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+*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 78658 ***
+
+
+
+
+                           FAMOUS ART CITIES;
+
+                                 No. 1,
+
+                                POMPEII
+
+
+
+
+                                POMPEII
+
+                                   BY
+
+                           RICHARD ENGELMANN
+
+
+                             TRANSLATED BY
+                     TALFOURD ELY, M. A., F. S. A.;
+                  FELLOW OF UNIVERSITY COLLEGE, LONDON
+
+
+                             [Illustration]
+
+
+                                  1904
+                LONDON, W. C.            NEW YORK
+               H. GREVEL & CO.    CHARLES SCRIBNER’S SONS
+
+                         LEIPZIG, E. A. SEEMANN
+
+
+
+
+PRINTED BY ERNST HEDRICH NACHF., G. M. B. H., LEIPZIG
+
+
+
+
+                           Table of Contents
+
+                                Preface
+                                 Index
+                         List of Illustrations
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE
+
+
+The present work forms the first of a series of volumes published under
+the general title of “_Famous Art Cities_”. The second, (by Dr. Gustav
+Pauli), treats of Venice; its immediate successors will deal with
+Florence and Nuremberg. Rome, Siena, Ravenna and Cairo will represent a
+continuation.
+
+Whoever visits Pompeii for the first time will not grudge a corner
+beside his guide-book for a _Vademecum_ such as this, which offers the
+inspiration of the _Genius loci_ to the traveller of artistic tastes.
+As the one meets his material needs, so the other ministers to the
+intellectual interests of the man of education, and may, at a later
+time, preserve or renew in the liveliest fashion his remembrance of
+what he has seen.
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: Excavation (p. 9).]
+
+
+“Vedi Napoli e poi muori”; “See Naples and die!” is a saying one often
+hears, a saying which means that after seeing Naples in all her beauty
+one has nothing on earth left to admire.
+
+And in a certain sense this is true enough: there are but few places
+which in beauty of scenery can compare with the Bay of Naples. Yet
+a visit to Naples is not all; equally with the City of the Living,
+so attractive to the stranger for its life ever freshly throbbing
+early and late, the City of the Dead, Pompeii, deserves also thorough
+investigation and careful study. Whoever goes to Naples must not fail
+to turn his attention also to its near neighbour Pompeii. This nowadays
+is so easy a matter, whether one drives along the beautiful roads
+between smiling gardens that adorn the slopes of Vesuvius, or takes
+train across the lavabeds close to the sea, whose waves break on the
+embankment. The goal is quickly reached: there is music and refreshment
+in one of the hotels which are in front of the ruins; then quickly to
+the entrance; where we settle as to tickets and guides, and through the
+Porta Marina or Sea Gate we enter the ancient city.
+
+But what is Pompeii, and why should we not leave Naples without seeing
+Pompeii also. Those whose memory goes far back enough remember that
+in April 1872 the eyes of all were turned to the neighbourhood of
+Naples. But this time it was not the splendour of the country that
+caused universal attention, and brought to the Bay of Naples countless
+foreigners from near and far. It was a drama of Nature at once imposing
+and terrible that formed the attraction for the hosts that gathered
+there. Vesuvius which for several years (since 1865) had never quite
+slumbered, showed itself once more in all its terrors, and ever more
+awful than before: showers of fire burst forth to a vast height from
+old craters and new, clouds of ashes darkened the air for miles, and
+filled the streets even of distant towns: immense streams of lava burst
+from the mountain’s flanks hurling death and destruction before them.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 1. Vesuvius before the eruption (p. 3).]
+
+And yet in spite of all its terrors the eruption did not equal the
+one with which Vesuvius first in historic times announced itself as
+a volcano and covered with lava and ejected stones the three cities
+of Herculaneum, Pompeii, and Stabiae, to say nothing of less famous
+places. The desolate cone of ashes which now towers high above the
+ordinary surface did not exist at an earlier period; right up to the
+summit the mountain was clothed with woods, while on its flanks the
+grape ripened into costly wine (see fig. 1, a Pompeian wall-painting
+representing in all probability Monte di Somma before the evolution
+of the crater of Vesuvius). And if one enquirer or another drew some
+conclusion as to the volcanic nature from the depression on its summit
+and the fruitfulness of the neighbouring land, yet people thought it
+altogether extinct, and believed they had nothing to fear from it.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 2. Contest between Pompeians and Nucerians in the
+amphitheatre (p. 6).]
+
+Then, on August 24th, A. D. 79, clouds of smoke rose suddenly from the
+mountain, stones were hurled forth, the heavens grew dark, so that
+it might well be thought night had come on, every one took to flight
+as he could, one got in another’s way. Whoever was out of the city
+hastened back into it, to rescue what he could. He who was in the city
+sought to reach the open country as quickly as possible. Those on shore
+hurried to the sea, those at sea hurried to the shore. In short there
+was everywhere the most terrible confusion, no one knew what was to
+come next. We can scarcely realise sufficiently the horrors of the
+situation. What in 1872 is reported of Portici and Resina and Torre
+del Greco, can give but a faint idea of what happened in 79 when the
+danger came much nearer and was far more unexpected. A description by
+the younger Pliny, whose uncle met his death at Stabiae in the eruption
+of Vesuvius, has been preserved for us, telling of what happened that
+day at Misenum, a place distant from Vesuvius about twenty miles in
+a straight line. This may be abridged as follows--“For several days
+vibrations of the earth had been noticed, but less fear was aroused
+because this is not an unusual phenomenon in Campania. On that night
+however they were so violent that everything seemed to be upset.”
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 3. Plaster-cast of a Pompeian woman (p. 6).]
+
+“My mother burst into my bedroom, and I too was in the act of getting
+up to wake her in case she should still be asleep. It was now the
+seventh hour, yet it was still gloomy and dark. Since the neighbouring
+houses were much damaged and ready to fall, we decided to leave the
+city, and our example was followed by the whole of the terrorstricken
+inhabitants who hustled and pushed past us as we went. When we were out
+of the immediate neighbourhood of the houses we stopped:--there were
+extraordinary things to see. The vehicles which we had collected were
+being thrown in opposite directions, although the surface of the ground
+was quite level, and even stones thrust under them could not keep them
+in the same position. Besides, the sea appeared to retire, at least
+the shore was extended, and many creatures belonging to the sea were
+stranded on the sands. From the other side came a threatening black
+cloud, pierced by glittering lightning: it seemed to descend upon the
+earth and brood over the waters; already it had quite enveloped Capri
+and withdrawn Cape Misenum from our sight. When my mother saw this, she
+adjured me to abandon her and take to flight alone, that I might at
+least save my own life; I on the contrary refused to think of escaping
+without her, seized her hand, and compelled her to set forth. Ashes
+were already falling, though as yet to but a slight extent; I look
+behind me, thick mist is threatening in the rear and pursues us; let
+us, said I, while we can still see, step aside, so as not by remaining
+in the road to be thrown down and trampled on in the darkness by the
+multitude following us. Scarcely had we seated ourselves when dark
+night fell round us as it does in closed rooms when the light is put
+out. Then were heard lamentations of women, cries of children, shouts
+of men, some called to their parents, others to their children, others
+to husband or wife; some bemoaned their own fate, others that of their
+dear ones, some even prayed for death. Many raised their hands to the
+gods, still more cried that the gods no longer existed, that the last
+eternal night had come. Nor were there wanting those who increased
+existing terrors by false news, that Misenum had fallen in ruin and
+was in flames, which was loudly proclaimed and believed though it was
+not true. Gradually things became clear again; this seemed to us not
+the light of day, but a token of the approaching fire. Then followed
+again darkness and showers of ashes; had we not often stood up to shake
+ourselves free of the ashes we should have been covered by them and
+overwhelmed by their weight. At last the thick cloud little by little
+dispersed as if dissolved like smoke; soon it was actually day, and
+the sun broke forth, though overcast as it is wont to be in time of
+eclipse; everything seemed to our eyes altered and covered with ashes
+as if with snow.”
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 4. Plaster-cast of a dog (p. 6).]
+
+If at Misenum, at so considerable a distance from the actual point of
+eruption, things went on as here described, what scenes must have been
+enacted in Pompeii, the inhabitants of which were drawn into joint
+suffering in quite another way. It is commonly said that the people
+of Pompeii were at the time congregated together in the amphitheatre
+at the extreme end of the city, to witness gladiatorial contests, so
+that for the most part they could more easily escape. This however is
+a mere myth, as is proved by the ruinous condition of the amphitheatre
+when first discovered as well as from the history of the city. In A.
+D. 60 the city had been deprived by the Roman Senate of the privilege
+of exhibiting gladiatorial contests because such a performance had
+given occasion to a sanguinary struggle between the inhabitants of
+Pompeii and those of Nuceria who were allowed a share in the use of the
+amphitheatre (the scene is represented in a Pompeian wall-painting,
+fig. 2); and in A. D. 63 a terrible earthquake had destroyed a great
+number of buildings and among them the amphitheatre so that it is
+certain that at the time of the eruption neither gladiatorial shows nor
+wild beast hunts could have been held in it. Yet the greatest number
+of the inhabitants must have succeeded in escaping since on the basis
+of the skeletons found up to the present time the number of those who
+perished within the city can be estimated at 2,000, out of a total of
+30,000 inhabitants. Many of course may have fallen a sacrifice to the
+eruption of Vesuvius also outside the city walls; thus for example in
+1880-81 there were found the remains of such, who had met with their
+death to the south of the city, probably on what was then the bank of
+the Sarno. Those however who had fled before the storm to cellars or
+similar places were doomed to certain destruction, because all exit was
+cut off by the falling pumice-stone and ashes, others who had taken
+refuge in the upper rooms may still have escaped during a pause in the
+shower of pumice-stone. Many indeed in vain: after they had worked
+their way through the layer of pumice-stone they sank down exhausted
+and were enveloped by the ashes. But since these ashes which came
+down mixed with rain contained much Pozzolana earth they have taken a
+fixed shape around the bodies; in the course of centuries the bodies
+have shrunk to a few remains of bones, but the hollow impression has
+remained in the shape. Thus attention having been drawn to this through
+the frequent occurrence of similar cases, as soon as a hollow appeared
+in the stratum of ashes during the excavation, the opportunity has been
+seized and liquid plaster poured in. By this process the bodily forms
+of various inhabitants of Pompeii, of animals, and of inanimate objects
+have been preserved, casts which do not indeed exhibit the sharp
+outlines to which we are accustomed in those produced by artistically
+prepared moulds, yet which are of the highest interest to the observer
+as direct reminders of those terrible hours. See figures 3 and 4.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 5. Panorama of Pompeii (p. 11).]
+
+When the mountain had in some measure discontinued its work, the
+showers of stones and ashes had ceased, and the sun had appeared again,
+the inhabitants of Pompeii who had escaped returned to their city; but
+they had some trouble to find it, for it was buried beneath stones
+and ashes. They endeavoured as far as it was possible, to secure some
+salvage from the ruins; and so many a work of art, as well as most of
+the treasures in gold and silver, may well have been withdrawn from
+the protecting bosom of the earth either by their lawful owners or by
+unauthorised persons. A systematic excavation of the houses, however,
+and a reoccupation of the city were not to be thought of, the ruin was
+too complete for that. So much the better for us for whom in this way
+under the ashes from Vesuvius an ancient Roman city has been preserved
+in the precise condition in which it was on the twenty fourth of August
+A. D. 79 (apart of course from the changes which certain materials must
+have undergone in so long a time). It seems that the people of Pompeii
+settled further towards Vesuvius; the ruins of their old city so far as
+they appeared above the accumulated rubbish gradually collapsed, others
+disappeared before the plough which began to pass over the fields,
+and thus after a few centuries the name of Pompeii with the place
+which pertained to it vanished from the memory of men. So it remained
+throughout the whole of the Middle Ages; often enough indeed the
+countryfolk while tilling their fields struck against old masonry or
+found ancient utensils, but the isolated occurrences remained unnoticed.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 6. The Street of Mercury (p. 15).]
+
+More remarkable indeed is it that when the architect Domenico Fontana
+in the year 1594 constructed a canal to bring the water of the Sarno
+to Torre dell’ Annunziata, a canal which still at the present day
+intersects Pompeii, people were not incited to a thorough investigation
+by the numerous relics of antiquity that during these operations must
+have been cleared out of the way. It was not till the discovery of
+Herculaneum (1709) that men’s thoughts were directed to another city,
+smitten by a like fate--Pompeii--and when in 1748 peasants again struck
+upon masonry and other more valuable objects, then at last people began
+to mark the spot and to undertake more extensive excavations. Not,
+it is true, in a very commendable way, since it was gold and silver
+and the greater treasures of art that were especially sought, the
+excavators contented themselves with grubbing the earth, and when at
+most the better wall-paintings had been cut away, filling up again the
+excavated houses. Such for a long time was the system of excavation;
+even after an interest in the matter had been roused in higher quarters
+the work was carried on with more or less provision of labour, often
+only two or three workmen being employed--for many years indeed the
+excavations were altogether discontinued. Only the time when Naples
+was under the rule of France forms a glorious exception: the work was
+entered on with zeal: as many as six-hundred and seventy four persons
+with twenty six carts and seven mules were employed to remove the
+_lapilli_, and thus the few years 1806-1815 shew more results than
+the preceding period of more than half a century. With the return of
+the Bourbon _régime_ the old conditions of course reappeared, and it
+is only in modern times that an improvement in this respect has been
+brought about. Since Naples has become part of the Kingdom of Italy the
+work (and this is especially due to the energy of Giuseppe Fiorelli)
+has been arranged in a rational manner and vigorously pushed forward,
+so that the completion of the excavations may be expected within a
+conceivable time. Men and a great many boys are daily employed, some
+in excavating, others in carrying the _lapilli_ in baskets to the
+waggons which then are taken on a railway away from Pompeii. (See the
+illustration on page 1.)
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 7. The Street of Nola and its continuation (p. 15).]
+
+While Herculaneum for the most part (only with the exception of some
+portions lying close to the sea, which resemble Pompeii) has been
+covered by a vast stream of mud to a depth of twenty metres, the
+mass of which hardened into tufa cannot be broken up without great
+trouble, so that the excavation of the city can be effected only by
+a process of mining, and this too with great care, on account of the
+city of Resina lying above it, the stratum which covers Pompeii may be
+called comparatively light. Whitish-grey pumice-stones, the so-called
+_lapilli_, of various sizes, cover the ground to the height of two to
+three metres; above lies a layer of volcanic ashes, which mixed with
+a quantity of pozzolana earth and falling with frightful torrents of
+rain, the usual accompaniment of volcanic eruptions, passed through the
+upper layers of pumice-stone, and made their way where the _lapilli_
+could not fall (e. g. into the cellars). Over these lie in some
+places, but less abundantly, other _lapilli_ which proceeded from
+later eruptions of Vesuvius, and the scanty soil that in the course
+of centuries has developed from the ashes. All this therefore had to
+be removed in order to lay bare the ruins. The system and method then
+according to which the excavations were in earlier times conducted was
+in the highest degree prejudicial to the remains of the buildings; for
+since after once reaching the original ground level the excavators
+worked onwards uniformly upon that level, it necessarily followed that
+the upper parts of the buildings, which after the decay of the beams
+were supported only by the surrounding masses of pumice-stone, fell in
+ruin, and so always only slight remains were preserved.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 8. Section of a Tower.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 9. View of the City Wall from outside.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 10. Section of the City Wall (p. 17).]
+
+In modern times on the contrary, since Fiorelli’s administration
+(1861), the aim has been to preserve in its original position every
+part of the ancient walls that is concealed under the surface. This
+object is attained by the excavators as they work from above carefully
+removing one horizontal layer after another and supporting the masonry
+thus brought to light until it is possible to replace the woodwork
+destroyed in the course of centuries by new timber of equal size. Thus
+they have succeeded in preserving not only a part of an upper story
+overhanging the street, but also others of the higher portions of
+the buildings altogether uninjured. In this way the parts of the city
+lately excavated present an appearance essentially different from that
+of those previously uncovered; and since too everything is left on the
+spot that can be left, especially pictures and mosaics, and since every
+effort is made to protect them against the unfavourable effects of the
+weather, by roofing, and coating with wax, and other means; while it is
+no longer the case (as it used to be) that everything is either removed
+to the Naples Museum, or (as also often happened) wantonly destroyed,
+the visitor is afforded an opportunity of forming for himself a far
+more truthful picture of ancient life than was possible at an earlier
+period. (See fig. 5, giving a view of part of the excavated city. The
+Street of Mercury lies before us, which reaches to the Forum. The roofs
+which are seen in the illustration serve to protect the wall-paintings,
+mosaics, &c. and are therefore almost exclusively modern.)
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 11. The Gate of Herculaneum (p. 17).]
+
+That the movable objects, especially those of gold, silver, bronze, and
+terracotta, should have been brought to the Museum is of course only
+reasonable and proper. Considering the various characters of the host
+of visitors to Pompeii, it could scarcely fail to happen that one or
+other article was destroyed through too rigid an examination, quite
+apart from the fact that among such visitors there are always some who
+“out of love for Antiquity” are ever ready to carry away with them
+some souvenir of the city. Hence it is necessary, if we would form an
+accurate representation of the life of the ancients, to avail ourselves
+of the Museo Nazionale in Naples, where all the furniture from Pompeii
+is preserved so far as place has not been found for it in the little
+museum in Pompeii itself at the Porta della Marina. Perhaps however
+if Italy’s financial difficulties come to an end (as they must some
+day) a plan will be carried out which has long been talked of, viz.,
+that a house in Pompeii should be furnished exactly as it was ages ago,
+equipped with all the articles which were used in daily life, even if
+they have to be collected from different houses. Thus with less trouble
+one could form a general conception of the life of that epoch, a much
+more difficult task under present circumstances when one has to examine
+the various articles of furniture one by one in the Museum far from
+their original position.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 12. The Street of Abundance (p. 18).]
+
+These movable objects moreover are commonly to be found in the lowest
+layer of pumice-stone to the height of one metre; torn from their
+proper places by the breaking down of the roof they have necessarily
+assumed this position. For this reason the rooms are first of all
+cleared to within half a metre of the ground, and then the remainder
+is subjected to a thorough examination by experienced excavators.
+Since there are always some such rooms ready, it is possible, if
+distinguished visitors arrive even unexpectedly, to arrange a so-called
+gala excavation, such as is often mentioned in the papers. The stratum
+of pumice-stone only half a metre thick is simply removed, and
+something is sure to be found. For the most part it is objects used in
+daily life, utensils of bronze or terracotta, with or without their
+contents, also candelabra, lamps, &c. Statuettes too of bronze are not
+uncommonly found. These “war-preparations” are however the cause of
+great dangers to the buildings, the pumice-stone sucks up water like
+a sponge, and so never allows the walls to get quite dry, which is
+however the first and most important condition for their preservation.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 13. Window in Pompeii (p. 19).]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 14. Pompeian inscription on wall (p. 20).]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 15. Pompeian graffito (p. 20).]
+
+But enough of excavations. Let us turn to the consideration of the city
+itself.
+
+At first sight the city gives the impression of the greatest
+uniformity. Apart from size and the wealth of its former inhabitants
+one house seems to have been built at the same time, and adorned with
+the same artistic resources as another. Yet that is the result of the
+stucco-coating which under the Empire gradually became so fashionable
+that it was deemed advisable to cover everything with it. A more
+accurate examination however convinces us that under the stucco lie
+concealed the most distinct periods of building, with the help of which
+the gradual development of the city can be recognised.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 16. Public Fountain (p. 21).]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 17. Street of Stabiae with water reservoir (p. 21).]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 18. Restored View of a Cookshop (p. 21).]
+
+To determine the architectural history of the city there are--apart
+from the very meagre literary tradition--two means, firstly the
+distinction of the material of which the houses are built, and secondly
+the measures employed. In respect of the first point it proves that
+limestone which could be procured in the immediate neighbourhood of
+Pompeii from the deposits of the Sarno, was employed in the earliest
+period for building houses, with clay as cement. With this was
+associated also tufa, a volcanic product which when just quarried can
+be easily cut. An essential progress was made by the introduction of
+lime-mortar, the knowledge of which was apparently transmitted through
+the Carthaginians to the western Greeks and the inhabitants of Italy.
+By the aid of this lighter and smaller stones could be utilised to
+form walls capable of supporting considerable weight. In place of
+lime-mortar there was gradually introduced Pozzolana (named from
+Pozzuoli on the Bay of Naples), a volcanic earth resembling cement
+in its effect. Of lasting influence was further the introduction
+and gradual spread of building with kiln-baked bricks, although in
+private buildings they were never employed to such an extent as in
+Rome and other Italian cities. Finally, the last period, that of the
+restoration, when the question was how in the shortest time and with
+limited means to rebuild the city which had been almost entirely
+destroyed by the earthquake of the year A. D. 63. (The devastation had
+been so complete that the Roman Senate could deliberate as to whether
+the people of Pompeii should be permitted to rebuild their city.) Haste
+and negligence and the use of the first materials that came to hand
+characterise this epoch.
+
+As a second means of distinguishing the various periods one from
+another we have the standard of measure employed. According as the
+walls have been built in conformity with the Oscan or the Roman
+foot (the Oscan foot has a length of .273 of a metre, the Roman of
+.29) the corresponding buildings can be assigned to the one or the
+other period, and since it was not usual to demolish what already
+existed, but to make use of it as far as possible, people have through
+observation of the various measures, attained even to the possibility
+of distinguishing the older parts of buildings from the later, and
+often recognising their earlier destination.
+
+With the help of those distinguishing marks, and of the scanty notices
+handed down by ancient writers, and of the inscriptions we are enabled
+to establish the following as to the city’s history.
+
+Whether the name Pompeii is connected with πέμπω, πομπή or is derived
+from the Oscan _pompe_ = five is all the same to us, since we can draw
+no further conclusion therefrom. In any case nothing further is known
+as to the year of foundation: though from the ruins of the temple in
+the Triangular Forum which belongs to the sixth century we may conclude
+that the city was already in existence at that period. It was founded
+in regular form by the Oscans on a hill formed by an old stream of
+lava, but was at a later time about B. C. 420 occupied by the Samnites.
+Two streets the _Strada di Mercurio_ with its extension southwards from
+the Forum (Fig. 6) and the _Strada di Nola_ (_Decumanus major_, Fig.
+7) traverse the city from one end to the other, and fix thereby the
+direction of the streets from north to south and east to west. Only
+now and then have special peculiarities of the surface led to slight
+deviations in the parallel streets. The city was encircled by a wall,
+which was protected by towers at regular intervals to give it greater
+security, on the other side in order to allow of large bodies of armed
+citizens mounting the wall in time of danger, steps were in parts added
+to the wall, in other parts a slope of earth was placed against it.
+Only on the west and southwest sides had the walls been broken down in
+antiquity and replaced by houses, apparently to gain space for the
+extension of the city. Pompeii, true to its origin, had, in the Social
+War (B. C. 90-88), joined the Italians and with the rest had bravely
+defended its independence against the Romans; nay in the year 89 it had
+sustained a siege by Sulla himself. For this it was punished, being
+compelled to give up part of its possessions to the colonists sent by
+Sulla in the year 80. (Hence the new name of the city _Colonia Cornelia
+Veneria Pompeianorum_.)
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 19. Cookshop of the Casa di Sallustio (p. 21).]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 20. Oilmerchant’s Shop (p. 21).]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 21. Entrance to the Triangular Forum (p. 22).]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 22. The Triangular Forum (p. 22).]
+
+Under Augustus also was an enlargement of the city undertaken, the
+_Pagus Augustus Felix_ being then founded. That numerous storms have
+broken over Pompeii may be seen by the walls, stripped as they have
+been completely of their massive facing and restored only to such an
+extent as was absolutely necessary (originally two massive walls were
+built and the space between them filled with rubble and concrete,
+see fig. 8-10); the towers seem not to have been placed on the wall
+till a later time. The city has eight gates, which were more or less
+strengthened by fortifications; especially in the case of the Gate of
+Nola, on the east side, on which attack was most to be expected, one
+can clearly recognise how one fortification has been from time to time
+strengthened by others. Interesting too in another way is the Gate of
+Herculaneum on the northwest side of the city, in front of which the
+road is bordered right and left by graves, in accordance with the usage
+of the ancients to place their graves beside the public roads outside
+the city. (See fig. 11.)
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 23. The Forum Civile, seen from the South (p. 23).]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 24. Forum Civile, from the Temple of Jupiter (p.
+23).]
+
+The streets of the city are essentially distinguished from those of our
+cities by their narrowness; the widest measure barely seven metres,
+some indeed are not more than from two and a half to three metres
+broad. They were made so narrow with the object of securing shade in
+the streets, so necessary a requisite in the South, the want of which
+one feels in a most unpleasant way for example now where in Pompeii
+there is no shade. A part of the width is taken up by the footpath
+running on each side, which slightly raised above the level of the
+street is paved with small stones, or bricks, or pieces of marble,
+according as the fancy or the wealth of the owner of the adjoining
+property, (on whom evidently rested the care of the footway), prompted
+the choice of one method or another. The carriage road itself is
+paved with polygonal blocks of lava, in which the wheels have often
+worn deep ruts. (See Fig. 12 and 17.) If the ruts were too deep, or
+otherwise repair of the street was found necessary, the remedy was
+applied in the simplest fashion, the stones were merely relaid so
+that those little used came where the wheels ran and those cut up by
+traffic were transferred to another place. This explains the curious
+fact that stones worn into deep ruts are often found in positions
+where no wheel can ever have come. Then on both sides of the street
+run gutters, through which the water is conducted into deep drains
+and so removed from the city. In the violent showers of rain which
+in the South at times pour down in torrents these provisions might
+often have proved insufficient and the street also may have been
+under water. In order therefore to provide the foot passenger with as
+dry as possible a crossing from one side of the roads to the other,
+stepping-stones have been placed at intervals across the street. These
+met the requirements of the case without interfering with the carriage
+traffic (for the draught-animals were attached only at the extremity
+of the pole, so they could pass between the stones more easily than
+would be possible with our modern way of harnessing). Some streets on
+the other hand were entirely closed against wheel-traffic. This was
+quite possible, carriages being as a rule employed for the transport of
+persons only in travelling outside the city. Besides the difference in
+width the streets of Pompeii are essentially distinguished from those
+of our cities by the circumstance that the houses at any rate on the
+groundfloor have no windows. The ancient house in its main features was
+built solely with regard to interior effect. Only occasionally was the
+surface of the outer wall broken by small openings widening inwards,
+which are all that can be compared with our windows (Fig. 13); and
+these too, raised far above the height of a man, are barred by lattice
+of iron or terracotta. On the other hand the street-front was often
+enlivened by painting, the outer wall was divided into panels which
+were painted red or yellow with various ornaments according to the
+taste of the respective householders. Larger paintings are often to be
+found, as the twelve gods, sacrifices to the Lares, the household gods,
+_etc._ In places likely to be misused were painted a pair of serpents
+_etc._ as a deterrent. Besides these things there were all sorts of
+inscriptions on the houses. A distinction is usually made between two
+classes of inscriptions, _Dipinti_ and _Graffiti_. The former are
+painted on the walls with a broad brush in large letters, for the most
+part in red colour on a white ground. By _Graffiti_ on the other hand
+are understood inscriptions slightly scratched with a pointed style
+or nail in the plaster. The _Dipinti_ contain summonses to elections,
+announcements of Games &c. _Duumviri juri dicundo_, the Board of Two,
+the highest magistracy of the city, are to be elected; there being
+no newspaper, the names of the candidates are painted on the walls,
+and underneath is written Proposed by so and so (Fig. 14). Or a new
+troop of gladiators arrives: in order to entice as many spectators as
+possible, an advertisement is written on the walls with the names of
+the principal combatants and the number of their victories, nor do they
+forget to add that to guard against the sun’s heat awnings are spread
+over the theatre; in short one lights on the very footsteps and traces
+of quickly throbbing life, so that one feels oneself carried back into
+the time of the old citizens of Pompeii.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 25. Life in the Forum (p. 23).]
