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diff --git a/78905-0.txt b/78905-0.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..bc9ae01 --- /dev/null +++ b/78905-0.txt @@ -0,0 +1,1709 @@ +*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 78905 *** + + + + + MODEL YACHTS + AND MODEL YACHT SAILING. + + _HOW TO BUILD, RIG, AND SAIL + A SELF-ACTING MODEL YACHT._ + + BY + JAMES E. WALTON, V.M.Y.C. + + + ILLUSTRATED WITH FIFTY-EIGHT ENGRAVINGS. + + [Illustration] + + GRIFFITH AND FARRAN, + SUCCESSORS TO NEWBERY AND HARRIS, + WEST CORNER OF ST. PAUL’S CHURCHYARD, LONDON. + E. P. DUTTON AND CO., NEW YORK. + MDCCCLXXX. + + + _The rights of Translation and of Reproduction are reserved._ + + + + +[Illustration: + +LATERAL VIEW OF 3 FT. YACHT (⅔ inch to the foot). + +_a a_ mainsail. _b b_ topsail. _c c_ foresail. _d d_ jib. _a_ mainmast. +_b_ topmast. _c_ bowsprit. _d_ main boom. _e_ gaff. _f_ foresail boom. +_g_ jib boom. _h_ bobstay. _i_ mainrigging (port or left side). _j_ +hull. _k_ false keel. _l_ lead keel. _m_ counter. _n_ sternpost. _o_ +stem. _p_ self-acting rudder, only used when running. + +_For deck outline and measurement of this Model “Diana” Cutter, see +diagram 8, p. 19._] + + + + +CONTENTS. + + + PREFACE 11 + + INTRODUCTION 15 + + I. PRINCIPLES OF SELF-ACTING MODEL YACHT BUILDING 21 + + II. HOW TO MAKE THE HULL 31 + + III. HOW TO MAKE DECK FITTINGS, RUDDER, &C. 47 + + IV. HOW TO FIT MASTS, STANDING AND RUNNING GEAR, &C. 57 + + V. HOW TO MAKE THE SAILS AND SET THEM 73 + + VI. HOW TO SAIL AND STEER A MODEL YACHT 85 + + MATERIALS FOR MODEL SHIPS 97 + + GLOSSARY 100 + + MODEL YACHT CONTESTS ON THE SEA 102 + + TABLES OF MODEL YACHT REGATTAS 103 + + WATERS IN LONDON FOR MODEL YACHT SAILING 104 + + + + +PREFACE. + + +There are not many open-air amusements which afford more genuine +enjoyment to old and young than Model Yacht Sailing; if practised in a +properly scientific manner it resembles a game of croquet, in which the +water is the lawn, the wind the mallet, and the ships the balls; and +the most skilful yachtsman is as certain of winning his match as is the +most skilful croquet player. + +Very few English boys can be found who have not taken, or do not take +an interest in model ships, and it is very remarkable, as well as +no little disgrace to us as a maritime nation, to note the utterly +purposeless way in which nearly all boys or men sail their model +vessels; whereas with the requisite knowledge, a self-acting model +yacht is as much under the control of the manager as if he were +actually on board: further still, matches can be sailed in which the +results are as certain as are those of the matches of ordinary yachts, +as may be seen in the tables of actual races at the end of this work +(see p. 103). + +A sailor who thoroughly understands the management of a ship or +boat, _when he is on board_, _steers with a rudder_, and _reduces_, +_augments_, or _disposes_ the sails at his will, would find this +knowledge of very secondary importance if he applied it, _without +great modifications_, to sail a model yacht. To give one instance +only, _model yachts require no fixed rudder_, in fact, a fixed rudder +is such an incumbrance, and so great a bar to perfect action, that it +must be dispensed with altogether. This quite upsets the old adage of +a “ship without a rudder,” and reverses it; our model ships need no +rudder--steer better without, save in one way. + +A rudder is used at times on model yachts, as will be shown in its +place, but it must be removed when it has done its work. + +The sails and hulls of model yachts are also very different to those +of full-sized yachts. They are constructed with the _view to being +self-acting_, and as a model yacht _must steer itself_, this result can +only be obtained by using the sails both for _propelling and steering_. + +Model yachts, as usually made, may be very beautiful to look at, +but, alas! they will not sail, or will not sail well, they are not +self-acting in any sense, they are generally actual reproductions in +miniature of celebrated large yachts, and as these latter are sailed +and steered by men on board, it is very certain their miniature copies +will not sail without similar guidance. + +I have made these remarks to show that model self-acting yachts cannot +be made and sailed without the requisite knowledge and experience, +and as there is no book to be got which gives full particulars on the +subject, it is believed that this, which contains the result of many +years’ model yacht making and sailing, will supply an almost national +want, and enable any ordinarily intelligent boy to construct, rig, and +sail a model yacht with perfect success. + +As a proof of the pains that have been taken to ascertain the best +hull and rig for a self-acting yacht, I may say that five yachts have +been made, all of the same length, but each of different beam, rig, +&c., commencing with very narrow beam, and increasing beam, &c., with +each model, till the best proportion between length and beam became +known,--necessarily with each increase of beam _more sail could be +carried_, and also more _ballast in lead keel_ could be used,--and in +order that the experiments should be crucial and decisive, a final +vessel was constructed of the same measurement as the best of those +before mentioned, and their sails were made interchangeable, thus +deciding beyond doubt which vessel was best, after many trials on the +open sea with a true wind. + +It is doubtful if such experiments were ever made before (tables of +them will be seen at p. 102), and the author, therefore, feels assured +that his readers may have every confidence in the instruction here +given. + + + + +INTRODUCTION. + + +The first thing necessary for non-nautical yachtsmen is to know the +names of the different sails, parts of the vessel, &c., &c., and for +this purpose the diagram forming the frontispiece will be useful; a +glossary, also, is added at the end of the work. + +The frontispiece is an exact outline drawing of a model self-acting +yacht, of 3-feet water-line, and 39 in. over all; the diagram is drawn +in the proportion of ⅔ in. to the foot, and if any reader desires to +make a smaller boat, say 30 in., all that need be done is to make +everything ⅙ smaller, and for a 2 ft. boat ⅓ smaller; as the keel, +however, would have to be calculated by weight, and the above rule +would not apply, I give the weight in lbs.; a 3 ft. boat requires 20 +lbs., a 2 ft. 6 in. boat 10 or 11 lbs., and a 24 in. boat 6 lbs. or +nearly. + +I will note here that it is better to make a vessel scooped out, &c., +from the solid block, than to build one of small planks; 1st, it is +easier (it takes a good carpenter to make one of planks), it can be +altered outside if not scooped out too thin at first, it never _leaks_, +and it never comes to pieces; and, lastly, it does not take half the +time to repaint, &c., &c. + +[Illustration] + +[Illustration] + + + + +CHAPTER I. + +PRINCIPLES OF MODEL YACHT BUILDING. + + +In order to ascertain the best lines, _i.e._ shape, for progression +through the water, Nature herself may, without hesitation, be taken as +the best teacher, and amongst fast-moving fishes a mackerel is one of +the fastest and most graceful. + +I procured a mackerel, carefully measured and drew it to scale (see p. +17, diagrams 1 and 2), first taking the shape back upwards, and next +sideways, and in harmony with these lines all the vessels mentioned in +this work are constructed. + +On looking at the diagram of the mackerel it is at once apparent that +a clean run is more important than a sharp entrance, for the drawing +shows the fish to be much fuller in the fore than in the after part; +bearing this in mind, and having drawn the mackerel in divisions of +inches, I took the forward eleven divisions as a model for the deck and +general lines of my vessels--first, so far as regards “_going through +the water_;” secondly, because I should thus get “_the widest part +or beam amidships_,” and as near the centre of motion and gravity as +possible. + +With these ideas in my mind I constructed “Seashell” (see diagram 3, p. +17), with the actual measurements there stated (as is the case on all +the drawings). I rigged her as a schooner; thus-- + +[Illustration] + +She sailed well and steadily, and could be made to go in any direction +in a light breeze, but her _narrow beam and lightness_, with only 3 +lbs. keel, rendered her useless in a stiff breeze, except when she was +running away from it. + +I next built “Mermaid” (see diagram 4), with nearly 2 in. more beam, +and exactly to the measurement of the mackerel sideways, simply +increasing each line in proportion as the ship was larger than the +fish; all the lines of the hull being of course in harmony with the +increased beam, she had 5 lbs. lead keel, and was rigged as a cutter +(see “Diana” for cutter rig, frontispiece), schooner, or lugger at +pleasure. I found she beat “Seashell” considerably in any wind, but +especially in strong winds, sailing under any of the above-mentioned +sails. + +Learning by this that increased beam and weight meant more power, more +sail, and greater speed, I then made “Silver Spray” (see diagram 