path: root/78905-0.txt

*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 78905 ***




                              MODEL YACHTS
                        AND MODEL YACHT SAILING.

                      _HOW TO BUILD, RIG, AND SAIL
                       A SELF-ACTING MODEL YACHT._

                                   BY
                        JAMES E. WALTON, V.M.Y.C.


                ILLUSTRATED WITH FIFTY-EIGHT ENGRAVINGS.

                             [Illustration]

                          GRIFFITH AND FARRAN,
                    SUCCESSORS TO NEWBERY AND HARRIS,
              WEST CORNER OF ST. PAUL’S CHURCHYARD, LONDON.
                     E. P. DUTTON AND CO., NEW YORK.
                               MDCCCLXXX.


    _The rights of Translation and of Reproduction are reserved._




[Illustration:

LATERAL VIEW OF 3 FT. YACHT (⅔ inch to the foot).

_a a_ mainsail. _b b_ topsail. _c c_ foresail. _d d_ jib. _a_ mainmast.
_b_ topmast. _c_ bowsprit. _d_ main boom. _e_ gaff. _f_ foresail boom.
_g_ jib boom. _h_ bobstay. _i_ mainrigging (port or left side). _j_
hull. _k_ false keel. _l_ lead keel. _m_ counter. _n_ sternpost. _o_
stem. _p_ self-acting rudder, only used when running.

_For deck outline and measurement of this Model “Diana” Cutter, see
diagram 8, p. 19._]




CONTENTS.


  PREFACE                                                   11

  INTRODUCTION                                              15

  I. PRINCIPLES OF SELF-ACTING MODEL YACHT BUILDING         21

  II. HOW TO MAKE THE HULL                                  31

  III. HOW TO MAKE DECK FITTINGS, RUDDER, &C.               47

  IV. HOW TO FIT MASTS, STANDING AND RUNNING GEAR, &C.      57

  V. HOW TO MAKE THE SAILS AND SET THEM                     73

  VI. HOW TO SAIL AND STEER A MODEL YACHT                   85

  MATERIALS FOR MODEL SHIPS                                 97

  GLOSSARY                                                 100

  MODEL YACHT CONTESTS ON THE SEA                          102

  TABLES OF MODEL YACHT REGATTAS                           103

  WATERS IN LONDON FOR MODEL YACHT SAILING                 104




PREFACE.


There are not many open-air amusements which afford more genuine
enjoyment to old and young than Model Yacht Sailing; if practised in a
properly scientific manner it resembles a game of croquet, in which the
water is the lawn, the wind the mallet, and the ships the balls; and
the most skilful yachtsman is as certain of winning his match as is the
most skilful croquet player.

Very few English boys can be found who have not taken, or do not take
an interest in model ships, and it is very remarkable, as well as
no little disgrace to us as a maritime nation, to note the utterly
purposeless way in which nearly all boys or men sail their model
vessels; whereas with the requisite knowledge, a self-acting model
yacht is as much under the control of the manager as if he were
actually on board: further still, matches can be sailed in which the
results are as certain as are those of the matches of ordinary yachts,
as may be seen in the tables of actual races at the end of this work
(see p. 103).

A sailor who thoroughly understands the management of a ship or
boat, _when he is on board_, _steers with a rudder_, and _reduces_,
_augments_, or _disposes_ the sails at his will, would find this
knowledge of very secondary importance if he applied it, _without
great modifications_, to sail a model yacht. To give one instance
only, _model yachts require no fixed rudder_, in fact, a fixed rudder
is such an incumbrance, and so great a bar to perfect action, that it
must be dispensed with altogether. This quite upsets the old adage of
a “ship without a rudder,” and reverses it; our model ships need no
rudder--steer better without, save in one way.

A rudder is used at times on model yachts, as will be shown in its
place, but it must be removed when it has done its work.

The sails and hulls of model yachts are also very different to those
of full-sized yachts. They are constructed with the _view to being
self-acting_, and as a model yacht _must steer itself_, this result can
only be obtained by using the sails both for _propelling and steering_.

Model yachts, as usually made, may be very beautiful to look at,
but, alas! they will not sail, or will not sail well, they are not
self-acting in any sense, they are generally actual reproductions in
miniature of celebrated large yachts, and as these latter are sailed
and steered by men on board, it is very certain their miniature copies
will not sail without similar guidance.

I have made these remarks to show that model self-acting yachts cannot
be made and sailed without the requisite knowledge and experience,
and as there is no book to be got which gives full particulars on the
subject, it is believed that this, which contains the result of many
years’ model yacht making and sailing, will supply an almost national
want, and enable any ordinarily intelligent boy to construct, rig, and
sail a model yacht with perfect success.

As a proof of the pains that have been taken to ascertain the best
hull and rig for a self-acting yacht, I may say that five yachts have
been made, all of the same length, but each of different beam, rig,
&c., commencing with very narrow beam, and increasing beam, &c., with
each model, till the best proportion between length and beam became
known,--necessarily with each increase of beam _more sail could be
carried_, and also more _ballast in lead keel_ could be used,--and in
order that the experiments should be crucial and decisive, a final
vessel was constructed of the same measurement as the best of those
before mentioned, and their sails were made interchangeable, thus
deciding beyond doubt which vessel was best, after many trials on the
open sea with a true wind.

It is doubtful if such experiments were ever made before (tables of
them will be seen at p. 102), and the author, therefore, feels assured
that his readers may have every confidence in the instruction here
given.




INTRODUCTION.


The first thing necessary for non-nautical yachtsmen is to know the
names of the different sails, parts of the vessel, &c., &c., and for
this purpose the diagram forming the frontispiece will be useful; a
glossary, also, is added at the end of the work.

The frontispiece is an exact outline drawing of a model self-acting
yacht, of 3-feet water-line, and 39 in. over all; the diagram is drawn
in the proportion of ⅔ in. to the foot, and if any reader desires to
make a smaller boat, say 30 in., all that need be done is to make
everything ⅙ smaller, and for a 2 ft. boat ⅓ smaller; as the keel,
however, would have to be calculated by weight, and the above rule
would not apply, I give the weight in lbs.; a 3 ft. boat requires 20
lbs., a 2 ft. 6 in. boat 10 or 11 lbs., and a 24 in. boat 6 lbs. or
nearly.

I will note here that it is better to make a vessel scooped out, &c.,
from the solid block, than to build one of small planks; 1st, it is
easier (it takes a good carpenter to make one of planks), it can be
altered outside if not scooped out too thin at first, it never _leaks_,
and it never comes to pieces; and, lastly, it does not take half the
time to repaint, &c., &c.

[Illustration]

[Illustration]




CHAPTER I.

PRINCIPLES OF MODEL YACHT BUILDING.


In order to ascertain the best lines, _i.e._ shape, for progression
through the water, Nature herself may, without hesitation, be taken as
the best teacher, and amongst fast-moving fishes a mackerel is one of
the fastest and most graceful.

I procured a mackerel, carefully measured and drew it to scale (see p.
17, diagrams 1 and 2), first taking the shape back upwards, and next
sideways, and in harmony with these lines all the vessels mentioned in
this work are constructed.

On looking at the diagram of the mackerel it is at once apparent that
a clean run is more important than a sharp entrance, for the drawing
shows the fish to be much fuller in the fore than in the after part;
bearing this in mind, and having drawn the mackerel in divisions of
inches, I took the forward eleven divisions as a model for the deck and
general lines of my vessels--first, so far as regards “_going through
the water_;” secondly, because I should thus get “_the widest part
or beam amidships_,” and as near the centre of motion and gravity as
possible.

With these ideas in my mind I constructed “Seashell” (see diagram 3, p.
17), with the actual measurements there stated (as is the case on all
the drawings). I rigged her as a schooner; thus--

[Illustration]

She sailed well and steadily, and could be made to go in any direction
in a light breeze, but her _narrow beam and lightness_, with only 3
lbs. keel, rendered her useless in a stiff breeze, except when she was
running away from it.

I next built “Mermaid” (see diagram 4), with nearly 2 in. more beam,
and exactly to the measurement of the mackerel sideways, simply
increasing each line in proportion as the ship was larger than the
fish; all the lines of the hull being of course in harmony with the
increased beam, she had 5 lbs. lead keel, and was rigged as a cutter
(see “Diana” for cutter rig, frontispiece), schooner, or lugger at
pleasure. I found she beat “Seashell” considerably in any wind, but
especially in strong winds, sailing under any of the above-mentioned
sails.

