
+assiduous superintendence and enlargement of the canals and
+dikes.</p>
+
+<p>The new régime of the Ayyúbids or successors of<span class=
+"pagenum" id="Page_197">[197]</span> Saladin had introduced
+something besides an imperial sway and a revival of orthodox
+learning: it had brought with it a feudal system that dominated
+Egypt, for better or for worse, for six hundred years, and vitally
+affected the social conditions, arts, literature, and material
+aspect of Cairo. The <em>Mamlúk</em> period may be said to begin
+with Saladin. It is true of course that there had been mamlúks,
+<em>i.e.</em> white slaves, long before, and many of them had
+attained to power. Ibn-Tulún, or at least his father, was a mamlúk,
+and many of the later governors belonged to the same class of
+emancipated slaves whether Turks or Greeks, from Turkistan or from
+Asia Minor. Under the Fátimid caliphs slaves had risen to the
+highest rank. Gawhar, the founder of Cairo, was a Greek or a
+Slav—it is not certain which—and we have seen how the Armenian
+slave Bedr became practically master of Egypt. Slavery in the East
+is no disgrace; on the contrary the relationship ranks far above
+mere hired service. The slave is regarded almost as a son, and we
+find an amusing instance of this feeling in the undoubted slur that
+attached to a famous emír (Kusún) in the fourteenth century,
+because he had the misfortune <em>not</em> to be a slave, like the
+rest of his world. The Fátimid armies were full of such mamlúks,
+and they acquired rank and lands. But the system had not reached
+the completeness that we see under Saladin’s successors. The great
+champion of Islám was brought up in the mamlúk system, as organized
+by the Seljúks and their followers, whose power rested upon a
+military basis formed by hired or purchased troops, paid by grants
+of fiefs, lands, castles, towns, or even whole provinces, held on
+strict condition of military service. The higher feudatories sublet
+parts of their fiefs to minor vassals, who had to furnish a certain
+number of men to their lord, just as he had to bring his contingent
+to aid<span class="pagenum" id="Page_198">[198]</span> the sultan
+in his wars. This system was adopted in all the provinces governed
+by officers of the Seljúk empire. Nur-ed-din, who sprang from the
+Seljúk officers, carried it out in Syria; Saladin, trained under
+Nur-ed-din, brought it to Egypt, where the land and villages were
+parcelled out among the generals of his armies, who lived on them
+during the winter, and joined their overlord at the head of their
+retainers each year as soon as the campaigning season opened.</p>
+
+<p>We find this feudal system in force in Egypt from the arrival of
+Saladin and his Turkish troops down to the accession of Mohammad
+‘Aly in the nineteenth century. It took a dominant place in Cairo
+when el-‘Adil’s grandson, es-Sálih, established a picked battalion
+of mamlúks in the new palace and barracks which he built on the
+island of Roda, opposite Misr. From their quarters on the river
+(<em>el-bahr</em>) they were known as the Bahry or Nilotic Mamlúks.
+Their splendid valour at the battle of Mansúra, when under the
+leading of Beybars they drove back the finest chivalry in Europe,
+decided the fate of the disastrous Crusade of Louis IX.
+Thenceforward they ruled Egypt for a century and a half, and in
+spite of much lawlessness, tyranny, intrigue, and slaughter, the
+reign of the Bahry Mamlúks is among the glorious pages in the
+history of Cairo. Their triumph at Mansúra was not the less
+remarkable because they were then under the sovereignty of a woman.
+Queens are rare in Mohammedan history, for the blessed Prophet had
+a prejudice against them; but among the three or four Muslim women
+that have held the sceptre, queen Sheger-ed-durr—“Spray of Pearls”
+is the translation of her charming name—holds the first place. She
+was only a slave, and her lord and husband, es-Sálih, grandson of
+el-‘Adil, died in the midst of the campaign with the Crusaders; but
+she at once took<span class="pagenum" id="Page_201">[201]</span>
+command, kept the sultan’s death secret till his son could be
+fetched from the other end of the empire, controlled the
+government, organized the defence, gave instructions to the
+generals and governors at her levees, and with wonderful courage
+and wisdom held the state together. When the heir arrived (1250)
+she surrendered her regency, but on the assassination of the brutal
+young man by the exasperated mamlúks within two months, “Spray of
+Pearl” resumed her authority, and honourably observed the treaty of
+ransom with St Louis, who probably owed his life to the high-minded
+queen.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenterplate iw1">
+<figure id="i17"><a href="images/i17.jpg"><img src='images/i17.jpg'
+alt=''></a>
+<p class="cp2">ISLAND OF ER-RODA</p>
+</figure>
+</div>
+
+<p>She possessed great qualities, and she had the title, such as it
+was, that was conveyed by her having borne a son to the late
+Ayyúbid sultan. The baby was dead, but she still based her claim to
+rule upon her motherhood, and her signature and her coins<a id=
+"FNanchor_67"></a><a href="#Footnote_67" class="fnanchor">[67]</a>
+bore a string of feminine titles ending with “Mother of the
+victorious King Khalíl,” though the little “king” had never been
+conscious of his royalty.</p>
+
+<p>She was not long left to rule alone. The idea of queenship was
+too repugnant to Muslim prejudices, and the caliph of Baghdád
+interfered with all the authority of a pope. “If they had no man
+among them,” he wrote to the emírs of Cairo, “he would send them
+one.” So the commander-in-chief, Aybek, was chosen to marry the
+queen, and a joint-king, a child of Saladin’s kindred, was
+appointed to keep up the figment of the departed dynasty. But
+“Spray of Pearls” still ruled, in fact though not in name. She kept
+her hold on the exchequer, and evidently treated her new husband
+with scant respect. Like a true<span class="pagenum" id=
+"Page_202">[202]</span> woman however, she could be jealous; she
+made him divorce another wife, and when Aybek ventured to propose a
+fresh marriage with a princess of Mosil the queen gave way to a
+regrettable act of resentment; having lured him by fair words to
+the Citadel—the facts unhappily cannot be softened—she had him
+murdered in the bath (1257). Her punishment was speedy and
+terrible. In three days all was over. The mamlúks shut her up in
+the Red Tower, where she vindictively pounded her jewels in a
+mortar that they might adorn no other woman, and then she was
+dragged before the wife whom she had made Aybek divorce, and there
+and then beaten to death with the women’s clogs. For days her body
+lay in the Citadel ditch for the curs to worry, till some good
+Samaritan buried it. Her tomb may still be seen beside the chapel
+of Sitta Nefísa, and a pious hand of these latter days has shrouded
+it with a cloth on which the Arabic name of “Spray of Pearls” is
+worked in gold.</p>
+
+<p>The rule of the Bahry Mamlúks now began, without further
+pretence of joint-kingship with one of Saladin’s house, though not
+without opposition and intrigue from members of the family in
+Syria, nor without hostility from the Arabs of Egypt, who got up a
+national movement and were put down with great severity. The bare
+list of the twenty-three sultans of the Bahry dynasty—all Turks,
+and most from Kipchak—who succeeded Aybek and ruled from 1257 to
+1382 is misleading unless one takes the conditions of their rule
+into account. Of the twenty-three, only four reigned for any
+considerable period, and the four reigns of Beybars, Kalaún,
+en-Násir, and Hasan, account for more than half the sum of all the
+twenty-three reigns. A sultan was nothing more than the chief
+mamlúk, elected by his comrades, <em>primus inter pares</em>
+indeed, but with a distinct understanding that they were his peers.
+For example,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_203">[203]</span> when
+Lagín was elected sultan by a conspiracy of the emírs, they marched
+at his stirrup and did him fealty, but they made him swear, and
+then swear again, that he would remain one of themselves, act only
+by their counsel, and never favour his own mamlúks to the detriment
+of the rest: and when he broke his oath by making a favourite, they
+murdered him. It was only a very strong man who could hold the
+dangerous position for long, as Beybars did, partly by the prestige
+of his brilliant campaigns in Syria; and after the strong man’s
+death, which as likely as not happened by design, his son would be
+set on the throne as a stop-gap whilst the rival emírs tried their
+strength, arranged their combinations, and bought off competitors.
+Then the strongest of them, or the most diplomatic, would remove
+the warming-pan and ascend the throne, to hold it as long as he
+could; after which the same process would be renewed.</p>
+
+<p>We must at least give the mamlúks their due as a splendid
+soldiery. Four times they had to meet the most formidable of all
+possible invasions, the repeated advance of the Mongol hordes led
+by Ginghiz Kaan’s successors, and four times they rolled them back.
+Kutuz was the first to bear the brunt. Hulagu’s Mongol envoys came
+to Cairo with insulting demands of submission: Kutuz cut off their
+heads and hung them up at the Zuweyla Gate; then marched into
+Syria, routed the Mongols in a glorious victory at Goliath’s Well
+in 1260, and rid the land of them. Beybars swam the Euphrates at
+the head of his troops and defeated the Mongols at Bira in 1273;
+then turning west he slew seven thousand of the enemy at
+Abu-lusteyn and seated himself on the Seljúk throne, which they had
+usurped, at Cæsarea of Cappadocia. Kalaún stemmed another invasion
+in 1281. Mustering every man he could enrol, mamlúks of the guard,
+Turkmáns,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_204">[204]</span> desert
+Bedawis, Arabs from the Euphrates and the Higáz, backed by the
+steady veterans of the old principality of Hamáh which still owned
+a prince of Saladin’s blood, the sultan won a decisive battle at
+Emesa, and freed Syria once more from the locust-cloud of devouring
+Mongols. Again they returned in the time of his son en-Násir, and
+this time the Egyptian army sustained a terrible reverse at the
+battle of the Treasurer’s Ghyll near Emesa in 1299. Damascus was
+lost, and the Mongol envoys appeared at Cairo to treat for the
+respectful submission of the sultan. But the mamlúks had not lost
+heart; the armourers of Cairo were busy, recruits were pouring in,
+and remounts were in such demand that the price of a horse rose at
+a bound from £12 to £40. Syria was in a panic, after an orgy of
+Mongol license; but the great emírs, Beybars Gashnekír and the
+other mamlúk chiefs, rode proudly on to victory. Once more the
+opposing armies met, in the plain of Marg-es-Suffar, in 1303, and
+for the fourth time, and the last, the Mongols were driven out of
+Syria. “Násir returned to Cairo in a wave of glory. Messengers had
+announced the news, and the emírs vied with one another in setting
+up costly pavilions, or grand stands, richly decorated and
+furnished, along the route of his procession. Workmen were
+forbidden to do anything but set up these triumphal erections.
+Rooms along the route were let at from £2 to £4 for the day. Silken
+carpets were laid in the street; and the proud sultan rode between
+the brilliant façades and admired the nobles’ pavilions, while
+troops of Mongol prisoners in chains, each with a fellow Mongol’s
+head hanging from his neck, completed the triumph. So noisy were
+the rejoicings and so deafening the tumult of drums and music
+throughout Egypt, that nothing short of an earthquake sobered the
+people.”</p>
+
+<p>Nor was it the Mongols alone who felt the edge of<span class=
+"pagenum" id="Page_205">[205]</span> the mamlúks’ steel. Beybars
+the Great—a blue-eyed Turk from Kipchak afflicted by a cataract
+which caused him to fetch but £20 in the slave market—despite his
+humble beginnings, had the courage and the zeal of a second
+Saladin. He waged the Holy War for ten years in Palestine, where
+the Franks were disposed to league with the Mongols. He seized and
+razed Cæsarea and Arsúf in 1265, and dragged their defenders in
+cruel ignominy to Cairo, where they were paraded with reversed
+banners and broken crosses. Jerusalem had been recovered from the
+Christians twenty years before, but the embers of Crusading zeal
+still smouldered feebly on the coast and at a few inland
+fortresses. Beybars resolved to extinguish the last flicker. Jaffa
+fell in 1268, Belfort surrendered, and Antioch, the Christian
+capital of northern Syria, was stormed and burnt to the ground;
+three years later the great fortress of the Hospitallers, Crac des
+Chevaliers, lowered its flag, and the Teutonic knights lost
+Montfort.<a id="FNanchor_68"></a><a href="#Footnote_68" class=
+"fnanchor">[68]</a> Even Cyprus, whence the Franks got their
+supplies, was invaded by the mamlúk fleet. The mountain fastnesses
+of the dreaded Assassins were seized and disarmed, and the
+Wehmgericht sank into impotence. Before Beybars died his commands
+were obeyed from the Pyramus and the Euphrates to the south of
+Arabia and the fourth cataract of the Nile. The Holy Cities of
+Mekka, Medina, and Jerusalem were his; he held the ports of Sawákin
+and ‘Aydháb on the Red Sea; the Arabs of the desert were his
+servants, the chiefs of Barbary paid him tribute; the great Khan of
+the Golden Horde on the Volga was his sworn ally and sent him his
+daughter in marriage<span class="pagenum" id=
+"Page_206">[206]</span>—Mongol though he was, Baraka Khan was the
+inveterate foe of the Mongols of Persia who had overrun
+Syria;—embassies were exchanged with the Eastern Emperor, who
+permitted a mosque to be restored at Constantinople, while Beybars
+supplied him with a patriarch; diplomatic and commercial relations
+were established with Manfred of Sicily, James of Aragon, Alfonso
+of Seville, Charles of Anjou. To crown his glory he revived the old
+‘Abbásid caliphate, extinguished at Baghdad by the Mongols in 1258;
+brought a meek representative of the sacred line to Cairo and
+housed him in great state in the Citadel, as the supreme legitimate
+pontiff of Islám, and humbly received at the caliph’s hands the
+purple robe and black turban and golden chain and anklets which
+betokened a sovereign recognized by the spiritual power.
+Henceforward there was ever a caliph at Cairo—however
+<em>fainéant</em>—till the Ottoman conquest and the assumption of
+the caliphate by the Sultans of Turkey in 1538.<a id=
+"FNanchor_69"></a><a href="#Footnote_69" class=
+"fnanchor">[69]</a></p>
+
+<p>A great soldier and a consummate if perfidious diplomatist,
+Beybars was also an able and laborious administrator. Under him the
+land was quietly if not quite godly governed, and his energy was
+unbounded. He seemed to be in several places at once, so rapid and
+secret were his journeys, and it was a favourite device of his to
+lie hidden in the Citadel for days together, watching his deputies,
+when he was believed to be in Syria all the time. “The greater part
+of his reign was spent in campaigns outside Egypt, but he generally
+passed the winter months at Cairo, whilst his troops rested and
+rains or snow hindered marching,<span class="pagenum" id=
+"Page_207">[207]</span> and he devoted these intervals to improving
+the country and the capital. It was not only in founding and
+restoring mosques and colleges, or rebuilding the Hall of Justice
+at the foot of the Citadel, that he showed his public interest. He
+enlarged the irrigation canals and dug new ones, made roads and
+bridges, fortified Alexandria and repaired the pharos, and
+protected the mouths of the Nile from the risk of foreign invasion.
+He revived the Egyptian fleet, built forty war galleys, and
+maintained 12,000 regular troops—not reckoning, one must assume,
+the Arab and Egyptian militia or occasional levies. His heavy war
+expenses entailed heavy taxation; and though with a view to
+popularity he began his reign by remitting the oppressive taxes
+imposed by Kutuz to the amount of 600,000 dinárs a year, he found
+himself compelled to increase the fiscal burdens as his campaigns
+developed. Yet we read more often of old taxes repealed than of
+fresh duties imposed, and his treasury was filled less by the
+imposts of Egypt than by the contributions from the conquered
+cities and districts of Syria, the tribute of vassal states and
+tribes, and the valuable custom-dues of the ports.</p>
+
+<p>“His government was enlightened, just and strict. He met the
+severe famine of 1264 by measures at once wise and generous, by
+regulating the sale of corn, and by undertaking, and compelling his
+officers and emírs to undertake, the support of the destitute for
+three months. He allowed no wine (though the tax on it used to
+produce 6000 dinárs a year), beer, or hashish in his dominions; he
+attempted to eradicate contagious diseases by scientific isolation;
+he was strict with the morals of his subjects, shut up taverns and
+brothels, and banished the European women of the town; though,
+personally, he was addicted to the Tatar kumiz, and was suspected
+of oriental depravity. He was no sybarite, whatever his vices; no
+man was<span class="pagenum" id="Page_208">[208]</span> more full
+of energy and power of work. If his days were often given to
+hunting or polo, lance-play or marksmanship, his nights were
+devoted to business. A courier who arrived at daybreak received the
+answering dispatches by the third hour, with invariable
+punctuality.” Sometimes over fifty dispatches were dictated, signed
+and sealed late in the night, after a fatiguing march. There was a
+mail twice a week carried by relays of horses, besides a
+well-organized pigeon-post.</p>
+
+<p>It was no wonder that such a man was adored by the people, who
+thought him the ideal of a gallant and generous soldier-king, and
+who still listen with delight to the romance in which the
+story-teller of the cafés of Cairo clothes the great deeds of the
+ever popular Záhir Beybars. Even the devout admired a king who
+endowed religious foundations and held an even balance between the
+four contending schools of orthodox divines, from each of which he
+nominated a separate kády. Only the emírs and officers dreaded one
+who, if he was true as steel to a good servant, never forgave a bad
+one, and whose restless suspicion watched their every move. It was
+inevitable that some day one of the many grudges should be paid
+off, and after seventeen years of a resplendent reign Beybars died
+in 1277 by a cup of poison which he had apparently made ready for
+another.</p>
+
+<p>Beybars was the true founder of the mamlúk power and the
+organizer of the mamlúk system. Since the day when he led the
+charge of the Bahry guard against Louis of France at the battle of
+Mansúra, he had sedulously watched over the army, stimulated
+recruiting from fresh blood, and encouraged good service by liberal
+distribution of fiefs. His was the foreign policy maintained in
+Egypt for many years, and his court formed the pattern for
+succeeding kings.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_209">[209]</span> A
+very magnificent and ceremonious court it was, where the sultan sat
+surrounded by the great officers of state and of the
+household,—Viceroy, Commander-in-chief, Major domo, Captain of the
+Guard, Armour-bearer, Master of the Horse, Cup-bearer, Taster,
+Master of the Wardrobe, Grand Huntsman, Polo-bearer,
+Slipper-holder, Lord of the Seat; the Master of the Halberds with
+his Gentlemen at Arms; the Adjutant-General with his thirty Lords
+of the Drums, each followed by forty troopers and a band of
+ceremony of ten drums, four trumpets, and two hautbois; the eunuch
+guards, equerries and chamberlains, secretaries and court
+physicians, judges and divines. All these functionaries had their
+allowances, fiefs, or appanages; a lord of the drums, for instance,
+would draw an income of about £16,000 a year; and the expenses of
+the royal household may be judged by the estimate that 20,000 lbs.
+of food were daily prepared in the larder, and that the daily cost
+in meat and vegetables in the time of en-Násir was from £800 to
+£1200.</p>
+
+<p>The great officers of the court and of the army were of course
+the most powerful men next to the sultan, and each deemed himself a
+fit successor to the throne. On their loyalty, and especially on
+that of the bodyguard, a brigade of several thousand picked men who
+held in fief a large part of Egypt, rested the safety and power of
+the sultan, who stood more or less at their mercy. Each of the
+great lords, were he an officer of the guard, or a court official,
+or merely a private nobleman, was a mamlúk sultan in miniature. He,
+too, had his guard of slaves, who waited at his door to escort him
+in his rides abroad, were ready at his behest to attack the public
+baths and carry off the women, defended him when a rival lord
+besieged his palace, and followed him valiantly as he led the
+charge of his division on the field of battle. These
+great<span class="pagenum" id="Page_210">[210]</span> lords, with
+their retainers, were a constant menace to the reigning sultan. A
+coalition would be formed among a certain number of disaffected
+nobles, with the support of some of the officers of the household
+or of the guard, and their retainers would mass in the approaches
+to the royal presence, while a trusted cupbearer or other officer,
+whose duties permitted him access to the king’s person, would
+strike the fatal blow or administer the insidious cup; and the
+conspirators would forthwith elect one of their number to succeed
+to the vacant throne. This was not effected without a struggle; the
+royal guard was not always to be bribed or overcome, and there were
+generally other nobles whose interests attached them to the
+reigning sovereign rather than to any possible successor, except
+themselves, and who would be sure to oppose the plot. Then there
+would be a street fight; the terrified people would close their
+shops, run to their houses, and shut the great gates which isolated
+the various quarters and markets of the city; and the rival
+factions of mamlúks would ride through the streets that remained
+open, pillaging the houses of their adversaries, carrying off women
+and children, holding pitched battles in the road, or discharging
+arrows and spears from the windows upon the enemy in the street
+below. These things were of constant occurrence, and the life of
+the merchant classes of Cairo must have been exciting. We read how
+the great bazar, called the Khan-el-Khalíly, was sometimes shut up
+for a week while these contests were going on in the streets
+without, and the rich merchants of Cairo huddled trembling behind
+the stout gates.</p>
+
+<p>There were fine doings of this kind when Ketbugha deposed the
+child-king Násir, for a time. The Ashrafis—or mamlúks of the late
+sultan, el-Ashraf Khalíl—raised a revolt and besieged the
+Citadel.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_211">[211]</span> Then
+Ketbugha’s troops rode out to quell the tumult and slashed through
+the ranks; the rebels were blinded, maimed, drowned, beheaded,
+nailed to the gate of Zuweyla; and so a new reign began (1294). A
+plague followed, when seven hundred corpses were carried out of one
+gate of Cairo in a single day. A fresh conspiracy was formed,
+Ketbugha fled, and the viceroy Lagín was elected sultan in his
+place. The streets which had lately been shambles were now <em>en
+fête</em> with decorations, for the new sultan was a generous man
+and promised to remit taxes; bread was cheap and Lagín was
+popular.</p>
+
+<p>The idea of hereditary succession was wholly foreign to the
+mamlúk system; yet it presented the only correction to these scenes
+of violent supercession, and after a time some sort of hereditary
+title seems to have been established. Kalaún had been succeeded by
+his son Khalíl, and then by a younger son en-Násir Mohammad in
+1293, and though the last, as a mere child, was temporarily
+deposed, he came back in 1298 after the murder of his
+brother-in-law Lagín. After another trial of usurpation by Beybars
+Gashnekír (the Taster) in 1308, Násir was restored and began a
+third reign which lasted thirty-one years (1310-1341), and after
+his death his incapable descendants sat on the throne, with little
+or no real authority, till the close of the dynasty. Thus from 1279
+to 1382 Egypt was ruled, except for six or seven years, by members
+of one family, the House of Kalaún. The founder of this family,
+whose history refutes the theory that these foreigners were
+unprolific in Egypt, was himself a notable figure, a brave general,
+a prudent statesman, and a great encourager of commerce. His
+passports to traders were in force as far as India and China, and
+he did all he could to develop the commerce of Egypt. Like most of
+the mamlúk sultans he was a notable<span class="pagenum" id=
+"Page_212">[212]</span> builder. It is extraordinary how these men
+of war, in the midst of alarums and intrigues, took a delight in
+architecture. The brilliant queen, first of the mamlúks, built
+(1250) the tomb-mosque over her husband Sálih, which still stands
+on part of the site of the old palace of the Fátimids in
+Beyn-el-Kasreyn. Beybars founded a college in 1262 on another part
+of the palace called the “Hall of the Tent,” and also a great
+mosque outside the Bab-el-Futúh in 1267-9, both of which still
+exist, though the college is a ruin, and the mosque was used,
+<em>infandum!</em> as a bake-house for the French troops a century
+ago, and recently as a slaughter-house for the British army of
+occupation. Kalaún, stirred by a dangerous illness, vowed to build
+a hospital, and his Maristán is still to be seen in the Nahhasín,
+though no longer used for its original purpose: it was a madhouse
+less than a hundred years ago. It stands beside his mosque and
+tomb, the latter notable for its exquisite plaster tracery and red
+granite pillars, and for the oddly decorated stone minaret and fine
+inscription. Ibn-Tulún and Saladin had built hospitals, and Kalaún
+carried on the good tradition of these pious benefactors. Cubicles
+for patients were ranged round two courts, and at the sides of
+another quadrangle were wards, lecture rooms, library, baths,
+dispensary, and every necessary appliance of those days of surgical
+science. There was even music to cheer the sufferers; while readers
+of the Korán afforded the consolations of the faith. Rich and poor
+were treated alike, without fees, and sixty orphans were supported
+and educated in the neighbouring school. People still visit the
+tomb where the good sultan and his son en-Násir lie buried, to
+touch their clothes in sure belief that they will be cured of
+sundry diseases and disabilities.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenterplate iw1">
+<figure id="i18"><a href="images/i18.jpg"><img src='images/i18.jpg'
+alt=''></a>
+<p class="cp2">“JOSEPH’S HALL”: PALACE OF EN-NASIR IN CITADEL, WITH
+HIS MOSQUE IN BACKGROUND</p>
+</figure>
+</div>
+
+<p>The long reign of en-Násir was a golden age of mamlúk
+architecture. However much this sultan may<span class="pagenum" id=
+"Page_215">[215]</span> have profited by the sense of tranquillity
+which hereditary title inspired, he owed his long tenure of the
+precarious throne partly to his personal qualities. “This
+self-possessed, iron-willed man—absolutely despotic, ruling
+alone—physically insignificant, small of stature, lame of a foot,
+and with a cataract in the eye—with his plain dress and strict
+morals, his keen intellect and unwearied energy, his enlightened
+tastes and interests, his shrewd diplomacy degenerating into
+fruitless deceit, his unsleeping suspicion and cruel vengefulness,
+his superb court, his magnificent buildings—is one of the most
+remarkable characters of the Middle Ages. His reign was certainly
+the climax of Egyptian culture and civilization.” He carried on the
+traditions of Beybars and Kalaún; maintained the alliance with the
+Golden Horde and married a princess from the Volga, the lady
+Tulbíya, whose tomb may still be seen, with that of another of his
+wives, in the eastern cemetery; he preserved the normal boundaries
+of the empire, from the Pyramus and Euphrates to Sawákin and Aswán,
+and arranged, if not alliances, diplomatic connexions with the
+emperor of Constantinople and the king of Bulgaria, as well as the
+rulers of Abyssinia and Arabia. He married eleven daughters to the
+highest nobles, and each wedding cost him half a million. Násir was
+not only a statesman; he was a farmer, trainer, and sportsman, who
+would pay £4000 for a horse, kept a systematic stud-book, knew all
+his horses’ pedigrees, prices, and ages, and broke in three
+thousand fillies every year with Bedawy grooms, for the races in
+which he and his emírs took the keenest possible interest. He kept
+thirty thousand sheep, and imported the finest breeds from abroad,
+and like most of the sultans he was devoted to falconry.
+Ibn-Batúta, who saw him in 1326, describes Násir as a king “of
+noble character and great virtues,” beneficent to pilgrims and
+assiduous<span class="pagenum" id="Page_216">[216]</span> in his
+duty of sitting in appeal twice a week to hear causes and
+complaints in person. Under his rule Egypt thrived; vexatious taxes
+were repealed, a new survey of the land was made, millers and
+bakers who tried to raise prices in bad years were scourged, and
+when his son-in-law, the great emír Kusún was reported to him for
+extortion, the sultan smote him with the flat of his sword and
+flogged his factor. Prices were kept down by his vigilance,
+wine-bibing and immorality were severely punished, and if Násir
+recouped himself by sweeping confiscations among the nobles, and
+cut down the “tall poppies” remorselessly, the people gained by the
+new method, and prospered exceedingly.</p>
+
+<p>Even to the Copts Násir was indulgent, though the Christians
+were never so well used under mamlúk rule as they had been under
+the Fátimids and in the time of el-Kámil. At the time of Saladin’s
+invasion there had been a great destruction of churches, due rather
+to the burning of Misr and the turmoil of war than to any
+fanaticism of the conquerors. Saladin himself was no friend to
+Christians; he was too rigid a Muslim to be tolerant; but he did
+not persecute them. The flight or expulsion of the Armenian
+patriarch and his followers was more probably the result of the
+close association of the Armenians with the Fátimid government than
+of religious bigotry. But the Holy War in Palestine, though waged
+against the Latin branch of the church catholic, reacted
+unfavourably upon the Copts, and Saladin’s brother el-‘Adil was
+stern and tyrannical towards his Christian subjects. His son
+el-Kámil often interceded for them successfully, and when he came
+to the throne of Egypt himself, he displayed a spirit of toleration
+rare indeed in that age. He received St Francis of Assisi
+courteously, when the good friar came to teach him the truth as he
+perceived it, and the Christians of Egypt unanimously<span class=
+"pagenum" id="Page_217">[217]</span> regarded Kámil as the kindest
+ruler they had ever known. His son es-Sálih seems to have followed
+in his steps during his short reign, for he wrote to Innocent IV to
+express his regret that he could not converse with the Dominicans
+by reason of his ignorance of Latin.</p>
+
+<p>The Crusade of Louis IX naturally upset these amicable
+relations, and it is not surprising that the Muslims wreaked their
+vengeance upon many churches in Egypt. Nor was the temper of the
+succeeding mamlúk sultans, excited by repeated victories over the
+remnant of the Franks in Syria, conducive to a good understanding
+with their Christian subjects. The new colleges founded by Saladin
+and his successors were working a change in Cairo, and a fanatical
+spirit was encouraged by the teachers of these divinity schools,
+whose influence grew stronger as time went on. In 1280 all the
+Coptic scribes employed at the war-office were dismissed and their
+places supplied by Muslims. In 1301 the old humiliating sumptuary
+rules prescribing distinctive dresses and the like were revived. In
+1321 occurred a series of outbreaks which brought terrible
+persecution on the Christians. The disturbance began when
+en-Násir’s workmen, digging a lake called Nasir’s Pool, near the
+Lion’s Bridge (west of the Lúk and close to the mosque of Taybars)
+undermined the church of ez-Zuhry, which en-Násir had commanded to
+be respected. Without the knowledge of the government the people
+rushed to the church one Friday after prayers and utterly
+demolished it. Thence they went to the church of St Mina in the
+Hamra and sacked it, and did the like to the “Church of the
+Maidens” by the seven watermills, dragging out the nuns, and
+pillaging and burning everything. The sultan was indignant when the
+smoke of the burning churches told the tale of disaster, and sent
+troops at<span class="pagenum" id="Page_218">[218]</span> once to
+coerce the mob. Meanwhile news arrived of the destruction of two
+other churches in the quarters of Zuweyla and of the Greeks, and it
+was found that the mob was attacking the Mo‘allaka in the fortress
+of Babylon. Here the sultan’s troops happily arrived in time to
+protect the church. There was evidently a popular excitement
+difficult to quell. Wild fakírs got up in the mosques and shouted
+“Down with the infidels’ churches! To the foundations! To the
+foundations!” The same thing was going on all over Egypt; at
+Alexandria, at Damascus, at Kus, churches were burning.</p>
+
+<p>A month later mysterious fires began to break out at Cairo. One
+after the other great conflagrations burst forth, and a strong wind
+carried the flames far and wide. People went up the minarets and
+cried to God, thinking that the whole city would be burnt down, and
+there was groaning and weeping over the loss of homes and
+possessions. Every effort was made to extinguish the fires. All the
+water-carriers were impressed, and twenty-four emírs of the highest
+rank worked at the head of the lines of men carrying water from the
+baths and cisterns, and demolishing acres of fine houses to clear a
+space round the burning buildings. The street from the Deylem
+quarter to the Gate of Zuweyla ran with water like a river. No
+sooner was one fire extinguished than another began. Almost every
+day witnessed a fresh conflagration.</p>
+
+<p>It was noticed that these fires were apparently aimed at
+mosques, and that they were the work of incendiaries was evident
+from clothes soaked in oil and pitch and naphtha that were
+discovered. A Christian was caught at the mosque of ez-Záhir with
+packets of naphtha and pitch, which he was lighting in the mosque.
+Put to the torture he confessed that the conflagrations were the
+organized work of Christians.<span class="pagenum" id=
+"Page_219">[219]</span> Two monks, under torture, admitted that
+they had set the fires afoot to avenge the destruction of the
+churches. The Coptic patriarch was called in, and, with tears,
+denounced the incendiaries as wild enthusiasts who were paying off
+the foolish church-destroyers in their own coin. He was sent back
+to his house in honour. The populace however were in no mood to see
+a patriarch respected, and would gladly have torn him in pieces,
+but for the sultan’s guard. As it was they burned four monks from
+the Melekite “Convent of the Mule” (el-Kuseyr) in the Mukattam
+hills. Two Christians caught in the act of arson were by the
+sultan’s orders burnt alive in a pit in the presence of an exulting
+multitude, and an innocent Coptic secretary, passing by, only
+escaped being thrown to the flames by hasty apostasy. The mob was
+becoming dangerous, and the sultan, who, though much alarmed, had
+done his utmost to calm the people, took strong measures. Troops
+were sent through the whole of Cairo with orders to charge the
+crowds and spare none. The news had preceded them, and they found
+the bazars closed and the streets deserted. Not a man was to be
+seen between the Citadel and the Gate of Succour. Some two hundred
+were arrested near the Nile, and brought before the sultan, who
+ordered them to be executed or to lose their hands. In vain they
+pleaded innocence; even the emírs interceded for them; en-Násir was
+resolved to make an example of somebody. Gallows were set up all
+the way from the Gate of Zuweyla to the Rumeyla, and there the
+unlucky Muslims were hung by their hands in order to teach other
+people not to raise an uproar.</p>
+
+<p>The result of this excitement was the revival of the old
+regulations as to dress which Násir had endeavoured to drop since
+1301. Any Christian found riding a horse or wearing a white turban
+might be<span class="pagenum" id="Page_220">[220]</span> killed at
+sight. The Copts were compelled to wear blue turbans, to carry a
+bell round their necks at the baths, and to ride only the ass, and
+that with the face to the tail. The emírs were not allowed to
+employ Christian servants, nor were the Copts any more to hold
+posts in the government offices. They hardly dared to show
+themselves abroad, and a great many became Muslims. This was
+probably the worst persecution since the days of el-Hákim, three
+centuries before, but it must be admitted that there was grave
+provocation on both sides, and that the outrages sprang from
+popular fury, not from the fanaticism of the rulers. Similar
+persecution, though scarcely on so large a scale, went on
+throughout the mamlúk period, and the Copts, who had perhaps waxed
+over-fat and kicked during the tolerant epoch of the later
+Fátimids, paid dearly for their past favour. They were gradually
+reduced to the state of suffering insignificance from which they
+are only now being to some extent raised.</p>
+
+<p>Whilst churches were being thus destroyed mosques were rising
+with amazing prodigality. There never was such a harvest for the
+builder and the architect as in the reign of en-Násir. The sultan
+set the example himself. He was a man of fine taste and high
+culture, the patron of scholars, and the intimate friend of the
+learned historian Abu-l-Fida, whom he restored to the princedom of
+Hamáh, which had been held by his family since the days of his
+ancestor, Saladin’s brother. It was an age of brilliant artistic
+production, and the immense sums spent by the sultan and his emírs
+on building and decorative works show that the wealth of the
+country was vast, and was nobly expended. Some of Násir’s own
+furniture has been preserved—there are two exquisite inlaid-silver
+tables of his in the Arab Museum at Cairo—and his two chief
+buildings, the college in Beyn-el-Kasreyn (1304), next to
+the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_223">[223]</span> Maristán, with
+its Gothic gateway brought from ‘Akka by his brother Khalíl, and
+the old mosque (1318) in the Citadel, are worthy memorials of his
+taste, though unhappily they show but few traces of their original
+splendour. The great dome which once surmounted the Citadel mosque
+has fallen in, and most of the marble mosaics which adorned the
+kibla have vanished, as well as the iron grille which enclosed the
+sultan’s place of prayer (<em>maksúra</em>). There is still a range
+of clerestory windows all round the mosque, but the tracery and
+stained glass is almost all gone; yet the ten great granite
+columns, and the marble mosaics on the south wall, and other
+relics, show what the mosque must once have been. Its most
+remarkable feature is the coating of the minarets with green tiles,
+which may probably be ascribed to the Tatar influence of Násir’s
+wife, who belonged to the royal family of the Golden Horde. That
+the Citadel mosque is not wholly destroyed is due to the care of
+Colonel C. M. Watson, C.M.G., who rescued it from the degradation
+of an army storehouse, and removed the wooden partitions which had
+been set up when the beautiful building was converted into a
+prison. There was once a “Hall of Columns” belonging to Násir’s
+“Striped Palace” of black and white stone in the Citadel (which
+cost, it is said, twenty millions, but the figure is incredible),
+which still stood three quarters of a century ago; the fortress was
+largely rearranged and added to in his reign, and the aqueduct
+which brought the Nile water to the citadel, though commonly
+ascribed to Saladin and probably a reconstruction of some Ayyúbid
+conduit, was Násir’s work (1311), afterwards restored in stone by
+el-Ghúry. He also built a mosque beside the shrine of Seyyida
+Nefísa, the Kubbat-en-Nasr near the Red Hill, and other
+chapels.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenterplate iw1">
+<figure id="i19"><a href="images/i19.jpg"><img src='images/i19.jpg'
+alt=''></a>
+<p class="cp2">AQUEDUCT AND HOUSE OF THE “SEVEN WATERMILLS”</p>
+</figure>
+</div>
+
+<p>Where the sultan led, the court followed. The<span class=
+"pagenum" id="Page_224">[224]</span> emírs of that day were never
+content till they had built a mosque, a college, or a tomb-chapel,
+to celebrate their piety and lay up riches where they stood most in
+need of a balance. The Moorish traveller, Ibn-Batúta, who was at
+Cairo in 1326, was impressed by the zealous emulation of the emírs
+in founding mosques and monasteries for recluses, such as the
+Khankah or convent of Beybars Gashnekír, still standing, and he
+gives a curious account of the monastic rules.<a id=
+"FNanchor_70"></a><a href="#Footnote_70" class="fnanchor">[70]</a>
+One cannot count the colleges (medresas), he says, and he is lost
+in admiration of the great hospital of Kalaún, with its excellent
+apparatus and drugs, and its revenue amounting, he was told, to
+1000 dinárs a day. More than forty mosques and colleges were
+erected between 1320 and 1360—more than a fourth of the total
+number recorded from the Arab conquest to the time of Makrízy—and
+many of them still survive to bear witness to the munificence of
+the great nobles of the time. Such are the mosques (<em>gami‘</em>)
+of the emír Hoseyn (founded <span class="sc2">A.H.</span> 719,
+<span class="sc2">A.D.</span> 1319), Almás, the chamberlain (730),
+Kusún (730), Beshták (736), Altunbugha el-Maridány, the cupbearer
+(740), Aslam, the armour-bearer (746), Aksunkur (747), Arghún
+el-Isma‘íly (748), Mangak, the proconsul (750), Sheykhú (750); the
+colleges (<em>medresa</em>) of Almelik, the polo-master (719),
+Sengar el-Gáwaly (723), Ahmad, the master of the ceremonies
+(Mihmandár, 725), Akbugha, the major domo (734), Sarghitmish,
+captain of the guard (757); the monasteries (<em>Khankáh</em>) of
+Kusún (736), el-Gáwaly (723), Sheykhú (756); besides the mosque of
+“the Lady Miska” (a slave of Násir’s named Hadak, 740), the college
+of Násir’s daughter, the Lady Tatar el-Higazíya (761), and the
+great mosque of his son Sultan Hasan facing the Citadel
+(757-60).</p>
+
+<div class="figcenterplate iw3"><span class="pagenum" id=
+"Page_225">[225]</span>
+<figure id="i20"><a href="images/i20.jpg"><img src='images/i20.jpg'
+alt=''></a>
+<p class="cp2">MOSQUE OF SULTAN HASAN</p>
+</figure>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_227">[227]</span>To describe
+these mosques of the Násiry epoch in detail would demand a whole
+volume. Some of them indeed are sadly ruined and present but
+fragments of their original building. Some, like Aksunkur’s and
+el-Isma‘íly’s were restored, the one with much taste by Ibrahím
+Agha in 1652; the other, with none, fifty years ago by one of the
+Khedivial family. But even in what remains of the original work of
+the twenty-one mosques enumerated above there is so much variety in
+plan, in treatment of the parts, and in decoration, that no verbal
+description can take the place of ocular study on the spot. Almost
+every one of these buildings deserves separate and attentive
+examination. Three features, however, may here be signalized as
+characteristic. The old mosques had no external decoration; their
+enclosing walls were plain, and only in the late Fátimid mosque
+el-Akmar do we find the beginning of a façade. The mamlúk mosques,
+copying no doubt the buildings of the Crusaders in Palestine,
+generally present fine façades, with sunk panels, portals in
+recess, and decorative cornice and crownwork. The next
+characteristic is the development of the minaret, which becomes
+more graceful, is built of well-faced stone, and shows delicate
+articulations and gradations of tapering from the square to the
+polygon and cylinder, with skilful use of “stalactite” or
+pendentive treatment of angles and transitions and supports for the
+balconies. The third is the construction of large domes. Hitherto
+small cupolas over the mihráb or above the entrance were the utmost
+achievements of the earlier architects. The feature of a great dome
+was introduced by Saladin’s successors, for example in the dome of
+the tomb-mosque of esh-Sháfi‘y in the Karáfa, and probably in other
+edifices, but too little remains of the Ayyúbid period to permit of
+very exact definition.</p>
+
+<p>The mamlúks were dome-builders <em>par
+excellence</em>.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_228">[228]</span> A
+large proportion of their mosques and colleges were also the
+founders’ tombs; the tomb-chapel adjoined the main building, and
+the dome, as we have said, is pre-eminently a sepulchral canopy.
+From the mamlúk period begins that adornment of the city with those
+beautiful bulbs which still form its dominant architectural note.
+From the plain dome with a small cupola on top comes the fluted
+dome, and next the dome covered with ornament, chevrons,
+arabesques, or geometrical <em>entrelacs</em>, all chiselled in the
+stone. The most elaborate ornament belongs to the work of the
+Circassian sultans of the fifteenth century, but already in the
+fourteenth the dome had taken its place among the leading features
+of Saracenic architecture.</p>
+
+<p>As an example of the fourteenth century style we cannot do
+better than take the great mosque of Sultan Hasan, which includes
+most of the characteristics of the Násiry epoch, and displays them
+on the grandest scale. Sultan Hasan,—who sat on the throne from
+1347 to 1351, was deposed by the emírs, and then restored from 1354
+to 1361,—was far from an interesting or estimable character, and
+his mosque was his one good deed. It was built between 1356 and
+1359 (<span class="sc2">A.H.</span> 757-760) and is said to have
+cost him 1000 dinárs a day, but one distrusts the round figures of
+Eastern chroniclers. The sultan was so charmed with his masterpiece
+that he cut off the architect’s hand in the vague idea that its
+loss would cripple his genius and prevent his repeating his
+success. The mosque is of the usual form of medresa, a cross formed
+of a central court and four deep transepts or porticoes, and the
+founder’s tomb may be compared to a lady-chapel behind the chancel
+or eastern portico. The outside does not of course reveal the
+cruciform character of the interior, since the angles are filled
+with numerous<span class="pagenum" id="Page_231">[231]</span> rooms
+and offices.<a id="FNanchor_71"></a><a href="#Footnote_71" class=
+"fnanchor">[71]</a> The prevailing impression from without is one
+of great height, compared with other mosques. The walls are 113
+feet high and built of fine cut stone from the pyramids, and have
+the peculiarity, rare in Saracen architecture, of springing from a
+socle. Windows—two with horseshoe arches, the rest simple
+grilles—slightly relieve the monotony of the broad expanse of wall;
+but the most beautiful feature is the splendid cornice built up of
+six tiers of stalactites each overlapping the one below, which
+crowns the whole wall. There are some graceful pilasters or engaged
+columns at the angles, and a magnificent portal set in an arched
+niche, 66 feet high, vaulted in a half sphere which is worked up to
+by twelve tiers of pendentives. Bold arabesque medallions and
+borders, geometrical panels, and corner columns with stalactite
+capitals, enrich this stately gate.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenterplate iw5">
+<figure id="i21"><a href="images/i21_large.jpg"><img src=
+'images/i21.jpg' alt=''></a>
+<p class="cp2">GATEWAY OF SULTAN HASAN’S MOSQUE</p>
+</figure>
+</div>
+
+<p>Inside, the first impression again is of size rather than
+detail. The great span of the four arches—that at the east is 90
+feet high and nearly 70 wide—is unmatched in Cairo, but the plaster
+coating of the interior of the transepts detracts from the general
+effect, nor are the mosaics and marbles, handsome as they are,
+equal in delicacy of design or harmony of colour to many others in
+the <em>mihrábs</em> of earlier and later mosques. The black,
+white, and yellow panels are too garish, and so is the colouring of
+the pulpit; but the concave niche itself is singularly rich in
+decoration, and the tribune, instead of being as usual an
+unpretentious wood platform, stands upon graceful stone columns of
+alternate drums of coloured marbles. A fine Kufic inscription forms
+a frieze round the top of the walls. The tomb-chamber, entered from
+the sanctuary by<span class="pagenum" id="Page_232">[232]</span> a
+noble door plated with arabesques in bronze, is surrounded by a
+marble dado 25 feet high, above which is the Throne-Verse from the
+Korán carved in wood, whilst the angles are gradually worked up to
+the circle of the dome by stalactites also carved in wood and much
+decayed. In the centre is the plain marble grave of the founder.
+The dome itself is comparatively modern, and quite unworthy of the
+great mosque. The original great dome, admired by Pietro della
+Valle in 1616, collapsed in 1660. There were to have been four
+minarets, but scarcely was the third built when it fell (1360),
+crushing some three hundred children in the school below.
+Thirty-three days later Sultan Hasan was murdered. Of the two that
+then remained, one minaret became ruined and was rebuilt too short
+in 1659. The great bronze lanterns and many of the enamelled glass
+lamps are preserved in the Arab Museum; and the fine bronze-plated
+entrance door was removed by el-Muáyyad to his own mosque in
+1410.</p>
+
+<p>The mosque of Sultan Hasan suffered greatly from its position.
+Its wide terrace-roof was an excellent post of vantage for cannon
+and musketry during the constant émeutes of the Mamlúk period, and
+shots were frequently exchanged between it and the Citadel down to
+the time of Mohammad ‘Aly: some of the balls may still be seen in
+the masonry. Barkúk found the mosque so dangerous as a place of
+attack that he demolished its handsome steps and closed the great
+door. At one time it remained closed for half a century, and the
+students and worshippers had to slink in by a window or a
+side-door. The tall minaret was even used in the middle of the
+fifteenth century to support a tight-rope stretched to the Citadel
+on which a European gymnast disported himself to the tremulous
+delight of the populace. In a quieter situation the mosque might
+have escaped injury, but even as it is,<span class="pagenum" id=
+"Page_235">[235]</span> scarred with bullets and lopped of its
+original dome and minarets, it remains the most superb if not the
+most beautiful monument of Saracenic art in the fourteenth
+century.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenterplate iw2">
+<figure id="i22"><a href="images/i22.jpg"><img src='images/i22.jpg'
+alt=''></a>
+<p class="cp2">TOMB-MOSQUE OF BARKUK AND FARAG</p>
+</figure>
+</div>
+
+<h3>2. THE MAMLÚKS OF THE FORT.</h3>
+
+<p>When the feeble descendants of en-Násir, after enduring rather
+than enjoying a mock sovereignty for forty years under the tyranny
+of a series of powerful emírs—Kusún, Sheykhú, Sarghitmish, and the
+rest—gave way to the usurpation of the emír Barkúk in 1382, the
+change made little difference in the government of Egypt. The
+hereditary principle was gone, indeed, and was never reaffirmed
+until the latter part of the nineteenth century; and the new
+dynasty consisted of isolated emírs, who sometimes bequeathed their
+throne to a son until some other emír deposed him, but who never
+founded a royal house like that of Kalaún. The new line was known
+as the Burgy Mamlúks, or “slaves of the fort,” because they
+belonged to a brigade of troops which had been quartered in the
+Citadel ever since their original enrolment by Kalaún a century
+before. They are also called the “Circassian Sultans,” from their
+common race, for none of them were Turks, though two were Greeks.