5), +with 8 lbs. keel, and nearly 2 in. more beam than “Mermaid,” and in +this vessel I reached about the proportional beam that most model yacht +builders have adopted, viz. 3½ beams to the length. I rigged her as a +cutter only, and she easily beat “Mermaid” every way. I also discovered +that cutter rig was best, the boats under this rig sailing faster and +truer, and are more quickly and expeditiously managed; at the same time +I discarded fixed rudders for reasons stated before. + +With this model, “Silver Spray,” I had reached a point at which I stuck +for some time; I could hardly think still increased beam or depth would +be an advantage, yet I wished to progress, and try something I would. + +I thought the matter over carefully, and at last arrived at the +following conclusions: A fish goes _through the water only, but a ship +goes through and over_. Now a duck goes over the water; how would a +vessel built upon a combination of fish and duck succeed? + +I got a duck, took a plaster cast of his under side, noticed the way +ducks got over the water, the resistance of the water and the ripples +and wake caused by the duck’s motion over the water, and I decided +to make a ship to go _over the water rather than through it_; the +top of the _water is alive_, and easily displaced in any direction +save downwards, the deeper one goes the stiller it is, and the more +difficult to displace. I considered, therefore, if I built a vessel of +greater beam, very light draught of water, with a lead keel well below +the bottom, I should get greatly increased power and speed, for I felt +satisfied that the light draught and larger sails more than compensated +for a wider beam. + +It stands also to reason that a vessel of a wide beam does _not heel +over to leeward_ so much as one of a narrower beam, and it results +from that--1st, the sails being more perpendicular to the wind, have +more power to propel; and 2nd, the keel being also more “up and down,” +prevents her making so much leeway. + +No doubt there is a limit to breadth of beam, and although I have +not yet fully experimented, I am inclined to think that the limit is +reached in “Diana,” of three beams to the length. + +On this I built “Golden Crest” (see diagram 6, p. 19), with these +qualities, beam 10⅓ in., or ⅓ her length exactly, and only a bare 4 +in. depth, and 10 lbs. lead keel; I fitted her with sails as a cutter, +making them larger than those of “Silver Spray,” in proportion to her +increased beam and ballast (in lead keel), and she more than fulfilled +my utmost expectations, for she beat all the three former models out +and out, both in speed and steadiness. + +Still, however, I had not quite finished my experiments, for I remarked +that in strong winds “Golden Crest,” on account of her low freeboard +(_i.e._ little height out of the water), was sometimes overpowered +sooner than I thought she ought to be, and I determined to build +another vessel on the same lines and of the same size exactly, but +with 1 in. deeper hold; this I did in “Storm Along” (see diagram 7, p. +19), the only difference between this and “Golden Crest” being the 1 +in. extra depth of hold; lead keel, sails, masts, &c., &c., all were +exactly the same. + +Now, when Greek meets Greek, then comes the tug of war. So it was here, +and it was only after numberless trials in all winds, and finally by +actually interchanging their sails, that “Storm Along” proved the +winner; the reason this was difficult to establish was that at first +I only sailed _each with its own sails_; when the wind was moderate +and sea smooth, “Golden Crest” won a little; on the other hand, with +strong breezes and sea on, “Storm Along” won. I interchanged their +sails, and “Storm Along” won considerably always. I then found out that +I had happened to lace the feet of the sails of “Storm Along” to their +booms, but it never struck me such a trifle would interfere much with +the sailing of a model: I was mistaken, however, for I found whichever +had the laced sails was sure to lose, and “Golden Crest” lost most; +mind, all these experiments were conducted on the open sea for hours, +with true winds and true sea (the most perfect test). I cut the sails +loose, and at once and ever after, “Storm Along” proved invariably the +victor; in light winds by very, very little, but in strong winds the +greater buoyancy, and therefore lateral power, of “Storm Along” always +carried the day. + +With all these ships there are _no bulwarks_, no ornaments, or +projections of any kind, nothing but the gear, &c., necessary to set +the sails and work them; everything else is not only useless, but +mischievous lumber. + +It may be remarked that the whole of those boats when running before +the wind, with self-acting lead rudders, run at very nearly the _same +speed_, length to a great extent governing speed; but on turning to +windward, each falls into its place, as assigned to it in the foregoing +pages. + +I have not yet tried whether greater beam still than ⅓ the length is an +improvement; I am resting on my oars awhile, and perhaps some one else +may undertake the experiment. + +Particulars of the races between “Golden Crest” and “Storm Along” are +noted on p. 102. + + + + +CHAPTER II. + +HOW TO MAKE THE HULL. + + +Before entering upon the subject of this chapter, I will enumerate +the tools which will be needed: these are a small axe, saw, plane, 1 +in. gouge, ½ in. gouge, a rasp, a bradawl, a screw-driver, a gimlet, +a hammer, a pair of small round-nosed pliers, a rat-tail file, a +half-round file, a small mallet, and last, though not least, a good +pocket knife. + +It is best and easiest, at any rate for beginners, to cut out model +ships from a solid block, because if not scooped out too thin, +alterations can be made on the outside if desirable; if the block, in +process of cutting out, should split, rub it with a piece of flannel +dipped in linseed oil every time after working on it, the tools cut +just as easily, and all liability to split is obviated. + +To make a 3 ft. yacht (see lateral view, frontispiece; deck outline, +diagram 8, p. 19; and sectional outlines, p. 37), get a block of deal, +with as few knots and cracks in it as possible, and well-seasoned; it +must be 39 in. long, 13 in. wide, and 8 in. deep; thus-- + +[Illustration] + +Divide it into two exact halves, as shown by the dotted line--this +centre line must _never be lost_ or _rubbed out till the hull is +finished_; choose the best side for the deck or upper side, divide it +lengthways into eleven compartments or divisions, and carefully set off +on each side the length of each line (as shown in diagram 8, p. 19); +thus-- + +[Illustration] + +With the axe (mind all the tools are sharp) chop off carefully both +sides of the block till it is shaped thus-- + +[Illustration] + +With the gouge cut out the run and entrance in the bottom of the piece +of wood, beginning a little forward of the middle for the run; and at +same time cut away so much of the bottom as will leave ½ in. for the +keel, by ⅝ wide. The next diagram shows one side, with entrance and run +cut out. + +[Illustration] + +Having cut out the other side to _correspond exactly_, and rounded the +sides and bottom with the plane and rasp, taking care all the curved +parts are in keeping with the curves of the deck diagram C, saw a +slanting piece off the cutwater, about ½ in. at bottom to nothing at +top, measure 36 in. from the middle of the cutwater towards the stern, +and cut out the piece of keel in the run, so as to leave the counter +(projecting of the stern); thus (the dotted lines show where and how to +cut)-- + +[Illustration] + +The counter must not project more than 3 in., and therefore the ship +will be 3 ft. keel, and 3 ft. 3 in. over all. Now smooth and model the +ship to your best ability, see the keel _is quite straight_, and the +_sternpost perpendicular to the stempost or cutwater_ (_a a_ is the +sternpost in above diagram E). + +If the vessel is now exactly equal on both sides, and not lob-sided, +as sailors call it, you can finish it with the rasp, scrape it with +glass, and polish it with sand paper, making the outside look perfectly +ship-shape. + +The sectional views here shown enable the model ship builder to +judge of the correctness of his work; they represent the hull _when +finished_, if cut athwart or across into four pieces of equal length, +and by holding the vessel in the required position the builder can see +if his model present these or nearly these outlines exteriorly; if so, +it is right. + +It is not at all necessary to adhere exactly to this outline of the +midship section (although it governs the outlines of the other two); it +may be cut somewhat flatter on the bottom, as indicated by the dotted +lines, and this would of course slightly vary the other sectional +outlines, but I do not think it should be made more angular, nor do I +advise it, as the vessel would lose too much buoyancy. + +[Illustration: SECTIONAL VIEWS.] + +The next thing is to scoop it out with the gouge and mallet. Leave +the sides everywhere ⅜ or ½ in. thick, and be careful not to scoop +thinner, or leave the sides thicker in one part than another. + +The gouge is the