+
+With almost greater originality the life of the old Pompeians rises
+before us in the _Graffiti_. Scarcely a spot strikes the eye that is
+not covered with such outpourings of gay or wicked fancy scratched in
+the slightest strokes. Here one tells another’s secrets, there one
+celebrates in verse a sweetheart, a third complains of the obstinacy
+of a maiden, a fourth, no doubt a boy fresh from school--he could
+not reach far--attempts to write down the beginning of a well-known
+poem but he does not get much further than the first words. A second,
+proud of his learning, begins the verse afresh, yet he too comes to a
+standstill when he has carried the verse a little further. A third at
+last completes the whole verse. At another place a parasite gives a
+broad hint for an invitation or pays his debt of thanks. (See fig. 15.
+Semper M. Terentius Eudoxus unus supstenet amicos et tenet et tutat,
+supstenet omnem modum.)
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 26. Bust of Jupiter (p. 25).]
+
+Thus witticisms and drolleries abound in those inscriptions, so that
+one who passed through the streets and had a liking to decipher these
+scrawls need not want for amusement. Variety too is afforded by the
+fountains (Fig. 16) which were fed from the public water-supply
+(probably this was a branch of the conduit which brought the water to
+Naples from the mountain range on the east). In Pompeii, as in Palermo
+at the present day, the water was for better distribution conducted
+into reservoirs raised on high pillars. From these the water was
+brought through lead pipes to the public fountains and to the houses.
+(See fig. 17, representing a corner of the Stabiae Street with the
+pillars to support the water.) These fountains were ornamented with
+small reliefs, for example a Silenus leaning on a wine-skin, from
+the opening of which the water escapes; an eagle that has seized a
+hare (here the water flows out of the hare’s mouth), and similar
+representations. On the fountain’s brim may still often be seen the
+place where the young people drinking straight from the spout used to
+put their hands. To this picture of the streets however the liveliest
+touches were given by the shops, rooms open on the outside their whole
+breadth, in which retail trade was carried on. As at the present time,
+in the palaces of Italian cities, the groundfloor is occupied by shops
+which bring in to the owner an excellent rent, the rich Pompeians also
+did not disdain to establish shops on the street-side of their houses
+which without any connection with the principal edifice were let to
+persons engaged in trade, to whom a kind of upper chamber above the
+shop often served as a dwelling. Or the householder himself carried
+on a trade, in which case he established a connection with the inner
+part of the house by means of a door, to facilitate his watching over
+the business, whether he managed it in his own person or through a
+slave. There are cook shops, recognised as such by the hearth and the
+pots fixed in it, from which the food was ladled out (fig. 18 and
+19), oil shops with large pitchers similarly fixed, and huge barrels
+in the background (fig. 20), shops where wine and other drinks were
+sold, with shelves built up like steps so as to admit of arranging
+the drinking vessels conveniently, and with a little room at the back
+for regular customers: there are butchers’ and bakers’ shops that by
+means of pictures bring before the passer by the various objects to be
+purchased therein. In short an abundance of fresh sights, so that the
+eye can experience no weariness.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 27. The Temple of Jupiter (p. 25).]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 28. The Temple of Jupiter, Reconstruction (p. 25).]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 29. The Macellum, (the Meat market) (p. 25).]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 30. Wall ornamented with pictures in the Macellum
+(p. 26).]
+
+So much for the streets of Pompeii. Of open spaces for public use
+there have been found as yet two, if we leave out of consideration
+the doubtful Forum Boarium, excavated at an earlier period in the
+neighbourhood of the amphitheatre, but afterwards filled up again,
+viz., the principal Forum (_Forum Civile_) and the one called from its
+shape the Triangular Forum. The latter a three-cornered space in the
+southwest angle of the city lying close to both theatres from which
+an open flight of steps leads, is certainly one of the oldest parts
+of the city, as is amply proved by the scanty remains of the Temple
+situated there, which is contemporary with the most ancient temples of
+Paestum and Selinus. The open space was surrounded on three sides by a
+colonnade, and a portico or Propylaion forms the entrance to it (fig.
+21 and 22). The Temple, dedicated according to the latest researches
+to Minerva, had apparently like the Temple of Zeus at Agrigentum,
+seven columns on the narrow sides, and according to its form must be
+classified as Pseudodipteros (before the eruption it had already been
+destroyed and on its site a very modest sanctuary had been erected).
+Close to it is a seat, from which could be enjoyed the magnificent
+view over the sea and the splendid Monte Santangelo far spreading and
+towering high into the air. On the other side a small dome indicates
+an ancient fountain. To a later epoch belongs the _Forum Civile_, lying
+to the northwest of the above, and forming a rectangle (fig. 23 taken
+from the south side, fig. 24 from the north). That the laying out
+of this is comparatively modern, follows from the fact that through
+the surrounding buildings a series of streets have been reduced to
+blind-alleys, which at the time of their formation was assuredly not
+intended. The decoration of the Forum, it seems, was not yet completed
+when the eruption of Vesuvius buried Pompeii. The footpath was to
+be paved with marble slabs, and a colonnade was to be erected all
+round, double on the South, with a gallery above for women, when the
+games were held in the Forum. But this was never carried out; the
+architectural members lie around still unused. The built up bases too
+for statues of honour and equestrian statues seem to have been still
+unoccupied, if some excavation made shortly after the eruption has not
+robbed us of the chief objects. The ancestors of the emperors, the
+Julian family, and the Kings of Rome ought to have been placed around
+on pedestals, yet the only inscriptions found are those referring to
+Romulus and Aeneas. Of the business prevailing in the Forum, taken
+up as it was with trade and commerce and even schoolwork, we derive
+information from the Pompeian wall-paintings, e. g. fig. 25. Vehicles
+were not admitted, and there are indeed indications that (at elections
+and on similar occasions) the approaches could be completely closed
+with railings. In no other part of Pompeii are there so many public
+buildings, no private house ventured to intrude here. In the first
+place at the north end, the Temple of Jupiter, clearly identified by
+the bust found in it (fig. 26), springs forward far into the Forum
+and rises on a lofty substructure, to which led a flight of steps
+with projecting sides, once adorned with equestrian statues. Twelve
+Corinthian columns, six in front, three on each side, supported the
+Vestibule; while other columns within the cella (probably Ionic, above
+which rose Corinthian) supported the entablature. The large pedestal
+at the back was no doubt intended for the Capitoline Trinity, Jupiter,
+Juno, and Minerva (fig. 27 and 28). On the right, abutting on the
+Temple is a Triumphal Arch, which formerly covered with marble and
+adorned with statues and fountains must have presented an imposing
+appearance. The eastern long side of the Forum, is, on the north,
+occupied by the so-called Pantheon, more correctly the Macellum, i.
+e. Meat market (fig. 29). That such it is, is shown above all by the
+space on the right at the back, which clearly contained a butcher’s
+stall built up with arrangement for discharge of water, and also by
+the shops on the south side, which to judge by the pictures placed
+there, contained stalls for provisions of various kinds. In the midst
+of the court rose apparently a domed structure on columns (hence the
+pedestals). Here the fish were stripped of their scales, at least
+a great number of scales were found in the drain. United with the
+Macellum there was a chapel for the cult of the Imperial family; the
+marble statues found here have been removed to Naples, and are replaced
+in Pompeii by plaster casts. The paintings of the entrance wall (fig.
+30) deserve special notice on account of the beautiful architecture.
+The central picture represents Io watched by Argos. Next comes an
+apartment once splendidly furnished, which is usually called Senaculum,
+but its destination is not as yet ascertained. It is thought that
+it was a sanctuary of the tutelary deities of the city, the _Lares
+Publici_. With greater certainty the adjoining building on the right
+may be designated as a “Temple of Vespasian” (fig. 31). From a relief
+on the altar standing in front of the temple (fig. 32) in which the
+temple itself is represented, (it is the sacrifice of a bull that is
+depicted, as usually offered to the Genius of the emperor), we can
+recognise that the edifice was dedicated to the worship of the emperor.
+Since it was built before the earthquake of A. D. 63, yet was not quite
+ready for use at the time of the catastrophe, it is most probable that
+it was founded in honour of Vespasian’s Genius.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 31. The Temple of Vespasian (p. 26).]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 32. Altar of the Temple of Vespasian (p. 26).]
+
+On the south of this follows the large building raised according to the
+inscription by the priestess Eumachia at her own cost and dedicated to
+Concordia Augusta and Pietas. This was apparently devoted to industrial
+purposes. Since the fullers (fullones) have dedicated a statue to
+the foundress in the crypt (fig. 33) we may surmise that the whole
+structure served as a market hall for woollen stuffs.
+
+The south side of the Forum is occupied by three buildings closely
+resembling one another, each of which consists of a large hall. The
+central hall was apparently intended for the meetings of the Decurions,
+the city magistrates of Pompeii, while on its left the judicial
+Duumvirs had their seat, on the right the Aediles.
+
+On the West side first of all comes the Basilica, with its end
+bordering on the Forum (fig. 35). This served for market purposes, to
+the relief of the Forum, and at the same time afforded space for the
+administration of justice in the raised tribunal at the end opposite
+the Forum. It must have produced an impression of grandeur with its
+internal columns on which the roof rested, and its walls decorated
+with pillars arranged in two rows one above another, the walls being
+in their upper story provided with wide openings flanked by columns.
+Under the tribunal is found a cellar-like room which was formerly
+always called a prison; it is however little suited for this purpose,
+not being sufficiently enclosed, if at least it were a question of
+imprisonment for a long period. Next comes the Temple of Apollo (fig.
+36), separated from the Basilica by the Strada della Marina. That
+the sanctuary which was formerly designated the Temple of Venus was
+dedicated to Apollo results both from an Oscan inscription on the
+floor of the Temple and also from the _Omphalos_, the Navel of the
+earth introduced into the _cella_, which on account of its relation
+to Delphi is frequently indicated in connection with Apollo. A Tripod
+also, equally an attribute of Apollo, is painted on a pilaster in the
+courtyard. This courtyard was surrounded by a Corinthian colonnade,
+in front of which stood statues of deities that were honoured in
+conjunction with Apollo (Venus, Diana, Mercury and others; also
+a bronze statue of Apollo himself, see fig. 34). In front of the
+steps leading up to the Temple stands the great altar on which the
+burnt-offerings were placed. When we return to the Forum we at once
+notice the gauging table with the standard measures (the original is
+in Naples) with openings beneath, which can be closed or opened to
+let the measured fluids or corn run out (fig. 37). Next to this is a
+dilapidated chamber which is now supposed to have been a sale-room, and
+north of this a public lavatory, so situated as not to be overlooked
+from the Forum. An edifice of uncertain purpose (Prison? Treasury?)
+ends this side of the Forum, which is united with the Temple of Jupiter
+by a wall pierced by a door.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 33. Portrait statue of Eumachia (p. 26).]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 34. Statue of Apollo (p. 28).]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 35. The Basilica (p. 26).]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 36. The Temple of Apollo (p. 27).]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 37. Gauging Table from the Forum (p. 29).]
+
+Of other sanctuaries there are in Pompeii the Temple of Fortuna in the
+wide mainstreet leading northwards from the Forum, placed at the corner
+of the Street of Nola (here too the temple is approached by a flight
+of steps, on a landing in which stands the altar, see fig. 38); and
+also, in the Street of Stabiae, the small temple of Zeus Meilichios
+(this name belongs to it according to an Oscan inscription found at
+the Gate of Stabiae). In this during the building of the temple of
+Jupiter the deities worshipped in the latter sanctuary had found
+refuge. Then there is the Temple of Isis near the _Forum Triangulare_
+(fig. 39). This according to the inscription over the entrance had been
+rebuilt after the earthquake, at his own cost, by the six years old N.
+Popidius Celsinus (i. e. wealthy freedpeople who wished to obtain for
+their son a position of greater distinction than they themselves could
+assume must have done this in his name). In consequence of this Master
+Popidius Celsinus received the title of Town-Councillor.
+
+Besides the flight of steps in front the temple was approached by means
+of a secret staircase, serving no doubt to give the priests access to
+the temple unseen by the multitude of worshippers of Isis. The small
+building on the left of the temple, the so-called _Purgatorium_,
+contains a staircase which most likely led to a reservoir filled with
+water from the Nile which was used in the ceremonies. In front of
+this lies an altar approached from the side, and on this altar at the
+time of its excavation were found ashes and remains of sacrifices.
+On the right near the entrance is a walled up cavity which contained
+the ashes and remnants of burnt fruits, undoubtedly the remains of
+sacrifice. It may here be mentioned that in front of the temple there
+was found a tablet of hieroglyphics which had nothing to do with the
+worship of Isis, and therefore served only as an imposition; also that
+at the time of the eruption the temple was shut; in the ashes from
+Vesuvius there was preserved so exact an impression of the door with
+its three leaves that a drawing of it could be made from the impression.
+
+In the open space behind the Tribunal of the Basilica the latest
+excavations (since 1898) have resulted in the discovery of a temple
+which certainly was dedicated to the guardian goddess of the Roman
+colony, Venus Pompeiana. At the time of the catastrophe of the year 63
+it was thrown down, and was to have been completely rebuilt, as the
+building stones lying around indicate. It would assuredly have been the
+largest and most splendid sanctuary of the city, if the outbreak of
+Vesuvius had not prevented the carrying out of the plan.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 38. The Temple of Fortune (p. 29).]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 39. The Temple of Isis (p. 29).]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 40. The smaller Theatre (p. 32).]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 41. The larger Theatre (p. 32).]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 42. Scene from a Comedy. Mosaic of Dioscurides (p.
+32).]
+
+Of first rank among the other public buildings are the two theatres,
+which closely connected with each other lie between the _Forum
+Triangulare_ and the Street of Stabiae (a broad flight of steps
+designed for festive processions leads from the _Forum Triangulare_ to
+the Theatres). The smaller theatre (fig. 40), formerly roofed over,
+served probably for musical performances, while the larger (fig. 41)
+was employed for scenic exhibitions. Of these figure 42, an extremely
+fine mosaic from Pompeii may perhaps serve as a specimen. It is to be
+observed that, as in the case of most theatres, the seats have at the
+back a hollow for the feet of those sitting above. The broad low steps
+of the lowest row were utilised for the arrangement of _bisellia_,
+that is wide seats properly intended for two persons, the use of which
+was a privilege of the Decurions. Above, on the edge of the enclosing
+wall, stones are to be seen which served to carry the masts from which
+awnings were stretched for protection against the glare of the sun. It
+is to this that the promise _vela erunt_ refers in the advertisements
+of the theatre.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 43. Interior view of the Amphitheatre (p. 34).]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 44. Barracks of the Gladiators (p. 36).]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 45. Weapons of Gladiators (p. 36).]
+
+Together with the theatres should be named the amphitheatre, situated
+at the southeast extremity of the city, a building of very great size,
+which was calculated to meet the requirements of the neighbouring
+towns as well. Apparently it originally lay without the walls, and
+was included in the time of fortification only at a later period as
+forming a point of danger. Seen from without the building produces
+a comparatively mean impression (fig. 57), since to avoid having to
+raise the outer walls too high the arena or fighting place has been
+dug out (fig. 43). From the outside steps lead to the upper tiers,
+the lower tiers are reached by means of steps from a vaulted corridor
+which runs round the whole amphitheatre under the second tier. This
+is interrupted in the middle of both the longer sides, on the west
+by reason of a small entrance to the arena by which the corpses of
+the slain gladiators were dragged out. To the arena itself two wide
+entrances led from north and south, one of which, the southern, turns
+at a right angle on account of its nearness to the city wall. At the
+northern entrance a small separate passage could be made in order to
+keep the spectators apart from the gladiators who passed in and out at
+this point. This was effected by means of a latticed partition, for
+which purpose stones with holes in them were used, which are still
+to be seen. Small dark rooms at the entrances, provided with very
+low doorways, may have served as cages for wild beasts. Here too, as
+in the Theatre, the steps of the first row were broad and low, being
+intended for the arrangement of _Bisellia_. The wall which separated
+the spectators from the arena were found when first excavated to be
+adorned with paintings, which are now indeed completely destroyed,
+but are preserved in copies made immediately after their discovery.
+Without exception they represent scenes from the Amphitheatre, partly
+fights between wild beasts, partly combats of gladiators. (See fig. 56
+as to which it is doubtful whether it was found in the amphitheatre;
+the gladiator standing on the right being badly wounded has let fall
+his shield; standing quietly he raises the thumb of the left hand to
+entreat the mercy of the people, for only if he looks death in the
+face unmoved can he hope to be granted his life; in our case his death
+seems certain, for his opponent steps up to him with drawn dagger
+to give him the _coup de grâce_.) On the breastwork wall traces were
+still visible of a lattice by means of which the spectators were to be
+protected against possible attacks of the wild beasts in the arena.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 46. Wall at the Stabian Baths (p. 37).]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 47. The Apodyterium (p. 37).]
+
+In connection with the amphitheatre may be mentioned also the barracks
+for gladiators, situated to the south of the large Theatre (fig. 44).
+To all appearances the large space surrounded by columns belonged
+originally to the Theatre, and was intended to afford protection to
+visitors to the Theatre in case of rain occurring suddenly. But when
+the passion for gladiatorial exhibitions had so prevailed that even
+smaller cities thought themselves obliged to keep special bands of
+gladiators, the second row of columns that no doubt originally existed
+was done away with and in its place paltry cells erected for them.
+That we have to do with gladiators and not, as has been supposed, with
+soldiers, a garrison for Pompeii, has been indisputably proved by the
+discovery of gladiators’ weapons (now in the Naples Museum, fig. 45 and
+60) of paintings and _Graffiti_ relating to gladiators. The cells were
+raised in two stories, and in such a way that the upper were approached
+by means of a wooden gallery. In one cell on the west side a great set
+of fetters was found used for chaining prisoners; in the same room, but
+not as is commonly reported fastened in the fetters, some skeletons
+were found, those therefore of prisoners who when the catastrophe
+came had not been able to escape. The surrounding columns are painted
+red and yellow, only the two centre ones of the east and west sides
+are blue, perhaps because these served as marks in certain military
+exercises.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 48. The Tepidarium of the Forum Baths (p. 38).]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 49. Arrangement of a Caldarium (p. 38).]
+
+The baths too, which played so great a part in the life of the
+ancients, must not be forgotten among the public places of resort.
+Of large Public Baths three have up to the present time been found
+in Pompeii, the so-called Central Baths, which at the time of the
+eruption of Vesuvius were still in course of construction, the Baths
+by the Forum, and the Stabian Baths, at the corner of the Stabiae
+and Abbondanza streets. These last named are the best preserved, and
+deserve on this account a more thorough consideration. We come first
+into a large courtyard surrounded with pillars, the Palaestra, devoted
+to gymnastic exercises; here there was a stone track constructed, for
+rolling stone balls, further a swimming bath (_Natatio_), with the
+dressingrooms appertaining thereto (fig. 46). The reliefs in stucco,
+which are preserved on the outer walls of these rooms, merit special
+notice. On the right of the principal entrance two doors lead to the
+men’s bath, which consisted of the _Apodyterium_, where people took
+off their clothes (the niches served to keep them in, fig. 47), the
+_Frigidarium_ or cold bath, the _Tepidarium_ or lukewarm bath, and the
+_Caldarium_ or hot bath. (Fig. 48 represents the Tepidarium of the
+Baths near the Forum; here the heating is derived from a large brazier
+presented by Vaccula.) Both these rooms received their heating through
+the hollow pavement and hollow walls, i. e. the pavement rests on
+small pilasters about two feet high, and the walls are overlaid with
+tiles, which being provided with raised sidewalls form a kind of flue
+on the wall (figs. 49 and 50). By this method the heat introduced from
+beneath, could penetrate under the pavement and between the double
+walls. Of late it is true this way of heating has been disputed.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 50. Section of the Caldarium (p. 38).]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 51. Ground Plan of the House of Pansa (p. 39).]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 52. Atrium Tuscanicum (p. 41).]
+
+The women’s bath adjoins the men’s, with the same rooms required for
+bathing; between the _Caldarium_ of the men’s bath and that of the
+women’s bath lies the furnace-room; here were placed three large
+caldrons for hot, tepid, and cold water. Of such a furnace-room and
+the arrangement of caldrons an idea may also be formed from the well
+preserved bathing plant excavated in a Roman villa at Bosco Reale
+(where was made the great discovery of silverplate, now at Paris). This
+has recently been set up at Pompeii, in a small house behind the Temple
+of Jupiter in the street called Del Foro.
+
+Besides these public bathing establishments there were of course
+also in the better class of houses private baths which show the same
+arrangements, though naturally more or less curtailed.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 53. Cave Canem (p. 40).]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 54. Doorknockers (p. 40).]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 55. Roman Dwellinghouse. Vista from the Atrium to
+the Peristyle (p. 42).]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 56. Scene from the Amphitheatre (p. 35).]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 57. External View of the Amphitheatre (p. 34).]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 58. Iron Strongbox (p. 42).]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 59. Domestic Shrine (p. 42).]
+
+The private houses are of course, according to the wealth of the
+owners, of very various descriptions, and planned on a sometimes
+more, sometimes less imposing and costly scale, since here one, there
+another circumstance must have influenced the building of the house
+and altered its form. Something however remains common to all, and out
+of the variety it is possible to reconstruct the design of a standard
+Pompeian house. The house has in general the form of a rectangle of
+which the small side faces the street, see fig. 51. The door is in the
+middle of this side, and is flanked right and left by one or two rooms,
+which are either used as shops and then open outwards for their whole
+width, or are entered from the interior and form part of the house.
+Between these a passage leads from the door to the chief apartment
+situated behind, viz., the _Atrium_. This passage is called _fauces_
+or _prothyron_. In the superior class of houses the door is set back a
+little so as to leave a free space in front, called _Vestibulum_. Then
+there are usually two doors, one a wide folding-door corresponding in
+size to the passage leading to the Atrium, and a smaller door at the
+side intended for the _Ostiarius_, or porter, who could thus refuse
+admittance to an importunate or unpleasant visitor, without exposing
+the interior of the house to the gaze of those standing before the
+door. A salutation such as _Have_ or _Ave_, “Hail” inlaid in the
+threshold of the door, or a _Cave Canem_, “Beware of the Dog” with the
+representation of a dog in mosaic (fig. 53) is a not unusual ornament
+which meets the eye as one enters. A knocker on the door served to
+summon the _ostiarius_. The _atrium_, a room usually square, contains
+in the middle a rectangular tank sunk in the ground for the reception
+of rainwater; for this an opening was left in the roof. Five classes
+of _Atrium_ are generally distinguished. In the simplest, the _Atrium
+Tuscanicum_, the roof sloping inwards was supported by two main beams
+crossing the Atrium and two side beams resting on them (fig. 52; in
+the new _Casa_ of Reg. V, Ins. IV the ancient construction of the roof
+of the Atrium has been re-erected). If the opening thus formed was to
+be large, or it was impossible on account of the breadth of the Atrium
+to leave the weight of the roof to rest only on two beams, pillars
+were placed under the four points of junction and on these pillars the
+beams were laid; this is the _Atrium Tetrastylum_. If it was desirable
+to make the aperture still larger, additional pillars were employed
+besides the four at the corners, so that regular halls with colonnades
+were produced (_Atrium Corinthiacum_). If the roof sloped outwards so
+that above the _impluvium_ there rose walls supported by the principal
+beams or the pillars, the Atrium was called _displuviatum_, from the
+fact that in this case the rain flowed away outwards. Finally the
+_atrium testudinatum_, a very rare form at Pompeii, had its roof
+equally sloping outwards, but was devoid of the quadrangular opening.
+This opening is called _compluvium_; the name _impluvium_ is given
+to the tank sunk beneath to receive the water, and out of which the
+water was conducted by pipes into the reservoirs under the atrium.
+For protection against the intrusion of unbidden visitors who might
+without difficulty let themselves down from the roof into the room
+through the _compluvium_, the opening could be closed beneath by means
+of an iron grating. On both sides of the _Atrium_, which receives
+its light from above, are placed mostly small chambers, storerooms
+or sleeping apartments; the last one on each side usually opened its
+whole width to the atrium and is called _Ala_. Here in Patrician
+houses of distinction the representations of ancestors were generally
+placed. Opposite the entrance lies the _Tablinum_, usually opening
+with full width on the _Atrium_, and closed only by curtains (fig.
+55). This was specially the room of the master of the house, here he
+kept his valuable documents, here he received visits, in front of the
+_Tablinum_; in the _Atrium_ is as a rule the place for keeping the
+_Arca_, or strongbox, made of iron, often artistically decorated, and
+let into a huge stone, to prevent its being stolen (fig. 58). Past the
+_Tablinum_ a narrow passage generally leads into the back rooms of the
+house, which, grouped around the Peristyle, an oblong quadrangular
+court surrounded by columns, comprising not only livingrooms and
+bedchambers, but also diningrooms, often different ones for winter and
+for summer. These are for the most part rather small, sufficing only
+for the arrangement of the three couches around the little table, from
+which the _Triclinium_ has its name. In this part a little on one side
+is usually found the kitchen with other rooms required for domestic
+purposes, and placed in close proximity to the kitchen for the sake
+of supply and discharge of water. The wealthier establishments have
+also one of the chambers lying round the Peristyle fitted up as a kind
+of domestic chapel for the worship of the _Lares_, if there is not a
+special _Sacrarium_ erected in the _Atrium_ for this purpose. Houses
+of more moderate pretensions content themselves with having their
+household gods, the _Lares_ and the serpents sacred to them, painted
+in the kitchen above or near the hearth, in order to offer sacrifice
+to them there (figs. 59 and 62). From the Peristyle we pass on further
+to the garden, in which, where the owner was a rich man, there is
+likewise no lack of architectural adornments, airy halls and porticoes.
+Upper stories were generally in little favour, with the increase of
+population however they could not have been dispensed with. For the
+most part they were let, as a rule with the shops situated on the
+street, on which account stairs leading upwards are often found in the
+shops; in wealthier establishments the upper chambers were allotted to
+the slaves. These upper stories, just as in our mediaeval towns, often
+project considerably over the street; one such projecting apartment, as
+was stated above, is well preserved (fig. 61).
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 60. Helmets for Gladiators (p. 36).]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 61. House with _maenianum_ (p. 43).]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 62. Domestic Altar (p. 42).]
+
+How was the Pompeian house decorated? Let us begin with the floor. In
+most houses the flooring is provided with _opus signinum_, that is
+pieces of tile are pressed into a mass of stucco and then the surface
+is polished; in better houses their place is taken by mosaic, generally
+only black and white, and comprising only patterns and ornaments;
+more rarely a coloured picture is produced with smaller cubes in the
+middle of the room. Quite peculiarly rich in mosaics, and indeed such
+as artistically belong to the most splendid that have come down to
+us in this department of art, was the so-called Casa del Fauno, in
+which was discovered the famous Battle of Alexander, now in the Naples
+Museum (fig. 64). The irresistible onset of the Greeks who in spite
+of inferiority in number drive the Persians in headlong flight before
+them is expressed with unsurpassable power. Alexander whose helmet has
+fallen from his head in the impetuous attack has just transfixed with
+a powerful thrust of his spear one of the leaders of the Persian host,
+who was in the act of leaping from his dying horse and saving himself
+on a fresh one offered to him by a faithful follower. His fall arouses
+in the king who stands in his chariot, the deepest sympathy, so that
+in his sorrow for his general’s death he almost loses sight of his own
+escape. His charioteer however thinks only of bringing the chariot and
+his lord to safety over dead and dying. From the same house comes also
+the mosaic threshold in the Naples Museum, a portion of which we give
+in figure 63. Leaves and fruits of all kinds are joined to a cylinder
+held together by rings and garnished with various masks.
+
+Figure 65 recommends itself by remarkable fidelity to nature. A cat has
+seized a bird (apparently a partridge) with the intention of strangling
+it. The cat probably belongs to the species of wild cats, since cats
+as domestic animals were not common among the Greeks and Romans
+before the fourth century of our era (hence is explained the fact that
+no skeleton of a cat has been met with among the ruins of Pompeii).
+Below two ducks are swimming, and mussels and other aquatic animals
+are represented. At Pompeii too mosaic had begun to be employed for
+the covering of walls, especially beside fountains. The paving of the
+ground with slabs of marble, a practice very common at Rome since the
+time of Sulla, seems to have been comparatively rare at Pompeii.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 63. Mosaic Threshold (p. 44).]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 64. Alexander’s Battle (p. 43).]