+There was little to choose, however, in character, between the
+Circassians and their Turkish predecessors, and the change on the
+whole was for the worse. The sultans of the new line were even more
+at the mercy of the leaders of military factions than before. The
+mamlúk guard of each king formed a distinct party, calling itself
+after his throne-title—as Ashrafy, Muáyyady, Násiry—and after his
+death or deposition they remained a separate factor in politics and
+contributed to the bloodshed, confusion, and intrigues
+of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_236">[236]</span> the period. The
+sultans could scarcely restrain their own soldiery, much less these
+formidable relics of their predecessors, and the frequent changes
+of rulers show how unstable the royal authority had become. Six of
+the twenty-three Burgy sultans reigned for 103 out of the total of
+134 years covered by the dynasty, leaving but thirty-one years for
+the remaining seventeen, or less than two years apiece.</p>
+
+<p>The character of the rulers was much the same as before, but
+everything was on a meaner scale. There was hardly one warrior-king
+among them, and this accounts in a large degree for the lack of the
+prestige that had kept a soldier like Beybars or Kalaún on the
+throne. The Circassians were not soldiers but schemers; they relied
+less upon success in war or personal courage than on ruse,
+chicanery, and corruption, to retain their hold of power. The Greek
+Khushkadam excelled the rest in his adroit management of the
+contending factions and the heavy bribes he extorted in the sale of
+public offices. The governorship of Damascus cost its possessor
+45,000 dinárs in fees to the sultan, and his previous post was sold
+to another man for 10,000. Ministers of state were put out of the
+way if their enemies made it worth the Greek’s while, and the
+ceremonious visits of this ingenious sultan were apt to be
+expensive to those he honoured with a call. Throughout the
+domination of the Circassian dynasty corruption reigned unchecked;
+justice was bought and sold; and even the Sheykh-el-Islám, the
+religious chief justice, stole trust-money. The soldiers, who were
+purchased white slaves, Greeks, Circassians, Turks and Mongols, ran
+riot in the streets, insomuch that decent women dared not leave
+their houses and the fellahín feared to bring their stock to market
+lest it should fall a prey to the mamlúks or the government. In the
+country the population diminished<span class="pagenum" id=
+"Page_237">[237]</span> under the oppression of the troops; in the
+capital there was seldom peace or order, and sometimes rival
+factions pounded each other from the Citadel ramparts and the
+opposite roof of Sultan Hasan’s mosque, barricaded the streets, and
+made cockpits of the bazars, where processions of rebels nailed to
+camel-saddles till they died were no uncommon sights.</p>
+
+<p>In spite of this corruption and violence the Burgy sultans
+contrived not only to preserve the power of Egypt but even to
+enlarge its dominions and greatly extend its trade. They withstood
+the invasion of Tamerlane boldly in 1399, though in the end they
+found it politic to accept his terms; but at least the great
+conqueror never ventured to attack Egypt. They fought several
+campaigns in Asia Minor, where for some time they secured the
+submission of Karaman, Cæsarea, Iconium, and Larenda. They even
+conquered Cyprus—a nest of the pirates who disturbed the Egyptian
+shipping—in 1426, with a fleet of galleys built at their port of
+Bulák, not long risen from the Nile; and King James of Lusignan,
+captured at the battle of Chierocitia, was brought in triumph to
+the Citadel of Cairo, with the crown of Cyprus and his disgraced
+standards, and made to kiss the ground before the Sultan Bars-Bey.
+He was ransomed by the Venetian consul and European merchants, and
+rode through the streets and bazars in great state, after becoming
+a vassal of the Egyptian king. Cyprus paid tribute until the end of
+the Circassian dynasty, but several attempts upon Rhodes in 1440-4
+were successfully repelled by the knights. To the end of the
+dynasty the Egyptian frontier still extended north as far as the
+Pyramus and Euphrates.</p>
+
+<p>Among the strange anomalies of Oriental history none perhaps is
+more surprising than the combination of extreme corruption and
+savage cruelty with exquisite<span class="pagenum" id=
+"Page_238">[238]</span> refinement in material civilization and an
+admirable devotion to art which we see in the mamlúk sultans. The
+Circassians were not inferior to their Turkish forerunners as great
+architects. Personally some of the second line of sultans were men
+of considerable culture. Barkúk, Muáyyad, Gakmak, and Káit-Bey were
+fond of learned society and literary talents; Bars-Bey, though he
+knew little Arabic, liked to listen to Turkish histories read to
+him by el-‘Ayny; and Timurbugha the Greek was a philologist,
+historian, and theologian. They were also good Muslims, fasted
+regularly and even supererogatorily, abstained from wine, made
+pilgrimages, and insured their place in the next world by building
+mosques, colleges, hospitals, schools, and every kind of religious
+establishment, in this. El-Muáyyad, for example, though utterly
+unable to control the disorders of his time, “was personally a
+devout man and a learned, a good musician, poet, and orator,
+scrupulous in the observance of the rules of his religion, very
+simple and unpretentious in his dress and mode of life, bearing
+himself in all religious functions as a plain Muslim among fellow
+worshippers, and robing himself in common white wool in mourning
+for the pestilence that ravaged the land.” The eastern arcade of
+his splendid mosque (1415-21) is still preserved in the Sukkaríya
+street, and a number of boys may there be seen at their lessons
+under the brilliant gold inscriptions and frescoes of the
+sanctuary, which has been carefully restored by Herz Bey, who
+discovered traces of the original polychromy beneath the whitewash
+of ages. The minarets of the mosque are built on the flanking
+towers of the Zuweyla gate. There is also a ruined hospital
+(el-Maristán el-Muáyyady, 1418), near the Citadel, that
+commemorates his pious benefactions. Bars-Bey’s great mosque, the
+Ashrafiya (1423), is still a place where congregations<span class=
+"pagenum" id="Page_241">[241]</span> meet, at the corner of the
+Musky, where one turns into the Ghuríya. Barkúk built (1386) an
+exquisite medresa in Beyn-el-Kasreyn, which has recently been
+restored by Herz Bey; and his tomb-mosque with the two domes, begun
+by himself but completed by his son, the Sultan Farag, in 1410, is
+one of the most picturesque features in that beautiful group of
+fawn-coloured domes and slender minarets, the eastern cemetery. But
+the gem of the group is the perfect tomb-mosque (1472) of Káit-Bey,
+which represents the highest achievement of the later mamlúk
+school. The admirable arabesques of its shapely dome, the skilfully
+graduated transitions of its stately minaret from square to
+octagon, and from octagon to circle, with every ingenuity of
+stalactite concealment of angles, and the fine inlaid marbles in
+the <em>liwán</em>, are treasures of indestructible beauty even
+after centuries of neglect and spoliation.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenterplate iw2">
+<figure id="i23"><a href="images/i23.jpg"><img src='images/i23.jpg'
+alt=''></a>
+<p class="cp2">EASTERN CEMETERY: SO-CALLED “TOMBS OF THE
+CALIPHS”</p>
+</figure>
+</div>
+
+<p>Káit-Bey, whose long reign of twenty-eight years (1468-96) was
+phenomenal in this quickly changing dynasty, had worked his way up
+from the usual humble beginning. Bought by Bars-Bey for twenty-five
+guineas, he had passed from master to master, and rank to rank,
+till he became commander-in-chief, under the Greek Timurbugha, of
+an army which cost the state nearly £300,000 a year—a very large
+military budget for the fifteenth century. “He was an expert
+swordsman, and an adept at the javelin play. His career had given
+him experience and knowledge of the world; he possessed courage,
+judgment, insight, energy, and decision. His strong character
+dominated his mamlúks, who were devoted to him, and overawed
+competitors. His physical energy was sometimes displayed in
+flogging the president of the council of state or other high
+officials with his own arm, with the object of extorting money for
+the treasury. Such contributions and extraordinary taxation were
+absolutely necessary for the<span class="pagenum" id=
+"Page_242">[242]</span> wars in which he was obliged to engage. Not
+only was the land taxed to one-fifth of the produce, but an
+additional tenth (half-a-dirhem per ardebb of corn) was demanded.
+Rich Jews and Christians were remorselessly squeezed. There was
+much barbarous inhumanity, innocent people were scourged, even to
+the death, and the chemist ‘Aly ibn el-Marshúshy was blinded and
+deprived of his tongue, because he could not turn dross into
+gold.</p>
+
+<p>“The Sultan had the reputation of miserliness, yet the list of
+his public works, not only in Egypt, but in Syria and Arabia, shows
+that he spent the revenue on admirable objects. His two mosques at
+Cairo—one outside among the so-called ‘Tombs of the Caliphs’
+(1472), the other near Ibn-Tulún (1475)—and his wekálas or
+caravanserais are among the most exquisite examples of elaborate
+arabesque ornament applied to the purest Saracenic architecture. He
+diligently restored and repaired the crumbling monuments of his
+predecessors, as numerous inscriptions in the mosques, the schools,
+the Citadel, and other buildings of Cairo abundantly testify. He
+was a frequent traveller, and journeyed in Syria, to the Euphrates,
+in Upper and Lower Egypt, besides performing the pilgrimages to
+Mekka and Jerusalem; and wherever he went he left traces of his
+progress in good roads, bridges, mosques, schools, fortifications,
+or other pious or necessary works. No reign, save that of en-Násir
+ibn Kalaún, in the long list of mamlúk sultans, was more prolific
+in architectural construction or in the minor industries of art.
+The people suffered for the cost of his many buildings, but a later
+age has recognized their matchless beauty.”<a id=
+"FNanchor_72"></a><a href="#Footnote_72" class=
+"fnanchor">[72]</a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenterplate iw6">
+<figure id="i24"><a href="images/i24.jpg"><img src='images/i24.jpg'
+alt=''></a>
+<p class="cp2">MOSQUE OF KAIT-BEY IN EASTERN CEMETERY</p>
+</figure>
+</div>
+
+<p>In the buildings of Káit-Bey and his contemporaries we see the
+perfection of the art of pure arabesque and elaborate geometrical
+ornament. In the early days of<span class="pagenum" id=
+"Page_245">[245]</span> Saracenic architecture the ornament was
+worked in soft gypsum or plaster, and the use of a tool (never a
+mould) in the soft material gave extraordinary freedom and boldness
+to the lines—for example, in the scroll-work of the mosque of
+Ibn-Tulún. Plaster continued to be the base of decorative friezes
+and borders throughout the Fátimid period: it may be seen in the
+original arcades of the Azhar and in the eastern sanctuary of
+el-Hákim. The most exquisite specimen of plaster ornament, however,
+is seen in the tomb-mosque of Kalaún, where the borders of the
+arches that supported the original dome, and of the clerestory
+windows above, are formed of a delicate lace-like tracery in
+plaster foliate designs, broadly treated and worked into a pattern
+so continuous that it is almost impossible to break off at any
+middle point. After en-Násir, who also used stucco, however, it was
+generally abandoned in favour of stone, though we still see
+admirable examples of plaster decoration in the dome of Aksunkur
+and the beautiful designs in the cupola of el-Fadawíya. In the
+mosque of the Sultan Hasan all the sculpture except the Kufic
+frieze is in stone, and as the material is unyielding we find at
+once a certain hardness of treatment, a loss of freedom in the
+lines, and a tendency to substitute geometrical design for the pure
+arabesque of earlier work. The stone pulpit erected by Káit-Bey in
+1483 in Barkúk’s tomb-mosque is one of the finest examples of
+geometrical chiselling in Cairo. Its side view is triangular, like
+the wooden pulpits of other mosques, but instead of carved or
+inlaid wooden panels making up the designs on each side, the whole
+is of stone slabs, admirably joined, and chiselled with geometrical
+figures produced outwards, so as to cover the whole surface with a
+network of interlacing lines forming a star-like pattern, the
+interstices of which are filled with floral arabesques. Similar
+carving enriches<span class="pagenum" id="Page_246">[246]</span>
+the walls of the staircase and the canopy of this unique
+pulpit.</p>
+
+<p>Káit-Bey was the most scrupulous of all Cairo architects: he
+allowed no detail of his numerous edifices to be neglected, and the
+wealth of ornament which he lavished upon them was all cut in
+limestone or marble.<a id="FNanchor_73"></a><a href="#Footnote_73"
+class="fnanchor">[73]</a> One may realize the richness of this
+decoration in his mosque within the city, near Ibn-Tulún’s, where
+the chief arch is formed of twenty-three blocks of stone on each
+side, alternately red and white, and every one of the white blocks
+is covered with arabesque or geometrical designs, no two of which
+appear to be alike. The arabesques consist of the usual trefoil
+surrounded by very beautifully intertwined foliage conventionally
+treated. The geometrical patterns, though at first sight composed
+of irregular pentagons and hexagons, are all symmetrically
+arranged, and form one elaborate design. On the spandrils of the
+arch will be noticed medallions—there are many such in
+Cairo—containing the name of the Sultan and a benediction upon him.
+A broad band of Koranic inscription, separated by arabesque
+patterns, runs as a frieze under the sculptured cornice. The
+general effect of the whole is wonderfully rich, and there is
+hardly a space that is not filled by some delicate design. Even in
+his wekálas, or inns, Káit-Bey was no less careful in details. Few
+buildings in Cairo are more fertile in varied designs than his
+wekála in the street on the south side of the Azhar. The interior,
+unhappily, is deserted and in decay, but once, no doubt, it was
+richly ornamented. The façade is still in good preservation, and
+deserves<span class="pagenum" id="Page_249">[249]</span> careful
+study by all who wish to understand arabesque and geometrical
+ornament at its best.<a id="FNanchor_74"></a><a href="#Footnote_74"
+class="fnanchor">[74]</a> When we say at its best, some objection
+may be taken to the fact that certain designs are systematically
+repeated in reverse, in contrast to the honest way of the older
+artists who scorned to repeat themselves. But by the time of
+Káit-Bey the beauty of uniformity had been realized, and it was
+seen that a certain symmetry and recurrence of the designs really
+improved their effect. This change was part of the general tendency
+towards symmetrical finish and architectural proportion, which
+distinguishes the later from the earlier Mamlúk style. There is,
+however, abundant variety in the numerous panels of arabesque and
+geometrical ornament which form the borders above the thirteen
+shops of the inn front, in the superb arched gateway in the centre,
+and in the beautiful engaged column in the corner, next the sebíl
+or fountain, with its carved drums and stalactite capital. In its
+original state this wekála must have been a noble building: even as
+it is, one may call it almost a text-book of Saracenic
+decoration.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenterplate iw5">
+<figure id="i25"><a href="images/i25.jpg"><img src='images/i25.jpg'
+alt=''></a>
+<p class="cp2">TOMB-MOSQUES</p>
+</figure>
+</div>
+
+<p>Indeed the epoch of Káit-Bey was almost a repetition of the
+great building epoch of en-Násir. The Circassian mosques are
+usually the favourites with architects as well as with the
+unprofessional sight-seer: their exquisite proportions, delicate
+minarets, beautifully sculptured domes, elaborate stalactites in
+portals, cornices, and wherever angles had to be masked, and their
+rich marble mosaics and incrustated kiblas, are perfect in taste
+and disposition. Besides the two exquisite mosques of Káit-Bey,
+those of the emírs Ezbek el-Yúsufy<span class="pagenum" id=
+"Page_250">[250]</span> (1495), Kheyr Bek (1502), and the Master of
+the Horse (emír akhór) Kany Bek (1503), are full of fine work,
+whilst for a little gem of the best Circassian type nothing is
+better worth seeing than the Medresa of Kady Abu-Bekr ibn Muzhir or
+Mazhar (1480) which has been restored with exceptional skill by the
+Commission for the Preservation of the Arab Monuments, whose
+architect, Herz Bey, has devoted the greatest pains to tracing the
+original colours and designs and faithfully reproducing them.
+Another careful restoration is that of the mosque of the emír
+Kagmás el-Isháky (1481), and both show conspicuous improvement upon
+the earlier experiments in restoring the Barkukíya medresa.</p>
+
+<p>It is to be noticed that, in the majority of the medresas of the
+fifteenth century, the original cruciform shape is considerably
+modified. The medresa, though still a college, gradually usurped
+the position of the gámi‘ or congregational mosque. Friday prayers
+were held in the medresa, since few new gámi‘s were erected—the
+most important were those of Muáyyad, Bars-Bey and Ezbek—and the
+court and the eastern transept (sanctuary or chancel) were
+enlarged, whilst the side transepts became smaller, and even
+dwindled to mere recesses. Probably the reduction of the side
+transepts was due in some measure to the fact that only two of the
+four orthodox schools, the Sháfi‘y and the Hánafy, had any great
+following in Egypt, and there was thus no necessity for the
+retention of the original plan of four separate lecture halls. The
+result is that we find under the Circassian Sultans that a
+compromise has been made between the gámi‘ and the medresa, and the
+form of the latter has been modified to suit the requirements of
+the former. This modified medresa form is almost universal in the
+Circassian period of architecture, and the salient
+features—the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_253">[253]</span>
+enlargement of the sanctuary and the diminishing of the side
+transepts—is particularly conspicuous in the medresa of
+Kagmás.<a id="FNanchor_75"></a><a href="#Footnote_75" class=
+"fnanchor">[75]</a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenterplate iw1">
+<figure id="i26"><a href="images/i26.jpg"><img src='images/i26.jpg'
+alt=''></a>
+<p class="cp2">TOMBS OF THE MAMLUKS</p>
+</figure>
+</div>
+
+<p>Even to the end, when the Ottoman conquest was obviously at
+hand, the Circassian mamlúks retained much of their vigour and all
+their aesthetic powers. There are few more interesting figures in
+their line than the old sultan el-Ghúry, called to the throne in
+1501, after four incompetent rulers in as many years had succeeded
+Káit-Bey. He was a man of bold decision and boundless energy. He
+restored order in the anarchy of Cairo, levied ten months’ taxes at
+a stroke to replenish his treasury; taxed water-wheels, boats,
+camels, Jews, Christians, servants, every possible source;
+increased the customs-dues, confiscated vast estates and levied
+enormous death-duties. Having restored the revenue, and earned an
+evil name for extortion, he proceeded to spend it on great public
+works. Canals, roads, fortifications on the coast, the
+strengthening of the Citadel of Cairo, the improvement of the
+pilgrims’ route to Mekka, these were among his good deeds. His
+college (1503) and tomb-mosque (where, however, he is not buried)
+still face each other at opposite sides of the street that bears
+his name, the Ghuríya, though badly mauled by the injudicious
+restoration of thirty years ago. He also built a minaret for the
+Azhar, the mosque of the Nilometer on the island of Roda, the
+Sebíl-el-Muminín or Fountain of the Faithful in the Rumeyla, the
+watermills at Masr-el-‘Atíka, and restored the aqueduct to the
+Citadel. He was sumptuous in his court, and generous to poets and
+musicians, whilst he mulcted the heirs of his nobles and robbed
+orphans of their dower. Fully alive to the importance of
+the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_254">[254]</span> Indian trade,
+then menaced by the Portuguese, he furnished a fleet in the Red Sea
+and sent it to India, where with the help of the governor of Diu it
+defeated the interloping senhors under the younger Almeida in an
+engagement off Chaul in 1508. Finally, but too late, he led his
+army into Syria to do battle with the advancing Ottomans, and fell
+fighting at the age of seventy-six on the fatal field of Marg
+Dábik, near Aleppo, where the desertion of the two wings under
+Kheyr Bek and el-Ghazzály left the old sultan alone with his
+bodyguard to be trampled under the horses of the troopers he vainly
+tried to rally (24th August, 1516). An engagement near Heliopolis
+to the north of Cairo completed the rout of the mamlúks. Tumán Bey
+tried to make a stand against the invaders at the Bab-en-Nasr, but
+Selím took him in the flank, and after hand to hand fighting in the
+streets, the Citadel was stormed, Tumán was crucified at the Gate
+of Zuweyla, and Egypt became a province of the Ottoman Empire.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenterplate iw1"><span class="pagenum" id=
+"Page_256">[256]</span>
+<figure id="i27"><a href="images/i27.jpg"><img src='images/i27.jpg'
+alt=''></a>
+<p class="cp3">SKETCH PLAN SHOWING THE GROWTH OF CAIRO</p>
+</figure>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="chap">
+
+<h2><span class="pagenum" id="Page_257">[257]</span><a id=
+"c08"></a>CHAPTER VIII</h2>
+
+<p class="sch1"><em>The City of the Arabian Nights</em>
+</p>
+
+<p class="dcap">IN the preceding chapter we finished the story of
+Cairo as the capital of an independent state, and described some of
+the beautiful buildings with which the Mamlúk Sultans and nobles
+adorned the city. But the life of a town does not consist in the
+doings of the court, and we should form a very incomplete picture
+of mediæval Cairo if we looked no deeper than the Sultans and their
+mosques and colleges and tombs. Though trampled under the hoofs of
+the dominant troopers, the city had a vigorous life of its own, a
+life of prosperous commerce, of social enjoyment, and of literary
+culture. Cairo society was no longer the limited palace coterie
+cooped up within the high walls of the Fátimid palaces. It spread
+on all sides save the east. It had flowed out beyond the northern
+gates, and formed the new suburb of the Hoseyníya, where many
+mosques and chapels grew up. It had spread to the west over the
+space between the old Fátimid wall and the Nile, and the river had
+conveniently receded and allowed the new port of Bulák and a whole
+colony of houses to be formed on what had been the Nile bed till
+the wreck of the good ship <em>Elephant</em> helped to make a sand
+bank, called the Elephant’s Isle (Gezírat-el-Fil), which altered
+the river’s course and provided an excellent building site. To the
+south the space between the Fátimid walls and the Citadel and the
+mosque of Ibn-Tulún, where only gardens and summer villas and
+pools<span class="pagenum" id="Page_258">[258]</span> flooded at
+high Nile had been seen in Saladin’s day, was now covered with
+houses, among which rose the domes and minarets of the mamlúks.</p>
+
+<p>The expansion of the city may readily be traced in the
+Topographer’s careful record of the building of mosques, which
+necessarily implies a neighbouring population. The mosque of Yúnus
+(c. <span class="sc2">A.H.</span> 719) and of Ibn-et-Tabbákh (“the
+son of [Násir’s] cook,” 746), in the quarter of el-Luk, point to
+the recession of the Nile which formerly ran close by. In the same
+way the foundation of the mosques of Ibn-Gházy (741) and et-Tawáshy
+(745) on the outside (or west) of the old Bab-el-Bahr, and the
+Záwiya of Abu-s-Su‘úd (c. 724) outside the Bab-el-Kantara, point to
+a westward extension, though here the land was not formerly under
+water. The great expansion to the north, caused by the upheaval of
+the Elephant’s Isle, before 1200 <span class="sc2">A.D.</span>, and
+the emergence of Bulák a century later, may be fully traced in the
+annals of the mosques. Makrízy tells us that the Elephant’s Isle
+was flooded only at high Nile, and during the rest of the year it
+was a links of sandbanks and coarse grass, where the mamlúks used
+to practise archery, in their unhappy ignorance of golf. But as the
+Nile receded “people began in 1313 to erect houses, in consequence
+of the improvements made in that part by en-Násir,” who had dug the
+new canal then known as the Khalíg en-Násiry and now as the
+Isma‘ilíya, which drained the tract; “and a proclamation was made
+in Káhira and Misr inviting every one to build there without delay.
+So the emírs and soldiers and merchants and common folk built
+houses there, and Bulák was created at this period.”<a id=
+"FNanchor_76"></a><a href="#Footnote_76" class="fnanchor">[76]</a>
+He adds that water was drawn from the Nile by a sákiya wheel which
+stood on the spot where the mosque of el-Khatíry was afterwards
+built,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_259">[259]</span> which shows
+that the river has not retreated much since, for it still runs very
+near this mosque, which was founded by Aydemir in 737 on a site
+which was under water thirty years before. Other mosques at Bulák
+were those of Ibn-Sárim and el-Básity (817).</p>
+
+<p>Behind or east of Bulák, on what is now called the ‘Abbasíya
+road, was a plot of land beside the Elephant’s Isle, known as
+Ard-et-Tabbála or the “demesne of the tamburina,” because it was
+presented by the caliph Mustansir to a singing girl who celebrated
+the glories of the Fátimids to the accompaniment of her drum. There
+also houses began to be built, and the mosque of el-Keymakhty was
+founded there, on the New Canal, in <span class="sc2">A.H.</span>
+790. Before this another mosque, that of el-Asyúty, had been
+erected about 740 on the Elephant’s Isle, as well as that of Sarúga
+on the New Canal near the Pool of er-Ratly. Still further to the
+east we find a number of mosques rising in the new quarters outside
+the old city walls. Such were the gámi‘s of Almelik (732) and
+Ibn-el-Felek in the Hoseyníya quarter, those of Akúsh and
+Ibn-el-Maghraby on the canal outside; the convents of Yúnus,
+Algibugha (c. 750) and Ibn-Ghuráb (798), and the Záwiyas of
+el-Ga‘bary (c. 687), Nasr (c. 719), el-Kalendaríya (c. 722), and
+el-Khiláty (c. 737), outside the Bab-en-Nasr, all of which testify
+to the expansion of the city towards the north.</p>
+
+<p>Cairo had in fact attained much the same dimensions as it
+measured fifty years ago, before the new European suburbs near the
+Nile were developed. There was probably little difference either in
+outward aspect or in the life of the middle and lower classes
+between the Cairo of the fifteenth century and the city which
+Europeans such as Wilkinson, Burckhardt, Lane, John Phillip, and
+Hay visited and described or painted in the first half of the
+nineteenth. Some of Hay’s and<span class="pagenum" id=
+"Page_260">[260]</span> his companion’s, O. B. Carter’s, drawings,
+sketched about 1830, are here reproduced, and they may fairly be
+taken as true representations of a town which still retained its
+essential mediæval characteristics.</p>
+
+<p>How different Cairo must then have appeared to the newly arrived
+visitor, who landed at Bulák after coming through the Mahmudíya
+Canal from Alexandria and then ascending the Nile. There was a
+mile’s ride from the river bank at Bulák to the Bab-el-Hadíd by
+which you entered Cairo at the north-west corner, and instead of
+the crowded villa suburb of to-day, there was scarcely a house to
+be seen. “Two principal roads,” writes Lane,<a id=
+"FNanchor_77"></a><a href="#Footnote_77" class="fnanchor">[77]</a>
+“of nearly the same length lead from Bulák to Cairo; the northern,
+which is somewhat irregular, but is the chief route of commerce
+[there were of course no railways then], leads to the Bab-el-Hadíd;
+and the southern, after having crossed two canals, enters the
+western side of the Ezbekíya. We pass the picturesque mosque of
+Abu-l-‘Ola on our right as we enter the latter road. The French,
+during their occupation of Egypt, raised this road, intending also
+to continue it through the town as far as the Citadel. It is
+straight and wide, but very uneven, and wanting a row of trees on
+its southern side to shade it. It is raised a few feet above the
+level of the plain, so as to be above the reach of the inundation.
+On either side during the inundation are marshes and inundated
+fields. These, as soon as the waters have subsided, are sown with
+corn, beans, trefoil, etc. Here and there are clusters of palm
+trees, and a few sycamores and acacias. The plain was formerly
+bounded on the east by extensive mounds of rubbish [doubtless the
+ruins of Maks], behind which the capital was nearly concealed. The
+road crosses two canals, over each of which is a stone bridge. . .
+. Along the western side<span class="pagenum" id=
+"Page_261">[261]</span> of the second canal, on the right of the
+road, is a long ridge of rubbish. From the top of this ridge, about
+a quarter of a mile from the gate of the Ezbekíya, we obtain a view
+of Cairo.”</p>
+
+<p>This was how one approached Cairo in the first half of the
+nineteenth century. The description reads drearily enough, but it
+has the merit of showing what the place was like before the
+European builder took it in hand. When the traveller plodded along
+the uneven road between the bean-fields in 1835 he was traversing
+precisely the same scene as had been trodden by the mamlúk horsemen
+for centuries, and he was approaching a city which was still to all
+intents the city of the Arabian Nights. There is no manner of
+doubt, from internal evidence, that it was in Cairo that these
+famous tales took their definite shape. Their origins have of
+course been traced to a large extent in Persia and India, but their
+final form and colour are Egyptian. Though many of the scenes are
+laid at Baghdád, where the famous Harún er-Rashíd played so
+conspicuous and erratic a part, it is obvious to any student of the
+topography that the writers were very imperfectly acquainted with
+the caliph’s city. It is Cairo that they know and describe,
+whatever names they please to give to their scenes. There are
+incidental touches that make it probable that the Arabian Nights
+assumed their present form, in all essentials, before the middle of
+the fourteenth century. The latest historical personage mentioned
+is Saladin, and there are many reasons for believing that the tales
+were collected and written very nearly in their final shape during
+the revival of letters that ennobled the golden age of mamlúk
+civilization on the Nile. The society they describe is precisely
+what we know of mamlúk times: it is orthodox Muslim society of the
+Cairene type.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_262">[262]</span>It may be
+wondered that there should be any speculation at all about the date
+of so famous a book; but the explanation is simple. Scholars and
+learned men in the East have always looked with contempt upon
+stories such as these, which are wholly devoid of the literary
+preciosity which was the special pride of the true man of letters.
+Hence they did not deign even to mention the Thousand and One
+Nights, save in two or three slight references which do not
+determine the date of the existing redaction. The Nights were
+written for the people, for the audiences who gathered in the
+coffee-shops to listen to the professional reciter, for the large
+uneducated middle class of Cairo. This is what constitutes their
+special merit in the eyes of the student of mediæval Egypt. The
+doings of kings and emírs we learn from the detailed pages of
+Makrízy and many other scholarly writers: it is from the Thousand
+and One Nights that we gain our insight into the life of the
+people—a life divided from that of the great by a gulf over which
+the Oriental historian rarely leaps. The tales are above all the
+adventures of merchants and shop-keepers. We are introduced no
+doubt to caliphs and sultans and vezírs, as well as to the ginn,
+’efrits and márids and other members of the spirit-world; but the
+real actors in the stories are traders, men who keep shop and who
+have ventures upon the seas, and often make voyages themselves.
+Sindibad might easily have heard many of his own adventures from
+the lips of the motley crowd that gathered on the quays at Misr
+from all parts of the known world. Ibn-Sa‘íd stood and watched the
+shipping in 1246 and noticed vessels arriving from all lands: “as
+for the merchandise from the Mediterranean and the Red Sea that
+comes to Misr it is past describing; here is it bonded, not at
+Cairo, and hence it is distributed throughout Egypt.” What was
+true<span class="pagenum" id="Page_263">[263]</span> of Misr and
+Maks was also true of their successor, the fourteenth century port
+at Bulák. It was from Bulák that ‘Aly of Cairo, after spending all
+his inheritance making merry with his wife on the island of Roda,
+took ship for Damietta and set forth on his quest of a new fortune.
+The constantly recurring references to commercial voyages and great
+profits are exactly what would occur to a people whose wealth was
+made not only by a prodigiously fertile soil, but by a copious
+foreign trade.</p>
+
+<p>What the transit trade of Egypt was worth in mamlúk times may be
+judged from a few facts. A single vessel clearing cargo at
+Alexandria paid £21,000 in customs. The great Italian republics
+found it necessary to maintain consular agents in Egypt, and that
+there was a wealthy colony of European merchants is shown by their
+being able, headed by the consul of Venice, to guarantee the king
+of Cyprus’s ransom of £100,000. The Venetians had enjoyed special
+privileges in Egypt since the time of el-‘Adil, in 1208, who
+allowed them to build a mart (funduk) of their own at Alexandria;
+the Pisans had a consul there; and the concessions to Venice were
+renewed in 1238. On the other side, in the Red Sea, there were the
+ports of Suez, Tor, Koseyr, ‘Aydháb, Dehlek and Sawákin, where the
+mamlúk sultans levied customs of a tenth <em>ad valorem</em>. The
+Indian trade had greatly developed under the later mamlúk sultans,
+and there was much rivalry and a tariff war between the Arabian and
+Egyptian ports in the Red Sea in the effort to secure the heavy
+customs dues, which were pressed beyond the customary tenth. In
+1426 we read of forty vessels from India and Persia paying £36,000
+in duties at Gidda, the port of Mekka, which, like Yenbu‘, was then
+Egyptian. Nor were<span class="pagenum" id="Page_264">[264]</span>
+the government duties limited to importation. There were certain
+monopolies: sugar, pepper, wood, metalwork could be sold only at
+government warehouses, at government prices, subject to duty. A
+consignment of pepper that was bought at Cairo for fifty dinárs was
+sold to Europeans at Alexandria for one hundred and thirty under
+government regulations. The Venetians, after vain consular
+remonstrance, sent a fleet to Alexandria to bring away all their
+merchants, and Bars-Bey was obliged to reduce his exorbitant
+terms.</p>
+
+<p>How much store the Circassian sultans set by the transit trade
+between India and Europe has been seen in the vigorous effort made
+by el-Ghúry to crush the Portuguese in the Arabian Sea as soon as
+he realized the dangerous rivalry of the Cape route. Indeed the
+transit trade must have been a chief source of wealth. As Mr
+Cameron, our consul at Port Sa‘íd, has well put it, the mamlúk
+sultans, “masters of both Egypt and Syria, held the ports and
+caravan routes between Europe and her Indian trade, and levied
+customs dues on every bale of Oriental produce which arrived from
+the Persian Gulf and the Red Sea for transfer to the harbours
+between Alexandria and Alexandretta and for transhipment to Venice.
+Until the discovery of the Cape route in 1498, and its subsequent
+development, they enjoyed the monopoly of the entire volume of
+Indian trade with the Levant; and Venice, by her commercial
+capitulations with them, was their sole agent on the continent. Let
+us try and estimate what this monopoly meant. An Arab merchant like
+Sindbad the Sailor, . . . buys £10,000 worth of raw silks, nutmegs,
+pepper, indigo, cloves, and mace in Persia or at Calicut and lands
+them at Basra or Suez. The sea route up the Persian Gulf would be
+shorter than the voyage up the Red Sea; but the caravan
+road<span class="pagenum" id="Page_265">[265]</span> from Basra to
+Aleppo would be more perilous than the short journey across Egypt.
+At landing, the customs would amount to some £4000 [this is much
+above the mark], and the goods would then be worth, say, £20,000. A
+second Arab merchant on the Mediterranean coast [or perhaps at the
+wharves of Bulák] would sell the consignment for £30,000 to the
+Venetian, who would have to pay another £5000 customs dues before
+he could clear his cargo. Thus, whether in customs or in tolls, or
+in presents to local governors and escorts, a quarter of the
+£35,000 paid by the Venetian would go to the mamlúk sultan and
+aristocracy merely for the privilege of transit.”<a id=
+"FNanchor_78"></a><a href="#Footnote_78" class=
+"fnanchor">[78]</a></p>
+
+<p>It was not the government alone that made the profit. The Cairo
+merchant who brought the precious bales from India and the Spice
+Islands, or at least bought them from the Indian traders at the Red
+Sea ports, made his fortune too. The Thousand and One Nights are
+full of such successful ventures. Did not the Second Sheykh, who
+led the Two Black Hounds, describe how “we then prepared
+merchandise and hired a ship and embarked our goods, and proceeded
+on our voyage for the space of a whole month, at the end of which
+we arrived at a city where we sold our merchandise, and for every
+piece of gold we gained ten”? Such fortunate speculations were no
+doubt of everyday occurrence, and the trade represented by these
+ventures did not all go out of the capital: a large part found its
+way into the bazars to be retailed to the good people of Cairo and
+to minister to the luxurious tastes of the thousands of hangers-on
+to the mamlúk court. We can form but a meagre notion of the
+mediæval <em>funduk</em> from the present bazars. A
+<em>funduk</em>, or <em>khan</em>, or <em>wekála</em>—there is
+little difference between the three terms—is a great collection of
+warehouses and shops, generally<span class="pagenum" id=
+"Page_266">[266]</span> surrounding a court, but sometimes more
+like a covered arcade, where the merchants keep their reserves of
+stores, and where traders find lodgings for themselves and stabling
+for their beasts between their journeys. One great mediæval khan is
+still familiar to every tourist—the Khan el-Khalíly or “Turkish
+bazar,” built by Garkas el-Khalíly, the Master of the Horse of
+Sultan Barkúk in 1400 on the site once occupied by the graves of
+the Fátimid caliphs, whose bones were dug up and carted away on
+asses to the rubbish-mounds outside the eastern Gate. Another khan,
+the Hamzáwy, or cloth market, is also well known; and two of
+Káit-Bey’s wekálas, the façades of which are finely ornamented with
+arabesque panels and intricate geometrical designs, and wooden
+medallions carved with the sultan’s name, still remain beside the
+Azhar and in the Surugíya. When Lane described Cairo in 1835 there
+were about two hundred wekálas, and even now one can scarcely pass
+down a street without finding one of these big courts surrounded by
+rooms—the inn of the east—opening out through a tall gateway.</p>
+
+<p>In the fifteenth century the khans of Cairo were busy marts of
+the merchants; and the mamlúk emírs, who had clear ideas as to the
+value of house property, emulated one another in building handsome
+wekálas, every room of which might be expected to bring in a
+substantial rent. There was the khan of Mesrúr, one of the most
+famous. The young man in the Story of the Humpback “put up” there,
+and stored his merchandise, and after a night’s rest took some of
+his goods and went to the “kaysaríya of Garkas,” another famous
+market of mediæval Cairo dating from Fátimid days, to sell to the
+merchants. “Do as other merchants,” said the sheykh of the brokers
+to the stranger; “sell thy merchandise upon credit for a certain
+period, employing a scrivener, a witness, and<span class="pagenum"
+id="Page_269">[269]</span> a moneychanger, and receive a portion of
+the profits every Thursday and Monday: so shalt thou make of every
+piece of silver two—besides thou wilt have leisure to enjoy the
+amusements of Egypt and its Nile.” So the young man followed his
+advice and left his goods to be sold for him, whilst he lived
+joyously at the khan of Mesrúr, breakfasted on wine and chicken and
+mutton and sweetmeats, and perfumed himself elegantly, till he met
+the damsel at the shop of Bedr-ed-din, the gardener, and there
+happened what fate had decreed, to be a warning to such as would be
+admonished. That the young man should have his hand cut off by the
+executioner at the Gate of Zuweyla was exactly what might be
+expected in the days of the mamlúks. This khan of Mesrúr (or rather
+two khans, one large and the other small) was built on a part of
+the site of the Fátimid Great Palace where the slaves used to be
+sold, by Mesrúr, a favourite slave of Saladin, who left it as a
+legacy for the benefit of the poor. The larger building had a
+hundred rooms, and was the chief resort of merchants from
+Syria,—“the most renowned and greatest of the khans,” says the
+Topographer, but its prosperity declined after the tribulation of
+Syria at the hands of Tamerlane, “its honour departed and many of
+its apartments were ruined.”</p>
+
+<div class="figcenterplate iw3">
+<figure id="i28"><a href="images/i28_large.jpg"><img src=
+'images/i28.jpg' alt=''></a>
+<p class="cp2">SLAVE MARKET</p>
+</figure>
+</div>
+
+<p>Another famous khan was that of Bilál, a slave of es-Sálih, the
+grand-nephew of Saladin, so favoured that the sultan Kalaún used to
+say, “God have mercy on our late master es-Sálih! I used to carry
+the slippers of this eunuch Bilál whilst he went into the
+presence!” The slave was very rich and abounded in good deeds, many
+poets praised him and were amply rewarded, and among his worthy
+acts was the building of the khan, where the merchants would
+deposit their chests of great value. “I used to enter this funduk,”
+says Makrízy, “and lo! around it were chests piled,
+little<span class="pagenum" id="Page_270">[270]</span> and great,
+so that only a small space was left in the middle, and these chests
+contained gold and silver enough to amaze one.” Then there was the
+“Khan of the Sebíl,” outside the Bab-el-Futúh, founded by Saladin’s
+vezír, Karakúsh, for “sons of the road,” poor wayfarers, who were
+received without payment; and the Wekála Kusún, built by Násir’s
+son-in-law, near the mosque of el-Hákim, where Syrian merchants
+stored oil, and sesame, and soap, and preserves, and pistachio-nut,
+almonds, syrups, and the like, every store-room being let by the
+emír’s order at no more than five dirhems of silver, without
+extortion, and no one being turned away. It was a busy place in
+Makrízy’s time, very popular on account of its cheapness, full of
+people and bales of goods, and noisy with the shouts of the
+porters. There were 360 lodgings above the store-rooms, all
+occupied, and 4000 people lived there. The Tatar devastation of
+Syria ruined this khan too. Opposite the Zuweyla Gate stood the
+fruit-market where the produce of the gardens round Cairo was sold;
+it was roofed over, like most of the bazars in former days, to keep
+off the rays of the sun, and the fruit, which smelt like the
+gardens of Paradise, was tastefully arranged and decorated with
+flowers and sweet herbs.<a id="FNanchor_79"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_79" class="fnanchor">[79]</a></p>
+
+<p>There were many more great buildings of this kind, the history
+of which is related by the laborious Topographer, whose
+descriptions enable us almost to reconstruct in imagination the
+city of the fifteenth century. Cairo was a sumptuous and beautiful
+place in those days. The old mamlúk palaces—of which we have but
+relics in the huge blank walls of Beshták’s palace, the fine
+gateway of Yeshbek’s <em>dar</em> next to Sultan Hasan’s mosque,
+and the better preserved mansions of Káit-Bey and of the emír Mamáy
+(known as<span class="pagenum" id="Page_271">[271]</span> the
+Beyt-el-kady)—were then in their full glory. The various quarters
+were still separated by their strong gates barred at night. The
+súks were shaded by matting or wooden roofs, and the
+lattice-windows with their delicate tracery overhung the streets.
+Makrízy enumerates and describes 37 <em>Háras</em> or quarters, 30
+districts (<em>khutt</em>), 65 streets (<em>darb</em>), 21
+by-streets and alleys (<em>zukák</em> and <em>khawkha</em>), 49
+squares or <em>places</em> (<em>rahba</em>), 50 markets
+(<em>suk</em>), 23 great markets (<em>kaysaríya</em>), 11
+hostelries (<em>khan, funduk, wekála</em>), 55 famous palaces and
+mansions (<em>kasr, dar</em>), 44 public baths (<em>hammám</em>),
+28 closes and gardens (<em>hakar, bustán</em>), 11 racecourses
+(<em>meydán</em>), and numerous pleasure-houses or belvederes
+(<em>manzara</em>).</p>
+
+<p>Many of the streets still run in their old places, and some of
+their names survive, such as the Salíba or cross-ways,
+Beyn-el-Kasreyn, Beyn-es-Sureyn, Harat Bargawán, Suk-es-Siláh,
+Khan-el-Khalíly, Darb-el-Asfar, Habbaníya, Khurunfísh. The old
+quarters of Cairo have changed much less than the old parts of
+London; but the reason is melancholy. London has changed because it
+has grown; Cairo remained comparatively unaltered because it was
+slowly decaying. The loss of much of the Indian trade, the
+dependence upon Turkey, the misrule of pashas and mamlúk beys, all
+tended to reduce the prosperity of the city which had flourished
+exceedingly under the Turkish and Circassian sultans.</p>
+
+<p>With decline of trade came decline in the arts. There is still a
+little good work made in Cairo in brass chasing, jewellery, and
+silk weaving, but it is a poor relic of what once went on there.
+One has only to visit the Arab Museum to realize what magnificent
+work the artists of Cairo produced in the mamlúk period. The arts
+were closely related to the mosques, which attained their greatest
+perfection of ornament in<span class="pagenum" id=
+"Page_272">[272]</span> the same period, and the chief objects in
+the museum were once parts of the decoration or furniture of the
+mosques. The beautiful inlaid and chased silver and brass tables,
+with delicate designs in open tracery, Koran cases, lamps and
+chandeliers, bowls, censers, candlesticks, enamelled glass lamps
+with inscriptions in blue picked out with carmine and gold,
+generally came from mosques and centre round the fourteenth
+century. The carved panels inlaid with ivory and ebony and choice
+woods once enriched the doors and pulpits of the mosques, and the
+cast bronze bosses and cut brass filigree work belong chiefly to
+the same period. There are many admirable examples of these arts in
+the South Kensington Museum, and the British Museum possesses an
+unsurpassed collection of Saracenic metal work. There is unhappily
+no “Market of the Inlayers” now at Cairo, as there was in Makrízy’s
+time. This silver and gold inlay of arabesques and inscriptions on
+a brass base was one of the most elaborate and characteristic of
+Saracenic arts. It was not Egyptian in origin, but derived from the
+old Sasanian silversmiths of Mesopotamia. The oldest specimens we
+know came from Mosil on the Tigris, which was a famous home of
+metal-workers, within reach of the mines of the Taurus country. No
+doubt these Mosil smiths were attracted to Cairo in the flourishing
+days of the mamlúk sultans, or even earlier. At least it is certain
+that some of their finest work was done for the Egyptian market,
+and even bears the names of well-known Cairene rulers and emírs.
+There is the casket, for example, engraved with the name and titles
+of el-‘Adil II, Saladin’s grand-nephew, who sat on the throne of
+Egypt from 1238 to 1240, and was succeeded by es-Sálih, the husband
+of “Spray of Pearls.” It is in the Mosil style of the earliest
+period; the sides are ornamented with dotted
+eight-foils<span class="pagenum" id="Page_273">[273]</span>
+(exactly resembling the ornament on the silver coins of the family
+of Saladin) containing hunting scenes, a combat with a lion, a
+horseman with falcon on wrist (which is covered with the falconer’s
+glove), etc.; the intervening ground is decorated with fine
+arabesques, and an inscription on the bevel of the lid gives the
+name and titles of the sultan. On the top are personifications of
+the six planets (of Arabian science) surrounding the sun (the
+seventh):—the Moon, a seated figure holding a crescent; Mercury,
+with his writing materials; Venus, a woman playing on the lyre;
+Mars, a warrior brandishing a sword and holding a bleeding head;
+Jupiter, a throned judge; and Saturn, patron of thieves, with his
+bludgeon and purse. Outside these is a band of the twelve signs of
+the Zodiac, represented much in the usual manner. On the bottom of
+the box is an inscription stating that it was made “for the royal
+wardrobe of el-‘Adil.”</p>
+
+<p>The hunting-scenes and representations of human figures and
+animals are characteristic of Mesopotamian silver work, and we see
+medallions of two-headed eagles on a splendid inlaid perfume-burner
+in the British Museum, “made,” as the silver letters inform us, “by
+order of his excellency, the generous, the exalted lord, the great
+emír, the honourable master, marshal, warrior for the faith, warden
+of Islám, mighty, heaven-supported, victorious, Full Moon of the
+Faith Beysary, mamlúk of ez-Záhir (Beybars),” etc. The date must be
+before 1279, and the vessel carries us back to the days of Kalaún
+and the beginning of mamlúk splendour. Beysary was one of the
+greatest and most sumptuous of the early mamlúk emírs, and his
+perfume burner was typical of the luxurious refinements of his
+palace. He valued his comfort more than ambition, and twice refused
+the precarious honour of the throne during the unsettled period
+succeeding<span class="pagenum" id="Page_274">[274]</span> Kalaún’s
+death, when the sultanate was open to the strongest emír. Even so
+he could not escape the consequences of being wealthy and
+distinguished, and in spite of his retiring character he was
+suspected of pretensions to power, fleeced of his treasures, and
+often confined to the dungeons of the Citadel. His palace, which
+stood in Beyn-el-Kasreyn, covered four acres, and possessed the
+richest mosaics and the handsomest carved doors in Cairo.