principal tool for this work, but a centrebit, to +bore holes all over the inside, is a great assistance, it saves half +the hammering; however, when scooped out and the inside smoothed, your +vessel should look thus-- + +[Illustration] + +Next make the _sheer_ by planing out the gunwale (gunwale _a a_), +beginning at nothing forward at the stem, gradually increasing to ½ in. +amidships, and again decreasing to nothing at the stern. The diagram G +below shows clearly what is meant by the sheer, and how to fashion it: +the dotted line is the sheer-- + +[Illustration] + +and a vessel looks very stiff and ungraceful without it. + +Now give the inside a coat of white paint, and then the deck can be put +on. The deck must be made of one piece of deal plank, without splits +or knots, ¼ in. thick at the sides, and ⅜ in. in the middle; this +gives the deck a slightly rounded appearance, and, besides, greatly +strengthens it. Mark the shape of the gunwale on the plank by turning +the ship bottom upwards upon it, and marking it round with a pencil; +draw a middle line from end to end, and cut it to the required shape as +near as possible. + +A beam must now be put across the middle of the ship, exactly level +with the gunwale on both sides, to support the deck and strengthen the +sides of the ship; the beam should be ½ in. square; thus-- + +[Illustration] + +Screw the sides of the ship to the ends of the beam; then put on +the deck, and screw it to the gunwale all round with ½ in. brass +(everything must be brass except the lead keel) screws at about equal +distances of 3 in., and two or three screws through the deck into the +beam; if this is done in a workmanlike way, and the edge of the deck +planed off and smoothed level with the side of the ship, the hull ought +to be perfect, and practically water-tight. Mind in putting in the beam +to leave place for the hatchway or step of the mast. + +The next operation is to put on the keels--false and leaden. The false +keel is simply a strip of beech, oak, or mahogany, of the same length +as the keel of the ship, ⅝ in. thick, ½ in. deep at one end, and 1 in. +at the other; thus-- + +[Illustration] + +This must be screwed into the keel of the ship with brass screws of +proper length, _i.e._ not to go through the bottom of the ship, about 6 +in. apart. This false keel, and the position it occupies, can be easily +seen in the drawing of “Diana,” and is marked K; the leaden keel is +underneath as there shown, and I will now describe the best way to make +it. + +20 lbs. of lead will be required for a 3 ft. yacht, as before +stated, and the lead can be melted in any old pot, on any ordinary +clear kitchen fire. First make an oblong narrow box or mould of any +smooth ½ in. boards--_dry_, or the lead will splutter and be full of +air-holes--3 ft. long inside, ⅝ in. inside width, 2 in. deep at one +end, and 3 in. at the other; this will hold about 20 lbs. of lead, and +here follows a drawing of the mould. + +[Illustration] + +Into the bottom of this mould, and sticking upright, as shown in +the drawing, must be placed at equal distances six or eight pegs, +beginning about 1 in. from the extreme ends of the mould; these pegs +must be rather thicker than the screws intended to screw the leaden to +the false keel, and will, as no doubt the intelligent reader already +perceives, leave holes in the cast leaden keel for the screws to go +through, these screws may be long enough to go through the false keel +into the ship’s bottom, and the work will be all the stronger and +better. Having melted the lead, pour it at once into the mould, and the +keel is made; when cool take it out of the mould, trim it, smooth the +sides and top and bottom with the plane, and let the shape be something +thus-- + +[Illustration] + +Screw it on to and through the false keel (if you cannot make holes +through the false keel to receive the screws without danger of +splitting it, bore them in their proper places with the bradawl, and +then burn them out with a red-hot skewer); the thickest end of the keel +must be aft or behind, and when screwing it on mind and bore out the +top of the holes in the lead, so that the heads of the screws may be +quite level with the lead (this operation is called countersinking the +screws); the heaviest end of the lead is put aft so as to make the ship +well up at the stem and deep at the stern; the reason for this will be +given in the chapter on “sailing a model yacht.” + +It may, however, be well to add here that the false keel, by holding +the leaden keel at a greater distance from the bottom of the ship, +greatly increases the _leverage of the leaden keel without increasing +the weight_, and gives great hold upon the water, however little water +the hull may draw, so that more sail can be carried, and the ship steer +better with this arrangement than without it. + +Now try how she floats, and if she floats about 3 in. deeper aft than +forward, that will do. + +Next get a strip of sheet brass about 5 ft. long, ½ in. wide, and ⅛ in. +thick; most likely you will have to get this soldered in two or three +pieces; it is to make a band to cover the leaden keel at the bottom, +ends, and also the stem and sternpost, to keep them from being injured +by stones, &c., on striking the shore, &c.; holes must be punched in +it at every 3 in. where it covers the lead, and at every inch where it +covers the wood of the stem and sternpost. + +[Illustration] + +The above drawing shows what is meant, and the place it occupies (I +have distorted the drawing to show it better); it must be screwed +with brass ½ in. screws, countersunk, to the lead keel, &c., as above +stated; the cutwater part of it must be filed away to ¼ in. wide, +the rest may be left ½ in. wide. This has always been to me the most +difficult operation, and it must be well done and put on perfectly +straight at bottom and both ends. + +When screwing it on leave one hole without screw in the stem for the +bobstay, and two in the sternpost for the self-acting rudder, as shown +in this drawing. + +[Illustration] + +The one in the stem must be about 5 in. from top, and the two in the +sternpost about 5 in. apart--the black dots show the places. + +The hull is now finished; next scratch the deck with straight lines ½ +in. apart from stem to stern to imitate planks, leaving ½ in. margin +all round to look like a gunwale, and with the following remarks I will +close this chapter. + +It must be understood that it is almost impossible to mention every +operation; many things, and the way to do them, must be left to the +ingenuity and skill of the builder; it is sufficient that if my +directions have been reasonably carried out, the result, so far, will +be a good seaworthy model yacht’s hull. + +I have given in this chapter and elsewhere the dimensions for a 3 ft. +boat, because it is easier to work downwards from a large size than +upwards from a small one. There is less chance of mistake, for an error +in a 2 ft. boat would be multiplied by working upwards, while the same +error would be decreased in working downwards. + +A 3 ft. boat is somewhat large and heavy; 2 ft. and 2 ft. 6 in. are +the best sizes. Indeed, unless a large boat is specially required, +beginners should not attempt anything larger than a 2 ft. boat, and +even a boat 1 ft. 6 in. is a very good size for boys, and will sail, +&c., as well as a 3 ft. boat, though of course not so fast. + +I append tables of measurement for the blocks of wood and weight of +keels for all these sizes:-- + + For boat block (inches) keel (lbs) + 3 ft. 39 × 13 × 8 20 + 2 ft. 6 in. 32½ × 10⅚ × 6⅔ 10 + 2 ft. 26 × 8⅔ × 5⅓ 7 + 1 ft. 6 in. 19½ × 6½ × 4 3 + +It would not matter if in the large sizes the keel were a pound or +so heavier, and in the small a half-pound or so; but on no account +must they be lighter in any case. I also add the weight of the leaden +rudders necessary to make the vessels run before the wind. + + 3 ft. boat 1¼ lbs. + 2 ft. 6 in. boat ¾ ” + 2 ft. boat ½ ” + 1 ft. 6 in. boat ¼ ” + +For the masts, sails, and tackle of smaller boats, the calculation of +size may be easily made. + + + + +CHAPTER III. + +HOW TO MAKE DECK FITTINGS, RUDDER, ETC. + + +I purpose in this chapter to show how to make and fit all that is +required on the deck to secure and work the rigging and sails. The +following is a diagram of the deck of the ship, with each object in its +proper place, and further on will be given enlarged drawings of each, +with description:-- + +[Illustration] + +The first object, _a_, is a 1½ in. or 2 in. screw-eye, with large eye +for the bowsprit to go through; this must be carefully screwed into +the thick wood at the stem through the deck; _b_ is the chock for the +heel or inner end of the bowsprit to fit in; _c_ is the horse for the +foresheet to work on; _d_ is the hole or step for the mainmast; _e_ is +the hatchway or opening in the deck, just large enough to admit the +hand easily; _f_ is the horse for the mainsheet to travel on; _g g_ +and _h h_ are 1 in. eye-bolts (screw-eyes) for the bowsprit guys, and +main-backstays to be hooked to; these must be firm and strong. Here is +a diagram of masts, spars, and rigging only. + +[Illustration: _a_ mainmast. _b_ topmast. _c_ gaff. _d_ mainboom. +_e_ starboard or right backstay. _f_ larboard or left backstay. _g_ +bowsprit. _h_ starboard bowsprit guy. _i_ larboard bowsprit guy. _j_ +bobstay. _k_ India-rubber ring to keep boom down.] + +Inserting the screw-eye for the bowsprit, _a_, requires no explanation: +it must be just large enough in the eye for the bowsprit to go +through; if not large enough, file it to the necessary size with the +rat-tail file. + +The chock _b_ (p. 49) must be made out of a piece of oak or mahogany +about 3 in. long, and about 1 in. thick; a hole ½ in. deep, and of +the diameter of the end or heel of the bowsprit should be made in it; +thus--[Illustration]; the other end may be tapered off to taste, and +screwed strongly right through into the deck exactly amidships. It +should be of such a height that when the bowsprit is in its place it +shall be perfectly in a line with the mid-deck line, and also with +the stem and stern (as shown in the diagram, p. 50). The chock may be +placed any distance from the stem, so long as it is not too close to +the horse for foresheet (diagram, p. 49). + +The horse for foresheet is made as follows: Cut two diamond or other +shaped pieces of sheet brass, ⅛ in. thick, and about 1½ in. in length; +thus--[Illustration]; make a small hole at each corner, and a larger +hole in the centre; then take about 5 in. of thick brass wire, and +bend it at the ends so as to be 4 in. apart, put the ends through the +plates; thus--[Illustration], and solder or get soldered, the wire to +the plates underneath; bore holes in the deck 4 in. apart, 2 in. or +so forward of the mainmast, and at equal distance from the mid-deck +line; fit in the two ends, _a a_, and screw the plates firmly to the +deck: if it is desired to be very neat, all the small holes should be +countersunk. + +Another horse must be made exactly the same way, but 1 in. wider and +somewhat stronger, for the mainsheet (diagram, p. 49, _f_), and put as +near the edge of the stern as due regard for strength will permit. + +The step or socket for the mainmast comes next. Get a short piece of +brass tube ⅝ in. internal diameter, and about 7½ in. long; have a screw +soldered into one end; thus-- + +[Illustration] + +Bore a hole in the deck exactly amidships, and of exactly the same +diameter as the outside of the pipe or socket 13 in. from the stem, +_i.e._ ⅓ the length of the deck; put the brass tube in the hole, and +screw it tightly to the bottom of the ship, perpendicular to a line +drawn from stem to stern, and also from side to side, so that the +mainmast when put in it will be perfectly upright from all sides; file +the top of the socket off if too high, so as to leave not more than ¼ +in. above the deck. + +To make the hatchway or hole (_e_ in diagram, p. 49), cut out an oval +or oblong hole in the centre of the deck, just abaft or behind the beam +(diagram H, p. 39); a water-tight cover or stopper must be made for +this with cork, wood, or anything the maker pleases, it matters not +provided it is not much above the level of the deck, is water-tight, +and can be taken in or out. + +Now bore a small hole through the deck, close to the starboard quarter +(see _i_ in diagram, p. 49), make a short peg to fit it, and call it +the _pump_; by inclining the ship towards this hole after sailing, and +drawing the peg, you can see if she has leaked, and let the water out +if necessary. + +The screw-eyes _g g_ and _h h_, p. 49, explain themselves by referring +to _e_, _f_, _h_, and _i_, in diagram, p. 50; they are to hook on +the rigging as there shown. These eye-bolts, _h h_, must be as close +abaft the mainmast as is consistent with their properly supporting the +mainmast, both laterally and aftwards. The reason is that if placed too +far aft they would interfere with the mainboom swinging far enough out +when running before the wind; the nearer the mainboom is to a right +angle with the keel, the steadier and faster the ship will run before +the wind. _g g_ may be in a line with the horse for the foresheet _c_ +(diagram, p. 49); care must be taken to screw them through the edge of +the deck, and into the gunwale firmly. + +To cast the rudder, make a small wooden mould or box similar to that +for the keel, about 6 in. long, 3 in. deep, and ½ in. wide. + +[Illustration] + +Insert two moderately thick pieces of brass wire through the bottom, +and about an inch into the box (as in dotted line), bend them so as +to make them stick in the lead, and just as far apart as are the two +screw-eyes for this rudder in diagram “stern,” p. 44; pour in 1¼ +lbs. of melted lead, trim the lead with the rasp, and turn the wires +thus--[Illustration]; and when hooked into the screw-eyes or gudgeons, +it should act easily either to right or left. Skilful or tasteful young +model yacht sailors can vary the shape of the rudder; I have given the +simplest and easiest shape to make. + +This completes all the deck fittings necessary for working and sailing +the ship, but if on trial the rudder should be too heavy or too light, +another must be made--experience is the best guide. + +I need hardly say that every direction I have given need not be +followed to the letter; those who see and know what is required can +do many things in their own way, and much must necessarily be left to +individual taste, skill, and ingenuity. + +At this stage, varnish the deck with copal varnish, and paint the hull +whatever colour or colours fancy dictates; I, however, advise one +colour only for the hull, it is less trouble and easier to repaint or +repair, eventualities often recurring with model yachts. + + + + +CHAPTER IV. + +HOW TO FIT MASTS, STANDING AND RUNNING GEAR, ETC. + + +The best material for making masts and spars is bamboo canes, these +require little trimming, can be procured of any thickness and length, +and are stronger, lighter, and more elastic than any other kind of wood. + +The mainmast must be 38 in. long from the deck, and ⅝ in. diameter at +the foot, to fit the socket or step (diagram, p. 52), slightly tapering +to the head or top; the head must be fitted with a brass ferrule or +socket for the topmast (like a fishing-rod), and must be _included_ in +the above 38 in. length, but as the mast has to fit in the step, the +depth of the step must be added to it. + +If the yacht builder cannot solder or get soldered eyes on the socket +at the mast-head, he must lash them on for the foresail, jib, and main- +and peak-halyards, and also for the main-backstays; thus-- + +[Illustration: + + _a_ socket for topmast. + _b_ ring for peak-halyards. + _c_ ring for throat-halyards. + _d_ ring for jib-halyards. + _e_ ring for foresail-halyards. + _f_ ring for starboard-backstay. + _g_ ring for larboard-backstay. + _h_ gaff. +] + +Rings _d_ and _e_ must be lashed forward, _b_ and _c_ aft, _f_ and _g_ +one on each side, _e_ and _c_ about an inch below _f_ and _b_; this is +all necessary for the mainmast. + +The bowsprit must be 34½ in. long outside the stem and a trifle thicker +than the mainmast; be careful to allow the extra length from the stem +to the chock (p. 51); it must have rings (these rings can be got at any +fishing shop, of all sizes--[Illustration], any size will do, so that +the lines used pass easily through) for the guys and bobstay lashed +on, and hooks for the jib and foresail; tip the end with a band thus, +to prevent damage to it by collisions-- + +[Illustration: + + _a a_ rings on each side, close to the end, for the guys. + _b_ ring for bobstay underneath. + _c_ hook for jib tack. (to be on top.) + _d_ hook for foresail tack. (to be on top.) +] + +The hooks, _c_ and _d_, for the tacks cannot be lashed on till the +sails are made and fitted, for as the jib must always swing clear of +the foresail, and the foresail clear of the mainmast, it is best to try +them before lashing on these hooks. + +These hooks are made of stout brass wire about 1½ in. long, +flattened where to be lashed, and the end turned up with the pliers; +thus--[Illustration]; the hook ¼ in. high is plenty, so that the sails +may be as low down as possible. + +Next, with the pliers make a dozen hooks or so, this shape and +size--[Illustration], of strong wire; and two of still stouter wire, +this shape and size, say 1 in.