Learning by this that increased beam and weight meant more power, more
sail, and greater speed, I then made “Silver Spray” (see diagram 5),
with 8 lbs. keel, and nearly 2 in. more beam than “Mermaid,” and in
this vessel I reached about the proportional beam that most model yacht
builders have adopted, viz. 3½ beams to the length. I rigged her as a
cutter only, and she easily beat “Mermaid” every way. I also discovered
that cutter rig was best, the boats under this rig sailing faster and
truer, and are more quickly and expeditiously managed; at the same time
I discarded fixed rudders for reasons stated before.

With this model, “Silver Spray,” I had reached a point at which I stuck
for some time; I could hardly think still increased beam or depth would
be an advantage, yet I wished to progress, and try something I would.

I thought the matter over carefully, and at last arrived at the
following conclusions: A fish goes _through the water only, but a ship
goes through and over_. Now a duck goes over the water; how would a
vessel built upon a combination of fish and duck succeed?

I got a duck, took a plaster cast of his under side, noticed the way
ducks got over the water, the resistance of the water and the ripples
and wake caused by the duck’s motion over the water, and I decided
to make a ship to go _over the water rather than through it_; the
top of the _water is alive_, and easily displaced in any direction
save downwards, the deeper one goes the stiller it is, and the more
difficult to displace. I considered, therefore, if I built a vessel of
greater beam, very light draught of water, with a lead keel well below
the bottom, I should get greatly increased power and speed, for I felt
satisfied that the light draught and larger sails more than compensated
for a wider beam.

It stands also to reason that a vessel of a wide beam does _not heel
over to leeward_ so much as one of a narrower beam, and it results
from that--1st, the sails being more perpendicular to the wind, have
more power to propel; and 2nd, the keel being also more “up and down,”
prevents her making so much leeway.

No doubt there is a limit to breadth of beam, and although I have
not yet fully experimented, I am inclined to think that the limit is
reached in “Diana,” of three beams to the length.

On this I built “Golden Crest” (see diagram 6, p. 19), with these
qualities, beam 10⅓ in., or ⅓ her length exactly, and only a bare 4
in. depth, and 10 lbs. lead keel; I fitted her with sails as a cutter,
making them larger than those of “Silver Spray,” in proportion to her
increased beam and ballast (in lead keel), and she more than fulfilled
my utmost expectations, for she beat all the three former models out
and out, both in speed and steadiness.

Still, however, I had not quite finished my experiments, for I remarked
that in strong winds “Golden Crest,” on account of her low freeboard
(_i.e._ little height out of the water), was sometimes overpowered
sooner than I thought she ought to be, and I determined to build
another vessel on the same lines and of the same size exactly, but
with 1 in. deeper hold; this I did in “Storm Along” (see diagram 7, p.
19), the only difference between this and “Golden Crest” being the 1
in. extra depth of hold; lead keel, sails, masts, &c., &c., all were
exactly the same.

Now, when Greek meets Greek, then comes the tug of war. So it was here,
and it was only after numberless trials in all winds, and finally by
actually interchanging their sails, that “Storm Along” proved the
winner; the reason this was difficult to establish was that at first
I only sailed _each with its own sails_; when the wind was moderate
and sea smooth, “Golden Crest” won a little; on the other hand, with
strong breezes and sea on, “Storm Along” won. I interchanged their
sails, and “Storm Along” won considerably always. I then found out that
I had happened to lace the feet of the sails of “Storm Along” to their
booms, but it never struck me such a trifle would interfere much with
the sailing of a model: I was mistaken, however, for I found whichever
had the laced sails was sure to lose, and “Golden Crest” lost most;
mind, all these experiments were conducted on the open sea for hours,
with true winds and true sea (the most perfect test). I cut the sails
loose, and at once and ever after, “Storm Along” proved invariably the
victor; in light winds by very, very little, but in strong winds the
greater buoyancy, and therefore lateral power, of “Storm Along” always
carried the day.

With all these ships there are _no bulwarks_, no ornaments, or
projections of any kind, nothing but the gear, &c., necessary to set
the sails and work them; everything else is not only useless, but
mischievous lumber.

It may be remarked that the whole of those boats when running before
the wind, with self-acting lead rudders, run at very nearly the _same
speed_, length to a great extent governing speed; but on turning to
windward, each falls into its place, as assigned to it in the foregoing
pages.

I have not yet tried whether greater beam still than ⅓ the length is an
improvement; I am resting on my oars awhile, and perhaps some one else
may undertake the experiment.

Particulars of the races between “Golden Crest” and “Storm Along” are
noted on p. 102.




CHAPTER II.

HOW TO MAKE THE HULL.


Before entering upon the subject of this chapter, I will enumerate
the tools which will be needed: these are a small axe, saw, plane, 1
in. gouge, ½ in. gouge, a rasp, a bradawl, a screw-driver, a gimlet,
a hammer, a pair of small round-nosed pliers, a rat-tail file, a
half-round file, a small mallet, and last, though not least, a good
pocket knife.

It is best and easiest, at any rate for beginners, to cut out model
ships from a solid block, because if not scooped out too thin,
alterations can be made on the outside if desirable; if the block, in
process of cutting out, should split, rub it with a piece of flannel
dipped in linseed oil every time after working on it, the tools cut
just as easily, and all liability to split is obviated.

To make a 3 ft. yacht (see lateral view, frontispiece; deck outline,
diagram 8, p. 19; and sectional outlines, p. 37), get a block of deal,
with as few knots and cracks in it as possible, and well-seasoned; it
must be 39 in. long, 13 in. wide, and 8 in. deep; thus--

[Illustration]

Divide it into two exact halves, as shown by the dotted line--this
centre line must _never be lost_ or _rubbed out till the hull is
finished_; choose the best side for the deck or upper side, divide it
lengthways into eleven compartments or divisions, and carefully set off
on each side the length of each line (as shown in diagram 8, p. 19);
thus--

[Illustration]

With the axe (mind all the tools are sharp) chop off carefully both
sides of the block till it is shaped thus--

[Illustration]

With the gouge cut out the run and entrance in the bottom of the piece
of wood, beginning a little forward of the middle for the run; and at
same time cut away so much of the bottom as will leave ½ in. for the
keel, by ⅝ wide. The next diagram shows one side, with entrance and run
cut out.

[Illustration]

Having cut out the other side to _correspond exactly_, and rounded the
sides and bottom with the plane and rasp, taking care all the curved
parts are in keeping with the curves of the deck diagram C, saw a
slanting piece off the cutwater, about ½ in. at bottom to nothing at
top, measure 36 in. from the middle of the cutwater towards the stern,
and cut out the piece of keel in the run, so as to leave the counter
(projecting of the stern); thus (the dotted lines show where and how to
cut)--

[Illustration]

The counter must not project more than 3 in., and therefore the ship
will be 3 ft. keel, and 3 ft. 3 in. over all. Now smooth and model the
ship to your best ability, see the keel _is quite straight_, and the
_sternpost perpendicular to the stempost or cutwater_ (_a a_ is the
sternpost in above diagram E).

If the vessel is now exactly equal on both sides, and not lob-sided,
as sailors call it, you can finish it with the rasp, scrape it with
glass, and polish it with sand paper, making the outside look perfectly
ship-shape.

The sectional views here shown enable the model ship builder to
judge of the correctness of his work; they represent the hull _when
finished_, if cut athwart or across into four pieces of equal length,
and by holding the vessel in the required position the builder can see
if his model present these or nearly these outlines exteriorly; if so,
it is right.

It is not at all necessary to adhere exactly to this outline of the
midship section (although it governs the outlines of the other two); it
may be cut somewhat flatter on the bottom, as indicated by the dotted
lines, and this would of course slightly vary the other sectional
outlines, but I do not think it should be made more angular, nor do I
advise it, as the vessel would lose too much buoyancy.

[Illustration: SECTIONAL VIEWS.]

The next thing is to scoop it out with the gouge and mallet. Leave
the sides everywhere ⅜ or ½ in. thick, and be careful not to scoop
thinner, or leave the sides thicker in one part than another.