+Bedr-ed-din Beysary was indeed the most sumptuous man of his time.
+He loved to surround himself with beautiful things, and his slave
+body-guard was the best appointed of the day. No fortune could
+support his lavish extravagance. He not only spent upon himself,
+but gave prodigally to all who asked him. Hospitality was his
+foible, and his gifts to the poor ran in round sums of five hundred
+or a thousand dirhems (say francs) to each applicant. He would
+daily distribute three thousand pounds of meat, and a single
+present consisted of a thousand pieces of gold, five thousand
+bushels of corn, and a thousand hundredweight of honey. One of his
+mamlúks used every day to draw ninety pounds of meat and seventy
+rations of barley, which it is to be presumed neither he nor his
+horses could possibly digest. Naturally Beysary was perpetually in
+debt. The constant amount of his liabilities is placed at 400,000
+dirhems, for as soon as one debt was paid off, the generous soul
+hastened to contract another of the same figure. A considerable
+part of his expenditure must have gone in table equipage, for it is
+recorded that he never drank twice out of the same cup; and as
+Makrízy mentions that at one time this thirteenth century epicure
+was wholly given over to wine and hazard, the number of cups
+required must have been considerable. But a great and cultivated
+emír needed more than cups for his comfort: he must<span class=
+"pagenum" id="Page_277">[277]</span> have inlaid tables on which to
+put the broad brass tray incrusted with chased silver and gold,
+which carried his service of the forbidden fruit of the grape; he
+must have his beautiful hall lighted by candles placed in elaborate
+stands, covered with silver inlay; his very tubs and cooking-pots
+must be chased with arabesques and complicated designs, and his
+palace must be perfumed with incense rising from perfume-burners on
+which the artist had engraved representations of horsemen at the
+chase, hounds and quarry, falcons and waterfowl, and all the
+decorative subjects of the Saracen silversmith.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenterplate iw5">
+<figure id="i29"><a href="images/i29_large.jpg"><img src=
+'images/i29.jpg' alt=''></a>
+<p class="cp2">IN THE DARB-EL-AHMAR</p>
+</figure>
+</div>
+
+<p>The earliest and finest examples of metal work connected with
+the names of Cairo kings and nobles are of Mosil origin, though
+very probably made in Cairo in the “Market of the Inlayers” by
+artists who had been attracted to the court. There was undoubtedly
+an early Fátimid art of a similar character, but beyond a very few
+rare examples, such as the Bayeux casket at Paris and some
+specimens of cut crystal at Venice, we know almost nothing of its
+style. Under the mamlúk sultans, however, Cairo soon acquired a
+school of her own, which seems to have possessed traditions coming
+from a different source than that of Mosil. The Cairo style is what
+we see on the numerous trays, bowls, cups, censers, and other
+vessels of the mamlúks of Egypt of the fourteenth and fifteenth
+centuries, preserved in our museums and private collections. Some
+points of resemblance to the Mosil work may be noticed, but the new
+elements are very distinct. The figures of horsemen and seated
+princes have for the most part disappeared, as it was natural they
+should when the Turkish princes became habituated to the
+puritanical prescriptions of Islám concerning the treatment of
+living things in art; but borders representing beasts of the chase,
+and a ground covered with<span class="pagenum" id=
+"Page_278">[278]</span> wild duck and other fowl, still remain. The
+prevalence of the duck, which was easily explicable in the swamps
+of Mesopotamia, finds another <em>raison d’être</em> in Egypt, for
+the founder of the line of sultans who ruled in Cairo for nearly a
+century was a Turk of Kipchak, whose name, Kalaún, means in his
+native Mongol tongue “duck.” We may compare Abbot Islip’s plastic
+puns on his own name in his chapel in Westminster Abbey. The
+ornament of the mamlúk metalwork is essentially different in style
+from that of Mosil. The inscriptions are arranged in broad bands,
+with large surfaces of silver inlay, divided by medallions filled
+with the sultan’s name on a fess, or else by some heraldic coat of
+arms borne by the owner, among which the cup and polo-stick
+(indicating the court offices of cup-bearer and polo-master), the
+lozenge, and a curious imitation of a hieroglyphic inscription
+common on the ancient monuments of Egypt, but doubtless
+unintelligible to the copyists, are the most usual. Round the
+medallions are belts of flowers and leaves, reminding one of the
+designs of Damascus tiles; and similar leaves and flowers,
+interspersed with birds, cover the ground. The execution is no less
+admirable than the design. There was no scamped work among these
+Saracen smiths. They cut away the whole design in the brass, and
+undercut the edges to hold the thin plates of silver or gold, to be
+hammered and burnished in, which formed the design; and they chased
+with the graver every plate of silver, were it only a pin’s head in
+size, with wings or eyes or floral scrolls—a work of infinite
+labour; and then they covered the interstices, where the brass
+showed, with a black bituminous composition which set off the
+precious metal to advantage. Much of the silver and coating has
+been lost by wear and time, and it is difficult to realize the
+beauty of the original state of<span class="pagenum" id=
+"Page_279">[279]</span> most of the vessels and trays that have
+come down to us; but a careful examination only reveals more fully
+the exquisite skill, care, and fine honest workmanship that no time
+or injury can destroy.</p>
+
+<p>This art of silver inlay, like architecture and wood and ivory
+carving and every other variety of æsthetic expression, culminated
+in the wonderful efflorescence of art and culture in the reign of
+en-Násir, Kalaún’s son, in the first half of the fourteenth
+century. Whenever in any museum we see a fine specimen of
+metalwork, we may be almost sure to find the name of a Násiry
+emír—that is a courtier or mamlúk of en-Násir—in its inscription,
+and sometimes even the name of the sultan himself.</p>
+
+<p>The Topographer tells us that in his day, in the early part of
+the fifteenth century, this beautiful art had fallen into
+disrepute. It used, he says, to be a favourite taste, and “we have
+seen inlaid work (<em>keft</em>) in such quantities that it could
+not be counted; there was hardly a house in Cairo or Misr that had
+not many pieces of inlaid copper,”—he means brass. A stand of
+inlaid bowls and plates ranged on a frame of carved wood and ivory
+was a usual part of a bride’s trousseau, and cost as much as two
+hundred dinárs. But, he adds, “the art is now lacking in Misr; . .
+. the demand for this inlaid copper-work has fallen off in our
+times, and since many years the people have turned away from buying
+what was to be sold of it, so that but a small remnant of the
+workers of inlay subsists in this market.”<a id=
+"FNanchor_80"></a><a href="#Footnote_80" class=
+"fnanchor">[80]</a></p>
+
+<p>The art was not dead, however; it had merely passed on
+elsewhere. The heritage which Cairo received from Mosil was
+bequeathed to Venice. We have seen that the Venetians were the
+European agents of the Egyptian merchants, and it is not too
+much<span class="pagenum" id="Page_280">[280]</span> to say that
+Venice was half an oriental city. Italy was full of Eastern
+influences. We know that a twelfth century poet lamented that Pisa
+was “delivered over to Moors, Indians and Turks”; that there was a
+via Sarracena at Ferrara, and Lucera was deeply tinged with Muslim
+traditions, dating from Frederick II’s importation of Saracen
+archers. But Venice felt this influence most of all. Her commerce
+and colonies brought her merchants into relations with the artistic
+work of the East; her ambassadors brought home the splendid gifts
+of the mamlúk sultans; and she soon began to import the artists as
+well as the art. The <em>opus Salomonis</em> or Jews’ work was the
+name given to this Saracenic style, often referred to in early
+romances. Chaucer had heard of it, for he writes in Sir
+Thopas:—</p>
+
+<div class="linegrp-container">
+<div class="linegrp">
+<div class="group">
+<div class="line indent0">“And over that a fyn hawberk</div>
+
+<div class="line indent0">&nbsp;Was all i-wrought of jewes
+work.”</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="nind">Especially did Venice excel in the chasing of great
+salvers in the Saracenic manner, though with considerable
+differences both in design and in technique. The silver is applied
+chiefly in narrow threads instead of broad plates, and the designs
+are chiefly arabesque, whilst the forms of the vessels show marked
+improvement upon the somewhat crude outlines of the Cairo
+silversmith. Native Italian artists began to copy the art
+introduced by Mahmúd the Kurd and his Saracen comrades. They called
+themselves Azzimine, <em>i.e.</em> workers in the Persian style
+<em>all’ Agemina</em>—for it has long been the fashion to miscall
+every form of Saracenic art Persian—and we read of Italian artists,
+such as Giorgio Ghisi Azzimina of Mantua, and Paulus Ageminius, who
+excelled in the art which had been imported from Egypt.</p>
+
+<p>We have singled out the silver-inlay from among<span class=
+"pagenum" id="Page_281">[281]</span> the arts of mediæval Cairo
+because it is a branch in which the development can be traced with
+certainty by a series of dated examples. But the chief decorative
+arts of the mosque builders were wood-carving and marble mosaic.
+The beautiful panelled work of mosque pulpits and doors, originally
+suggested, no doubt, by the necessity of small surfaces in a hot
+climate where warping had to be prevented, are among the most
+characteristic forms of Cairo ornament; and the use of variegated
+marbles in the mihrábs of the mosques produces a rich (if sometimes
+rather glaring) effect, which was imitated in the dados of the
+houses of the nobles, now unhappily for the most part destroyed.
+The extensive use of wood in Cairo architecture is the more
+remarkable when it is considered how little suitable wood grows in
+Egypt. On the other hand the dry climate, though it warps,
+preserves timber for centuries. The original wooden ties of the
+pillars of Ibn-Tulún’s mosque have stood for more than a thousand
+years and are still sound, and a portion even of the ceiling of the
+arcades has been preserved. This wooden ceiling shows that in the
+ninth century the same method was used as is seen in all periods of
+Saracenic art previous to the introduction of European styles. It
+consists of joists of palm trunks sawn in two, with the three
+exposed sides faced with planks to square the outline. The hollows
+between the squared joists were divided by cross pieces into
+shallow compartments or “coffers.” In private houses the joists
+were often left uncovered in their natural half-round shape.
+Whether planked or left in the round, the joists and the coffers
+between were coated with plaster, generally laid on canvas, and the
+plaster was painted with arabesques in deep blue, carmine, and
+gold. These coffered ceilings, which may still be seen in many
+houses, have a wonderfully rich effect with their deep tones of red
+and blue,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_282">[282]</span> lighted
+up by gold outlines; and the transition from the ceiling to the
+walls is skilfully masked by arching and stalactite pendentives,
+richly painted with similar designs. Inferior to the coffered
+ceilings, but still very effective, are those composed of boards
+nailed flat across the joists and covered with a thin coating of
+stucco, worked into arabesque and floral patterns, and then painted
+and gilt; or with a geometrical design formed by appliqué strips of
+wood, gilt shaded with red, the interstices being filled with
+arabesques in painted stucco.</p>
+
+<p>Wood-carving had ample opportunities for display in the pulpits,
+Korán desks, interior doors and cupboards of mosques. Some of the
+oldest examples, from the mosques of Ibn-Tulún and el-Hákim, may be
+seen in the Arab Museum at Cairo, and the deep volutes carved in
+the panels are clearly of Byzantine origin, resembling the still
+earlier but undated panels found in the tract of ‘Ayn-es-Síra,
+south of Cairo. In the thirteenth century the style alters. Instead
+of the bold foliate designs we find more intricate and delicate
+ornament distributed in much smaller geometrical panels. A
+peculiarly beautiful example is the Sheykh’s tomb-casing of 1216,
+of which one side is in the Museum at South Kensington, and the
+other three in the Arab Museum. Another is the carved casing of the
+tomb of es-Sálih Ayyúb (1249):—“the little panels are formed into
+hexagonal stars and delicately carved, and here appears the
+representation of fruit-stalks, which is a common feature in
+thirteenth century wood-carving. The mihráb or prayer niche from
+the chapel of Seyyida Rukeyya, which belongs probably to the same
+century, deserves special notice for its characteristic
+ornamentation of stems branching out of a vase.”<a id=
+"FNanchor_81"></a><a href="#Footnote_81" class="fnanchor">[81]</a>
+But it was under the Mamlúk Sultans, and especially in the
+great<span class="pagenum" id="Page_283">[283]</span> period of
+en-Násir that wood-carving attained its most exquisite development.
+Woods of different colours were employed to produce the effect of
+relief, and inlay was largely adopted in place of carving in the
+solid block. Sometimes each little carved panel was set in a frame
+of ebony beading, which was itself carved, and often consisted of
+two or three distinct frames, one outside the other; whilst the
+central design was hardly ever the same in two panels out of many
+hundreds. The amount of careful work demanded in carving and
+putting together a large surface of this intricate panelling must
+have been immense. Many beautiful examples may be seen in the
+mosques, and even finer are the carved doors in wood and ivory
+panelling in the Coptic churches of Babylon, from which there can
+be little doubt that the Muslims learnt the art; but to see Mamlúk
+carving at its best one need not leave London. A large number of
+the very finest specimens were taken away from their lawful
+guardians during the reign of the Khedive Isma‘íl, and even
+earlier, and have found their way to the Museum at South
+Kensington. There we may study at leisure some of the rich yet not
+over-elaborate arabesque carvings abstracted from the pulpit set up
+in the mosque of Ibn-Tulún by Lagín in 1296; others of
+extraordinary beauty from the mosque of el-Maridány, 1339, absurdly
+set in the top of a French table; others, probably from the pulpit
+of the mosque of Kusún, also set in coarse modern framework, but
+preserving all the delicate grace of the arabesque carvings
+absolutely intact; and finally the complete pulpit bearing the
+inscription of Káit-Bey, but from what mosque is not known. The
+whole forms a singularly rich and beautiful exhibition of Saracenic
+wood-carving of the best period.<a id="FNanchor_82"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_82" class="fnanchor">[82]</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_284">[284]</span>There are
+differences and even decadence in the series, however, and a
+careful study of the designs will show that the art reached its
+highest point in the carvings of el-Maridány, <em>i.e.</em>
+immediately after the reign of en-Násir. Sheykhú’s pulpit of 1358
+is not so good; Sultan Hasan’s is of stone; el-Muáyyad’s of 1420 is
+distinctly inferior; and even Káit-Bey’s, prince though he was of
+Cairo builders, is not to be compared with the work of the middle
+of the fourteenth century. The designs have become less
+spontaneous, the lines are harder and more mechanical, and (as in
+stone carving) there is a tendency to repetition utterly foreign to
+the earlier work. Part of this may be explained by the introduction
+of ivory as the material for the inlaid panels, for ivory, though
+capable of even more delicate carving, is less easy to work in
+flowing lines. But the main cause was probably the preponderating
+attention given to carving in stone. No sooner does stone become
+the predominant material for decoration than wood-carving, like
+stucco-tooling, falls into comparative neglect. The middle of the
+fourteenth century was the parting of the ways. Stone became the
+favourite material, and the carvers of wood, if they did not lay
+aside the graver for the stone-chisel, at least moulded their style
+upon the harder outlines of the sculptors, and the result was
+deterioration.</p>
+
+<p>If wood-carving decayed after the middle of the fourteenth
+century, another branch of woodwork was notably developed. One
+charming feature of the exterior of a Cairo house is the
+<em>meshrebíya</em> of delicate turned tracery. There is no reason
+to doubt that this kind of work is very old, but whether by reason
+of its fragility or the frequent conflagrations that afflicted the
+city, no ancient examples have been preserved. The few wooden
+lattices that still remain in the older mosques are of quite a
+different style: they are made<span class="pagenum" id=
+"Page_285">[285]</span> of stout clumsy quarterings, divided into
+compartments filled by square or round upright balusters, such as
+are seen in the tomb of Kalaún. Others are mere grilles of large
+open squares, with no pretension to artistic design. A finer kind
+is seen in Lagín’s pulpit in the mosque of Ibn-Tulún (1296), where
+the mesh is close and the knobs are inlaid and carved. It is
+curious that the true meshrebíya, with its varied designs and
+lace-like effect, first appears in the screen of the sanctuary in
+the mosque of el-Maridány, which also shows the highest development
+of wood-carving. As the one art decayed, the other improved. There
+are fine examples of meshrebíya work of the early part of the
+fifteenth century, as in the pulpit of el-Muáyyad, but it attained
+its greatest perfection in the age of Káit-Bey, of which a fine
+specimen is preserved in the pulpit of Abu-Bekr ibn Muzhir. Most of
+the house meshrebíyas are comparatively modern, though it is
+impossible to fix their precise date. Their inevitable
+disappearance is an æsthetic loss that nothing can replace; but it
+must be admitted that they formed the most dangerous conductors of
+fire from house to house and street to street that the ingenuity of
+man could well devise.</p>
+
+<p>There is this to be said about every branch of artistic work of
+mediæval Cairo, whether it be architecture, carving in wood or
+stone, metal chasing, or glass—it is always distinctively original.
+The Saracens brought no art with them; indeed they appear to have
+been singularly lacking in the æsthetic sense. They learned their
+arts from their foreign subjects, yet they invariably introduced an
+element of differentiation which marks their work as
+characteristically Saracenic. They learned their metal chasing from
+Persia, but they soon made it their own; they copied Byzantine and
+Coptic wood-carving, and added the essential personal
+equation<span class="pagenum" id="Page_286">[286]</span> which
+constitutes a distinct art; they found glass making and blowing in
+Egypt, acquired the secrets of enamelling and gilding from
+Constantinople, and then produced a style of enamelled lamps
+totally unlike any other in the world. It is not only a variation
+in design or shape that makes the difference: the whole character
+of the work, in every branch of Saracenic art, is distinct and
+absolutely <em>sui generis</em>. They were not only wonderful
+assimilators, they also had the genius of development on original
+lines. Perhaps the strangest part of the matter is that the highest
+development was achieved in the troubled times of singularly
+uncultivated and sanguinary foreign masters. Yet the age of the
+Mamlúk Sultans was the Saturnian age of Mohammedan Egypt in art and
+also in literature. For it must not be forgotten that some of the
+greatest names in Muslim theology, jurisprudence, criticism, and
+history were associated as kádis or professors with the mosques and
+medresas of Cairo, and that the mamlúk period produced or
+encouraged such writers as Ibn-Khaldún, Nuweyry, Ibn-Dukmák,
+Makrízy, Ibn-Hagar, el-‘Ayny, Ibn-‘Arab-shah, Abu-l-Mahásin,
+es-Suyúty, and Ibn-Iyás, who either were born in Egypt, or, like
+Abu-l-Fida, spent many years in Cairo. The fifteenth century was
+perhaps the most prolific period in Egyptian literature, and this
+activity was more than rivalled in the neighbouring province of
+Syria under the same sultans.</p>
+
+<hr class="chap">
+
+<h2><span class="pagenum" id="Page_287">[287]</span><a id=
+"c09"></a>CHAPTER IX</h2>
+
+<p class="sch1"><em>Beys and Pashas</em>
+</p>
+
+<p class="dcap">NO one has had the heart to write the history of
+Egypt during the three centuries of its subjection to the Sultans
+of Turkey, from its conquest by Selím the Grim in 1516 to Mohammad
+‘Aly’s foundation of a virtually independent dynasty in 1805. The
+annals of this period are monotonous, and the great figures of the
+earlier mamlúk period are wanting. The whole action seems to be
+played upon a smaller stage by inferior performers. The incentives
+to public spirit supplied by foreign wars were withdrawn from a
+merely provincial government, and the profuse expenditure and
+sumptuous luxury of a sovereign court no longer stimulated art and
+handicrafts or quickened the emulation of the emírs. The cramping
+influence of dependence and the grasping fiscal policy of the
+Ottoman empire destroyed much of the old magnificence of the
+mamlúks. Yet there was no such vivid contrast between Cairo under
+the pashas and the city that Makrízy describes as has sometimes
+been imagined. Everything in the East changes by almost
+imperceptible degrees, and the mills of God in Egypt grind with the
+tedious slowness of the creaking sákiyas of the country.
+Deterioration there was, but it came very gradually. The emírs were
+still the dominant power, and the chief difference was that instead
+of a sultan elected by themselves they had over them a pasha
+appointed<span class="pagenum" id="Page_288">[288]</span> by the
+Sublime Porte. The pasha’s authority was checked by a council of
+mamlúk emírs—or beys, as they came to be called—and he was
+frequently deposed by them or by the intrigues of the mutinous
+soldiery. Though a pasha might arrive with a suite of twelve
+hundred persons, and scatter handkerchiefs full of gold coins on
+festal occasions, he could seldom make head against the military
+oligarchy. The chief mamlúk, or sheykh-el-beled (mayor of the city)
+as he was entitled, was a far more powerful personage than the
+pasha. The emírs were much what they had been under the Circassian
+dynasty: they were not the same men, because Selím had massacred as
+many as he could catch, but they were similar—Turks, Georgians,
+Circassians, risen from slavery to office and rank,—and they
+maintained great state in their palaces beside the Ezbekíya lake or
+on the Birket-el-Fil, in the Crossway, or the Street of Arms; were
+followed by large bands of retainers, and carried on their
+jealousies, civil wars, and street fights with as much fervour as
+before. A new element of discord was introduced by the Turkish
+battalions of ‘Azabs and Janizaries in the Citadel barracks, and
+the commanders of these troops became the most powerful emírs in
+Egypt. But these too were of precisely the same character as the
+earlier mamlúks, and save for the absence of a controlling
+influence such as a strong sultan sometimes exerted, but a
+delegated pasha almost never, there was little to choose between
+the state of Cairo under the new régime and its anarchic condition
+under the impotent direction of most of the later Circassian
+kings.</p>
+
+<p>Egypt in fact was still ruled by mamlúks. Its pashas were
+perpetually changed, and lived in terror of their own garrison; the
+emírs held the real power, and used it in the old way for their own
+benefit and for the ruin by exile or execution of their rivals.
+They<span class="pagenum" id="Page_289">[289]</span> formed
+themselves into powerful cliques, such as the Kásimis and the
+Fikáris, and their retainers fought each other in the streets, and
+besieged the government ‘Azab troops for months together. They had
+already discovered that the Citadel could be commanded by artillery
+on the hill behind. We read in Gabárty’s chronicle of bands of
+troops fortifying themselves in the mosques of Ibn-Tulún, Almás,
+Mahmudíya, and so forth, and discharging cannon balls from the
+adjacent minarets. The anarchy at times was indescribable; streets
+were deserted, houses plundered, and no man dared to go as far as
+Bulák or Old Misr; then followed an interval of tranquillity
+assured by the temporary supremacy of some great lord. It is
+difficult to discover any very notable distinction between these
+later emírs and those of the golden age of mamlúk civilization.
+Their opportunities were less, because they could no longer carry
+on wars in Syria or Asia Minor in their own behoof, for the
+contingents that were constantly drafted in Egypt for foreign
+service were merely employed as an insignificant part of the
+Ottoman armies. But their characters, occupations, and tastes
+appear to have been much what they had been for the preceding two
+centuries. There was a difference in degree but not in kind: they
+were not as a rule such big men with large opportunities as their
+forerunners, but in race, in character, in action, they were the
+same.</p>
+
+<p>Indeed some of them were remarkable personages fit to compare
+with those of the old school. ‘Othmán Bey Dhu-l-fikár, for example,
+in the first half of the eighteenth century,—after playing a bold
+part in the faction fight that centred round his patron Dhu-l-fikár
+Bey and Cherkes Bey, and seeing eleven emírs of rank done to death
+in the palace of the Defterdár, himself narrowly escaping with a
+sabre-cut in his turban,—became<span class="pagenum" id=
+"Page_290">[290]</span> the most eminent noble in Cairo, with power
+to raise his own mamlúks to the rank of emír. He was chief of the
+pilgrimage (emír-el-hagg), one of the most coveted posts in Egypt,
+in 1739; and when ‘Aly el-Gelfy the deputy<a id=
+"FNanchor_83"></a><a href="#Footnote_83" class="fnanchor">[83]</a>
+was assassinated, ‘Othmán Bey deposed the pasha and appointed
+Rudwán to be deputy over the ‘Azab battalions. ‘Othmán was the
+first emír who ventured to invite the pasha of Egypt to a feast in
+his palace, and the other nobles were completely subject to him. He
+held a court in his own house to decide causes of complaint, and,
+incorruptible himself, he severely punished any cases of extortion
+or oppression that came before him, watched the market-inspector
+closely, prescribed a fixed tariff for bread and other necessaries
+of life, and insisted on the due payment of pious benefactions to
+their proper uses. Lofty in character, of noble ideas and thoughts,
+just, able, disinterested, of honest life, and proud as Lucifer, he
+left such an impression behind him, when the intrigues of his
+rivals banished him from Egypt, that he created an era: one heard
+people say, “such a thing happened so many years after the
+departure of ‘Othmán Bey,” or “I was such and such an age when
+‘Othmán Bey left.”</p>
+
+<p>Rudwán el-Gelfy, just referred to, was another notable figure of
+the eighteenth century. Whilst he and another deputy, Ibrahím, held
+office, the country enjoyed absolute peace, food was cheaper than
+was ever known before, and plenty reigned in all classes. In those
+days every great man kept open house twice a day, noon and evening,
+in a spacious hall to which all might enter. The lord and his
+guests sat at the head<span class="pagenum" id=
+"Page_291">[291]</span> of the table, and his mamlúks and followers
+lower down, as it were “below the salt,” and it was held
+disgraceful to refuse admission to any stranger who presented
+himself. On feast days great dishes of rice and honey or milk were
+distributed to the poor, and sweetmeats were served on Fridays and
+festivals. One of Rudwán’s houses was on the Ezbekíya, on the
+border of the lake (as it then was, at least at high Nile). Its
+halls were surmounted by cunningly designed domes, in which gold
+arabesques on a blue ground harmonized with stained glass of many
+colours in charming combination. He built kiosks in a garden beside
+the canal, where he had laid out a lake and cascade, and there,
+when his ambition was satisfied, he took his pleasure, which
+savoured, it must be confessed, of debauch. Indeed Rudwán was no
+stern moralist, like ‘Othmán Bey, but allowed a considerable
+licence to the fair ladies of Cairo. The police had his orders not
+to disturb them or baulk their admirers,<a id=
+"FNanchor_84"></a><a href="#Footnote_84" class="fnanchor">[84]</a>
+and “Cairo then resembled a land of gazelles, a paradise of houris
+and darlings; its inhabitants drank their fill in the cup of
+delight, as though there were no reckoning to be paid on the day of
+judgment.” No wonder that poets sang his praises in such verses as
+“the Impurpled Wine” and “the Perfume of Paradise.” Rudwán’s palace
+is no more to be seen in the Ezbekíya, but his gate, the
+Bab-el-‘Azab, leading into the Citadel from the Rumeyla, preserves
+his memory. His end was tragic. Conspirators surrounded his house
+in the street of Kusún, and bullets began to pour in whilst he was
+engaged in the meditative process of having his head shaved. He
+fought while he had strength, and then, with a broken leg,
+struggled on horseback and fled to die in upper Egypt. He was the
+last great commander of the ‘Azabs.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_292">[292]</span>It was not only
+the emírs who owned such splendid houses as Rudwán. Another house
+on the Ezbekíya belonged to a famous merchant, Ahmad esh-Sharáiby
+(the apothecary), whose family had produced emírs and owned
+mamlúks. They possessed immense wealth, and they used it as
+high-minded, honest gentlefolk. Learned men frequented their house,
+which was full of rare manuscripts as well as ordinary works of
+reference. Whatever book was in the market, if it was not in their
+library they bought it regardless of the price; and once there it
+was immediately placed at the disposal of every visitor. A scholar
+was sure to find any book he required in the Sharáiby library, and
+he was at liberty to carry it off on loan, or even to keep it
+altogether; for the princely merchants would never think of asking
+its return, but would merely seek out and buy another copy. From
+the scholar’s point of view it seems impossible to improve upon
+this system. The members of this family were more than enlightened
+book collectors and book lenders: they were strict observers of the
+austere rule of the Málikis, tenacious of sound morals, and
+exclusive in their connexions. They married only among their own
+large family circle, and their daughters never left the house
+except when they were married or borne to their grave. It was well
+to be cautious in days when the luxurious Rudwán was encouraging
+amatory adventures, and when a party of high-born dames, riding out
+to “smell the air,” as Cairo ladies do now, at the proper season,
+were set upon near the Ezbekíya and stripped of their jewels and
+every garment they had on. But the Sharáiby folk, though strict,
+could unbend. When marriage feasts were afoot, for example, they
+gave splendid entertainments, but so careful were they of their
+daughters that they waited till all the guests were<span class=
+"pagenum" id="Page_295">[295]</span> safely engaged in prayer at
+the mosque of Ezbek<a id="FNanchor_85"></a><a href="#Footnote_85"
+class="fnanchor">[85]</a> opposite the house, and then hurried the
+bride off to her husband’s abode under guard of a discreet body of
+matrons: after which there was plenty of gunfiring and torch
+waving, and all was merry.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenterplate iw5">
+<figure id="i30"><a href="images/i30_large.jpg"><img src=
+'images/i30.jpg' alt=''></a>
+<p class="cp2">STREET NEAR BAB-EL-KHARK</p>
+</figure>
+</div>
+
+<p>The family had the custom of appointing one of their number
+trustee of all their property and business. It was his duty to
+collect the rents, gather the harvest and crops, receive the
+profits of their ventures, and pay all expenses, including the
+family’s dress and pocket-money. At the end of the year he drew up
+his balance sheet and paid each member his share. This excellent
+plan was not likely to last for ever, and one is not surprised to
+learn that at last the younger members quarrelled over the
+accounts, and the joint-stock company broke up in disorder. This
+was no doubt an exceptional family; but there were many of the
+kind, and there are some yet in Cairo, sterling honest folk, who
+walk in the old paths and guard a severe self-respect.</p>
+
+<p>The zeal for books displayed by this family casts an interesting
+light upon the education and learning of the times. During the
+earlier mamlúk days many important libraries had been formed in
+Cairo, partly from the spoils of Syrian mosques, and if we are to
+take as evidence the long biographies of numerous sheykhs,
+professors, divines, historians, and poets, related with
+enthusiastic admiration by el-Gabarty, there was a vast deal of
+intellectual energy expended in Egypt in the seventeenth and
+eighteenth centuries, though perhaps it was hardly in the first
+rank of original genius. He reports a curious conversation,
+however, in 1750, between Ahmad pasha, a governor of mathematical
+tastes, and the sheykh ‘Abdallah esh-Shubrawy, of<span class=
+"pagenum" id="Page_296">[296]</span> the Azhar. The pasha remarked
+that he had continually heard of the wonderful merits of Egypt as
+the home of learning, but he would like to see the results. “True,
+O my master,” replied the sheykh, “Egypt is as you have heard, the
+mine of sciences and knowledge.” “But where are they?” asked the
+pasha. “As far as I can see, you know nothing but law and
+metaphysic and other less important studies, and disdain practical
+science altogether.” The sheykh had to admit that at the Azhar they
+did not teach mathematics, beyond arithmetic, which was useful for
+the law of inheritance. “How about astronomy?” suggested the pasha.
+“It is needed for the hours of prayer, times of fast, and many
+other things.” The sheykh admitted that few studied astronomy,
+which demanded special aptitudes, and instruments, and
+physiological conditions, and a “sweet and tranquil disposition,”
+for its proper pursuit; but he said he could find the man whom the
+pasha wanted, though not in the Azhar. When the man appeared, it
+seems his arithmetical problems delighted the governor, who gave
+him a fur cloak, which the sage afterwards sold for 800 dinars. He
+drew beautiful sun-dials, on marble, to show the hours of prayer,
+with appropriate mottoes, and two of these were set up in the Azhar
+and on the roof of the mosque of the Imám esh-Sháfi‘y.<a id=
+"FNanchor_86"></a><a href="#Footnote_86" class="fnanchor">[86]</a>
+One gathers from this anecdote, as well as from the lists of works
+described by the historian, that study in Cairo at that time was
+rather zealous than profound, and that learning was decidedly in
+its decadence.</p>
+
+<p>Religion, on the other hand, was more powerful<span class=
+"pagenum" id="Page_297">[297]</span> than ever. The annals of the
+pashalik are full of references to the influence of the Azhar
+professors and of the seyyids, and we hear of something very near a
+revolution when a Turkish preacher got up in the mosque of
+el-Muáyyad and fulminated against the invocation of saints, a
+popular accretion which is certainly no part of the creed of
+Mohammad. The preacher urged the crowd to demolish the cupolas over
+the saints’ tombs, and the orthodox professors of divinity had much
+trouble to silence him and appease the crowd. There was often a
+very severe regulation of public behaviour in deference to
+religious notions, and we find, for example, a stern prohibition of
+smoking in the streets. Police marched up and down three times a
+day, and if any smoker was caught he had to eat his pipe-bowl. An
+old custom, mentioned by Násir-i-Khusrau (above, <a href=
+"#Page_109">p. 109</a>), was still in force: a man who had
+falsified documents was paraded on camelback through the streets,
+whilst a crier proclaimed, “Behold the punishment of forgers!” The
+Cairenes were clearly very superstitious, and when in 1735 a
+circumstantial rumour went round that the Resurrection would
+certainly take place on the next Friday, in two days’ time, they
+bade each other last farewells, and wandered about the fields and
+roads saying good-bye to the land they loved, whilst the people of
+Giza, moved by a superstition which ran in their minds from ages
+long before Islám was discovered, bathed hysterically in the Nile,
+both men and women. There was nothing but panic and repentance and
+prayer till Saturday—when behold! nothing had happened.</p>
+
+<p>An age that attached so much importance to religion was not
+likely to neglect its shrines. It is a mistake to ascribe the ruin
+of so many of the mosques of Cairo to the period of the Turkish
+pashas. On the contrary, the danger was that they might be
+“restored” out of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_298">[298]</span>
+all knowledge. Cairo is full of “Turkish” mosques, that is Turkish
+of the Othmanly style, which, if they cannot compare with the
+buildings of the earlier mamlúks, are nevertheless very creditable
+examples of their kind, and far superior to anything built, say, in
+England, during the past century. Indeed the mosques of Seyyida
+Safíya (1604) and of Mohammad Abu-dh-Dhahab (1774), are exceedingly
+noble buildings, and that little gem of Turkish mosaic work,
+el-Burdeyny, is beautiful in its own way. The architects of the
+Ottoman period abandoned the medresa style introduced by Saladin,
+which, as we have seen, had lost much of its original cruciform
+plan when the medresas were used as congregational mosques under
+the Circassian Mamlúks; but, whilst reverting to the older and
+simpler plan of the gámi‘, they modified it by substituting cupolas
+of Byzantine form for the level ceilings which formerly covered the
+sanctuary. In fact, the Ottoman mosque is practically a basilica. A
+special feature of the mosques and restorations of the Othmanly
+period is the introduction of faïence. The medresa of Aksunkur was
+restored by Ibrahím Aga in 1652, and the whole east wall covered
+with fine blue tiles, chiefly of the Damascus style, with a few
+so-called Rhodian, probably from Constantinople. It was not often
+that restoration proved so successful, and one has frequently to
+deplore the patching of Turkish additions upon the old
+masterpieces. Ahmad pasha restored the then dilapidated mosque of
+el-Muayyad in 1690; another pasha built the Arba‘ín mosque by the
+Karameydan Gate in 1704; Ahmad the deputy restored the Fátimid
+mosque of ez-Záfir, known as el-Fakahány, in 1735.</p>
+
+<p>But the prince of restorers was ‘Abd-er-Rahmán Kiahya
+(Ketkhuda), who enjoyed great influence before the time when ‘Aly
+Bey—himself the restorer of the dome of the tomb-mosque of Imám
+Sháfi‘y and builder<span class="pagenum" id="Page_299">[299]</span>
+of the Bulák bazar—deposing the reigning pasha made himself king of
+Egypt from 1768 to 1772. ‘Abd-er-Rahmán’s father, ‘Othmán Ketkhuda,
+had architectural tastes. Out of his very ill-gotten gains he built
+his mosque, school, and fountain by the Ezbekíya lake, and on the
+day of opening filled the great central basin and all the ewers he
+could collect with sherbet for the congregation. He also built the
+school for the blind at the Azhar, and other benefactions. His son,
+however, far surpassed him. Every tourist knows his little
+<em>sebíl</em>—elegant like its founder, who was dainty in person
+and dress, and very fair—at the end of Beyn-el-Kasreyn, with its
+tiles, and open arched school above; but this was the least of his
+works. He built a mosque outside the Bab-el-Futúh, and another by
+the Bab-el-Ghureyyib, with a cistern, fountain, and school; a great
+reservoir, with fountain and school, near the Ezbekíya cemetery,
+for the sakkas or water-carriers; rebuilt the chapels of Seyyida
+Zeyneb and Seyyida Sekína, and erected others near the Karáfa Gate,
+in the Musky, in the Hoseyníya quarter, and in the ‘Abdín street,
+etc. Of his restorations the best known is that of the Azhar, which
+owes its present aspect largely to ‘Abd-er-Rahmán’s work. He put in
+fifty marble columns supporting groins of faced stone covered with
+costly woods; erected a new <em>mihráb</em> and pulpit, built the
+two archways, one with a school for orphans above it, the other
+with a minaret; set up a tomb in the court, added libraries,
+reading-rooms, kitchens, and other apartments for the benefit of
+students from Upper Egypt; enlarged the Taybarsíya and Akbughawíya
+medresas attached to the Azhar, and built the splendid portal
+between them, opposite the wekála of Káit-Bey; furnished
+<em>riwáks</em> (or partitions) for students from Mekka and from
+the Sudán; and settled rents in trust for the maintenance of
+these<span class="pagenum" id="Page_300">[300]</span> benefactions,
+besides giving every day in Ramadán to the Azhar kitchen a large
+quantity of rice, butter, oil, and meal for the evening refreshment
+of the students after the day’s fast. ‘Abd-er-Rahmán also restored
+the mosque of the Imám Sháfi‘y, and paved the corridor with
+variegated marbles; repaired the tomb of Seyyida Nefísa and the
+Maristán of Kalaún (then a madhouse), but after pulling down the
+dome he neglected to rebuild it, and merely boarded it over, and so
+it remains to this day. He took great pains to trace the bequests
+left by the founder and his successors to the hospital, and
+succeeded in recovering the title-deeds and restoring the revenues.
+By whatever means he acquired his wealth, and it was said the means
+were not above suspicion, there was no end to this man’s charitable
+acts. At winter time he distributed woollen clothes to crowds of
+the blind, who always abound at Cairo, and also to the muezzins to
+protect them from cold when chanting the nightly calls to prayer.
+The poor clamoured about his door in the evenings of Ramadán,
+waiting for the plates of food which were never refused, and after
+the meal they went away happy with two loaves and two paras ready
+for next day’s breakfast. Altogether, ‘Abd-er-Rahmán Kiahya built
+or rebuilt eighteen mosques, besides chapels, fountains, schools,
+bridges, and every sort of edifice. He had an architectural
+passion, and fortunately excellent taste in its gratification, and
+the people well named him “the great benefactor.” He died at Cairo
+in 1776 at a great age, after twelve years’ exile in Arabia; for
+all his charity could not protect him from the suspicions of ‘Aly
+Bey. All the ‘ulema, professors, students, and poor of his numerous
+benefactions, escorted his splendid funeral to the Azhar, where he
+lies in the tomb which he had built near the south gate.</p>
+
+<p>The last great mosque built during the period of the<span class=
+"pagenum" id="Page_301">[301]</span> pashalik was that of Mohammad
+Bey, known as Abu-dh-Dhahab, or “father of gold,” from his
+munificent way of scattering gold coins among the crowd. He was the
+favourite and trusted mamlúk of the great ‘Aly Bey, and he rewarded
+his patron by manœuvring his downfall and exile, and finally
+accomplishing his death. He was a brilliant soldier, fought
+successful campaigns in Arabia and Syria for his master, and
+achieved extraordinary popularity by his delightful manners and
+open hand. Egypt had peace whilst he held the reins of power, and
+the Sublime Porte, whilst appointing pashas as before, wisely left
+the real authority in the hands of the capable and popular emír. In
+1774 Mohammad Bey founded his handsome <em>medresa</em> opposite
+the Azhar, and there he lies in his tomb. It was built on the plan
+of an earlier mosque at Bulák (the Senaníya), and was “a marvel of
+architecture and richness: gilded ceilings, marble porticoes, and
+stupendous dome, with bronze dormers admirably worked,” etc. There
+were porticoes for the Hanafis, Málikis, and Sháfi‘is, and
+celebrated doctors came to profess the law there, and, contrary to
+the usual custom, received salaries, some as much as 150 paras a
+day (you could sometimes buy a pound of meat for 2 paras), and none
+less than 10 paras a day and an annual gift of 50 bushels of corn.