--[Illustration]; the former are for the +various standing and running gear, and the two latter for the foresail +sheet and mainsheet. Make also a dozen or so of wood or bone slides to +pattern--[Illustration]; one hook and one slide at least is required +for every rope that has to be lengthened or shortened. Ladies’ bone +meshes of suitable width and thickness make the best slides. + +The following diagram shows the application and use of these in all +instances; say you are fitting the larboard mainbackstay (_f_ in +diagram, p. 50), make fast your line to the ring (_g_, diagram, p. 60) +at the mainmast head, pass the line through two holes of the slide, +then through a hook which must be hooked on to the screw-eye (_f_, +diagram, p. 50), back through the other hole in the slide, and make it +fast there by a knot, only see the line is not too long or too short +for convenient working. By this means, as you will soon see, any rope +can be fitted that requires it, and can be lengthened or shortened in +a moment without danger of slipping; thus-- + +[Illustration] + +The best line for all the gear is suitable sizes of fishing-line. If +the line kinks, _i.e._ gets into twists, put a yard or so at a time +through the loop of the key in a door, cross it over itself once or +twice, and rub it backwards and forwards, that takes all the turn out. + +The brass wire required may be these sizes-- + +[Illustration: + + for small hooks. + larger hooks, &c., &c. + foresheet horse. + mainsheet horse. +] + +Now comes the mainboom (_d_, diagram, p. 50); it must be 36 in. long, a +little thinner than the mainmast, and must be fitted thus-- + +[Illustration] + +Put a brass band, _a_, ½ in. wide, round the thicker end, drive a +peg strongly into the hollow of the bamboo (the band is to stop it +splitting), and screw in a screw-eye, as shown at _b_ above; then lash +one ring on at _c_, say 15 in. from _a_, and another at _d_, both on +the under side of the boom, this last crossways. These two rings are +for the mainsheet _f_, and are most important; they must be well put +on, the latter, _d_, about 12 in. from the outer end of the boom, so as +to work well when the hook _e_ is hooked on to the horse for this sheet +(viz. mainsheet) at the stern; this hook, _e_, is to be one of the +large hooks (as shown p. 62). + +In order that the mainsheet should not have to be made too long, +and thereby get foul of the stern, &c., when the boom swings over +in running or reaching, it is best to have another sheet called the +“running sheet,” to be fitted as follows:-- + +Screw a screw-eye (a strong one) into the middle of the deck, just +abaft the hatchway, lash a ring to the underside of the mainboom +exactly over the screw-eye when the mainboom is amidships, fasten a +strong piece of line to the screw-eye, put on a slide, then pass it +through a hook, and fasten off to the slide, and hook into the ring +on the mainboom; and let this sheet be just so long, that when the +mainboom is out as far as it can go for the backstays, it will just +take the strain off the backstays, on whichever side it happens to be, +in running before the wind. + +By means of this running sheet, when the after mainsheet is unhooked, +the mainboom can be kept in or let out to any required angle without +the sheet fouling, and as the running sheet is fast to the ship only, +it can be easily unhooked from the mainboom when unrigging. Still, +this running sheet is not absolutely necessary, but is a very great +convenience. + +To attach the mainboom to the mast, and allow it to move freely, get +a strip of sheet brass ⅜ in. wide, just long enough to go _round the +mast_ (close to the deck), and ⅜ in. over at each end; bore a hole at +each end thus--[Illustration], and bend it round the mast. With the +pincers nip the two ends close together, and so that the two holes are +in a line thus-- + +[Illustration] + +Now put the screw-eye at the end of the mainboom between these two +holes, fasten it there with a bit of wire turned round at each end; +thus-- + +[Illustration] + +No arrangement can be more perfect or stronger than this. + +The above operation has to be repeated for the _jaws_ or inner end of +the gaff (_c_ in diagram, p. 50), but the ring must fit the head of the +mast instead of the foot. + +The gaff must be 21½ in. long, and a little thinner than the mainboom; +thus-- + +[Illustration] + +Lash one large ring at _a_, as close to the end as possible, two +others, smaller, further out at _b_ and _c_, and one at _d_; all these +rings must be on the top side of the gaff, _d_ an inch from the outer +end of the gaff, for the sheet of the topsail to be hooked on (see +frontispiece). + +The topmast is a taper bamboo, the lower end of which must fit tightly +into the socket at the mainmast head, it must be 24 in. long outside +the socket; lash two small rings at opposite sides, ½ in. from the +head, put a knob on the top (called the truck), and the topmast is +ready. + +The boom for the foresail (_i.e._ the spar that extends the foot of +the sail) must be 20 in. long, that for the jib 25½ in. long, and both +about the thickness of the gaff; here, however, use your judgment. Lash +rings on for the sheets of each; each must have a sliding sheet (see +drawing at end of this chapter) the same as for the mainsheet (p. 63); +the jib sheet, however, requires no hook at the end, but must be made +fast to the bowsprit, or, if greater precision is required, a horse may +be made for the jib as for the other sails, and fastened in its proper +place across the bowsprit, and to the guys as below; + +[Illustration] + +it may be made of thin brass wire, as follows, merely taking care that +it is the right length, and that the horse is an inch or so less than +the foresheet horse. It is made of four pieces of wire, the horse bent, +as in diagram below, and the other pieces soldered to it; + +[Illustration] + +the guys may be passed through the loops a on their respective sides, +and knots made to keep them in place; it will be perfectly self-acting, +and never get out of place; the weather guy being always tight will +always keep it nearly horizontal; it makes the jib, like the other +sails, a good _driving_ as well as steering sail. Besides the above +rings, another must be lashed on the outer end (all the rings on the +boom are underneath) of each boom, _a_ and _b_, about 2½ in. from the +end; thus-- + +[Illustration] + +and must both be crosswise, as they are to secure these booms to their +respective hooks (see _c_ and _d_ on bowsprit, p. 61; and also diagram, +p. 70). This manner of fixing these sails is the best to keep them +tight and flat when in use. + +This diagram shows the best mode of fixing the tacks of jib and +foresail to the bowsprit; by this means, when the sail fills with the +wind, it raises the after end of the boom, _depresses the fore end_, +and thus tightens the luff of the sail and keeps it taut, which is +very necessary. This diagram also shows how the jib and foresail swing +clear of each other; also that the jib must not quite go to the end of +the bowsprit, or it may be knocked off. + +[Illustration] + +When all the rings are carefully and neatly lashed on, say with strong +white thread,--lashing is the best, because it does not weaken the +spars by making it necessary to bore holes in them,--varnish all the +lashings with copal varnish, it will preserve them and prevent them +slipping. + +Each maker must use a little judgment, and _understand what he is +going to do before he does it_, and as in some instances the spars, or +what not, may be a little too long, the best plan is for the maker to +try each and everything before spoiling his work. + +[Illustration: _Enlarged Diagram of how to fix the sliding sheets for +the respective booms, i.e. jib, fore, and main._] + + + + +CHAPTER V. + +HOW TO MAKE THE SAILS AND SET THEM. + + +The speed and precision in the sailing of a model yacht, depend much +more upon the sails than the hull, and the greatest care must be taken +in making them. + +If pains are taken to carry out the following directions, an excellent +suit of self-acting sails will be the result. + +The best material is either bleached or unbleached calico, 1 yd. wide, +at 8_d._ per yd., and for a 2 ft. yacht 10_d._ per yd.; 3 yds. are +sufficient for a 3 ft. boat. Steep the calico in clean water, and +dry it across a line before using it. It is always better to cut the +patterns of the sails out in paper, and try them in their places, +before cutting the stuff. + +On the next page are given diagrams of the four sails for a cutter, and +as all are cut on the cross, care must be taken when hemming them not +to pucker or stretch the material; the after leach, _i.e._ the behind +edge of all the sails, must be the selvedge, and must not be hemmed. +In cutting out, allowance must be made for the hems, the measurements +given being the actual sizes required. + +[Illustration] + +The bottoms of the sails must be slightly rounded, as shown above, and +a narrow tape must be sewn across, as shown by the dotted lines, to +keep the sails from stretching. + +All the sewing for these sails can be done perfectly and expeditiously +with any lock-stitch machine; it will sew them exactly even without +puckering, and all that has to be done by hand is to fasten off the +corners. I make all my own sails, and can, without hurry, make a full +large suit for a 3 ft. boat in an evening. + +The selvedges are not to be hemmed, because the after leaches of all +the sails should allow the wind to pass freely off. The sizes of the +sails are marked on the diagrams distinctly; allow ½ in. extra on the +outer leach of the mainsail, from _c_ to _d_ in diagram below, so that +it may be slightly loose; this helps to steer materially, as the leach +will shake before the body of the sail, if the vessel comes too much +up in the wind, and so losing its power allow the ship to fall off and +sail steadily. + +[Illustration] + +This diagram shows how to cut the head of the mainsail; the dotted line +shows how the sail would be if cut straight, therefore cut straight +from _a_ to _b_, then slant off to _d_ at rather