The gouge is the principal tool for this work, but a centrebit, to
bore holes all over the inside, is a great assistance, it saves half
the hammering; however, when scooped out and the inside smoothed, your
vessel should look thus--

[Illustration]

Next make the _sheer_ by planing out the gunwale (gunwale _a a_),
beginning at nothing forward at the stem, gradually increasing to ½ in.
amidships, and again decreasing to nothing at the stern. The diagram G
below shows clearly what is meant by the sheer, and how to fashion it:
the dotted line is the sheer--

[Illustration]

and a vessel looks very stiff and ungraceful without it.

Now give the inside a coat of white paint, and then the deck can be put
on. The deck must be made of one piece of deal plank, without splits
or knots, ¼ in. thick at the sides, and ⅜ in. in the middle; this
gives the deck a slightly rounded appearance, and, besides, greatly
strengthens it. Mark the shape of the gunwale on the plank by turning
the ship bottom upwards upon it, and marking it round with a pencil;
draw a middle line from end to end, and cut it to the required shape as
near as possible.

A beam must now be put across the middle of the ship, exactly level
with the gunwale on both sides, to support the deck and strengthen the
sides of the ship; the beam should be ½ in. square; thus--

[Illustration]

Screw the sides of the ship to the ends of the beam; then put on
the deck, and screw it to the gunwale all round with ½ in. brass
(everything must be brass except the lead keel) screws at about equal
distances of 3 in., and two or three screws through the deck into the
beam; if this is done in a workmanlike way, and the edge of the deck
planed off and smoothed level with the side of the ship, the hull ought
to be perfect, and practically water-tight. Mind in putting in the beam
to leave place for the hatchway or step of the mast.

The next operation is to put on the keels--false and leaden. The false
keel is simply a strip of beech, oak, or mahogany, of the same length
as the keel of the ship, ⅝ in. thick, ½ in. deep at one end, and 1 in.
at the other; thus--

[Illustration]

This must be screwed into the keel of the ship with brass screws of
proper length, _i.e._ not to go through the bottom of the ship, about 6
in. apart. This false keel, and the position it occupies, can be easily
seen in the drawing of “Diana,” and is marked K; the leaden keel is
underneath as there shown, and I will now describe the best way to make
it.

20 lbs. of lead will be required for a 3 ft. yacht, as before
stated, and the lead can be melted in any old pot, on any ordinary
clear kitchen fire. First make an oblong narrow box or mould of any
smooth ½ in. boards--_dry_, or the lead will splutter and be full of
air-holes--3 ft. long inside, ⅝ in. inside width, 2 in. deep at one
end, and 3 in. at the other; this will hold about 20 lbs. of lead, and
here follows a drawing of the mould.

[Illustration]

Into the bottom of this mould, and sticking upright, as shown in
the drawing, must be placed at equal distances six or eight pegs,
beginning about 1 in. from the extreme ends of the mould; these pegs
must be rather thicker than the screws intended to screw the leaden to
the false keel, and will, as no doubt the intelligent reader already
perceives, leave holes in the cast leaden keel for the screws to go
through, these screws may be long enough to go through the false keel
into the ship’s bottom, and the work will be all the stronger and
better. Having melted the lead, pour it at once into the mould, and the
keel is made; when cool take it out of the mould, trim it, smooth the
sides and top and bottom with the plane, and let the shape be something
thus--

[Illustration]

Screw it on to and through the false keel (if you cannot make holes
through the false keel to receive the screws without danger of
splitting it, bore them in their proper places with the bradawl, and
then burn them out with a red-hot skewer); the thickest end of the keel
must be aft or behind, and when screwing it on mind and bore out the
top of the holes in the lead, so that the heads of the screws may be
quite level with the lead (this operation is called countersinking the
screws); the heaviest end of the lead is put aft so as to make the ship
well up at the stem and deep at the stern; the reason for this will be
given in the chapter on “sailing a model yacht.”

It may, however, be well to add here that the false keel, by holding
the leaden keel at a greater distance from the bottom of the ship,
greatly increases the _leverage of the leaden keel without increasing
the weight_, and gives great hold upon the water, however little water
the hull may draw, so that more sail can be carried, and the ship steer
better with this arrangement than without it.

Now try how she floats, and if she floats about 3 in. deeper aft than
forward, that will do.

Next get a strip of sheet brass about 5 ft. long, ½ in. wide, and ⅛ in.
thick; most likely you will have to get this soldered in two or three
pieces; it is to make a band to cover the leaden keel at the bottom,
ends, and also the stem and sternpost, to keep them from being injured
by stones, &c., on striking the shore, &c.; holes must be punched in
it at every 3 in. where it covers the lead, and at every inch where it
covers the wood of the stem and sternpost.

[Illustration]

The above drawing shows what is meant, and the place it occupies (I
have distorted the drawing to show it better); it must be screwed
with brass ½ in. screws, countersunk, to the lead keel, &c., as above
stated; the cutwater part of it must be filed away to ¼ in. wide,
the rest may be left ½ in. wide. This has always been to me the most
difficult operation, and it must be well done and put on perfectly
straight at bottom and both ends.

When screwing it on leave one hole without screw in the stem for the
bobstay, and two in the sternpost for the self-acting rudder, as shown
in this drawing.

[Illustration]

The one in the stem must be about 5 in. from top, and the two in the
sternpost about 5 in. apart--the black dots show the places.

The hull is now finished; next scratch the deck with straight lines ½
in. apart from stem to stern to imitate planks, leaving ½ in. margin
all round to look like a gunwale, and with the following remarks I will
close this chapter.

It must be understood that it is almost impossible to mention every
operation; many things, and the way to do them, must be left to the
ingenuity and skill of the builder; it is sufficient that if my
directions have been reasonably carried out, the result, so far, will
be a good seaworthy model yacht’s hull.

I have given in this chapter and elsewhere the dimensions for a 3 ft.
boat, because it is easier to work downwards from a large size than
upwards from a small one. There is less chance of mistake, for an error
in a 2 ft. boat would be multiplied by working upwards, while the same
error would be decreased in working downwards.

A 3 ft. boat is somewhat large and heavy; 2 ft. and 2 ft. 6 in. are
the best sizes. Indeed, unless a large boat is specially required,
beginners should not attempt anything larger than a 2 ft. boat, and
even a boat 1 ft. 6 in. is a very good size for boys, and will sail,
&c., as well as a 3 ft. boat, though of course not so fast.

I append tables of measurement for the blocks of wood and weight of
keels for all these sizes:--

  For boat      block (inches)   keel (lbs)
  3 ft.         39  × 13  × 8    20
  2 ft. 6 in.   32½ × 10⅚ × 6⅔   10
  2 ft.         26  ×  8⅔ × 5⅓    7
  1 ft. 6 in.   19½ ×  6½ × 4     3

It would not matter if in the large sizes the keel were a pound or
so heavier, and in the small a half-pound or so; but on no account
must they be lighter in any case. I also add the weight of the leaden
rudders necessary to make the vessels run before the wind.

  3 ft. boat        1¼ lbs.
  2 ft. 6 in. boat   ¾  ”
  2 ft. boat         ½  ”
  1 ft. 6 in. boat   ¼  ”

For the masts, sails, and tackle of smaller boats, the calculation of
size may be easily made.




CHAPTER III.

HOW TO MAKE DECK FITTINGS, RUDDER, ETC.


I purpose in this chapter to show how to make and fit all that is
required on the deck to secure and work the rigging and sails. The
following is a diagram of the deck of the ship, with each object in its
proper place, and further on will be given enlarged drawings of each,
with description:--

[Illustration]

The first object, _a_, is a 1½ in. or 2 in. screw-eye, with large eye
for the bowsprit to go through; this must be carefully screwed into
the thick wood at the stem through the deck; _b_ is the chock for the
heel or inner end of the bowsprit to fit in; _c_ is the horse for the
foresheet to work on; _d_ is the hole or step for the mainmast; _e_ is
the hatchway or opening in the deck, just large enough to admit the
hand easily; _f_ is the horse for the mainsheet to travel on; _g g_
and _h h_ are 1 in. eye-bolts (screw-eyes) for the bowsprit guys, and
main-backstays to be hooked to; these must be firm and strong. Here is
a diagram of masts, spars, and rigging only.