+On the day of opening the great man clothed the divines with cloaks
+of sables or white fur, according to their rank—a handsome form of
+university hood.</p>
+
+<p>Mohammad Bey’s is the last of the great mosques of Cairo, with
+the exception of Mohammad Aly’s sumptuous and very effective mosque
+in the Citadel, where it forms a conspicuous feature in the view
+from every side. This, however, is too obviously a foreign
+importation, a child of Stambúl, to harmonize with the true Cairo
+style, and, though it is perhaps a narrow<span class="pagenum" id=
+"Page_302">[302]</span> prejudice, we confess we can never quite
+reconcile ourselves to Ottoman architecture in the old mamlúk
+city.</p>
+
+<p>Enough has been said to show that it was not during the rule of
+pashas and beys that the mosques of Cairo suffered damage or
+demolition. They were well cared for. Their evil day came when
+Mohammad ‘Aly, a second but more successful ‘Aly Bey, made himself
+master of Egypt and inaugurated a new régime, compared with which
+the rule of the sternest of the mamlúks was mildness itself. It was
+Mohammad ‘Aly, who, in 1808-1810, laid hands on the Wakfs or
+religious endowments, which the piety of many centuries had placed
+in trust for the maintenance of the mosques and colleges of Egypt,
+and amidst the tears and curses of all the ‘ulema of Cairo,
+deprived them of the right to control the sacred monuments confided
+to their charge. From this act of confiscation, when title-deeds
+were lost or destroyed, and trust-funds confused and malversed,
+dates the most serious decay of the monuments of Cairo. The
+Europeanizing movement of the nineteenth century, inevitable, and
+in many ways most desirable as it was, brought with it a large
+destruction of mosques and other historic buildings which impeded
+carriage-traffic or stood in the way of the new streets and squares
+which the viceroys of Egypt planned with little or no regard to
+existing antiquities. The Shari‘ Mohammad ‘Aly was the most
+flagrant example of a street cutting its way remorselessly through
+historic monuments, but similar vandalism occurred in almost every
+part of the city, and the department which attends to the alignment
+of the streets has often exercised its powers in the narrowest
+spirit of county-councildom. That much worse has not happened is
+wholly due to the vigilance and firmness of the<span class=
+"pagenum" id="Page_303">[303]</span> “Commission for the
+Preservation of the Monuments of Arab Art,” an official body in
+which happily large powers are vested, and to which we owe the
+maintenance of a multitude of Saracenic monuments of every class
+and all periods, which, but for its timely interposition, would now
+have disappeared or have been on the high road to ruin. It is
+impossible to over-estimate the excellent and patient work of the
+Commission. The seventeen annual reports it has issued—solid
+volumes, with plans and illustrations—form a library of valuable
+information, and testify in every page to the care and sense of
+responsibility shown by the members. I may here be permitted to
+quote a report on the results and methods of the Commission which I
+made at Earl Cromer’s request in 1895, and which was published in
+his annual survey of the progress of Egypt presented to Parliament
+in 1896.</p>
+
+<p class="right pad-right2 space-above15"><em>The Athenæum, London,
+December</em> 12, 1895.</p>
+
+<p>“<span class="sc">My Lord</span>,—In accordance with your
+Lordship’s invitation, I have the honour to submit a few remarks on
+the work of the Commission for the Preservation of Arab Monuments,
+of which I made a detailed examination in the summer of this
+year.</p>
+
+<p>The Commission was instituted by Decree of His Highness the late
+Khedive on the 18th December, 1881. Its duties were:—</p>
+
+<p>1. To make an inventory of the Arab monuments of Egypt which
+possess historical or artistic interest.</p>
+
+<p>2. To watch over the preservation of these monuments, and report
+to the Minister of Wakfs such repairs as were considered necessary
+for their maintenance.</p>
+
+<p>3. To prepare plans for such repairs and scrupulously
+superintend their execution.</p>
+
+<p>4. To see that plans of all the work executed should<span class=
+"pagenum" id="Page_304">[304]</span> be preserved in the Ministry
+of Wakfs, and to indicate any fragments or detached objects which
+should be transferred to the Museum of Arab Art.</p>
+
+<p>Political disturbance prevented much being done before the close
+of 1882; but when I made a general inspection of the Arab monuments
+of Cairo in January to March 1883, the Commission was in working
+order. I was then able to see the beginning of its labours, and am
+therefore in a position to compare the state of the monuments at
+the time when the Commission first took them seriously in hand with
+their present condition after the Commission has been over twelve
+years at work.</p>
+
+<p>I can state with confidence that, comparing the general state of
+the mosques in 1883 and 1895, they are in a far safer and better
+preserved condition now than they were twelve years ago. Several
+monuments that then seemed inevitably doomed to destruction have
+been strengthened and supported, and, generally speaking, weak
+places have been detected and repaired, whilst a more vigilant
+supervision and protection against vandalism and robbery now
+prevail. These happy results are especially due to the energy and
+archæological or technical knowledge of the late Rogers Bey, of
+Franz Pasha, and of his Excellency Yakub Artin Pasha, whose name
+will always be honourably associated with the intellectual progress
+of Egypt. Some of their French colleagues have also rendered useful
+services from time to time, and the presence on the Commission of
+successive Under-Secretaries of Public Works, and notably at the
+present time of Mr [now Sir] W. E. Garstin, has proved a valuable
+source of strength. The most vital appointment under the Commission
+is, of course, that of the Architect, who surveys the monuments,
+recommends such repairs as are necessary or desirable, and
+personally superintends their execution.<span class="pagenum" id=
+"Page_305">[305]</span> Since the creation of the Special
+Department (Bureau Spécial) of the Commission, which was separated
+at the beginning of 1890 from the Bureau Technique of the Wakfs, Mr
+Max Herz [Hon. F. S. A.] has been the Architect in charge of the
+work of the Commission, and it is bare justice to say that to his
+industry and considerable technical and archæological attainments
+much of the present improved manner of supervising and preserving
+the monuments is undoubtedly due. Herz Bey joins to the technical
+training of an architect a familiarity with the history of Arab
+art, together with a genuine enthusiasm for his work. His
+“Catalogue of the Arab Museum,” published this year in French, but
+shortly to be reissued in an English translation [published, 1896],
+furnishes proofs of an extensive study of the periods of
+development of Arab or Saracenic art, and of the literature, Arabic
+and European, relating to this subject; and the complete
+restorations he has made of a few of the smaller mosques are
+evidence of his insight into Arab construction and decoration, of
+his technical skill, and of his scrupulous fidelity to the original
+design. On this vexed subject of restoration, however, I shall have
+something to say later; but whatever may be thought of the
+principle, it is impossible to doubt that in the appointment of
+Herz Bey the Commission has been exceptionally fortunate.</p>
+
+<p><em>Preservation.</em> It must never be forgotten that the prime
+duty of the Commission is the preservation, not the restoration, of
+the monuments. A fairly complete list of the monuments which, on
+historical or artistic grounds, ought to be preserved has been
+drawn up by Sub-Committee 1, and the first obligation laid upon the
+Commission is to watch over the preservation of every monument in
+this list. So far as my<span class="pagenum" id=
+"Page_306">[306]</span> observation went, its members are clearly
+alive to this obligation, and have endeavoured to fulfil it as far
+as their limited funds permitted. To enumerate the long catalogue
+of repairs, from the stablishing of the entire walls of a mosque to
+the removal of whitewash or dirt from a carved inscription or a
+mosaic, would extend these notes to an undue length. The details
+may be read in the excellent Annual Reports of the Commission,
+which, if they are scarcely as prompt in their appearance as they
+might be, leave little to be desired in point of accuracy or
+completeness. Much more, however, remains to be done, and many of
+the repairs already executed can only be regarded as temporary
+cheap make-shifts, pending the possibility of more thorough works
+when finances permit. The adequate and enduring preservation of the
+monuments is essentially a question of money. The Commission and
+its Architect know what ought to be done, but they cannot do it
+without an increased staff and a larger budget.</p>
+
+<p>Meanwhile, there are two or three points to which the attention
+of the Commission should, I think, be specially and immediately
+directed, since they can be dealt with even on the present
+insufficient annual grant.</p>
+
+<p>1. In cases where a thorough repair would be too costly to be
+undertaken on the present budget, there is a mode of preservation,
+in a literary and artistic sense, which ought to be invariably
+adopted when there is any risk of further immediate decay. The
+great mosque of Sultan Hasan is an instance in point. In such a
+case, where many thousands of pounds would be required for
+substantial preservation, the Commission cannot at present
+entertain the plans which have been drawn up for so elaborate a
+work. But what they can do is to prepare an exact record of
+the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_307">[307]</span> present state
+of the mosque, to draw full architectural plans and elevations,
+photograph every detail of ornament or inscription, reproduce
+mosaics and other coloured decoration in the colours of the
+originals, and generally to make it possible at any time to
+reproduce the entire mosque in its true proportions and exact
+details of ornament.<a id="FNanchor_87"></a><a href="#Footnote_87"
+class="fnanchor">[87]</a> To students of the history of Arab art
+such a record would be invaluable, whilst it would make the task of
+preservation possible even should want of funds postpone the work
+till the mosque had fallen into much more lamentable decay. To
+prepare such records would necessitate an increase in the staff of
+the Commission, but if the memoirs were published, with adequate
+historical introductions and explanations, the sale would probably
+repay a large part of the expense. At the same time, these records
+should not of course be regarded as a substitute for actual
+preservation, or as a reason for deferring necessary repairs. They
+should be used merely as a safeguard against the total or partial
+obliteration of a monument by a sudden catastrophe (which might
+happen any day to one of the minarets of Sultan Hasan), not as a
+ground for refusing to avert the ruin.</p>
+
+<p>2. Another and much simpler precaution should be taken in the
+case of the numerous small mosques of Cairo which are more or less
+roofed in. These have generally windows of open tracery, or
+grille-work, and often a small opening in the centre over the
+court. The central opening should be covered with glass to keep out
+the weather, and the open windows should invariably be furnished
+with wire-netting outside to exclude the birds, which do much
+mischief in the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_308">[308]</span>
+interiors. All covered-in mosques require frequent inspection with
+this view, and every cranny which could admit rain or birds should
+be carefully stopped.</p>
+
+<p>3. A more expensive but absolutely necessary step is the
+compulsory expropriation of the shops or booths which cling like
+limpets to the façades of many of the mosques. The proprietors of
+these shops use the mosques behind as dust-bins, and throw their
+refuse and broken crockery through the windows. The appearance of
+the mosques, both inside and out, is seriously impaired by these
+excrescences which narrow the street (<em>e.g.</em>, the
+Suk-en-Nahhasin), impede traffic, and prevent the façades of the
+mosques being seen in their true proportion and effect.</p>
+
+<p>In order to avoid the risk of any historical monument being
+overlooked and neglected, it would be well if the Commission were
+to divide Cairo into a certain number of definite quarters, and
+that the scheduled monuments in each quarter should be periodically
+visited by the Sub-Committee of Inspection and the architect at
+least once a year. The number of monuments in the list is so large,
+that it might be impossible to arrange more than one or two
+inspections of each in every season. Such visits should be
+recorded, with notes on the condition of each monument, in a
+special book.</p>
+
+<p>An important question is that of the private monuments, whether
+mosques, houses, <em>sebils</em>, <em>wekalas</em>, or other
+buildings. The Government apparently has no power either to compel
+owners to maintain and preserve the historical buildings which they
+inhabit or let, or to force them to sell. The few mediæval houses
+still standing in Cairo are artistically more valuable than the
+mosques maintained by private wakfs, for they form almost the sole
+remaining examples of the domestic style of Arab art. It is greatly
+to be wished<span class="pagenum" id="Page_309">[309]</span> that
+they could be brought under the control of the Commission, and if
+due compensation were made for ejectment or interference, the
+owners would have little ground for complaint.</p>
+
+<p><em>Restoration.</em>—The Commission has not confined its
+labours strictly to preservation, it has also undertaken the
+complete restoration of several monuments. There is a well-founded
+prejudice in artistic and archæological circles against restoration
+of any and every description; but I believe that an examination of
+some of the recent restorations carried out by Herz Bey would
+remove these natural and generally just apprehensions. This
+architect’s principle, as he explained it to me, appears sound and
+reasonable. It is this. No unique monument (<em>e.g.</em>, the
+Mosque of Ibn-Tulun) or monument belonging to an architectural
+period of which there are very few examples (<em>e.g.</em>, the
+Fátimid Mosques), must on any account be restored; preservation is
+the only possible treatment for such cases, and nothing more must
+be done than is absolutely necessary for the stability of the
+building, and its security from weather and other injury. But when
+there are numerous mosques of the same period, nearly resembling
+one another in style, and often even in detail of ornament
+(<em>e.g.</em>, at the period of Kait-Bey), then a few may safely
+be selected for complete restoration at all points, so as to
+present as nearly as possible their original appearance, as when
+first opened for public worship. Herz Bey has given a few examples
+of his theory of restoration in mosques of a well-represented
+period. They are not equally successful, and it is evident from the
+latest specimens that experience has taught him much, especially in
+regard to colour. But I think the most rigid opponent of
+restoration would find very little to criticize in the careful and
+beautiful manner in which the little mosque of [Kády] Abu-Bekr
+ibn<span class="pagenum" id="Page_310">[310]</span> Muzhir in the
+Bargawan has been restored to almost its original condition; and
+whatever may be said about the tampering to which the mosque of
+el-Muayyad was subjected under a former régime, there is no doubt
+that the inscriptional frieze and the painted ceiling have been
+restored as perfectly and as scrupulously as skill and knowledge
+could attain. I can assert from personal observation that nothing
+can exceed the care and precautions which are observed by the
+architect of the Commission in order to make sure that he has
+really discovered the original design and colouring beneath
+centuries of dirt and whitewash, or the pains he takes to reproduce
+them faithfully. And I may here observe that the staff of the
+Commission includes workers in metal and wood, who are able to copy
+the designs so accurately, that it is almost impossible to
+distinguish them from the originals. (They are not yet successful
+in stained glass, however.) This merit has the obvious drawback
+that, unless great care is taken, the details of the monuments
+(<em>e.g.</em>, the bronze bosses and plaques on doors, or the wood
+and ivory carvings and inlay work of doors and <em>minbars</em>)
+may be falsified.</p>
+
+<p>In recent restorations of Arabic inscriptions the inscription
+itself is made to tell the date of its restoration; but many small
+details of ornament are not distinguished at all from the original
+work whose gaps they supply. This defect calls for immediate
+correction before the distinction is forgotten by the restorers
+themselves. Every <em>plaque</em> of metal or panel of wood or
+mosaic should bear an unmistakable distinguishing mark, such as the
+date of restoration in Arabic cyphers; and detailed plans of all
+restored monuments should be preserved in the archives of the
+Commission, in which the new portions should be clearly
+distinguished by colour or shading. If this<span class="pagenum"
+id="Page_311">[311]</span> rule is carefully observed I confess I
+can see nothing but advantage in the complete restoration of a
+<em>limited</em> number of mosques <em>under the restrictions</em>
+already mentioned. When the work is executed with the skill and
+honesty which one observes in the case of the Mosque of Abu-Bekr
+ibn Muzhir, there is no falsification but rather preservation in
+the most complete and satisfactory sense. The beauty of these
+restored mosques seems to appeal to the eyes of the worshippers,
+and there is no doubt that the Mosque of el-Muayyad has been far
+more frequented for prayer since its <em>liwan</em> was restored to
+something of its original beauty and richness of gold and colour.
+This is a consideration to which the Ministry of Wakfs can hardly
+fail to attach considerable importance. At the same time there is
+possibly some risk of the vital work of preservation being
+sometimes neglected in order that restorations, which are naturally
+more interesting and effective to both the architect and the
+public, should be carried out.</p>
+
+<p>At present there are five mosques in course of
+restoration,<a id="FNanchor_88"></a><a href="#Footnote_88" class=
+"fnanchor">[88]</a> viz., those of Zeyn-ed-din Yahya, near the
+Musky; Gami‘-el-Benat; of Asunbugha, in the Darb-es-Sa‘ada, and of
+Kagmas el-Ishaky; besides el-Muayyad and Abu-Bekr ibn Muzhir, which
+may be regarded as finished. Two of these mosques, however, are
+private wakfs, and are being paid for by private persons. Still, in
+my opinion, enough restoration has been undertaken for the present,
+and the chief attention of the Commission should be directed for
+the next two or three years to a fresh and complete examination of
+all the monuments on their list with a view to their thorough
+preservation. At all events the selection of a new mosque for
+complete restoration should be a subject of anxious thought, and
+should not<span class="pagenum" id="Page_312">[312]</span> be
+lightly undertaken. Restoration, it must be remembered, is costly,
+and cannot judiciously be embarked upon so long as the funds of the
+Commission are scarcely sufficient for preservation alone. . .
+.</p>
+
+<p>Such, my Lord, are the conclusions which suggested themselves to
+me after my inspection of the results of the Commission’s labours.
+I have confined my remarks to Cairo, because I had no opportunity
+this year to examine the work that has been done in other towns of
+Egypt. In Cairo, as I have endeavoured to show, the Commission has
+done excellent work, and has accomplished a great deal in face of
+inadequate funds and frequent obstruction and opposition. The few
+suggestions and criticisms I have ventured to make are trifles in
+comparison with the quantity and generally high quality of the work
+of preservation and restoration carried out under the authority of
+the Commission. In my opinion the Wakfs and the Public Works
+together should raise the annual budget of the Commission to
+£10,000, and then leave it to manage its own affairs, as it is
+fully competent to do. Were it possible to create a Ministry of
+Fine Arts, which should include the Archæological Directorate as
+well as the Commission, the Giza as well as the Arab Museum, this
+would probably be the most satisfactory course. But the
+consideration of so thorough a reconstruction is beyond the scope
+of the Report which your Lordship has asked me to submit.”</p>
+
+<p>To these remarks I have nothing to add. All subsequent
+observation has confirmed the belief that the Commission has done
+and is still doing a noble work for the monuments of Cairo. The
+passages omitted in the preceding extracts related to the financial
+status of the Commission, and the result of these recommendations
+is thus stated in Lord Cromer’s<span class="pagenum" id=
+"Page_313">[313]</span> covering report, which also strongly
+supported the various suggestions offered for the better protection
+of the monuments, and added some excellent provisions for the
+inclusion of the Coptic churches in the field of operation of the
+Commission. Lord Cromer wrote:—</p>
+
+<p>“I have for long been well aware that the grants heretofore
+obtained from the Wakf Administration were inadequate, and that, if
+greater activity was to be displayed in this branch of the
+Administration, additional expenditure would have to be incurred.
+Indeed, one of the main objects I had in view in consulting Mr
+Stanley Lane-Poole was to obtain suggestions from him as to the
+best method of spending more money, supposing it to be
+available.</p>
+
+<p>“On receipt of Mr Stanley Lane-Poole’s Report, I placed myself
+in communication with the authorities of the Financial and Public
+Works Department with the result that a proposal was made to the
+Commissioners of the Public Debt that they should grant a sum of
+£20,000 from the Reserve Fund at their disposal to be spent under
+the direction of the Preservation Committee during the years 1896
+and 1897. I am glad to say that this proposal was received by the
+Commissioners in a very friendly spirit. The money has been
+granted, and the details of the expenditure now alone remain to be
+settled. . . .</p>
+
+<p>“I should add that, in addition to the £20,000, which is to be
+spent exclusively on works of different sorts, the Egyptian
+Government has consented to give a permanent grant of £1000 a-year
+from the Treasury in order to provide for the additional staff
+which will without doubt be required.”</p>
+
+<p>The effects of this munificent addition to the funds placed at
+the disposal of the Commission have been far-reaching. The list of
+monuments that have benefited by the timely succour is too long to
+quote,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_314">[314]</span> but the
+repairs effected in the great mosque of el-Maridány at a cost of
+£4000 must be specially mentioned: it was a work greatly needed,
+and the money has been well spent. Every visitor to Cairo is struck
+by the difference in the condition of the mosques since the
+Commission took them under its charge. Many which seemed doomed are
+now safe; others have their lives at least prolonged; and no
+fragment of Arab art, no vestige of the city wall, no piece of
+carving or inscription, is beneath the watchful care of the
+Commission. When a monument cannot be preserved, such fragments of
+ornament or inscriptions as remain are carefully gathered and
+transported to the Arab Museum, which itself is evidence of the
+good work that has been done in the past twenty years. These years
+have indeed been fruitful in serious labour to repair the injury
+which natural decay, and unnatural confiscation, neglect, and
+vandalism have worked in the past upon the relics of mediæval
+Cairo.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenterplate iw1"><span class="pagenum" id=
+"Page_315">[315]</span>
+<figure id="i31"><a href="images/i31.jpg"><img src='images/i31.jpg'
+alt=''></a>
+<p class="cp2">A MUSLIM GRAVEYARD</p>
+</figure>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="chap">
+
+<h2 class="large"><span class="pagenum" id=
+"Page_317">[317]</span><a id="app1"></a>RULERS AND MONUMENTS OF
+CAIRO<a id="FNanchor_89"></a><a href="#Footnote_89" class=
+"fnanchor">[89]</a></h2>
+
+<hr class="decor width12">
+
+<table class="bd-collapse padded1" id="t317">
+<tr>
+<td colspan="7" class="tdc sect1 large">1. ARAB PERIOD</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<th>A.D.</th>
+<th>A.H.</th>
+<th class="width14">
+</th>
+<th class="width-brace1">
+</th>
+<th>
+</th>
+<th>
+</th>
+<th class="width6">A.H.</th>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr-top">640-868</td>
+<td class="tdr-top">20-254</td>
+<td colspan="3" rowspan="2" class="tdl-top hang1">Ninety-eight
+governors under caliphs of Damascus and Baghdād</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">†Mosque of ‘Amr</td>
+<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">21</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">&nbsp;Town of the Tent (el-Fusṭāṭ)</td>
+<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">21</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">&nbsp;First Nilometer at er-Rōḍa</td>
+<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">98</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">&nbsp;Faubourg el-‘Askar</td>
+<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">133</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">*Second Nilometer at er-Rōḍa</td>
+<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">247</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="7" class="tdc sect1 large">2. TURKISH PERIOD</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="7" class="tdc sect05bot med">HOUSE OF ṬŪLŪN</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr-top">868</td>
+<td class="tdr-top">254</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="tdl-top hang1">Aḥmad ibn Ṭūlūn</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">&nbsp;Faubourg el-Ḳaṭāi‘</td>
+<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">256</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">&nbsp;Palaces of el-Ḳaṭāi‘</td>
+<td class="tdr-top">256 ff.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">&nbsp;Māristān</td>
+<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">259</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">*Mosque of Ibn-Ṭūlūn</td>
+<td class="tdr-top pad-right05">263-5</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr-top">883</td>
+<td class="tdr-top">270</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="tdl-top hang1">Khumāraweyh b. Aḥmad</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">&nbsp;Palaces of el-Ḳaṭāi‘</td>
+<td class="tdr-top">270 ff.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr-top">895</td>
+<td class="tdr-top">282</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="tdl-top hang1">Geysh b. Khumāraweyh</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr-top">896</td>
+<td class="tdr-top">283</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="tdl-top hang1">Hārūn b. Khumāraweyh</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr-top">904</td>
+<td class="tdr-top">292</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="tdl-top hang1">Sheybān b. Aḥmad b.
+Ṭūlūn</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="7" class="tdc sect1top sect05bot med">CALIPHS’
+GOVERNORS</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr-top">905-934</td>
+<td class="tdr-top">292-323</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="tdl-top hang1">Thirteen governors</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="7" class="tdc sect1top sect05bot med">HOUSE OF
+EL-IKHSHĪD</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr-top">934</td>
+<td class="tdr-top">323</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="tdl-top hang1">Moḥammad el-Ikhshīd</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">&nbsp;Palace in Kāfūr’s Garden and at
+Rōḍa</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr-top">946</td>
+<td class="tdr-top">334</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="tdl-top hang1">Abū-l-Ḳāsim Ūngūr b.
+el-Ikhshīd</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">&nbsp;Māristān at Fusṭāṭ</td>
+<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">346</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr-top">960</td>
+<td class="tdr-top">349</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="tdl-top hang1">Abū-l-Ḥasan ‘Aly b.
+el-Ikhshīd</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">&nbsp;Mosque of el-Gīza</td>
+<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">350</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr-top">966</td>
+<td class="tdr-top">355</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="tdl-top hang1">Abū-l-Misk Kāfūr</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr-top">968</td>
+<td class="tdr-top">358</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="tdl-top hang1">Abū-l-Fawāris Aḥmad b.
+‘Aly</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="7" class="tdc sect1 large"><span class="pagenum" id=
+"Page_318">[318]</span>3. FĀṬIMID PERIOD.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr-top">969</td>
+<td class="tdr-top">358</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="tdl-top hang1">el-Mo‘izz</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">&nbsp;Foundation of el-Ḳāhira</td>
+<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">358</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">&nbsp;Great East Palace, etc.</td>
+<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">358</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">*Mosque el-Azhar</td>
+<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">359</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr-top">975</td>
+<td class="tdr-top">365</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="tdl-top hang1">el-‘Azīz</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">&nbsp;West Palace, etc.</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">*Mosque of el-Ḥākim</td>
+<td class="tdr-top">380-403</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr-top">996</td>
+<td class="tdr-top">386</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="tdl-top hang1">el-Ḥākim</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">&nbsp;Mosque of Rāshida</td>
+<td class="tdr-top pad-right05">393-5</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1"><span class=
+"word-spaced5">&nbsp;„&nbsp;</span> el-Maḳs</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr-top">1021</td>
+<td class="tdr-top">411</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="tdl-top hang1">eẓ-Ẓāhir</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr-top">1036</td>
+<td class="tdr-top">427</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="tdl-top hang1">el-Mustanṣir</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">*Mosque el-Guyūshy</td>
+<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">478</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">*Bāb-en-Naṣr, *Bāb-el-Futūḥ, *Second
+wall, *Bāb-Zuweyla</td>
+<td class="tdr-top">480-484</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">&nbsp;Mosque of Nilometer</td>
+<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">485</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr-top">1094</td>
+<td class="tdr-top">487</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="tdl-top hang1">el-Musta‘ly</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr-top">1101</td>
+<td class="tdr-top">495</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="tdl-top hang1">el-Āmir</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">*Mosque el-Aḳmar</td>
+<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">519</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">&nbsp;Several mesgids (Yānis, Kāfūry,
+Bāb-el-Khawkha)</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">*Mihrābs of Azhar and Seyyida
+Ruḳeyya</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr-top">1131</td>
+<td class="tdr-top">524</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="tdl-top hang1">el-Ḥāfiẓ</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr-top">1149</td>
+<td class="tdr-top">544</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="tdl-top hang1">eẓ-Ẓāfir</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">†Mosque el-Afkhar</td>
+<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">543</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr-top">1154</td>
+<td class="tdr-top">549</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="tdl-top hang1">el-Fāiz</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr-top">1160</td>
+<td class="tdr-top">555</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="tdl-top hang1">el-‘Āḍid</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">*Mosque of eṣ-Ṣālih Ṭalāi‘</td>
+<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">555</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="7" class="tdc sect1 large">4. HOUSE OF SALADIN</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr-top">1169</td>
+<td class="tdr-top">565</td>
+<td colspan="3" rowspan="2" class="tdl-top hang1">en-Nāṣir
+Ṣalāḥ-ed-dīn (Saladin) ibn Ayyūb</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">&nbsp;Mosque of Negm-ed-dīn Ayyūb</td>
+<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">566</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">&nbsp;College Nāṣirīya</td>
+<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">566</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1"><span class=
+"word-spaced7">&nbsp;„&nbsp;</span> Ḳamḥiya</td>
+<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">566</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1"><span class=
+"word-spaced7">&nbsp;„&nbsp;</span> Ḳuṭbīya</td>
+<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">570</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1"><span class=
+"word-spaced7">&nbsp;„&nbsp;</span> Ibn-el-Arsūfy</td>
+<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">570</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1"><span class=
+"word-spaced7">&nbsp;„&nbsp;</span> Suyūfīya</td>
+<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">572</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">&nbsp;Citadel and 3rd Wall begun</td>
+<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">572</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">&nbsp;Māristān</td>
+<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">575</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">&nbsp;College el-Fāḍilīya</td>
+<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">580</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr-top">1193</td>
+<td class="tdr-top">589</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="tdl-top hang1">el-‘Azīz, son of Saladin</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">&nbsp;Mosque of Ibn-el-Benā</td>
+<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">c. 591</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">&nbsp;College Ushkushīya</td>
+<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">592</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr-top">1198</td>
+<td class="tdr-top">595</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="tdl-top hang1">el-Manṣūr b. el-‘Azīz</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1"><span class=
+"word-spaced7">&nbsp;„&nbsp;</span> Ghaznawīya</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr-top">1200</td>
+<td class="tdr-top">596</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="tdl-top hang1">el-‘Adil Seyf-ed-dīn</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1"><span class=
+"word-spaced7">&nbsp;„&nbsp;</span> ‘Ādilīya</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1"><span class=
+"word-spaced7">&nbsp;„&nbsp;</span> Sherīfīya</td>
+<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">612</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr-top">1218</td>
+<td class="tdr-top">615</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="tdl-top hang1">el-Kāmil b. el-‘Ādil</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">&nbsp;Restor. of M. of Shāfi‘y</td>
+<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">607</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">*College Kāmilīya</td>
+<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">622</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1"><span class=
+"word-spaced7">&nbsp;„&nbsp;</span> Fakhrīya</td>
+<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">622</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">&nbsp;Zāwiya Ḳaṣry</td>
+<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">c. 633</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">&nbsp;M. Ibn-esh-Sheykhy</td>
+<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">c. 633</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr-top">1238</td>
+<td class="tdr-top">635</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="tdl-top hang1">el-‘Ādil II. b. el-Kāmil</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">&nbsp;College Ṣayramīya</td>
+<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">c. 636</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1"><span class=
+"word-spaced7">&nbsp;„&nbsp;</span> Fāizīya</td>
+<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">636</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr-top">1240</td>
+<td class="tdr-top">637</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="tdl-top hang1">eṣ-Ṣāliḥ Ayyūb b.
+el-Kāmil</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1"><span class=
+"word-spaced7">&nbsp;„&nbsp;</span> *Ṣāliḥīya</td>
+<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">639</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">&nbsp;Mosque, etc., of er-Rōḍa</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr-top">1249</td>
+<td class="tdr-top">647</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="tdl-top hang1">el-Mu‘aẓẓam Tūrān-Shāh b.
+eṣ-Ṣāliḥ</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">&nbsp;Zāwiya Khaddām</td>
+<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">647</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="7" class="tdc sect1 large"><span class="pagenum" id=
+"Page_319">[319]</span>5. TURKISH MAMLŪKS</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr-top">1250</td>
+<td class="tdr-top">648</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="tdl-top hang1">Queen Sheger-ed-durr</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">*Tomb of eṣ-Ṣāliḥ</td>
+<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">648</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr-top">1250</td>
+<td class="tdr-top">648</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="tdl-top hang1">el-Mo‘izz Aybek</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">&nbsp;College Ḳuṭbīya</td>
+<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">650</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1"><span class=
+"word-spaced7">&nbsp;„&nbsp;</span> Ṣāḥibīya</td>
+<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">654</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr-top">1257</td>
+<td class="tdr-top">655</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="tdl-top hang1">el-Manṣūr ‘Aly b. Aybek</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr-top">1259</td>
+<td class="tdr-top">657</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="tdl-top hang1">el-Muẓaffar Ḳuṭuz</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr-top">1260</td>
+<td class="tdr-top">658</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="tdl-top hang1">eẓ-Ẓāhir Beybars</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">*College Ẓāhirīya</td>
+<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">660</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">&nbsp;Meshhed el-Ḥoseyny</td>
+<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">662</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">&nbsp;College Megdīya</td>
+<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">663</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">&nbsp;Mosque el-Afram</td>
+<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">663</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">*Mosque eẓ-Ẓāhir</td>
+<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">665</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">&nbsp;College Muhedhdhibīya</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1"><span class=
+"word-spaced7">&nbsp;„&nbsp;</span> Fārikānīya</td>
+<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">676</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr-top">1277</td>
+<td class="tdr-top">676</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="tdl-top hang1">es-Sa‘īd Baraka b.
+Beybars</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr-top">1279</td>
+<td class="tdr-top">678</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="tdl-top hang1">el-‘Ādil Selāmish b.
+Beybars</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr-top">1279</td>
+<td class="tdr-top">679</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="tdl-top hang1">el-Manṣūr Ḳalā’ūn</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">*College Manṣūrīya and Māristān
+Ḳalā’ūn</td>
+<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">684</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">Zāwiya el-Gemīzy</td>
+<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">682</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1"><span class=
+"word-spaced6">&nbsp;„&nbsp;</span> el-Ga‘bary</td>
+<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">687</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1"><span class=
+"word-spaced6">&nbsp;„&nbsp;</span> el-Halāwy</td>
+<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">683</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">&nbsp;Convent el-Bunduḳdārīya</td>
+<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">688</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr-top">1290</td>
+<td class="tdr-top">689</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="tdl-top hang1">el-Ashraf Khalīl b.
+Ḳalā’ūn</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">*Gate from ‘Akka</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr-top">1293</td>
+<td class="tdr-top">693</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="tdl-top hang1">en-Nāṣir Moḥammad b.
+Ḳalā’ūn</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr-top">1294</td>
+<td class="tdr-top">694</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="tdl-top hang1">el-‘Ādil Ketbughā</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr-top">1296</td>
+<td class="tdr-top">696</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="tdl-top hang1">el-Manṣūr Lāgīn</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">&nbsp;Restor. M. of Ibn-Ṭūlūn</td>
+<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">696</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">&nbsp;College Ṭafagīya</td>
+<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">c. 698</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1"><span class=
+"word-spaced7">&nbsp;„&nbsp;</span> Mangūtimurīya</td>
+<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">698</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr-top">1298</td>
+<td class="tdr-top">698</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="tdl-top hang1">en-Nāṣir, second reign</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1"><span class=
+"word-spaced7">&nbsp;„&nbsp;</span> *Nāṣirīya</td>
+<td class="tdr-top">699-703</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1"><span class=
+"word-spaced7">&nbsp;„&nbsp;</span> Karāsunḳurīya</td>
+<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">700</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1"><span class=
+"word-spaced7">&nbsp;„&nbsp;</span> Gemālīya</td>
+<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">703</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">&nbsp;Restor. of Ḥākim, Azhar,
+Ṭalāi‘</td>
+<td class="tdr-top pad-right05">703-4</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">&nbsp;Mosque of Ṭaybars</td>
+<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">707</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr-top">1308</td>
+<td class="tdr-top">708</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="tdl-top hang1">el-Muẓaffar Beybars
+<em>Gāshnekīr</em></td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">*Convent of Beybars</td>
+<td class="tdr-top pad-right05">706-9</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr-top">1309</td>
+<td class="tdr-top">709</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="tdl-top hang1">en-Nāṣir, third reign</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">*College Ṭaybarsīya</td>
+<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">709</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">&nbsp;Zāwiya of el-Ḥimṣy</td>
+<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">709</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">&nbsp;Mosque of el-Gāky</td>
+<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">713</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">*Citadel palace, aqueduct</td>
+<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">713</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">&nbsp;College Sa‘īdīya</td>
+<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">715</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">&nbsp;Convent of Arslān</td>
+<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">c. 717</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">*Mosque of Citadel</td>
+<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">718</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">*Mosque of emīr Ḥoseyn</td>
+<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">719</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">*College Ālmelikīya</td>
+<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">719</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">*College Gāwalīya</td>
+<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">723</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">*Tomb of Ordūtegīn</td>
+<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">724</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">*College Mihmandāriya</td>
+<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">725</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1"><span class=
+"word-spaced7">&nbsp;„&nbsp;</span> Buktumurīya</td>
+<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">726</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">&nbsp;Mosque of el-Khazāny</td>
+<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">729</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1"><span class=
+"word-spaced6">&nbsp;„&nbsp;</span> *of Almās</td>
+<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">730</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1"><span class=
+"word-spaced6">&nbsp;„&nbsp;</span> el-Barḳīya</td>
+<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">730</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1"><span class="pagenum" id=
+"Page_320">[320]</span>*Mosque of Ḳūṣūn</td>
+<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">730</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1"><span class=
+"word-spaced6">&nbsp;„&nbsp;</span> of Sārūgā</td>
+<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">c. 730</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">*College Aḳbughawīya</td>
+<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">734</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">*Tomb of Tāshtimur</td>
+<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">734</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">*Palace of Beshtāk</td>
+<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">c. 735</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">*Convent of Ḳūṣūn</td>
+<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">736</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1"><span class=
+"word-spaced7">&nbsp;„&nbsp;</span> at Siryāḳūs</td>
+<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">736</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">†Mosque of Beshtāk</td>
+<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">736</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1"><span class=
+"word-spaced6">&nbsp;„&nbsp;</span> Aydemir</td>
+<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">737</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1"><span class=
+"word-spaced6">&nbsp;„&nbsp;</span> et-Turkmāny</td>
+<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">738</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1"><span class=
+"word-spaced6">&nbsp;„&nbsp;</span> *el-Māridāny</td>
+<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">740</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr-top">1341</td>
+<td class="tdr-top">741</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">el-Manṣūr Abū-Bekr</td>
+<td class="brt">
+</td>
+<td rowspan="8" class="tdc less">sons of en-Nāṣir</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1"><span class=
+"word-spaced6">&nbsp;„&nbsp;</span> *Sitta Miska</td>
+<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">740</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td class="liner">
+</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1"><span class=
+"word-spaced6">&nbsp;„&nbsp;</span> Ibn-Ghāzy</td>
+<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">741</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr-top">1341</td>
+<td class="tdr-top">742</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">el-Ashraf Kuguk</td>
+<td class="liner">
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr-top">1342</td>
+<td class="tdr-top">742</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">en-Nāṣir Aḥmad</td>
+<td class="liner">
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr-top">1342</td>
+<td class="tdr-top">743</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">eṣ-Ṣāliḥ Ismā‘īl</td>
+<td class="liner">
+</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">&nbsp;Mosque of eṭ-Ṭawāshy</td>
+<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">745</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr-top">1345</td>
+<td class="tdr-top">746</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">el-Ḳāmil Sha‘bān</td>
+<td class="liner">
+</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1"><span class=
+"word-spaced6">&nbsp;„&nbsp;</span> Ibn-eṭ-Ṭabbākh</td>
+<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">746</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr-top">1346</td>
+<td class="tdr-top">747</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">el-Muẓaffar Ḥāggy</td>
+<td class="liner">
+</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1"><span class=
+"word-spaced6">&nbsp;„&nbsp;</span> *Kuguk</td>
+<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">747</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr-top">1347</td>
+<td class="tdr-top">748</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">en-Nāṣir Ḥasan</td>
+<td class="brb">
+</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1"><span class=
+"word-spaced6">&nbsp;„&nbsp;</span> †Āḳsunḳur</td>
+<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">747</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1"><span class=
+"word-spaced6">&nbsp;„&nbsp;</span> †el-Ismā‘īly</td>
+<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">748</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1"><span class=
+"word-spaced6">&nbsp;„&nbsp;</span> *Ḳutlubugha</td>
+<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">748</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1"><span class=
+"word-spaced6">&nbsp;„&nbsp;</span> el-Asyūṭy</td>
+<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">c. 749</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">*Convent of Umm-Anūk</td>
+<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">c. 749</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1"><span class=
+"word-spaced7">&nbsp;„&nbsp;</span> Algībughā</td>
+<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">c. 750</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">*Mosque of Mangak</td>
+<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">750</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1"><span class=
+"word-spaced6">&nbsp;„&nbsp;</span> *Sheykhū</td>
+<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">750</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">&nbsp;College of el-Kharrūba</td>
+<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">750</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">*Cistern of Lāgīn</td>
+<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">750</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">&nbsp;College Ḳaysarānīya</td>
+<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">751</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1"><span class=
+"word-spaced7">&nbsp;„&nbsp;</span> Ṣaghīra</td>
+<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">751</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr-top">1351</td>
+<td class="tdr-top">752</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="tdl-top hang1">eṣ-Ṣāliḥ Ṣāliḥ b. Nāṣir</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr-top">1354</td>
+<td class="tdr-top">755</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="tdl-top hang1">Ḥasan, second reign</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">*Convent of Sheykhū</td>
+<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">756</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">&nbsp;College Fārisīya</td>
+<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">756</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1"><span class=
+"word-spaced7">&nbsp;„&nbsp;</span> *Ṣarghitmishīya</td>
+<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">756</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1"><span class=
+"word-spaced7">&nbsp;„&nbsp;</span> *Sulṭān Ḥasan</td>
+<td class="tdr-top">757 ff.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1"><span class=
+"word-spaced7">&nbsp;„&nbsp;</span> Bedīrīya</td>
+<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">758</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1"><span class=
+"word-spaced7">&nbsp;„&nbsp;</span> *Ḥigāzīya</td>
+<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">761</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1"><span class=
+"word-spaced7">&nbsp;„&nbsp;</span> Beshīrīya</td>
+<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">761</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr-top">1361</td>
+<td class="tdr-top">762</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">el-Manṣūr Moḥammad</td>
+<td class="brt">
+</td>
+<td rowspan="2" class="tdc less">grand-sons of en-Nāṣir</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1"><span class=
+"word-spaced7">&nbsp;„&nbsp;</span> Sābiḳīya</td>
+<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">763</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr-top">1363</td>
+<td class="tdr-top">764</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">el-Ashraf Sha‘bān</td>
+<td class="brb">
+</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">*Tomb of Ṭulbīya</td>
+<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">765</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">*Mosque of Sha‘bān</td>
+<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">771</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">*College Bubekrīya (Asunbughā)</td>
+<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">772</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">*College of Gāy el-Yūsufy</td>
+<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">775</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1"><span class=
+"word-spaced7">&nbsp;„&nbsp;</span> Baḳrīya</td>
+<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">c. 775</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr-top">1376</td>
+<td class="tdr-top">778</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="tdl-top hang1">el-Manṣūr ‘Aly b.
+Sha‘bān</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1"><span class=
+"word-spaced7">&nbsp;„&nbsp;</span> Ibn-‘Irām</td>
+<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">782</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr-top">1381</td>
+<td class="tdr-top">783</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="tdl-top hang1">eṣ-Ṣāliḥ Ḥāggy b. Sha‘bān
+(dep. 1382, restored 1389-90)</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">&nbsp;Tomb of Umm-Ṣāliḥ</td>
+<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">783</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="7" class="tdc sect1 large"><span class="pagenum" id=
+"Page_321">[321]</span>6. CIRCASSIAN MAMLŪKS</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr-top">1382</td>
+<td class="tdr-top">784</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="tdl-top hang1">eẓ-Ẓāhir Barḳūḳ</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">*Tomb of Anas</td>
+<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">783</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="tdl-top hang1">[interrupted 791-2 by
+Ḥāggy]</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">*College of Aytmish</td>
+<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">785</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">*College of Barḳūḳ</td>
+<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">788</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">*Mosque of Zeyn-ed-dīn</td>
+<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">790</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">*College of Īnāl <em>Ustāddār</em></td>
+<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">795</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1"><span class=
+"word-spaced7">&nbsp;„&nbsp;</span> Maḥmūdīya</td>
+<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">797</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1"><span class=
+"word-spaced7">&nbsp;„&nbsp;</span> *Muḳbil Zemāmīya</td>
+<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">797</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1"><span class=
+"word-spaced7">&nbsp;„&nbsp;</span> Ibn-Ghurāb</td>
+<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">798</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr-top">1399</td>
+<td class="tdr-top">801</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="tdl-top hang1">en-Nāṣir Farag b. Barḳūḳ</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">&nbsp;M. of Ibn-‘Abd-eẓ-Ẓāhir</td>
+<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">803</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">*College of Sūdūn</td>
+<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">804</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1"><span class=
+"word-spaced7">&nbsp;„&nbsp;</span> Mahally</td>
+<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">c. 806</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr-top">1405</td>
+<td class="tdr-top">808</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="tdl-top hang1">el-Manṣūr ‘Abd-el-‘Azīz b.
+Barḳūḳ</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">*Convent and Tomb of Barḳūḳ and Farag,
+and College of Farag</td>
+<td class="tdr-top">803-13</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr-top">1405</td>
+<td class="tdr-top">809</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="tdl-top hang1">Farag, second reign</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">*College of Gemāl-ed-dīn</td>
+<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">811</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">&nbsp;Mosque of Hōsh (Citadel)</td>
+<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">812</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr-top">1412</td>
+<td class="tdr-top">815</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="tdl-top hang1">el-Musta‘īn (caliph)</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1"><span class=
+"word-spaced6">&nbsp;„&nbsp;</span> Birket-er-Raṭly</td>
+<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">814</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr-top">1412</td>
+<td class="tdr-top">815</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="tdl-top hang1">el-Mu’ayyad Sheykh</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">&nbsp;M. of eḍ-Ḍiwa (Citadel)</td>
+<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">815</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">&nbsp;Mosque of el-Bāsiṭy</td>
+<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">817</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1"><span class=
+"word-spaced6">&nbsp;„&nbsp;</span> el-Ḥanafy</td>
+<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">817</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1"><span class=
+"word-spaced6">&nbsp;„&nbsp;</span> ez-Zāhid</td>
+<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">818</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">*Māristān of el-Mu’ayyad</td>
+<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">818</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">*Mosque of el-Mu’ayyad</td>
+<td class="tdr-top">819-23</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">*Coll. of ‘Abd-el-Ghany</td>
+<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">821</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">&nbsp;Mosque of el-Fakhry</td>
+<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">821</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">*Coll. of Ḳāḍy ‘Abd-el-Bāsiṭ</td>
+<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">823</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="sect15top tdr-top">1421</td>
+<td class="tdr-top sect15top">824</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="tdl-top hang1 sect15top">el-Muẓaffar Aḥmad
+b. Sheykh</td>
+<td class="sect15top">
+</td>
+<td class="sect15top">
+</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr-top">1421</td>
+<td class="tdr-top">824</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="tdl-top hang1">eẓ-Ẓāhir Ṭaṭar</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr-top">1421</td>
+<td class="tdr-top">824</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="tdl-top hang1">eṣ-Ṣāliḥ Moḥammad b.
+Ṭaṭar</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr-top">1422</td>
+<td class="tdr-top">825</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="tdl-top hang1">el-Ashraf Bars-Bey</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">*College of Bars-Bey</td>
+<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">827</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">*Mosque of Gāny-Bek</td>
+<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">830</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">*College of Feyrūz</td>
+<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">830</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">*Conv. and tomb of Bars-Bey</td>
+<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">835</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr-top">1438</td>
+<td class="tdr-top">842</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="tdl-top hang1">el-‘Azīz Yūsuf b.
+Bars-Bey</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr-top">1438</td>
+<td class="tdr-top">842</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="tdl-top hang1">eẓ-Ẓāhir Gaḳmaḳ</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">*College of Taghry-Berdy</td>
+<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">844</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">*Mosque of Ḳāny-Bey</td>
+<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">845</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr-top">1453</td>
+<td class="tdr-top">857</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="tdl-top hang1">el-Manṣūr ‘Othmān b.
+Gaḳmaḳ</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">*M. and tomb Ḳāḍy Yaḥyā</td>
+<td class="tdr-top">848-50</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">*Mosque of Gaḳmaḳ</td>
+<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">853</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr-top">1453</td>
+<td class="tdr-top">857</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="tdl-top hang1">el-Ashraf Īnāl</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">*Coll., Conv., tomb of Īnāl</td>
+<td class="tdr-top">855-60</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr-top">1461</td>
+<td class="tdr-top">865</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="tdl-top hang1">el-Mu’ayyad Aḥmad b.
+Īnāl</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr-top">1461</td>
+<td class="tdr-top">865</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="tdl-top hang1">eẓ-Ẓāhir Khūshḳadam</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">*Tomb of Gāny-Bek</td>
+<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">869</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">*Mosque of Nūr-ed-dīn</td>
+<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">870</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">*Mosque of Sūdūn</td>
+<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">c. 870</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">*College of Ḳānim</td>
+<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">c. 870</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr-top">1467</td>
+<td class="tdr-top">872</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="tdl-top hang1">eẓ-Ẓāhir Yel-Bey</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr-top">1467</td>
+<td class="tdr-top">872</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="tdl-top hang1">eẓ-Ẓāhir Timurbughā</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr-top"><span class="pagenum" id=
+"Page_322">[322]</span>1468</td>
+<td class="tdr-top">873</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="tdl-top hang1">el-Ashraf Ḳā’it-Bey</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">*Mosque of Timrāz</td>
+<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">876</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">*M. of Ezbek b. Tutush</td>
+<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">880</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">*Palace of Yeshbek</td>
+<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">880</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">*Ḳā’it-Bey’s Coll. and tomb</td>
+<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">879</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1"><span class=
+"word-spaced8">&nbsp;„&nbsp;</span> *Coll. in town</td>
+<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">880</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1"><span class=
+"word-spaced8">&nbsp;„&nbsp;</span> *Wekāla by Azhar</td>
+<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">882</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1"><span class=
+"word-spaced8">&nbsp;„&nbsp;</span> *Sebīl</td>
+<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">884</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1"><span class=
+"word-spaced8">&nbsp;„&nbsp;</span> Wekāla, B. en-Naṣr</td>
+<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">885</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1"><span class=
+"word-spaced8">&nbsp;„&nbsp;</span> *Wek., Surūgīya</td>
+<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">c. 885</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1"><span class=
+"word-spaced8">&nbsp;„&nbsp;</span> *Faḍawīya cupola</td>
+<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">c. 886</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1"><span class=
+"word-spaced8">&nbsp;„&nbsp;</span> *Palace and mekān</td>
+<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">890</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1"><span class=
+"word-spaced8">&nbsp;„&nbsp;</span> *Restor. of S. gates</td>
+<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">890</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1"><span class=
+"word-spaced8">&nbsp;„&nbsp;</span> *Coll. at er-Rōḍa</td>
+<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">896</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">*Mosque of Gānim</td>
+<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">883</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">*Coll. of Abū-Bekr b. Muzhir</td>
+<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">885</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">*Mosque of Ḳagmās</td>
+<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">886</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">*Coll. of Ezbek el-Yūsufy</td>
+<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">900</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr-top">1496</td>
+<td class="tdr-top">901</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="tdl-top hang1">en-Nāṣir Moḥammad b.