more than midway from +_a_ to _c_. Make eight or ten eyelet holes at equal distances in the +hoist of the mainsail, and fix a ring or grummet of twine in each hole +to fit loosely round the mainmast; these are better than brass rings or +wooden hoops, and weigh nothing. + +The lower outer corner of the mainsail should be double for 2 or 3 in. +(see diagram, p. 76), to strengthen it; in fact, the corners of all the +sails are none the worse for being so doubled. + +Now fix the sail to the mainboom and gaff; with a needle and strong +thread is best: do not pull the sail too tight. The boom will then be +2 in. or so too long; do not cut that off, it is useful to turn the +ship with; leave also the extra length of the gaff, it looks better. +The head of the sail must be laced or tied to the gaff at intervals of +1 in., but on no account lace the foot of the sails to the booms; (for +reason why see p. 29) the sail is then ready. + +In setting, _i.e._ putting on, the mainsail, when you have passed the +foot of the mainmast through the jaws of the gaff and all the grummets, +then before passing it through the jaws of the mainboom, put on an +India-rubber ring, and then the mainboom; the ring must be pretty tight +to the mast, and is very useful to keep the mainboom from slipping up. +For position of this ring, see _k_ in diagram, p. 50. + +To hold the mainsail up, the inner ring on the gaff and lower +after-ring on the mainmast head, must have stout twine passed through +and made fast. This is called the throat-halyards. + +The gaff must be kept at its proper angle by means of twine made fast +to the next ring on the gaff, passed through a hook, which hook into +the upper after-ring at the mainmast head, and fasten off at the third +ring on the gaff. This is called the peak-halyards. With these two, +peak- and throat-halyards, you can easily fix the mainsail, so that +when the mainboom _is half an inch above the deck at the mast_, and +about an inch or so clear of the mainsheet horse at the stern, the sail +shall set perfectly flat. + +[Illustration] + +The annexed arrangement of the topmast stay is excellent; it keeps +tight the luff of the jib, slightly slacks up the after leach, and is +no trouble whatever to fix or unfix. It simply consists of putting a +large ring (so that the hook can pass through) at the top point of the +jib, pass the topmast stay-hook through, and hook it into a ring sewn +on to the luff any distance down you think sufficient, as in diagram at +side, _a_ topmast, _b_ topmast stay, _c_ mainsail, _d_ jib. + +The jib must have a piece of tape stitched from _a_ to _b_ on the +double, ½ in. each side (see p. 76), and a ring sewn on at _b_. A hem +only in the luff would be useless on account of the strain. The same +must be done to the foresail; hem the bottoms, and leave the selvedges +as they are. + +Lash them to their respective yards or booms (see diagram, pp. 69 and +70). Of course the sail must be on the top of the boom, and the rings +and sheets underneath; try them in their places; now lash on the hooks +to the bowsprit (see p. 61), and you will see exactly where to put +them; mind, the jib must swing just clear of both bowsprit and foresail +(see frontispiece), and the foresail just clear of the mast and stem. +Fit both these sails at the head with a hook and slide, the end of the +line to be fast to the head of the sail, and the hook is to hook into +the rings (respectively) at the mainmast head (see frontispiece), which +shows exactly how all the sails set. The booms for these sails (jib and +foresail) must be cut close, as there is no room to spare. + +[Illustration] + +The topsail is 28 in. high, and reaches from the large ring in the jaws +of the gaff (_a_, p. 66) to the topmast head, and before cutting it +out the mainsail must be tried and set. The shape of this sail depends +on the peak or angle of the gaff; and having made a pattern in paper +to fit thus, make eyelet holes equidistant from _b_ to head of the +mainmast, and put in rings of twine to fit the topmast loosely, as +was done before with mainsail; fasten a hook to each of the corners, +_a_, _b_, _c_, to hook into the respective rings already placed for +them;--if the hooks are too short, use a piece of twine sewn to the +sail, at _b_ and _c_ only, to lengthen them;--now sew a button at the +edge of the curved bottom of the sail at _d_, and a loop to button on +it on the head of the mainsail at _e_; this keeps the rounded foot +always flat. + +The masts, sails, and gear being now all complete, try them on, and +make any little alterations that may be necessary. If my directions +have been intelligently followed, the sails will be exactly the sizes +and shape of those in the lateral diagram, frontispiece. + +A strong, fine piece of line, fitted with a slide and hook, in the +usual way, the end made fast to the topmast head ring forward, and the +hook to be hooked into the ring at the jib head or top corner (see the +diagram p. 80, and also frontispiece). This is to raise the foot of the +jib, if required, and also to steady the topmast; this is a simple +though not so effectual a topmast stay as that given, p. 80. + +The sails must be as tight and flat as possible when set, and the mast +must be kept exactly upright by the backstays aft, and by the jib and +foresail forward, the tape on the jib and foresail taking the place of +stays or ropes used for that purpose in ordinary yachts, which are by +this means dispensed with in models. + +Sail and mast-making is not yet done. Another suit of masts, spars, and +sails, of exactly two-thirds the length, breadth, and height of these, +must be made. It is called the _storm suit_, and is used when the wind +is too strong for the first suit. Reefing is not practicable in a +cutter. + +Some model yachtsmen have three or four suits of sails, &c.; I find +two sufficient, because I don’t sail a yacht when there is scarcely a +breath, and I don’t sail one when it blows a hurricane, and so I find +two suits enough. Still if you race in matches, and mean winning, you +must have both a larger and smaller suit, for you can never tell what +the wind will be on the race day, and must be prepared. + +Now that all your sails are complete, paint the hull, and varnish the +deck again; tip the end of the masts and booms the colour of your +yacht, it looks ship-shape. + +[Illustration] + +A pole of pine or deal, 6 ft. long, with a double hook at one end, is +required to handle and turn the ship. Herewith drawing of the hook. One +side is to push the ship out, and the other to pull it in or turn it. + +Lastly, two bags are needed, each to contain 1 lb. of shot, for +shifting ballast to trim the ship, if you require her deeper aft or +forward. + + + + +CHAPTER VI. + +HOW TO SAIL AND STEER A MODEL YACHT. + + +The action of the wind upon the sails of a vessel presses her down +sideways and forwards, this causes the lee bow (viz. that on the +side opposed to the wind) to be more immersed than the weather bow +(or wind side bow), and the curve of the bow acting like a rudder or +wedge, forces the vessel strongly up in the wind, in exact proportion +to the strength of the wind. This is a simple mechanical law any one +can understand after watching a model yacht for five minutes, and to +counteract while utilizing it, I build a model yacht much deeper aft +than forward, make the bowsprit very long, the jib and foresail large, +and the mainsail narrow at the head and slack in the outer leach or +edge. These arrangements, properly adjusted, nearly neutralize this +tendency of the lee bow to force the ship to windward, and leave only +just enough, so that by setting the sails in the way shown later, a +model yacht steers itself perfectly. Great care must be taken not to +overdo it, otherwise the vessel will run off the wind, and not steer +herself at all. + +The part which the increased depth of keel aft plays in steering a +model yacht is this; as the sails are very evenly balanced, and exert +little more force at the stern than at the bow when _the vessel is +upright in the water_; yet even then there is always the tendency +more or less to come up in the wind, and as the bow is not so deep as +the stern, the lateral pressure of all the sails forces the vessel +sideways (called leeway),--she makes more _leeway forward than aft_, +and thus this particular arrangement helps to make her steer herself. +Necessarily, when the wind blows strongly it is of very great use, and +enables increased length of bowsprit to be dispensed with: too long a +bowsprit is a great drawback, it dips in the water, and is difficult to +fasten firmly. + +Again, a model vessel being well up by the stem, and deep aft, +possesses another power of self-steering, viz. when the wind presses +her down forward (when on the wind), it lightens her aft; this, of +course, permits her to gripe more to windward, as she holds more +water forward and less aft, but if she comes up too much, so as to +relieve the mainsail of a great part of its pressure, the opposite +action results, the bow is lightened and the stern depressed exactly +in proportion, so that under all circumstances the vessel possesses a +self-acting power to steer