[Illustration: _a_ mainmast. _b_ topmast. _c_ gaff. _d_ mainboom.
_e_ starboard or right backstay. _f_ larboard or left backstay. _g_
bowsprit. _h_ starboard bowsprit guy. _i_ larboard bowsprit guy. _j_
bobstay. _k_ India-rubber ring to keep boom down.]

Inserting the screw-eye for the bowsprit, _a_, requires no explanation:
it must be just large enough in the eye for the bowsprit to go
through; if not large enough, file it to the necessary size with the
rat-tail file.

The chock _b_ (p. 49) must be made out of a piece of oak or mahogany
about 3 in. long, and about 1 in. thick; a hole ½ in. deep, and of
the diameter of the end or heel of the bowsprit should be made in it;
thus--[Illustration]; the other end may be tapered off to taste, and
screwed strongly right through into the deck exactly amidships. It
should be of such a height that when the bowsprit is in its place it
shall be perfectly in a line with the mid-deck line, and also with
the stem and stern (as shown in the diagram, p. 50). The chock may be
placed any distance from the stem, so long as it is not too close to
the horse for foresheet (diagram, p. 49).

The horse for foresheet is made as follows: Cut two diamond or other
shaped pieces of sheet brass, ⅛ in. thick, and about 1½ in. in length;
thus--[Illustration]; make a small hole at each corner, and a larger
hole in the centre; then take about 5 in. of thick brass wire, and
bend it at the ends so as to be 4 in. apart, put the ends through the
plates; thus--[Illustration], and solder or get soldered, the wire to
the plates underneath; bore holes in the deck 4 in. apart, 2 in. or
so forward of the mainmast, and at equal distance from the mid-deck
line; fit in the two ends, _a a_, and screw the plates firmly to the
deck: if it is desired to be very neat, all the small holes should be
countersunk.

Another horse must be made exactly the same way, but 1 in. wider and
somewhat stronger, for the mainsheet (diagram, p. 49, _f_), and put as
near the edge of the stern as due regard for strength will permit.

The step or socket for the mainmast comes next. Get a short piece of
brass tube ⅝ in. internal diameter, and about 7½ in. long; have a screw
soldered into one end; thus--

[Illustration]

Bore a hole in the deck exactly amidships, and of exactly the same
diameter as the outside of the pipe or socket 13 in. from the stem,
_i.e._ ⅓ the length of the deck; put the brass tube in the hole, and
screw it tightly to the bottom of the ship, perpendicular to a line
drawn from stem to stern, and also from side to side, so that the
mainmast when put in it will be perfectly upright from all sides; file
the top of the socket off if too high, so as to leave not more than ¼
in. above the deck.

To make the hatchway or hole (_e_ in diagram, p. 49), cut out an oval
or oblong hole in the centre of the deck, just abaft or behind the beam
(diagram H, p. 39); a water-tight cover or stopper must be made for
this with cork, wood, or anything the maker pleases, it matters not
provided it is not much above the level of the deck, is water-tight,
and can be taken in or out.

Now bore a small hole through the deck, close to the starboard quarter
(see _i_ in diagram, p. 49), make a short peg to fit it, and call it
the _pump_; by inclining the ship towards this hole after sailing, and
drawing the peg, you can see if she has leaked, and let the water out
if necessary.

The screw-eyes _g g_ and _h h_, p. 49, explain themselves by referring
to _e_, _f_, _h_, and _i_, in diagram, p. 50; they are to hook on
the rigging as there shown. These eye-bolts, _h h_, must be as close
abaft the mainmast as is consistent with their properly supporting the
mainmast, both laterally and aftwards. The reason is that if placed too
far aft they would interfere with the mainboom swinging far enough out
when running before the wind; the nearer the mainboom is to a right
angle with the keel, the steadier and faster the ship will run before
the wind. _g g_ may be in a line with the horse for the foresheet _c_
(diagram, p. 49); care must be taken to screw them through the edge of
the deck, and into the gunwale firmly.

To cast the rudder, make a small wooden mould or box similar to that
for the keel, about 6 in. long, 3 in. deep, and ½ in. wide.

[Illustration]

Insert two moderately thick pieces of brass wire through the bottom,
and about an inch into the box (as in dotted line), bend them so as
to make them stick in the lead, and just as far apart as are the two
screw-eyes for this rudder in diagram “stern,” p. 44; pour in 1¼
lbs. of melted lead, trim the lead with the rasp, and turn the wires
thus--[Illustration]; and when hooked into the screw-eyes or gudgeons,
it should act easily either to right or left. Skilful or tasteful young
model yacht sailors can vary the shape of the rudder; I have given the
simplest and easiest shape to make.

This completes all the deck fittings necessary for working and sailing
the ship, but if on trial the rudder should be too heavy or too light,
another must be made--experience is the best guide.

I need hardly say that every direction I have given need not be
followed to the letter; those who see and know what is required can
do many things in their own way, and much must necessarily be left to
individual taste, skill, and ingenuity.

At this stage, varnish the deck with copal varnish, and paint the hull
whatever colour or colours fancy dictates; I, however, advise one
colour only for the hull, it is less trouble and easier to repaint or
repair, eventualities often recurring with model yachts.




CHAPTER IV.

HOW TO FIT MASTS, STANDING AND RUNNING GEAR, ETC.


The best material for making masts and spars is bamboo canes, these
require little trimming, can be procured of any thickness and length,
and are stronger, lighter, and more elastic than any other kind of wood.

The mainmast must be 38 in. long from the deck, and ⅝ in. diameter at
the foot, to fit the socket or step (diagram, p. 52), slightly tapering
to the head or top; the head must be fitted with a brass ferrule or
socket for the topmast (like a fishing-rod), and must be _included_ in
the above 38 in. length, but as the mast has to fit in the step, the
depth of the step must be added to it.

If the yacht builder cannot solder or get soldered eyes on the socket
at the mast-head, he must lash them on for the foresail, jib, and main-
and peak-halyards, and also for the main-backstays; thus--

[Illustration:

  _a_ socket for topmast.
  _b_ ring for peak-halyards.
  _c_ ring for throat-halyards.
  _d_ ring for jib-halyards.
  _e_ ring for foresail-halyards.
  _f_ ring for starboard-backstay.
  _g_ ring for larboard-backstay.
  _h_ gaff.
]

Rings _d_ and _e_ must be lashed forward, _b_ and _c_ aft, _f_ and _g_
one on each side, _e_ and _c_ about an inch below _f_ and _b_; this is
all necessary for the mainmast.

The bowsprit must be 34½ in. long outside the stem and a trifle thicker
than the mainmast; be careful to allow the extra length from the stem
to the chock (p. 51); it must have rings (these rings can be got at any
fishing shop, of all sizes--[Illustration], any size will do, so that
the lines used pass easily through) for the guys and bobstay lashed
on, and hooks for the jib and foresail; tip the end with a band thus,
to prevent damage to it by collisions--

[Illustration:

  _a a_ rings on each side, close to the end, for the guys.
  _b_   ring for bobstay underneath.
  _c_   hook for jib tack. (to be on top.)
  _d_   hook for foresail tack. (to be on top.)
]

The hooks, _c_ and _d_, for the tacks cannot be lashed on till the
sails are made and fitted, for as the jib must always swing clear of
the foresail, and the foresail clear of the mainmast, it is best to try
them before lashing on these hooks.

These hooks are made of stout brass wire about 1½ in. long,
flattened where to be lashed, and the end turned up with the pliers;
thus--[Illustration]; the hook ¼ in. high is plenty, so that the sails
may be as low down as possible.

Next, with the pliers make a dozen hooks or so, this shape and
size--[Illustration], of strong wire; and two of still stouter wire,
this shape and size, say 1 in.--[Illustration]; the former are for the
various standing and running gear, and the two latter for the foresail
sheet and mainsheet. Make also a dozen or so of wood or bone slides to
pattern--[Illustration]; one hook and one slide at least is required
for every rope that has to be lengthened or shortened. Ladies’ bone
meshes of suitable width and thickness make the best slides.