+
+The eyes of visitors will be attracted by the walls even more than
+by the pavements. Although, as said before, the greatest number of
+the wall-paintings discovered have been cut out and brought to the
+Naples Museum, yet sufficient material exists in Pompeii also to form
+a judgment as to the effect of the Pompeian wall-painting, especially
+in the more recently excavated houses, in which the colours are still
+more fresh. (For the removal of wall-paintings a wooden frame is
+placed over and around the pictures, and the stones are taken away from
+behind till the stucco is reached; then plaster is poured in at the
+back of the picture, and so the whole becomes one single mass and can
+be removed.) We must not however forget that the rooms in which the
+paintings are found have at the present day a much more glaring light
+than in antiquity, a circumstance not without influence on the effect
+of the painting.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 65. Pompeian Mosaic (p. 44).]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 66. Wall Decoration of the First Style (Casa di
+Sallustio) (p. 47).]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 67. Wall Decoration of the Third Style (House of
+Spurius Mesor) (p. 48).]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 68. Process of Plastering (p. 49).]
+
+According to A. Mau four consecutive styles are to be distinguished.
+
+1. Pre-Roman Period: Imitation of marble incrustation by means of
+plastic stucco work; no pictures (fig. 66).
+
+2. Period of the Republic: Imitation of Marble incrustation by means
+of simple painting, together with representation of architecture, not
+fantastical but as it might actually exist. This style is however but
+scantily represented at Pompeii.
+
+3. Period of the Early Empire, to about fifty years after Christ:
+Egyptianising ornamental style distinguished by beautiful and pure
+forms, and delicate, finely distinguished colours (fig. 67).
+
+4. Ornamental Style of the last period of Pompeii, with special
+preference for architectural painting, fantastically slender and of a
+playfully ornamental fashion. The examples of this style are in Pompeii
+by far the most numerous (fig. 69).
+
+Above the plinth of uniform shape the walls are for the most part
+divided into panels, which usually are painted alternately yellow and
+red; in their midst they have figures of various kinds floating in
+the air, women, satyrs, Loves, Victories and such like, or they are
+adorned with imitations of easelpictures, the subjects being taken from
+mythology. Numerous too are scenes from every day life, still more
+numerous landscapes; the historical motive is as yet only very rarely
+indicated. Very frequently mythological figures are introduced as
+engaged in the avocations of daily life in the midst of the fantastical
+architecture which covers the walls as ornament. The artistic value
+is naturally very different, but in general it must be admitted that
+the vividness of colour, the lightness of touch in creations which
+are due assuredly to no famous artist cannot be sufficiently admired.
+As to the process by which the wall-paintings were executed the most
+multifarious conjectures were formerly made; now on the contrary the
+view universally adopted is that we have to do almost exclusively with
+fresco painting, i. e. painting on fresh plaster, only that here and
+there recourse was also had to painting in tempera (fig. 68).
+
+Some wall-paintings still in their original position will be dealt with
+later when we come to speak of the respective houses; a few examples
+out of the rich treasure removed to the Museo Nazionale in Naples may
+here suffice.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 69. Wall Decoration. Fourth Style (p. 49).]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 70. Sacrifice of Iphigenia (p. 49).]
+
+Figure 70 represents a painting which may rank as one of the most
+famous and the most frequently discussed, the Sacrifice of Iphigenia,
+probably a copy, though a feeble one, of a famous picture of an
+earlier period. Ulysses and Diomedes are holding the hapless maiden
+through whose sacrifice Agamemnon desires to appease the wrath of
+Artemis and to obtain a favourable wind for the expedition to Troy;
+they hold her ready for sacrifice before the image of Artemis standing
+on a column. Calchas the priest has already drawn the knife from its
+sheath to give the fatal stroke, but still he hesitates, as though he
+felt some scruple as to undertaking the cruel deed. Agamemnon stands
+aside, shrouded entirely in his robe, since as a father he cannot
+bring himself to look with his own eyes upon the carrying out of the
+sacrifice, to which as king and leader of the army he sees himself
+compelled. In the gaze which Ulysses directs to the image of Artemis
+we may read the reproach that she, the goddess, should demand such
+cruelty. Yet the merciful solution is prepared by the scene enacted
+above in the sky; there we see the goddess Artemis herself, to her
+hastens a nymph who brings the deer that is to fall by the sacrificial
+knife in place of Iphigenia. Figure 71 is derived at any rate from a
+famous ancient theme, perhaps after a painting by Timomachos; this is
+the single figure of Medea, who sword in hand plans the murder of her
+sons. The sword is still sheathed, sunk in deep deliberation she has
+folded her hands, and pressed thumb against thumb, she is a mother who
+loves her children tenderly, but she is also a wife who is bitterly
+sensible of every neglect on the part of her husband. Which feeling
+will gain the victory? Will it be gained by a mother’s love which
+pardons everything, or by the jealousy that knows how to strike the
+husband in the most painful way through the slaying of his children?
+The conflict of feelings is undoubtedly expressed in a most striking
+manner in the picture. Figure 73 also represents a picture remarkable
+for excellent preservation, the abduction of Europa by Zeus in the
+form of a bull. Europa daughter of Agenor, sports with her companions
+on the shore of the sea, gathers flowers and weaves garlands. There
+a bull approaches them (Zeus had concealed himself under this form),
+who through his tameness gives the maidens courage to busy themselves
+sportively with him. They deck him with flowers, caress him, nay at
+last Europa becoming bold mounts his back. It is this moment that the
+painter has chosen to depict. Europa has lain down on his back, the
+girls are still playing with him, yet he is already striding forward,
+only a few steps and he is in the sea, and then will Zeus bear his
+sweet burden to Crete, and her terrified playmates will vainly stretch
+forth their arms after the king’s daughter borne far away.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 71. Medea, from Herculaneum (p. 52).]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 72. The so-called Ephebus of bronze (p. 57).]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 73. Europa with the Bull (p. 52).]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 74. Mars and Venus (p. 54).]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 75. Paquius Proculus and his wife (p. 54).]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 76. Garden of the Casa di Lucrezio (p. 59).]
+
+Figure 74 represents a subject often occurring at Pompeii, Venus united
+with Mars. Mars lays his left hand on the left arm of Venus, who
+resting at ease lays her left arm on the right thigh of Mars, who with
+his right hand raises the robe of the goddess so that the whole upper
+part of her person is uncovered. That the god of war has already quite
+forgotten his own peculiar mission, and is quite given up to love, is
+shown by the two Cupids, of whom the one is engaged in girding himself
+with the god’s sword, while the other is trying his helmet on his own
+head. Figure 75 offers us a picture with quite a modern interest. The
+worthy baker Paquius Proculus has had his portrait painted with his
+better half, since photography has not yet been invented. But for this
+purpose it is not sufficient to have brought the external form into
+order, to have neatly smoothed the moustache, and to have crisped the
+little locks so that they curl daintily over forehead and cheeks and
+roll deep upon the neck, no, they wish their intellectual interests
+to be recognised; therefore he takes in his hand a written roll, and
+she grasps with her left hand a diptychon, while with her right she
+holds to her lips the style to write on the wax tablet, as though in
+the next moment some brilliant idea would occur to her which she need
+only write down in order to be included for all time in the list of
+the intellectual Bluestockings. Just as in our own day many people get
+their portraits taken with books in their hands as though the study of
+literature formed their whole ordinary day’s work.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 77. The Dancing Faun (p. 55).]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 78. The so-called Narcissus (p. 56).]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 80. Casa del Balcone pensile (p. 59).]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 79. Cupid with a Dolphin (p. 57).]
+
+The decoration too of houses by means of statues of marble and bronze
+must here be briefly mentioned. It has already been stated that in the
+temples and public buildings numerous marble and bronze statues have
+been found. These discoveries can therefore be passed over here. As
+the most beautiful of the works of art which have been discovered in
+private houses may be mentioned the statue of the Dancing Faun (after
+which the Casa del Fauno is named) and the so-called Narcissus, found
+in a house of the Vico del Balcone pensile. In the former (fig. 77) the
+artist has represented a comrade of the circle of Dionysos, full of
+Bacchic pleasure, turning in wild dance; it is a rough sensual comrade,
+whose half animal being is sufficiently suggested by his goat’s ears
+and the little tail that is just visible. The strained muscles show
+with what energy he gives himself up to the activity of the dance,
+while on the other side the unrestrained joyousness expressed in his
+countenance, and the freedom and ease he displays in the movement
+of the upper part of his body and his arms clearly reveal with what
+sportive agility he copes with the exertion. Almost more beautiful is
+the so-called Narcissus (fig. 78) a youth just outgrown the years of
+boyhood, over whose left shoulder hangs the skin of a goat or a doe,
+who however is otherwise naked except the feet which are clothed with
+elegant sandals. With slight movement of the arm he supports the left
+hand against the hip, and stretches out the right hand, while at the
+same time he bends his head to this side as though he were turning his
+attention to some distant sounds. People have chosen to see in this
+figure a Narcissus listening to the flattering words of Echo, but such
+a situation is nowhere to be found in the myth. Others suggest Dionysos
+playing with his panther; for this the doeskin and the wreath of ivy in
+the hair would be very suitable, as also the beautiful sandals; but
+then we should have to suppose that the figure had already in antiquity
+been removed from its original base and placed on a new pedestal. For
+the enjoyment however which the work of art affords us the name which
+is given it is a matter of indifference, and this enjoyment will be
+experienced by every one who contemplates the beautiful statuette.
+Also the recently found statuette of a youth, completely plated with
+silver, (fig. 72) which in antiquity was altered into a lampholder, and
+therefore has experienced some damage, deserves careful inspection on
+account of its beauty.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 81. Mosaic Fountain (p. 59).]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 82. Atrium of the Casa di Cornelio Rufo (p. 60).]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 83. Bust of the Banker L. Caecilius Jucundus (p.
+60).]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 84. Bust of Cornelius Rufus (p. 60).]
+
+While this figure was to be employed in the house for lighting
+purposes, both the others seem to have had their place at the fountain
+of the house, with which in a certain way they were connected, in that
+the relation of Satyrs and similar beings to springs is a well-known
+one in antiquity. In other places the marble and the bronze statues are
+employed actually as fountain figures, so in the case of figure 79,
+the bronze statuette of a Cupid who exerting all his strength holds
+a dolphin up high, from whose mouth the water flows. As to how such
+statuettes were grouped with fountains and how also in small houses an
+attempt was made to enliven the narrow space left for the garden by the
+erection of all sorts of works of art, a sufficiently clear example
+is afforded by the little garden of the Casa di Lucrezio (fig. 76).
+Here on both sides of the fountain niche in which stands a Silenus as
+distributor of water, double Herms or busts are placed which represent
+Bacchus with Ariadne. Of the other figures above all let the group
+standing in the foreground be mentioned, a group of a Satyr extracting
+a thorn from Pan’s foot. A dainty motive too is that of a fountain
+figure (fig. 80) from the Casa del Balcone pensile. A boy whose dress
+falls down long over his back (in this way a support for the marble
+figure is obtained) stands in easy pose, while he lays his right arm on
+his head and stretches out the left hand with a mussel shell. From this
+shell trickled the water, and a more copious stream flowed from the
+waterpipe straight into the marble basin.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 85. A _Bisellium_ (p. 62).]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 86. Marble Table (p. 62).]
+
+Mosaic is frequently united with sculpture in the ornamentation of
+fountains, for example in that of the Casa delle Fontana Grande (fig.
+81). Here the fountain takes the form of a retiring arched niche, in
+which the water from beneath the mask of a water-god flowed out of an
+aperture in a broad jet over a flight of steps, while marble masks with
+wide opened eyes are placed on the piers of the niche.
+
+Between the columns of the Peristyle, to judge from the wall-paintings,
+there were often placed also medallions hung on ribbons, the so-called
+_Oscilla_, now and then shaped like a _pelta_ (i. e. as the shields of
+Amazons are commonly represented). These are sculptured in relief on
+both sides. None are of course found in their original position, but a
+whole series of such medallions, which were found lying on the ground,
+is exhibited in the Naples Museum.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 87. Dining-couch of Bronze (p. 62).]
+
+An entirely different class of ornament is to be found in the Atrium;
+here sometimes a portrait bust of the owner has been found inserted in
+its pedestal, which in at least one instance is plainly designated as a
+dedication on the part of one formerly belonging to the house. Figure
+84 represents the bust of C. Cornelius Rufus, an interesting work in
+marble, which clearly shows how remarkably well the sculptors of the
+earlier Roman Empire understood how to seize and to reproduce the
+characteristic features of their sitter. The bust is let into a square
+pillar, from which, right and left, instead of arms, quadrangular
+stumps protrude, on which it was customary to hang wreaths as ornaments
+on days of commemoration. Figure 82 gives a view of the whole atrium
+with the bust, by which we are enabled to recognise the harmonious
+way in which this ornament fits into the whole surroundings. Still
+more striking perhaps in its effect is the bronze bust of L. Caecilius
+Jucundus (fig. 83:--the original is now in Naples), the Banker, in
+whose house was found the chest with wax tablets, of which mention
+has been made on another page. Here is a bronze bust which has been
+inserted in its marble pedestal, a dedication by the Freedman Felix
+to the Genius of his master (_Genio L. nostri Felix L._). Many a one
+who has seen the bust in the Museo Nazionale, has, at a first glance,
+without knowing any more about it, been led to exclaim that he might
+be off at once to the Exchange, so characteristically has the sculptor
+rendered his portrait. Friend Caecilius is certainly not handsome, so
+he cannot have been flattered by the artist, who has suppressed neither
+the broad outstanding ears, nor the great ugly wart, almost suggesting
+representations of Satyrs. But through the marvellous mixture of
+bonhomie which is stamped on his countenance and keen calculation and
+decision which are expressed in the closed lips and the glance of
+the eyes (unfortunately the pupils formerly represented by coloured
+smalt have fallen out) a personality has been successfully depicted
+which carries in itself the stamp of genuineness. Caecilius Jucundus
+evidently knew full well how to feather his nest, but he was no mere
+miser who only brooded over his treasures, no, he not only prized very
+highly his cheerful enjoyment of life, but he also loved gaiety and
+good fellowship, and in the circle of his boon-companions he was ready
+to take a joke, and was himself capable of enlivening conversation by
+many a jest.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 88. A Symposium. Pompeian Wall-painting (p. 63).]
+
+So much for the decoration that was provided for the house by painter
+and sculptor. How stands it then with the household furniture?
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 89. Drinking-cup from Bosco Reale (p. 73).]
+
+Our rooms are filled with a quantity of furniture, numerous tables,
+chairs, cupboards with every possible name and object, sofas, and
+whatever else pertains to modern housekeeping. Compared with all
+this the ancient house would seem to us empty. In the first place
+cupboards for keeping clothes and the like are hardly to be found. To
+a great extent small rooms were made available for keeping movable
+articles by putting up shelves, but for clothes chests standing on
+the ground had to serve, which might be compared with our presses and
+trunks. They were the better suited for this purpose inasmuch as the
+dress consisted more of stuffs which did not assume their definite
+form as dress until they were put on. These trunks could at the same
+time be used as seats, often, as at the present day in the East, for
+reclining on. There were too regular seats, for the most part without
+backs, and like foot-stools; among them we ought particularly to
+mention the _bisellium_ which properly could hold two persons, but as
+a special honour was granted by decree of the Decurions to a single
+individual (fig. 85). Tables, especially show tables of costly woods,
+to display the ornamental tableservice may have existed, but none of
+these have come down to us; on the other hand marble tables, generally
+placed close to the impluvium (fig. 86), have in many instances been
+preserved. Among them are some that can be raised at pleasure. They
+often have feet artistically shaped, the forms of all possible fabulous
+beings, griffins &c. being employed as ornaments. Such tables as we
+are accustomed to take our meals at are no where to be seen, because
+the custom of the ancients was to eat while lying down. The furnishing
+of a triclinium was as follows:--around a central point of masonry
+only about a foot and a half in height, on which the table-top or tray
+was placed, stand three low couches abutting on one another at right
+angles, occasionally (in the open air) of masonry, otherwise of bronze
+(fig. 87), or of wood, on each of which three persons recline at meals;
+the fourth side is left open for the attendants. The arrangement of
+the couches can often still be seen by examining the mosaic floor. To
+one or other of the couches a still lower seat is frequently attached,
+probably for the children. The inner side of the _lecti_ (for that is
+the name of these sofas) was as a rule somewhat higher than the outer;
+people got upon them from the lower side, and lay with the left arm
+on the cushions serving as a support in such a manner that the right
+arm was free to take the food to the mouth. The tables of masonry were
+generally without ornament, since they were covered by the tray with
+food; once only has an ornament been found in this position at Pompeii,
+a mosaic representing a death’s head, a motive borrowed no doubt from
+the Egypto-Alexandrian custom of inviting people to brighter enjoyment
+of life by allusion to its fleeting nature and the nearness of death.
+When towards the beginning of the Empire round tables (_orbes_) came
+more generally into use in place of square ones, the three couches
+arranged at right angles around the table had naturally to be united
+in a single semicircular sofa corresponding to the circular shape now
+adopted for the table. Such a semicircular sofa received the name
+_Sigma_ or _Stibadium_ on account of its resemblance to the Greek
+letter C. This style must--to judge from wall-paintings--have been
+usual in Pompeii, yet we are unable to point it out among the existing
+remains in the rooms. (Fig. 88 is from a wall-painting; this gives also
+the conversation of the guests at table: _facitis vobis suaviter_, you
+are having a good time, says one; another, _ego canto_, I sing; _est
+ita_, _valeas_, so it is, good luck to you, says the third.)
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 90. Food-warmer (p. 64).]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 91. Tripods and Bronze Table (p. 63).]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 92. Portable Stove (p. 64).]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 93. Bronze Vessel for the preparation of _Calda_
+(p. 65).]
+
+Of tripods, which in the ancient house formed part of the necessary
+furniture, beautiful shapes have come down to us, (cf. fig. 91). Tables
+then and chairs, chests and couches, with these the house furniture
+is pretty well exhausted; but one must include with them the movable
+stoves by which in winter some measure of warmth could be secured.
+Stoves, as we know them were non-existent in antiquity, as even now in
+the greatest part of Italy. If it became cold, a brazier of charcoal
+was brought, as at the present day, at which people warmed themselves.
+(The best example of such a brazier is that dedicated by one Vaccula
+in the Baths, which may be seen in figure 48 behind the railing.)
+Richer folk had for this purpose also a special stove which could be
+carried from one room to another, as now in Paris, see figure 92. The
+question of heating, as that of chimneys in the kitchen, is for us
+northeners one of great importance, which however for the South plays
+no great part, as one can see any day at the present time. Apart from
+the resorts of foreigners, in which on practical grounds full allowance
+is made for the ideas and usages of people belonging to northern
+countries, the Italy of to-day remains for the most part at the stand
+point of antiquity. There are no stoves and as few chimneys, because
+the fuel used is almost exclusively charcoal, which kindled in the open
+air continues to glow without requiring a special exit for smoke. And
+if there is any smoke, it has to find its way where it pleases. This
+is the origin of the name _Atrium_, because everything became black
+(_ater_) through smoke. However we must not omit to mention that in
+some Pompeian kitchens a wide pipe or channel is provided, through
+which an escape to the street is allowed to any smoke that there may
+be, subject to its own good will. To suppose any such thing as an
+actual chimney (apart of course from baking ovens) would be mere wild
+imagining, there was in fact absolutely no necessity for such a thing.
+
+We must consider charcoal as the fuel also for various utensils which
+served for the preparation of warm drinks, the so-called _Calda_, or
+for keeping food warm, and which certainly had their place not in the
+kitchen but in the diningroom or other apartments. One of such utensils
+(fig. 90) is garnished after the fashion of a fortress with towers
+at the four angles and battlements on the surrounding wall; while
+the interior served for the reception of charcoal and for keeping
+food warm, the surrounding wall and towers were used for water, which
+at pleasure could be drawn off by a tap. On the other hand the vase
+represented in figure 93 is near akin to the Russian samovar; here a
+wide pipe is introduced into the body of the vessel, which could be
+filled with glowing charcoal in order to heat the liquid contained in
+the vessel. Or on the contrary if the liquid was to be cooled, all
+that was necessary was to fill the pipe with snow. Of course owing to
+the open pipe the liquid could in neither case be poured out, but had
+to be ladled out. For the preparation of warm drink as well as for
+the heating of food the apparatus represented in figure 94 was also
+undoubtedly employed. In this instance a high cask-like vessel is
+connected with a cylindrical one having a spout, while the enclosed
+space holds charcoal.
+
+The question of lighting also merits some brief consideration. It has
+already been stated that the apartments on the principal floor had
+scarcely ever any direct light from the street, but received indirect
+light from the atrium or the peristyle. We are not however on this
+account to imagine them to have been dark; the sun’s power in the
+South is so great that even in the case of indirect light a very
+considerable brightness is attained; if the door-spaces were closed by
+wooden doors, or by curtains, still sufficient light fell into the room
+through an opening introduced above the door, or the doors and curtains
+were so arranged that the light above was not shut out. Artificial
+lighting was supplied by oil lamps, which must have been employed in
+great numbers, to ensure sufficient brilliancy. Hence lamps, especially
+of course the ordinary terracotta lamps, are the most numerous of the
+objects found. Candelabra served to support them, of these very elegant
+forms have been preserved. One of the most interesting is represented
+in figure 96, where four lamps, each with two wicks, hang down from a
+pillar raised on a basis semicircular in front. The candelabra also
+often take the form of trees, on the boughs of which the lamps are
+suspended, so for example in figure 97. Besides these there are lofty
+candelabra which spring from a basis usually supported by the feet of
+an animal, and rise to a considerable height in the form of slender
+columns; on the top, which generally spreads out as a calyx, there
+usually stood only one lamp with several wicks.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 94. Food-warmer (p. 65).]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 95. Silver Cups (p. 68).]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 96. Candelabrum (p. 66).]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 97. Candelabrum (p. 66).]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 98. Bronze Vessel (p. 67).]
+
+Next to the candelabra may be mentioned under the head of domestic
+utensils more or less costly vases, which were frequently displayed on
+handsome tables or the tripods described above. Of these too a great
+number have been found in Pompeii and deposited in the Museo Nazionale
+at Naples. Thus figure 98 shows a large vessel of bronze, a crater or
+mixing bowl, the elegant twisted handles of which are fastened to the
+body of the vase by means of a winged Medusa mask. That its purpose was
+merely ornamental is shown by the circumstance that it is placed on a
+separate basis supported by lion’s claws. A more bowl-like vessel, also
+supported by lion’s claws, is represented on page 107.--On each side
+of this two united bodies of lions connected with serpents are employed
+as handles. The jugs in figure 99 display different shapes, in the
+one the handle is formed by a soaring bird with broad bill (a swan or
+perhaps a goose), while an eagle sits enthroned above the mouth; in the
+other the body of the vessel consists of a head with eyes separately
+inlaid, but now lost. Numerous too are the ornamental vessels of
+silver. Two cups famous above all are represented in figure 95, on one
+side of which is placed a male centaur, on the other a female. On their
+backs are seated Erotes (Loves). Although both cups are without doubt
+intended as companion pieces which belong so to speak to the same set,
+yet there are distinctions in details. These cups, so finely chiselled,
+are provided with a smooth lining inserted specially for the reception
+of the liquid, a circumstance illustrating a well-known passage in the
+speech of Cicero against Verres. There it is stated that Verres in
+Sicily had in preference to everything seized the silver vessels, that
+he had not however set so much value on the silver, but had restored
+the cups _emblemate_ or _sigillo avulso_. Now the _emblemata_ or
+_sigilla_ are nothing else than the outer cases adorned with work in
+relief, which were united by solder to the smooth inner cases.
+
+If we would form a more accurate estimate of the valuables with which
+the show tables (_abaci_) were loaded, we can avail ourselves of a
+recent discovery not indeed made in Pompeii itself, but yet in its
+entire character belonging to Pompeii. In Bosco Reale, a small town
+situated nearer Vesuvius, where in ancient times there seems to have
+been a sort of suburb of Pompeii, a villa had been discovered in 1894
+on the estate of Cav. de Prisco, buried under the ashes from Vesuvius,
+and in this every chamber was found in an undisturbed state. In one
+apartment, the storeroom, there were found large vessels full of corn
+and pulse, in another place the explorers came upon a great heap of
+agricultural implements, a furnace for baths was unearthed, in which
+all the water pipes with their taps were preserved (the same that is
+now placed in position behind the Forum), in short everything was found
+intact, exactly in the condition (except of course changes brought
+about by length of time) in which the villa was on the 24th of August
+in the year 79. But still greater treasures were destined to come to
+light from the villa. On the 13th of April 1896 the skeleton of a man
+was suddenly discovered: he had fallen with his face on the ground,
+stifled under the hot showers of ashes which pressed upon him from
+every side. In his convulsively clasped hands he grasped bracelets and
+a long gold chain; many gold coins with the heads of the Emperors from
+Augustus to Vespasian, several of them still quite fresh as if they had
+just been issued by the mint, lay scattered near him on the ground. He
+had sunk to the earth before a little niche, in which he had doubtless
+just laid down a part of his burden, and where he had wished to put
+also the remainder that he was carrying, in order to protect all from
+unbidden intruders.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 99. Silver Jugs (p. 68).]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 100. The Tutelary Goddess of Alexandria (p. 70).]
+
+In the niche itself, wrapped in a piece of coarse woollen stuff, lay a
+great treasure of silver, which through the liberality of Baron Edm.
+de Rothschild has reached the Louvre. It falls into two categories,
+in the first place such vessels as can be designated objects of use
+(these however also merit careful observation on account of the fine
+ornament that appears on them); and secondly a series of cups, bowls,
+and other utensils which are adorned with artistic representations.
+Though the others are also interesting we can here deal only with
+the latter of the two classes, so far as representations of them are
+available. Chief among them is a bowl that in size and shape compares
+best with the Minerva bowl of the Hildesheim Treasure. In quite free
+form there raises itself from the ground as a centrepiece the bust of
+a goddess who wears on her head the spoils of an elephant, so that the
+trunk projects over the centre of her forehead and the tusks on both
+sides over her temples. She is clad in a light chiton with many folds,
+fastened over the arm by numerous studs; the overlapping portion of the
+chiton is gathered together at the breast into a roll in which appear
+ears of corn with grapes and all kinds of fruit. In her left hand the
+goddess holds a cornucopia containing bunches of grapes, pomegranates
+&c., in her right a Uraeus serpent. There is no question that the
+tutelary deity of Alexandria alone can be intended by the figure (fig.
+100).
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 101. Mirror with the Bust of Ariadne (p. 71).]
+
+A second bowl has as its central ornament the upper portion of a
+man’s body boldly projecting from the surface, which may be noted as
+extremely characteristic. The shortcropped hair lies closely on the
+head, the large ears protrude, many a wrinkle furrows the brow, clearly
+marked crow’s feet enable us to infer that the subject is pretty well
+advanced in age. The cheeks have fallen in, and so leave the cheek
+bones standing forth in strong relief. The attribution of the figure
+to the Emperor Claudius is assuredly groundless, still the features
+remind one of members of the House of the Claudii, and above all this
+one thing cannot be questioned that we have to deal with a Roman and
+no Greek. Of the companion bowl with a woman’s bust the centrepiece
+has come to London. On the other hand the Louvre has secured two hand
+mirrors once belonging to the _mundus muliebris_, the toilet apparatus
+of a Pompeian lady; one with elegant handle formed of twigs intertwined
+bears as an ornament in the middle of its back a wonderful bust of
+Ariadne (fig. 101); the head slightly inclined towards the left arm
+is crowned with a wreath of ivy, and the drapery leaves free the left
+breast shaped with wondrous beauty. A second mirror bears as ornament
+for the back (the polished front always serves as the actual reflecting
+surface) the representation of Leda with the swan. Leda almost nude is
+seated on a rock, and while she supports herself on the rock with her
+left hand, holds out with her right a bowl to the swan standing before
+her.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 102. Cup with Olivewreath (p. 73).]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 103. Cup with Still Life (p. 73).]