herself. + +Now, as just shown, a model yacht, partly by the action of the sails +(particularly the mainsail), and partly by the action of the lee bow, +will always keep close to the wind,--in fact, too close; therefore, +to make her steer herself, the jib and foresail are kept in a little +closer (_i.e._ more in a parallel line with the keel) than the +mainsail. So if the vessel comes too close to the wind, first the +outer leach of the mainsail loses its power and shakes, and if this +does not suffice, _as it should_, to make her fall off again, the +whole mainsail will shake, and as the jib and foresail must keep full, +the ship pays off till the mainsail fills again. So an equilibrium is +attained, and in a steady wind, on the sea for instance, the yacht +would sail on in the same direction as if on rails, till the sails +dropped in pieces. + +[Illustration] + +This diagram gives the disposition of the booms by means of their +respective sheets. To make a yacht sail full and by, _i.e._ close to +the wind, and neither run off or shake, the jib is nearly parallel to +the bowsprit, the foresail less so, and the mainsail least of all, +and clearly shows the principle, for it is evident that if the vessel +turned more towards the wind, the mainsail would shake, and the jib and +foresail keeping still full, would turn the ship back to her course +again, viz. “full and by.” On the other hand, she cannot run off the +wind, because the mainsail, well full as it must be, if she ran off, +would bring her up again instantly. + +I presume every intelligent person understands that a vessel cannot +sail with her head to the wind (all the sails must shake, and she would +go astern), and few vessels can sail nearer, if so near, as at an +angle of 45° to the wind. In the next diagram will be shown the way to +sail the vessel in any _possible_ direction, and how the booms must be +disposed, and the rudder or rudders and ballast bags used to accomplish +it. + +[Illustration] + +The wind is supposed to be blowing in the direction the arrow flies, +and by holding this diagram with the arrow towards the point the wind +is blowing from, your vessel can be made to sail in every direction +there indicated. + +No vessel can head nearer towards the wind shown by the arrow, than _a_ +and _aa_, one being on the larboard, the other on the starboard tack +(as it is called), _i.e._ about 45°, four points of a compass, or half +a right angle. + +The vessel at _a_ is therefore sailing close to the wind on the +larboard tack, with the sails disposed for that purpose, as already +shown (p. 90); to put her on the other tack, simply turn her in the +direction _aa_, head to wind; the sails, being self-acting, will go +over of themselves by the force of the wind, and she will continue on +that tack till stopped or turned. + +To sail her as at _b_, ease off the mainsheet till the mainboom is +at an angle of 45° (this is called wind abeam) to the keel of the +ship, and she will do so; it is seldom necessary to touch the jib or +foresheets, leave those sails as at _a_. To sail her as at _bb_, turn +her round, head to wind, and the sails take the same place on the other +side, and that is done. + +To sail as at _c_, let go the mainsheet altogether; if the wind is not +too strong, she will do so, but if it is too strong, a light rudder, +self-acting, of about ¼ lb. weight must be made and used, and that will +do it. Turn her round as before, head to wind, if you wish to sail her +as at _cc_. The rule is simple enough: if the sails are set, and propel +her in a given direction on the one tack, she will, if turned, sail in +the corresponding direction on the other tack. + +To run before the wind at _d_, with the mainsheet let go, hook on the +heavy rudder, and she will run more or less true before the wind, +according to the perfection with which the ship is built and the rudder +balanced. The cause is this: if the vessel turns, say to starboard, the +wind necessarily presses her over to larboard, the self-acting rudder +(being exactly upright when the ship is upright) falls over to larboard +also, and instantly puts her straight again; the exact opposite takes +place should she turn to larboard, and so _she must sail straight +before the wind_. + +When the wind is very light, it will sometimes occur, that the vessel +on account of the large jib and foresail, will run off the wind; if +so, put one or two of the bags of shot inside in her bows, and most +likely that will remedy it; if not, change the angles of the jib and +foresails, _i.e._ let the jib sheet out more, and haul the foresheet in +as much as the jib was, so that you would then be steering more by the +foresail than by the jib. This is sure to succeed. + +Before all these manœuvres can be successfully performed, some little +practice is necessary, of course; ships, like everything else, have +little ways of their own, and must be studied. + +The topsail must always be kept set, and needs no touching after being +once set, for though of no great use as a propelling sail, save off the +wind, it is so as a steadying sail, being so lofty. My experience has +taught me never to dispense with it. + +To prove the certainty with which a model yacht must sail in the +direction intended, you can, as an experiment, put the vessel’s head in +the water in any direction you please, and she will immediately take +the _course for which the sails are set_, no matter how you put her in +the water. For instance, place her in the water, _head to wind_, with +the mainsheet let go, and the heavy rudder on, _i.e._ to sail as at _d_ +(p. 92), and she will of her own account turn round and run before the +wind, an operation which, to those not in the secret, seems like magic. + +Rigged in the way I have described, with every part of the standing and +running rigging being made fast by hooks and slides, a cutter can be +completely unrigged in one minute, and rigged again in three minutes: +I have done it in these times easily. This is a very great advantage; +there are no knots to make, no time is lost, and yet the rigging is as +strong and as perfect as possible, and never fails till worn out. + +I hope I have now made all clear, and that my readers may be enabled +to build ships, and rig them to sail with as much satisfaction to +themselves as mine are to me. + +Model yachts can be rigged to sail and steer well, as schooners, +luggers, &c., and I have vessels rigged in those ways. Should this +treatise meet with success, I purpose writing a second, dealing with +this subject. + + + + +MATERIALS FOR MODEL SHIPS. + + +Block of wood: white pine or soft deal; at almost any wood-yard, and +particularly at those in the neighbourhood of the docks; cost for a 2 +ft. boat, 2_s._ 6_d._, for a 3 ft., about 10_s._ + +Masts, booms, &c., of bamboo canes, at florists, who sell cheap +bamboos for about 8_d._ per dozen for gardening purposes; the best +can be selected, and they will serve for masts, all the spars of a 2 +ft. boat, and for booms, gaffs, and topmasts of 3 ft. boats. Bamboos +for the mast, bowsprit, and mainboom of 3 ft. boats can be got at +fishing-tackle shops and toy shops; both sell cheap bamboo fishing-rods +at about 3_d._ each. They can be easily selected of the required +thickness and length. Excellent bamboo canes for booms, gaffs, and +topmasts can also be obtained at umbrella shops and stick shops, but +they cost more--1_d._, 2_d._, or 3_d._, and even 6_d._ each. + +Twine, white line, &c., for standing and running rigging, can be had at +fishing-tackle or cord and twine shops. + +Calico and tape at any linendrapers. + +Lead at any plumber’s shop, 2_d._ or 3_d._ per lb. + +Paint and copal at any oilman’s. Paint 6_d._ or 8_d._ per lb. Copal +varnish about 1_s._ per pint; 3_d._ worth is enough for a 3 ft. boat. + +Brass and copper wire at most ironmongers, as also screw-eyes of any +size. If the two former cannot be readily obtained, Messrs. Jackson and +Sons, 17, Sun Street, Finsbury, keep every size in brass and copper +wire, and every thickness in brass and copper sheets; all these are +sold by weight. + +All sizes of rings can be had at fishing-tackle shops. 