+Ḳā’it-Bey</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">*Palace of Mamāy (Beyt-el-Ḳāḍy)</td>
+<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">901</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr-top">1498</td>
+<td class="tdr-top">904</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="tdl-top hang1">eẓ-Ẓāhir Ḳānṣūh</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">*Tomb of Ḳānṣūh</td>
+<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">904</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr-top">1500</td>
+<td class="tdr-top">905</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="tdl-top hang1">el-Ashraf Gānbalāt</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr-top">1501</td>
+<td class="tdr-top">906</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="tdl-top hang1">el-‘Ādil Ṭūmān-Bey</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr-top">1501</td>
+<td class="tdr-top">906</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="tdl-top hang1">el-Ashraf Ḳānṣūh
+el-Ghūry</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">*Tomb el-‘Ādil Ṭūmān-Bey</td>
+<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">906</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">*Mosque of Kheyr-Bek</td>
+<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">908</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">*Coll. Ḳāny-Bek emīr akhōr</td>
+<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">908</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">*Coll. of el-Ghūry</td>
+<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">909</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">†Tomb-mosque of el-Ghūry</td>
+<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">909</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">*Tomb of Sūdūn</td>
+<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">c. 910</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">*College of Ḳāny-Bek Ḳarā</td>
+<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">911</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td class="tdl-top hang1">&nbsp;Restoration of aqueduct to
+Citadel</td>
+<td class="tdr-top pad-right15">911</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr-top">1516</td>
+<td class="tdr-top">922</td>
+<td colspan="3" class="tdl-top hang1">el-Ashraf Ṭumān-Bey</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr-top">1517</td>
+<td class="tdr-top">922</td>
+<td colspan="4" class="tdc">‘OTHMĀNLY CONQUEST OF EGYPT</td>
+<td>
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<div class="figcenterplate iw1">
+<figure id="map">
+<p class="cp3">CAIRO.</p>
+<a href="images/map_large.jpg"><img src='images/map.jpg' alt=
+''></a>
+</figure>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="chap">
+
+<h2 class="large"><span class="pagenum" id=
+"Page_323">[323]</span><a id="app2"></a>TABLE FOR CONVERTING HIJRA
+YEARS INTO ANNI DOMINI.</h2>
+
+<table class="borders" id="t323">
+<tr>
+<th class="sserif">A.H.</th>
+<th class="sserif">A.D.</th>
+<th colspan="2" class="sserif">BEGINS</th>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">1</td>
+<td class="tdr">622</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Jy.</td>
+<td class="tdr">16</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">2</td>
+<td class="tdr">623</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Jy.</td>
+<td class="tdr">5</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">3</td>
+<td class="tdr">624</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ju.</td>
+<td class="tdr">24</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">4</td>
+<td class="tdr">625</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ju.</td>
+<td class="tdr">13</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">5</td>
+<td class="tdr">626</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ju.</td>
+<td class="tdr">2</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">6</td>
+<td class="tdr">627</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">My.</td>
+<td class="tdr">23</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">7</td>
+<td class="tdr">628</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">My.</td>
+<td class="tdr">11</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">8</td>
+<td class="tdr">629</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">My.</td>
+<td class="tdr">1</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">9</td>
+<td class="tdr">630</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ap.</td>
+<td class="tdr">20</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">10</td>
+<td class="tdr">631</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ap.</td>
+<td class="tdr">9</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">11</td>
+<td class="tdr">632</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">M.</td>
+<td class="tdr">29</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">12</td>
+<td class="tdr">633</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">M.</td>
+<td class="tdr">18</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">13</td>
+<td class="tdr">634</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">M.</td>
+<td class="tdr">7</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">14</td>
+<td class="tdr">635</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">F.</td>
+<td class="tdr">25</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">15</td>
+<td class="tdr">636</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">F.</td>
+<td class="tdr">14</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">16</td>
+<td class="tdr">637</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">F.</td>
+<td class="tdr">2</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">17</td>
+<td class="tdr">638</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ja.</td>
+<td class="tdr">23</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">18</td>
+<td class="tdr">639</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ja.</td>
+<td class="tdr">12</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">19</td>
+<td class="tdr">640</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ja.</td>
+<td class="tdr">2</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">20</td>
+<td class="tdr">640</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">D.</td>
+<td class="tdr">21</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">21</td>
+<td class="tdr">641</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">D.</td>
+<td class="tdr">10</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">22</td>
+<td class="tdr">642</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">N.</td>
+<td class="tdr">30</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">23</td>
+<td class="tdr">643</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">N.</td>
+<td class="tdr">19</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">24</td>
+<td class="tdr">644</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">N.</td>
+<td class="tdr">7</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">25</td>
+<td class="tdr">645</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">O.</td>
+<td class="tdr">28</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">26</td>
+<td class="tdr">646</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">O.</td>
+<td class="tdr">17</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">27</td>
+<td class="tdr">647</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">O.</td>
+<td class="tdr">7</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">28</td>
+<td class="tdr">648</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">S.</td>
+<td class="tdr">25</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">29</td>
+<td class="tdr">649</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">S.</td>
+<td class="tdr">14</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">30</td>
+<td class="tdr">650</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">S.</td>
+<td class="tdr">4</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">31</td>
+<td class="tdr">651</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ag.</td>
+<td class="tdr">24</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">32</td>
+<td class="tdr">652</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ag.</td>
+<td class="tdr">12</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">33</td>
+<td class="tdr">653</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ag.</td>
+<td class="tdr">2</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">34</td>
+<td class="tdr">654</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Jy.</td>
+<td class="tdr">22</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">35</td>
+<td class="tdr">655</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Jy.</td>
+<td class="tdr">11</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">36</td>
+<td class="tdr">656</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ju.</td>
+<td class="tdr">30</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">37</td>
+<td class="tdr">657</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ju.</td>
+<td class="tdr">19</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">38</td>
+<td class="tdr">658</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ju.</td>
+<td class="tdr">9</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">39</td>
+<td class="tdr">659</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">My.</td>
+<td class="tdr">29</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">40</td>
+<td class="tdr">660</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">My.</td>
+<td class="tdr">17</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">41</td>
+<td class="tdr">661</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">My.</td>
+<td class="tdr">7</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">42</td>
+<td class="tdr">662</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ap.</td>
+<td class="tdr">26</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">43</td>
+<td class="tdr">663</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ap.</td>
+<td class="tdr">15</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">44</td>
+<td class="tdr">664</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ap.</td>
+<td class="tdr">4</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">45</td>
+<td class="tdr">665</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">M.</td>
+<td class="tdr">24</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">46</td>
+<td class="tdr">666</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">M.</td>
+<td class="tdr">13</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">47</td>
+<td class="tdr">667</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">M.</td>
+<td class="tdr">3</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">48</td>
+<td class="tdr">668</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">F.</td>
+<td class="tdr">20</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">49</td>
+<td class="tdr">669</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">F.</td>
+<td class="tdr">9</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">50</td>
+<td class="tdr">670</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ja.</td>
+<td class="tdr">29</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">51</td>
+<td class="tdr">671</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ja.</td>
+<td class="tdr">18</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">52</td>
+<td class="tdr">672</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ja.</td>
+<td class="tdr">8</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">53</td>
+<td class="tdr">672</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">D.</td>
+<td class="tdr">27</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">54</td>
+<td class="tdr">673</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">D.</td>
+<td class="tdr">16</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">55</td>
+<td class="tdr">674</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">D.</td>
+<td class="tdr">6</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">56</td>
+<td class="tdr">675</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">N.</td>
+<td class="tdr">25</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">57</td>
+<td class="tdr">676</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">N.</td>
+<td class="tdr">14</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">58</td>
+<td class="tdr">677</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">N.</td>
+<td class="tdr">3</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">59</td>
+<td class="tdr">678</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">O.</td>
+<td class="tdr">23</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">60</td>
+<td class="tdr">679</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">O.</td>
+<td class="tdr">13</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">61</td>
+<td class="tdr">680</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">O.</td>
+<td class="tdr">1</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">62</td>
+<td class="tdr">681</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">S.</td>
+<td class="tdr">20</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">63</td>
+<td class="tdr">682</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">S.</td>
+<td class="tdr">10</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">64</td>
+<td class="tdr">683</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ag.</td>
+<td class="tdr">30</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">65</td>
+<td class="tdr">684</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ag.</td>
+<td class="tdr">18</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">66</td>
+<td class="tdr">685</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ag.</td>
+<td class="tdr">8</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">67</td>
+<td class="tdr">686</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Jy.</td>
+<td class="tdr">28</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">68</td>
+<td class="tdr">687</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Jy.</td>
+<td class="tdr">18</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">69</td>
+<td class="tdr">688</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Jy.</td>
+<td class="tdr">6</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">70</td>
+<td class="tdr">689</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ju.</td>
+<td class="tdr">25</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">71</td>
+<td class="tdr">690</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ju.</td>
+<td class="tdr">15</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">72</td>
+<td class="tdr">691</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ju.</td>
+<td class="tdr">4</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">73</td>
+<td class="tdr">692</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">My.</td>
+<td class="tdr">23</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">74</td>
+<td class="tdr">693</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">My.</td>
+<td class="tdr">13</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">75</td>
+<td class="tdr">694</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">My.</td>
+<td class="tdr">2</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">76</td>
+<td class="tdr">695</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ap.</td>
+<td class="tdr">21</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">77</td>
+<td class="tdr">696</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ap.</td>
+<td class="tdr">10</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">78</td>
+<td class="tdr">697</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">M.</td>
+<td class="tdr">30</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">79</td>
+<td class="tdr">698</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">M.</td>
+<td class="tdr">20</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">80</td>
+<td class="tdr">699</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">M.</td>
+<td class="tdr">9</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">81</td>
+<td class="tdr">700</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">F.</td>
+<td class="tdr">26</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">82</td>
+<td class="tdr">701</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">F.</td>
+<td class="tdr">15</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">83</td>
+<td class="tdr">702</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">F.</td>
+<td class="tdr">4</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">84</td>
+<td class="tdr">703</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ja.</td>
+<td class="tdr">24</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">85</td>
+<td class="tdr">704</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ja.</td>
+<td class="tdr">14</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">86</td>
+<td class="tdr">705</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ja.</td>
+<td class="tdr">2</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">87</td>
+<td class="tdr">705</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">D.</td>
+<td class="tdr">23</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">88</td>
+<td class="tdr">706</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">D.</td>
+<td class="tdr">12</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">89</td>
+<td class="tdr">707</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">D.</td>
+<td class="tdr">1</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">90</td>
+<td class="tdr">708</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">N.</td>
+<td class="tdr">20</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">91</td>
+<td class="tdr">709</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">N.</td>
+<td class="tdr">9</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">92</td>
+<td class="tdr">710</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">O.</td>
+<td class="tdr">29</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">93</td>
+<td class="tdr">711</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">O.</td>
+<td class="tdr">19</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">94</td>
+<td class="tdr">712</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">O.</td>
+<td class="tdr">7</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">95</td>
+<td class="tdr">713</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">S.</td>
+<td class="tdr">26</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">96</td>
+<td class="tdr">714</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">S.</td>
+<td class="tdr">16</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">97</td>
+<td class="tdr">715</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">S.</td>
+<td class="tdr">5</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">98</td>
+<td class="tdr">716</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ag.</td>
+<td class="tdr">25</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">99</td>
+<td class="tdr">717</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ag.</td>
+<td class="tdr">14</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">100</td>
+<td class="tdr">718</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ag.</td>
+<td class="tdr">3</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">101</td>
+<td class="tdr">719</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Jy.</td>
+<td class="tdr">24</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">102</td>
+<td class="tdr">720</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Jy.</td>
+<td class="tdr">12</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">103</td>
+<td class="tdr">721</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Jy.</td>
+<td class="tdr">1</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">104</td>
+<td class="tdr">722</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ju.</td>
+<td class="tdr">21</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">105</td>
+<td class="tdr">723</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ju.</td>
+<td class="tdr">10</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">106</td>
+<td class="tdr">724</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">My.</td>
+<td class="tdr">29</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">107</td>
+<td class="tdr">725</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">My.</td>
+<td class="tdr">19</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">108</td>
+<td class="tdr">726</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">My.</td>
+<td class="tdr">8</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">109</td>
+<td class="tdr">727</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ap.</td>
+<td class="tdr">28</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">110</td>
+<td class="tdr">728</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ap.</td>
+<td class="tdr">16</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">111</td>
+<td class="tdr">729</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ap.</td>
+<td class="tdr">5</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">112</td>
+<td class="tdr">730</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">M.</td>
+<td class="tdr">26</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">113</td>
+<td class="tdr">731</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">M.</td>
+<td class="tdr">15</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">114</td>
+<td class="tdr">732</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">M.</td>
+<td class="tdr">3</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">115</td>
+<td class="tdr">733</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">F.</td>
+<td class="tdr">21</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">116</td>
+<td class="tdr">734</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">F.</td>
+<td class="tdr">10</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">117</td>
+<td class="tdr">735</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ja.</td>
+<td class="tdr">31</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">118</td>
+<td class="tdr">736</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ja.</td>
+<td class="tdr">20</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">119</td>
+<td class="tdr">737</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ja.</td>
+<td class="tdr">8</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">120</td>
+<td class="tdr">737</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">D.</td>
+<td class="tdr">29</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">121</td>
+<td class="tdr">738</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">D.</td>
+<td class="tdr">18</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">122</td>
+<td class="tdr">739</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">D.</td>
+<td class="tdr">7</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">123</td>
+<td class="tdr">740</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">N.</td>
+<td class="tdr">26</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">124</td>
+<td class="tdr">741</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">N.</td>
+<td class="tdr">15</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">125</td>
+<td class="tdr">742</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">N.</td>
+<td class="tdr">4</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">126</td>
+<td class="tdr">743</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">O.</td>
+<td class="tdr">25</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">127</td>
+<td class="tdr">744</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">O.</td>
+<td class="tdr">13</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">128</td>
+<td class="tdr">745</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">O.</td>
+<td class="tdr">3</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">129</td>
+<td class="tdr">746</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">S.</td>
+<td class="tdr">22</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">130</td>
+<td class="tdr">747</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">S.</td>
+<td class="tdr">11</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">131</td>
+<td class="tdr">748</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ag.</td>
+<td class="tdr">31</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">132</td>
+<td class="tdr">749</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ag.</td>
+<td class="tdr">20</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">133</td>
+<td class="tdr">750</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ag.</td>
+<td class="tdr">9</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">134</td>
+<td class="tdr">751</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Jy.</td>
+<td class="tdr">30</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">135</td>
+<td class="tdr">752</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Jy.</td>
+<td class="tdr">18</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">136</td>
+<td class="tdr">753</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Jy.</td>
+<td class="tdr">7</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">137</td>
+<td class="tdr">754</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ju.</td>
+<td class="tdr">27</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">138</td>
+<td class="tdr">755</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ju.</td>
+<td class="tdr">16</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">139</td>
+<td class="tdr">756</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ju.</td>
+<td class="tdr">5</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">140</td>
+<td class="tdr">757</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">My.</td>
+<td class="tdr">25</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">141</td>
+<td class="tdr">758</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">My.</td>
+<td class="tdr">14</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">142</td>
+<td class="tdr">759</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">My.</td>
+<td class="tdr">4</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">143</td>
+<td class="tdr">760</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ap.</td>
+<td class="tdr">22</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">144</td>
+<td class="tdr">761</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ap.</td>
+<td class="tdr">11</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">145</td>
+<td class="tdr">762</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ap.</td>
+<td class="tdr">1</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">146</td>
+<td class="tdr">763</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">M.</td>
+<td class="tdr">21</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">147</td>
+<td class="tdr">764</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">M.</td>
+<td class="tdr">10</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">148</td>
+<td class="tdr">765</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">F.</td>
+<td class="tdr">27</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">149</td>
+<td class="tdr">766</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">F.</td>
+<td class="tdr">16</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">150</td>
+<td class="tdr">767</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">F.</td>
+<td class="tdr">6</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">151</td>
+<td class="tdr">768</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ja.</td>
+<td class="tdr">26</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">152</td>
+<td class="tdr">769</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ja.</td>
+<td class="tdr">14</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">153</td>
+<td class="tdr">770</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ja.</td>
+<td class="tdr">4</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">154</td>
+<td class="tdr">770</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">D.</td>
+<td class="tdr">24</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">155</td>
+<td class="tdr">771</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">D.</td>
+<td class="tdr">13</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">156</td>
+<td class="tdr">772</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">D.</td>
+<td class="tdr">2</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">157</td>
+<td class="tdr">773</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">N.</td>
+<td class="tdr">21</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">158</td>
+<td class="tdr">774</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">N.</td>
+<td class="tdr">11</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">159</td>
+<td class="tdr">775</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">O.</td>
+<td class="tdr">31</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">160</td>
+<td class="tdr">776</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">O.</td>
+<td class="tdr">19</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">161</td>
+<td class="tdr">777</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">O.</td>
+<td class="tdr">9</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">162</td>
+<td class="tdr">778</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">S.</td>
+<td class="tdr">28</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">163</td>
+<td class="tdr">779</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">S.</td>
+<td class="tdr">17</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">164</td>
+<td class="tdr">780</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">S.</td>
+<td class="tdr">6</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">165</td>
+<td class="tdr">781</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ag.</td>
+<td class="tdr">26</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">166</td>
+<td class="tdr">782</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ag.</td>
+<td class="tdr">15</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">167</td>
+<td class="tdr">783</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ag.</td>
+<td class="tdr">5</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">168</td>
+<td class="tdr">784</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Jy.</td>
+<td class="tdr">24</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">169</td>
+<td class="tdr">785</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Jy.</td>
+<td class="tdr">14</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">170</td>
+<td class="tdr">786</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Jy.</td>
+<td class="tdr">3</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">171</td>
+<td class="tdr">787</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ju.</td>
+<td class="tdr">22</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">172</td>
+<td class="tdr">788</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ju.</td>
+<td class="tdr">11</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">173</td>
+<td class="tdr">789</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">My.</td>
+<td class="tdr">31</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">174</td>
+<td class="tdr">790</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">My.</td>
+<td class="tdr">20</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">175</td>
+<td class="tdr">791</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">My.</td>
+<td class="tdr">10</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">176</td>
+<td class="tdr">792</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ap.</td>
+<td class="tdr">28</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">177</td>
+<td class="tdr">793</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ap.</td>
+<td class="tdr">18</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">178</td>
+<td class="tdr">794</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ap.</td>
+<td class="tdr">7</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">179</td>
+<td class="tdr">795</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">M.</td>
+<td class="tdr">27</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">180</td>
+<td class="tdr">796</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">M.</td>
+<td class="tdr">16</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">181</td>
+<td class="tdr">797</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">M.</td>
+<td class="tdr">5</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">182</td>
+<td class="tdr">798</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">F.</td>
+<td class="tdr">22</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">183</td>
+<td class="tdr">799</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">F.</td>
+<td class="tdr">12</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">184</td>
+<td class="tdr">800</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">F.</td>
+<td class="tdr">1</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">185</td>
+<td class="tdr">801</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ja.</td>
+<td class="tdr">20</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">186</td>
+<td class="tdr">802</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ja.</td>
+<td class="tdr">10</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">187</td>
+<td class="tdr">802</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">D.</td>
+<td class="tdr">30</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">188</td>
+<td class="tdr">803</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">D.</td>
+<td class="tdr">20</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">189</td>
+<td class="tdr">804</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">D.</td>
+<td class="tdr">8</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">190</td>
+<td class="tdr">805</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">N.</td>
+<td class="tdr">27</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">191</td>
+<td class="tdr">806</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">N.</td>
+<td class="tdr">17</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">192</td>
+<td class="tdr">807</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">N.</td>
+<td class="tdr">6</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">193</td>
+<td class="tdr">808</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">O.</td>
+<td class="tdr">25</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">194</td>
+<td class="tdr">809</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">O.</td>
+<td class="tdr">15</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">195</td>
+<td class="tdr">810</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">O.</td>
+<td class="tdr">4</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">196</td>
+<td class="tdr">811</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">S.</td>
+<td class="tdr">23</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">197</td>
+<td class="tdr">812</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">S.</td>
+<td class="tdr">12</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">198</td>
+<td class="tdr">813</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">S.</td>
+<td class="tdr">1</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">199</td>
+<td class="tdr">814</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ag.</td>
+<td class="tdr">22</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">200</td>
+<td class="tdr">815</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ag.</td>
+<td class="tdr">11</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr"><span class="pagenum" id=
+"Page_324">[324]</span>201</td>
+<td class="tdr">816</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Jy.</td>
+<td class="tdr">30</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">202</td>
+<td class="tdr">817</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Jy.</td>
+<td class="tdr">20</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">203</td>
+<td class="tdr">818</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Jy.</td>
+<td class="tdr">9</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">204</td>
+<td class="tdr">819</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ju.</td>
+<td class="tdr">28</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">205</td>
+<td class="tdr">820</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ju.</td>
+<td class="tdr">17</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">206</td>
+<td class="tdr">821</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ju.</td>
+<td class="tdr">6</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">207</td>
+<td class="tdr">822</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">My.</td>
+<td class="tdr">27</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">208</td>
+<td class="tdr">823</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">My.</td>
+<td class="tdr">16</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">209</td>
+<td class="tdr">824</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">My.</td>
+<td class="tdr">4</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">210</td>
+<td class="tdr">825</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ap.</td>
+<td class="tdr">24</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">211</td>
+<td class="tdr">826</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ap.</td>
+<td class="tdr">13</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">212</td>
+<td class="tdr">827</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ap.</td>
+<td class="tdr">2</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">213</td>
+<td class="tdr">828</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">M.</td>
+<td class="tdr">22</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">214</td>
+<td class="tdr">829</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">M.</td>
+<td class="tdr">11</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">215</td>
+<td class="tdr">830</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">F.</td>
+<td class="tdr">28</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">216</td>
+<td class="tdr">831</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">F.</td>
+<td class="tdr">18</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">217</td>
+<td class="tdr">832</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">F.</td>
+<td class="tdr">7</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">218</td>
+<td class="tdr">833</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ja.</td>
+<td class="tdr">27</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">219</td>
+<td class="tdr">834</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ja.</td>
+<td class="tdr">16</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">220</td>
+<td class="tdr">835</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ja.</td>
+<td class="tdr">5</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">221</td>
+<td class="tdr">835</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">D.</td>
+<td class="tdr">26</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">222</td>
+<td class="tdr">836</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">D.</td>
+<td class="tdr">14</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">223</td>
+<td class="tdr">837</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">D.</td>
+<td class="tdr">3</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">224</td>
+<td class="tdr">838</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">N.</td>
+<td class="tdr">23</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">225</td>
+<td class="tdr">839</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">N.</td>
+<td class="tdr">12</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">226</td>
+<td class="tdr">840</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">O.</td>
+<td class="tdr">31</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">227</td>
+<td class="tdr">841</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">O.</td>
+<td class="tdr">21</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">228</td>
+<td class="tdr">842</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">O.</td>
+<td class="tdr">10</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">229</td>
+<td class="tdr">843</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">S.</td>
+<td class="tdr">30</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">230</td>
+<td class="tdr">844</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">S.</td>
+<td class="tdr">18</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">231</td>
+<td class="tdr">845</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">S.</td>
+<td class="tdr">7</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">232</td>
+<td class="tdr">846</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ag.</td>
+<td class="tdr">28</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">233</td>
+<td class="tdr">847</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ag.</td>
+<td class="tdr">17</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">234</td>
+<td class="tdr">848</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ag.</td>
+<td class="tdr">5</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">235</td>
+<td class="tdr">849</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Jy.</td>
+<td class="tdr">26</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">236</td>
+<td class="tdr">850</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Jy.</td>
+<td class="tdr">15</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">237</td>
+<td class="tdr">851</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Jy.</td>
+<td class="tdr">5</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">238</td>
+<td class="tdr">852</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ju.</td>
+<td class="tdr">23</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">239</td>
+<td class="tdr">853</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ju.</td>
+<td class="tdr">12</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">240</td>
+<td class="tdr">854</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ju.</td>
+<td class="tdr">2</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">241</td>
+<td class="tdr">855</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">My.</td>
+<td class="tdr">22</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">242</td>
+<td class="tdr">856</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">My.</td>
+<td class="tdr">10</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">243</td>
+<td class="tdr">857</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ap.</td>
+<td class="tdr">30</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">244</td>
+<td class="tdr">858</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ap.</td>
+<td class="tdr">19</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">245</td>
+<td class="tdr">859</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ap.</td>
+<td class="tdr">8</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">246</td>
+<td class="tdr">860</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">M.</td>
+<td class="tdr">28</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">247</td>
+<td class="tdr">861</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">M.</td>
+<td class="tdr">17</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">248</td>
+<td class="tdr">862</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">M.</td>
+<td class="tdr">7</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">249</td>
+<td class="tdr">863</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">F.</td>
+<td class="tdr">24</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">250</td>
+<td class="tdr">864</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">F.</td>
+<td class="tdr">13</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">251</td>
+<td class="tdr">865</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">F.</td>
+<td class="tdr">2</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">252</td>
+<td class="tdr">866</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ja.</td>
+<td class="tdr">22</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">253</td>
+<td class="tdr">867</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ja.</td>
+<td class="tdr">11</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">254</td>
+<td class="tdr">868</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ja.</td>
+<td class="tdr">1</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">255</td>
+<td class="tdr">868</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">D.</td>
+<td class="tdr">20</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">256</td>
+<td class="tdr">869</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">D.</td>
+<td class="tdr">9</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">257</td>
+<td class="tdr">870</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">N.</td>
+<td class="tdr">29</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">258</td>
+<td class="tdr">871</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">N.</td>
+<td class="tdr">18</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">259</td>
+<td class="tdr">872</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">N.</td>
+<td class="tdr">7</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">260</td>
+<td class="tdr">873</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">O.</td>
+<td class="tdr">27</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">261</td>
+<td class="tdr">874</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">O.</td>
+<td class="tdr">16</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">262</td>
+<td class="tdr">875</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">O.</td>
+<td class="tdr">6</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">263</td>
+<td class="tdr">876</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">S.</td>
+<td class="tdr">24</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">264</td>
+<td class="tdr">877</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">S.</td>
+<td class="tdr">13</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">265</td>
+<td class="tdr">878</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">S.</td>
+<td class="tdr">3</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">266</td>
+<td class="tdr">879</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ag.</td>
+<td class="tdr">23</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">267</td>
+<td class="tdr">880</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ag.</td>
+<td class="tdr">12</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">268</td>
+<td class="tdr">881</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ag.</td>
+<td class="tdr">1</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">269</td>
+<td class="tdr">882</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Jy.</td>
+<td class="tdr">21</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">270</td>
+<td class="tdr">883</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Jy.</td>
+<td class="tdr">11</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">271</td>
+<td class="tdr">884</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ju.</td>
+<td class="tdr">29</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">272</td>
+<td class="tdr">885</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ju.</td>
+<td class="tdr">18</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">273</td>
+<td class="tdr">886</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ju.</td>
+<td class="tdr">8</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">274</td>
+<td class="tdr">887</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">My.</td>
+<td class="tdr">28</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">275</td>
+<td class="tdr">888</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">My.</td>
+<td class="tdr">16</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">276</td>
+<td class="tdr">889</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">My.</td>
+<td class="tdr">6</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">277</td>
+<td class="tdr">890</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ap.</td>
+<td class="tdr">25</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">278</td>
+<td class="tdr">891</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ap.</td>
+<td class="tdr">15</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">279</td>
+<td class="tdr">892</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ap.</td>
+<td class="tdr">3</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">280</td>
+<td class="tdr">893</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">M.</td>
+<td class="tdr">23</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">281</td>
+<td class="tdr">894</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">M.</td>
+<td class="tdr">13</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">282</td>
+<td class="tdr">895</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">M.</td>
+<td class="tdr">2</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">283</td>
+<td class="tdr">896</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">F.</td>
+<td class="tdr">19</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">284</td>
+<td class="tdr">897</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">F.</td>
+<td class="tdr">8</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">285</td>
+<td class="tdr">898</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ja.</td>
+<td class="tdr">28</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">286</td>
+<td class="tdr">899</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ja.</td>
+<td class="tdr">17</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">287</td>
+<td class="tdr">900</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ja.</td>
+<td class="tdr">7</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">288</td>
+<td class="tdr">900</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">D.</td>
+<td class="tdr">26</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">289</td>
+<td class="tdr">901</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">D.</td>
+<td class="tdr">16</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">290</td>
+<td class="tdr">902</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">D.</td>
+<td class="tdr">5</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">291</td>
+<td class="tdr">903</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">N.</td>
+<td class="tdr">24</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">292</td>
+<td class="tdr">904</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">N.</td>
+<td class="tdr">13</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">293</td>
+<td class="tdr">905</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">N.</td>
+<td class="tdr">2</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">294</td>
+<td class="tdr">906</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">O.</td>
+<td class="tdr">22</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">295</td>
+<td class="tdr">907</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">O.</td>
+<td class="tdr">12</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">296</td>
+<td class="tdr">908</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">S.</td>
+<td class="tdr">30</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">297</td>
+<td class="tdr">909</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">S.</td>
+<td class="tdr">20</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">298</td>
+<td class="tdr">910</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">S.</td>
+<td class="tdr">9</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">299</td>
+<td class="tdr">911</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ag.</td>
+<td class="tdr">18</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">300</td>
+<td class="tdr">912</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ag.</td>
+<td class="tdr">29</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">301</td>
+<td class="tdr">913</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ag.</td>
+<td class="tdr">7</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">302</td>
+<td class="tdr">914</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Jy.</td>
+<td class="tdr">27</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">303</td>
+<td class="tdr">915</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Jy.</td>
+<td class="tdr">17</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">304</td>
+<td class="tdr">916</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Jy.</td>
+<td class="tdr">5</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">305</td>
+<td class="tdr">917</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ju.</td>
+<td class="tdr">24</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">306</td>
+<td class="tdr">918</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ju.</td>
+<td class="tdr">14</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">307</td>
+<td class="tdr">919</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ju.</td>
+<td class="tdr">3</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">308</td>
+<td class="tdr">920</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">My.</td>
+<td class="tdr">23</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">309</td>
+<td class="tdr">921</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">My.</td>
+<td class="tdr">12</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">310</td>
+<td class="tdr">922</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">My.</td>
+<td class="tdr">1</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">311</td>
+<td class="tdr">923</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ap.</td>
+<td class="tdr">21</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">312</td>
+<td class="tdr">924</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ap.</td>
+<td class="tdr">9</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">313</td>
+<td class="tdr">925</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">M.</td>
+<td class="tdr">29</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">314</td>
+<td class="tdr">926</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">M.</td>
+<td class="tdr">19</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">315</td>
+<td class="tdr">927</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">M.</td>
+<td class="tdr">8</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">316</td>
+<td class="tdr">928</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">F.</td>
+<td class="tdr">25</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">317</td>
+<td class="tdr">929</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">F.</td>
+<td class="tdr">14</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">318</td>
+<td class="tdr">930</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">F.</td>
+<td class="tdr">3</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">319</td>
+<td class="tdr">931</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ja.</td>
+<td class="tdr">24</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">320</td>
+<td class="tdr">932</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ja.</td>
+<td class="tdr">13</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">321</td>
+<td class="tdr">933</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ja.</td>
+<td class="tdr">1</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">322</td>
+<td class="tdr">933</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">D.</td>
+<td class="tdr">22</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">323</td>
+<td class="tdr">934</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">D.</td>
+<td class="tdr">11</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">324</td>
+<td class="tdr">935</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">N.</td>
+<td class="tdr">30</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">325</td>
+<td class="tdr">936</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">N.</td>
+<td class="tdr">19</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">326</td>
+<td class="tdr">937</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">N.</td>
+<td class="tdr">8</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">327</td>
+<td class="tdr">938</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">O.</td>
+<td class="tdr">29</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">328</td>
+<td class="tdr">939</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">O.</td>
+<td class="tdr">18</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">329</td>
+<td class="tdr">940</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">O.</td>
+<td class="tdr">6</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">330</td>
+<td class="tdr">941</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">S.</td>
+<td class="tdr">26</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">331</td>
+<td class="tdr">942</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">S.</td>
+<td class="tdr">15</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">332</td>
+<td class="tdr">943</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">S.</td>
+<td class="tdr">4</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">333</td>
+<td class="tdr">944</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ag.</td>
+<td class="tdr">24</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">334</td>
+<td class="tdr">945</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ag.</td>
+<td class="tdr">13</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">335</td>
+<td class="tdr">946</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ag.</td>
+<td class="tdr">2</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">336</td>
+<td class="tdr">947</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Jy.</td>
+<td class="tdr">23</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">337</td>
+<td class="tdr">948</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Jy.</td>
+<td class="tdr">11</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">338</td>
+<td class="tdr">949</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Jy.</td>
+<td class="tdr">1</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">339</td>
+<td class="tdr">950</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ju.</td>
+<td class="tdr">20</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">340</td>
+<td class="tdr">951</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ju.</td>
+<td class="tdr">9</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">341</td>
+<td class="tdr">952</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">My.</td>
+<td class="tdr">29</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">342</td>
+<td class="tdr">953</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">My.</td>
+<td class="tdr">18</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">343</td>
+<td class="tdr">954</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">My.</td>
+<td class="tdr">7</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">344</td>
+<td class="tdr">955</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ap.</td>
+<td class="tdr">27</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">345</td>
+<td class="tdr">956</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ap.</td>
+<td class="tdr">15</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">346</td>
+<td class="tdr">957</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ap.</td>
+<td class="tdr">4</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">347</td>
+<td class="tdr">958</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">M.</td>
+<td class="tdr">25</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">348</td>
+<td class="tdr">959</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">M.</td>
+<td class="tdr">14</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">349</td>
+<td class="tdr">960</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">M.</td>
+<td class="tdr">3</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">350</td>
+<td class="tdr">961</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">F.</td>
+<td class="tdr">20</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">351</td>
+<td class="tdr">962</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">F.</td>
+<td class="tdr">9</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">352</td>
+<td class="tdr">963</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ja.</td>
+<td class="tdr">30</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">353</td>
+<td class="tdr">964</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ja.</td>
+<td class="tdr">19</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">354</td>
+<td class="tdr">965</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ja.</td>
+<td class="tdr">7</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">355</td>
+<td class="tdr">965</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">D.</td>
+<td class="tdr">28</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">356</td>
+<td class="tdr">966</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">D.</td>
+<td class="tdr">17</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">357</td>
+<td class="tdr">967</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">D.</td>
+<td class="tdr">7</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">358</td>
+<td class="tdr">968</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">N.</td>
+<td class="tdr">25</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">359</td>
+<td class="tdr">969</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">N.</td>
+<td class="tdr">14</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">360</td>
+<td class="tdr">970</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">N.</td>
+<td class="tdr">4</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">361</td>
+<td class="tdr">971</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">O.</td>
+<td class="tdr">24</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">362</td>
+<td class="tdr">972</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">O.</td>
+<td class="tdr">12</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">363</td>
+<td class="tdr">973</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">O.</td>
+<td class="tdr">2</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">364</td>
+<td class="tdr">974</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">S.</td>
+<td class="tdr">21</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">365</td>
+<td class="tdr">975</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">S.</td>
+<td class="tdr">10</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">366</td>
+<td class="tdr">976</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ag.</td>
+<td class="tdr">30</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">367</td>
+<td class="tdr">977</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ag.</td>
+<td class="tdr">19</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">368</td>
+<td class="tdr">978</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ag.</td>
+<td class="tdr">9</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">369</td>
+<td class="tdr">979</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Jy.</td>
+<td class="tdr">29</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">370</td>
+<td class="tdr">980</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Jy.</td>
+<td class="tdr">17</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">371</td>
+<td class="tdr">981</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Jy.</td>
+<td class="tdr">7</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">372</td>
+<td class="tdr">982</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ju.</td>
+<td class="tdr">26</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">373</td>
+<td class="tdr">983</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ju.</td>
+<td class="tdr">15</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">374</td>
+<td class="tdr">984</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ju.</td>
+<td class="tdr">4</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">375</td>
+<td class="tdr">985</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">My.</td>
+<td class="tdr">24</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">376</td>
+<td class="tdr">986</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">My.</td>
+<td class="tdr">13</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">377</td>
+<td class="tdr">987</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">My.</td>
+<td class="tdr">3</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">378</td>
+<td class="tdr">988</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ap.</td>
+<td class="tdr">21</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">379</td>
+<td class="tdr">989</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ap.</td>
+<td class="tdr">11</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">380</td>
+<td class="tdr">990</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">M.</td>
+<td class="tdr">31</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">381</td>
+<td class="tdr">991</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">M.</td>
+<td class="tdr">20</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">382</td>
+<td class="tdr">992</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">M.</td>
+<td class="tdr">9</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">383</td>
+<td class="tdr">993</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">F.</td>
+<td class="tdr">26</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">384</td>
+<td class="tdr">994</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">F.</td>
+<td class="tdr">15</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">385</td>
+<td class="tdr">995</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">F.</td>
+<td class="tdr">5</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">386</td>
+<td class="tdr">996</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ja.</td>
+<td class="tdr">25</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">387</td>
+<td class="tdr">997</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ja.</td>
+<td class="tdr">14</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">388</td>
+<td class="tdr">998</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ja.</td>
+<td class="tdr">3</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">389</td>
+<td class="tdr">998</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">D.</td>
+<td class="tdr">23</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">390</td>
+<td class="tdr">999</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">D.</td>
+<td class="tdr">13</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">391</td>
+<td class="tdr">1000</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">D.</td>
+<td class="tdr">1</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">392</td>
+<td class="tdr">1001</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">N.</td>
+<td class="tdr">20</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">393</td>
+<td class="tdr">1002</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">N.</td>
+<td class="tdr">10</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">394</td>
+<td class="tdr">1003</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">O.</td>
+<td class="tdr">30</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">395</td>
+<td class="tdr">1004</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">O.</td>
+<td class="tdr">18</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">396</td>
+<td class="tdr">1005</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">O.</td>
+<td class="tdr">8</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">397</td>
+<td class="tdr">1006</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">S.</td>
+<td class="tdr">27</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">398</td>
+<td class="tdr">1007</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">S.</td>
+<td class="tdr">17</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">399</td>
+<td class="tdr">1008</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">S.</td>
+<td class="tdr">5</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">400</td>
+<td class="tdr">1009</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ag.</td>
+<td class="tdr">25</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">401</td>
+<td class="tdr">1010</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ag.</td>
+<td class="tdr">15</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">402</td>
+<td class="tdr">1011</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ag.</td>
+<td class="tdr">4</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">403</td>
+<td class="tdr">1012</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Jy.</td>
+<td class="tdr">23</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">404</td>
+<td class="tdr">1013</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Jy.</td>
+<td class="tdr">13</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">405</td>
+<td class="tdr">1014</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Jy.</td>
+<td class="tdr">2</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">406</td>
+<td class="tdr">1015</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ju.</td>
+<td class="tdr">21</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">407</td>
+<td class="tdr">1016</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ju.</td>
+<td class="tdr">10</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">408</td>
+<td class="tdr">1017</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">My.</td>
+<td class="tdr">30</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">409</td>
+<td class="tdr">1018</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">My.</td>
+<td class="tdr">20</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">410</td>
+<td class="tdr">1019</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">My.</td>
+<td class="tdr">9</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">411</td>
+<td class="tdr">1020</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ap.</td>
+<td class="tdr">27</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">412</td>
+<td class="tdr">1021</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ap</td>
+<td class="tdr">17</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">413</td>
+<td class="tdr">1022</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ap.</td>
+<td class="tdr">6</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">414</td>
+<td class="tdr">1023</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">M.</td>
+<td class="tdr">26</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">415</td>
+<td class="tdr">1024</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">M.</td>
+<td class="tdr">15</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">416</td>
+<td class="tdr">1025</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">M.</td>
+<td class="tdr">4</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">417</td>
+<td class="tdr">1026</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">F.</td>
+<td class="tdr">22</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">418</td>
+<td class="tdr">1027</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">F.</td>
+<td class="tdr">11</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">419</td>
+<td class="tdr">1028</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ja.</td>
+<td class="tdr">31</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">420</td>
+<td class="tdr">1029</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ja.</td>
+<td class="tdr">20</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr"><span class="pagenum" id=
+"Page_325">[325]</span>421</td>
+<td class="tdr">1030</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ja.</td>
+<td class="tdr">9</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">422</td>
+<td class="tdr">1030</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">D.</td>
+<td class="tdr">29</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">423</td>
+<td class="tdr">1031</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">D.</td>
+<td class="tdr">19</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">424</td>
+<td class="tdr">1032</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">D.</td>
+<td class="tdr">7</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">425</td>
+<td class="tdr">1033</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">N.</td>
+<td class="tdr">26</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">426</td>
+<td class="tdr">1034</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">N.</td>
+<td class="tdr">16</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">427</td>
+<td class="tdr">1035</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">N.</td>
+<td class="tdr">5</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">428</td>
+<td class="tdr">1036</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">O.</td>
+<td class="tdr">25</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">429</td>
+<td class="tdr">1037</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">O.</td>
+<td class="tdr">14</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">430</td>
+<td class="tdr">1038</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">O.</td>
+<td class="tdr">3</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">431</td>
+<td class="tdr">1039</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">S.</td>
+<td class="tdr">23</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">432</td>
+<td class="tdr">1040</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">S.</td>
+<td class="tdr">11</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">433</td>
+<td class="tdr">1041</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ag.</td>
+<td class="tdr">31</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">434</td>
+<td class="tdr">1042</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ag.</td>
+<td class="tdr">21</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">435</td>
+<td class="tdr">1043</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ag.</td>
+<td class="tdr">10</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">436</td>
+<td class="tdr">1044</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Jy.</td>
+<td class="tdr">29</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">437</td>
+<td class="tdr">1045</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Jy.</td>
+<td class="tdr">19</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">438</td>
+<td class="tdr">1046</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Jy.</td>
+<td class="tdr">8</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">439</td>
+<td class="tdr">1047</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ju.</td>
+<td class="tdr">28</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">440</td>
+<td class="tdr">1048</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ju.</td>
+<td class="tdr">16</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">441</td>
+<td class="tdr">1049</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ju.</td>
+<td class="tdr">5</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">442</td>
+<td class="tdr">1050</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">My.</td>
+<td class="tdr">26</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">443</td>
+<td class="tdr">1051</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">My.</td>
+<td class="tdr">15</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">444</td>
+<td class="tdr">1052</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">My.</td>
+<td class="tdr">3</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">445</td>
+<td class="tdr">1053</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ap.</td>
+<td class="tdr">23</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">446</td>
+<td class="tdr">1054</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ap.</td>
+<td class="tdr">12</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">447</td>
+<td class="tdr">1055</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ap.</td>
+<td class="tdr">2</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">448</td>
+<td class="tdr">1056</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">M.</td>
+<td class="tdr">21</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">449</td>
+<td class="tdr">1057</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">M.</td>
+<td class="tdr">10</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">450</td>
+<td class="tdr">1058</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">F.</td>
+<td class="tdr">28</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">451</td>
+<td class="tdr">1059</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">F.</td>
+<td class="tdr">17</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">452</td>
+<td class="tdr">1060</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">F.</td>
+<td class="tdr">6</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">453</td>
+<td class="tdr">1061</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ja.</td>
+<td class="tdr">26</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">454</td>
+<td class="tdr">1062</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ja.</td>
+<td class="tdr">15</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">455</td>
+<td class="tdr">1063</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ja.</td>
+<td class="tdr">4</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">456</td>
+<td class="tdr">1063</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">D.</td>
+<td class="tdr">25</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">457</td>
+<td class="tdr">1064</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">D.</td>
+<td class="tdr">13</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">458</td>
+<td class="tdr">1065</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">D.</td>
+<td class="tdr">3</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">459</td>
+<td class="tdr">1066</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">N.</td>
+<td class="tdr">22</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">460</td>
+<td class="tdr">1067</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">N.</td>
+<td class="tdr">11</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">461</td>
+<td class="tdr">1068</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">O.</td>
+<td class="tdr">31</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">462</td>
+<td class="tdr">1069</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">O.</td>
+<td class="tdr">20</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">463</td>
+<td class="tdr">1070</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">O.</td>
+<td class="tdr">9</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">464</td>
+<td class="tdr">1071</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">S.</td>
+<td class="tdr">29</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">465</td>
+<td class="tdr">1072</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">S.</td>
+<td class="tdr">17</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">466</td>
+<td class="tdr">1073</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">S.</td>
+<td class="tdr">6</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">467</td>
+<td class="tdr">1074</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ag.</td>
+<td class="tdr">27</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">468</td>
+<td class="tdr">1075</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ag.</td>
+<td class="tdr">16</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">469</td>
+<td class="tdr">1076</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ag.</td>
+<td class="tdr">5</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">470</td>
+<td class="tdr">1077</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Jy.</td>
+<td class="tdr">25</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">471</td>
+<td class="tdr">1078</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Jy.</td>
+<td class="tdr">14</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">472</td>
+<td class="tdr">1079</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Jy.</td>
+<td class="tdr">4</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">473</td>
+<td class="tdr">1080</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ju.</td>
+<td class="tdr">22</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">474</td>
+<td class="tdr">1081</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ju.</td>
+<td class="tdr">11</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">475</td>
+<td class="tdr">1082</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ju.</td>
+<td class="tdr">1</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">476</td>
+<td class="tdr">1083</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">My.</td>
+<td class="tdr">21</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">477</td>
+<td class="tdr">1084</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">My.</td>
+<td class="tdr">10</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">478</td>
+<td class="tdr">1085</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ap.</td>
+<td class="tdr">29</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">479</td>
+<td class="tdr">1086</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ap.</td>
+<td class="tdr">18</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">480</td>
+<td class="tdr">1087</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ap.</td>
+<td class="tdr">8</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">481</td>
+<td class="tdr">1088</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">M.</td>
+<td class="tdr">27</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">482</td>
+<td class="tdr">1089</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">M.</td>