The following diagram shows the application and use of these in all
instances; say you are fitting the larboard mainbackstay (_f_ in
diagram, p. 50), make fast your line to the ring (_g_, diagram, p. 60)
at the mainmast head, pass the line through two holes of the slide,
then through a hook which must be hooked on to the screw-eye (_f_,
diagram, p. 50), back through the other hole in the slide, and make it
fast there by a knot, only see the line is not too long or too short
for convenient working. By this means, as you will soon see, any rope
can be fitted that requires it, and can be lengthened or shortened in
a moment without danger of slipping; thus--

[Illustration]

The best line for all the gear is suitable sizes of fishing-line. If
the line kinks, _i.e._ gets into twists, put a yard or so at a time
through the loop of the key in a door, cross it over itself once or
twice, and rub it backwards and forwards, that takes all the turn out.

The brass wire required may be these sizes--

[Illustration:

  for small hooks.
  larger hooks, &c., &c.
  foresheet horse.
  mainsheet horse.
]

Now comes the mainboom (_d_, diagram, p. 50); it must be 36 in. long, a
little thinner than the mainmast, and must be fitted thus--

[Illustration]

Put a brass band, _a_, ½ in. wide, round the thicker end, drive a
peg strongly into the hollow of the bamboo (the band is to stop it
splitting), and screw in a screw-eye, as shown at _b_ above; then lash
one ring on at _c_, say 15 in. from _a_, and another at _d_, both on
the under side of the boom, this last crossways. These two rings are
for the mainsheet _f_, and are most important; they must be well put
on, the latter, _d_, about 12 in. from the outer end of the boom, so as
to work well when the hook _e_ is hooked on to the horse for this sheet
(viz. mainsheet) at the stern; this hook, _e_, is to be one of the
large hooks (as shown p. 62).

In order that the mainsheet should not have to be made too long,
and thereby get foul of the stern, &c., when the boom swings over
in running or reaching, it is best to have another sheet called the
“running sheet,” to be fitted as follows:--

Screw a screw-eye (a strong one) into the middle of the deck, just
abaft the hatchway, lash a ring to the underside of the mainboom
exactly over the screw-eye when the mainboom is amidships, fasten a
strong piece of line to the screw-eye, put on a slide, then pass it
through a hook, and fasten off to the slide, and hook into the ring
on the mainboom; and let this sheet be just so long, that when the
mainboom is out as far as it can go for the backstays, it will just
take the strain off the backstays, on whichever side it happens to be,
in running before the wind.

By means of this running sheet, when the after mainsheet is unhooked,
the mainboom can be kept in or let out to any required angle without
the sheet fouling, and as the running sheet is fast to the ship only,
it can be easily unhooked from the mainboom when unrigging. Still,
this running sheet is not absolutely necessary, but is a very great
convenience.

To attach the mainboom to the mast, and allow it to move freely, get
a strip of sheet brass ⅜ in. wide, just long enough to go _round the
mast_ (close to the deck), and ⅜ in. over at each end; bore a hole at
each end thus--[Illustration], and bend it round the mast. With the
pincers nip the two ends close together, and so that the two holes are
in a line thus--

[Illustration]

Now put the screw-eye at the end of the mainboom between these two
holes, fasten it there with a bit of wire turned round at each end;
thus--

[Illustration]

No arrangement can be more perfect or stronger than this.

The above operation has to be repeated for the _jaws_ or inner end of
the gaff (_c_ in diagram, p. 50), but the ring must fit the head of the
mast instead of the foot.

The gaff must be 21½ in. long, and a little thinner than the mainboom;
thus--

[Illustration]

Lash one large ring at _a_, as close to the end as possible, two
others, smaller, further out at _b_ and _c_, and one at _d_; all these
rings must be on the top side of the gaff, _d_ an inch from the outer
end of the gaff, for the sheet of the topsail to be hooked on (see
frontispiece).

The topmast is a taper bamboo, the lower end of which must fit tightly
into the socket at the mainmast head, it must be 24 in. long outside
the socket; lash two small rings at opposite sides, ½ in. from the
head, put a knob on the top (called the truck), and the topmast is
ready.

The boom for the foresail (_i.e._ the spar that extends the foot of
the sail) must be 20 in. long, that for the jib 25½ in. long, and both
about the thickness of the gaff; here, however, use your judgment. Lash
rings on for the sheets of each; each must have a sliding sheet (see
drawing at end of this chapter) the same as for the mainsheet (p. 63);
the jib sheet, however, requires no hook at the end, but must be made
fast to the bowsprit, or, if greater precision is required, a horse may
be made for the jib as for the other sails, and fastened in its proper
place across the bowsprit, and to the guys as below;

[Illustration]

it may be made of thin brass wire, as follows, merely taking care that
it is the right length, and that the horse is an inch or so less than
the foresheet horse. It is made of four pieces of wire, the horse bent,
as in diagram below, and the other pieces soldered to it;

[Illustration]

the guys may be passed through the loops a on their respective sides,
and knots made to keep them in place; it will be perfectly self-acting,
and never get out of place; the weather guy being always tight will
always keep it nearly horizontal; it makes the jib, like the other
sails, a good _driving_ as well as steering sail. Besides the above
rings, another must be lashed on the outer end (all the rings on the
boom are underneath) of each boom, _a_ and _b_, about 2½ in. from the
end; thus--

[Illustration]

and must both be crosswise, as they are to secure these booms to their
respective hooks (see _c_ and _d_ on bowsprit, p. 61; and also diagram,
p. 70). This manner of fixing these sails is the best to keep them
tight and flat when in use.

This diagram shows the best mode of fixing the tacks of jib and
foresail to the bowsprit; by this means, when the sail fills with the
wind, it raises the after end of the boom, _depresses the fore end_,
and thus tightens the luff of the sail and keeps it taut, which is
very necessary. This diagram also shows how the jib and foresail swing
clear of each other; also that the jib must not quite go to the end of
the bowsprit, or it may be knocked off.

[Illustration]

When all the rings are carefully and neatly lashed on, say with strong
white thread,--lashing is the best, because it does not weaken the
spars by making it necessary to bore holes in them,--varnish all the
lashings with copal varnish, it will preserve them and prevent them
slipping.

Each maker must use a little judgment, and _understand what he is
going to do before he does it_, and as in some instances the spars, or
what not, may be a little too long, the best plan is for the maker to
try each and everything before spoiling his work.

[Illustration: _Enlarged Diagram of how to fix the sliding sheets for
the respective booms, i.e. jib, fore, and main._]




CHAPTER V.

HOW TO MAKE THE SAILS AND SET THEM.


The speed and precision in the sailing of a model yacht, depend much
more upon the sails than the hull, and the greatest care must be taken
in making them.

If pains are taken to carry out the following directions, an excellent
suit of self-acting sails will be the result.

The best material is either bleached or unbleached calico, 1 yd. wide,
at 8_d._ per yd., and for a 2 ft. yacht 10_d._ per yd.; 3 yds. are
sufficient for a 3 ft. boat. Steep the calico in clean water, and
dry it across a line before using it. It is always better to cut the
patterns of the sails out in paper, and try them in their places,
before cutting the stuff.

On the next page are given diagrams of the four sails for a cutter, and
as all are cut on the cross, care must be taken when hemming them not
to pucker or stretch the material; the after leach, _i.e._ the behind
edge of all the sails, must be the selvedge, and must not be hemmed.
In cutting out, allowance must be made for the hems, the measurements
given being the actual sizes required.

[Illustration]

The bottoms of the sails must be slightly rounded, as shown above, and
a narrow tape must be sewn across, as shown by the dotted lines, to
keep the sails from stretching.

All the sewing for these sails can be done perfectly and expeditiously
with any lock-stitch machine; it will sew them exactly even without
puckering, and all that has to be done by hand is to fasten off the
corners. I make all my own sails, and can, without hurry, make a full
large suit for a 3 ft. boat in an evening.

The selvedges are not to be hemmed, because the after leaches of all
the sails should allow the wind to pass freely off. The sizes of the
sails are marked on the diagrams distinctly; allow ½ in. extra on the
outer leach of the mainsail, from _c_ to _d_ in diagram below, so that
it may be slightly loose; this helps to steer materially, as the leach
will shake before the body of the sail, if the vessel comes too much
up in the wind, and so losing its power allow the ship to fall off and
sail steadily.