+
+Besides these there are comprised in the treasure four eggshaped cups
+with large handles rising above the rim, and twisted feet, two of
+which have the exterior adorned with storks in low relief which are
+seeking food in the neighbourhood of their nest, while both the others
+represent the life of cranes, how they search for food, struggle over
+their booty, and engage their rivals with powerful blows of their
+beaks. Other vases remind us of the great bell-shaped vessel of the
+Hildesheim treasure. From a graceful calyx grows up a flower-stem
+divided into joints, on which as they spread out are introduced groups
+of animals fighting, while elegant arabesques springing from flower
+cups fill the body of the vase with their charming windings and
+twinings. Of wonderfully fine execution also are two low vessels, each
+provided with two handles, round the body of which twine two olive
+branches with berries. (Fig. 102.) Other cups are ornamented with
+so-called “Still Life” (fig. 103); others have allusions to literary
+efforts. There we see skeletons of poets as Euripides and Menander
+(fig. 89), or philosophers as Zeno and Epicurus in various actions,
+with inscriptions appended which show the connection. One and all
+preach the doctrine of Epicurus, enjoy life while you may, life passes
+away only too quickly. The placing of such scenes on vessels destined
+to minister to the keener enjoyment of life is for antiquity no unusual
+thing; I need refer only to the above mentioned mosaic of a death’s
+head which served as the ornament of a table, and to the well-known
+scene from Trimalchio’s Banquet (in Petronius), who has a silver
+skeleton with movable limbs brought upon the table, and invites his
+guests to brighter enjoyment of life with the words “Alas for us poor
+wretches! What a nothing we are! Like this skeleton shall we all be as
+soon as Orcus carries us off; so let us enjoy life while we may!”
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 104. House of Pansa (p. 75).]
+
+Fine tables laden with such and similar vases must have been found
+in every one of the better class of houses in Pompeii, so they could
+not be passed over in describing the furniture. Yet some may miss in
+the catalogue of furniture the mention of looking-glasses. In Pompeii
+however these would be sought in vain. There were indeed mirrors enough
+for the toilet, as we have seen in the treasure from Bosco Reale, but
+only hand mirrors, mostly of metal, occasionally, as it seems, also of
+glass, yet always only so small that even if fixed on a stand they are
+to be treated as articles of the toilet, not as constituent parts of
+the furniture. We may suppose that refined luxury in individual cases
+may have led to the employment of larger mirrors (cf. Lessing, _Rettung
+des Horaz_), but these things have nothing to do with Pompeii, to judge
+at least by what has been found there.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 105. Bakery with Mills (p. 76).]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 106. House of the Tragic Poet (p. 76).]
+
+Now that we have gained an idea of the Pompeian house in general and
+of its equipment, it is possible to examine more thoroughly individual
+houses of special note. We begin with the Casa di Pansa, or, as the
+house has been officially named from a painted inscription, which has
+now disappeared, the Domus Cn. Allei Nigidi Mai. For two appellations
+have usually to be distinguished, a popular one, often due to the
+presence of people of rank on the occasion of the excavation (e. g.
+in the case of the Casa dell’ Imperatore di Germania), or derived
+from special objects discovered (Casa del Fauno); frequently too the
+electioneering inscriptions which are written on the houses have led
+to (unauthorised) conclusions as to the owner. On the other hand the
+second, the official appellation, is founded on the discovery of
+seals or inscriptions within the house that allow of a conclusion
+as to the former possessor. The so-called House of Pansa then (fig.
+104) is situated in the Street of Nola, opposite the Baths. It
+displays a façade of tufa, of the Samnite epoch, with unusually lofty
+doorway, which runs back from the street and so forms a _vestibulum_.
+Through the doorway we catch sight of the _Atrium_ with its very deep
+_impluvium_, and behind this the _tablinum_, from which two steps lead
+to the peristyle. The tufa columns of the peristyle are of the Ionic
+order, but by a coat of stucco were turned into Corinthian. Behind the
+peristyle an entrance leads to the kitchen garden, the beds of which
+were still discernible at the time of the excavation. A large portion
+of the ground pertaining to the house is taken up by shops and a bakery
+with three mills. It is worth while to examine such a bakery somewhat
+more in detail.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 107. Pompeian Loaves (p. 76).]
+
+Every bakery was connected with several mills, in which was prepared
+the flour required for baking. Each mill consists of a conical support
+(_Meta_) and upper part forming a double funnel (_Catillus_); the
+latter is so placed over the supporting cone that the upper cavity
+serves to receive the corn as it is poured in, while by the rubbing
+between the lower funnel and the fixed cone the grains of corn are
+reduced to powder. That the turning may proceed more easily the
+external double funnel rests by means of a cross bar of wood upon an
+iron point fixed in the cone beneath, at the narrowest point of the
+_catillus_ holes are made in which are fixed bars by means of which
+the turning of the mill is effected by a donkey. For this reason the
+ground round about is paved. Near the space in which the mills stand
+is the oven, and by this is seen a hollow for the reception of water
+(fig. 105); to the left was a room in which the bread was put into
+shape. Here are also often remains of a peculiar contrivance for the
+kneading of dough, a cylindrical vessel of lava in which the dough was
+kneaded by means of a roller turning round an iron rod. Shelves on the
+wall, of which there are still to be seen traces served to display the
+baker’s wares. It may here be remarked that in the villages of Sardinia
+at the present day mills are in use which correspond almost exactly
+to those at Pompeii, and also that the machine for kneading dough is
+still employed in a similar form at Palermo. From a well closed baking
+oven eighty-one loaves were taken which naturally were somewhat stale,
+inasmuch as they were put into the oven as early as the 24th of August
+79! (Fig. 107.) Some of them are exhibited in the museum at Pompeii.
+Next to the House of Pansa comes the House of the Tragic Poet, which
+plays a part in Bulwer’s romance as the house of Glaucus (fig. 106).
+It has its name from a painting wrongly explained as a rehearsal (in
+reality the myth of Admetus and Alcestis is represented), and also a
+Mosaic relating to the theatre. On account, however, of the magnificent
+paintings found in the Atrium which refer to Homeric themes (the
+carrying off of Briseis, Zeus and Hera on Ida _etc._) it is also
+called Casa Omerica. Here the photograph is taken from the Atrium; the
+fountain close to the impluvium is seen in the foreground, behind, a
+step higher, is the tablinum, with mosaic ornament, opening with its
+whole width on the peristyle. There is still to be seen the little
+chapel of the Lares in which a statuette of Silenus was found. From
+this house comes the Sacrifice of Iphigenia, a painting represented on
+an earlier page.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 108. Fullonica (Fulling-mill) (p. 78).]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 109. Casa del Fauno (p. 80).]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 110. The Fuller at his Work (p. 78).]
+
+Bordering on the house of the Tragic Poet is the Fullonica, the
+house of a fuller, where the arrangements necessary for carrying on
+the trade are so completely preserved and so clearly illustrated by
+wall-paintings that one can form an accurate idea of the process of
+fulling. In figure 108 is given a picture of the second fulling-mill
+situated in the Street of Stabiae. In the atrium are preserved the
+marble table and the troughlike basin into which fell the stream of
+water; in the peristyle beyond the tablinum we have a glimpse of
+the vats of masonry in which the cleansing of the woollen stuffs
+took place. In the small entrance which near the tablinum led to the
+workroom was found at the time of the excavation a great mass of
+whitish argillaceous earth (_terra fullonica_), which was used for
+the cleansing of woollen stuffs. The pictures of the other Fullonica
+(fig. 110) inform us as to the process itself. Vats placed in niches
+are seen, standing in which the fullers partly wash the material
+partly tread it with the feet. Beyond we see a workman carrying a
+frame like a crinoline (on this the clothes were spread to be bleached
+with sulphur), while another brushes or cards the garment hung up on
+a bar; beneath on the left sits a woman who seems to be giving a girl
+instructions as to the treatment of a piece of cloth. Another painting
+represents the press with which the woollen material when washed was
+smoothed; it is exactly like those in use at the present day.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 111. Casa dei Capitelli colorati (Casa
+d’Arianna) (p. 81).]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 112. Casa dei Capitelli colorati (Casa
+d’Arianna) (p. 81).]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 113. Casa del Centenario (p. 81).]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 114. Casa del Imperatore di Germania (p. 82).]
+
+If one follows the Street of Nola further towards the East one soon
+comes to a house which may be designated as one of the most famous and
+best preserved of those in Pompeii, the Casa del Fauno (fig. 109), so
+named from the bronze statue of the dancing faun found therein (fig.
+77). In the footway before the threshold the visitor is greeted on
+entrance with the word _Have_ (Hail!). The house has two entrances with
+two _Atria_, of which the one here represented, the principal Atrium,
+may serve at the same time as an example of the _Atrium Tuscanicum_,
+inasmuch as no columns are placed around the impluvium as supports for
+the beams of the roof.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 115. Wax tablet from the House of Caecilius
+Jucundus (p. 83).]
+
+The house is decorated in the first style, that is to say its
+decoration consists of an imitation of marble slabs. It is a curious
+fact that the walls are covered with sheets of lead beneath the stucco
+to keep all dampness from it. Paintings are not to be found here; on
+the other hand the house was rich in valuable finely executed mosaics,
+among which is to be specially mentioned the greatest of all mosaics,
+Alexander’s Battle. It was in the chamber opening upon the peristyle,
+the red columns of which are visible in the illustration beyond
+the tablinum. The columns seen behind belong to a second peristyle
+embracing the whole breadth of the house, which has taken the place of
+what must be supposed to have been originally a garden.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 116. House with several stories (p. 83).]
+
+The Casa dei Capitelli Colorati, also called Casa d’ Arianna, is placed
+obliquely with regard to the Casa del Fauno. We pass from the Street of
+Nola first into the garden, which is surrounded by a colonnade (figs.
+111 and 112); next comes the peristyle with the sittingrooms. The house
+has received its name from the fact that in the last period of Pompeii
+the capitals of the Ionic columns dating from the Samnite period were
+newly covered with stucco and painted.
+
+One more house in the Street of Nola deserves special attention, the
+Casa del Centenario, so entitled because it was excavated on the
+occasion of the celebration of the eighteenhundredth year after the
+overwhelming of Pompeii (fig. 113). Here also are two _atria_ with a
+large peristyle behind, which had a low railing between the columns
+as may be seen by the incisions in them. The claim of this house to
+rank among the most important properties in Pompeii is established by
+the discovery of many paintings and statuettes of bronze and marble,
+as well as of ample baths, for warming which the heat from an oven was
+employed, besides a Shrine of Lares of some importance, in which was
+a small portable altar. Here too was discovered the picture given on
+an earlier page, which represents Bacchus entirely made up of grape
+clusters, in close proximity to a mountain, in which may be recognised
+the present Monte di Somma before the eruption of Vesuvius.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 117. Kitchen with Hearth (p. 84).]
+
+To the north of the Casa del Centenario lies the Casa delle Nozze d’
+Argento, also called Casa dell’ Imperatore di Germania, because the
+house was excavated in 1893 on the occasion of the Silver Wedding of
+the King and Queen of Italy in the presence of the Emperor of Germany
+(fig. 114). The Atrium is _Tetrastylum_, that is the roof beams rest on
+four columns which are excellently preserved; behind comes the tablinum
+with a mosaic pavement, and thence one reaches a peristyle which is in
+an equally good state of preservation.
+
+Here too let there be described a house in the Street of Stabiae, the
+little garden of which adorned with statuettes has been mentioned
+above (fig. 76). The house has received its name from a painting
+representing a letter with the address of Marcus Lucretius, _M.
+Lucretio flam. Martis decurioni Pompei_; on the left of this is
+represented a _diptychon_, a doubled wax tablet with the style for
+writing, on the right, beneath, an inkpot with pen. The house of
+Lucretius had many well preserved paintings of the last period of the
+city. Together with this letter the wax tablets may also be mentioned
+which have been found in the house of Caecilius Jucundus. Figure 115
+represents such a tablet.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 118. Plan of the House of the Vettii (p. 83).]
+
+From another point of view the house depicted above (fig. 116) is
+noteworthy. As said above on p. 6 the citywall is on the west and
+southwest sides for the most part broken down and its place taken by
+houses. Since these houses thus overlapped the wall and descended to
+the level of the plain below, they gained at the back an additional
+story on this lower level; and the top of this story formed a terrace
+from which a marvellous view over plain and sea could be enjoyed. And
+so many more houses in Pompeii might be examined in detail, were it
+not that the very abundance warns us to observe due moderation.--We
+must not however leave Pompeii without taking sufficient notice of one
+more house, a house that on account of the good condition in which
+it has risen out of the ashes from Vesuvius, and on account of its
+great number of paintings, and the decoration of its peristyle will
+leave a lasting impression on every beholder. This is the house of the
+Vettii only recently excavated, in which everything that could be left
+has been left in its original position, in order to produce the most
+complete idea of a Pompeian house.
+
+The new house lies to the east of the so-called Casa del Labirinto,
+and is entered from the east side, the Vicolo which represents the
+continuation of the Vicolo degli scienziati. We first enter the
+vestibulum (fig. 118 at _a_). To pass hence into the ostium proper
+persons either availed themselves of the wide opening principal door,
+or were admitted through a smaller sidedoor on the right. Thence they
+stepped into the Atrium (_c_), in the centre of which is placed the
+impluvium with a wastepipe passing into the street; right and left
+are seen large slabs of stone with remains of the iron chests let
+into them, the strongboxes of the master of the house. Right and left
+of the ostium two small chambers open on the atrium, so also on the
+west of the two strongboxes are situated the two alae and a chamber
+by each strongbox, one of these chambers, however, has in later times
+been cut off from the atrium by a low wall, and turned into a kind of
+storeroom. But here ends the symmetrical arrangement of the atrium;
+while on the left an apartment opens widely on the atrium as a winter
+triclinium, on the other side appears the entrance to a second atrium
+provided with its own impluvium, and at the back with the shrine of
+the Lares. On this small atrium open several rooms intended for the
+slaves, and therefore left without ornament; there too lies the kitchen
+with wide hearth of masonry, on and near which have been found a large
+number (fig. 117) of utensils serving for boiling and grilling &c. The
+little room, that could be entered only from the kitchen, evidently the
+cook’s room, is now kept under lock and key, on account of the somewhat
+objectionable paintings with which this household dignitary had had his
+apartment adorned.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 119. Love on a Crab (p. 86).]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 120. Love with Dolphins (p. 86).]
+
+On the other side of the atrium also follow rooms for the household;
+there, close to a staircase by which the upper story was reached, a
+passage leads to two chambers of uncertain destination. Noteworthy is
+a fountain beside the staircase, by means of which the water could be
+drawn directly for the upper story.
+
+Out of the atrium in front of which in this instance no tablinum is
+placed, we at once pass into the peristyle, the principal apartment
+of the house, the portico of which is supported by seven columns
+on the longer sides and four on the shorter; by this the garden is
+enclosed. On the southeast, in the first place two rooms open on the
+peristyle, and on the north two others, of which one, the large
+Oecus, is a principal apartment of the building, further on the east
+is a triclinium. From the peristyle a small suite of rooms is also
+accessible, which, not without plausibility, have been designated
+women’s apartments; here again a small garden is found. Let this
+suffice for the orientation of the discovered chambers. How then as to
+their decoration?
+
+The possessor of the property has evidently set no store by the
+decoration of the pavement, for the better class of mosaic has nowhere
+been employed, but the floor consists almost exclusively of stucco in
+which small bits of marble have been inserted. All the more richly are
+the walls ornamented.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 121. Candelabrum, Wall-painting (p. 86).]
+
+Just as we go in (to say nothing of smaller pictures) there is seen on
+the pilaster at the entrance to the atrium a Priapus. Pictures of this
+kind were usually placed just at the entrance of a building in order
+to avert disaster and the evil eye. The walls of the atrium, owing to
+the numerous openings leading from it to the surrounding rooms, are
+almost entirely broken up into mere pilasters, which however display a
+style of painting systematically arranged. Above an imitation of marble
+reaching to no great height, rises the yellow plinth, in which are
+inserted pictures on a red ground; there we see boys bringing dishes
+with fruits, others playing with parrots or guinea fowl, carrying
+glass jugs and dishes; another raises the cover of a vessel to spy
+curiously into its contents, again another tastes the contents of the
+vessel entrusted to his care, others seem equipped for a festival,
+they are clad in gala fashion and decked out with garlands, they hold
+garlands too in their hands. Above this plinth there next comes a small
+field of black, displaying Cupids in their merry pranks as imitators
+of human pursuits. Here one has harnessed a ram to a chariot, another
+has his carriage drawn by two dolphins (fig. 120). A sacrifice to
+Fortune too is offered by the little rogues with all earnestness;
+again a duel between two hero Loves is depicted with every truth of
+detail; bestriding goats and armed with shield and lance they charge
+each other, but while one at full gallop couches his lance against his
+adversary, the latter, causing his steed to swerve, seems to avoid the
+blow; two other Loves attend the duel on foot. Another picture must
+certainly contain the continuation of this warfare; one has fallen
+with his steed, and in this helpless condition is sorely maltreated
+not only by his original opponent, but also by his seconds, while his
+own second has made off. Again a race is represented, but as fiery
+coursers dolphins are harnessed to the chariots. A highly droll effect
+is produced by a Cupid mounted on a crab (fig. 119) and another on a
+locust, who urges his steed on with whip and rein. Then the Cupids
+are busy hunting butterflies, in short every pursuit of adult and
+child is imitated by them in their bright busy way, but with all the
+seriousness that the situation demands. Above the moulding adorned with
+masks and lionheads by which the upper part of the wall is divided from
+the lower, there follow now in an upward direction red (partly burnt
+black) stripes, with columns and candelabra (fig. 121). The vases out
+of which these grow are apparently richly adorned with reliefs. Behind
+them are introduced balustrades, to which steps lead up; above they
+support large hoops, on which figures are seated. A somewhat larger
+wall surface is preserved only behind the strongbox on the right, here
+is seen above the plinth a hunting scene on a larger scale. Hounds are
+pursuing a wild boar and a bear, others have pulled down a stag; then
+comes a stripe with two Psyches, who bring fruits in baskets and empty
+them into other baskets.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 122. Hero and Leander (p. 87).]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 123. Cyparissus (p. 88).]
+
+The little room by the ostium displays in its plinth again an imitation
+of marble, above this the wall is painted yellow with white panels
+framed with green, in the middle of each of which is introduced
+a picture. On the wall lying to the left of the entrance is the
+abandonment of Ariadne on Naxos. The fair one deserted by Theseus at
+the bidding of the gods is, as it seems, just awaked from slumber.
+Astonished and terrified at being forsaken she lays her left hand
+on her chin, while an Eros in order to bring her to understand her
+position points to the ship of Theseus speeding away with sail full
+set. The second picture is unfortunately destroyed, the slab of
+stucco bearing it was in antiquity fastened on the wall with a series
+of nails. The picture on the third wall represents the well-known
+adventure of Hero and Leander (fig. 122). Besides these more important
+pictures there are birds pecking fruit; above these comes a zone
+of water with fish and other marine fauna, crowned by architecture
+represented in perspective, on detached portions of which hanging
+baskets and drinkinghorns are introduced, and also wild beasts chasing
+one another. The room was once vaulted.
+
+A richer decoration is to be seen in the paintings of the next room
+towards the south, a triclinium: here the plinth is yellow and
+ornamented with garlands, arabesques, hanging masks _etc._; above
+come white panels, between which rises architecture with seated
+and recumbent sphinxes. Of larger pictures only two are preserved;
+of the other two one was destroyed, probably before the eruption of
+Vesuvius, while the other fell a sacrifice to the diggers for treasure
+who after the destruction of Pompeii lawfully or unlawfully explored
+the abandoned houses, and for this purpose knocked holes through the
+walls. On the side opposite the entrance the wrestling match between
+Eros and Pan is represented, on the entrance side, Cyparissus and his
+hind (fig. 123). Above these panels decorated with pictures comes a
+cornice plastically constructed, higher still than this rise fresh
+architectural forms comprising in their midst a broad exedra, with the
+fore-part of a building approached by three steps. The central panels
+are devoted to the representation of Jupiter and his mortal favourites,
+there is seen on the right of the entrance Jupiter in youthful form
+seated on his throne, while the other walls show Leda, Danaë, and a
+third lady. But also the side panels, the out buildings made accessible
+by stairs, are decorated with figures mostly taken from the Bacchic
+cycle.
+
+On the other side of the ostium the picture of the Lares (fig.
+124) demands a brief notice. In the little temple supported by two
+Corinthian columns and crowned by a pediment stands the Genius holding
+patera and incense box. To right and left of him are painted the two
+Lares, who symmetrically carry in one hand a bucket in the other a
+drinkinghorn. Beneath them is observed the serpent that in many a curve
+approaches the altar richly furnished with offerings. The remaining
+apartments, with the exception of the cook’s bedroom, are without
+painting.
+
+The two cubicles lying west of the strongboxes have only unimportant
+decorations; both alae display a black plinth enlivened by green
+shrubs, and have above yellow panels with red borders, and having in
+the centre small representations of still life; of these a cockfight
+executed in a most lively style merits special attention. Beside a herm
+stands a table with a large vessel; there stand two cocks, preparing
+themselves for the fight; a third, the defeated one, lies under the
+table, while the fourth, the conqueror, proudly marches off to the
+right, with a twig of palm in his beak.
+
+The peristyle has a black plinth decorated alternately with green
+plants and vases (the pyramids of ivy there represented are now
+imitated in nature in the garden of the peristyle). Above come
+alternately large black panels framed in red, and fantastic pieces of
+architecture on a white ground, which are bounded beneath by a yellow
+slab with green or dark red border. The figure compositions introduced
+in the centres of the panels consist for the most part of still life,
+to which fish, fowls _etc._ contribute material, though there is no
+lack of more important figures. To these belongs above all that of a
+thick-set man who sits beside a chest filled with books. Scientific
+efforts are suggested also by the figure of a Urania, who represented
+as though in the act of imparting information, points with her staff
+to the celestial globe lying before her (fig. 142); otherwise the
+decoration of the hall is supplied by Satyrs and Bacchanals and the
+winged female figures so frequently employed in Pompeii, together with
+the attributes of various deities.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 124. The Shrine of the Lares (p. 88).]
+
+Much more important however than these wall-paintings of the portico
+are the sculptures which have been preserved in the enclosed garden
+(fig. 125). In all four corners, and further at the second and third
+columns of the narrower sides and the fourth and fifth of the long
+sides there were once statuettes, twelve therefore in all, of which
+nine are still preserved in their original position (fig. 126), while
+two were removed to other parts of the building for repair. All these
+statuettes, of which two are of bronze, the rest of marble, served
+for fountains. The water either came directly out of them, or branch
+pipes of the aqueduct were so laid on to them that it seemed as though
+the water came from them; between them are placed several troughs and
+receptacles of marble, which by their graceful shapes and beautiful
+ornaments make a pleasing impression. The conduit too, save for slight
+damage, was in such good repair that it has been found possible to
+renew the play of the waters by means of a reservoir placed on the
+roof. Marble tables between the columns and within the garden that is
+still quite clearly marked out in beds, as well as two ivy-encircled
+marble pedestals on each of which rests a double bust (fig. 127)
+contribute in no slight measure to make the whole peristyle most
+charming, and indeed a spot as yet unique in Pompeii.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 125. The Peristyle of the House of the Vettii (p.
+89).]
+
+A series of apartments too open on the peristyle, and in the first
+place a triclinium. On a low foundation of imitation marble rises
+the dark red plinth, over which again mounts a fanciful style of
+architecture, leaving space in the centre for a sort of canopy.
+The smaller pictures executed soberly in monochrome fall into the
+background behind the large ones occupying the centre of the wall. Of
+these large pictures the first is Hercules strangling the serpents
+(fig. 128). The child Hercules has seized both the serpents sent by
+Juno, and is throttling them, while his mother flies in terror, and
+Amphitryo, his earthly father, is in the act of hastening to the
+rescue. Yet the sight which presents itself to him checks any further
+action, he sees that the child needs no help against the wretched
+snakes: astonished and thoughtful he lays his right hand on his chin,
+and he has every reason to be full of thoughts, for he could not have
+expected such bravery from his own son. Jupiter in the meantime has
+despatched his eagle to receive information as to his hero son. The
+subject of the second picture is the punishment of Pentheus. The third
+picture also is taken from a Theban myth, it represents the punishment
+of Dirce, and corresponds to the well-known group of the so-called
+Farnese Bull.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 126. Bacchus (p. 89).]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 127. Bacchus and Ariadne (p. 90).]
+
+In like manner the corresponding room to the north of the _Ala
+dextra_, which also opens its whole width on the peristyle, displays
+rich ornament on the walls. In the plinth there is again an imitation
+of marble, above in the middle is a red panel with a large square
+picture, next is on each side a blue panel with the usual fantastic
+architecture; then comes on both the longer sides a white panel. In the
+centre of each of the three wallsurfaces a painting of larger size is
+placed: first Daedalus and Pasiphae (fig. 129). The ingenious craftsman
+has prepared the wooden cow as commissioned by the spouse of Minos, and
+now the queen comes into the master’s studio to inspect his work. The
+second picture treats of the punishment of Ixion. Mercury has delivered
+over the miscreant to punishment, and Vulcan is just fastening him to
+the wheel; vainly the mother or wife of Ixion implores Mercury to have
+mercy; for even if he on his own account were inclined to grant her
+prayer, yet this would be prevented by the presence of Juno, who in
+queenly state has appeared with Iris to take note of the due exaction
+of punishment (fig. 130).
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 128. Hercules strangling Serpents (p. 90).]
+
+While the connecting idea of both these pictures, viz unlawful love
+and its punishment, is clear enough, the third picture, the finding of
+Ariadne by Bacchus and his following, falls somewhat outside this range
+of thought. I believe however that critics have gone too far in their
+efforts to discover a harmonious unity of idea for the paintings of a
+room. That the owner of the house might often demand of the artist to
+see that a single harmonious train of thought was carried throughout a
+room, is of course easily understood, but on the other hand it is again
+quite clear that in the often great number of rooms to be decorated
+the whole mythology was more or less drawn upon, and that frequently
+the number of subjects at command, and therefore chance, determined
+the choice of the pictures. So we cannot be surprised if we see the
+Deliverance of Ariadne placed with pictures treating of the punishment
+of unlawful love. Ariadne in her grief at being deserted by Theseus,
+whose ship is still seen in the distance, has sunk into a slumber that
+frees her from care: then Bacchus with his followers approaches, who
+will raise Ariadne to be his bride.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 129. Daedalus and Pasiphae (p. 92).]
+
+The side panels of this room also are adorned with paintings, which
+though of smaller proportions are nevertheless well worth our notice.
+These are oblong pictures of ships. Two to four strongly manned vessels
+are represented, which rowed at full speed hasten against one another,
+and by clever turnings seek to escape the enemy’s onset, the dangerous
+blow with the ship’s beak. On the shorter sides the corresponding
+positions are occupied by subjects of still life (birds with fruit, and
+so on). Above these come flying figures arranged in pairs, swinging
+garlands over their heads: they are probably intended for the Four
+Seasons; above comes again architecture with figures.
+
+The most splendid room however and the most interesting in the house
+is, next to the garden of the peristyle, the large Oecus, which is
+connected by a wide doorway with the portico, and by a small door with
+another chamber devoid of ornament. The groundcolour of the whole room
+is in the lower portion red and black, the plinth is sober black and
+adorned with floral arabesques, above, however, the walls are red,
+with black stripes. Beneath each vertical black stripe a picture is
+introduced on the plinth, generally Amazons in warlike guise, buckler
+and battleaxe in hand, but also Satyrs, Maenads, persons offering
+sacrifice, _etc._ Over these figures comes a small oblong picture,
+usually Psyches gathering flowers (fig. 131), here and there, however,
+mythological scenes also are inserted. Three of these are preserved,
+first Orestes and Pylades in Tauris. To the left sits Orestes, near him
+is Pylades, towards them Iphigenia advances with the image of Diana,
+on the right king Thoas is seated on a throne. The second picture
+represents the triumph of Apollo over the serpent Pytho. The god has
+killed the snake which guarded the sanctuary at Delphi; proud of his
+victory he seized the lyre to sound the first paean in praise of the
+omnipotence of the gods, and to his own especial glory; in his honour
+the goddess of the place brings a bull, who is to fall as a sacrifice.
+The third relates presumably to the sacrifice of Iphigenia in Aulis.
+Before an altar, on which fire is burning, stands a woman with bowl
+and chalice, from which she seems to besprinkle a hind standing in
+front of her. From the right of the altar a wide-striding warrior
+hastens up with drawn sword; a female figure wearing a wreath hurries
+away to the left, evidently terrified at the warrior’s action. The
+rendering varies from others relating to the same myth, yet scarcely
+any other interpretation is left. That Iphigenia is not herself
+introduced, but only the hind, may be pronounced remarkable, though why
+should not the painter have hit upon this means of representing the
+sudden change, especially if the other pictures in the room (cf. no. 1
+of this series, Orestes and Pylades in Tauris) made the relations clear?