1_d._ or 2_d._ +per dozen. + +Ferrules or bands for tipping the ends of spars to prevent them +splitting, can be got at fishing-tackle shops, and the amateur builder +can file off any length required; they are very cheap. For small bands, +pipe mounts are excellent, very light and thin, and easily cut to any +length. Most tobacconists keep them in all sizes, 1_d._ or 2_d._ each. + +If the boat builder cannot get or make bands, lash or bind the ends of +the spars neatly and strongly with good white thread, and then paint +it well with copal. It will answer every purpose, but does not look so +neat and trim. + +Lastly, slides can be made of any hard wood as well as of bone, and the +requisite holes bored with a bradawl, and then seared with a red-hot +skewer. + + + + +GLOSSARY. + + + ABAFT, AFT, towards the stern. + + AMIDSHIPS, middle of a ship or anything. + + BACKSTAY, ropes which support the mast sideways and backwards. + + BEAM, breadth of a vessel, also the support of the deck. + + BOARD, the distance sailed on one tack. + + BOBSTAY, the rope that keeps the bowsprit down; reaches from + end of bowsprit to cutwater. + + BOOM, any spar used to extend the foot of a sail. + + BOW, front part of a vessel. + + BOWSPRIT, spar projecting in front of a vessel to set the jibs + on. + + BULWARKS, the wooden railings round the deck of a ship. + + CHOCK, piece of wood to hold anything firmly. + + CLOSE, a vessel being as near the direction of the wind as she + can go without shaking. + + COUNTER, the projection of the stem. + + CUTWATER, the sharp part of the bow. + + DECK, the covering of the ship to keep the water out, &c. + + DRAW, a ship draws so much water, _i.e._ it is so many feet in + the water. + + ENTRANCE, the forward part of the bottom of a vessel, tapered + off to the cutwater, so as to cleave the water. + + FALL OFF, when a vessel turns from the direction of the wind. + + FOOT, bottom of a mast or sail. + + FORE AND AFT, any sail which does not cross the mast. + + FORESAIL, sail in forepart of a ship. + + FORWARD, fore part of a ship. + + FULL, when the sails are distended by the wind. + + FULL AND BY, close to the wind yet not shaking. _See_ CLOSE. + + GAFF, the spar which supports the head of a fore and aft sail. + + GRUMMET, a ring made of rope. + + GUDGEON, a sort of eye-bolt for the rudder to work on. + + GUNWALE, top of the side of a ship on which the deck is + fastened. + + GUY, rope to keep and secure the bowsprit, &c., laterally. + + HALYARDS, ropes used to hoist the sails. + + HATCHWAY, openings in the deck of a ship. + + HEAD, top of a mast or sail. + + HOIST, height a sail is pulled up. + + HOLD, the inside of a ship. + + HORSE, long bars of iron on which the sheets of sails work. + + HULL, body of a ship. + + JAWS, any arrangement to secure a gaff or boom to a mast, and + allow it to swing from side to side, &c. + + JIB, a three-cornered sail in front of a ship. + + KEEL, the centre of the bottom of a ship. + + LACED, tied in a certain way. + + LARBOARD, left. + + LEACH, edge of a sail, generally the side. + + LEE, side of a vessel farthest from that from which the wind + blows. + + LEE-WAY, the side-way motion of a ship caused by the side + pressure of the wind. + + LUFF, to go closer to the wind. + + LUFF (of a sail), edge of a sail nearest the wind. + + MAIN-HALYARDS, ropes to hoist the mainsail. + + MAINMAST, the lower mast in a cutter. + + MAINSHEET, the rope or gear to secure and regulate the after + lower corner of the mainsail. + + NEAR, same as close. _See_ CLOSE. + + OFF. _See_ FALL OFF. + + OVERALL, from stem to stern. + + PAY OFF. _See_ FALL OFF. + + PEAK, the angular head of the mainsail. + + PEAK-HALYARDS, ropes to hoist the outer end of the gaff. + + QUARTERS, both sides of a ship close to the stern. + + REACHING, sailing with the wind abeam or nearly so. + + REEFING, reducing the sails by tying them up smaller. + + RUN, the after part of the bottom of a vessel, tapered off to + the sternpost, so as to leave the water freely. + + RUNNING, sailing with the wind astern or nearly so. + + RUNNING GEAR, any ropes used for hoisting the sails or yards. + + SELVEDGE, the even edge of linen, canvas, &c. + + SHAKE, when the sails shake in the wind and so lose their power. + + SHEER, slope of a vessel downwards to midships from stem and + stern. + + SHEET, ropes used to secure and regulate lower after corner of + sails. + + STANDING GEAR, any fixed ropes, as backstays, &c. + + STARBOARD, right side. + + STAY, ropes used to support the masts forward only. + + STEM. _See_ CUTWATER. + + STEP, socket for heel of mast, &c. + + STERN, the after part of a vessel. + + STERNPOST, end of keel and run, upon which the rudder is fixed. + + TACK, forward lower corner of a sail. + + TACK, to make a zigzag course so as to get to windward. + + TAUT, tight. + + TOPMAST, the second mast from the deck. + + WATERLINE, line of the water on the side, &c., of a ship, + showing how deep she is in the water. + + WEATHER, side of a vessel, &c., nearest the wind. + + WINDWARD, in direction of the wind, the side from which the + wind blows. + + + + +CONTESTS ON THE OPEN SEA BETWEEN CUTTERS “GOLDEN CREST” AND “STORM +ALONG.” + + +_1st Trial._ Strong breeze, rough sea, storm sails, foot of sails laced +to booms; 1½ miles on each tack. “Storm Along” beat on each tack, about +50 yds. to windward. + +_2nd Trial._ Large suits, light breeze and sea; 1½ miles on each tack. +“Storm Along,” all sails laced to booms; “Golden Crest,” mainsail free +and jib laced. “Storm Along” led a few yards once; “Golden Crest” beat, +20 yds. in 2 boards. + +_3rd Trial._ Sails as in 2nd Trial, moderate breeze and sea; 2 boards, +1½ miles each. “Golden Crest” beat, 20 yds. on each. + +_4th Trial._ Sails as above, moderate breeze and sea, _interchanged +sails_. “Storm Along” beat, ¼ mile on each tack of 1 mile length each. + +_5th Trial._ Moderate breeze and sea, “Storm Along” own sails all free +from booms, and “Golden Crest” all laced; 2 boards of 1 mile each. +“Storm Along” beat, ¼ mile to windward. x last board of 1 mile; “Golden +Crest,” all sails free from booms, _i.e._ both vessels own sails and +alike. “Storm Along” beat, ¼ mile dead to windward. + +_6th Trial._ Gentle breeze and sea, full suits and each their own. +“Storm Along” beat, 40 yds. to windward in ½ mile board. “Golden Crest” +headreached a little, this wind and sea showing her best points. + + + + +TIME TABLE OF TWO MODEL YACHT REGATTAS. + + +Course once up and down pond, 259 yds. long, 30 yds. wide; length of +pond being E. and W. + +4 ft. cutters. Wind strong, E. by S. 4 vessels in each heat. + + +--------+--------+---------+-----------+------+ + | Heat | Start. | Run. | Beat back.| Time.| + +--------+--------+---------+-----------+------+ + | | H. M. | H. M. | H. M. | M. | + |1st | 4 14 | 4 16¾ | 4 23½ | 9½ | + |2nd | 4 33 | 4 36 | 4 42¾ | 9¾ | + |3rd | 4 50 | 4 53 | 4 59 | 9 | + |Loser’s | 5 4 | 5 7 | 5 14¼ | 10¼ | + |Final | 5 20 | 5 23¼ | 5 31 | 11 | + +--------+--------+---------+-----------+------+ + +In this race, final heat, the three first winners fouled, and the +winner of loser’s heat won. + +3 ft. cutters. Wind strong, W. by S. Course as above. + + +---------+----------+----------+----------+------+ + | Heat | Start. | Run. |Beat back.| Time.| + +---------+----------+----------+----------+------+ + | |H. M. S.|H. M. S.|H. M. S.|M. S.| + |1st |5 14 50|5 18 30|5 26 23|11 33| + |2nd |5 35 30|5 39 8|5 46 40|11 10| + |3rd |6 3 5|6 6 40|6 16 5|13 0| + |Loser’s |6 23 5|6 26 30|6 36 10|13 5| + |Final |6 43 52|6 47 25|6 54 50|10 58| + +---------+----------+----------+----------+------+ + +This last race won by 6 in. only. + +By examining above table, it appears to novices almost incredible that +such precision can be attained in model yacht sailing. All the heats +were won by a few feet only, and some by inches. + + + + +BEST WATERS FOR SAILING MODEL YACHTS. + + +The best ponds for sailing model yachts in London are: (1) Victoria +Park Pond, but only when the wind is E. or W. (2) Round Pond, +Kensington, in any winds, all sides of this pond being clear of trees. +(3) Serpentine, in any wind. + +Hampstead and Highgate ponds are also available, but have muddy edges, +and seldom a true wind on account of the high banks. + +There are also good ponds on Clapham Common and Peckham Rye. + + +GILBERT AND RIVINGTON, PRINTERS, ST. JOHN’S SQUARE, LONDON. + + + + +BOOKS OF INSTRUCTION AND AMUSEMENT. + + +_THE BOY’S OWN TOY MAKER_: + +A Practical Illustrated Guide to the useful employment of Leisure +Hours. By E. LANDELS. With 200 Cuts. Ninth Edition. Price 2_s._ 6_d._ + + “A new and valuable form of endless + amusement.”--_Nonconformist._ + + “We recommend it to all who have children to be instructed and + amused.”--_Economist._ + + +_THE GIRL’S OWN TOY MAKER_ + +AND BOOK OF RECREATION. + +By E. and A. LANDELS. With 200 Illustrations. New Edition. The Eleventh +Thousand. Just ready. Price 2_s._ 6_d._ + + “Contains a large number of engravings, and gives instruction, + with many examples, how to make Paper Toys, &c., &c., in which + young people especially take interest.”--_Leeds Mercury._ + + “Within the past few years great advancement has been made + in the educational system it is meant to encourage, and it + is, therefore, all the more likely to obtain a still wider + circulation.”--_Edinburgh Daily Review._ + + “Capital little volume ... will be found a rare prize for + families.”--_City Press._ + + “We can easily imagine the delight with which a family of + children would welcome this interesting work.”--_Scholastic + World._ + + +THE ILLUSTRATED + +_PAPER MODEL MAKER_; + +Containing Twelve Subjects and Practical Diagrams for their +Construction, in an Envelope. Price 2_s._ + + + GRIFFITH & FARRAN, + WEST CORNER OF ST. PAUL’S CHURCHYARD, LONDON. + E. P. DUTTON & CO., NEW YORK. + + +Transcriber’s Notes. + +Italic text is indicated with _underscores_, bold text with =equals=. +Small/mixed capitals have been replaced with ALL CAPITALS. + +Evident typographical and punctuation errors have been corrected +silently. Inconsistent spelling/hyphenation has been normalised. +A half-title and reiterations of chapter titles have been discarded. + +*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 78905 *** |