+<td class="tdr">16</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">483</td>
+<td class="tdr">1090</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">M.</td>
+<td class="tdr">6</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">484</td>
+<td class="tdr">1091</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">F.</td>
+<td class="tdr">23</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">485</td>
+<td class="tdr">1092</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">F.</td>
+<td class="tdr">12</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">486</td>
+<td class="tdr">1093</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">F.</td>
+<td class="tdr">1</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">487</td>
+<td class="tdr">1094</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ja.</td>
+<td class="tdr">21</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">488</td>
+<td class="tdr">1095</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ja.</td>
+<td class="tdr">11</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">489</td>
+<td class="tdr">1095</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">D.</td>
+<td class="tdr">31</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">490</td>
+<td class="tdr">1096</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">D.</td>
+<td class="tdr">19</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">491</td>
+<td class="tdr">1097</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">D.</td>
+<td class="tdr">9</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">492</td>
+<td class="tdr">1098</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">N.</td>
+<td class="tdr">28</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">493</td>
+<td class="tdr">1099</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">N.</td>
+<td class="tdr">17</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">494</td>
+<td class="tdr">1100</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">N.</td>
+<td class="tdr">6</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">495</td>
+<td class="tdr">1101</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">O.</td>
+<td class="tdr">26</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">496</td>
+<td class="tdr">1102</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">O.</td>
+<td class="tdr">15</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">497</td>
+<td class="tdr">1103</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">O.</td>
+<td class="tdr">5</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">498</td>
+<td class="tdr">1104</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">S.</td>
+<td class="tdr">23</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">499</td>
+<td class="tdr">1105</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">S.</td>
+<td class="tdr">13</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">500</td>
+<td class="tdr">1106</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">S.</td>
+<td class="tdr">2</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">501</td>
+<td class="tdr">1107</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ag.</td>
+<td class="tdr">22</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">502</td>
+<td class="tdr">1108</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ag.</td>
+<td class="tdr">11</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">503</td>
+<td class="tdr">1109</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Jy.</td>
+<td class="tdr">31</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">504</td>
+<td class="tdr">1110</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Jy.</td>
+<td class="tdr">20</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">505</td>
+<td class="tdr">1111</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Jy.</td>
+<td class="tdr">10</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">506</td>
+<td class="tdr">1112</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ju.</td>
+<td class="tdr">28</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">507</td>
+<td class="tdr">1113</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ju.</td>
+<td class="tdr">18</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">508</td>
+<td class="tdr">1114</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ju.</td>
+<td class="tdr">7</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">509</td>
+<td class="tdr">1115</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">My.</td>
+<td class="tdr">27</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">510</td>
+<td class="tdr">1116</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">My.</td>
+<td class="tdr">16</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">511</td>
+<td class="tdr">1117</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">My.</td>
+<td class="tdr">5</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">512</td>
+<td class="tdr">1118</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ap.</td>
+<td class="tdr">24</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">513</td>
+<td class="tdr">1119</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ap.</td>
+<td class="tdr">14</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">514</td>
+<td class="tdr">1120</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ap.</td>
+<td class="tdr">2</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">515</td>
+<td class="tdr">1121</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">M.</td>
+<td class="tdr">22</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">516</td>
+<td class="tdr">1122</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">M.</td>
+<td class="tdr">12</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">517</td>
+<td class="tdr">1123</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">M.</td>
+<td class="tdr">1</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">518</td>
+<td class="tdr">1124</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">F.</td>
+<td class="tdr">19</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">519</td>
+<td class="tdr">1125</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">F.</td>
+<td class="tdr">7</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">520</td>
+<td class="tdr">1126</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ja.</td>
+<td class="tdr">27</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">521</td>
+<td class="tdr">1127</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ja.</td>
+<td class="tdr">17</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">522</td>
+<td class="tdr">1128</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ja.</td>
+<td class="tdr">6</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">523</td>
+<td class="tdr">1128</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">D.</td>
+<td class="tdr">25</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">524</td>
+<td class="tdr">1129</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">D.</td>
+<td class="tdr">15</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">525</td>
+<td class="tdr">1130</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">D.</td>
+<td class="tdr">4</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">526</td>
+<td class="tdr">1131</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">N.</td>
+<td class="tdr">23</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">527</td>
+<td class="tdr">1132</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">N.</td>
+<td class="tdr">12</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">528</td>
+<td class="tdr">1133</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">N.</td>
+<td class="tdr">1</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">529</td>
+<td class="tdr">1134</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">O.</td>
+<td class="tdr">22</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">530</td>
+<td class="tdr">1135</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">O.</td>
+<td class="tdr">11</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">531</td>
+<td class="tdr">1136</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">S.</td>
+<td class="tdr">29</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">532</td>
+<td class="tdr">1137</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">S.</td>
+<td class="tdr">19</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">533</td>
+<td class="tdr">1138</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">S.</td>
+<td class="tdr">8</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">534</td>
+<td class="tdr">1139</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ag.</td>
+<td class="tdr">28</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">535</td>
+<td class="tdr">1140</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ag.</td>
+<td class="tdr">17</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">536</td>
+<td class="tdr">1141</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ag.</td>
+<td class="tdr">6</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">537</td>
+<td class="tdr">1142</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Jy.</td>
+<td class="tdr">27</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">538</td>
+<td class="tdr">1143</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Jy.</td>
+<td class="tdr">16</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">539</td>
+<td class="tdr">1144</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Jy.</td>
+<td class="tdr">4</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">540</td>
+<td class="tdr">1145</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ju.</td>
+<td class="tdr">24</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">541</td>
+<td class="tdr">1146</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ju.</td>
+<td class="tdr">13</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">542</td>
+<td class="tdr">1147</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ju.</td>
+<td class="tdr">2</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">543</td>
+<td class="tdr">1148</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">My.</td>
+<td class="tdr">22</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">544</td>
+<td class="tdr">1149</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">My.</td>
+<td class="tdr">11</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">545</td>
+<td class="tdr">1150</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ap.</td>
+<td class="tdr">30</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">546</td>
+<td class="tdr">1151</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ap.</td>
+<td class="tdr">20</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">547</td>
+<td class="tdr">1152</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ap.</td>
+<td class="tdr">8</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">548</td>
+<td class="tdr">1153</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">M.</td>
+<td class="tdr">29</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">549</td>
+<td class="tdr">1154</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">M.</td>
+<td class="tdr">18</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">550</td>
+<td class="tdr">1155</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">M.</td>
+<td class="tdr">7</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">551</td>
+<td class="tdr">1156</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">F.</td>
+<td class="tdr">25</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">552</td>
+<td class="tdr">1157</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">F.</td>
+<td class="tdr">13</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">553</td>
+<td class="tdr">1158</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">F.</td>
+<td class="tdr">2</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">554</td>
+<td class="tdr">1159</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ja.</td>
+<td class="tdr">23</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">555</td>
+<td class="tdr">1160</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ja.</td>
+<td class="tdr">12</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">556</td>
+<td class="tdr">1160</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">D.</td>
+<td class="tdr">31</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">557</td>
+<td class="tdr">1161</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">D.</td>
+<td class="tdr">21</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">558</td>
+<td class="tdr">1162</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">D.</td>
+<td class="tdr">10</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">559</td>
+<td class="tdr">1163</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">N.</td>
+<td class="tdr">30</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">560</td>
+<td class="tdr">1164</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">N.</td>
+<td class="tdr">18</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">561</td>
+<td class="tdr">1165</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">N.</td>
+<td class="tdr">7</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">562</td>
+<td class="tdr">1166</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">O.</td>
+<td class="tdr">28</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">563</td>
+<td class="tdr">1167</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">O.</td>
+<td class="tdr">17</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">564</td>
+<td class="tdr">1168</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">O.</td>
+<td class="tdr">5</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">565</td>
+<td class="tdr">1169</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">S.</td>
+<td class="tdr">25</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">566</td>
+<td class="tdr">1170</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">S.</td>
+<td class="tdr">14</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">567</td>
+<td class="tdr">1171</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">S.</td>
+<td class="tdr">4</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">568</td>
+<td class="tdr">1172</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ag.</td>
+<td class="tdr">23</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">569</td>
+<td class="tdr">1173</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ag.</td>
+<td class="tdr">12</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">570</td>
+<td class="tdr">1174</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ag.</td>
+<td class="tdr">2</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">571</td>
+<td class="tdr">1175</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Jy.</td>
+<td class="tdr">22</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">572</td>
+<td class="tdr">1176</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Jy.</td>
+<td class="tdr">10</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">573</td>
+<td class="tdr">1177</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ju.</td>
+<td class="tdr">30</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">574</td>
+<td class="tdr">1178</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ju.</td>
+<td class="tdr">19</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">575</td>
+<td class="tdr">1179</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ju.</td>
+<td class="tdr">8</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">576</td>
+<td class="tdr">1180</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">My.</td>
+<td class="tdr">28</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">577</td>
+<td class="tdr">1181</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">My.</td>
+<td class="tdr">17</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">578</td>
+<td class="tdr">1182</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">My.</td>
+<td class="tdr">7</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">579</td>
+<td class="tdr">1183</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ap.</td>
+<td class="tdr">26</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">580</td>
+<td class="tdr">1184</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ap.</td>
+<td class="tdr">14</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">581</td>
+<td class="tdr">1185</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ap.</td>
+<td class="tdr">4</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">582</td>
+<td class="tdr">1186</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">M.</td>
+<td class="tdr">24</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">583</td>
+<td class="tdr">1187</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">M.</td>
+<td class="tdr">13</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">584</td>
+<td class="tdr">1188</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">M.</td>
+<td class="tdr">2</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">585</td>
+<td class="tdr">1189</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">F.</td>
+<td class="tdr">19</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">586</td>
+<td class="tdr">1190</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">F.</td>
+<td class="tdr">8</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">587</td>
+<td class="tdr">1191</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ja.</td>
+<td class="tdr">29</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">588</td>
+<td class="tdr">1192</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ja.</td>
+<td class="tdr">18</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">589</td>
+<td class="tdr">1193</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ja.</td>
+<td class="tdr">7</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">590</td>
+<td class="tdr">1193</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">D.</td>
+<td class="tdr">27</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">591</td>
+<td class="tdr">1194</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">D.</td>
+<td class="tdr">16</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">592</td>
+<td class="tdr">1195</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">D.</td>
+<td class="tdr">6</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">593</td>
+<td class="tdr">1196</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">N.</td>
+<td class="tdr">24</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">594</td>
+<td class="tdr">1197</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">N.</td>
+<td class="tdr">13</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">595</td>
+<td class="tdr">1198</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">N.</td>
+<td class="tdr">3</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">596</td>
+<td class="tdr">1199</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">O.</td>
+<td class="tdr">23</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">597</td>
+<td class="tdr">1200</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">O.</td>
+<td class="tdr">12</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">598</td>
+<td class="tdr">1201</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">O.</td>
+<td class="tdr">1</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">599</td>
+<td class="tdr">1202</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">S.</td>
+<td class="tdr">20</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">600</td>
+<td class="tdr">1203</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">S.</td>
+<td class="tdr">10</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">601</td>
+<td class="tdr">1204</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ag.</td>
+<td class="tdr">29</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">602</td>
+<td class="tdr">1205</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ag.</td>
+<td class="tdr">18</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">603</td>
+<td class="tdr">1206</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ag.</td>
+<td class="tdr">8</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">604</td>
+<td class="tdr">1207</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Jy.</td>
+<td class="tdr">28</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">605</td>
+<td class="tdr">1208</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Jy.</td>
+<td class="tdr">16</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">606</td>
+<td class="tdr">1209</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Jy.</td>
+<td class="tdr">6</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">607</td>
+<td class="tdr">1210</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ju.</td>
+<td class="tdr">25</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">608</td>
+<td class="tdr">1211</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ju.</td>
+<td class="tdr">15</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">609</td>
+<td class="tdr">1212</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ju.</td>
+<td class="tdr">3</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">610</td>
+<td class="tdr">1213</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">My.</td>
+<td class="tdr">23</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">611</td>
+<td class="tdr">1214</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">My.</td>
+<td class="tdr">13</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">612</td>
+<td class="tdr">1215</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">My.</td>
+<td class="tdr">2</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">613</td>
+<td class="tdr">1216</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ap.</td>
+<td class="tdr">20</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">614</td>
+<td class="tdr">1217</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ap.</td>
+<td class="tdr">10</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">615</td>
+<td class="tdr">1218</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">M.</td>
+<td class="tdr">30</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">616</td>
+<td class="tdr">1219</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">M.</td>
+<td class="tdr">19</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">617</td>
+<td class="tdr">1220</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">M.</td>
+<td class="tdr">8</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">618</td>
+<td class="tdr">1221</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">F.</td>
+<td class="tdr">25</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">619</td>
+<td class="tdr">1222</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">F.</td>
+<td class="tdr">15</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">620</td>
+<td class="tdr">1223</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">F.</td>
+<td class="tdr">4</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">621</td>
+<td class="tdr">1224</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ja.</td>
+<td class="tdr">24</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">622</td>
+<td class="tdr">1225</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ja.</td>
+<td class="tdr">13</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">623</td>
+<td class="tdr">1226</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ja.</td>
+<td class="tdr">2</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">624</td>
+<td class="tdr">1226</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">D.</td>
+<td class="tdr">22</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">625</td>
+<td class="tdr">1227</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">D.</td>
+<td class="tdr">12</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">626</td>
+<td class="tdr">1228</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">N.</td>
+<td class="tdr">30</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">627</td>
+<td class="tdr">1229</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">N.</td>
+<td class="tdr">20</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">628</td>
+<td class="tdr">1230</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">N.</td>
+<td class="tdr">9</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">629</td>
+<td class="tdr">1231</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">O.</td>
+<td class="tdr">29</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">630</td>
+<td class="tdr">1232</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">O.</td>
+<td class="tdr">18</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">631</td>
+<td class="tdr">1233</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">O.</td>
+<td class="tdr">7</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">632</td>
+<td class="tdr">1234</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">S.</td>
+<td class="tdr">26</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">633</td>
+<td class="tdr">1235</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">S.</td>
+<td class="tdr">16</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">634</td>
+<td class="tdr">1236</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">S.</td>
+<td class="tdr">4</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">635</td>
+<td class="tdr">1237</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ag.</td>
+<td class="tdr">24</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">636</td>
+<td class="tdr">1238</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ag.</td>
+<td class="tdr">14</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">637</td>
+<td class="tdr">1239</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ag.</td>
+<td class="tdr">3</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">638</td>
+<td class="tdr">1240</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Jy.</td>
+<td class="tdr">23</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">639</td>
+<td class="tdr">1241</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Jy.</td>
+<td class="tdr">12</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">640</td>
+<td class="tdr">1242</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Jy.</td>
+<td class="tdr">1</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr"><span class="pagenum" id=
+"Page_326">[326]</span>641</td>
+<td class="tdr">1243</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ju.</td>
+<td class="tdr">21</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">642</td>
+<td class="tdr">1244</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ju.</td>
+<td class="tdr">9</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">643</td>
+<td class="tdr">1245</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">My.</td>
+<td class="tdr">29</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">644</td>
+<td class="tdr">1246</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">My.</td>
+<td class="tdr">19</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">645</td>
+<td class="tdr">1247</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">My.</td>
+<td class="tdr">8</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">646</td>
+<td class="tdr">1248</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ap.</td>
+<td class="tdr">26</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">647</td>
+<td class="tdr">1249</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ap.</td>
+<td class="tdr">16</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">648</td>
+<td class="tdr">1250</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ap.</td>
+<td class="tdr">5</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">649</td>
+<td class="tdr">1251</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">M.</td>
+<td class="tdr">26</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">650</td>
+<td class="tdr">1252</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">M.</td>
+<td class="tdr">14</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">651</td>
+<td class="tdr">1253</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">M.</td>
+<td class="tdr">3</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">652</td>
+<td class="tdr">1254</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">F.</td>
+<td class="tdr">21</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">653</td>
+<td class="tdr">1255</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">F.</td>
+<td class="tdr">10</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">654</td>
+<td class="tdr">1256</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ja.</td>
+<td class="tdr">30</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">655</td>
+<td class="tdr">1257</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ja.</td>
+<td class="tdr">19</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">656</td>
+<td class="tdr">1258</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ja.</td>
+<td class="tdr">8</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">657</td>
+<td class="tdr">1258</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">D.</td>
+<td class="tdr">29</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">658</td>
+<td class="tdr">1259</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">D.</td>
+<td class="tdr">18</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">659</td>
+<td class="tdr">1260</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">D.</td>
+<td class="tdr">6</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">660</td>
+<td class="tdr">1261</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">N.</td>
+<td class="tdr">26</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">661</td>
+<td class="tdr">1262</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">N.</td>
+<td class="tdr">15</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">662</td>
+<td class="tdr">1263</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">N.</td>
+<td class="tdr">4</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">663</td>
+<td class="tdr">1264</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">O.</td>
+<td class="tdr">24</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">664</td>
+<td class="tdr">1265</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">O.</td>
+<td class="tdr">13</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">665</td>
+<td class="tdr">1266</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">O.</td>
+<td class="tdr">2</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">666</td>
+<td class="tdr">1267</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">S.</td>
+<td class="tdr">22</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">667</td>
+<td class="tdr">1268</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">S.</td>
+<td class="tdr">10</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">668</td>
+<td class="tdr">1269</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ag.</td>
+<td class="tdr">31</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">669</td>
+<td class="tdr">1270</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ag.</td>
+<td class="tdr">20</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">670</td>
+<td class="tdr">1271</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ag.</td>
+<td class="tdr">9</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">671</td>
+<td class="tdr">1272</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Jy.</td>
+<td class="tdr">29</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">672</td>
+<td class="tdr">1273</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Jy.</td>
+<td class="tdr">18</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">673</td>
+<td class="tdr">1274</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Jy.</td>
+<td class="tdr">7</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">674</td>
+<td class="tdr">1275</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ju.</td>
+<td class="tdr">27</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">675</td>
+<td class="tdr">1276</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ju.</td>
+<td class="tdr">15</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">676</td>
+<td class="tdr">1277</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ju.</td>
+<td class="tdr">4</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">677</td>
+<td class="tdr">1278</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">My.</td>
+<td class="tdr">25</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">678</td>
+<td class="tdr">1279</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">My.</td>
+<td class="tdr">14</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">679</td>
+<td class="tdr">1280</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">My.</td>
+<td class="tdr">3</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">680</td>
+<td class="tdr">1281</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ap.</td>
+<td class="tdr">22</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">681</td>
+<td class="tdr">1282</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ap.</td>
+<td class="tdr">11</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">682</td>
+<td class="tdr">1283</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ap.</td>
+<td class="tdr">1</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">683</td>
+<td class="tdr">1284</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">M.</td>
+<td class="tdr">20</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">684</td>
+<td class="tdr">1285</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">M.</td>
+<td class="tdr">9</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">685</td>
+<td class="tdr">1286</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">F.</td>
+<td class="tdr">27</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">686</td>
+<td class="tdr">1287</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">F.</td>
+<td class="tdr">16</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">687</td>
+<td class="tdr">1288</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">F.</td>
+<td class="tdr">6</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">688</td>
+<td class="tdr">1289</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ja.</td>
+<td class="tdr">25</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">689</td>
+<td class="tdr">1290</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ja.</td>
+<td class="tdr">14</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">690</td>
+<td class="tdr">1291</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ja.</td>
+<td class="tdr">4</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">691</td>
+<td class="tdr">1291</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">D.</td>
+<td class="tdr">24</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">692</td>
+<td class="tdr">1292</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">D.</td>
+<td class="tdr">12</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">693</td>
+<td class="tdr">1293</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">D.</td>
+<td class="tdr">2</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">694</td>
+<td class="tdr">1294</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">N.</td>
+<td class="tdr">21</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">695</td>
+<td class="tdr">1295</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">N.</td>
+<td class="tdr">10</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">696</td>
+<td class="tdr">1296</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">O.</td>
+<td class="tdr">30</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">697</td>
+<td class="tdr">1297</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">O.</td>
+<td class="tdr">19</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">698</td>
+<td class="tdr">1298</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">O.</td>
+<td class="tdr">9</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">699</td>
+<td class="tdr">1299</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">S.</td>
+<td class="tdr">28</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">700</td>
+<td class="tdr">1300</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">S.</td>
+<td class="tdr">16</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">701</td>
+<td class="tdr">1301</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">S.</td>
+<td class="tdr">6</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">702</td>
+<td class="tdr">1302</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ag.</td>
+<td class="tdr">26</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">703</td>
+<td class="tdr">1303</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ag.</td>
+<td class="tdr">15</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">704</td>
+<td class="tdr">1304</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ag.</td>
+<td class="tdr">4</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">705</td>
+<td class="tdr">1305</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Jy.</td>
+<td class="tdr">24</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">706</td>
+<td class="tdr">1306</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Jy.</td>
+<td class="tdr">13</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">707</td>
+<td class="tdr">1307</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Jy.</td>
+<td class="tdr">3</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">708</td>
+<td class="tdr">1308</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ju.</td>
+<td class="tdr">21</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">709</td>
+<td class="tdr">1309</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ju.</td>
+<td class="tdr">11</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">710</td>
+<td class="tdr">1310</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">My.</td>
+<td class="tdr">31</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">711</td>
+<td class="tdr">1311</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">My.</td>
+<td class="tdr">20</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">712</td>
+<td class="tdr">1312</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">My.</td>
+<td class="tdr">9</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">713</td>
+<td class="tdr">1313</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ap.</td>
+<td class="tdr">28</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">714</td>
+<td class="tdr">1314</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ap.</td>
+<td class="tdr">17</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">715</td>
+<td class="tdr">1315</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ap</td>
+<td class="tdr">7</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">716</td>
+<td class="tdr">1316</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">M.</td>
+<td class="tdr">26</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">717</td>
+<td class="tdr">1317</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">M.</td>
+<td class="tdr">16</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">718</td>
+<td class="tdr">1318</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">M.</td>
+<td class="tdr">5</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">719</td>
+<td class="tdr">1319</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">F.</td>
+<td class="tdr">22</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">720</td>
+<td class="tdr">1320</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">F.</td>
+<td class="tdr">12</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">721</td>
+<td class="tdr">1321</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ja.</td>
+<td class="tdr">31</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">722</td>
+<td class="tdr">1322</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ja.</td>
+<td class="tdr">20</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">723</td>
+<td class="tdr">1323</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ja.</td>
+<td class="tdr">10</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">724</td>
+<td class="tdr">1323</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">D.</td>
+<td class="tdr">30</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">725</td>
+<td class="tdr">1324</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">D.</td>
+<td class="tdr">18</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">726</td>
+<td class="tdr">1325</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">D.</td>
+<td class="tdr">8</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">727</td>
+<td class="tdr">1326</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">N.</td>
+<td class="tdr">27</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">728</td>
+<td class="tdr">1327</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">N.</td>
+<td class="tdr">17</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">729</td>
+<td class="tdr">1328</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">N.</td>
+<td class="tdr">5</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">730</td>
+<td class="tdr">1329</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">O.</td>
+<td class="tdr">25</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">731</td>
+<td class="tdr">1330</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">O.</td>
+<td class="tdr">15</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">732</td>
+<td class="tdr">1331</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">O.</td>
+<td class="tdr">4</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">733</td>
+<td class="tdr">1332</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">S.</td>
+<td class="tdr">22</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">734</td>
+<td class="tdr">1333</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">S.</td>
+<td class="tdr">12</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">735</td>
+<td class="tdr">1334</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">S.</td>
+<td class="tdr">1</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">736</td>
+<td class="tdr">1335</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ag.</td>
+<td class="tdr">21</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">737</td>
+<td class="tdr">1336</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ag.</td>
+<td class="tdr">10</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">738</td>
+<td class="tdr">1337</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Jy.</td>
+<td class="tdr">30</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">739</td>
+<td class="tdr">1338</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Jy.</td>
+<td class="tdr">20</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">740</td>
+<td class="tdr">1339</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Jy.</td>
+<td class="tdr">9</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">741</td>
+<td class="tdr">1340</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ju.</td>
+<td class="tdr">27</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">742</td>
+<td class="tdr">1341</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ju.</td>
+<td class="tdr">17</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">743</td>
+<td class="tdr">1342</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ju.</td>
+<td class="tdr">6</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">744</td>
+<td class="tdr">1343</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">My.</td>
+<td class="tdr">26</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">745</td>
+<td class="tdr">1344</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">My.</td>
+<td class="tdr">15</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">746</td>
+<td class="tdr">1345</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">My.</td>
+<td class="tdr">4</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">747</td>
+<td class="tdr">1346</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ap.</td>
+<td class="tdr">24</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">748</td>
+<td class="tdr">1347</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ap.</td>
+<td class="tdr">13</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">749</td>
+<td class="tdr">1348</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ap.</td>
+<td class="tdr">1</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">750</td>
+<td class="tdr">1349</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">M.</td>
+<td class="tdr">22</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">751</td>
+<td class="tdr">1350</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">M.</td>
+<td class="tdr">11</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">752</td>
+<td class="tdr">1351</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">F.</td>
+<td class="tdr">28</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">753</td>
+<td class="tdr">1352</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">F.</td>
+<td class="tdr">18</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">754</td>
+<td class="tdr">1353</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">F.</td>
+<td class="tdr">6</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">755</td>
+<td class="tdr">1354</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ja.</td>
+<td class="tdr">26</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">756</td>
+<td class="tdr">1355</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ja.</td>
+<td class="tdr">16</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">757</td>
+<td class="tdr">1356</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ja.</td>
+<td class="tdr">5</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">758</td>
+<td class="tdr">1356</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">D.</td>
+<td class="tdr">25</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">759</td>
+<td class="tdr">1357</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">D.</td>
+<td class="tdr">14</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">760</td>
+<td class="tdr">1358</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">D.</td>
+<td class="tdr">3</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">761</td>
+<td class="tdr">1359</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">N.</td>
+<td class="tdr">23</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">762</td>
+<td class="tdr">1360</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">N.</td>
+<td class="tdr">11</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">763</td>
+<td class="tdr">1361</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">O.</td>
+<td class="tdr">31</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">764</td>
+<td class="tdr">1362</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">O.</td>
+<td class="tdr">21</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">765</td>
+<td class="tdr">1363</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">O.</td>
+<td class="tdr">10</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">766</td>
+<td class="tdr">1364</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">S.</td>
+<td class="tdr">28</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">767</td>
+<td class="tdr">1365</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">S.</td>
+<td class="tdr">18</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">768</td>
+<td class="tdr">1366</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">S.</td>
+<td class="tdr">7</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">769</td>
+<td class="tdr">1367</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ag.</td>
+<td class="tdr">28</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">770</td>
+<td class="tdr">1368</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ag.</td>
+<td class="tdr">16</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">771</td>
+<td class="tdr">1369</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ag.</td>
+<td class="tdr">5</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">772</td>
+<td class="tdr">1370</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Jy.</td>
+<td class="tdr">26</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">773</td>
+<td class="tdr">1371</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Jy.</td>
+<td class="tdr">15</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">774</td>
+<td class="tdr">1372</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Jy.</td>
+<td class="tdr">3</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">775</td>
+<td class="tdr">1373</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ju.</td>
+<td class="tdr">23</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">776</td>
+<td class="tdr">1374</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ju.</td>
+<td class="tdr">12</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">777</td>
+<td class="tdr">1375</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ju.</td>
+<td class="tdr">2</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">778</td>
+<td class="tdr">1376</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">My.</td>
+<td class="tdr">21</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">779</td>
+<td class="tdr">1377</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">My.</td>
+<td class="tdr">10</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">780</td>
+<td class="tdr">1378</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ap.</td>
+<td class="tdr">30</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">781</td>
+<td class="tdr">1379</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ap.</td>
+<td class="tdr">19</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">782</td>
+<td class="tdr">1380</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ap.</td>
+<td class="tdr">7</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">783</td>
+<td class="tdr">1381</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">M.</td>
+<td class="tdr">28</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">784</td>
+<td class="tdr">1382</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">M.</td>
+<td class="tdr">17</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">785</td>
+<td class="tdr">1383</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">M.</td>
+<td class="tdr">6</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">786</td>
+<td class="tdr">1384</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">F.</td>
+<td class="tdr">24</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">787</td>
+<td class="tdr">1385</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">F.</td>
+<td class="tdr">12</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">788</td>
+<td class="tdr">1386</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">F.</td>
+<td class="tdr">2</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">789</td>
+<td class="tdr">1387</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ja.</td>
+<td class="tdr">22</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">790</td>
+<td class="tdr">1388</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ja.</td>
+<td class="tdr">11</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">791</td>
+<td class="tdr">1388</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">D.</td>
+<td class="tdr">31</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">792</td>
+<td class="tdr">1389</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">D.</td>
+<td class="tdr">20</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">793</td>
+<td class="tdr">1390</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">D.</td>
+<td class="tdr">9</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">794</td>
+<td class="tdr">1391</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">N.</td>
+<td class="tdr">29</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">795</td>
+<td class="tdr">1392</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">N.</td>
+<td class="tdr">17</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">796</td>
+<td class="tdr">1393</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">N.</td>
+<td class="tdr">6</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">797</td>
+<td class="tdr">1394</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">O.</td>
+<td class="tdr">27</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">798</td>
+<td class="tdr">1395</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">O.</td>
+<td class="tdr">16</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">799</td>
+<td class="tdr">1396</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">O.</td>
+<td class="tdr">5</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">800</td>
+<td class="tdr">1397</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">S.</td>
+<td class="tdr">24</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">801</td>
+<td class="tdr">1398</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">S.</td>
+<td class="tdr">13</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">802</td>
+<td class="tdr">1399</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">S.</td>
+<td class="tdr">3</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">803</td>
+<td class="tdr">1400</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ag.</td>
+<td class="tdr">22</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">804</td>
+<td class="tdr">1401</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ag.</td>
+<td class="tdr">11</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">805</td>
+<td class="tdr">1402</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ag.</td>
+<td class="tdr">1</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">806</td>
+<td class="tdr">1403</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Jy.</td>
+<td class="tdr">21</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">807</td>
+<td class="tdr">1404</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Jy.</td>
+<td class="tdr">10</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">808</td>
+<td class="tdr">1405</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ju.</td>
+<td class="tdr">29</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">809</td>
+<td class="tdr">1406</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ju.</td>
+<td class="tdr">18</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">810</td>
+<td class="tdr">1407</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ju.</td>
+<td class="tdr">8</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">811</td>
+<td class="tdr">1408</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">My.</td>
+<td class="tdr">27</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">812</td>
+<td class="tdr">1409</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">My.</td>
+<td class="tdr">16</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">813</td>
+<td class="tdr">1410</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">My.</td>
+<td class="tdr">6</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">814</td>
+<td class="tdr">1411</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ap.</td>
+<td class="tdr">25</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">815</td>
+<td class="tdr">1412</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ap.</td>
+<td class="tdr">13</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">816</td>
+<td class="tdr">1413</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ap.</td>
+<td class="tdr">3</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">817</td>
+<td class="tdr">1414</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">M.</td>
+<td class="tdr">23</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">818</td>
+<td class="tdr">1415</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">M.</td>
+<td class="tdr">13</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">819</td>
+<td class="tdr">1416</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">M.</td>
+<td class="tdr">1</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">820</td>
+<td class="tdr">1417</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">F.</td>
+<td class="tdr">18</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">821</td>
+<td class="tdr">1418</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">F.</td>
+<td class="tdr">8</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">822</td>
+<td class="tdr">1419</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ja.</td>
+<td class="tdr">28</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">823</td>
+<td class="tdr">1420</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ja.</td>
+<td class="tdr">17</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">824</td>
+<td class="tdr">1421</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ja.</td>
+<td class="tdr">6</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">825</td>
+<td class="tdr">1421</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">D.</td>
+<td class="tdr">26</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">826</td>
+<td class="tdr">1422</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">D.</td>
+<td class="tdr">15</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">827</td>
+<td class="tdr">1423</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">D.</td>
+<td class="tdr">5</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">828</td>
+<td class="tdr">1424</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">N.</td>
+<td class="tdr">23</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">829</td>
+<td class="tdr">1425</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">N.</td>
+<td class="tdr">13</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">830</td>
+<td class="tdr">1426</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">N.</td>
+<td class="tdr">2</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">831</td>
+<td class="tdr">1427</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">O.</td>
+<td class="tdr">22</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">832</td>
+<td class="tdr">1428</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">O.</td>
+<td class="tdr">11</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">833</td>
+<td class="tdr">1429</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">S.</td>
+<td class="tdr">30</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">834</td>
+<td class="tdr">1430</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">S.</td>
+<td class="tdr">19</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">835</td>
+<td class="tdr">1431</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">S.</td>
+<td class="tdr">9</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">836</td>
+<td class="tdr">1432</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ag.</td>
+<td class="tdr">28</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">837</td>
+<td class="tdr">1433</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ag.</td>
+<td class="tdr">18</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">838</td>
+<td class="tdr">1434</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ag.</td>
+<td class="tdr">7</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">839</td>
+<td class="tdr">1435</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Jy.</td>
+<td class="tdr">27</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">840</td>
+<td class="tdr">1436</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Jy.</td>
+<td class="tdr">16</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">841</td>
+<td class="tdr">1437</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Jy.</td>
+<td class="tdr">5</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">842</td>
+<td class="tdr">1438</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ju.</td>
+<td class="tdr">24</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">843</td>
+<td class="tdr">1439</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ju.</td>
+<td class="tdr">14</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">844</td>
+<td class="tdr">1440</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ju.</td>
+<td class="tdr">2</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">845</td>
+<td class="tdr">1441</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">My.</td>
+<td class="tdr">22</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">846</td>
+<td class="tdr">1442</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">My.</td>
+<td class="tdr">12</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">847</td>
+<td class="tdr">1443</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">My.</td>
+<td class="tdr">1</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">848</td>
+<td class="tdr">1444</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ap.</td>
+<td class="tdr">20</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">849</td>
+<td class="tdr">1445</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ap.</td>
+<td class="tdr">9</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">850</td>
+<td class="tdr">1446</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">M.</td>
+<td class="tdr">29</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">851</td>
+<td class="tdr">1447</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">M.</td>
+<td class="tdr">19</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">852</td>
+<td class="tdr">1448</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">M.</td>
+<td class="tdr">7</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">853</td>
+<td class="tdr">1449</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">F.</td>
+<td class="tdr">24</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">854</td>
+<td class="tdr">1450</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">F.</td>
+<td class="tdr">14</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">855</td>
+<td class="tdr">1451</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">F.</td>
+<td class="tdr">3</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">856</td>
+<td class="tdr">1452</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ja.</td>
+<td class="tdr">23</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">857</td>
+<td class="tdr">1453</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ja.</td>
+<td class="tdr">12</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">858</td>
+<td class="tdr">1454</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ja.</td>
+<td class="tdr">1</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">859</td>
+<td class="tdr">1454</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">D.</td>
+<td class="tdr">22</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">860</td>
+<td class="tdr">1455</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">D.</td>
+<td class="tdr">11</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr"><span class="pagenum" id=
+"Page_327">[327]</span>861</td>
+<td class="tdr">1456</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">N.</td>
+<td class="tdr">29</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">862</td>
+<td class="tdr">1457</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">N.</td>
+<td class="tdr">19</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">863</td>
+<td class="tdr">1458</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">N.</td>
+<td class="tdr">8</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">864</td>
+<td class="tdr">1459</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">O.</td>
+<td class="tdr">28</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">865</td>
+<td class="tdr">1460</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">O.</td>
+<td class="tdr">17</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">866</td>
+<td class="tdr">1461</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">O.</td>
+<td class="tdr">6</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">867</td>
+<td class="tdr">1462</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">S.</td>
+<td class="tdr">26</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">868</td>
+<td class="tdr">1463</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">S.</td>
+<td class="tdr">15</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">869</td>
+<td class="tdr">1464</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">S.</td>
+<td class="tdr">3</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">870</td>
+<td class="tdr">1465</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ag.</td>
+<td class="tdr">24</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">871</td>
+<td class="tdr">1466</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ag.</td>
+<td class="tdr">13</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">872</td>
+<td class="tdr">1467</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ag.</td>
+<td class="tdr">2</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">873</td>
+<td class="tdr">1468</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Jy.</td>
+<td class="tdr">22</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">874</td>
+<td class="tdr">1469</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Jy.</td>
+<td class="tdr">11</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">875</td>
+<td class="tdr">1470</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ju.</td>
+<td class="tdr">30</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">876</td>
+<td class="tdr">1471</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ju.</td>
+<td class="tdr">20</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">877</td>
+<td class="tdr">1472</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ju.</td>
+<td class="tdr">8</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">878</td>
+<td class="tdr">1473</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">My.</td>
+<td class="tdr">29</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">879</td>
+<td class="tdr">1474</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">My.</td>
+<td class="tdr">18</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">880</td>
+<td class="tdr">1475</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">My.</td>
+<td class="tdr">7</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">881</td>
+<td class="tdr">1476</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ap.</td>
+<td class="tdr">26</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">882</td>
+<td class="tdr">1477</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ap.</td>
+<td class="tdr">15</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">883</td>
+<td class="tdr">1478</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ap.</td>
+<td class="tdr">4</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">884</td>
+<td class="tdr">1479</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">M.</td>
+<td class="tdr">25</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">885</td>
+<td class="tdr">1480</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">M.</td>
+<td class="tdr">13</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">886</td>
+<td class="tdr">1481</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">M.</td>
+<td class="tdr">2</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">887</td>
+<td class="tdr">1482</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">F.</td>
+<td class="tdr">20</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">888</td>
+<td class="tdr">1483</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">F.</td>
+<td class="tdr">9</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">889</td>
+<td class="tdr">1484</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ja.</td>
+<td class="tdr">30</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">890</td>
+<td class="tdr">1485</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ja.</td>
+<td class="tdr">18</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">891</td>
+<td class="tdr">1486</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ja.</td>
+<td class="tdr">7</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">892</td>
+<td class="tdr">1486</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">D.</td>
+<td class="tdr">28</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">893</td>
+<td class="tdr">1487</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">D.</td>
+<td class="tdr">17</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">894</td>
+<td class="tdr">1488</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">D.</td>
+<td class="tdr">5</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">895</td>
+<td class="tdr">1489</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">N.</td>
+<td class="tdr">25</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">896</td>
+<td class="tdr">1490</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">N.</td>
+<td class="tdr">14</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">897</td>
+<td class="tdr">1491</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">N.</td>
+<td class="tdr">4</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">898</td>
+<td class="tdr">1492</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">O.</td>
+<td class="tdr">23</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">899</td>
+<td class="tdr">1493</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">O.</td>
+<td class="tdr">12</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">900</td>
+<td class="tdr">1494</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">O.</td>
+<td class="tdr">2</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">901</td>
+<td class="tdr">1495</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">S.</td>
+<td class="tdr">21</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">902</td>
+<td class="tdr">1496</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">S.</td>
+<td class="tdr">9</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">903</td>
+<td class="tdr">1497</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ag.</td>
+<td class="tdr">30</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">904</td>
+<td class="tdr">1498</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ag.</td>
+<td class="tdr">19</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">905</td>
+<td class="tdr">1499</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ag.</td>
+<td class="tdr">8</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">906</td>
+<td class="tdr">1500</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Jy.</td>
+<td class="tdr">28</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">907</td>
+<td class="tdr">1501</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Jy.</td>
+<td class="tdr">17</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">908</td>
+<td class="tdr">1502</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Jy.</td>
+<td class="tdr">7</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">909</td>
+<td class="tdr">1503</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ju.</td>
+<td class="tdr">26</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">910</td>
+<td class="tdr">1504</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ju.</td>
+<td class="tdr">14</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">911</td>
+<td class="tdr">1505</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ju.</td>
+<td class="tdr">4</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">912</td>
+<td class="tdr">1506</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">My.</td>
+<td class="tdr">24</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">913</td>
+<td class="tdr">1507</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">My.</td>
+<td class="tdr">13</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">914</td>
+<td class="tdr">1508</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">My.</td>
+<td class="tdr">2</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">915</td>
+<td class="tdr">1509</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ap.</td>
+<td class="tdr">21</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">916</td>
+<td class="tdr">1510</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ap.</td>
+<td class="tdr">10</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">917</td>
+<td class="tdr">1511</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">M.</td>
+<td class="tdr">31</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">918</td>
+<td class="tdr">1512</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">M.</td>
+<td class="tdr">19</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">919</td>
+<td class="tdr">1513</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">M.</td>
+<td class="tdr">9</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">920</td>
+<td class="tdr">1514</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">F.</td>
+<td class="tdr">26</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">921</td>
+<td class="tdr">1515</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">F.</td>
+<td class="tdr">15</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">922</td>
+<td class="tdr">1516</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">F.</td>
+<td class="tdr">5</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">923</td>
+<td class="tdr">1517</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ja.</td>
+<td class="tdr">24</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">924</td>
+<td class="tdr">1518</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ja.</td>
+<td class="tdr">13</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">925</td>
+<td class="tdr">1519</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ja.</td>
+<td class="tdr">3</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">926</td>
+<td class="tdr">1519</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">D.</td>
+<td class="tdr">23</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">927</td>
+<td class="tdr">1520</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">D.</td>
+<td class="tdr">12</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">928</td>
+<td class="tdr">1521</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">D.</td>
+<td class="tdr">1</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">929</td>
+<td class="tdr">1522</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">N.</td>
+<td class="tdr">20</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">930</td>
+<td class="tdr">1523</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">N.</td>
+<td class="tdr">10</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">931</td>
+<td class="tdr">1524</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">O.</td>
+<td class="tdr">29</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">932</td>
+<td class="tdr">1525</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">O.</td>
+<td class="tdr">18</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">933</td>
+<td class="tdr">1526</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">O.</td>
+<td class="tdr">8</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">934</td>
+<td class="tdr">1527</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">S.</td>
+<td class="tdr">27</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">935</td>
+<td class="tdr">1528</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">S.</td>
+<td class="tdr">15</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">936</td>
+<td class="tdr">1529</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">S.</td>
+<td class="tdr">5</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">937</td>
+<td class="tdr">1530</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ag.</td>
+<td class="tdr">25</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">938</td>
+<td class="tdr">1531</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ag.</td>
+<td class="tdr">15</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">939</td>
+<td class="tdr">1532</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ag.</td>
+<td class="tdr">3</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">940</td>
+<td class="tdr">1533</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Jy.</td>
+<td class="tdr">23</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">941</td>
+<td class="tdr">1534</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Jy.</td>
+<td class="tdr">13</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">942</td>
+<td class="tdr">1535</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Jy.</td>
+<td class="tdr">2</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">943</td>
+<td class="tdr">1536</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ju.</td>
+<td class="tdr">20</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">944</td>
+<td class="tdr">1537</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ju.</td>
+<td class="tdr">10</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">945</td>
+<td class="tdr">1538</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">My.</td>
+<td class="tdr">30</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">946</td>
+<td class="tdr">1539</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">My.</td>
+<td class="tdr">19</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">947</td>
+<td class="tdr">1540</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">My.</td>
+<td class="tdr">8</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">948</td>
+<td class="tdr">1541</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ap.</td>
+<td class="tdr">27</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">949</td>
+<td class="tdr">1542</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ap.</td>
+<td class="tdr">17</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">950</td>
+<td class="tdr">1543</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ap.</td>
+<td class="tdr">6</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">951</td>
+<td class="tdr">1544</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">M.</td>
+<td class="tdr">25</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">952</td>
+<td class="tdr">1545</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">M.</td>
+<td class="tdr">15</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">953</td>
+<td class="tdr">1546</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">M.</td>
+<td class="tdr">4</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">954</td>
+<td class="tdr">1547</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">F.</td>
+<td class="tdr">21</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">955</td>
+<td class="tdr">1548</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">F.</td>
+<td class="tdr">11</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">956</td>
+<td class="tdr">1549</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ja.</td>
+<td class="tdr">30</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">957</td>
+<td class="tdr">1550</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ja.</td>
+<td class="tdr">20</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">958</td>
+<td class="tdr">1551</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ja.</td>
+<td class="tdr">9</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">959</td>
+<td class="tdr">1551</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">D.</td>
+<td class="tdr">29</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">960</td>
+<td class="tdr">1552</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">D.</td>
+<td class="tdr">18</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">961</td>
+<td class="tdr">1553</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">D.</td>
+<td class="tdr">7</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">962</td>
+<td class="tdr">1554</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">N.</td>
+<td class="tdr">26</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">963</td>
+<td class="tdr">1555</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">N.</td>
+<td class="tdr">16</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">964</td>
+<td class="tdr">1556</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">N.</td>
+<td class="tdr">4</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">965</td>
+<td class="tdr">1557</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">O.</td>
+<td class="tdr">24</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">966</td>
+<td class="tdr">1558</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">O.</td>
+<td class="tdr">14</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">967</td>
+<td class="tdr">1559</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">O.</td>
+<td class="tdr">3</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">968</td>
+<td class="tdr">1560</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">S.</td>
+<td class="tdr">22</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">969</td>
+<td class="tdr">1561</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">S.</td>
+<td class="tdr">11</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">970</td>
+<td class="tdr">1562</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ag.</td>
+<td class="tdr">31</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">971</td>
+<td class="tdr">1563</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ag.</td>
+<td class="tdr">21</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">972</td>
+<td class="tdr">1564</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ag.</td>
+<td class="tdr">9</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">973</td>
+<td class="tdr">1565</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Jy.</td>
+<td class="tdr">29</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">974</td>
+<td class="tdr">1566</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Jy.</td>
+<td class="tdr">19</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">975</td>
+<td class="tdr">1567</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Jy.</td>
+<td class="tdr">8</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">976</td>
+<td class="tdr">1568</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ju.</td>
+<td class="tdr">26</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">977</td>
+<td class="tdr">1569</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ju.</td>
+<td class="tdr">16</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">978</td>
+<td class="tdr">1570</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ju.</td>
+<td class="tdr">5</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">979</td>
+<td class="tdr">1571</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">My.</td>
+<td class="tdr">26</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">980</td>