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 130. Ixion’s Punishment (p. 92).]
+
+The horizontal black bands beneath the red panels are occupied by
+Erotes and Psyches, who with a naturally bright earnestness and
+conscientiousness imitate the employments of daily life, chiefly the
+exercise of certain trades, so that these bands may be reckoned among
+the most interesting of Pompeii’s pictures. Here we have in the first
+place the representation of a game, Erotes are busied in throwing
+balls at a board. Further the manufacture and sale of garlands. Here
+flowers are brought to the city by the gardener and his son, there
+others are busy with the preparation of garlands, while on the left
+haggling is going on about the finished garlands. Then follows the
+production of oil, and the ointments prepared therefrom. A race too is
+introduced (fig. 133); four Erotes distinguished by the four colours
+of the Circus drive chariots harnessed with gazelles. On this follows
+the representation of the goldsmith’s art, further that of the fuller’s
+work, so important for ancient cities: two Erotes tread in a vat the
+clothes to be cleaned, after this comes the removing of stains and the
+brushing, or the raising the nap of the clothes, still further on the
+clothes that have been cleaned are submitted to a thorough inspection
+by Psyches. The following picture, the festival of Vesta, representing
+the so-called _Vestalia_ is pretty well ruined, Erotes and Psyches are
+reclining on the ground at a merry feast, and even the much tormented
+donkeys have for once some rest. The next picture too is not well
+preserved; on the left the vintage is represented, on the right the
+wine-press. On the vintage follows the triumph of Bacchus, who is of
+course represented by an Eros. The close of this series, so damaged
+unfortunately in several of its scenes, is formed by the tavern with
+the sale of wine (fig. 132). On the left stand a number of amphoras
+just as they are still often found in Pompeii leaning on the wall in
+a somewhat slanting position, in front of them stands mine host in an
+easy posture, while he offers to his customer, who carries a little
+stick, a bowl of wine to taste; two other Erotes are busy in drawing
+wine for another sample from an amphora in a horizontal position.
+
+In the centre of the red panels flying couples are depicted, derived
+from mythology; we note, however, the want of freedom in choice which
+the requirement as to pictures has imposed on the artist; here, as in
+the War against the Giants at Pergamon, the whole force, so to speak,
+has been mobilised. The figures preserved are those of Poseidon with
+an inamorata, of Apollo with Daphne, of Bacchus with Ariadne, and of
+Perseus with Andromeda.
+
+In the centre of each wall there was also a large picture, these
+however have not survived. On the other hand the upper part of the wall
+above the red panels framed in black is still partly preserved; we
+see here again new structures rising, which were peopled by numerous
+figures, chiefly derived from the entourage of Bacchus.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 131. Psyches gathering Flowers (p. 94).]
+
+Now it remains to describe the small space set apart for the ladies.
+Here too the walls are adorned with paintings which attract less
+attention only because the abundance of treasures offered to our gaze
+in the Casa dei Vettii leaves scarcely time or inclination for the
+smaller works of art. The first room has a black plinth, with green
+shrubs and flowers as ornament, over this red panels separated by
+white stripes; in the centre of each panel is a fabulous creature.
+Here a Pegasus grazing beside a wall and the attributes of Athena is
+most deserving of notice. The second room has black walls with white
+bands, which as it were open up a view into the open air with trees &c.
+In the centre of each wall there was originally a large picture, now
+however only two are left; first the Discovery of Achilles in Scyros,
+where Ulysses and Diomedes by a stratagem detect Achilles disguised in
+woman’s clothing among the daughters of Lycomedes, and induce him to
+take part in the expedition against Troy (fig. 134). The second picture
+represents Hercules and Auge.
+
+Next to these large wall-pictures, medallions with flying female
+forms are placed on the side panels. It may be stated in passing that
+throughout the whole mansion the medallions always prove to have been
+separately inserted: clearly these pieces were produced by the artists
+on slabs of stucco and kept in stock, so that during the preparation of
+a wall they had simply to be let into it. Hence we cannot be surprised
+if the medallions sometimes betray a style more or less at variance
+with the other decorations of the wall.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 132. Cupid as Host (p. 95).]
+
+Such are the paintings of the house known as _Domus Vettiorum_, a
+house that in the number of pictures which are placed in it, and
+in the beauty and grace of its peristyle, excels without doubt all
+other houses as yet excavated. Of course we have not always to do
+with masters of the first rank; should we ask as to the origin of
+the pictures and how they had come to a little provincial town like
+Pompeii, several hands that had been employed upon them might easily
+be distinguished. Taken as a whole however the wall decorations are
+unique; nay with regard to individual representations, above all in
+the case of the frieze of Cupids in the Oecus, one can pronounce only
+a favourable judgement, especially when one sees how lightly and
+naturally, and yet with what a sure hand, and how characteristically,
+the pictures have been conceived and executed. If ordinary decorative
+painters produced such wall decoration for a small provincial town,
+what triumph of art must have graced the mansions of the leading men in
+the great cities! We have indeed a specimen of these in what is called
+the House of Livia on the Palatine, and in the _Domus Transtiberina_,
+the remains of which are exhibited in the Baths of Diocletian; these,
+however, are but insignificant fragments as compared with the vast mass
+of that which has been irretrievably lost.
+
+Now that we have thus examined a house in its entirety we might take
+our departure. Yet hold! Pompeii is indeed, as said above, in contrast
+to Naples, the city of the Dead, yet in Pompeii there is still one spot
+that in a greater degree may be designated the place of the Dead, this
+is the Street of Tombs in front of the Gate of Herculaneum. Almost
+all roads that led out of ancient cities were lined by the monuments
+of the dead; so too at Pompeii, where on all the roads leading out of
+the city, e. g. on that to Scafati, numerous burial places have been
+discovered, but not one of these roads can compete with the place of
+sepulture that lies in front of the Gate of Herculaneum. This then
+deserves a more thorough investigation.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 133. A Race (p. 95).]
+
+This is not the proper place to describe the methods of burial
+prevailing among the Romans; it is sufficient here to state that in the
+most ancient times the dead were laid to rest in sarcophagi; examples
+of such a method of interment, which at Rome in particular gentes, or
+clans, was observed uninterruptedly to the latest period, e. g. among
+the Cornelii, are found also in Pompeii, but seem to go back to the
+Oscan epoch. In those times the bodies were laid in coffinlike chests
+of limestone, which were made up of square blocks or smaller stones,
+and covered with earth, after all sorts of little vases, chiefly of
+Nolan manufacture, had been put in with them. Examples of such a
+method of burial are exhibited in the small Museum at the Porta della
+Marina. Later, however, when Pompeii was added to the Roman Empire,
+cremation generally took the place of interment. For this purpose in
+a space specially set apart called _Ustrinum_, the funeral pile was
+erected, to which the form of an altar was regularly given, the height
+and decoration of which were naturally decided according to the rank
+and wealth of the deceased. Such _ustrina_ were of course assigned
+by the city, frequently however, where space permitted and police
+regulations did not hinder, there were private grounds of this kind at
+the hereditary burying places of distinguished families. At Pompeii
+too such an _ustrinum_ has been supposed to exist before the Gate of
+Herculaneum, but wrongly, for the insufficient distance from the city
+would alone have absolutely prohibited the burning of corpses there.
+The bier with the corpse was placed on the pyre and covered with sweet
+smelling unguents, incense, costly stuffs &c. and then kindled by a
+relative or friend with averted face. When the funeral pile was burned
+to the ground the ashes had to be extinguished with water or wine, the
+bones that were left collected, and then, after the customary lustral
+sacrifice had been offered, the funeral feast had to be held at the
+grave. The place required for such a feast, the _triclinium funebre_,
+is still remaining at Pompeii. Some days later the bones, which in the
+meantime had been dried in the sun, were sprinkled with milk and wine,
+and, after the addition of fragrant materials, placed in a sepulchral
+urn, that was afterwards conveyed to the tomb. The sepulchral urns were
+generally hermetically sealed, but often provided with holes at the
+top, so that on appointed days the usual libations to the dead could
+be poured right on to the cremated remains, in order to ensure to the
+deceased person the enjoyment of the sacrifices offered to him. Nay
+pipes have (in the case of some of the graves situated on the road
+leading to Scafati) been fixed in such a way as to render it possible
+to convey directly to him such libations also as were dedicated to the
+dead man outside the tomb.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 134. Achilles at the Court of Lycomedes (p. 96).]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 135. The Street of Tombs by the Gate of Herculaneum
+(p. 100).]
+
+Apart from some few graves dating back to Oscan times, the monuments in
+front of the Gate of Herculaneum belong entirely to the Roman period
+(fig. 135). Immediately to the left, behind the Gate, is seen a vaulted
+niche, in which then was originally placed a statue, that of course of
+the person buried there, with an altar before it for the sacrifices;
+according to the inscription the grave belongs to the Augustalis M.
+Cerrinius Restitutus, for whose burial the Decurions presented the
+ground. The _Augustales_ formed a _collegium_ consisting of freedmen
+dedicated to the cult of the emperors. This is the niche to which is
+attached the well-known legend of the sentry fabled to have remained
+at his post during the eruption of Vesuvius, and thereby met his
+death: in reality there is no question of a sentrybox nor of a sentry,
+for, according to the reports of the excavations, no skeleton at all
+was found at this point. Passing on from the grave of M. Cerrinius
+we come on the left to a semicircular bench which according to the
+inscription was erected by decree of the Decurions in honour of Aulus
+Veius, who had held the highest magistracies of the city. Probably his
+remains were interred behind the bench. His statue will have stood on
+the pedestal in the centre of the seat; it may be inferred from the
+dignities named in the inscription as enjoyed by him that he lived not
+later than Augustus.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 136. Continuation of the Street of Tombs (p. 103).]
+
+The following grave belonged to M. Porcius, whose name is mentioned
+in connection with the smaller Theatre and the Amphitheatre; a son
+or other relative may of course have borne the same name. The third
+monument on the left hand side again takes the form of a semicircular
+seat, it marks the spot where the priestess Mamia was buried (behind
+the seat). We need not dwell on the pleasing thoughts aroused in the
+beholder when he recognises that the monument here assumes a form
+specially useful to the living, and affording rest to the wearied
+wanderer. Behind Mamia’s seat a large sepulchral building is preserved,
+in the chamber of which niches for the urns containing ashes are to
+be seen (fig. 137). As is proved by several inscriptions, the tomb
+belonged to the distinguished Pompeian family of the Istacidii. After
+this comes a now closed street, which according to an inscription seems
+to have led to the bathing establishment of M. Crassus Frugi. This
+included, as we know from other sources, a medicinal spring rising out
+of the sea. That the sea came up nearer Pompeii than is now the case
+has already been stated. Here the buryingplaces on the left cease for
+some distance, and there follows a villa site, now once more covered
+with ashes _etc._, in which, without sufficient ground, people have
+sought to recognise a villa of Cicero (who is known to have possessed a
+villa at Pompeii). Let us therefore retrace our steps to the Gate, to
+examine the graves placed on the righthandside.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 137 Interior of a Grave (p. 101).]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 138. Vessel of blue Glass (p. 103).]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 139. Herm-cippus (p. 104).]
+
+Here first meets us a large altar-shaped grave without inscription in
+the chamber of which, when opened a few years ago, two clay vessels
+were found enclosed for better preservation in leaden covers, which
+contained the remains of bones covered with a cloth, together with a
+coin of the time of Augustus. Coins are frequently found placed with
+the remains. Although originally the idea of such parting gifts was
+that the property left was thereby purchased from the deceased, the
+earnest money as it were being handed to him to prevent his return, yet
+gradually the belief became universal that passage money was handed to
+the dead man for Charon, whose boat was to carry him to the Underworld.
+As long as the dead body was buried in the earth, it was the custom to
+lay the coin in the mouth; when burning came into vogue in place of
+burial, it was quite natural that the coin should still be added to
+the remains. The second tomb on the right was erected to the Aedile M.
+Terentius Felix Major, by his widow Flavia Sabina, after the city had
+granted not only the site, but also a contribution of 2000 sesterces
+(about 21 pounds). The remains of M. Terentius were discovered under
+the table on the left, in a glass vessel, doubly protected by being
+placed in a terracotta urn and wrapped in lead. Of the graves that
+follow, number 6 deserves special notice, the Grave of the Garlands,
+so called from the ornament affixed on one side. The structure is
+solid; nevertheless there will be found in all probability a sepulchral
+chamber underneath, but as yet no search for it has been made. The
+grave no. 8 is famous for the discovery of the blue glass vessel (fig.
+138) now in Naples, representing the vintage in white relief on a
+blue ground. To the cheerful sound of flutes and the syrinx, a Genius
+carries grape clusters to a vessel, in which another treads them down,
+as he merrily swings the thyrsus, while on the other side the gathering
+of grapes and the enjoyment of wine are brought to view. Most charming
+however is the network of twining tendrils that form a web around the
+whole vase. Then comes a semicircular niche, as to which it is doubtful
+whether it has actually served for a funeral monument. It was certainly
+erected for this purpose, but since the space for the inscription in
+the pediment has remained unfilled, it seems as though the purpose for
+which it was originally intended had not been carried out.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 140. Sepulchral Monument of Naevoleia Tyche (p.
+105).]
+
+At this point the graves come to an end on the right side also, and
+there appear two villas bordering on the road, which have profited
+by their favourable position through the construction of shops and
+taverns for those passing along the street. From the mosaic fountain
+there to be seen come the four pillars covered with mosaic, that have
+been taken to the Naples Museum; they supported a pavilion in front
+of the fountain. On the other hand the tombs soon begin again on the
+left (fig. 136); in the first place one which passes for an unfinished
+structure, because its upper portion is not completely preserved; here
+is a gravestone the peculiar shape of which is found outside Pompeii
+only at Sorrento, a stone formed in imitation of a bust, on the back
+of which plaits of hair hang down; on the smooth surface in front it
+bears the inscription.--_Junoni Tyches Juliae Augustae vener._ While
+the Genius is the protecting spirit of the man, the Juno takes this
+place in the case of women; the Tyche whose remains are buried here was
+probably a favourite slave of Julia Augusta, i. e. of Livia, but the
+meaning of _vener_ is at least doubtful (fig. 139).
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 141. Villa of Diomedes (p. 105).]
+
+One of the most important monuments is the next one, belonging to
+Umbricius Scaurus, erected by his father, when the Town Council had
+granted the site and 2000 sesterces. The chief interest of this
+monument consists in the stucco reliefs with which the front walls and
+the steps of the altar are adorned, and which represent scenes from the
+Amphitheatre, gladiatorial combats and wildbeast hunts. The deceased
+had once given these spectacles to his native city, so that the father
+could bethink himself of preserving the remembrance of this liberality
+by the ornamentation of the monument. Next comes the so-called Round
+Tomb, which in the interior has a peculiarly vaulted chamber with three
+niches, in the bottom of which the urns are fixed in masonry and closed
+with covers, just as in the Roman _columbaria_. Further on the grave
+of the Augustal, Calventius Quietus, demands our special notice, on
+whom on account, of his munificence the Town Council had conferred the
+honour of the _bisellium_, i. e. had given him the right to sit on a
+special seat in the Theatre among the Town Councillors. The _bisellium_
+is depicted on the monument. Particularly striking, however, through
+its ornaments executed in relief, is the tomb of Naevoleia Tyche,
+which she, according to the inscription, erected to herself and C.
+Munatius Faustus, to whom also the Town Council had granted the honour
+of the _bisellium_ (fig. 140). Over the inscription is represented
+the portrait of the foundress, and underneath a sacrifice to the
+dead, while the flanks of the altar show on one side the _bisellium_
+granted to Munatius, on the other side a ship, the sails of which are
+reefed. By this no doubt allusion is made to the end of life. In the
+gravechamber were found, with other more simple vases of terracotta,
+three vases of glass, which were enclosed in a lead wrapping, and in
+which the contents were preserved intact; they contained the burnt
+bones in a fluid made up of water, wine, and oil mixed together.
+
+After this comes the _triclinium funebre_ mentioned before, a place in
+which the funeral feasts were usually held. The triclinium is in its
+general features not different from those occurring in private houses,
+one sees three couches of masonry (with the higher end inwards) round a
+table on which the food was placed. With this ends the series of tombs
+on the left hand.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 142. Urania (p. 89).]
+
+On the righthand our special attention is claimed by the tomb with the
+marble door. The interior of the tomb was occupied by various urns
+of ashes, yet the exterior was still incomplete, the coating with
+squared stones originally contemplated is not entirely executed. Here
+a street turns off to the right, in which the Oscan graves previously
+mentioned were discovered. Of the tombs on the rising ground between
+the two streets that of M. Arrius Diomedes should be mentioned, which
+he erected to his former lady Arria, himself, and his family. Not as
+though this were distinguished above others, but because the Villa
+lying opposite the tombs has been designated as that of Diomedes. This
+Villa of Diomedes requires more careful consideration before we quit
+Pompeii (fig. 141).
+
+By a slope rising from the Street of Tombs we reach the door, which,
+corresponding to the precepts of Vitruvius for villas, leads straight
+into the peristyle. Among the chambers accessible from this are
+first, on the side of the street, the bathrooms; here we distinguish
+the _piscina_, that is the basin for the cold bath; further the
+_tepidarium_, the air of which was warmed by an opening from the
+_caldarium_, and which, on the garden side, was closed by a window
+with four thick panes of glass; then the _caldarium_, the room for
+the sweating-bath, the floor and walls of which were arranged for
+conducting the heat in the way we have seen in the Public Baths.
+Warm air and hot water were supplied from the kitchen close at hand.
+Still more interesting is a sleeping-apartment, also reached from the
+peristyle, in front of which is a room for the _cubicularis_, the
+valet. The sleeping-apartment itself is built out into the garden
+in a semicircle, here are placed three large windows which supplied
+light and air, but could be quite closed by shutters according to
+requirement. That even there fresh air should not be wanting was
+provided for by a small quadrangular opening placed above. At the back
+is seen the alcove for the bed, which was cut off by a curtain; the
+rings for this were found when the excavation took place; close by we
+observe a hollow in the masonry, presumably a sort of wash-hand basin.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 143. Bronze Bowl (p. 68).]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 144. Boy with Duck]
+
+Below these parts of the establishment, and approached by stairs,
+and having a separate communication with the sloping street, lies, a
+series of domestic offices, slaves’ rooms _etc._, of which nothing
+need be said. Then we pass into the garden, a large pleasure-ground
+surrounded by a colonnade, and with a large basin and fountain in the
+centre, and an open portico supported by six columns. At the further
+end of the colonnade lay a small room, from which, as from the middle
+of the portico, a door led into the open air; here at the time of
+the excavation were found two skeletons, those as it is supposed of
+the master of the house and his servant; the former had a gold ring
+on his finger and a large key in his hand, and near him lay ten gold
+and eighty-eight silver coins. Both then had striven to reach the
+open air, but had perished in doing so. Still more terrible was the
+fate of his family and dependants; eighteen adults and two children
+had fled for refuge to the large room under the colonnade, marked as
+a wine-cellar by the numerous amphorae leaning against the walls, to
+which light and air were admitted from the courtyard through small
+windows; all perished miserably when the masses of pumice-stone had
+cut off their escape. The ashes pressing in had enveloped them and
+faithfully preserved their forms; unfortunately at the time when this
+villa was excavated the process of taking plaster-casts had not yet
+been invented, and so the moulds thus formed were destroyed; it has
+been possible to preserve only one portion, the impression of the neck,
+shoulders, and breast of a young girl, to judge by the impression
+faultlessly beautiful, and wearing a dress of the finest material. This
+mould is exhibited in the Museo Nazionale at Naples.
+
+We now come to the end of our story. The romantic histories that
+have been recounted as to the destruction of Pompeii, the sentinel
+who refused to desert his post, and thus met his death, the closely
+embracing pair of youthful lovers overwhelmed in the street leading
+from the Theatre to the Forum, the men said to have been surprised
+by the eruption of Vesuvius in the midst of the funeral feast at the
+_Triclinium funebre_ in the Street of Tombs--all this and whatever
+else the ever active imagination has invented to depict the fate of
+the city with all possible horror, are thrown deep into the shade
+by the reality which the excavations reveal; we cannot depict to
+ourselves darkly enough the scenes enacted in Pompeii on the 24th of
+August in the year 79. And yet posterity has every reason to thank
+the chance that throughout so many centuries has preserved for us an
+ancient Roman city almost untouched. One cannot shut out from oneself
+the thought that the eruption of Vesuvius in its ultimate results has
+brought only a blessing, inasmuch as it has given us the opportunity
+of casting a glance across so many centuries, right into the actual
+condition and circumstances of an ancient city. There is indeed a
+whole series of cities of far greater size and importance which have
+existed uninterruptedly from the earliest times to the present day,
+but the constant changes necessitated by the requirements and habits
+of later generations have so altered their condition that the traces
+of antiquity can be followed out only with the greatest toil. At
+Pompeii the case is very different, there the ashes from Vesuvius
+have preserved the city as a whole, just as the Pompeians left it on
+the occasion of the eruption; there streets and squares, temples and
+houses speak a language which cannot fail to be understood by every one
+who has any power of grasping the conception of antiquity. How vastly
+our knowledge of the ancient world must be advanced by such immediate
+inspection of actual remains requires no further elucidation. Let then
+the saying be once more repeated “Vedi Napoli e Pompei”, and, with a
+slight alteration of the well-known saying as to Capri; “Non lasciar
+Napoli senza aver visto Pompei”.
+
+[Illustration: POMPEI.]
+
+
+
+
+INDEX
+
+  The asterisks before the numerals refer to the illustrations.
+  W. = Wall-painting.