[Illustration]

This diagram shows how to cut the head of the mainsail; the dotted line
shows how the sail would be if cut straight, therefore cut straight
from _a_ to _b_, then slant off to _d_ at rather more than midway from
_a_ to _c_. Make eight or ten eyelet holes at equal distances in the
hoist of the mainsail, and fix a ring or grummet of twine in each hole
to fit loosely round the mainmast; these are better than brass rings or
wooden hoops, and weigh nothing.

The lower outer corner of the mainsail should be double for 2 or 3 in.
(see diagram, p. 76), to strengthen it; in fact, the corners of all the
sails are none the worse for being so doubled.

Now fix the sail to the mainboom and gaff; with a needle and strong
thread is best: do not pull the sail too tight. The boom will then be
2 in. or so too long; do not cut that off, it is useful to turn the
ship with; leave also the extra length of the gaff, it looks better.
The head of the sail must be laced or tied to the gaff at intervals of
1 in., but on no account lace the foot of the sails to the booms; (for
reason why see p. 29) the sail is then ready.

In setting, _i.e._ putting on, the mainsail, when you have passed the
foot of the mainmast through the jaws of the gaff and all the grummets,
then before passing it through the jaws of the mainboom, put on an
India-rubber ring, and then the mainboom; the ring must be pretty tight
to the mast, and is very useful to keep the mainboom from slipping up.
For position of this ring, see _k_ in diagram, p. 50.

To hold the mainsail up, the inner ring on the gaff and lower
after-ring on the mainmast head, must have stout twine passed through
and made fast. This is called the throat-halyards.

The gaff must be kept at its proper angle by means of twine made fast
to the next ring on the gaff, passed through a hook, which hook into
the upper after-ring at the mainmast head, and fasten off at the third
ring on the gaff. This is called the peak-halyards. With these two,
peak- and throat-halyards, you can easily fix the mainsail, so that
when the mainboom _is half an inch above the deck at the mast_, and
about an inch or so clear of the mainsheet horse at the stern, the sail
shall set perfectly flat.

[Illustration]

The annexed arrangement of the topmast stay is excellent; it keeps
tight the luff of the jib, slightly slacks up the after leach, and is
no trouble whatever to fix or unfix. It simply consists of putting a
large ring (so that the hook can pass through) at the top point of the
jib, pass the topmast stay-hook through, and hook it into a ring sewn
on to the luff any distance down you think sufficient, as in diagram at
side, _a_ topmast, _b_ topmast stay, _c_ mainsail, _d_ jib.

The jib must have a piece of tape stitched from _a_ to _b_ on the
double, ½ in. each side (see p. 76), and a ring sewn on at _b_. A hem
only in the luff would be useless on account of the strain. The same
must be done to the foresail; hem the bottoms, and leave the selvedges
as they are.

Lash them to their respective yards or booms (see diagram, pp. 69 and
70). Of course the sail must be on the top of the boom, and the rings
and sheets underneath; try them in their places; now lash on the hooks
to the bowsprit (see p. 61), and you will see exactly where to put
them; mind, the jib must swing just clear of both bowsprit and foresail
(see frontispiece), and the foresail just clear of the mast and stem.
Fit both these sails at the head with a hook and slide, the end of the
line to be fast to the head of the sail, and the hook is to hook into
the rings (respectively) at the mainmast head (see frontispiece), which
shows exactly how all the sails set. The booms for these sails (jib and
foresail) must be cut close, as there is no room to spare.

[Illustration]

The topsail is 28 in. high, and reaches from the large ring in the jaws
of the gaff (_a_, p. 66) to the topmast head, and before cutting it
out the mainsail must be tried and set. The shape of this sail depends
on the peak or angle of the gaff; and having made a pattern in paper
to fit thus, make eyelet holes equidistant from _b_ to head of the
mainmast, and put in rings of twine to fit the topmast loosely, as
was done before with mainsail; fasten a hook to each of the corners,
_a_, _b_, _c_, to hook into the respective rings already placed for
them;--if the hooks are too short, use a piece of twine sewn to the
sail, at _b_ and _c_ only, to lengthen them;--now sew a button at the
edge of the curved bottom of the sail at _d_, and a loop to button on
it on the head of the mainsail at _e_; this keeps the rounded foot
always flat.

The masts, sails, and gear being now all complete, try them on, and
make any little alterations that may be necessary. If my directions
have been intelligently followed, the sails will be exactly the sizes
and shape of those in the lateral diagram, frontispiece.

A strong, fine piece of line, fitted with a slide and hook, in the
usual way, the end made fast to the topmast head ring forward, and the
hook to be hooked into the ring at the jib head or top corner (see the
diagram p. 80, and also frontispiece). This is to raise the foot of the
jib, if required, and also to steady the topmast; this is a simple
though not so effectual a topmast stay as that given, p. 80.

The sails must be as tight and flat as possible when set, and the mast
must be kept exactly upright by the backstays aft, and by the jib and
foresail forward, the tape on the jib and foresail taking the place of
stays or ropes used for that purpose in ordinary yachts, which are by
this means dispensed with in models.

Sail and mast-making is not yet done. Another suit of masts, spars, and
sails, of exactly two-thirds the length, breadth, and height of these,
must be made. It is called the _storm suit_, and is used when the wind
is too strong for the first suit. Reefing is not practicable in a
cutter.

Some model yachtsmen have three or four suits of sails, &c.; I find
two sufficient, because I don’t sail a yacht when there is scarcely a
breath, and I don’t sail one when it blows a hurricane, and so I find
two suits enough. Still if you race in matches, and mean winning, you
must have both a larger and smaller suit, for you can never tell what
the wind will be on the race day, and must be prepared.

Now that all your sails are complete, paint the hull, and varnish the
deck again; tip the end of the masts and booms the colour of your
yacht, it looks ship-shape.

[Illustration]

A pole of pine or deal, 6 ft. long, with a double hook at one end, is
required to handle and turn the ship. Herewith drawing of the hook. One
side is to push the ship out, and the other to pull it in or turn it.

Lastly, two bags are needed, each to contain 1 lb. of shot, for
shifting ballast to trim the ship, if you require her deeper aft or
forward.




CHAPTER VI.

HOW TO SAIL AND STEER A MODEL YACHT.


The action of the wind upon the sails of a vessel presses her down
sideways and forwards, this causes the lee bow (viz. that on the
side opposed to the wind) to be more immersed than the weather bow
(or wind side bow), and the curve of the bow acting like a rudder or
wedge, forces the vessel strongly up in the wind, in exact proportion
to the strength of the wind. This is a simple mechanical law any one
can understand after watching a model yacht for five minutes, and to
counteract while utilizing it, I build a model yacht much deeper aft
than forward, make the bowsprit very long, the jib and foresail large,
and the mainsail narrow at the head and slack in the outer leach or
edge. These arrangements, properly adjusted, nearly neutralize this
tendency of the lee bow to force the ship to windward, and leave only
just enough, so that by setting the sails in the way shown later, a
model yacht steers itself perfectly. Great care must be taken not to
overdo it, otherwise the vessel will run off the wind, and not steer
herself at all.

The part which the increased depth of keel aft plays in steering a
model yacht is this; as the sails are very evenly balanced, and exert
little more force at the stern than at the bow when _the vessel is
upright in the water_; yet even then there is always the tendency
more or less to come up in the wind, and as the bow is not so deep as
the stern, the lateral pressure of all the sails forces the vessel
sideways (called leeway),--she makes more _leeway forward than aft_,
and thus this particular arrangement helps to make her steer herself.
Necessarily, when the wind blows strongly it is of very great use, and
enables increased length of bowsprit to be dispensed with: too long a
bowsprit is a great drawback, it dips in the water, and is difficult to
fasten firmly.

Again, a model vessel being well up by the stem, and deep aft,
possesses another power of self-steering, viz. when the wind presses
her down forward (when on the wind), it lightens her aft; this, of
course, permits her to gripe more to windward, as she holds more
water forward and less aft, but if she comes up too much, so as to
relieve the mainsail of a great part of its pressure, the opposite
action results, the bow is lightened and the stern depressed exactly
in proportion, so that under all circumstances the vessel possesses a
self-acting power to steer herself.