+<td class="tdr">1572</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">My.</td>
+<td class="tdr">14</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">981</td>
+<td class="tdr">1573</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">My.</td>
+<td class="tdr">3</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">982</td>
+<td class="tdr">1574</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ap.</td>
+<td class="tdr">23</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">983</td>
+<td class="tdr">1575</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ap.</td>
+<td class="tdr">12</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">984</td>
+<td class="tdr">1576</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">M.</td>
+<td class="tdr">31</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">985</td>
+<td class="tdr">1577</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">M.</td>
+<td class="tdr">21</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">986</td>
+<td class="tdr">1578</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">M.</td>
+<td class="tdr">10</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">987</td>
+<td class="tdr">1579</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">F.</td>
+<td class="tdr">28</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">988</td>
+<td class="tdr">1580</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">F.</td>
+<td class="tdr">17</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">989</td>
+<td class="tdr">1581</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">F.</td>
+<td class="tdr">5</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">990</td>
+<td class="tdr">1582</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ja.</td>
+<td class="tdr">26</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">991</td>
+<td class="tdr">1583</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ja.</td>
+<td class="tdr">25*</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">992</td>
+<td class="tdr">1584</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ja.</td>
+<td class="tdr">14</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">993</td>
+<td class="tdr">1585</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">Ja.</td>
+<td class="tdr">3</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">994</td>
+<td class="tdr">1585</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">D.</td>
+<td class="tdr">23</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">995</td>
+<td class="tdr">1586</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">D.</td>
+<td class="tdr">12</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">996</td>
+<td class="tdr">1587</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">D.</td>
+<td class="tdr">2</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">997</td>
+<td class="tdr">1588</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">N.</td>
+<td class="tdr">20</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">998</td>
+<td class="tdr">1589</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">N.</td>
+<td class="tdr">10</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">999</td>
+<td class="tdr">1590</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">O.</td>
+<td class="tdr">30</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">1000</td>
+<td class="tdr">1591</td>
+<td class="bdless-right">O.</td>
+<td class="tdr">19</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<div class="footnotes">
+<div class="footnote">
+<p>* Here the change to the Gregorian New Style occurs.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="chap">
+
+<h2 class="large"><span class="pagenum" id=
+"Page_328">[328]</span><a id="ind"></a>INDEX</h2>
+
+<p class="center less">[Cross references are within square
+brackets.]</p>
+
+<ul class="index">
+<li class="ifrst">A.</li>
+
+<li>‘Abbās, Fāṭimid vezīr, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>.</li>
+
+<li>‘Abbāsids [Caliphs].</li>
+
+<li>‘Abdallāh ibn Meymūn, Shī‘y, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>.</li>
+
+<li>‘Abdallāh ibn Ṭāhir, governor, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>,
+<a href="#Page_67">67</a>.</li>
+
+<li>‘Abdallāh ibn ez-Zubeyr, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>.</li>
+
+<li>‘Abd-el-‘Azīz, governor, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>.</li>
+
+<li>‘Abd-el-Ḥakam, Ibn, historian, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>,
+<a href="#Page_185">185</a>.</li>
+
+<li>‘Abd-el-Laṭīf, geographer, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>,
+<a href="#Page_194">194</a>.</li>
+
+<li>‘Abd-er-Raḥmān Kiaḥya, <a href="#Page_298">298</a>-301.</li>
+
+<li>‘Ab’dīn, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_299">299</a>.</li>
+
+<li>‘Abid-esh-shera, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Abī-th-Thanā, Funduḳ, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Abū-‘Aly, vezīr, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_157">157</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Abū-Bekr [Muzhir].</li>
+
+<li>Abū-dh-Dhahab [Moḥammad Bey].</li>
+
+<li>Abū-l-Fidā, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Abū-l-‘Ola, mosque, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Abū-Sarga, church, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Abū-s-Seyfeyn, church, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Abū-s-Su‘ūd, mosque, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Abulusteyn, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Abyssinians’ lake (Birkat-el-Ḥabash), <a href=
+"#Page_172">172</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Academies, <a href="#Page_97">97</a> [Medresa, Mosque].</li>
+
+<li>Acre [‘Akkā].</li>
+
+<li>Adhana, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>.</li>
+
+<li>‘Āḍid, el-, Fāṭimid caliph, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>,
+<a href="#Page_169">169</a>, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_181">181</a>.</li>
+
+<li>‘Ādil, el-, Seyf-ed-dīn, Ayyūbid sultan, <a href=
+"#Page_176">176</a>, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>-5, <a href=
+"#Page_263">263</a>.</li>
+
+<li>‘Ādil, el-, II., casket, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Afḍal, el-, Fāṭimid vezīr, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_154">154</a>, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Ageminius, <a href="#Page_280">280</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Aghlabids of Tunis, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Aḥmad [Ṭūlūn].</li>
+
+<li>Aḥmad Pasha, <a href="#Page_298">298</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Akbar, emperor, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Aḳbughāwīya, medresa, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_299">299</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Akhdar, el-, mosque [Fakahany].</li>
+
+<li>Akhōr, emīr, master of the horse, [Ḳāny Bek].</li>
+
+<li>‘Akkā (Acre), <a href="#Page_149">149</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_172">172</a>, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_223">223</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Aḳmar, mosque, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_160">160</a>, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Aḳsunḳur, Mamlūk emīr, mosque, <a href="#Page_223">223</a>,
+<a href="#Page_227">227</a>, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_298">298</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Aḳūsh, Mamlūk emīr, mosque, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Alexandria, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_117">117</a>, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_180">180</a>, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_195">195</a>, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_263">263</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Alfonso, of Seville, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Algibughā, Mamlūk emīr, mosque, <a href=
+"#Page_259">259</a>.</li>
+
+<li>‘Alids, <a href="#Page_114">114</a> <em>ff.</em></li>
+
+<li>Almās, Mamlūk emīr, mosque, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>,
+<a href="#Page_289">289</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Almelik, Mamlūk emīr, mosque, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>,
+<a href="#Page_259">259</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Almohades, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>.</li>
+
+<li>‘Aly, caliph, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_113">113</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>.</li>
+
+<li>‘Aly Bey, <a href="#Page_298">298</a>-301.</li>
+
+<li>‘Aly el-Gelfy, ketkhudā, <a href="#Page_290">290</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Amalric, k. of Jerusalem, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_130">130</a>, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>-9.</li>
+
+<li>Ambassadors, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_139">139</a>-2, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Amber, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Amīr [Emīr].</li>
+
+<li>Āmir, el-, Fāṭimid caliph, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_123">123</a>, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_160">160</a>, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Amnis Trajanus, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>.</li>
+
+<li>‘Amr ibn el-‘Āṣy, conqueror of Egypt, <a href=
+"#Page_34">34</a>-43, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_61">61</a>; mosque, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_42">42</a>-48, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_94">94</a>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_185">185</a>, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>.</li>
+
+<li>“Antar’s stable,” <a href="#Page_41">41</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Anthropophagy, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_195">195</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Antioch, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_205">205</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Anwar, el-, mosque (el-Ḥākim), <a href=
+"#Page_137">137</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Aqueducts, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_223">223</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_253">253</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Arab conquest, <a href="#Page_34">34</a> <em>ff.</em>; tribes,
+<a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_88">88</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Arabia, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Arabian Nights [Thousand and One Nights].</li>
+
+<li>Arch, keelform or Persian, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>,
+<a href="#Page_138">138</a>; pointed, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>,
+<a href="#Page_85">85</a>.</li>
+
+<li><span class="pagenum" id="Page_329">[329]</span>Archery,
+<a href="#Page_258">258</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Architects, Christian, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_153">153</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Architecture—</li>
+
+<li class="isub">Byzantine, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_83">83</a>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_153">153</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="isub">Franco-Syrian, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>,
+<a href="#Page_175">175</a>, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="isub">Saracenic (Arab), <a href="#Page_4">4</a>
+[Medresa, Mosque, Palace].</li>
+
+<li class="isub">Turkish (Ottoman), <a href=
+"#Page_298">298</a>-301.</li>
+
+<li>Arḍ-eṭ-Ṭabbāla, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Arghūn el-Ismā‘īly, Mamlūk emīr, mosque, <a href=
+"#Page_224">224</a>, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Ark in Coptic church, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Armenians, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_122">122</a>, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>-157, <a href=
+"#Page_216">216</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Armour, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>;
+horse-, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_145">145</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Army, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>,
+<a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_139">139</a>, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_144">144</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_147">147</a>, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_158">158</a>, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_197">197</a>, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_203">203</a>-5, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_209">209</a>, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_235">235</a>, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_288">288</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Arsūf, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Artīn Pasha, Ya‘ḳūb, <a href="#Page_304">304</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Arts, Saracenic, <a href="#Page_271">271</a> <em>ff.</em></li>
+
+<li>Ascalon, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Ashraf, el- [Bars-Bey, Sha‘bān].</li>
+
+<li>Ashrafīya mosque, <a href="#i22">233</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_250">250</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Ashrafy mamlūks, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>.</li>
+
+<li>‘Ashūra (10th Moḥarram), <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_23">23</a>.</li>
+
+<li>‘Aṣim, Ibn el-, poet, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>.</li>
+
+<li>‘Askar, el-, official faubourg, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>,
+<a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_91">91</a>; mosque, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>.</li>
+
+<li>‘Aṣmat-ed-dīn [Sheger-ed-durr].</li>
+
+<li>Assassins (Ismā‘īlīs), <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_137">137</a>, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Astrology, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_142">142</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Astronomy, <a href="#Page_296">296</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Asunbughā, Mamlūk emīr, mosque, <a href=
+"#Page_311">311</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Aswān, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Asyūṭy, el, mosque, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Aybek, Mamlūk sultan, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_202">202</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Aydemir el-Khaṭīry, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>.</li>
+
+<li>‘Aydhāb, port on Red Sea, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_263">263</a>.</li>
+
+<li>‘Ayn-eṣ-Ṣīra, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_282">282</a>.</li>
+
+<li>‘Ayny, el-, historian, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Ayyūb [Ṣāliḥ].</li>
+
+<li>Ayyūbid dynasty, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_170">170</a>-201.</li>
+
+<li>Azab troops, <a href="#Page_288">288</a>-291.</li>
+
+<li>‘Azab [Bāb].</li>
+
+<li>Azhar, el-, university mosque, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>-125,
+<a href="#Page_163">163</a>, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_245">245</a>, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_296">296</a>, <a href="#Page_297">297</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_299">299</a>.</li>
+
+<li>‘Azīz, el-, Fāṭimid caliph, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>,
+<a href="#Page_122">122</a>, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_127">127</a>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_137">137</a>.</li>
+
+<li>‘Azīz, Ibn, painter, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Azzimina, <a href="#Page_280">280</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="ifrst">B.</li>
+
+<li>Bāb (gate)—</li>
+
+<li class="isub">Bāb-el-‘Azab, <a href="#Page_291">291</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="isub">B.-el-Baḥr or el-Ḥadīd, <a href=
+"#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_258">258</a>, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="isub">B.-el-Barḳīya or el-Ghureyyib, <a href=
+"#Page_126">126</a>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_266">266</a>, <a href="#Page_299">299</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="isub">B.-el-Farag, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="isub">B.-el-Futūḥ, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_129">129</a>, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_150">150</a>-154, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_299">299</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="isub">B.-el-Gedīd, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="isub">B.-el-Ḳantara, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>,
+<a href="#Page_145">145</a>, <a href="#i14">166</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_188">188</a>, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="isub">B.-el-Ḳarāfa, <a href="#Page_299">299</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="isub">B.-el-Kharḳ, <a href="#i30">293</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="isub">B.-el-Khawkha, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="isub">B.-el-Lūk, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_217">217</a>, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="isub">B.-el-Maḥrūḳ, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="isub">B.-el-Mudarrag, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="isub">B.-en-Naṣr, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_145">145</a>, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>-154, <a href=
+"#Page_188">188</a>, <a href="#Page_219">219</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_254">254</a>, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="isub">B.-Sa‘āda, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_188">188</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="isub">B.-el-Wezīr, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_175">175</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="isub">B.-Zuweyla (Zawīla), <a href="#Page_10">10</a>,
+<a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_129">129</a>, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_150">150</a>-154, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_159">159</a>, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_181">181</a>, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_203">203</a>, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_218">218</a>, <a href="#Page_219">219</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_238">238</a>, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_269">269</a>, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Babylon, fortress, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_48">48</a>-57, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Baghdād, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>,
+<a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_144">144</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_158">158</a>, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_190">190</a>, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_261">261</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Baḥr [Bāb].</li>
+
+<li>Bahrām, Fāṭimid vezīr, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Baḥry (Turkish) Mamlūks, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>-232.</li>
+
+<li>Baḳār, el-, Ḳāḍy, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Bakbak, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Bakhtary, el-, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Balsam, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Banquets, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_102">102</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Baraka, khān of the Golden Horde, <a href=
+"#Page_206">206</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Barbara, St, church, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Bargawān, Fāṭimid emīr, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>; quarter,
+<a href="#Page_128">128</a>, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Barḳīya quarter, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>; troops, <a href=
+"#Page_168">168</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Barḳīya [Bāb].</li>
+
+<li>Barḳūḳ, Mamlūk sultan, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_238">238</a>, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>; medresa, <a href=
+"#Page_241">241</a>, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>; tomb-mosque,
+<a href="#Page_241">241</a>, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Bars-Bey, el-Ashraf, Mamlūk sultan, <a href=
+"#Page_237">237</a>, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>; mosque, <a href=
+"#Page_238">238</a>, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Basil, emperor, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Bāsiṭy, el-, mosque, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Baṣra, el-, painters from, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Bastions, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_179">179</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Bath (ḥammām), <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_184">184</a>.</li>
+
+<li><span class="pagenum" id="Page_330">[330]</span>Bath, Night of
+the (Leylat-el-Ghiṭās), <a href="#Page_95">95</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Bāṭilīya quarter, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Baṭūṭa, Ibn, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_224">224</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Bāzār (market, sūḳ), <a href="#Page_24">24</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Beacon, Castle of the [Babylon].</li>
+
+<li>Bedawīs, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_157">157</a>, <a href="#Page_215">215</a></li>
+
+<li>Bedr-el-Gemāly, Fāṭimid vezīr, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>,
+<a href="#Page_149">149</a>-154, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>,
+<a href="#Page_164">164</a>, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_175">175</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Bedrooms, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Beer, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_207">207</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Belvedere (manẓara), <a href="#Page_90">90</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Benāt, Gāmi‘-el-, <a href="#Page_311">311</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Benjamin of Tudela, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_146">146</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Berbers, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_139">139</a>, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_146">146</a>, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_148">148</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Berchem, M. van, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_138">138</a>, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_153">153</a>, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_253">253</a>, <a href="#Page_296">296</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Bernard, bishop of Palermo, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Bersīm, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Beshtāk, Mamlūk emīr, palace, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>;
+mosque, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Beybars, eẓ-Ẓāhir, Mamlūk sultan, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>,
+<a href="#Page_203">203</a>, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>-9,
+<a href="#Page_218">218</a>, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>; mosque,
+<a href="#Page_207">207</a>, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_218">218</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Beybars el-Gashnekīr (taster), Mamlūk sultan, <a href=
+"#Page_128">128</a>, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_138">138</a>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_204">204</a>, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>; convent, <a href=
+"#Page_128">128</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Beyn-el-Ḳaṣreyn (square “between the two palaces”), <a href=
+"#Page_126">126</a>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_139">139</a>, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_160">160</a>, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_196">196</a>, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_220">220</a>, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Beyn-es-Sūreyn (street “between the two walls”), <a href=
+"#Page_126">126</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Beysary, Mamlūk emīr, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_274">274</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Beyt-el-Ḳāḍy, chief judge’s court, <a href=
+"#Page_271">271</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Bilāl, khān of, <a href="#Page_269">269</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Bilbeys, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>,
+<a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_169">169</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Bīra, el-, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Birkat-el-Fīl (elephant’s lake), <a href=
+"#Page_288">288</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Birkat-el-Ḥabash (Abyssinians’ lake), <a href=
+"#Page_172">172</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Black robes, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>; troops
+[Sūdānīs].</li>
+
+<li>Boats, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>,
+<a href="#Page_146">146</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Brass work [Metal work].</li>
+
+<li>Brick, used for piers, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Bridal procession, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Bridges, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>,
+<a href="#Page_109">109</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Brienne, John de, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Bronze [Metal work].</li>
+
+<li>Buḳalamūn, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Būlāḳ, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_257">257</a>-260, <a href="#Page_263">263</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_299">299</a>, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Burdeyny, el-, mosque, <a href="#Page_298">298</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Burg-eẓ-Ẓafar, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Burgy (Circassian) Mamlūks, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>,
+<a href="#Page_235">235</a>-254.</li>
+
+<li>Burko‘, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Bustān, <a href="#Page_271">271</a> [Gardens].</li>
+
+<li>Butler, A. J., <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_123">123</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Byzantine architecture, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_83">83</a>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_153">153</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Byzantine empire [Constantinople, Romans].</li>
+
+<li class="ifrst">C.</li>
+
+<li>Cæsaræa, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_237">237</a>;—<a href="#Page_205">205</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Cage for caliph, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Cairo proper [Ḳāhira].</li>
+
+<li>Caliphs [‘Aly, ‘Omar].</li>
+
+<li><span class="word-spaced7">&nbsp;„&nbsp;</span> ‘Abbāsid,
+<a href="#Page_64">64</a>-72, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_164">164</a>, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_201">201</a>, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>.</li>
+
+<li><span class="word-spaced7">&nbsp;„&nbsp;</span> Fāṭimid,
+<a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>-171; graves,
+<a href="#Page_266">266</a>.</li>
+
+<li><span class="word-spaced7">&nbsp;„&nbsp;</span> Omayyad,
+<a href="#Page_59">59</a>.</li>
+
+<li><span class="word-spaced7">&nbsp;„&nbsp;</span> Tombs of the,
+<a href="#Page_241">241</a>, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Cameron, D. A., <a href="#Page_264">264</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_265">265</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Canals (Khalīg), <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_132">132</a>, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_146">146</a>, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_258">258</a>, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Cantonments [‘Askar].</li>
+
+<li>Carmathians (Ḳarmaṭis), <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_117">117</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Carpet, Holy (Kiswa), <a href="#Page_22">22</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Carter, O. B., <a href="#Page_260">260</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Carving [Wood-carving].</li>
+
+<li>Castle of the Beacon [Babylon].</li>
+
+<li>Castle of the Mountain [Citadel].</li>
+
+<li>Castle of the Ram, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_121">121</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Catholicos, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Ceilings, painted, <a href="#Page_281">281</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_282">282</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Cemetery, eastern, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_242">242</a>.</li>
+
+<li><span class="word-spaced8">&nbsp;„&nbsp;</span> southern
+[Ḳarāfa].</li>
+
+<li>Censers, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_273">273</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Charles of Anjou, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Chaul, naval engagement off, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Cherkes Bey, <a href="#Page_289">289</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Chess, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Chibouk [Shibūk].</li>
+
+<li>Christians [Architects, Armenians, Copts].</li>
+
+<li>Circassian Mamlūks, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_235">235</a>-254.</li>
+
+<li>Citadel, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>,
+<a href="#Page_175">175</a>-180, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>,
+<a href="#Page_223">223</a>, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_237">237</a>, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_253">253</a>, <a href="#Page_288">288</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_290">290</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Cloisters in mosques, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_79">79</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Coins, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>,
+<a href="#Page_201">201</a>, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Colleges, <a href="#Page_111">111</a> [Medresa].</li>
+
+<li>Commerce, <a href="#Page_262">262</a>-270 [Trade].</li>
+
+<li>Commission for the Preservation of the Monuments of Arab Art,
+<a href="#Page_160">160</a>, <a href="#Page_303">303</a>-314.</li>
+
+<li>Conquest, Mosque of, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>.</li>
+
+<li><span class="pagenum" id="Page_331">[331]</span>Constantinople,
+<a href="#Page_173">173</a>, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_298">298</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Convents, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_123">123</a>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_259">259</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Coppersmiths’ bāzār [Sūḳ-en-Naḥḥāsīn].</li>
+
+<li>Copts, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>,
+<a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>-64, <a href=
+"#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_120">120</a>-123, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>; churches,
+<a href="#Page_53">53</a>-57, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>; art,
+<a href="#Page_55">55</a>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_85">85</a>; persecutions, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>-3,
+<a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_141">141</a>, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_216">216</a>-220.</li>
+
+<li>Corbett, E. K., <a href="#Page_43">43</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Corvée labour, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Court, Mamlūk, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>.</li>
+
+<li><span class="word-spaced5">&nbsp;„&nbsp;</span> of house,
+<a href="#Page_13">13</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Cromer, Earl, <a href="#Page_303">303</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_313">313</a>, <a href="#Page_314">314</a>.</li>
+
+<li>“Crown of Mosques,” <a href="#Page_42">42</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Crusades, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_164">164</a>-173, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_181">181</a>, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_196">196</a>, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_201">201</a>, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_217">217</a>, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Cumhdach, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Cyprus, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_237">237</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Cyrus, patriarch of Alexandria, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>,
+<a href="#Page_38">38</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="ifrst">D.</li>
+
+<li>Dā‘īs, Shī‘a missionaries, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Dam of canal, cutting the, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>,
+<a href="#Page_145">145</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Damascus, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>,
+<a href="#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_103">103</a>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_149">149</a>, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>-173, <a href=
+"#Page_204">204</a>, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>; tiles, <a href=
+"#Page_56">56</a>, <a href="#Page_278">278</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_298">298</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Damietta, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Dār (mansion, hall), <a href="#Page_271">271</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Dār-el-‘Adl (Hall of Justice), <a href=
+"#Page_207">207</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Dār-el-Ḥadīth (Hall of Tradition), <a href=
+"#Page_196">196</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Dār-el-‘Ilm (Hall of Science), <a href="#Page_142">142</a>,
+<a href="#Page_160">160</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Dār-el-Ma’mūn (Ma’mūn’s palace), <a href="#Page_159">159</a>,
+<a href="#Page_160">160</a>, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Dār-el-Wezīr (Palace of Vezīrs), <a href="#Page_128">128</a>,
+<a href="#Page_160">160</a>, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>; also a
+khān at Miṣr, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Darb (street), <a href="#Page_271">271</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Darmūn, ed-, gate of, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Defterdār, palace, <a href="#Page_289">289</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Dehlek, Red Sea port, <a href="#Page_263">263</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Deylemīs, quarter, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_145">145</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_218">218</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Dhahab, Abū-dh- [Moḥammad Bey].</li>
+
+<li>Dikka (tribune of mosque), <a href="#Page_80">80</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Dīnār (half-guinea), <a href="#Page_59">59</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Diodorus, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Ḍirghām, eḍ-, Fāṭimid vezīr, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>,
+<a href="#Page_168">168</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Disert Ulidh, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Divorce, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_99">99</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Docks, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_132">132</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Dome, in mosques, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>-85, <a href=
+"#Page_228">228</a>; in Coptic churches, <a href=
+"#Page_54">54</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Dome of the Air (Ḳubbat-el-Ḥawā), <a href="#Page_65">65</a>,
+<a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Dominicans, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Donkeys, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Druzes, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_143">143</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Dukas, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_99">99</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="ifrst">E.</li>
+
+<li>Earthquakes, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>.</li>
+
+<li>“Easterns, the,” <a href="#Page_146">146</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Edessa, architects from, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Embāba, battles at, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Emesa, battles at, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Emīr Akhōr, master of the horse, [Ḳāny Bek].</li>
+
+<li>Emīrate or Government House, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>,
+<a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Emīrs, Mamlūk, <a href="#Page_209">209</a> <em>ff.</em>,
+<a href="#Page_224">224</a>, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>
+<em>ff.</em></li>
+
+<li>Epiphany tank, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Eudoxus, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Euphrates, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_205">205</a>, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_237">237</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Europe, trade with, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_263">263</a>-5.</li>
+
+<li>Eutychius, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Evetts, B.T.A., <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_123">123</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Ezbek ibn Tutush, mosque, <a href="#Page_295">295</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Ezbek el-Yūsufy, mosque, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_250">250</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Ezbekīya, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_260">260</a>, <a href="#Page_288">288</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_291">291</a>, <a href="#Page_292">292</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_295">295</a>, <a href="#Page_299">299</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="ifrst">F.</li>
+
+<li>Fāḍil, el-, Ḳāḍy, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_191">191</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Faïence, <a href="#Page_298">298</a> [Tiles].</li>
+
+<li>Fā’iz, el-, Fāṭimid caliph, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Fakahāny, el-, mosque, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_298">298</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Falconry, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_273">273</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Famine, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_143">143</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_194">194</a>, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_207">207</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Farag, Mamlūk sultan, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Farag [Bāb].</li>
+
+<li>Far‘ūn, Maṣṭaba [Pharaoh].</li>
+
+<li>Fasts, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>,
+<a href="#Page_94">94</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Fāṭima, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Fāṭimids [Caliphs].</li>
+
+<li>Felek, Ibn-el-, mosque, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Ferghāna, architect from, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Feudal system in East, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_198">198</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Festivals and festivities, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>-26,
+<a href="#Page_94">94</a>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>-103,
+<a href="#Page_128">128</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_204">204</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Fieffees or grantees, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_197">197</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Fiḳārīs, <a href="#Page_289">289</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Fīl (elephant) [Birkat Gezīrat].</li>
+
+<li><span class="pagenum" id="Page_332">[332]</span>Fires, <a href=
+"#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_218">218</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Firro, Ibn, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Flabellum, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Fleet, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>,
+<a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_134">134</a>, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_254">254</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Flowers, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_108">108</a>; market, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Forgers, <a href="#Page_297">297</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Fortress, <a href="#Page_175">175</a> [Citadel].</li>
+
+<li>Fortress, Roman [Babylon].</li>
+
+<li>Fountain [Sebīl].</li>
+
+<li>Franz Pasha, <a href="#Page_304">304</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Frederick II., <a href="#Page_195">195</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_196">196</a>, <a href="#Page_280">280</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Fruits, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_270">270</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Fulcher, Geoffrey, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>-132.</li>
+
+<li>Fum-el-Khalīg [Dam].</li>
+
+<li>Funduḳ (hostelry), <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_263">263</a>-271.</li>
+
+<li>Furāt, Ibn-el-, poet, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Fusṭāṭ (Miṣr, Maṣr), <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>-48, <a href=
+"#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>-61, <a href=
+"#Page_64">64</a>-69, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_91">91</a>-112, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_134">134</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_174">174</a>, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_186">186</a>, <a href="#Page_279">279</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Futūḥ [Bāb].</li>
+
+<li class="ifrst">G.</li>
+
+<li>Ga‘bary, el-, mosque, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Gabarṭy, el-, historian, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_289">289</a>, <a href="#Page_295">295</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_296">296</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Gāmi‘ (congregational mosque), <a href="#Page_123">123</a>,
+<a href="#Page_187">187</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Gardens, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>,
+<a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_93">93</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Garkas el-Khalīly, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Garstin, Sir W. E., <a href="#Page_304">304</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Gāshnekīr (taster) [Beybars II].</li>
+
+<li>Gate [Bāb]—of Succour [Bāb-en-Naṣr], of Conquests
+[Bāb-el-Futūḥ], of the Bridge [Bāb-el-Ḳanṭara], of Iron
+[Bāb-el-Ḥadīd], of el-Ḳaṭāi‘, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Gawdarīya quarter, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_145">145</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Gawhar, Fāṭimid general, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>-127,
+<a href="#Page_132">132</a>, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Gedīd [Bāb].</li>
+
+<li>Gelfy, el-, <a href="#Page_290">290</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Gemālīya, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>.</li>
+
+<li>George, church of St, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Gezīra, el- (island of Būlāḳ), <a href=
+"#Page_107">107</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Gezīrat-el-Fīl (island of the elephant), <a href=
+"#Page_257">257</a>, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Ghāzy, Ibn, mosque, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Ghurāb, Ibn, mosque, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Ghureyyib [Bāb].</li>
+
+<li>Ghūrīya street, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_159">159</a>, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Ghūry, el-, Ḳānṣūh, Mamlūk sultan, <a href=
+"#Page_253">253</a>-4, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>; mosques,
+<a href="#Page_253">253</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Gidda, <a href="#Page_263">263</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Giorgio Ghisi, Azzimina, <a href="#Page_280">280</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Gīza, el-, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_123">123</a>, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Gīza, el-, dike of, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Glass, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_232">232</a>, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_286">286</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Golden Horde, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_206">206</a>, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_223">223</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Golden House, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>;—<a href=
+"#Page_87">87</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Governors under caliphs, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>-72.</li>
+
+<li>Granaries, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_146">146</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Greeks, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>,
+<a href="#Page_236">236</a>, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_241">241</a>.</li>
+
+<li><span class="word-spaced6">&nbsp;„&nbsp;</span> quarters of
+the, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Grey mosque (el-Aḳmar), <a href="#Page_157">157</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_158">158</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Gubeyr, Ibn, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_171">171</a>, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>-187.</li>
+
+<li>Guyūshy, el-, mosque, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Gypsum, decoration in, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_85">85</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="ifrst">H.</li>
+
+<li>Ḥadīd [Bāb].</li>
+
+<li>Ḥāfiẓ, el-, Fāṭimid caliph, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Ḥagg, Emīr-el-, <a href="#Page_290">290</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Haggarīn, el-, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Hair, appeal by, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_169">169</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Ḥakar (close), <a href="#Page_271">271</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Ḥākim, el-, Fāṭimid caliph, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>,
+<a href="#Page_137">137</a>, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>-143;
+mosque, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>,
+<a href="#Page_137">137</a>-139, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>,
+<a href="#Page_163">163</a>, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_188">188</a>, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_282">282</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Hall of Columns, <a href="#Page_223">223</a>.</li>
+
+<li><span class="word-spaced4">&nbsp;„&nbsp;</span> of Justice,
+<a href="#Page_207">207</a>.</li>
+
+<li><span class="word-spaced4">&nbsp;„&nbsp;</span> of the Ḳāḍy,
+<a href="#Page_271">271</a>.</li>
+
+<li><span class="word-spaced4">&nbsp;„&nbsp;</span> of el-Ma’mūn,
+<a href="#Page_159">159</a>, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_185">185</a>.</li>
+
+<li><span class="word-spaced4">&nbsp;„&nbsp;</span> of Science,
+<a href="#Page_142">142</a>, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>.</li>
+
+<li><span class="word-spaced4">&nbsp;„&nbsp;</span> of Tradition,
+<a href="#Page_196">196</a>.</li>
+
+<li><span class="word-spaced4">&nbsp;„&nbsp;</span> of the Vezīrs,
+<a href="#Page_128">128</a>, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>.</li>
+
+<li><span class="word-spaced4">&nbsp;„&nbsp;</span> of Yūsuf,
+<a href="#Page_179">179</a>, <a href="#Page_223">223</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Ḥamāh, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_220">220</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Ḥammām [Bath].</li>
+
+<li>Ḥamrā (“red” place), <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Ḥamzāwy khān (cloth-market), <a href="#Page_266">266</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Ḥanafīs, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_301">301</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Ḥanbalīs, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Ḥāra (quarter), <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_271">271</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Ḥarbaweyh, Ibn, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Ḥarīm, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>-21.</li>
+
+<li>Hārūn-er-Rashīd, ‘Abbāsid caliph, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>,
+<a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_261">261</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Ḥasan, Mamlūk sultan, mosque of, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>,
+<a href="#Page_228">228</a>-235, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>,
+<a href="#Page_245">245</a>, <a href="#Page_284">284</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_306">306</a>, <a href="#Page_307">307</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Ḥasaneyn, mosque and festival, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>-26,
+<a href="#Page_128">128</a>, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>-183,
+<a href="#Page_185">185</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Hawdag, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_157">157</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Ḥawkal, Ibn, geographer, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Hay, Robert, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_260">260</a>.</li>
+
+<li><span class="pagenum" id="Page_333">[333]</span>Heliopolis
+(On), <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>,
+<a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_150">150</a>, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Helwān, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Heraclius, emperor, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Herz Bey, Max, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_160">160</a>, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_238">238</a>, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_282">282</a>, <a href="#Page_305">305</a> <em>ff.</em></li>
+
+<li>Ḥigāz, el-, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_204">204</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Ḥigāzīya, Ṭaṭar el-, mosque, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Historians, <a href="#Page_286">286</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Holy family, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_56">56</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Holy War, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_173">173</a>, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_216">216</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Horse-armour, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_145">145</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Horse, statue, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Ḥoseyn, the martyr, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_181">181</a>-183, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>; festival,
+<a href="#Page_23">23</a>-26.</li>
+
+<li>Ḥoseyn, Mamlūk emīr, mosque, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Ḥoseynīya quarter, <a href="#Page_257">257</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_259">259</a>, <a href="#Page_299">299</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Houses, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>-17; <a href=
+"#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_290">290</a>, <a href="#Page_292">292</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_308">308</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Household of Mamlūk sultan, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Hugh of Cæsarea, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>-132.</li>
+
+<li>Hūlāgū, Mongol of Persia, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Humphrey of Toron, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="ifrst">I.</li>
+
+<li>Ibn. <em>See</em> under second name.</li>
+
+<li>Ibrāhīm Aga, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_298">298</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Iḥrām, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Ikhshīd, el- Moḥammad, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>-100.</li>
+
+<li>Illuminations, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_101">101</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Imām (preacher or precentor), <a href="#Page_170">170</a>,
+<a href="#Page_171">171</a>, <a href="#Page_297">297</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Imām, Shī‘a doctrine of the, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>-116,
+<a href="#Page_154">154</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Incarnation, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>-116, <a href=
+"#Page_142">142</a>, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Incrustation [Metalwork].</li>
+
+<li>Indian trade, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_211">211</a>, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_263">263</a>-5.</li>
+
+<li>Industries, <a href="#Page_271">271</a> <em>ff.</em></li>
+
+<li>Inlaying, <a href="#Page_272">272</a> <em>ff.</em></li>
+
+<li>Inscriptions, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_85">85</a>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_138">138</a>, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_160">160</a>, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_245">245</a>, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Investiture, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_206">206</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Irish art, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>-56, <a href=
+"#Page_62">62</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Irrigation, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_207">207</a>, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Ismā‘īlīs (Shī‘a), <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_157">157</a>, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Ismā‘īlīya canal, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Ismā‘īly [Arghūn].</li>
+
+<li>Italy, relations with, <a href="#Page_263">263</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_280">280</a> [Venice].</li>
+
+<li>Ivory carving, <a href="#Page_284">284</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="ifrst">J.</li>
+
+<li>Jacobites, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Jaffa, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_205">205</a>.</li>
+
+<li>James of Aragon, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>.</li>
+
+<li>James of Lusignan, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Janizaries, <a href="#Page_288">288</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Jerusalem, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_172">172</a>, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_196">196</a>, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Jews, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>,
+<a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_121">121</a>, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Jews’ work, <a href="#Page_280">280</a>.</li>
+
+<li>John de Brienne, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>.</li>
+
+<li>John the Monk, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>.</li>
+
+<li>John of Nikiu, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_35">35</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Joseph’s granaries, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_146">146</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Joseph’s Hall, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_223">223</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Joseph’s Well, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="ifrst">K.</li>
+
+<li>Ka‘a, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Ka‘ba, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_150">150</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Ḳāḍy, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_69">69</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Kāfūr, Ikhshīdid vezīr, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>-104.</li>
+
+<li>Kāfūr, Garden of, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_126">126</a>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_139">139</a>, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Kagmās, Mamlūk emīr, mosque, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>,
+<a href="#Page_311">311</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Ḳāhira, el- (Cairo proper), <a href="#Page_118">118</a>
+<em>ff.</em></li>
+
+<li>Ḳā’it-Bey, el-Ashraf, Mamlūk sultan, <a href=
+"#Page_238">238</a>, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>-250; medallion,
+<a href="#Page_246">246</a>; mosques, <a href=
+"#Page_242">242</a>-249, <a href="#Page_284">284</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_285">285</a>; pulpits, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>; palace,
+<a href="#Page_270">270</a>; wekālas, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>,
+<a href="#Page_249">249</a>, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Ḳal‘at-el-Gebel (Castle of the Hill) [Citadel].</li>
+
+<li>Ḳal‘at-el-Kebsh (Castle of the Ram), <a href="#Page_90">90</a>,
+<a href="#Page_121">121</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Ḳalā’ūn, el-Manṣūr, Mamlūk sultan, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>,
+<a href="#Page_204">204</a>, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_212">212</a>, <a href="#Page_269">269</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_273">273</a>, <a href="#Page_278">278</a>; Māristān,
+<a href="#Page_126">126</a>, <a href="#Page_300">300</a>; minaret,
+<a href="#Page_139">139</a>; mosques, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>,
+<a href="#Page_245">245</a>, <a href="#Page_283">283</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_285">285</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Ḳalendarīya, el-, mosque, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Kāmil, el-, Ayyūbid sultan, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>,
+<a href="#Page_195">195</a>, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_216">216</a>; medresa Kāmilīya, <a href=
+"#Page_196">196</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Ḳanāṭīr-el-Gīza, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Ḳanṭara [Bāb].</li>
+
+<li>Ḳāny Bek, emīr akhōr (master of the horse), <a href=
+"#Page_250">250</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Ḳarāfa, southern cemetery, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>,
+<a href="#Page_185">185</a>, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>; mosque
+of, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>
+[Bāb].</li>
+
+<li>Ḳarāḳūsh, vezīr of Saladin, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>,
+<a href="#Page_179">179</a>; khān, <a href=
+"#Page_270">270</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Ḳarāḳūsh (Punch), <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_176">176</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Ḳarmaṭīs [Carmathians].</li>
+
+<li>Ḳārūn, pool of, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Ḳāsimīs, <a href="#Page_289">289</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Ḳaṣr (palace), <a href="#Page_289">289</a>.</li>
+
+<li><span class="pagenum" id="Page_334">[334]</span>Ḳaṣr-el-‘Ayny,
+<a href="#Page_107">107</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Ḳaṣr-ed-Dubāra, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Ḳaṣr-esh-Shawk, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Ḳaṣr-esh-Shema‘, <a href="#Page_41">41</a> [Babylon].</li>
+
+<li>Ḳaṣr-Yūsuf (Joseph’s Hall), <a href="#Page_179">179</a>,
+<a href="#Page_223">223</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Ḳaṣreyn [Beyn-el-Ḳaṣreyn].</li>
+
+<li>Ḳaṭāi‘, el-, Ṭūlūnid faubourg, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>,
+<a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Ḳayrawān, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_117">117</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Ḳayṣarīya (great market), <a href="#Page_266">266</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_271">271</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Keelform arch, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_138">138</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Kells, Book of, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Kenna, Ibn, monk, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Kerbelā, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_119">119</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Ketkhudā (kiaḥyā, kikhyā), <a href="#Page_290">290</a>,
+<a href="#Page_298">298</a>, <a href="#Page_299">299</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Kettāmy, el-, painter, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Keymakhty, el-, mosque, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Khabushāny, el-, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Khalangy, el-, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Khalāṭy, el-, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Khalīg [Canal].</li>
+
+<li>Khalīl, el-Ashraf, Mamlūk sultan, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>,
+<a href="#Page_211">211</a>, <a href="#Page_223">223</a>; ‘Akka
+gate.</li>
+
+<li>Khalīly, Garkas el-, <a href="#Page_266">266</a> [Khān].</li>
+
+<li>Khān (inn), <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_265">265</a>-271.</li>
+
+<li>Khān el-Khalīly, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_126">126</a>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_210">210</a>, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Khāriga, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Kharḳ [Bāb].</li>
+
+<li>Khaṭīb (preacher), <a href="#Page_170">170</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_171">171</a>, <a href="#Page_297">297</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Khaṭīry, el-, Aydemir, mosque, <a href=
+"#Page_258">258</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Khaṭma (recital of Ḳor’ān), <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_25">25</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Khawkha, <a href="#Page_271">271</a> [Bāb].</li>
+
+<li>Kheyr Bek, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>; mosque, <a href=
+"#Page_250">250</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Khilāṭy, el-, mosque, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Khumāraweyh ibn Aḥmad ibn Ṭūlūn, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>-89,
+<a href="#Page_92">92</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Khūshḳadam, Mamlūk sultan, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Khuṭba (bidding-prayer, sermon), <a href="#Page_170">170</a>,
+<a href="#Page_171">171</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Khuṭṭ (district), <a href="#Page_271">271</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Kiaḥyā (Kikhya), <a href="#Page_290">290</a> [‘Abd-er-Raḥmān,
+‘Othmān, Ruḍwān].</li>
+
+<li>Ḳibla (point towards Mekka), <a href="#Page_78">78</a>,
+<a href="#Page_80">80</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Kieman, Casr, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Killis, Ibn, Fāṭimid vezīr, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Kindy, el-, historian, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>.</li>
+
+<li>King, title of Fāṭimid vezīrs, <a href=
+"#Page_159">159</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Kiosks, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>,
+<a href="#Page_291">291</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Kipchak, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_205">205</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Kiswa (holy carpet), <a href="#Page_22">22</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Kitāma, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>; quarter, <a href=
+"#Page_128">128</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Kléber, general, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Knighthood conferred on Muslims, <a href=
+"#Page_193">193</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Ḳor’ān, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>-69, <a href=
+"#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_185">185</a>, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_232">232</a>, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Ḳubbat-el-Ḥawā [Dome of the air].</li>
+
+<li>Ḳubbat-en-Naṣr, <a href="#Page_223">223</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Kufic [Inscriptions].</li>
+
+<li>Kufīya, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Ḳulla, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Kumiz, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Ḳuseyr, el-, convent, <a href="#Page_219">219</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Ḳuseyr, Red Sea port, <a href="#Page_263">263</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Ḳūṣūn, Mamlūk emīr, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_216">216</a>, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_291">291</a>; mosque, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_283">283</a>, <a href="#Page_296">296</a>; wekāla, <a href=
+"#Page_270">270</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Ḳuṭb [Mutawelly].</li>
+
+<li>Ḳuṭuz, Mamlūk sultan, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_207">207</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="ifrst">L.</li>
+
+<li>Labour, forced, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Lāgīn, Mamlūk sultan, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>; his
+restoration of mosque of Ibn-Ṭūlūn, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>,
+<a href="#Page_83">83</a>, <a href="#Page_283">283</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_285">285</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Lamps, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>; enamelled glass, <a href=
+"#Page_232">232</a>, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Lamps, Street of, at Miṣr, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>,
+<a href="#Page_111">111</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Lane, E. W., <a href="#Page_259">259</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_266">266</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Larenda, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Lattice [Meshrebīya].</li>
+
+<li>Lectern, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Le Strange, Guy, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_171">171</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Leylet-el-Ghiṭās, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Libraries, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_171">171</a>, <a href="#Page_292">292</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_295">295</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Lions’ Bridges, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_217">217</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Literature, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_98">98</a>-100, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_120">120</a>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_295">295</a>, <a href="#Page_296">296</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Līwān (sanctuary, S.-E. end of mosque), <a href=
+"#Page_80">80</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Lock, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Louis IX., crusade of, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_201">201</a>, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Lūḳ [Bāb].</li>
+
+<li>Lunatics, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_300">300</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="ifrst">M.</li>
+
+<li>Macer [Miṣr].</li>
+
+<li>Mādarā’y, el-, treasurer, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_93">93</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Maghraby, Ibn-el-, mosque, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Mahdy, el-, doctrine of, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_157">157</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Maḥmal, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Maḥmūd el-Kurdy, <a href="#Page_280">280</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Maḥmūdīya canal, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>.</li>
+
+<li><span class="pagenum" id="Page_335">[335]</span>Maḥmūdīya
+mosque, <a href="#Page_289">289</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Maḥrūḳ [Bāb].</li>
+
+<li>Maḥrūsa, el-, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Maidens’ convent, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Maḳrīzy, el-, topographer, <a href="#Page_41">41</a> et
+passim.</li>
+
+<li>Maḳs, el-, port of Cairo, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_132">132</a>, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_175">175</a>; mosques, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_189">189</a>, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Maḳṣūra (royal pew), <a href="#Page_223">223</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Mālikīs (orthodox school of theology), <a href=
+"#Page_97">97</a>, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_292">292</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Mamā’y, palace of Mamlūk emīr, <a href=
+"#Page_270">270</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Mamlūks, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>-301.</li>
+
+<li>Ma’mūn, el-, ‘Abbāsid caliph, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Ma’mūn, el-, Fāṭimid vezīr [Dār].</li>
+
+<li>Mandara (manẓara, guest-room), <a href="#Page_14">14</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Manfred, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Mangak, Mamlūk emīr, mosque, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Manṣūra, el-, battle, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_208">208</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Manṣūrīya, el-, quarter of Sūdānīs, <a href=
+"#Page_181">181</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Manṣūrīya medresa (Ḳalā’ūn), <a href="#Page_83">83</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Manẓara (belvedere), <a href="#Page_90">90</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_271">271</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Marble mosaic, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Marg-Dābiḳ, battle, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Marg-es-Suffar, battle, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Māridāny, el-, Mamlūk emīr, mosque, <a href=
+"#Page_224">224</a>, <a href="#Page_283">283</a>-285, <a href=
+"#Page_314">314</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Māristāns, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_185">185</a>, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_212">212</a>, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_238">238</a>, <a href="#Page_300">300</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Marshūshy, el-, ‘Aly, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Martyrs, Place of, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Marwān, last Omayyad caliph, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>,
+<a href="#Page_65">65</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Maskat vines, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Masmūda, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_146">146</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Maṣr (for Miṣr, name of Egypt and of its capital), <a href=
+"#Page_33">33</a> [Fusṭāṭ, Miṣr].</li>
+
+<li>Maṣr-el-‘Atīḳa (old Miṣr, “Old Cairo”), <a href=
+"#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_253">253</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Maṣṭaba Far‘ūn (Pharaoh’s Seat), <a href=
+"#Page_90">90</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Mas‘ūdy, el-, historian, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_96">96</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Maṭarīya, el-, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>; battle, <a href=
+"#Page_49">49</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Medallion of Ḳā’it-Bey, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Medīna, el-, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_144">144</a>, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_205">205</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Medresa (academy, college), <a href="#Page_111">111</a>,
+<a href="#Page_173">173</a>, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>-192,
+<a href="#Page_224">224</a>, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_298">298</a> [Mosque].</li>
+
+<li>Mekka, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>,
+<a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_205">205</a>, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_263">263</a>, <a href="#Page_299">299</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Melekites (orthodox Greek church), <a href="#Page_38">38</a>,
+<a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_219">219</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Melons, ‘Abdallāwy, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Memdūd, Ibn, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Memphis, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>,
+<a href="#Page_41">41</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Menageries, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Menāẓir-el-Kebsh (belvederes of the ram), <a href=
+"#Page_90">90</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Mercurius, St., <a href="#Page_121">121</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Mercury, lake of, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Mesgid, <a href="#Page_188">188</a> [Mosque].</li>
+
+<li>Meshrebīya, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>,
+<a href="#Page_284">284</a>, <a href="#Page_285">285</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Mesopotamia, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_115">115</a>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Mesrūr, khān of, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>, <a href=
+"#i28">268</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Metal-work, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_271">271</a>-280, <a href="#Page_310">310</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Meydān (racecourse), <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_271">271</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Meymūn, Ibn, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Mibkhara (censer), <a href="#Page_138">138</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Mihmandār (master of the ceremonies), Aḥmad, Mamlūk emīr,
+mosque, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Miḥrāb (niche for prayer in mosque), <a href="#Page_80">80</a>,
+<a href="#Page_83">83</a>, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_231">231</a>, <a href="#Page_299">299</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Mina, St, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Minarets, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>;
+of Ibn-Ṭūlūn, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>; of el-Ḥākim, <a href=
+"#Page_83">83</a>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_139">139</a>; of Ḳalā’ūn and Āḳbughā, <a href=
+"#Page_83">83</a>; of el-Mu’ayyad, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>,
+<a href="#Page_238">238</a>; of Sultan Ḥasan, <a href=
+"#Page_232">232</a>, <a href="#Page_307">307</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Minbar [Pulpit].</li>
+
+<li>Miska, Sitta, mosque, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Miṣr (Maṣr), <a href="#Page_34">34</a>-36, <a href=
+"#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a> [Fusṭāṭ].</li>
+
+<li>Missionaries, Shī‘a, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Mo‘allaḳa, el-, church, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Moḥammad, the Prophet, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Moḥammad ‘Aly, viceroy, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_302">302</a>; mosque, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>; street,
+<a href="#Page_302">302</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Moḥammad Bey, Abū-dh-Dhahab, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Moḥammad el-Mādarā’y, treasurer, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>,
+<a href="#Page_93">93</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Moḥammad ibn Suleymān, ‘Abbāsid general, <a href=
+"#Page_89">89</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Moḥammad ibn ez-Zubeyr, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Moḥarram festival, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Mo‘izz, el-, Fāṭimid caliph, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>-119,
+<a href="#Page_125">125</a>-127, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>,
+<a href="#Page_132">132</a>, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_147">147</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Mōlids (birthday festivals), <a href="#Page_22">22</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Monasteries, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_123">123</a>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Mongols, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_204">204</a>, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Monks, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>,
+<a href="#Page_219">219</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Monopolies, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Mosaic, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Mōṣil artists, <a href="#Page_272">272</a> <em>ff.</em></li>
+
+<li><span class="pagenum" id="Page_336">[336]</span>Mosques:—</li>
+
+<li class="isub">Abū-dh-Dhahab [Moḥammad Bey], <a href=
+"#Page_301">301</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="isub">Abū-l-‘Olā, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="isub">Abū-s-Su‘ūd, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="isub">Aḳbughā, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_299">299</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="isub">Akhdar [Fakahāny].</li>
+
+<li class="isub">Aḳmar, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_160">160</a>, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="isub">Aḳsunḳur, <a href="#Page_223">223</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_224">224</a>, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_245">245</a>, <a href="#Page_298">298</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="isub">Aḳūsh, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="isub">Algibughā, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="isub">Almās, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_289">289</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="isub">Almelik, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_259">259</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="isub">‘Amr, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>-48, etc.
+[<em>q.v.</em>].</li>
+
+<li class="isub">Anwar [Ḥākim].</li>
+
+<li class="isub">Arghūn el-Ismā‘īly, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>,
+<a href="#Page_227">227</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="isub">Ashraf, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_250">250</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="isub">‘Askar, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="isub">Asunbugha, <a href="#Page_311">311</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="isub">Asyūṭy, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="isub">Aydemir [Khaṭīry].</li>
+
+<li class="isub">Azhar, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>-5, etc.