+
+
+  Abbondanza, via dell’, *12, 37
+
+  Achilles at the Court of Lycomedes, W., 96, *99
+
+  Ala, 41
+
+  Alexander’s Battle, 43, *46
+
+  Alexandria, Tutelary Deity of, *70
+
+  Altar, Domestic, *45
+
+  ---- of the temple of Vespasian, *26
+
+  Amor with Dolphin, *56
+
+  ---- with Crab, W., *84
+
+  ---- with Dolphins, W., *84
+
+  ---- as Host, W., *97
+
+  Amphitheatre, *33, 34, 36, *42
+
+  ---- Fight in between Pompeians & Nucerians, *36
+
+  Apodyterium, *36, 37
+
+  Apollo, *27, 28
+
+  ---- and Pytho, W., 94
+
+  ---- Temple of, 27, *28
+
+  Arca, 42, *43
+
+  Ariadne, Deliverance of, W., 92, 93
+
+  ---- in Naxos, W., 87
+
+  Atrium, 40-42
+
+  ---- Restoration of, *40, 41
+
+  ---- in the House of Rufus, *58, 60
+
+  ---- Tuscanicum, 41
+
+  Augustales, 100
+
+  Aulus Veius, 100
+
+
+  Bacchus, *91
+
+  ---- and Ariadne, W., *91, 92
+
+  Bakery, *74, 76
+
+  Balcony, 43, *44
+
+  Basilica, 26, *28
+
+  Baths, 35-39
+
+  Bisellium, *59, 62
+
+  Bosco Reale, 68-74
+
+  Bowls, silver, 70, 71
+
+  Boy with duck, *110
+
+  Bread, *76
+
+  Bronze table, *64
+
+  Building, periods of, 47-49
+
+  Burning the Dead, 98, 99, 102
+
+
+  Calda, 64
+
+  Caldarium, *38, 106
+
+  Candelabra, 66, *67
+
+  ---- Painted, W., 85
+
+  Casa d’Arianna, *79, 81
+
+  ---- del Balcone pensile, *56
+
+  ---- dei Capitelli Colorati, *79, 81
+
+  ---- del Centenario, *79, 81, 82
+
+  ---- del Imperatore di Germania, *79, 82
+
+  “_Cave Canem_”, *39, 40
+
+  Cerrinius Restitutus, 100
+
+  Chapel, Private, 42, *43
+
+  Comedy, Scene from, *32, 34
+
+  Compluvium, 41
+
+  Cookshop, *14, *15, 21
+
+  Cremation, 98, 99, 102
+
+  Cups, *62, *67, 70, *72
+
+  Cupid, *56, *84, 95, *97
+
+  Cyparissus, W., *87, 88
+
+
+  Daedalus & Pasiphaë, W., 92, *93
+
+  Dining-couch, *60, 62
+
+  Diomedes, 105
+
+  Dioscurides, *32
+
+  Dipinti, 19, 20
+
+  Dog, in Mosaic, *39
+
+  Doorknocker, *39, 40
+
+
+  Ephebus of Bronze, *51, 57
+
+  Erotes, *84, 85, 86, 95, *97
+
+  Eruption of Vesuvius, 3
+
+  Eumachia, 26, *27
+
+  Europa with the Bull, W., *52, 53
+
+  Excavations, *1, 8, 9
+
+
+  Faun, Dancing, *55, 56
+
+  Feast, *61, 62
+
+  Fontana, Domenico, 8
+
+  Food-warmer, *63, *66
+
+  Fortuna, Temple of, 29, *30
+
+  Fountain figures, 57
+
+  Fountains, *13, 21
+
+  Fountain with mosaic, *57
+
+  Forum Civile, *18, *19, 23
+
+  ---- Scene in, *20, 23
+
+  ---- Triangular, *16, *17, 22
+
+  Frigidarium, 37
+
+  Fullers at Work, W., *78
+
+  Fulling, 78
+
+  Fullonica, *77, 78
+
+  Furniture, 61-64
+
+
+  Garlands, 95, 103
+
+  Gates, 17
+
+  Gauging table, *29
+
+  Gladiators, 36, *41
+
+  ---- Barracks of, *33, 36
+
+  ---- Weapons of, *34, *41, *44
+
+  Glass vessel, Blue, *102, 103
+
+  Graffiti, *13, 19, 20
+
+  Graves, 98-105
+
+
+  “_Have_”, 40, 80
+
+  Herculaneum, Discovery of, 8
+
+  ---- Gate of, *11, 17, 98
+
+  Hercules Strangling Serpents, W., 90, *92
+
+  Herms, 90, *91, *102, 103
+
+  Hero and Leander, W., *86, 87
+
+  House of the Faun, *77, 80
+
+  ---- Lucretius, *54, 59
+
+  ---- Pansa, *38, *73, 75
+
+  ---- C. Rufus, *58, 60
+
+  ---- the Tragic Poet, *75, 76-78
+
+  ---- the Vettii, 83-97, *83, *90
+
+
+  Impluvium, 41
+
+  Inscriptions, *13, 19, 20
+
+  Interior of Grave, 101-5, *102, *103
+
+  Io, W., 26
+
+  Iphigenia, W., 49-52, *50, 94, 95
+
+  Isis, Temple of, 29-32, *30
+
+  Istacidii, 101
+
+  Ixion, W., 92, *94
+
+
+  Jucundus, Caecilius, *58, 60, 61
+
+  “Junoni Tyches”, *102, 103, 104
+
+  Jupiter, Bust of, *21, 25
+
+  ---- Temple of, *22, *23, 25
+
+
+  Kitchen, with Hearth, *82, 84
+
+
+  Lamps, 66, *67
+
+  Lares, Shrine of, 88, *89
+
+  Lead plates, 81
+
+  Lecti, 62
+
+  Lighting of dwellingrooms, 65, 66
+
+  Loaves, *76
+
+  Loves, *84, 85, 86, 95, *97
+
+
+  Macellum, *24, 25, 26
+
+  Maenianum, 43, *44
+
+  Mamia, 101
+
+  Marble Table, *59, 62
+
+  Mars and Venus, W., *53, 54
+
+  Meals, *61, 61-63
+
+  Meatmarket, *24, 24-26
+
+  Medea, W., *51, 52
+
+  Mercury, Street of, *8, 11, 15
+
+  Mirror with Bust of Ariadne, *71, 72
+
+  Misenum, 4
+
+  Mosaics, *39, 40, 43-47, *47
+
+
+  Naevoleia Tyche, *103, 105
+
+  Narcissus, Statuette of, *55, 56
+
+  Nola, Street of, *9, 15
+
+
+  Oilshops, *16, 21
+
+  Omphalos, 27
+
+  Orestes and Pylades, 94
+
+  Oscilla, 60
+
+  Ostiarius, 40
+
+
+  Palaestra, 37
+
+  Panorama of Pompeii, *7
+
+  Pentheus, 91
+
+  Periods of Building, 47-49
+
+  Piscina, 106
+
+  Plasterer at Work, *49
+
+  Plastering, *49
+
+  Pliny the Younger, 4, 5
+
+  Pompeii, History of, 1-8
+
+  Porcius, 101
+
+  Porta della Marina, 1, 12
+
+  Priapus, 85
+
+  Private Houses, 39
+
+  Proculus and his Wife, W., *53, 53-55
+
+  Psyches, 95, *96
+
+  Punishment of Ixion, W., 92, *94
+
+  Purgatorium, 29
+
+  Pylades, 94
+
+
+  Races, W., 95, *98
+
+  Rothschild, 69
+
+  Rufus, Cornelius, *58, 60
+
+
+  Sacrifice of Iphigenia, W., 49, *50, 50-52
+
+  Sculpture, 89, *91
+
+  Senaculum, 26
+
+  Ships, Representations of, 93
+
+  Shops, 21
+
+  Stabiae, Street of, *14, 21
+
+  Standard measures, table of, *29
+
+  Stepping-stones, 18
+
+  Stibadium, 63
+
+  Stoves, 63, 64, *65
+
+  Streets, width of, 17
+
+  Strongboxes, 42, *43
+
+  Styles of art, *47, *48, 49
+
+  Sulla, 17
+
+  Symposium, W., *61
+
+
+  Table of standard measures, *29
+
+  Tablinum, 42
+
+  Tepidarium, *37, 38, 106
+
+  Terentius Major, Tomb of, 102, 103
+
+  Theatres, *31, 32, 34
+
+  Thermae, *35, 35-39
+
+  Tombs, 98-105
+
+  Tombs, Street of, 98, *100, *101, 101-5
+
+  Towers, *10, 16
+
+  Triclinium, 42, 62
+
+  ---- Funebre, 99, 105, 107
+
+  Tripods, 63, *64
+
+
+  Urania, 89, *105
+
+  Ustrinum, 98
+
+
+  Vases, 73
+
+  Vespasian, Temple of, *25
+
+  Vestibulum, 40
+
+  Vesuvius, on a Wall-painting, *2, 82
+
+  Villa of Diomedes, *104, 104-106
+
+
+  Wall Decorations, 45-55
+
+  Walls, *10, 16, 17
+
+  Wax tablets, 55, 60, *80, 83
+
+  Weapons, *34, *41, *44
+
+  Windows, *13, 19
+
+
+
+
+LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
+
+
+
+
+  Front Excavation
+
+  1 Vesuvius before the Eruption
+
+  2 Contest between Pompeians and Nucerians in the Amphitheatre
+
+  3 Plaster-cast of a Pompeian Woman
+
+  4 Plaster-cast of a Dog
+
+  5 Panorama of Pompeii
+
+  6 The Street of Mercury
+
+  7 The Street of Nola and its continuation
+
+  8 Section of a Tower
+
+  9 View of the City Wall from outside
+
+  10 Section of the City Wall
+
+  11 The Gate of Herculaneum
+
+  12 The Street of Abundance
+
+  13 Window in Pompeii
+
+  14 Pompeian Inscription on Wall
+
+  15 Pompeian Graffito
+
+  16 Public Fountain
+
+  17 Street of Stabiae with water Reservoir
+
+  18 Restored View of a Cookshop
+
+  19 Cookshop of the Casa di Sullustio
+
+  20 Oilmerchant’s Shop
+
+  21 Entrance to the Triangular Forum
+
+  22 The Triangular Forum
+
+  23 The Forum Civile, seen from the South
+
+  24 Forum Civile, from the Temple of Jupiter
+
+  25 Life in the Forum
+
+  26 Bust of Jupiter
+
+  27 The Temple of Jupiter
+
+  28 The Temple of Jupiter, Reconstruction
+
+  29 The Macellum, (the Meat market)
+
+  30 Wall ornamented with pictures in the Macellum
+
+  31 The Temple of Vespasian
+
+  32 Altar of the Temple of Vespasian
+
+  33 Portrait statue of Eumachia
+
+  34 Statue of Apollo
+
+  35 The Basilica
+
+  36 The Temple of Apollo
+
+  37 Gauging Table from the Forum
+
+  38 The Temple of Fortune
+
+  39 The Temple of Isis
+
+  40 The smaller Theatre
+
+  41 The larger Theatre
+
+  42 Scene from a Comedy. Mosaic of Dioscurides
+
+  43 Interior view of the Amphitheatre
+
+  44 Barracks of the Gladiators
+
+  45 Weapons of Gladiators
+
+  46 Wall at the Stabian Baths
+
+  47 The Apodyterium
+
+  48 The Tepidarium of the Forum Baths
+
+  49 Arrangement of a Caldarium
+
+  50 Section of the Caldarium
+
+  51 Ground Plan of the House of Pansa
+
+  52 Atrium Tuscanicum
+
+  53 _Cave Canem_
+
+  54 Doorknockers
+
+  55 Roman Dwellinghouse. Vista from the Atrium to the Peristyle
+
+  56 Scene from the Amphitheatre
+
+  57 External View of the Amphitheatre
+
+  58 Iron Strongbox
+
+  59 Domestic Shrine
+
+  60 Helmets for Gladiators
+
+  61 House with _Maenianum_
+
+  62 Domestic Altar
+
+  63 Mosaic Threshold
+
+  64 Alexander’s Battle
+
+  65 Pompeian Mosaic
+
+  66 Wall Decoration of the First Style (Casa di Sallustio)
+
+  67 Wall Decoration of the Third Style (House of Spurius Mesor)
+
+  68 Process of Plastering
+
+  69 Wall Decoration. Fourth Style
+
+  70 Sacrifice of Iphigenia
+
+  71 Medea, from Herculaneum
+
+  72 The so-called Ephebus of bronze
+
+  73 Europa with the Bull
+
+  74 Mars and Venus
+
+  75 Paquius Proculus and his wife
+
+  76 Garden of the Casa di Lucrezio
+
+  77 The Dancing Faun
+
+  78 The so-called Narcissus
+
+  79 Cupid with a Dolphin
+
+  80 Casa del Balcone pensile
+
+  81 Mosaic Fountain
+
+  82 Atrium of the Casa di Cornelio Rufo
+
+  83 Bust of the Banker L. Caecilius Jucundus
+
+  84 Bust of Cornelius Rufus
+
+  85 A _Bisellium_
+
+  86 Marble Table
+
+  87 Dining-couch of Bronze
+
+  88 A Symposium. Pompeian Wall-painting
+
+  89 Drinking-cup from Bosco Reale
+
+  90 Food-warmer
+
+  91 Tripods and Bronze Table
+
+  92 Portable Stove
+
+  93 Bronze Vessel for the preparation of _Calda_
+
+  94 Food-warmer
+
+  95 Silver Cups
+
+  96 Candelabrum
+
+  97 Candelabrum
+
+  98 Bronze Vessel
+
+  99 Silver Jugs
+
+  100 The Tutelary Goddess of Alexandria
+
+  101 Mirror with the Bust of Ariadne
+
+  102 Cup with Olivewreath
+
+  103 Cup with Still Life
+
+  104 House of Pansa
+
+  105 Bakery with Mills
+
+  106 House of the Tragic Poet
+
+  107 Pompeian Loaves
+
+  108 Fullonica (Fulling-mill)
+
+  109 Casa del Fauno
+
+  110 The Fuller at his Work
+
+  111 Casa dei Capitelli colorati (Casa d’Arianna)
+
+  112 Casa dei Capitelli colorati (Casa d’Arianna)
+
+  113 Casa del Centenario
+
+  114 Casa del Imperatore di Germania
+
+  115 Wax tablet from the House of Caecilius Jucundus
+
+  116 House with several stories
+
+  117 Kitchen with Hearth
+
+  118 Plan of the House of the Vettii
+
+  119 Love on a Crab
+
+  120 Love with Dolphins
+
+  121 Candelabrum, Wall-painting
+
+  122 Hero and Leander
+
+  123 Cyparissus
+
+  124 The Shrine of the Lares
+
+  125 The Peristyle of the House of the Vettii
+
+  126 Bacchus
+
+  127 Bacchus and Ariadne
+
+  128 Hercules strangling Serpents
+
+  129 Daedalus and Pasiphae
+
+  130 Ixion’s Punishment
+
+  131 Psyches gathering Flowers
+
+  132 Cupid as Host
+
+  133 A Race
+
+  134 Achilles at the Court of Lycomedes
+
+  135 The Street of Tombs by the Gate of Herculaneum
+
+  136 Continuation of the Street of Tombs
+
+  137 Interior of a Grave
+
+  138 Vessel of blue Glass
+
+  139 Herm-cippus
+
+  140 Sepulchral Monument of Naevoleia Tyche
+
+  141 Villa of Diomedes
+
+  142 Urania
+
+  143 Bronze Bowl
+
+  144 Boy with Duck
+
+  End Map of Pompeii
+
+
+Transcriber’s Notes.
+
+Italic text is indicated with _underscores_, bold text with =equals=.
+Small/mixed capitals have been replaced with ALL CAPITALS.
+
+Evident typographical and punctuation errors have been corrected
+silently. Inconsistent spelling/hyphenation has been normalised.
+
+To improve text flow, illustrations have been relocated between
+paragraphs. Page numbers in the list of illustrations have been
+discarded.
+
+
+*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 78658 ***
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+<body>
+<div style='text-align:center'>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 78658 ***</div>
+
+
+
+
+
+<p class="center">
+FAMOUS ART CITIES;<br>
+No. 1,<br>
+POMPEII
+</p>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+<div class="chapter">
+<h1>POMPEII</h1>
+
+<p class="center p2"><span class="sm2">BY</span><br>
+<span class="big">RICHARD ENGELMANN</span></p>
+
+<p class="center p2"><span class="sm2">TRANSLATED BY</span><br>
+TALFOURD ELY, M. A., F. S. A.;<br>
+<span class="sm">FELLOW OF UNIVERSITY COLLEGE, LONDON</span></p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter mtop" id="f003" style="width: 10em;">
+  <img src="images/f003.jpg" width="100" height="97" alt="">
+</figure>
+
+
+<p class="center p2">1904</p>
+
+<table class="autotable3">
+<tr>
+<td class="tdc pright sm">
+LONDON, W. C.<br>
+H. GREVEL &amp; CO.
+</td>
+<td class="tdc pleft sm">
+NEW YORK<br>
+CHARLES SCRIBNER’S SONS
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdc sm2" colspan="2">
+LEIPZIG, E. A. SEEMANN
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class="center p4 sm2">PRINTED BY ERNST HEDRICH NACHF., G. M. B. H., LEIPZIG
+</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+<div class="chapter center">
+<strong><span class="big">Table of Contents</span></strong><br>
+<a href="#PREFACE">Preface</a><br>
+<a href="#INDEX">Index</a><br>
+<a href="#LIST_OF_ILLUSTRATIONS">List of Illustrations</a>
+</div>
+
+
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+<div class="chapter">
+  <h2 class="nobreak" id="PREFACE">
+    PREFACE
+  </h2>
+</div>
+
+
+<p>The present work forms the first of a series of
+volumes published under the general title of
+“<i>Famous Art Cities</i>”. The second, (by Dr. Gustav
+Pauli), treats of Venice; its immediate successors
+will deal with Florence and Nuremberg. Rome, Siena,
+Ravenna and Cairo will represent a continuation.</p>
+
+<p>Whoever visits Pompeii for the first time will
+not grudge a corner beside his guide-book for a
+<i>Vademecum</i> such as this, which offers the
+inspiration of the <i>Genius loci</i> to the traveller
+of artistic tastes. As the one meets his material
+needs, so the other ministers to the intellectual
+interests of the man of education, and may, at a later
+time, preserve or renew in the liveliest fashion his
+remembrance of what he has seen.</p>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+<div class="chapter">
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_vi"></a><a id="Page_1"></a>1</span></p>
+</div>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="p001" style="max-width: 40em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/p001.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    Excavation (<a href="#Page_9">p.&nbsp;9</a>).
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+
+<p>“Vedi Napoli e poi muori”; “See Naples and die!” is
+a saying one often hears, a saying which means that
+after seeing Naples in all her beauty one has nothing
+on earth left to admire.</p>
+
+<p>And in a certain sense this is true enough: there
+are but few places which in beauty of scenery can
+compare with the Bay of Naples. Yet a visit to Naples
+is not all; equally with the City of the Living, so
+attractive to the stranger for its life ever freshly
+throbbing early and late, the City of the Dead,
+Pompeii, deserves also thorough investigation and
+careful study. Whoever goes to Naples must not fail to
+turn his attention also to its near neighbour Pompeii.
+This nowadays is so easy a matter, whether one drives
+along the beautiful roads between smiling gardens that
+adorn the slopes of Vesuvius, or takes train across
+the lavabeds close to the sea, whose waves break on
+the embankment. The goal is quickly reached: there is
+music and refreshment in one of the hotels which are
+in front of the ruins; then quickly to the entrance;
+where we settle as to tickets and guides, and through
+the Porta Marina or Sea Gate we enter the ancient city.</p>
+
+<p>But what is Pompeii, and why should we not leave
+Naples without seeing Pompeii also. Those whose memory
+goes far back enough remember that in April 1872
+the eyes of all were turned to the neighbourhood of
+Naples. But <span class="pagenum" id="Page_2">2</span>this time it was not the splendour of the
+country that caused universal attention, and brought
+to the Bay of Naples countless foreigners from near
+and far. It was a drama of Nature at once imposing
+and terrible that formed the attraction for the hosts
+that gathered there. Vesuvius which for several years
+(since 1865) had never quite slumbered, showed itself
+once more in all its terrors, and ever more awful than
+before: showers of fire burst forth to a vast height
+from old craters and new, clouds of ashes darkened
+the air for miles, and filled the streets even of
+distant towns: immense streams of lava burst from the
+mountain’s flanks hurling death and destruction before
+them.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp57" id="fig001p002" style="max-width: 33.0em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/fig001p002.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    Fig. 1. Vesuvius before the eruption
+    (<a href="#Page_3">p.&nbsp;3</a>).
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>And yet in spite of all its terrors the eruption
+did not equal the one with which Vesuvius first in
+historic times announced itself as a volcano and
+covered with lava and ejected stones the three cities
+of Herculaneum, Pompeii, and <span class="pagenum" id="Page_3">3</span>Stabiae, to say nothing
+of less famous places. The desolate cone of ashes
+which now towers high above the ordinary surface
+did not exist at an earlier period; right up to the
+summit the mountain was clothed with woods, while on
+its flanks the grape ripened into costly wine (see
+<a href="#fig001p002">fig.&nbsp;1</a>, a Pompeian wall-painting representing in all
+probability Monte di Somma before the evolution of the
+crater of Vesuvius). And if one enquirer or another
+drew some conclusion as to the volcanic nature from
+the depression on its summit and the fruitfulness
+of the neighbouring land, yet people thought it
+altogether extinct, and believed they had nothing to
+fear from it.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp87" id="fig002p003" style="max-width: 33.0em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/fig002p003.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    Fig. 2. Contest between Pompeians and
+    Nucerians in the amphitheatre (<a href="#Page_6">p.&nbsp;6</a>).
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>Then, on August 24th, A. D. 79, clouds of smoke rose
+suddenly from the mountain, stones were hurled forth,
+the heavens grew dark, so that it might well be
+thought night had come on, every one took to flight
+as he could, one got in another’s way. Whoever was
+out of the city hastened back into it, to rescue
+what he could. He who was in the city sought to
+reach the open country as quickly as possible. Those
+on shore hurried to the sea, those at sea hurried
+to the shore. In short there was everywhere the
+most terrible confusion, no one knew what was to
+come next. We can scarcely realise sufficiently the
+horrors of the situation. What in 1872 is reported
+of Portici and Resina and Torre del Greco, can give
+but a faint idea of what happened in 79 when the
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_4">4</span>danger came much nearer and was far more unexpected.
+A description by the younger Pliny, whose uncle met
+his death at Stabiae in the eruption of Vesuvius, has
+been preserved for us, telling of what happened that
+day at Misenum, a place distant from Vesuvius about
+twenty miles in a straight line. This may be abridged
+as follows—“For several days vibrations of the earth
+had been noticed, but less fear was aroused because
+this is not an unusual phenomenon in Campania. On that
+night however they were so violent that everything
+seemed to be upset.”</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="fig003p004" style="max-width: 33.0em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/fig003p004.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    Fig. 3. Plaster-cast of a Pompeian
+    woman (<a href="#Page_6">p.&nbsp;6</a>).
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>“My mother burst into my bedroom, and I too was in
+the act of getting up to wake her in case she should
+still be asleep. It was now the seventh hour, yet it
+was still gloomy and dark. Since the neighbouring
+houses were much damaged and ready to fall, we decided
+to leave the city, and our example was followed by
+the whole of the terrorstricken inhabitants who
+hustled and pushed past us as we went. When we were
+out of the immediate neighbourhood of the houses we
+stopped:—there were extraordinary things to see. The
+vehicles which we had collected were being thrown
+in opposite directions, although the surface of
+the ground was quite level, and even stones thrust
+under them could not keep them in the same position.
+Besides, the sea appeared to retire, at least the
+shore was extended, and many creatures belonging to
+the sea were stranded on the sands. From the other
+side came a threatening black cloud, pierced by
+glittering lightning: it seemed to descend upon the
+earth and brood over the waters; already it had quite
+enveloped Capri and withdrawn Cape Misenum from our
+sight. When my mother saw this, she adjured me to
+abandon her and take to flight alone, that I might
+at least save my own life; I on the contrary refused
+to think of escaping without her, seized her hand,
+and compelled her to set forth. Ashes were already
+falling, though as yet to but a slight extent; I look
+behind me, thick mist is threatening in the rear and
+pursues us; let us, said I, while we can still see,
+step aside, so as <span class="pagenum" id="Page_5">5</span>not by remaining in the road to
+be thrown down and trampled on in the darkness by
+the multitude following us. Scarcely had we seated
+ourselves when dark night fell round us as it does
+in closed rooms when the light is put out. Then were
+heard lamentations of women, cries of children,
+shouts of men, some called to their parents, others
+to their children, others to husband or wife; some
+bemoaned their own fate, others that of their dear
+ones, some even prayed for death. Many raised their
+hands to the gods, still more cried that the gods no
+longer existed, that the last eternal night had come.
+Nor were there wanting those who increased existing
+terrors by false news, that Misenum had fallen in
+ruin and was in flames, which was loudly proclaimed
+and believed though it was not true. Gradually things
+became clear again; this seemed to us not the light
+of day, but a token of the approaching fire. Then
+followed again darkness and showers of ashes; had
+we not often stood up to shake ourselves free of
+the ashes we should have been covered by them and
+overwhelmed by their weight. At last the thick cloud
+little by little dispersed as if dissolved like
+smoke; soon it was actually day, and the sun broke
+forth, though overcast as it is wont to be in time of
+eclipse; everything seemed to our eyes altered and
+covered with ashes as if with snow.”</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp92" id="fig004p005" style="max-width: 33em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/fig004p005.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    Fig. 4. Plaster-cast of a dog (<a href="#Page_6">p.&nbsp;6</a>).
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>If at Misenum, at so considerable a distance from
+the actual point of eruption, things went on as here
+described, what scenes must have been enacted <span class="pagenum" id="Page_6">6</span>in
+Pompeii, the inhabitants of which were drawn into
+joint suffering in quite another way. It is commonly
+said that the people of Pompeii were at the time
+congregated together in the amphitheatre at the
+extreme end of the city, to witness gladiatorial
+contests, so that for the most part they could more
+easily escape. This however is a mere myth, as is
+proved by the ruinous condition of the amphitheatre
+when first discovered as well as from the history
+of the city. In A. D. 60 the city had been deprived
+by the Roman Senate of the privilege of exhibiting
+gladiatorial contests because such a performance had
+given occasion to a sanguinary struggle between the
+inhabitants of Pompeii and those of Nuceria who were
+allowed a share in the use of the amphitheatre (the
+scene is represented in a Pompeian wall-painting,
+<a href="#fig002p003">fig. 2</a>); and in A. D. 63 a terrible earthquake had
+destroyed a great number of buildings and among them
+the amphitheatre so that it is certain that at the
+time of the eruption neither gladiatorial shows nor
+wild beast hunts could have been held in it. Yet
+the greatest number of the inhabitants must have
+succeeded in escaping since on the basis of the
+skeletons found up to the present time the number of
+those who perished within the city can be estimated
+at 2,000, out of a total of 30,000 inhabitants. Many
+of course may have fallen a sacrifice to the eruption
+of Vesuvius also outside the city walls; thus for
+example in 1880-81 there were found the remains of
+such, who had met with their death to the south of
+the city, probably on what was then the bank of the
+Sarno. Those however who had fled before the storm
+to cellars or similar places were doomed to certain
+destruction, because all exit was cut off by the
+falling pumice-stone and ashes, others who had taken
+refuge in the upper rooms may still have escaped
+during a pause in the shower of pumice-stone. Many
+indeed in vain: after they had worked their way
+through the layer of pumice-stone they sank down
+exhausted and were enveloped by the ashes. But since
+these ashes which came down mixed with rain contained
+much Pozzolana earth they have taken a fixed shape
+around the bodies; in the course of centuries the
+bodies have shrunk to a few remains of bones, but
+the hollow impression has remained in the shape.
+Thus attention having been drawn to this through the
+frequent occurrence of similar cases, as soon as a
+hollow appeared in the stratum of ashes during the
+excavation, the opportunity has been seized and liquid
+plaster poured in. By this process the bodily forms
+of various inhabitants of Pompeii, of animals, and of
+inanimate objects have been preserved, casts which do
+not indeed exhibit the sharp outlines to which we are
+accustomed in those produced by artistically prepared
+moulds, yet which are of the highest interest to the
+observer as direct reminders of those terrible hours.
+See figures <a href="#fig003p004">3</a> and <a href="#fig004p005">4</a>.</p>
+
+<hr class="tb">
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_7">7</span></p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="fig005p007" style="max-width: 40em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/fig005p007.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    Fig. 5. Panorama of Pompeii (<a href="#Page_11">p.&nbsp;11</a>).
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>When the mountain had in some measure discontinued
+its work, the showers of stones and ashes had ceased,
+and the sun had appeared again, the inhabitants of
+Pompeii who had escaped returned to their city; but
+they had some trouble to find it, for it was buried
+beneath stones and ashes. They endeavoured as far
+as it was possible, to secure some salvage from the
+ruins; and so many a work of art, as well as most
+of the treasures in gold and silver, may well have
+been withdrawn from the protecting bosom of the earth
+either by their lawful owners or by unauthorised
+persons. A systematic excavation of the houses,
+however, and a reoccupation of the city were not to
+be thought of, the ruin was too complete for that. So
+much the better for us for whom in this way under the
+ashes from Vesuvius an ancient Roman city has been
+preserved in the precise condition in which it was on
+the twenty fourth of August A. D. 79 (apart of course
+from the changes which certain materials must have
+undergone in so long a time). It seems that the people
+of Pompeii settled further towards Vesuvius; the
+ruins of their old city so far as they appeared above
+the accumulated rubbish gradually collapsed, others
+disappeared before the plough which began to pass over
+the fields, and thus after a few centuries the name of
+Pompeii with the place which pertained to it vanished
+from the memory of men. So it remained throughout
+the whole of the Middle <span class="pagenum" id="Page_8">8</span>Ages; often enough indeed
+the countryfolk while tilling their fields struck
+against old masonry or found ancient utensils, but the
+isolated occurrences remained unnoticed.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="fig006p008" style="max-width: 33.0em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/fig006p008.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    Fig. 6. The Street of Mercury (<a href="#Page_15">p.&nbsp;15</a>).
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>More remarkable indeed is it that when the architect
+Domenico Fontana in the year 1594 constructed a
+canal to bring the water of the Sarno to Torre dell’
+Annunziata, a canal which still at the present day
+intersects Pompeii, people were not incited to a
+thorough investigation by the numerous relics of
+antiquity that during these operations must have
+been cleared out of the way. It was not till the
+discovery of Herculaneum (1709) that men’s thoughts
+were directed to another city, smitten by a like
+fate—Pompeii—and when in 1748 peasants again struck
+upon masonry and other more valuable objects, then at
+last people began to mark the spot and to undertake
+more extensive excavations. Not, it is true, in a very
+commendable way, since it was gold and silver and the
+greater treasures of art that were especially sought,
+the excavators contented themselves with grubbing the
+earth, and when at most the better wall-paintings had
+been cut away, filling up again the excavated houses.
+Such for a long time was the system of excavation;
+even after an interest in the matter had been roused
+in higher quarters the work was carried on with more
+or less provision of labour, often only two or three
+workmen being employed—for many years indeed the
+excavations were altogether discontinued. Only the
+time when Naples was under the rule of France forms
+a glorious exception: the work was entered on with
+zeal: as many as six-hundred and seventy four persons
+with twenty six carts and seven mules were <span class="pagenum" id="Page_9">9</span>employed
+to remove the <i>lapilli</i>, and thus the few years
+1806-1815 shew more results than the preceding period
+of more than half a century. With the return of the
+Bourbon <i>régime</i> the old conditions of course
+reappeared, and it is only in modern times that an
+improvement in this respect has been brought about.
+Since Naples has become part of the Kingdom of Italy
+the work (and this is especially due to the energy of
+Giuseppe Fiorelli) has been arranged in a rational
+manner and vigorously pushed forward, so that the
+completion of the excavations may be expected within a
+conceivable time. Men and a great many boys are daily
+employed, some in excavating, others in carrying the
+<i>lapilli</i> in baskets to the waggons which then
+are taken on a railway away from Pompeii. (See the
+illustration on <a href="#p001">page 1</a>.)</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="fig007p009" style="max-width: 33.0em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/fig007p009.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    Fig. 7. The Street of Nola and its
+    continuation (<a href="#Page_15">p.&nbsp;15</a>).
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>While Herculaneum for the most part (only with the
+exception of some portions lying close to the sea,
+which resemble Pompeii) has been covered by a vast
+stream of mud to a depth of twenty metres, the mass of
+which hardened into tufa cannot be broken up without
+great trouble, so that the excavation of the city can
+be effected only by a process of mining, and this too
+with great care, on account of the city of Resina
+lying above it, the stratum which covers Pompeii
+may be called comparatively light. Whitish-grey
+pumice-stones, the so-called <i>lapilli</i>, of
+various sizes, cover the ground to the height of
+two to three metres; above lies a layer of volcanic
+ashes, which mixed with a quantity of pozzolana earth
+and falling with frightful torrents of rain, the
+usual accompaniment of volcanic eruptions, passed
+through the upper layers of pumice-stone, and made
+their way where the <i>lapilli</i> could not fall
+(e. g. into the <span class="pagenum" id="Page_10">10</span>cellars). Over these lie in some
+places, but less abundantly, other <i>lapilli</i>
+which proceeded from later eruptions of Vesuvius, and
+the scanty soil that in the course of centuries has
+developed from the ashes. All this therefore had to
+be removed in order to lay bare the ruins. The system
+and method then according to which the excavations
+were in earlier times conducted was in the highest
+degree prejudicial to the remains of the buildings;
+for since after once reaching the original ground
+level the excavators worked onwards uniformly upon
+that level, it necessarily followed that the upper
+parts of the buildings, which after the decay of the
+beams were supported only by the surrounding masses of
+pumice-stone, fell in ruin, and so always only slight
+remains were preserved.</p>
+
+<div class="column3"><figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="fig008p010" style="max-width: 20em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/fig008p010.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    Fig. 8. Section of a Tower.
+  </figcaption>
+</figure></div>
+
+<div class="column3"><figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="fig009p010" style="max-width: 20em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/fig009p010.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    Fig. 9. View of the City Wall from
+    outside.
+  </figcaption>
+</figure></div>
+
+<div class="column3"><figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="fig010p010" style="max-width: 20em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/fig010p010.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    Fig. 10. Section of the City Wall (<a href="#Page_17">p.&nbsp;17</a>).