Now, as just shown, a model yacht, partly by the action of the sails
(particularly the mainsail), and partly by the action of the lee bow,
will always keep close to the wind,--in fact, too close; therefore,
to make her steer herself, the jib and foresail are kept in a little
closer (_i.e._ more in a parallel line with the keel) than the
mainsail. So if the vessel comes too close to the wind, first the
outer leach of the mainsail loses its power and shakes, and if this
does not suffice, _as it should_, to make her fall off again, the
whole mainsail will shake, and as the jib and foresail must keep full,
the ship pays off till the mainsail fills again. So an equilibrium is
attained, and in a steady wind, on the sea for instance, the yacht
would sail on in the same direction as if on rails, till the sails
dropped in pieces.

[Illustration]

This diagram gives the disposition of the booms by means of their
respective sheets. To make a yacht sail full and by, _i.e._ close to
the wind, and neither run off or shake, the jib is nearly parallel to
the bowsprit, the foresail less so, and the mainsail least of all,
and clearly shows the principle, for it is evident that if the vessel
turned more towards the wind, the mainsail would shake, and the jib and
foresail keeping still full, would turn the ship back to her course
again, viz. “full and by.” On the other hand, she cannot run off the
wind, because the mainsail, well full as it must be, if she ran off,
would bring her up again instantly.

I presume every intelligent person understands that a vessel cannot
sail with her head to the wind (all the sails must shake, and she would
go astern), and few vessels can sail nearer, if so near, as at an
angle of 45° to the wind. In the next diagram will be shown the way to
sail the vessel in any _possible_ direction, and how the booms must be
disposed, and the rudder or rudders and ballast bags used to accomplish
it.

[Illustration]

The wind is supposed to be blowing in the direction the arrow flies,
and by holding this diagram with the arrow towards the point the wind
is blowing from, your vessel can be made to sail in every direction
there indicated.

No vessel can head nearer towards the wind shown by the arrow, than _a_
and _aa_, one being on the larboard, the other on the starboard tack
(as it is called), _i.e._ about 45°, four points of a compass, or half
a right angle.

The vessel at _a_ is therefore sailing close to the wind on the
larboard tack, with the sails disposed for that purpose, as already
shown (p. 90); to put her on the other tack, simply turn her in the
direction _aa_, head to wind; the sails, being self-acting, will go
over of themselves by the force of the wind, and she will continue on
that tack till stopped or turned.

To sail her as at _b_, ease off the mainsheet till the mainboom is
at an angle of 45° (this is called wind abeam) to the keel of the
ship, and she will do so; it is seldom necessary to touch the jib or
foresheets, leave those sails as at _a_. To sail her as at _bb_, turn
her round, head to wind, and the sails take the same place on the other
side, and that is done.

To sail as at _c_, let go the mainsheet altogether; if the wind is not
too strong, she will do so, but if it is too strong, a light rudder,
self-acting, of about ¼ lb. weight must be made and used, and that will
do it. Turn her round as before, head to wind, if you wish to sail her
as at _cc_. The rule is simple enough: if the sails are set, and propel
her in a given direction on the one tack, she will, if turned, sail in
the corresponding direction on the other tack.

To run before the wind at _d_, with the mainsheet let go, hook on the
heavy rudder, and she will run more or less true before the wind,
according to the perfection with which the ship is built and the rudder
balanced. The cause is this: if the vessel turns, say to starboard, the
wind necessarily presses her over to larboard, the self-acting rudder
(being exactly upright when the ship is upright) falls over to larboard
also, and instantly puts her straight again; the exact opposite takes
place should she turn to larboard, and so _she must sail straight
before the wind_.

When the wind is very light, it will sometimes occur, that the vessel
on account of the large jib and foresail, will run off the wind; if
so, put one or two of the bags of shot inside in her bows, and most
likely that will remedy it; if not, change the angles of the jib and
foresails, _i.e._ let the jib sheet out more, and haul the foresheet in
as much as the jib was, so that you would then be steering more by the
foresail than by the jib. This is sure to succeed.

Before all these manœuvres can be successfully performed, some little
practice is necessary, of course; ships, like everything else, have
little ways of their own, and must be studied.

The topsail must always be kept set, and needs no touching after being
once set, for though of no great use as a propelling sail, save off the
wind, it is so as a steadying sail, being so lofty. My experience has
taught me never to dispense with it.

To prove the certainty with which a model yacht must sail in the
direction intended, you can, as an experiment, put the vessel’s head in
the water in any direction you please, and she will immediately take
the _course for which the sails are set_, no matter how you put her in
the water. For instance, place her in the water, _head to wind_, with
the mainsheet let go, and the heavy rudder on, _i.e._ to sail as at _d_
(p. 92), and she will of her own account turn round and run before the
wind, an operation which, to those not in the secret, seems like magic.

Rigged in the way I have described, with every part of the standing and
running rigging being made fast by hooks and slides, a cutter can be
completely unrigged in one minute, and rigged again in three minutes:
I have done it in these times easily. This is a very great advantage;
there are no knots to make, no time is lost, and yet the rigging is as
strong and as perfect as possible, and never fails till worn out.

I hope I have now made all clear, and that my readers may be enabled
to build ships, and rig them to sail with as much satisfaction to
themselves as mine are to me.

Model yachts can be rigged to sail and steer well, as schooners,
luggers, &c., and I have vessels rigged in those ways. Should this
treatise meet with success, I purpose writing a second, dealing with
this subject.




MATERIALS FOR MODEL SHIPS.


Block of wood: white pine or soft deal; at almost any wood-yard, and
particularly at those in the neighbourhood of the docks; cost for a 2
ft. boat, 2_s._ 6_d._, for a 3 ft., about 10_s._

Masts, booms, &c., of bamboo canes, at florists, who sell cheap
bamboos for about 8_d._ per dozen for gardening purposes; the best
can be selected, and they will serve for masts, all the spars of a 2
ft. boat, and for booms, gaffs, and topmasts of 3 ft. boats. Bamboos
for the mast, bowsprit, and mainboom of 3 ft. boats can be got at
fishing-tackle shops and toy shops; both sell cheap bamboo fishing-rods
at about 3_d._ each. They can be easily selected of the required
thickness and length. Excellent bamboo canes for booms, gaffs, and
topmasts can also be obtained at umbrella shops and stick shops, but
they cost more--1_d._, 2_d._, or 3_d._, and even 6_d._ each.

Twine, white line, &c., for standing and running rigging, can be had at
fishing-tackle or cord and twine shops.

Calico and tape at any linendrapers.

Lead at any plumber’s shop, 2_d._ or 3_d._ per lb.

Paint and copal at any oilman’s. Paint 6_d._ or 8_d._ per lb. Copal
varnish about 1_s._ per pint; 3_d._ worth is enough for a 3 ft. boat.

Brass and copper wire at most ironmongers, as also screw-eyes of any
size. If the two former cannot be readily obtained, Messrs. Jackson and
Sons, 17, Sun Street, Finsbury, keep every size in brass and copper
wire, and every thickness in brass and copper sheets; all these are
sold by weight.

All sizes of rings can be had at fishing-tackle shops. 1_d._ or 2_d._
per dozen.

Ferrules or bands for tipping the ends of spars to prevent them
splitting, can be got at fishing-tackle shops, and the amateur builder
can file off any length required; they are very cheap. For small bands,
pipe mounts are excellent, very light and thin, and easily cut to any
length. Most tobacconists keep them in all sizes, 1_d._ or 2_d._ each.

If the boat builder cannot get or make bands, lash or bind the ends of
the spars neatly and strongly with good white thread, and then paint
it well with copal. It will answer every purpose, but does not look so
neat and trim.

Lastly, slides can be made of any hard wood as well as of bone, and the
requisite holes bored with a bradawl, and then seared with a red-hot
skewer.




GLOSSARY.


    ABAFT, AFT, towards the stern.

    AMIDSHIPS, middle of a ship or anything.

    BACKSTAY, ropes which support the mast sideways and backwards.

    BEAM, breadth of a vessel, also the support of the deck.

    BOARD, the distance sailed on one tack.

    BOBSTAY, the rope that keeps the bowsprit down; reaches from
    end of bowsprit to cutwater.

    BOOM, any spar used to extend the foot of a sail.

    BOW, front part of a vessel.

    BOWSPRIT, spar projecting in front of a vessel to set the jibs
    on.

    BULWARKS, the wooden railings round the deck of a ship.

    CHOCK, piece of wood to hold anything firmly.