+(<em>q.v.</em>).</li>
+
+<li class="isub">Barḳūḳ, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_250">250</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="isub"><span class="word-spaced6">&nbsp;„&nbsp;</span>
+and Farag, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_245">245</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="isub">Bars-Bey, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_250">250</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="isub">Bāsiṭy, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="isub">Benāt, <a href="#Page_311">311</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="isub">Beshtāk, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="isub">Beybars, Ẓāhir, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>,
+<a href="#Page_212">212</a>, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="isub">Beybars, Gāshnekīr, <a href=
+"#Page_128">128</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="isub">Burdeyny, <a href="#Page_298">298</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="isub">Emīr Akhōr [Ḳāny Bek].</li>
+
+<li class="isub">Ezbek ibn Tutush, <a href=
+"#Page_295">295</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="isub">Ezbek el-Yūsufy, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>,
+<a href="#Page_250">250</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="isub">Fakahāny, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_298">298</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="isub">Farag [Barḳūḳ].</li>
+
+<li class="isub">Felek, Ibn-el-, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="isub">Ga‘bary, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="isub">Ghāzy, Ibn, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="isub">Ghurāb, Ibn, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="isub">Ghūry, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="isub">Guyūshy, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="isub">Ḥākim, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_126">126</a>, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>-9
+(<em>q.v.</em>).</li>
+
+<li class="isub">Ḥasan, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_224">224</a>, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>-37, <a href=
+"#Page_245">245</a>, <a href="#Page_284">284</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_306">306</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="isub">Ḥasaneyn, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_181">181</a>-185.</li>
+
+<li class="isub">Ḥigāzīya, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="isub">Ḥoseyn, emīr, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="isub">Ibrāhīm Aga (Aḳsunḳur), <a href=
+"#Page_227">227</a>, <a href="#Page_298">298</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="isub">Ismā‘īly [Arghūn].</li>
+
+<li class="isub">Ḳagmās, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_311">311</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="isub">Ḳā’it-Bey, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>-9, <a href=
+"#Page_284">284</a>, <a href="#Page_285">285</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="isub">Ḳalā’ūn, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_245">245</a>, <a href="#Page_283">283</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_285">285</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="isub">Ḳalendarīya, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="isub">Kāmilīya, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="isub">Ḳāny Bek, emīr Akhōr, <a href=
+"#Page_250">250</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="isub">Ḳarāfa, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_134">134</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="isub">Keymakhty, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="isub">Khaṭīry, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="isub">Kheyr Bek, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="isub">Khilāṭy, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="isub">Ḳūṣūn, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_283">283</a>, <a href="#Page_296">296</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="isub">Maghraby, Ibn-el-, <a href=
+"#Page_259">259</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="isub">Maḥmūdīya, <a href="#Page_289">289</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="isub">Maḳs, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_189">189</a>, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="isub">Mangak, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="isub">Māridāny, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_283">283</a>-5, <a href="#Page_314">314</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="isub">Mihmandār, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="isub">Miska, Sitta, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="isub">Moḥammad ‘Aly, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="isub">Moḥammad Bey, <a href="#Page_300">300</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="isub">Mu’ayyad, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_250">250</a>, <a href="#Page_284">284</a>-5, <a href=
+"#Page_297">297</a>, <a href="#Page_311">311</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="isub">Muzhir (Mazhar) Abū-Bekr ibn, <a href=
+"#Page_250">250</a>, <a href="#Page_285">285</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_309">309</a>-311.</li>
+
+<li class="isub">Nāṣir in Citadel, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>,
+<a href="#Page_223">223</a>.</li>
+
+<li><span class="word-spaced5">&nbsp;„&nbsp;</span> Naḥḥāsīn,
+<a href="#Page_220">220</a>, <a href="#Page_223">223</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="isub">Naṣr, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="isub">Nefīsa, Seyyida, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>,
+<a href="#Page_206">206</a>, <a href="#Page_223">223</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_300">300</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="isub">Rāshida, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="isub">Ṣāliḥ Ayyūb, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_282">282</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="isub">Ṣāliḥ Ṭalāi‘.</li>
+
+<li class="isub">Ṣarghitmish, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="isub">Ṣārim, Ibn-, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="isub">Sāriyat-el-Gebel, <a href=
+"#Page_185">185</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="isub">Sārūgā, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="isub">Sennānīya, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="isub">Sengar el-Gāwaly, <a href=
+"#Page_224">224</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="isub">Seyf-ed-dīn, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="isub">Shāfi‘y, Imām, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>,
+<a href="#Page_225">225</a>, <a href="#Page_296">296</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_298">298</a>, <a href="#Page_300">300</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="isub">Shem, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="isub">Sheykhū, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_284">284</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="isub">Ṭabbākh, Ibn-eṭ, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="isub">Ṭalāi‘ ibn Ruzzīk, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>,
+<a href="#Page_167">167</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="isub">Ṭawāshy, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="isub">Ṭaybars, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_299">299</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="isub">Ṭulbīya, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="isub">Ṭūlūn, Aḥmad ibn, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>-86
+[<em>q.v.</em>].</li>
+
+<li class="isub">Yūnus, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_259">259</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="isub">Ẓāhir [Beybars].</li>
+
+<li class="isub">Zeyneb, Seyyida, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>,
+<a href="#Page_299">299</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="isub">Zeyn-ed-dīn Yaḥyā, <a href=
+"#Page_311">311</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="isub">[See also Table of Monuments, pp. <a href=
+"#Page_317">317</a>-22].</li>
+
+<li>Mu’ayyad, el-, Mamlūk sultan, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>;
+mosque, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>,
+<a href="#Page_232">232</a>, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_284">284</a>, <a href="#Page_285">285</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_297">297</a>, <a href="#Page_298">298</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_311">311</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Mudarrag [Bāb].</li>
+
+<li>Muedhdhin or Muezzin (prayer crier), <a href=
+"#Page_43">43</a>.</li>
+
+<li><span class="pagenum" id="Page_337">[337]</span>Muḳaṭṭam, el-,
+hills, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>,
+<a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_134">134</a>, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_175">175</a>, <a href="#Page_219">219</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Muḳawḳis, el-, Roman governor of Egypt, <a href=
+"#Page_37">37</a>-39.</li>
+
+<li>Mule, Convent of the, <a href="#Page_219">219</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Murād Bey, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_44">44</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Mūsā el-‘Abbāsy, governor, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Muṣallā-l-‘Id (oratory of the Festival), <a href=
+"#Page_141">141</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Musebbiḥy, el-, author, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_100">100</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Museum of Arab Art, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_138">138</a>, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_282">282</a>, <a href="#Page_304">304</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_305">305</a>, <a href="#Page_312">312</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Museum, British, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_273">273</a>.</li>
+
+<li><span class="word-spaced6">&nbsp;„&nbsp;</span> South
+Kensington, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_282">282</a>, <a href="#Page_283">283</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Music, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Musky street, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_126">126</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Mustanṣir, el-, Fāṭimid caliph, <a href=
+"#Page_144">144</a>-154, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Mutanebby, el-, poet, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Mutawelly, Ḳuṭb el-, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>
+[Bāb-Zuweyla].</li>
+
+<li>Muwaffaḳ, el-, ‘Abbāsid, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Muzhir (Mazhar), Abū-Bekr ibn, Ḳāḍy, mosque, <a href=
+"#Page_250">250</a>, <a href="#Page_285">285</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_309">309</a>-311.</li>
+
+<li class="ifrst">N.</li>
+
+<li>Naḥḥāsīn [Sūḳ].</li>
+
+<li>Narthex, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Nāṣir, en-, title of Saladin, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Nāṣir, en-, Moḥammad, Mamlūk sultan, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>,
+<a href="#Page_204">204</a>, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>-228;
+mosque in Citadel, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_223">223</a>; mosque in Naḥḥāsīn, <a href=
+"#Page_220">220</a>, <a href="#Page_223">223</a>; artistic epoch,
+<a href="#Page_279">279</a>, <a href="#Page_282">282</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_284">284</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Nāṣir, en-, pool of, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Nāṣir-i-Khusrau, philosopher and traveller, <a href=
+"#Page_83">83</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>-110, <a href=
+"#Page_127">127</a>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_132">132</a>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_145">145</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Naṣr [Bāb, Ḳubba].</li>
+
+<li>Naṣr ibn ‘Abbās, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Nefīsa, Seyyida, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_206">206</a>, <a href="#Page_223">223</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_300">300</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Nestorius, Ibn, Fāṭimid vezīr, <a href=
+"#Page_122">122</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Niche of mosque [Miḥrāb].</li>
+
+<li>Night of the Bath, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Nikiu, John, bishop of, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Nile, change of bed, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_257">257</a>, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>; festivals,
+<a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_132">132</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Nilometers, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_85">85</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_147">147</a>; mosque of, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Niẓām-el-mulk, Seljūḳ vezīr, college of, <a href=
+"#Page_190">190</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Nubians, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>,
+<a href="#Page_62">62</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Nūr-ed-dīn, sultan of Damascus, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>,
+<a href="#Page_190">190</a>, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_198">198</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="ifrst">O.</li>
+
+<li>‘Okba, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Old Cairo [Maṣr-el-‘Atīḳa].</li>
+
+<li>‘Omar, caliph, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_40">40</a>.</li>
+
+<li>‘Omar, secretary, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>.</li>
+
+<li>‘Omāra, poet, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Omayyads [caliphs].</li>
+
+<li>On, <a href="#Page_49">49</a> [Heliopolis].</li>
+
+<li>Osāma, treasurer, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Osāma ibn Munkidh, Arab chief, <a href=
+"#Page_158">158</a>.</li>
+
+<li>‘Othmān Bey Dhū-l-Fiḳār, <a href="#Page_289">289</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_290">290</a>.</li>
+
+<li>‘Othmān Ketkhudā, <a href="#Page_299">299</a>.</li>
+
+<li>‘Othmānly (Osmānli, Ottoman) Turks, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>,
+<a href="#Page_206">206</a>; mosques, <a href=
+"#Page_298">298</a>-301.</li>
+
+<li class="ifrst">P.</li>
+
+<li>Palaces, Fāṭimid, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>-8, <a href=
+"#Page_130">130</a>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_160">160</a>; Mamlūk, <a href="#Page_223">223</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_270">270</a>, <a href="#Page_274">274</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_288">288</a>-290; Ṭūlūnid, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>,
+<a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_88">88</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Patriarchs, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_122">122</a>, <a href="#Page_219">219</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Paulus Ageminius, <a href="#Page_280">280</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Pavilions, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_127">127</a>, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Pelusium, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Perfumes, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_134">134</a>, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Persia, Mongol khāns of, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_206">206</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Persian arch, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_138">138</a>, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>; art, <a href=
+"#Page_133">133</a>, <a href="#Page_280">280</a>; troops, <a href=
+"#Page_146">146</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Pharaoh’s Oven, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>; Seat, <a href=
+"#Page_90">90</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Physicians, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_120">120</a>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Pictures, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>,
+<a href="#Page_133">133</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Pigeon post, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>; tower, <a href=
+"#Page_87">87</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Pilgrims, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Plague, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Planets, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Plaster-work, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_85">85</a>, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Plato, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Pococke, R., <a href="#Page_41">41</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Poets, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>-101.</li>
+
+<li>Polo, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Pottery, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Preacher, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_171">171</a>, <a href="#Page_297">297</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Professors, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_297">297</a>, <a href="#Page_300">300</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_301">301</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Pulpit (minbar), <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_283">283</a>, <a href="#Page_284">284</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_299">299</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Punch (Ḳarāḳūsh), <a href="#Page_25">25</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="ifrst"><span class="pagenum" id=
+"Page_338">[338]</span>Q.</li>
+
+<li>Quicksilver Lake, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="ifrst">R.</li>
+
+<li>Raḥba (square), <a href="#Page_271">271</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Rā’ik, Ibn, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Rain, prayers for, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Ram, Castle of the, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Ramaḍān, fast, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Ramla, er-, Peace of, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Rashīd [Hārūn].</li>
+
+<li>Rāshida, mosque at, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Raṭly, Birkat-el-, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Ravaisse, M., <a href="#Page_128">128</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Red [Ḥamrā]; tower, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>; sea, <a href=
+"#Page_205">205</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Rents, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_195">195</a>, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_270">270</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Restoration of mosques, <a href="#Page_309">309</a>-312.</li>
+
+<li>Revenue, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Review, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Rhodes, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>; tiles, <a href=
+"#Page_56">56</a>, <a href="#Page_298">298</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Riwāḳs (partitions in Azhar), <a href="#Page_291">291</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Rōḍa, er-, Island, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>-96, <a href=
+"#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_157">157</a>, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Rogers, E. T., <a href="#Page_206">206</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_304">304</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Romans (Eastern Empire), <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Ruḍwān, Fāṭimid vezīr, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Ruḍwān el-Gelfy, <a href="#Page_290">290</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_291">291</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Ruḳeyya, Seyyida, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Rūm, Ḥārat-er-, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_145">145</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Rumeyla, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_179">179</a>, <a href="#Page_219">219</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_253">253</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Ruzzīk, <a href="#Page_159">159</a> [Ṭalāi‘].</li>
+
+<li class="ifrst">S.</li>
+
+<li>Sa‘āda [Bāb].</li>
+
+<li>Ṣafīya, Seyyida, mosque, <a href="#Page_298">298</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Sāg (teak wood), <a href="#Page_76">76</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Sa‘īd, Ibn, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_94">94</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_262">262</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Sāḳiya (water-wheel), <a href="#Page_258">258</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Saḳḳa (water carrier), <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_299">299</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Saladin (Ṣalāḥ-ed-dīn), Ayyūbid sultan, <a href=
+"#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_164">164</a>-193, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_212">212</a>, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Sālār, Ibn es-, Fāṭimid vezīr, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>,
+<a href="#Page_167">167</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Ṣalība (crossway) street, <a href="#Page_288">288</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Ṣāliḥ, eṣ-, Ayyūb, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_198">198</a>, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_217">217</a>, <a href="#Page_269">269</a>; tomb, <a href=
+"#Page_212">212</a>, <a href="#Page_282">282</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Ṣāliḥ, eṣ- [Ṭalāi‘].</li>
+
+<li>Ṣāliḥ, Abū-, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_153">153</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Salomonis opus, <a href="#Page_280">280</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Sanctuary [Līwān].</li>
+
+<li>Saphadin [‘Ādil].</li>
+
+<li>Sarga, Abu-, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Ṣarghitmish, Mamlūk emīr, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>; mosque,
+<a href="#Page_224">224</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Ṣārim, Ibn, mosque, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Sāriyat-el-Gebel, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Sārūgā, mosque, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Sawākin, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_215">215</a>, <a href="#Page_263">263</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Schefer, C., <a href="#Page_107">107</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Schools or sects of Islām, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_190">190</a>, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_300">300</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Screens, Coptic, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>-55, <a href=
+"#Page_57">57</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Sebīl (street fountain), <a href="#Page_249">249</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_253">253</a>, <a href="#Page_299">299</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Sebīl, khān of the, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Sekīna, Seyyida, <a href="#Page_299">299</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Selīm, ‘Othmānly sultan, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Seljūḳs, sultans of western Asia, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>,
+<a href="#Page_167">167</a>, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_203">203</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Sennānīya, es-, mosque, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Sengar el-Gāwaly, mosque, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Sergius, St, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Severus, bishop of el-Ushmūneyn, <a href=
+"#Page_121">121</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Seyf-ed-din, college, <a href="#Page_185">185</a> [‘Ādil].</li>
+
+<li>Seyfeyn, Abū-s-, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Sha‘bān, el-Ashraf, Mamlūk sultan, <a href=
+"#Page_90">90</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Shāfi‘īs, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_185">185</a>, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Shāfi‘y, esh-, Imām, mosque, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>,
+<a href="#Page_225">225</a>, <a href="#Page_296">296</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_298">298</a>, <a href="#Page_300">300</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Sharā’iby family, <a href="#Page_292">292</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Shāri‘ (street), <a href="#Page_6">6</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Shāwar, Fāṭimid vezīr, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_159">159</a>, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>-169.</li>
+
+<li>Sheger-ed-durr, ‘Aṣmat-ed-dīn, Mamlūk queen, <a href=
+"#Page_198">198</a>, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_202">202</a>, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Shem, son of Noah, muṣallā of, <a href=
+"#Page_129">129</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Sherbetly, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Sheykh-el-beled, <a href="#Page_288">288</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Sheykh-el-Islām, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Sheykhū, Mamlūk emīr, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>; mosque,
+<a href="#Page_224">224</a>, <a href="#Page_284">284</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Shī‘a, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>-120, <a href=
+"#Page_180">180</a>-182.</li>
+
+<li>Shibūk, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_288">288</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Shipbuilders’ island, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Shīrkūh, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>-170.</li>
+
+<li>Shops, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>-9, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>,
+<a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Shubrawy, esh-, Aḥmad, <a href="#Page_295">295</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_296">296</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Silversmiths, <a href="#Page_272">272</a> <em>ff.</em></li>
+
+<li>Slaves, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_236">236</a>, <a href="#Page_269">269</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_288">288</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Slavonians, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Smoking, <a href="#Page_288">288</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Spain, refugees from, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Statues, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Stone-work, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_139">139</a>, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_284">284</a>.</li>
+
+<li><span class="pagenum" id="Page_339">[339]</span>Strabo,
+<a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Streets of Cairo, <a href="#Page_271">271</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Striped decoration, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Striped Palace (Ḳaṣr-el-Ablaḳ), <a href=
+"#Page_223">223</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Stucco-work, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_85">85</a>, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_284">284</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Sūdān trade, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_134">134</a>; students, <a href="#Page_299">299</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Sūdānīs, black troops, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_130">130</a>, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_144">144</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_147">147</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_181">181</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Suez, <a href="#Page_263">263</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Sūḳ (bazar, market), <a href=
+"#Page_271">271</a>;—Sūḳ-en-Naḥḥāsīn, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>,
+<a href="#Page_126">126</a>, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Sukkarīya (sugar bāzār), <a href="#Page_159">159</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_238">238</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Sun-dials, <a href="#Page_296">296</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Sunnīs (orthodox Muslims), <a href="#Page_113">113</a>,
+<a href="#Page_119">119</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Superstition, <a href="#Page_297">297</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Surūgīya, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Syria, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>,
+<a href="#Page_93">93</a>, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_143">143</a>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_164">164</a>-173, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_196">196</a>, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>-207, <a href=
+"#Page_217">217</a>, <a href="#Page_301">301</a> [Damascus].</li>
+
+<li>Syrian trade, <a href="#Page_269">269</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_270">270</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="ifrst">T.</li>
+
+<li>Ṭabary, eṭ-, historian, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Ṭabāṭabā poets, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Ṭabbākh, Ibn-eṭ-, mosque, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Ṭāhir, Ibn, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_67">67</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Ṭalāi‘ ibn Rūzzīk, Fāṭimid vezīr, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>,
+<a href="#Page_159">159</a>; mosque, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>,
+<a href="#Page_167">167</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Ṭamweyh, monastery, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Ṭarsūs, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>,
+<a href="#Page_86">86</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Ṭawāshy, eṭ-, mosque, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Taxes, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>,
+<a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_207">207</a>, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_241">241</a>, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Ṭaybars, Mamlūk emīr, mosque, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>;
+medresa, <a href="#Page_299">299</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Ṭaylasan, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Templars, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Ṭendunyās, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Tent [Fusṭāṭ]; state tents, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Textus case, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Thedosius, edict of, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>.</li>
+
+<li><em>Thousand and One Nights</em>, <a href=
+"#Page_261">261</a>-263.</li>
+
+<li>Throne, ‘Abbāsid, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Tiles, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, <a href="#Page_298">298</a>,
+<a href="#Page_299">299</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Tīmūr (Tamerlane), <a href="#Page_237">237</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Tīmūrbughā, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_241">241</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Tombs, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>,
+<a href="#Page_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_184">184</a>, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_228">228</a> [Mosque].</li>
+
+<li>Ṭōr, eṭ-, <a href="#Page_263">263</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Trade, transit, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_262">262</a>-265.</li>
+
+<li>Treasurers, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_93">93</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Treaty, Arab, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>-37.</li>
+
+<li>Tripolis, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_205">205</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Truffles, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Ṭulbīya, wife of en-Nāṣir, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Ṭūlūn, Aḥmad ibn, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>-87, <a href=
+"#Page_197">197</a>, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>; faubourg and
+palace, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>-77; mosque, <a href=
+"#Page_77">77</a>-86, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_187">187</a>, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_245">245</a>, <a href="#Page_281">281</a>-3, <a href=
+"#Page_285">285</a>, <a href="#Page_289">289</a>; Nilometer,
+<a href="#Page_96">96</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Ṭūmān-Bey, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Tunis, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Turkish governors, <a href="#Page_70">70</a> <em>ff.</em>;
+troops, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>,
+<a href="#Page_147">147</a>-149.</li>
+
+<li>Tyre, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Tyre, William of, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_130">130</a>-132, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="ifrst">U.</li>
+
+<li>‘Ulamā (learned men), <a href="#Page_300">300</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_302">302</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Umarā, Hārat-el- (emīrs’ quarter), <a href=
+"#Page_145">145</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Umm-Duneyn, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_35">35</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Umm-Khalīl, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Umm-Kulthūm, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Ustaddār (major domo).</li>
+
+<li>‘Uṭūfīya quarter, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>.</li>
+
+<li>University [Azhar].</li>
+
+<li class="ifrst">V.</li>
+
+<li>Valle, Pietro della, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Venice, consuls, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_263">263</a>-265; art, <a href="#Page_277">277</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_279">279</a>, <a href="#Page_280">280</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Vezīrs’ Palace, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_171">171</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Vezīrs, Fāṭimid, <a href="#Page_147">147</a> <em>ff.</em></li>
+
+<li class="ifrst">W.</li>
+
+<li>Waḳf (religious trusts), <a href="#Page_302">302</a>-5,
+<a href="#Page_311">311</a>-313.</li>
+
+<li>Wālīs [Governors].</li>
+
+<li>Walls of Cairo, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_123">123</a>, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>-128, <a href=
+"#Page_150">150</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Wardān, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Wards [Ḳaṭāi‘].</li>
+
+<li>Watermills, the Seven, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_217">217</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Watson, Colonel C. M., <a href="#Page_223">223</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Wekāla (hostelry), <a href="#Page_265">265</a>-267.</li>
+
+<li>Well in Citadel, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Wine, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>,
+<a href="#Page_102">102</a>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_207">207</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Women, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>,
+<a href="#Page_18">18</a>-20, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_121">121</a>, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_140">140</a>, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_144">144</a>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_160">160</a>, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_201">201</a>, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_212">212</a>, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Wood-work, <a href="#Page_281">281</a>-285, <a href=
+"#Page_310">310</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="ifrst"><span class="pagenum" id=
+"Page_340">[340]</span>Y.</li>
+
+<li>Yānis, Fāṭimid vezīr, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Yāzūry, el-, Fāṭimid vezīr, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>,
+<a href="#Page_146">146</a>-148.</li>
+
+<li>Yelbughā, Mamlūk emīr, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Yenbu‘, port of Mekka, <a href="#Page_263">263</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Yeshbek, Mamlūk emīr, palace, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Yeshkur, hill, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_90">90</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Yūnus, mosque, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_259">259</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="ifrst">Z.</li>
+
+<li>Ẓāfir, eẓ-, Fāṭimid caliph, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>;
+mosque, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Ẓāhir, eẓ-, Fāṭimid caliph, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>,
+<a href="#Page_298">298</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Ẓāhir, eẓ- [Beybars Barḳūḳ].</li>
+
+<li>Zawīla or Zuweyla [Bāb]; quarter, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>,
+<a href="#Page_145">145</a>, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Zāwiya (chapel), <a href="#Page_189">189</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_259">259</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Zemzem, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Zeyneb, Seyyida, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_299">299</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Zeyneby, ez-, poet, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Zeyn-ed-dīn Yaḥya, mosque, <a href="#Page_311">311</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Zeyn-el-‘Abidīn, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_185">185</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Ziggurat, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Zikrs, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Zodiac, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Zubeyr, ez-, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href=
+"#Page_185">185</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Zuhry, ez-, church, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Zuḳāḳ, <a href="#Page_271">271</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Zureyḳ, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Zuweyla [Bāb].</li>
+</ul>
+
+<p class="center small space-above2">TURNBULL AND SPEARS, PRINTERS,
+EDINBURGH</p>
+
+<div class="footnotes">
+<h2>FOOTNOTES:</h2>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1"><span class=
+"label">[1]</span></a>See my <em>Cairo Sketches</em> (Virtue,
+1897), 120-140.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2"><span class=
+"label">[2]</span></a>See <em>Cairo Sketches</em>, 174-5.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_3"></a><a href="#FNanchor_3"><span class=
+"label">[3]</span></a>See my <em>History of Egypt in the Middle
+Ages</em>, 4.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_4"></a><a href="#FNanchor_4"><span class=
+"label">[4]</span></a>On the very obscure subject of the Mukawkis
+see Dr A. J. Butler’s recent paper in the <em>Proc. Soc. Bibl.
+Archæology</em>, 1902, in which he seeks to identify the Mukawkis
+with Cyrus, the patriarch of Alexandria. This identification,
+however, finds no support from any Arabic authorities.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_5"></a><a href="#FNanchor_5"><span class=
+"label">[5]</span></a>Dr Butler’s suggestion is rather strengthened
+by Pococke’s statement that in his time the Kasr-esh-Shema‘ was
+also known by the name of “Casr Kieman.” It is not, however, quite
+certain that this Kasr-esh-Shema‘ represents the principal part of
+Babylon. There was another Roman building on a rocky hill, formerly
+washed by the Nile, south-east of the Kasr-esh-Shema‘, which
+according to several Arabic writers quoted by Makrízy was the town
+of Misr or Babylon besieged by ‘Amr, and contained the fortress
+known as Kasr Babelyún. Possibly the remains of this are
+commemorated in “Antar’s Stable,” of which massive foundations
+exist. See Lane, <em>Cairo Fifty Years Ago</em>, 146. Traces of
+walls beside the bed of the Nile have been noticed south of Masr
+el-‘Atíka, and it is probable that here we have vestiges of the
+vanished pre-Muslim city of Misr, guarded by its two forts. That
+Misr was a northern extension of the old but decayed capital,
+Memphis, is not so impossible as it seems. The distance it is true
+between the present ruins of Memphis and the fortress of Babylon is
+over ten miles, but it must be remembered that Memphis once had a
+circuit of seventeen miles, and stretched as far as Giza.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_6"></a><a href="#FNanchor_6"><span class=
+"label">[6]</span></a>In later times the Hamra became known as the
+quarter of the “Lions’ Bridges” (over the canal), so-called from
+the lions sculptured on them, and the quarter of the “Seven
+Watermills,” referring to the machines for raising the Nile water
+to the aqueduct. <em>Makrízy</em>, i. 286.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_7"></a><a href="#FNanchor_7"><span class=
+"label">[7]</span></a>See Mr E. K. Corbett’s exhaustive and
+masterly essay on “the History of the Mosque of ‘Amr at Old Cairo”
+in <em>Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society</em>, N.S., xxii.,
+1891.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_8"></a><a href="#FNanchor_8"><span class=
+"label">[8]</span></a>Lane, <em>Cairo Fifty Years Ago</em>, 142,
+143.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_9"></a><a href="#FNanchor_9"><span class=
+"label">[9]</span></a>Jeremiah xliii. 13.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_10"></a><a href="#FNanchor_10"><span class=
+"label">[10]</span></a>See Dr A. J. Butler’s <em>Ancient Coptic
+Churches of Egypt</em> (i. 86-9), which for the first time presents
+a thorough and scholarly account of these wonderful monuments. Dr
+Butler’s zeal and research need no praise of mine to augment their
+value, but I cannot resist this opportunity of saying how grateful
+every one who is interested in the art of Egypt must be to his
+admirable and laborious investigations of every detail of Coptic
+antiquities. His work is the highest authority we possess on this
+fascinating subject, and from it much of this description is
+derived.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_11"></a><a href="#FNanchor_11"><span class=
+"label">[11]</span></a>The dinár was a gold coin of about the
+weight of a half-guinea.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_12"></a><a href="#FNanchor_12"><span class=
+"label">[12]</span></a>For the annals of the governors see my
+<em>History of Egypt in the Middle Ages</em>, 18-58.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_13"></a><a href="#FNanchor_13"><span class=
+"label">[13]</span></a><em>Korán</em>, xliv. 50, and vii. 133;
+<em>History</em>, 37, 38.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_14"></a><a href="#FNanchor_14"><span class=
+"label">[14]</span></a>See <em>History</em>, 60-71; Makrízy, i.
+313, 315.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_15"></a><a href="#FNanchor_15"><span class=
+"label">[15]</span></a>He is called by Makrízy merely a Nasrány,
+Christian, but had he been a Greek he would certainly have been
+given the epithet Rúmy. El-Mas‘údy gives a long account of the
+conversations of an aged and very intelligent Copt of Upper Egypt,
+a great favourite with Ibn-Tulún, who used to spend much time in
+his company and learned many curious things from the ancient
+man.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_16"></a><a href="#FNanchor_16"><span class=
+"label">[16]</span></a>See <em>Art of the Saracens in Egypt</em>,
+54-59. The grilles are probably of later date.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_17"></a><a href="#FNanchor_17"><span class=
+"label">[17]</span></a>The <em>liwán</em> of the mosque of
+Ibn-Tulún has been considerably altered since its foundation. The
+vezír Bedr el-Gemály made some repairs in 1077, after the injuries
+inflicted during the troubles of el-Mustansir’s reign; and his son
+the vezír el-Afdal built a <em>mihráb</em> in 1094; but the chief
+restoration was made in 1296 by the Mamlúk Sultan Lagín, whose
+pulpit still stands in the mosque and bears his inscriptions.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_18"></a><a href="#FNanchor_18"><span class=
+"label">[18]</span></a>Makrízy says (<em>Khitat</em>, ii. 284) that
+the minaret of the small mosque of Akbugha included in the Azhar
+buildings and erected in 1331 was “the first minaret built of stone
+in the land of Egypt after the Mansuríya” of Kalaún; from which we
+infer that Kalaún’s minaret (of 1284) was the first stone minaret
+known to the topographer. He would probably not call the tower of
+Ibn-Tulún strictly a minaret, and he evidently knew nothing of the
+stone minarets of the mosque of el-Hákim (see below, <a href=
+"#Page_138">p. 138</a>).</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_19"></a><a href="#FNanchor_19"><span class=
+"label">[19]</span></a>There is a small cupola over the niche, but
+this, like the pulpit and most of the decoration of the liwán,
+belongs to the restoration by Lagín in 1296. The central domed
+ablution tank is also a later addition, replacing the original
+marble basin resting on columns under a roof.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_20"></a><a href="#FNanchor_20"><span class=
+"label">[20]</span></a>There are some remarkable specimens of
+arabesque woodcarving from the mosque of Ibn-Tulún in the Cairo
+Museum of Arab Art.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_21"></a><a href="#FNanchor_21"><span class=
+"label">[21]</span></a>See M. van Berchem, <em>Notes d’Archéologie
+Arabe</em>, Extr. du Journal Asiatique, 125 (1891).</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_22"></a><a href="#FNanchor_22"><span class=
+"label">[22]</span></a>Makrízy, i. 318 ff.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_23"></a><a href="#FNanchor_23"><span class=
+"label">[23]</span></a>This curious building, of which a drawing is
+given on <a href="#i15">p. 177,</a> was built (very probably on an
+ancient foundation) by Saladin’s great-nephew es-Sálih about 1245,
+and was used as a royal palace. Here the ‘Abbásid caliph Hakim was
+installed by Beybars. En-Násir rebuilt the Castle (or Belvedere) of
+the Ram in 1323, and the emír Sarghitmish lived there and built the
+gate and round towers. It was partly destroyed by el-Ashraf
+Sha‘ban, and then used for tenements. Makrízy ii. 133.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_24"></a><a href="#FNanchor_24"><span class=
+"label">[24]</span></a>Ibn-Sa‘íd, ed. Tallqvist, Arabic text,
+14.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_25"></a><a href="#FNanchor_25"><span class=
+"label">[25]</span></a>The Ikhshíd had a passion for amber, and
+people used to give him quantities of it at the New Year and Spring
+festivals, and he would sell it for great sums. After his death his
+widow’s house was burnt down, and with it £50,000 worth of amber
+(Ibn-Sa‘íd).</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_26"></a><a href="#FNanchor_26"><span class=
+"label">[26]</span></a>Mas‘údy, <em>Murúg</em>, ii. 364, 365. He
+met the historian Eutychius at Misr, and it was there that he
+finished the work entitled <em>Kitáb et-Tenbíh</em> in <span class=
+"sc2">A.H.</span> 345.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_27"></a><a href="#FNanchor_27"><span class=
+"label">[27]</span></a>See my “Arab Classic,” in <em>Among my
+Books</em>, 90.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_28"></a><a href="#FNanchor_28"><span class=
+"label">[28]</span></a>See <em>History</em>, 88, 89, and Dr
+Tallqvist’s excellent edition of part of Ibn-Sa‘id, 78 ff.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_29"></a><a href="#FNanchor_29"><span class=
+"label">[29]</span></a>See Makrízy, ii. 177, 114, 115, 163, 185,
+etc.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_30"></a><a href="#FNanchor_30"><span class=
+"label">[30]</span></a>Nasir-i-Khusrau, <em>Safar Náma</em>, ed.
+Schefer, 145 ff.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_31"></a><a href="#FNanchor_31"><span class=
+"label">[31]</span></a>See my <em>Saladin</em>, 93, and see below,
+<a href="#Page_169">p. 169.</a></p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_32"></a><a href="#FNanchor_32"><span class=
+"label">[32]</span></a>Ibn-Gubeyr, ed. Wright, 51. I owe this
+reference to Mr Guy le Strange.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_33"></a><a href="#FNanchor_33"><span class=
+"label">[33]</span></a>Quoted in Makrízy, i. 341.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_34"></a><a href="#FNanchor_34"><span class=
+"label">[34]</span></a>As evidence may be cited his complete breach
+with the Carmathians, although they were the source of the Fátimid
+revolution. Twice they invaded Egypt shortly after the Fátimid
+conquest, in 971 and again in 974, and even laid siege to Cairo,
+and forced their way through one of the gates. The invincible
+hostility of Mo‘izz to these Arabian brigands had doubtless a
+political basis, but had he held the advanced views of the Shí‘a
+propaganda he would hardly have quarrelled with its grand
+master.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_35"></a><a href="#FNanchor_35"><span class=
+"label">[35]</span></a>See my <em>History</em>, 103, 104.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_36"></a><a href="#FNanchor_36"><span class=
+"label">[36]</span></a>Abu-Sálih, ed. Evetts, fol. 35.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_37"></a><a href="#FNanchor_37"><span class=
+"label">[37]</span></a>There are numerous notices of this intimacy
+between the caliphs and the Coptic monks in the work of the
+Armenian Christian Abu-Salih, written between 1173 and 1208, and
+excellently edited, translated, and annotated by Mr B. T. A. Evetts
+with the assistance of Dr A. J. Butler (<em>The Churches and
+Monasteries of Egpyt</em>, Anecdota Oxon, 1895): see especially
+foll. 7<em>b</em>, 34<em>b</em>-36, 40<em>b</em>, 46<em>b</em>,
+84<em>a</em>.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_38"></a><a href="#FNanchor_38"><span class=
+"label">[38]</span></a>Makrízy, i. 377.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_39"></a><a href="#FNanchor_39"><span class=
+"label">[39]</span></a>He is clearly referring to the
+<em>palace</em> wall, for he distinctly says that the <em>city</em>
+wall did not then exist. Ed. Schefer, 128.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_40"></a><a href="#FNanchor_40"><span class=
+"label">[40]</span></a><em>Mémoires de la Mission archéologique
+française au Caire</em>, tomes i. and iii., to which every student
+of the Fátimid palaces should refer.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_41"></a><a href="#FNanchor_41"><span class=
+"label">[41]</span></a>Zuweyla is the popular pronunciation; the
+correct form is Zawíla, the name of a Berber tribe.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_42"></a><a href="#FNanchor_42"><span class=
+"label">[42]</span></a>Makrízy, i. 381.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_43"></a><a href="#FNanchor_43"><span class=
+"label">[43]</span></a>William of Tyre, <em>Historia rerum in
+partibus transmarinis gestarum</em>, lib. xix., cap. 19, 20,
+epitomized in my <em>Saladin</em>, 86-88. The embassy is not
+recorded by the Arabic chroniclers.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_44"></a><a href="#FNanchor_44"><span class=
+"label">[44]</span></a><em>Safar Náma</em>, ed. Schefer, 126.
+Broad-bottomed tubs we should call these ships.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_45"></a><a href="#FNanchor_45"><span class=
+"label">[45]</span></a>For details of Fátimid art and industries,
+see my <em>Art of the Saracens</em>, 10, 163, 201, 241, etc.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_46"></a><a href="#FNanchor_46"><span class=
+"label">[46]</span></a>Makrízy, ii. 318.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_47"></a><a href="#FNanchor_47"><span class=
+"label">[47]</span></a>See M. van Berchem, <em>Notes d’Archéologie
+arabe</em> (1891), 27-36.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_48"></a><a href="#FNanchor_48"><span class=
+"label">[48]</span></a>El-Hákim also built the “Oratory of the
+Feast” (Musalla-l-‘Id) beside the Bab-en-Nasr, a mosque at Maks
+beside the Nile, and another in the district called Ráshida to the
+south of Katái‘, near Mukattam. See <em>History</em>, 126.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_49"></a><a href="#FNanchor_49"><span class=
+"label">[49]</span></a>It was even believed that the ‘Abbásid
+caliph would be sent a prisoner to Cairo, and his Fátimid rival had
+a gilt cage constructed for him, and spent a couple of million
+dinárs in preparing the West Palace for his expected guest. The
+‘Abbásid throne and royal robes and turban were actually deposited
+in Cairo, and remained there till the time of Saladin, who restored
+the robes, but the throne was kept, and afterwards set up in the
+mosque of Beybars the Gashnekír. See <em>History</em>, 139.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_50"></a><a href="#FNanchor_50"><span class=
+"label">[50]</span></a>Násir-el-Khusrau states that the city was
+then divided into ten quarters, namely, the Hárat Bargawán, H.
+Zuweyla, H. el-Gawdaríya (certain troops originally from Barbary),
+H. el-Umara (of the emírs), H. ed-Deylima (Persians), H. er-Rum
+(Greeks), H. el-Batilíya (originally some of Gawhar’s veterans),
+Kasr-esh-Shawk (a subsidiary palace), ‘Abid-esh-Shera (bought
+slaves), H. el-Masámida (Masmúda Berbers). He mentions only five
+gates: the Bab en-Nasr, B. el-Futúh, B. el-Kantara, B. Zuweyla, and
+B. el-Khalíg.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_51"></a><a href="#FNanchor_51"><span class=
+"label">[51]</span></a>Makrízy gives an inventory of the caliph’s
+<em>objets de virtù</em> far too long to quote. It includes (apart
+from immense stores of precious stones, plate, crystal and gold
+vases, rich brocades and cloth of gold, and all kinds of pottery),
+cups of bezoar engraved with the name of Harún er-Rashíd, enamelled
+plates, the gift of a Roman emperor to ‘Azíz; the sword of the
+Prophet, the breastplate of the martyr Hoseyn, the sword of Mo‘izz,
+and quantities of jewelled daggers, javelins, and other arms;
+inlaid gold dishes, inkstands, etc.; chess boards worked in gold on
+silk, with gold and silver, ivory and ebony pieces; steel mirrors,
+amber cups, a table of sardonyx, a peacock of gold with eyes of
+ruby and feathers of enamel, an antelope spotted with pearls, and a
+turban, the jewels of which weighed 17 lbs.; thirty-eight
+state-barges, one of silver; the caliph Záhir’s tent of gold thread
+resting on silver poles, and the marquee of Yazúry, a mass of
+exquisite designs which took fifty artists nine years to complete,
+the pole of which was 120 feet high, and the circumference of the
+tent nearly 1000 feet.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_52"></a><a href="#FNanchor_52"><span class=
+"label">[52]</span></a>The verse of course refers to the battle of
+Bedr in the early career of Mohammad.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_53"></a><a href="#FNanchor_53"><span class=
+"label">[53]</span></a>Abu-Sálih, f. 51<em>a</em>, Makrízy, i. 381.
+See the admirable <em>Notes</em> of M. van Berchem (1891), 37-72,
+for an architectural examination of the walls and gates.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_54"></a><a href="#FNanchor_54"><span class=
+"label">[54]</span></a>Published by Mr H. C. Kay, <em>Journal R.
+Asiatic Soc.</em>, N.S., xviii., from a squeeze which he and I
+caused to be taken with some difficulty when we were at Cairo in
+1883.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_55"></a><a href="#FNanchor_55"><span class=
+"label">[55]</span></a>The scene is described by the Arab prince
+Osáma, who was at Cairo at the time, and was a friend of ‘Abbás,
+the murderer both of the vezír and of the caliph. See Derenbourg,
+<em>Vie d’Ousama</em>, 205-260.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_56"></a><a href="#FNanchor_56"><span class=
+"label">[56]</span></a>This palace, founded by an earlier vezír,
+was turned into a college by Saladin. It stood near the present
+mosque of el-Ashraf in the Ghuríya street.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_57"></a><a href="#FNanchor_57"><span class=
+"label">[57]</span></a>The mosque of ez-Záfir, founded by that
+caliph in 1129, still exists at the corner of the Sukkaríya, and is
+known as the Gámi‘ el-Fakihiyín (or el-Fakahány), but it was
+entirely rebuilt in 1735.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_58"></a><a href="#FNanchor_58"><span class=
+"label">[58]</span></a>Herz Bey, <em>Catalogue of the National
+Museum of Arab Art</em>, edited by S. Lane-Poole, xxiv.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_59"></a><a href="#FNanchor_59"><span class=
+"label">[59]</span></a><em>Ibn-Gubeyr</em>, ed. Wright, 46, 47.
+This and the following extracts from the travels of the Spanish
+Arab are translated by Mr Guy le Strange.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_60"></a><a href="#FNanchor_60"><span class=
+"label">[60]</span></a><em>Saladin</em>, 358-360.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_61"></a><a href="#FNanchor_61"><span class=
+"label">[61]</span></a>See M. van Berchem, <em>Notes</em> (1891),
+55, 68-70.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_62"></a><a href="#FNanchor_62"><span class=
+"label">[62]</span></a>Ibn-Gubeyr, ed. Wright, 49. See Makrízy, ii.
+151, on the “Kanatír el-Giza.”</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_63"></a><a href="#FNanchor_63"><span class=
+"label">[63]</span></a>Ibn-Gubeyr, ed. Wright, 41, 42.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_64"></a><a href="#FNanchor_64"><span class=
+"label">[64]</span></a>Ibn-Gubeyr, ed. Wright, 44, 45. This
+intelligent traveller to whom we owe so many interesting details of
+Saladin’s period, gives a curious description of the great Karáfa
+cemetery to the south of Cairo, which is one of the few places that
+carry one back to the days of the Arab conquest. Here lie the bones
+of most of the early warriors and poets and divines of the Town of
+the Tent, though nothing but tradition identifies their graves now.
+In Ibn-Gubeyr’s time the identification was evidently doubtful, for
+he declines to be responsible for what he has taken from the
+histories, though he adds, piously, that “their authenticity is
+above suspicion, if it please God.” Passing by such legendary tombs
+as those of the Prophet Sálih, and Reuben son of Jacob, and
+Pharaoh’s wife Asiya, we find descriptions of fourteen tombs of the
+male descendants of ‘Aly and five women, each in its own beautiful
+chapel with its keeper and endowment. Among them were
+Zeyn-el-‘Abidín, the son of the martyr Hoseyn, Zeyneb his
+great-granddaughter, and Umm-Kulthúm, the daughter of the sixth
+Imám Ga‘far es-Sádik. There were also the tombs of ‘Okba, the
+standard-bearer of the Prophet, of Abu-l-Hasan his goldsmith, of
+Sáriya of the Hill (who is also commemorated by a mosque in the
+Citadel, though there is nothing to connect him with Egypt), of two
+sons and a daughter of the caliph Abu-Bekr, of the son of ez-Zubeyr
+the general under ‘Amr, of Ibn-‘Abd-al-Hakam, of el-Gawhary;
+besides such notabilities as the Man of the Water-Pot, famous for
+wonders, the man who quoted the Korán when he was laid in his
+grave, the man who never spoke for forty years, and the bride to
+whom a miracle was vouchsafed when she unveiled to her husband.
+There was the Place of the Martyrs, where are buried the warriors
+who fell fighting for Islám under Sáriya, and the plain was dotted
+all over with the mounds of their graves. “All the buildings of the
+Karáfa, whether mosques or chapels, give hospitable shelter to all
+learned and pious strangers, as well as to mendicants, each
+building being provided with a grant of money, paid monthly on
+behalf of the Sultan, and the same in the case with the colleges
+both of Misr and Cairo. It was told us that the sum of those grants
+exceeded 2000 Egyptian dinárs a month, which is equal to 4000
+Morocco dinárs; and as to the great mosque of ‘Amr at Misr we were
+informed that its revenues amounted to about thirty Egyptian dinárs
+a day for its upkeep and the salaries of the guardians, precentors,
+and Korán readers.”—<em>Ibid.</em> 42-6.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_65"></a><a href="#FNanchor_65"><span class=
+"label">[65]</span></a>Makrízy describes only nineteen
+<em>mesgids</em> (apart from those in the Karáfa cemetery), as
+compared with eighty-seven <em>gámi‘s</em>; and all the nineteen
+seem to have been unimportant. They were chiefly of Fátimid or
+Ayyúbid foundation, and situate outside the Zuweyla, Nasr, Kantara,
+and Sa‘áda Gates, or in the garden of Kafúr, though three were in
+or near Beyn-el-Kasreyn. None of them is standing now. Makrízy
+enumerates twenty-five <em>Záwiyas</em>, all but one being Mamlúk
+foundations, of which seven were outside the Bab-en-Nasr or B.
+el-Futúh, four outside other gates, five at or near Maks. In short,
+mesgid would appear to be applied in the Topographer’s time chiefly
+to the earlier suburban chapels, and záwiya to outlying chapels of
+the Mamlúk period.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_66"></a><a href="#FNanchor_66"><span class=
+"label">[66]</span></a><em>Saladin</em>, 20.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_67"></a><a href="#FNanchor_67"><span class=
+"label">[67]</span></a>The only coin known of Sheger-ed-durr is in
+the British Museum (see my <em>Catalogue of Oriental Coins</em>,
+iv. p. 136). Her surname was ‘Asmat-ed-din, “Defender of the
+Faith,” and her title Sultán. “Sultana” is not an Arabic title.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_68"></a><a href="#FNanchor_68"><span class=
+"label">[68]</span></a>The extinction of the Crusaders was
+completed by the conquest of Margat and Tripolis by Kalaún, and the
+storming of ‘Akka by Khalíl in 1292: the few remaining cities fell
+immediately, and the work of the Crusaders was wiped out.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_69"></a><a href="#FNanchor_69"><span class=
+"label">[69]</span></a>The tombs of two of the ‘Abbásid caliphs of
+Egypt and some of their relations were discovered by E. T. Rogers
+Bey in 1883, close to the mosque of Sitta Nefísa at the southern
+side of Cairo.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_70"></a><a href="#FNanchor_70"><span class=
+"label">[70]</span></a>Ibn-Batúta, ed. Defremery, i. 71-4.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_71"></a><a href="#FNanchor_71"><span class=
+"label">[71]</span></a>See plan, <a href="#i16">p. 190.</a> Compare
+the elaborate work of Herz Bey, <em>La Mosquée du Sultan
+Hasan</em>, full of admirable photographs, drawings,
+reconstructions, and plans.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_72"></a><a href="#FNanchor_72"><span class=
+"label">[72]</span></a><em>History of Egypt in the Middle
+Ages</em>, 344.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_73"></a><a href="#FNanchor_73"><span class=
+"label">[73]</span></a>Marble was not commonly used before the
+thirteenth century, when it began to be veneered on portals. It is
+best seen in tessellated pavements and mural mosaics. The latter,
+composed of pieces of various coloured marbles, were either set in
+mortar or let into a solid marble slab.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_74"></a><a href="#FNanchor_74"><span class=
+"label">[74]</span></a>When I was in Cairo in 1883 I made paper
+squeezes (strengthened by layers of plaster of Paris mixed with
+glue) of the whole of the ornament of this wekála, and plaster
+casts made from these squeezes may now be examined in one of the
+galleries of the Museum at South Kensington.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_75"></a><a href="#FNanchor_75"><span class=
+"label">[75]</span></a>See M. van Berchem, <em>Corpus Inscr.
+Arabic.</em>, 533 ff., for an exhaustive discussion of the
+development of the <em>plan cruciforme déformé</em>.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_76"></a><a href="#FNanchor_76"><span class=
+"label">[76]</span></a>Makrízy, ii. 130, 131.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_77"></a><a href="#FNanchor_77"><span class=
+"label">[77]</span></a><em>Cairo Fifty Years Ago</em>, 34, 35.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_78"></a><a href="#FNanchor_78"><span class=
+"label">[78]</span></a>D. A. Cameron, <em>Egypt in the Nineteenth
+Century</em>, 14, 15.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_79"></a><a href="#FNanchor_79"><span class=
+"label">[79]</span></a>Makrízy, ii. 91 <em>ff.</em></p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_80"></a><a href="#FNanchor_80"><span class=
+"label">[80]</span></a><em>Khitat</em>, ii. 105.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_81"></a><a href="#FNanchor_81"><span class=
+"label">[81]</span></a>See Herz Bey, <em>Catalogue of the Arab
+Museum</em>, 47, 48, a little handbook which is invaluable to
+students of Saracenic art.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_82"></a><a href="#FNanchor_82"><span class=
+"label">[82]</span></a>See my <em>Art of the Saracens</em>,
+111-150, for detailed descriptions of these exquisite carvings.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_83"></a><a href="#FNanchor_83"><span class=
+"label">[83]</span></a>By “deputy” is meant the Ketkhuda, commonly
+pronounced Kiahya, or in Egypt Kikhya, who was the deputy of the
+pasha, and often corresponded loosely with what we should call
+Minister of the Interior or Home Secretary.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_84"></a><a href="#FNanchor_84"><span class=
+"label">[84]</span></a>Gabarty, ii. 124-143.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_85"></a><a href="#FNanchor_85"><span class=
+"label">[85]</span></a>Pulled down in 1869. It was built by the
+famous emír Ezbek ibn Tutush, from whom the Ezbekíya took its
+name.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_86"></a><a href="#FNanchor_86"><span class=
+"label">[86]</span></a>M. van Berchem describes some curious
+sun-dials in his <em>Notes d’Archéologie arabe</em> (1892), 13-18.
+One was set up in the mosque of Ibn-Tulún in 696 (1296) by Lagín;
+another may still be seen in the mosque of Kusún, and is dated 785
+(1383); a third exists in the tomb-mosque of Inál, and bears the
+date 871 (1466).</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_87"></a><a href="#FNanchor_87"><span class=
+"label">[87]</span></a>[This has been done in the case of Sultan
+Hasan in the sumptuous work, <em>La Mosquée du Sultan Hassan au
+Caire</em>, par Max Herz Bey, published by the Commission,
+1899.]</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_88"></a><a href="#FNanchor_88"><span class=
+"label">[88]</span></a>All these are now completed.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_89"></a><a href="#FNanchor_89"><span class=
+"label">[89]</span></a>Monuments still standing, or of which parts
+still remain, are distinguished by an asterisk. An obelus †
+indicates a restoration on the same site. b stands for ibn (son).
+Tables for converting Hijra dates into <span class=
+"sc2">A.D.</span> are given at the end.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div style='text-align:center'>*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 78916 ***</div>
+</body>
+</html>
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@@ -0,0 +1,11 @@
+This book, including all associated images, markup, improvements,
+metadata, and any other content or labor, has been confirmed to be
+in the PUBLIC DOMAIN IN THE UNITED STATES.
+
+Procedures for determining public domain status are described in
+the "Copyright How-To" at https://www.gutenberg.org.
+
+No investigation has been made concerning possible copyrights in
+jurisdictions other than the United States. Anyone seeking to utilize
+this eBook outside of the United States should confirm copyright
+status under the laws that apply to them.
diff --git a/README.md b/README.md
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+++ b/README.md
@@ -0,0 +1 @@
+[Project Gutenberg](https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for eBook [#78916](https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/78916)