+  </figcaption>
+</figure></div>
+
+<p class="clear">In modern times on the contrary, since Fiorelli’s
+administration (1861), the aim has been to preserve
+in its original position every part of the ancient
+walls that is concealed under the surface. This object
+is attained by the excavators as they work from
+above carefully removing one horizontal layer after
+another and supporting the masonry thus brought to
+light until it is possible to replace the woodwork
+destroyed in the course of centuries by new timber of
+equal size. Thus they have succeeded in preserving
+not only a part of an upper story overhanging the
+street, but also others <span class="pagenum" id="Page_11">11</span>of the higher portions of
+the buildings altogether uninjured. In this way
+the parts of the city lately excavated present an
+appearance essentially different from that of those
+previously uncovered; and since too everything is left
+on the spot that can be left, especially pictures and
+mosaics, and since every effort is made to protect
+them against the unfavourable effects of the weather,
+by roofing, and coating with wax, and other means;
+while it is no longer the case (as it used to be) that
+everything is either removed to the Naples Museum,
+or (as also often happened) wantonly destroyed, the
+visitor is afforded an opportunity of forming for
+himself a far more truthful picture of ancient life
+than was possible at an earlier period. (See <a href="#fig005p007">fig.&nbsp;5</a>,
+giving a view of part of the excavated city. The
+Street of Mercury lies before us, which reaches to the
+Forum. The roofs which are seen in the illustration
+serve to protect the wall-paintings, mosaics, &amp;c. and
+are therefore almost exclusively modern.)</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="fig011p011" style="max-width: 33em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/fig011p011.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    Fig. 11. The Gate of Herculaneum (<a href="#Page_17">p.&nbsp;17</a>).
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>That the movable objects, especially those of gold,
+silver, bronze, and terracotta, should have been
+brought to the Museum is of course only reasonable
+and proper. Considering the various characters of the
+host of visitors to Pompeii, it could scarcely fail to
+happen that one or other article was destroyed through
+too rigid an examination, quite apart from the fact
+that among such visitors there are always some who
+“out of love for Antiquity” are ever ready to carry
+away with them some souvenir of the city. Hence it is
+necessary, if we would form an accurate representation
+of the life of the ancients, to avail ourselves of the
+Museo Nazionale in Naples, where all the furniture
+from Pompeii is preserved so far as place has not been
+found for it in the little museum <span class="pagenum" id="Page_12">12</span>in Pompeii itself
+at the Porta della Marina. Perhaps however if Italy’s
+financial difficulties come to an end (as they must
+some day) a plan will be carried out which has long
+been talked of, viz., that a house in Pompeii should
+be furnished exactly as it was ages ago, equipped with
+all the articles which were used in daily life, even
+if they have to be collected from different houses.
+Thus with less trouble one could form a general
+conception of the life of that epoch, a much more
+difficult task under present circumstances when one
+has to examine the various articles of furniture one
+by one in the Museum far from their original position.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="fig012p012" style="max-width: 33em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/fig012p012.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    Fig. 12. The Street of Abundance (<a href="#Page_18">p.&nbsp;18</a>).
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>These movable objects moreover are commonly to be
+found in the lowest layer of pumice-stone to the
+height of one metre; torn from their proper places by
+the breaking down of the roof they have necessarily
+assumed this position. For this reason the rooms
+are first of all cleared to within half a metre of
+the ground, and then the remainder is subjected to
+a thorough examination by experienced excavators.
+Since there are always some such rooms ready, it
+is possible, if distinguished visitors arrive even
+unexpectedly, to arrange a so-called gala excavation,
+such as is often mentioned in the papers. The stratum
+of pumice-stone only half a metre thick is simply
+removed, and something is sure to be found. For the
+most part it is objects used in daily life, utensils
+of bronze or terracotta, with or without their
+contents, also candelabra, lamps, &amp;c. Statuettes
+too of bronze are not uncommonly found. These
+“war-preparations” are however the cause of great
+dangers to the buildings, the pumice-stone sucks up
+water like a sponge, and so never allows the walls to
+get quite dry, which is however the first and most
+important condition for their preservation.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_13">13</span></p>
+
+<div class="narrow center">
+<div class="column3"><figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="fig013p013" style="max-width: 10em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/fig013p013.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    Fig. 13. Window in Pompeii (<a href="#Page_19">p.&nbsp;19</a>).
+  </figcaption>
+</figure></div>
+
+<div class="column66"><figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="fig014p013" style="max-width: 20em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/fig014p013.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    Fig. 14. Pompeian inscription on wall
+    (<a href="#Page_20">p.&nbsp;20</a>).
+  </figcaption>
+</figure></div>
+
+<figure class="clear figcenter illowp100" id="fig015p013" style="max-width: 30.0em;">
+  <img class="mtop w100" src="images/fig015p013.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    Fig. 15. Pompeian graffito (<a href="#Page_20">p.&nbsp;20</a>).
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+</div>
+
+<p>But enough of excavations. Let us turn to the
+consideration of the city itself.</p>
+
+<p>At first sight the city gives the impression of the
+greatest uniformity. Apart from size and the wealth
+of its former inhabitants one house seems to have
+been built at the same time, and adorned with the
+same artistic resources as another. Yet that is the
+result of the stucco-coating which under the Empire
+gradually became so fashionable that it was deemed
+advisable to cover everything with it. A more accurate
+examination however convinces us that under the stucco
+lie concealed the most distinct periods of building,
+with the help of which the gradual development of the
+city can be recognised.</p>
+
+<div class="fll40"><figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="fig016p013" style="max-width: 20.0em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/fig016p013.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    Fig. 16. Public Fountain (<a href="#Page_21">p.&nbsp;21</a>).
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="fig017p014" style="max-width: 20em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/fig017p014.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    Fig. 17. Street of Stabiae with water
+    reservoir (<a href="#Page_21">p.&nbsp;21</a>).
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="fig018p014" style="max-width: 20em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/fig018p014.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    Fig. 18. Restored View of a Cookshop
+    (<a href="#Page_21">p.&nbsp;21</a>).
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+</div>
+
+<p>To determine the architectural history of the city
+there are—apart from the very meagre literary
+tradition—two means, firstly the distinction of the
+material of which the houses are built, and secondly
+the measures employed. In respect of the first point
+it proves that limestone which could be procured
+in the immediate neighbourhood of Pompeii from the
+deposits of the Sarno, was employed in the earliest
+period for building houses, with clay as cement. With
+this was associated also tufa, a volcanic product
+which when just quarried can be easily cut. An
+essential progress was made by the introduction of
+lime-mortar, the knowledge of which was apparently
+transmitted through the Carthaginians to the western
+Greeks and the inhabitants of Italy. By the aid of
+this lighter and smaller <span class="pagenum" id="Page_14">14</span>stones could be utilised to
+form walls capable of supporting considerable weight.
+In place of lime-mortar there was gradually introduced
+Pozzolana (named from Pozzuoli on the Bay of Naples),
+a volcanic earth resembling cement in its effect. Of
+lasting influence was further the introduction and
+gradual spread of building with kiln-baked bricks,
+although in private buildings they were never employed
+to such an extent as in Rome and other Italian cities.
+Finally, the last period, that of the restoration,
+when the question was how in the shortest time and
+with limited means to rebuild the city which had been
+almost entirely destroyed by the earthquake of the
+year A. D. 63. (The devastation had been so complete
+that the Roman Senate could deliberate as to whether
+the people of Pompeii should be permitted to rebuild
+their city.) Haste and negligence and the use of the
+first materials that came to hand characterise this
+epoch.</p>
+
+<p>As a second means of distinguishing the various
+periods one from another we have the standard of
+measure employed. According as the walls have been
+built in conformity with the Oscan or the Roman foot
+(the Oscan foot has a length of .273 of a metre, the
+Roman of .29) the corresponding buildings can <span class="pagenum" id="Page_15">15</span>be
+assigned to the one or the other period, and since it
+was not usual to demolish what already existed, but to
+make use of it as far as possible, people have through
+observation of the various measures, attained even to
+the possibility of distinguishing the older parts of
+buildings from the later, and often recognising their
+earlier destination.</p>
+
+<p>With the help of those distinguishing marks, and of
+the scanty notices handed down by ancient writers, and
+of the inscriptions we are enabled to establish the
+following as to the city’s history.</p>
+
+<p>Whether the name Pompeii is connected with πέμπω,
+πομπή or is derived from the Oscan <i>pompe</i> = five
+is all the same to us, since we can draw no further
+conclusion therefrom. In any case nothing further is
+known as to the year of foundation: though from the
+ruins of the temple in the Triangular Forum which
+belongs to the sixth century we may conclude that
+the city was already in existence at that period.
+It was founded in regular form by the Oscans on a
+hill formed by an old stream of lava, but was at a
+later time about B. C. 420 occupied by the Samnites.
+Two streets the <i>Strada di Mercurio</i> with its
+extension southwards from the Forum (<a href="#fig006p008">Fig.&nbsp;6</a>) and the
+<i>Strada di Nola</i> (<i>Decumanus major</i>, <a href="#fig007p009">Fig. 7</a>)
+traverse the city from one end to the other, and
+fix thereby the direction of the streets from north
+to south and east to west. Only <span class="pagenum" id="Page_16">16</span>now and then have
+special peculiarities of the surface led to slight
+deviations in the parallel streets. The city was
+encircled by a wall, which was protected by towers at
+regular intervals to give it greater security, on the
+other side in order to allow of large bodies of armed
+citizens mounting the wall in time of danger, steps
+were in parts added to the wall, in other parts a
+slope of earth was placed against it. Only on the west
+and southwest sides had the walls been broken down in
+antiquity and replaced by houses, apparently to gain
+space for the extension of the city. Pompeii, true
+to its origin, had, in the Social War (B. C. 90-88),
+joined the Italians and with the rest had bravely
+defended its independence against the Romans; nay in
+the year 89 it had sustained a siege by Sulla himself.
+For this it was punished, being compelled to give
+up part of its possessions to the colonists sent by
+Sulla in the year 80. (Hence the new name of the city
+<i>Colonia Cornelia Veneria Pompeianorum</i>.)</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp74" id="fig019p015" style="max-width: 33.0em;">
+  <img class="mtop w100" src="images/fig019p015.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    Fig. 19. Cookshop of the Casa di Sallustio (<a href="#Page_21">p.&nbsp;21</a>).
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="fig020p016" style="max-width: 40em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/fig020p016.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    Fig. 20. Oilmerchant’s Shop (<a href="#Page_21">p.&nbsp;21</a>).
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="fig021p016" style="max-width: 40em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/fig021p016.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    Fig. 21. Entrance to the Triangular
+    Forum (<a href="#Page_22">p.&nbsp;22</a>).
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="fig022p017" style="max-width: 40em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/fig022p017.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    Fig. 22. The Triangular Forum (<a href="#Page_22">p.&nbsp;22</a>).
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_17">17</span>
+<p>Under Augustus also was an enlargement of the city
+undertaken, the <i>Pagus Augustus Felix</i> being
+then founded. That numerous storms have broken over
+Pompeii may be seen by the walls, stripped as they
+have been completely of their massive facing and
+restored only to such an extent as was absolutely
+necessary (originally two massive walls were built
+and the space between them filled with rubble and
+concrete, see <a href="#fig008p010">fig. 8-10</a>); the towers seem not to have
+been placed on the wall till a later time. The city
+has eight gates, which were more or less strengthened
+by fortifications; especially in the case of the Gate
+of Nola, on the east side, on which attack was most
+to be expected, one can clearly recognise how one
+fortification has been from time to time strengthened
+by others. Interesting too in another way is the Gate
+of Herculaneum on the northwest side of the city, in
+front of which the road is bordered right and left by
+graves, in accordance with the usage of the ancients
+to place their graves beside the public roads outside
+the city. (See <a href="#fig011p011">fig.&nbsp;11</a>.)</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="fig023p018" style="max-width: 40em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/fig023p018.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    Fig. 23. The Forum Civile, seen from
+    the South (<a href="#Page_23">p.&nbsp;23</a>).
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="fig024p019" style="max-width: 40em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/fig024p019.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    Fig. 24. Forum Civile, from the Temple
+    of Jupiter (<a href="#Page_23">p.&nbsp;23</a>).
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>The streets of the city are essentially distinguished
+from those of our cities by their narrowness; the
+widest measure barely seven metres, some indeed are
+not more than from two and a half to three metres
+broad. They were <span class="pagenum" id="Page_18">18</span>made so narrow with the object
+of securing shade in the streets, so necessary a
+requisite in the South, the want of which one feels
+in a most unpleasant way for example now where in
+Pompeii there is no shade. A part of the width is
+taken up by the footpath running on each side, which
+slightly raised above the level of the street is paved
+with small stones, or bricks, or pieces of marble,
+according as the fancy or the wealth of the owner of
+the adjoining property, (on whom evidently rested
+the care of the footway), prompted the choice of one
+method or another. The carriage road itself is paved
+with polygonal blocks of lava, in which the wheels
+have often worn deep ruts. (See Fig. <a href="#fig012p012">12</a> and <a href="#fig017p014">17</a>.) If
+the ruts were too deep, or otherwise repair of the
+street was found necessary, the remedy was applied in
+the simplest fashion, the stones were merely relaid so
+that those little used came where the wheels ran and
+those cut up by traffic were transferred to another
+place. This explains the curious fact that stones worn
+into deep ruts are often found in positions where
+no wheel can ever have come. Then on both sides of
+the street run gutters, through which the water is
+conducted into deep drains and so removed from the
+city. In the violent showers of rain which in the
+South at times pour down in torrents these provisions
+might often have proved insufficient and the street
+also may have been under water. In order therefore to
+provide the foot passenger with as dry as possible
+a crossing from one side of the roads to the other,
+stepping-stones have been placed at intervals across
+the street. These met the requirements of the <span class="pagenum" id="Page_19">19</span>case
+without interfering with the carriage traffic (for the
+draught-animals were attached only at the extremity
+of the pole, so they could pass between the stones
+more easily than would be possible with our modern way
+of harnessing). Some streets on the other hand were
+entirely closed against wheel-traffic. This was quite
+possible, carriages being as a rule employed for the
+transport of persons only in travelling outside the
+city. Besides the difference in width the streets of
+Pompeii are essentially distinguished from those of
+our cities by the circumstance that the houses at any
+rate on the groundfloor have no windows. The ancient
+house in its main features was built solely with
+regard to interior effect. Only occasionally was the
+surface of the outer wall broken by small openings
+widening inwards, which are all that can be compared
+with our windows (<a href="#fig013p013">Fig.&nbsp;13</a>); and these too, raised far
+above the height of a man, are barred by lattice of
+iron or terracotta. On the other hand the street-front
+was often enlivened by painting, the outer wall was
+divided into panels which were painted red or yellow
+with various ornaments according to the taste of the
+respective householders. Larger paintings are often
+to be found, as the twelve gods, sacrifices to the
+Lares, the household gods, <i>etc.</i> In places
+likely to be misused were painted a pair of serpents
+<i>etc.</i> as a deterrent. Besides these things
+there were all sorts of inscriptions on the houses.
+A distinction is usually made between two classes of
+inscriptions, <i>Dipinti</i> and <i>Graffiti</i>.
+The former are painted on the walls with a broad
+brush in large letters, for the <span class="pagenum" id="Page_20">20</span>most part in red
+colour on a white ground. By <i>Graffiti</i> on the
+other hand are understood inscriptions slightly
+scratched with a pointed style or nail in the
+plaster. The <i>Dipinti</i> contain summonses to
+elections, announcements of Games &amp;c. <i>Duumviri
+juri dicundo</i>, the Board of Two, the highest
+magistracy of the city, are to be elected; there being
+no newspaper, the names of the candidates are painted
+on the walls, and underneath is written Proposed by
+so and so (<a href="#fig014p013">Fig.&nbsp;14</a>). Or a new troop of gladiators
+arrives: in order to entice as many spectators as
+possible, an advertisement is written on the walls
+with the names of the principal combatants and the
+number of their victories, nor do they forget to add
+that to guard against the sun’s heat awnings are
+spread over the theatre; in short one lights on the
+very footsteps and traces of quickly throbbing life,
+so that one feels oneself carried back into the time
+of the old citizens of Pompeii.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="fig025p020" style="max-width: 40em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/fig025p020.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    Fig. 25. Life in the Forum (<a href="#Page_23">p.&nbsp;23</a>).
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>With almost greater originality the life of the old
+Pompeians rises before us in the <i>Graffiti</i>.
+Scarcely a spot strikes the eye that is not covered
+with such outpourings of gay or wicked fancy scratched
+in the slightest strokes. Here one tells another’s
+secrets, there one celebrates in verse a sweetheart,
+a third complains of the obstinacy of a maiden, a
+fourth, no doubt a boy fresh from school—he could
+not reach far—attempts to write down the beginning
+of a well-known poem but he does not get much further
+than the first words. A second, proud of his learning,
+begins the verse afresh, yet he too comes to a
+standstill when he has carried the verse a little
+further. A third at last completes the whole verse.
+At another place a parasite gives a broad hint for an
+invitation or pays his debt of thanks. (See <a href="#fig015p013">fig.&nbsp;15</a>.
+Semper M. Terentius Eudoxus unus supstenet amicos et
+tenet et tutat, supstenet omnem modum.)</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_21">21</span></p>
+
+<div class="fll40"><figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="fig026p021" style="max-width: 20em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/fig026p021.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    Fig. 26. Bust of Jupiter (<a href="#Page_25">p.&nbsp;25</a>).
+  </figcaption>
+</figure></div>
+
+<p>Thus witticisms and drolleries abound in those
+inscriptions, so that one who passed through the
+streets and had a liking to decipher these scrawls
+need not want for amusement. Variety too is afforded
+by the fountains (<a href="#fig016p013">Fig.&nbsp;16</a>) which were fed from the
+public water-supply (probably this was a branch of
+the conduit which brought the water to Naples from
+the mountain range on the east). In Pompeii, as in
+Palermo at the present day, the water was for better
+distribution conducted into reservoirs raised on high
+pillars. From these the water was brought through
+lead pipes to the public fountains and to the houses.
+(See <a href="#fig017p014">fig.&nbsp;17</a>, representing a corner of the Stabiae
+Street with the pillars to support the water.) These
+fountains were ornamented with small reliefs, for
+example a Silenus leaning on a wine-skin, from the
+opening of which the water escapes; an eagle that has
+seized a hare (here the water flows out of the hare’s
+mouth), and similar representations. On the fountain’s
+brim may still often be seen the place where the young
+people drinking straight from the spout used to put
+their hands. To this picture of the streets however
+the liveliest touches were given by the shops, rooms
+open on the outside their whole breadth, in which
+retail trade was carried on. As at the present time,
+in the palaces of Italian cities, the groundfloor
+is occupied by shops which bring in to the owner
+an excellent rent, the rich Pompeians also did not
+disdain to establish shops on the street-side of their
+houses which without any connection with the principal
+edifice were let to persons engaged in trade, to whom
+a kind of upper chamber above the shop often served as
+a dwelling. Or the householder himself carried on a
+trade, in which case he established a connection with
+the inner part of the house by means of a door, to
+facilitate his watching over the business, whether he
+managed it in his own person or through a slave. There
+are cook shops, recognised as such by the hearth and
+the pots fixed in it, from which the food was ladled
+out (fig. <a href="#fig018p014">18</a> and <a href="#fig019p015">19</a>), oil shops with large pitchers
+similarly fixed, and huge barrels in the background
+(<a href="#fig020p016">fig.&nbsp;20</a>), shops where wine and other drinks were
+sold, with shelves built up like steps so as to admit
+of arranging the drinking vessels conveniently, and
+with a little room at the back for regular customers:
+there are butchers’ and bakers’ shops that by means
+of pictures bring before the passer by the various
+objects to be purchased therein. In short an abundance
+of fresh sights, so that the eye can experience no
+weariness.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="fig027p022" style="max-width: 40em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/fig027p022.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    Fig. 27. The Temple of Jupiter (<a href="#Page_25">p.&nbsp;25</a>).
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="fig028p023" style="max-width: 40em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/fig028p023.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    Fig. 28. The Temple of Jupiter,
+    Reconstruction (<a href="#Page_25">p.&nbsp;25</a>).
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="fig029p024" style="max-width: 40em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/fig029p024.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    Fig. 29. The Macellum, (the Meat
+    market) (<a href="#Page_25">p.&nbsp;25</a>).
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="fig030p024" style="max-width: 40em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/fig030p024.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    Fig. 30. Wall ornamented with pictures
+    in the Macellum (<a href="#Page_26">p.&nbsp;26</a>).
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_22">22</span>
+<p>So much for the streets of Pompeii. Of open spaces for
+public use there have been found as yet two, if we
+leave out of consideration the doubtful Forum Boarium,
+excavated at an earlier period in the neighbourhood
+of the amphitheatre, but afterwards filled up again,
+viz., the principal Forum (<i>Forum Civile</i>) and
+the one called from its shape the Triangular Forum.
+The latter a three-cornered space in the southwest
+angle of the city lying close to both theatres from
+which an open flight of steps leads, is certainly one
+of the oldest parts of the city, as is amply proved
+by the scanty remains of the Temple situated there,
+which is contemporary with the most ancient temples
+of Paestum and Selinus. The open space was surrounded
+on three sides by a colonnade, and a portico or
+Propylaion forms the entrance to it (<a href="#fig021p016">fig.&nbsp;21</a> and
+<a href="#fig022p017">22</a>). The Temple, dedicated according to the latest
+researches to Minerva, had apparently like the Temple
+of Zeus at Agrigentum, seven columns on the narrow
+sides, and according to its form must be classified
+as Pseudodipteros (before the eruption it had already
+been destroyed and on its site a very modest sanctuary
+had been erected). Close to it is a seat, from which
+could be enjoyed the magnificent view over the sea
+and the splendid Monte Santangelo far spreading and
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_23">23</span>towering high into the air. On the other side a
+small dome indicates an ancient fountain. To a later
+epoch belongs the <i>Forum Civile</i>, lying to the
+northwest of the above, and forming a rectangle (<a href="#fig023p018">fig.&nbsp;23</a>
+taken from the south side, <a href="#fig024p019">fig.&nbsp;24</a> from the north).
+That the laying out of this is comparatively modern,
+follows from the fact that through the surrounding
+buildings a series of streets have been reduced to
+blind-alleys, which at the time of their formation was
+assuredly not intended. The decoration of the Forum,
+it seems, was not yet completed when the eruption of
+Vesuvius buried Pompeii. The footpath was to be paved
+with marble slabs, and a colonnade was to be erected
+all round, double on the South, with a gallery above
+for women, when the games were held in the Forum. But
+this was never carried out; the architectural members
+lie around still unused. The built up bases too for
+statues of honour and equestrian statues seem to have
+been still unoccupied, if some excavation made shortly
+after the eruption has not robbed us of the chief
+objects. The ancestors of the emperors, the Julian
+family, and the Kings of Rome ought to have been
+placed around on pedestals, yet the only inscriptions
+found are those referring to Romulus and Aeneas. Of
+the business prevailing in the Forum, taken up as it
+was with trade and commerce and even schoolwork, we
+derive information from the Pompeian wall-paintings,
+e. g. <a href="#fig025p020">fig. 25.</a> Vehicles were not <span class="pagenum" id="Page_24">24</span>admitted, and there
+are indeed indications that (at elections and on
+similar occasions) the approaches could be completely
+closed with railings. In no other part of Pompeii
+are there so many public buildings, no private house
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_25">25</span>ventured to intrude here. In the first place at the
+north end, the Temple of Jupiter, clearly identified
+by the bust found in it (<a href="#fig026p021">fig.&nbsp;26</a>), springs forward
+far into the Forum and rises on a lofty substructure,
+to which led a flight of steps with projecting
+sides, once adorned with equestrian statues. Twelve
+Corinthian columns, six in front, three on each
+side, supported the Vestibule; while other columns
+within the cella (probably Ionic, above which rose
+Corinthian) supported the entablature. The large
+pedestal at the back was no doubt intended for the
+Capitoline Trinity, Jupiter, Juno, and Minerva (fig.
+<a href="#fig027p022">27</a> and <a href="#fig028p023">28</a>). On the right, abutting on the Temple is a
+Triumphal Arch, which formerly covered with marble and
+adorned with statues and fountains must have presented
+an imposing appearance. The eastern long side of the
+Forum, is, on the north, occupied by the so-called
+Pantheon, more correctly the Macellum, i. e. Meat
+market (<a href="#fig029p024">fig.&nbsp;29</a>). That such it is, is shown above all
+by the space on the right at the back, which clearly
+contained a butcher’s stall built up with arrangement
+for discharge of water, and also by the shops on the
+south side, which to judge by the pictures placed
+there, contained stalls for provisions of various
+kinds. In the midst of the court rose apparently a
+domed structure on columns (hence the pedestals).
+Here the fish were stripped of their scales, at least
+a great number of scales were found in the drain.
+United with the Macellum <span class="pagenum" id="Page_26">26</span>there was a chapel for the
+cult of the Imperial family; the marble statues found
+here have been removed to Naples, and are replaced
+in Pompeii by plaster casts. The paintings of the
+entrance wall (<a href="#fig030p024">fig.&nbsp;30</a>) deserve special notice on
+account of the beautiful architecture. The central
+picture represents Io watched by Argos. Next comes an
+apartment once splendidly furnished, which is usually
+called Senaculum, but its destination is not as yet
+ascertained. It is thought that it was a sanctuary
+of the tutelary deities of the city, the <i>Lares
+Publici</i>. With greater certainty the adjoining
+building on the right may be designated as a “Temple
+of Vespasian” (<a href="#fig031p025">fig.&nbsp;31</a>). From a relief on the altar
+standing in front of the temple (<a href="#fig032p026">fig.&nbsp;32</a>) in which the
+temple itself is represented, (it is the sacrifice of
+a bull that is depicted, as usually offered to the
+Genius of the emperor), we can recognise that the
+edifice was dedicated to the worship of the emperor.
+Since it was built before the earthquake of A. D. 63,
+yet was not quite ready for use at the time of the
+catastrophe, it is most probable that it was founded
+in honour of Vespasian’s Genius.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="fig031p025" style="max-width: 40em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/fig031p025.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    Fig. 31. The Temple of Vespasian (<a href="#Page_26">p.&nbsp;26</a>).
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<div class="fll40"><figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="fig032p026" style="max-width: 20em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/fig032p026.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    Fig. 32. Altar of the Temple of
+    Vespasian (<a href="#Page_26">p.&nbsp;26</a>).
+  </figcaption>
+</figure></div>
+
+<p>On the south of this follows the large building raised
+according to the inscription by the priestess Eumachia
+at her own cost and dedicated to Concordia Augusta
+and Pietas. This was apparently devoted to industrial
+purposes. Since the fullers (fullones) have dedicated
+a statue to the foundress in the crypt (<a href="#fig033p027">fig.&nbsp;33</a>) we
+may surmise that the whole structure served as a
+market hall for woollen stuffs.</p>
+
+<p>The south side of the Forum is occupied by three
+buildings closely resembling one another, each of
+which consists of a large hall. The central hall was
+apparently intended for the meetings of the Decurions,
+the city magistrates of Pompeii, while on its left the
+judicial Duumvirs had their seat, on the right the
+Aediles.</p>
+
+<p>On the West side first of all comes the Basilica,
+with its end bordering on the Forum (<a href="#fig035p028">fig.&nbsp;35</a>). This
+served for market purposes, to the relief of the
+Forum, and at the same time afforded space for the
+administration of justice in the raised tribunal at
+the end opposite the Forum. It must have produced <span class="pagenum" id="Page_27">27</span>an
+impression of grandeur with its internal columns on
+which the roof rested, and its walls decorated with
+pillars arranged in two rows one above another, the
+walls being in their upper story provided with wide
+openings flanked by columns. Under the tribunal is
+found a cellar-like room which was formerly always
+called a prison; it is however little suited for this
+purpose, not being sufficiently enclosed, if at least
+it were a question of imprisonment for a long period.
+Next comes the Temple of Apollo (<a href="#fig036p028">fig.&nbsp;36</a>), separated
+from the Basilica by the Strada della Marina. That the
+sanctuary which was formerly designated the Temple
+of Venus was dedicated to Apollo results both from
+an Oscan inscription on the floor of the Temple and
+also from the <i>Omphalos</i>, the Navel of the earth
+introduced into the <i>cella</i>, which on account
+of its relation to Delphi is frequently indicated
+in connection with Apollo. A Tripod also, equally
+an attribute of Apollo, is painted on a pilaster
+in the courtyard. This courtyard <span class="pagenum" id="Page_28">28</span>was surrounded
+by a Corinthian colonnade, in front of which stood
+statues of deities that were honoured in conjunction
+with Apollo (Venus, Diana, Mercury and others; also
+a bronze statue of Apollo himself, see <a href="#fig034p027">fig.&nbsp;34</a>).