    CLOSE, a vessel being as near the direction of the wind as she
    can go without shaking.

    COUNTER, the projection of the stem.

    CUTWATER, the sharp part of the bow.

    DECK, the covering of the ship to keep the water out, &c.

    DRAW, a ship draws so much water, _i.e._ it is so many feet in
    the water.

    ENTRANCE, the forward part of the bottom of a vessel, tapered
    off to the cutwater, so as to cleave the water.

    FALL OFF, when a vessel turns from the direction of the wind.

    FOOT, bottom of a mast or sail.

    FORE AND AFT, any sail which does not cross the mast.

    FORESAIL, sail in forepart of a ship.

    FORWARD, fore part of a ship.

    FULL, when the sails are distended by the wind.

    FULL AND BY, close to the wind yet not shaking. _See_ CLOSE.

    GAFF, the spar which supports the head of a fore and aft sail.

    GRUMMET, a ring made of rope.

    GUDGEON, a sort of eye-bolt for the rudder to work on.

    GUNWALE, top of the side of a ship on which the deck is
    fastened.

    GUY, rope to keep and secure the bowsprit, &c., laterally.

    HALYARDS, ropes used to hoist the sails.

    HATCHWAY, openings in the deck of a ship.

    HEAD, top of a mast or sail.

    HOIST, height a sail is pulled up.

    HOLD, the inside of a ship.

    HORSE, long bars of iron on which the sheets of sails work.

    HULL, body of a ship.

    JAWS, any arrangement to secure a gaff or boom to a mast, and
    allow it to swing from side to side, &c.

    JIB, a three-cornered sail in front of a ship.

    KEEL, the centre of the bottom of a ship.

    LACED, tied in a certain way.

    LARBOARD, left.

    LEACH, edge of a sail, generally the side.

    LEE, side of a vessel farthest from that from which the wind
    blows.

    LEE-WAY, the side-way motion of a ship caused by the side
    pressure of the wind.

    LUFF, to go closer to the wind.

    LUFF (of a sail), edge of a sail nearest the wind.

    MAIN-HALYARDS, ropes to hoist the mainsail.

    MAINMAST, the lower mast in a cutter.

    MAINSHEET, the rope or gear to secure and regulate the after
    lower corner of the mainsail.

    NEAR, same as close. _See_ CLOSE.

    OFF. _See_ FALL OFF.

    OVERALL, from stem to stern.

    PAY OFF. _See_ FALL OFF.

    PEAK, the angular head of the mainsail.

    PEAK-HALYARDS, ropes to hoist the outer end of the gaff.

    QUARTERS, both sides of a ship close to the stern.

    REACHING, sailing with the wind abeam or nearly so.

    REEFING, reducing the sails by tying them up smaller.

    RUN, the after part of the bottom of a vessel, tapered off to
    the sternpost, so as to leave the water freely.

    RUNNING, sailing with the wind astern or nearly so.

    RUNNING GEAR, any ropes used for hoisting the sails or yards.

    SELVEDGE, the even edge of linen, canvas, &c.

    SHAKE, when the sails shake in the wind and so lose their power.

    SHEER, slope of a vessel downwards to midships from stem and
    stern.

    SHEET, ropes used to secure and regulate lower after corner of
    sails.

    STANDING GEAR, any fixed ropes, as backstays, &c.

    STARBOARD, right side.

    STAY, ropes used to support the masts forward only.

    STEM. _See_ CUTWATER.

    STEP, socket for heel of mast, &c.

    STERN, the after part of a vessel.

    STERNPOST, end of keel and run, upon which the rudder is fixed.

    TACK, forward lower corner of a sail.

    TACK, to make a zigzag course so as to get to windward.

    TAUT, tight.

    TOPMAST, the second mast from the deck.

    WATERLINE, line of the water on the side, &c., of a ship,
    showing how deep she is in the water.

    WEATHER, side of a vessel, &c., nearest the wind.

    WINDWARD, in direction of the wind, the side from which the
    wind blows.




CONTESTS ON THE OPEN SEA BETWEEN CUTTERS “GOLDEN CREST” AND “STORM
ALONG.”


_1st Trial._ Strong breeze, rough sea, storm sails, foot of sails laced
to booms; 1½ miles on each tack. “Storm Along” beat on each tack, about
50 yds. to windward.

_2nd Trial._ Large suits, light breeze and sea; 1½ miles on each tack.
“Storm Along,” all sails laced to booms; “Golden Crest,” mainsail free
and jib laced. “Storm Along” led a few yards once; “Golden Crest” beat,
20 yds. in 2 boards.

_3rd Trial._ Sails as in 2nd Trial, moderate breeze and sea; 2 boards,
1½ miles each. “Golden Crest” beat, 20 yds. on each.

_4th Trial._ Sails as above, moderate breeze and sea, _interchanged
sails_. “Storm Along” beat, ¼ mile on each tack of 1 mile length each.

_5th Trial._ Moderate breeze and sea, “Storm Along” own sails all free
from booms, and “Golden Crest” all laced; 2 boards of 1 mile each.
“Storm Along” beat, ¼ mile to windward. x last board of 1 mile; “Golden
Crest,” all sails free from booms, _i.e._ both vessels own sails and
alike. “Storm Along” beat, ¼ mile dead to windward.

_6th Trial._ Gentle breeze and sea, full suits and each their own.
“Storm Along” beat, 40 yds. to windward in ½ mile board. “Golden Crest”
headreached a little, this wind and sea showing her best points.




TIME TABLE OF TWO MODEL YACHT REGATTAS.


Course once up and down pond, 259 yds. long, 30 yds. wide; length of
pond being E. and W.

4 ft. cutters. Wind strong, E. by S. 4 vessels in each heat.

  +--------+--------+---------+-----------+------+
  |  Heat  | Start. |   Run.  | Beat back.| Time.|
  +--------+--------+---------+-----------+------+
  |        | H.  M. | H.   M. |   H.  M.  |  M.  |
  |1st     | 4   14 | 4   16¾ |   4  23½  |  9½  |
  |2nd     | 4   33 | 4   36  |   4  42¾  |  9¾  |
  |3rd     | 4   50 | 4   53  |   4  59   |  9   |
  |Loser’s | 5    4 | 5    7  |   5  14¼  | 10¼  |
  |Final   | 5   20 | 5   23¼ |   5  31   | 11   |
  +--------+--------+---------+-----------+------+

In this race, final heat, the three first winners fouled, and the
winner of loser’s heat won.

3 ft. cutters. Wind strong, W. by S. Course as above.

  +---------+----------+----------+----------+------+
  |  Heat   |  Start.  |   Run.   |Beat back.| Time.|
  +---------+----------+----------+----------+------+
  |         |H.  M.  S.|H.  M.  S.|H.  M.  S.|M.  S.|
  |1st      |5   14  50|5   18  30|5   26  23|11  33|
  |2nd      |5   35  30|5   39   8|5   46  40|11  10|
  |3rd      |6    3   5|6    6  40|6   16   5|13   0|
  |Loser’s  |6   23   5|6   26  30|6   36  10|13   5|
  |Final    |6   43  52|6   47  25|6   54  50|10  58|
  +---------+----------+----------+----------+------+

This last race won by 6 in. only.

By examining above table, it appears to novices almost incredible that
such precision can be attained in model yacht sailing. All the heats
were won by a few feet only, and some by inches.




BEST WATERS FOR SAILING MODEL YACHTS.


The best ponds for sailing model yachts in London are: (1) Victoria
Park Pond, but only when the wind is E. or W. (2) Round Pond,
Kensington, in any winds, all sides of this pond being clear of trees.
(3) Serpentine, in any wind.

Hampstead and Highgate ponds are also available, but have muddy edges,
and seldom a true wind on account of the high banks.

There are also good ponds on Clapham Common and Peckham Rye.


GILBERT AND RIVINGTON, PRINTERS, ST. JOHN’S SQUARE, LONDON.




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Transcriber’s Notes.

Italic text is indicated with _underscores_, bold text with =equals=.
Small/mixed capitals have been replaced with ALL CAPITALS.

Evident typographical and punctuation errors have been corrected
silently. Inconsistent spelling/hyphenation has been normalised.
A half-title and reiterations of chapter titles have been discarded.

*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 78905 ***