+In front of the <span class="pagenum" id="Page_29">29</span>steps leading up to the Temple
+stands the great altar on which the burnt-offerings
+were placed. When we return to the Forum we at once
+notice the gauging table with the standard measures
+(the original is in Naples) with openings beneath,
+which can be closed or opened to let the measured
+fluids or corn run out (<a href="#fig037p029">fig.&nbsp;37</a>). Next to this is a
+dilapidated chamber which is now supposed to have been
+a sale-room, and north of this a public lavatory,
+so situated as not to be overlooked from the Forum.
+An edifice of uncertain purpose (Prison? Treasury?)
+ends this side of the Forum, which is united with the
+Temple of Jupiter by a wall pierced by a door.</p>
+
+<div class="column2"><figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="fig033p027" style="max-width: 20em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/fig033p027.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    Fig. 33. Portrait statue of Eumachia
+    (<a href="#Page_26">p.&nbsp;26</a>).
+  </figcaption>
+</figure></div>
+
+<div class="column2"><figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="fig034p027" style="max-width: 20em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/fig034p027.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    Fig. 34. Statue of Apollo (<a href="#Page_28">p.&nbsp;28</a>).
+  </figcaption>
+</figure></div>
+
+<figure class="clear figcenter illowp100" id="fig035p028" style="max-width: 40em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/fig035p028.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    Fig. 35. The Basilica (<a href="#Page_26">p.&nbsp;26</a>).
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="fig036p028" style="max-width: 40em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/fig036p028.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    Fig. 36. The Temple of Apollo (<a href="#Page_27">p.&nbsp;27</a>).
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<div class="fll40"><figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="fig037p029" style="max-width: 40em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/fig037p029.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    Fig. 37. Gauging Table from the Forum
+    (<a href="#Page_29">p.&nbsp;29</a>).
+  </figcaption>
+</figure></div>
+
+<p>Of other sanctuaries there are in Pompeii the Temple
+of Fortuna in the wide mainstreet leading northwards
+from the Forum, placed at the corner of the Street of
+Nola (here too the temple is approached by a flight
+of steps, on a landing in which stands the altar, see
+<a href="#fig038p030">fig.&nbsp;38</a>); and also, in the Street of Stabiae, the
+small temple of Zeus Meilichios (this name belongs
+to it according to an Oscan inscription found at the
+Gate of Stabiae). In this during the building of the
+temple of Jupiter the deities worshipped in the latter
+sanctuary had found refuge. Then there is the Temple
+of Isis near the <i>Forum Triangulare</i> (<a href="#fig039p030">fig.&nbsp;39</a>).
+This according to the inscription over the entrance
+had been rebuilt after the earthquake, at his own
+cost, by the six years old N. Popidius Celsinus (i. e.
+wealthy freedpeople who wished to obtain for their son
+a position of greater distinction than they themselves
+could assume must have done this in his name). In
+consequence of this Master Popidius Celsinus received
+the title of Town-Councillor.</p>
+
+
+
+<p>Besides the flight of steps in front the temple was
+approached by means of a secret staircase, serving no
+doubt to give the priests access to the temple unseen
+by the multitude of worshippers of Isis. The small
+building on the left of the temple, the so-called
+<i>Purgatorium</i>, contains a staircase which most
+likely led to a reservoir filled with water from the
+Nile which was used in the ceremonies. In front of
+this lies an altar approached from the side, and on
+this altar at the time of its excavation were found
+ashes and remains of sacrifices. On the right near the
+entrance is a walled up cavity which contained <span class="pagenum" id="Page_30">30</span>the
+ashes and remnants of burnt fruits, undoubtedly the
+remains of sacrifice. It may here be mentioned that
+in front of the temple there was found <span class="pagenum" id="Page_31">31</span>a tablet of
+hieroglyphics which had nothing to do with the worship
+of Isis, and therefore served only as an imposition;
+also that at the time of the eruption <span class="pagenum" id="Page_32">32</span>the temple was
+shut; in the ashes from Vesuvius there was preserved
+so exact an impression of the door with its three
+leaves that a drawing of it could be made from the
+impression.</p>
+
+<p>In the open space behind the Tribunal of the Basilica
+the latest excavations (since 1898) have resulted
+in the discovery of a temple which certainly was
+dedicated to the guardian goddess of the Roman colony,
+Venus Pompeiana. At the time of the catastrophe of
+the year 63 it was thrown down, and was to have been
+completely rebuilt, as the building stones lying
+around indicate. It would assuredly have been the
+largest and most splendid sanctuary of the city,
+if the outbreak of Vesuvius had not prevented the
+carrying out of the plan.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="fig038p030" style="max-width: 40em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/fig038p030.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    Fig. 38. The Temple of Fortune (<a href="#Page_29">p.&nbsp;29</a>).
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="fig039p030" style="max-width: 40em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/fig039p030.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    Fig. 39. The Temple of Isis (<a href="#Page_29">p.&nbsp;29</a>).
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="fig040p031" style="max-width: 40em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/fig040p031.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    Fig. 40. The smaller Theatre (<a href="#Page_32">p.&nbsp;32</a>).
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="fig041p031" style="max-width: 40em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/fig041p031.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    Fig. 41. The larger Theatre (<a href="#Page_32">p.&nbsp;32</a>).
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp71" id="fig042p032" style="max-width: 33em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/fig042p032.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    Fig. 42. Scene from a Comedy. Mosaic of
+    Dioscurides (<a href="#Page_32">p.&nbsp;32</a>).
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>Of first rank among the other public buildings are
+the two theatres, which closely connected with each
+other lie between the <i>Forum Triangulare</i> and the
+Street of Stabiae (a broad flight of steps designed
+for festive processions leads from the <i>Forum
+Triangulare</i> to the Theatres). The smaller theatre
+(<a href="#fig040p031">fig.&nbsp;40</a>), formerly roofed over, served probably for
+musical performances, while the larger (<a href="#fig041p031">fig.&nbsp;41</a>) was
+employed for scenic exhibitions. Of these <a href="#fig042p032">figure 42</a>,
+an <span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_33"></a><a id="Page_34"></a>34</span>extremely fine mosaic from Pompeii may perhaps
+serve as a specimen. It is to be observed that, as
+in the case of most theatres, the seats have at the
+back a hollow for the feet of those sitting above.
+The broad low steps of the lowest row were utilised
+for the arrangement of <i>bisellia</i>, that is wide
+seats properly intended for two persons, the use of
+which was a privilege of the Decurions. Above, on the
+edge of the enclosing wall, stones are to be seen
+which served to carry the masts from which awnings
+were stretched for protection against the glare of the
+sun. It is to this that the promise <i>vela erunt</i>
+refers in the advertisements of the theatre.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="fig043p033" style="max-width: 40em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/fig043p033.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    Fig. 43. Interior view of the
+    Amphitheatre (<a href="#Page_34">p.&nbsp;34</a>).
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="fig044p033" style="max-width: 40em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/fig044p033.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    Fig. 44. Barracks of the Gladiators (<a href="#Page_36">p.&nbsp;36</a>).
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="fig045p034" style="max-width: 33em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/fig045p034.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    Fig. 45. Weapons of Gladiators (<a href="#Page_36">p.&nbsp;36</a>).
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>Together with the theatres should be named the
+amphitheatre, situated at the southeast extremity
+of the city, a building of very great size, which
+was calculated to meet the requirements of the
+neighbouring towns as well. Apparently it originally
+lay without the walls, and was included in the time
+of fortification only at a later period as forming
+a point of danger. Seen from without the building
+produces a comparatively mean impression (<a href="#fig057p042">fig.&nbsp;57</a>),
+since to avoid having to raise the outer walls too
+high the arena or fighting place has been dug out
+(<a href="#fig043p033">fig.&nbsp;43</a>). From the outside steps lead to the upper
+tiers, the lower tiers are reached by means of
+steps from a vaulted corridor which runs round the
+whole amphitheatre under the second tier. This is
+interrupted in the middle of both the longer sides, on
+the west by reason of a small entrance to the arena
+by which the corpses of the slain gladiators were
+dragged <span class="pagenum" id="Page_35">35</span>out. To the arena itself two wide entrances
+led from north and south, one of which, the southern,
+turns at a right angle on account of its nearness
+to the city wall. At the northern entrance a small
+separate passage could be made in order to keep the
+spectators apart from the gladiators who passed in
+and out at this point. This was effected by means of
+a latticed partition, for which purpose stones with
+holes in them were used, which are still to be seen.
+Small dark rooms at the entrances, provided with
+very low doorways, may have served as cages for wild
+beasts. Here too, as in the Theatre, the steps of
+the first row were broad and low, being intended for
+the arrangement of <i>Bisellia</i>. The wall which
+separated the spectators from the arena were found
+when first excavated to be adorned with paintings,
+which are now indeed completely destroyed, but are
+preserved in copies made immediately after their
+discovery. Without exception they represent scenes
+from the Amphitheatre, partly fights between wild
+beasts, partly combats of gladiators. (See <a href="#fig056p041">fig.&nbsp;56</a>
+as to which it is doubtful whether it was found in
+the amphitheatre; the gladiator standing on the right
+being badly wounded has let fall his shield; standing
+quietly he raises the thumb of the left hand to
+entreat the mercy of the people, for only if he looks
+death in the face unmoved can he hope to be granted
+his life; in our case his death seems certain, for
+his opponent steps up to him with drawn dagger to
+give him the <i>coup de grâce</i>.) On the breastwork
+wall traces were still visible of a lattice by means
+of which the spectators were to be protected against
+possible attacks of the wild beasts in the arena.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="fig046p035" style="max-width: 40em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/fig046p035.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    Fig. 46. Wall at the Stabian Baths (<a href="#Page_37">p.&nbsp;37</a>).
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="fig047p036" style="max-width: 40em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/fig047p036.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    Fig. 47. The Apodyterium (<a href="#Page_37">p.&nbsp;37</a>).
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_36">36</span>
+<p>In connection with the amphitheatre may be mentioned
+also the barracks for gladiators, situated to
+the south of the large Theatre (<a href="#fig044p033">fig.&nbsp;44</a>). To all
+appearances the large space surrounded by columns
+belonged originally to the Theatre, and was intended
+to afford protection to visitors to the Theatre in
+case of rain occurring suddenly. But when the passion
+for gladiatorial exhibitions had so prevailed that
+even smaller cities thought themselves obliged to
+keep special bands of gladiators, the second row of
+columns that no doubt originally existed was done away
+with and in its place paltry cells erected for them.
+That we have to do with gladiators and not, as has
+been supposed, with soldiers, a garrison for Pompeii,
+has been indisputably proved by the discovery of
+gladiators’ weapons (now in the Naples Museum, <a href="#fig045p034">fig. 45</a> and <a href="#fig060p044">60</a>)
+of paintings and <i>Graffiti</i> relating to
+gladiators. The cells were raised in two stories, and
+in such a way that the upper were approached by means
+of a wooden gallery. In one cell on the west side
+a great set of fetters was found used for chaining
+prisoners; in the same room, but not as is commonly
+reported fastened in the fetters, some skeletons were
+found, those therefore of <span class="pagenum" id="Page_37">37</span>prisoners who when the
+catastrophe came had not been able to escape. The
+surrounding columns are painted red and yellow, only
+the two centre ones of the east and west sides are
+blue, perhaps because these served as marks in certain
+military exercises.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="fig048p037" style="max-width: 40em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/fig048p037.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    Fig. 48. The Tepidarium of the Forum
+    Baths (<a href="#Page_38">p.&nbsp;38</a>).
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<div class="fll40"><figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="fig049p038" style="max-width: 40em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/fig049p038.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    Fig. 49. Arrangement of a Caldarium (<a href="#Page_38">p.&nbsp;38</a>).
+  </figcaption>
+</figure></div>
+
+<p>The baths too, which played so great a part in the
+life of the ancients, must not be forgotten among the
+public places of resort. Of large Public Baths three
+have up to the present time been found in Pompeii,
+the so-called Central Baths, which at the time of
+the eruption of Vesuvius were still in course of
+construction, the Baths by the Forum, and the Stabian
+Baths, at the corner of the Stabiae and Abbondanza
+streets. These last named are the best preserved, and
+deserve on this account a more thorough consideration.
+We come first into a large courtyard surrounded
+with pillars, the Palaestra, devoted to gymnastic
+exercises; here there was a stone track constructed,
+for rolling stone balls, further a swimming bath
+(<i>Natatio</i>), with the dressingrooms appertaining
+thereto (<a href="#fig046p035">fig.&nbsp;46</a>). The reliefs in stucco, which
+are preserved on the outer walls of these rooms,
+merit special notice. On the right of the principal
+entrance two doors lead to the men’s bath, which
+consisted of the <i>Apodyterium</i>, where people
+took off their clothes (the niches served to keep
+them in, <a href="#fig047p036">fig. 47</a>), the <i>Frigidarium</i> or cold
+bath, the <i>Tepidarium</i> or lukewarm bath, and the
+<i>Caldarium</i> <span class="pagenum" id="Page_38">38</span>or hot bath. (<a href="#fig048p037">Fig.&nbsp;48</a> represents
+the Tepidarium of the Baths near the Forum; here the
+heating is derived from a large brazier presented by
+Vaccula.) Both these rooms received their heating
+through the hollow pavement and hollow walls, i. e.
+the pavement rests on small pilasters about two feet
+high, and the walls are overlaid with tiles, which
+being provided with raised sidewalls form a kind of
+flue on the wall (figs. <a href="#fig049p038">49</a> and <a href="#fig050p038">50</a>). By this method the
+heat introduced from beneath, could penetrate under
+the pavement and between the double walls. Of late it
+is true this way of heating has been disputed.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="fig050p038" style="max-width: 33.0em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/fig050p038.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    Fig. 50. Section of the Caldarium (<a href="#Page_38">p.&nbsp;38</a>).
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="fig051p038" style="max-width: 33.0em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/fig051p038.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    Fig. 51. Ground Plan of the House of
+    Pansa (<a href="#Page_39">p.&nbsp;39</a>).
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_39">39</span></p>
+
+<div class="fll40"><figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="fig052p039" style="max-width: 20em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/fig052p039.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    Fig. 52. Atrium Tuscanicum (<a href="#Page_41">p.&nbsp;41</a>).
+  </figcaption>
+</figure></div>
+
+<p>The women’s bath adjoins the men’s, with the
+same rooms required for bathing; between the
+<i>Caldarium</i> of the men’s bath and that of
+the women’s bath lies the furnace-room; here were
+placed three large caldrons for hot, tepid, and cold
+water. Of such a furnace-room and the arrangement of
+caldrons an idea may also be formed from the well
+preserved bathing plant excavated in a Roman villa at
+Bosco Reale (where was made the great discovery of
+silverplate, now at Paris). This has recently been set
+up at Pompeii, in a small house behind the Temple of
+Jupiter in the street called Del Foro.</p>
+
+<p>Besides these public bathing establishments there
+were of course also in the better class of houses
+private baths which show the same arrangements, though
+naturally more or less curtailed.</p>
+
+<div class="clear column2"><figure class="figcenter illowp58" id="fig053p039" style="max-width: 37.5em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/fig053p039.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    Fig. 53. Cave Canem (<a href="#Page_40">p.&nbsp;40</a>).
+  </figcaption>
+</figure></div>
+
+<div class="column2"><figure class="figcenter illowp58" id="fig054p039" style="max-width: 37.5em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/fig054p039.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    Fig. 54. Doorknockers (<a href="#Page_40">p.&nbsp;40</a>).
+  </figcaption>
+</figure></div>
+
+<figure class="clear figcenter illowp100" id="fig055p040" style="max-width: 40.0em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/fig055p040.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    Fig. 55. Roman Dwellinghouse. Vista
+    from the Atrium to the Peristyle (<a href="#Page_42">p.&nbsp;42</a>).
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="fig056p041" style="max-width: 25.0em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/fig056p041.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    Fig. 56. Scene from the Amphitheatre
+    (<a href="#Page_35">p.&nbsp;35</a>).
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="fig057p042" style="max-width: 40.0em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/fig057p042.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    Fig. 57. External View of the
+    Amphitheatre (<a href="#Page_34">p.&nbsp;34</a>).
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<div class="fll40"><figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="fig058p043" style="max-width: 20em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/fig058p043.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    Fig. 58. Iron Strongbox (<a href="#Page_42">p.&nbsp;42</a>).
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="fig059p043" style="max-width: 20em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/fig059p043.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    Fig. 59. Domestic Shrine (<a href="#Page_42">p.&nbsp;42</a>).
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+</div>
+
+<p>The private houses are of course, according to the
+wealth of the owners, of very various descriptions,
+and planned on a sometimes more, sometimes less
+imposing and costly scale, since here one, there
+another circumstance must have influenced the building
+of the house and altered its form. Something however
+remains common to all, and out of the variety it is
+possible to reconstruct the design of a standard
+Pompeian house. The house has in general the form
+of a rectangle of which the small side faces the
+street, see <a href="#fig051p038">fig.&nbsp;51</a>. The door <span class="pagenum" id="Page_40">40</span>is in the middle of
+this side, and is flanked right and left by one or two
+rooms, which are either used as shops and then open
+outwards for their whole width, or are entered from
+the interior and form part of the house. Between these
+a passage leads from the door to the chief apartment
+situated behind, viz., the <i>Atrium</i>. This passage
+is called <i>fauces</i> or <i>prothyron</i>. In the
+superior class of houses the door is set back a
+little so as to leave a free space in front, called
+<i>Vestibulum</i>. Then there are usually two doors,
+one a wide folding-door corresponding in size to the
+passage leading to the Atrium, and a smaller door at
+the side intended for the <i>Ostiarius</i>, or porter,
+who could thus refuse admittance to an importunate
+or unpleasant visitor, without exposing the interior
+of the house to the gaze of those standing before
+the door. A salutation such as <i>Have</i> or
+<i>Ave</i>, “Hail” inlaid in the threshold of the
+door, or a <i>Cave Canem</i>, “Beware of the Dog”
+with the representation of a dog in mosaic (<a href="#fig053p039">fig.&nbsp;53</a>)
+is a not unusual ornament which meets the eye as one
+enters. A knocker on the door served to summon the
+<i>ostiarius</i>. The <i>atrium</i>, a room usually
+square, contains in the middle a rectangular tank
+sunk in the ground <span class="pagenum" id="Page_41">41</span>for the reception of rainwater;
+for this an opening was left in the roof. Five
+classes of <i>Atrium</i> are generally distinguished.
+In the simplest, the <i>Atrium Tuscanicum</i>, the
+roof sloping inwards was supported by two main beams
+crossing the Atrium and two side beams resting on
+them (<a href="#fig052p039">fig.&nbsp;52</a>; in the new <i>Casa</i> of Reg. V,
+Ins. IV the ancient construction of the roof of the
+Atrium has been re-erected). If the opening thus
+formed was to be large, or it was impossible on
+account of the breadth of the Atrium to leave the
+weight of the roof to rest only on two beams, pillars
+were placed under the four points of junction and
+on these pillars the beams were laid; this is the
+<i>Atrium Tetrastylum</i>. If it was desirable to make
+the aperture still larger, additional pillars were
+employed besides the four at the corners, so that
+regular halls with colonnades were produced (<i>Atrium
+Corinthiacum</i>). If the roof sloped outwards so that
+above the <i>impluvium</i> there rose walls supported
+by the principal beams or the pillars, the Atrium
+was called <i>displuviatum</i>, from the fact that
+in this case the rain flowed away outwards. Finally
+the <i>atrium testudinatum</i>, a very rare form at
+Pompeii, had its roof equally sloping outwards, but
+was devoid of the quadrangular opening. This opening
+is called <i>compluvium</i>; the name <i>impluvium</i>
+is given to the tank sunk beneath to receive the
+water, and out of which the water was conducted by
+pipes into the reservoirs under the atrium. For
+protection against the intrusion of unbidden visitors
+who might without difficulty let themselves down from
+the roof into the room through the <i>compluvium</i>,
+the opening could be closed beneath by means of an
+iron grating. On both sides of the <i>Atrium</i>,
+which receives its light from above, are placed mostly
+small chambers, storerooms or sleeping apartments;
+the last one on each side usually opened its whole
+width to the atrium and is called <i>Ala</i>. Here in
+Patrician <span class="pagenum" id="Page_42">42</span>houses of distinction the representations
+of ancestors were generally placed. Opposite the
+entrance lies the <i>Tablinum</i>, usually opening
+with full width on the <i>Atrium</i>, and closed only
+by curtains (<a href="#fig055p040">fig.&nbsp;55</a>). This was specially the room of
+the master of the house, here he kept his valuable
+documents, here he received visits, in front of the
+<i>Tablinum</i>; in the <i>Atrium</i> is as a rule the
+place for keeping the <i>Arca</i>, or strongbox, made
+of iron, often artistically decorated, and let into
+a huge stone, to prevent its being stolen (<a href="#fig058p043">fig.&nbsp;58</a>).
+Past the <i>Tablinum</i> a narrow passage generally
+leads into the back rooms of the house, which, grouped
+around the Peristyle, an oblong quadrangular court
+surrounded by columns, comprising not only livingrooms
+and bedchambers, but also diningrooms, often different
+ones for winter and for summer. These are for the
+most part rather small, sufficing only for the
+arrangement of the three couches around the little
+table, from which the <i>Triclinium</i> has its name.
+In this part a little on one side is usually found
+the kitchen with other rooms required for domestic
+purposes, and placed in close proximity to the kitchen
+for the sake of supply and discharge of water. The
+wealthier establishments have also one of the chambers
+lying round the Peristyle fitted up as a kind of
+domestic chapel for the worship of the <i>Lares</i>,
+if there is not a special <i>Sacrarium</i> erected
+in the <i>Atrium</i> for this purpose. Houses of
+more moderate pretensions content themselves with
+having their household gods, the <i>Lares</i> and the
+serpents sacred to them, painted in the kitchen above
+or near the hearth, in order to offer sacrifice to
+them there (figs. <a href="#fig059p043">59</a> and <a href="#fig062p045">62</a>). From the Peristyle we
+pass on further to the garden, in which, where the
+owner was a rich man, there is likewise no lack of
+architectural adornments, airy halls and porticoes.
+Upper stories were generally in little favour, with
+the increase of population however they could not have
+been dispensed with. For the most part they were let,
+as a rule with the shops situated on the street, on
+which account stairs leading upwards are often found
+in the shops; in wealthier establishments the upper
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_43">43</span>chambers were allotted to the slaves. These upper
+stories, just as in our mediaeval towns, often project
+considerably over the street; one such projecting
+apartment, as was stated above, is well preserved
+(<a href="#fig061p044">fig.&nbsp;61</a>).</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="fig060p044" style="max-width: 33em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/fig060p044.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    Fig. 60. Helmets for Gladiators (<a href="#Page_36">p.&nbsp;36</a>).
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="fig061p044" style="max-width: 40.0em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/fig061p044.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    Fig. 61. House with <i>maenianum</i> (<a href="#Page_43">p.&nbsp;43</a>).
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<div class="fll40"><figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="fig062p045" style="max-width: 20em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/fig062p045.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    Fig. 62. Domestic Altar (<a href="#Page_42">p.&nbsp;42</a>).
+  </figcaption>
+</figure></div>
+
+<p>How was the Pompeian house decorated? Let us begin
+with the floor. In most houses the flooring is
+provided with <i>opus signinum</i>, that is pieces of
+tile are pressed into a mass of stucco and then the
+surface is polished; in better houses their place is
+taken by mosaic, generally only black and white, and
+comprising only patterns and ornaments; more rarely a
+coloured picture is produced with smaller cubes in the
+middle of the room. Quite peculiarly rich in mosaics,
+and indeed such as artistically belong to the most
+splendid that have come down to us in this department
+of art, was the so-called Casa del Fauno, in which was
+discovered the famous Battle of Alexander, now in the
+Naples Museum (<a href="#fig064p046">fig.&nbsp;64</a>). The irresistible onset of the
+Greeks who in spite of inferiority in number drive the
+Persians in headlong flight before them is expressed
+with unsurpassable power. Alexander whose helmet has
+fallen from his head in the impetuous attack has
+just transfixed with <span class="pagenum" id="Page_44">44</span>a powerful thrust of his spear
+one of the leaders of the Persian host, who was in
+the act of leaping from his dying horse and saving
+himself on a fresh one offered to him by a faithful
+follower. His fall arouses in the king who stands in
+his chariot, the deepest sympathy, so that in his
+sorrow for his general’s death he almost loses sight
+of his own escape. His charioteer however thinks only
+of bringing the chariot and his lord to safety over
+dead and dying. From the same house comes also the
+mosaic threshold in the Naples Museum, a portion of
+which we give in <a href="#fig063p045">figure 63</a>. Leaves and fruits of all
+kinds are joined to a cylinder held together by rings
+and garnished with various masks.</p>
+
+
+
+<p><a href="#fig065p047">Figure 65</a> recommends itself by remarkable fidelity
+to nature. A cat has seized a bird (apparently a
+partridge) with the intention of strangling it. The
+cat probably belongs to the species of wild cats,
+since cats as domestic animals <span class="pagenum" id="Page_45">45</span>were not common among
+the Greeks and Romans before the fourth century of our
+era (hence is explained the fact that no skeleton of
+a cat has been met with among the ruins of Pompeii).
+Below two ducks are swimming, and mussels and other
+aquatic animals are represented. At Pompeii too
+mosaic had begun to be employed for the covering of
+walls, especially beside fountains. The paving of the
+ground with slabs of marble, a practice very common
+at Rome since the time of Sulla, seems to have been
+comparatively rare at Pompeii.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="fig063p045" style="max-width: 40.0em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/fig063p045.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    Fig. 63. Mosaic Threshold (<a href="#Page_44">p.&nbsp;44</a>).
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="fig064p046" style="max-width: 60.0em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/fig064p046.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    Fig. 64. Alexander’s Battle (<a href="#Page_43">p.&nbsp;43</a>).
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>The eyes of visitors will be attracted by the walls
+even more than by the pavements. Although, as said
+before, the greatest number of the wall-paintings
+discovered have been cut out and brought to the Naples
+Museum, yet sufficient material exists in Pompeii also
+to form a judgment as to the effect of the Pompeian
+wall-painting, especially in the more recently
+excavated houses, in which the colours are still more
+fresh. (For the removal of wall-paintings <span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_46"></a><a id="Page_47"></a>47</span>a wooden
+frame is placed over and around the pictures, and the
+stones are taken away from behind till the stucco
+is reached; then plaster is poured in at the back
+of the picture, and so the whole becomes one single
+mass and can be removed.) We must not however forget
+that the rooms in which the paintings are found have
+at the present day a much more glaring light than in
+antiquity, a circumstance not without influence on the
+effect of the painting.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="fig065p047" style="max-width: 25.0em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/fig065p047.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    Fig. 65. Pompeian Mosaic (<a href="#Page_44">p.&nbsp;44</a>).
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="fig066p047" style="max-width: 33.0em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/fig066p047.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    Fig. 66. Wall Decoration of the First
+    Style (Casa di Sallustio) (<a href="#Page_47">p.&nbsp;47</a>).
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp52" id="fig067p048" style="max-width: 75.0em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/fig067p048.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    Fig. 67. Wall Decoration of the Third Style (House of Spurius Mesor) (<a href="#Page_48">p.&nbsp;48</a>).
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<div class="fll40"><figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="fig068p049" style="max-width: 20em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/fig068p049.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    Fig. 68. Process of Plastering (<a href="#Page_49">p.&nbsp;49</a>).
+  </figcaption>
+</figure></div>
+
+
+<p>According to A. Mau four consecutive styles are to be
+distinguished.</p>
+
+<p>1. Pre-Roman Period: Imitation of marble incrustation
+by means of plastic stucco work; no pictures (<a href="#fig066p047">fig.&nbsp;66</a>).</p>
+
+<p>2. Period of the Republic: Imitation of Marble
+incrustation by means of simple painting, together
+with representation of architecture, not fantastical
+but as it might actually exist. This style is however
+but scantily represented at Pompeii.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_48"></a><a id="Page_49"></a>49</span></p>
+
+<p>3. Period of the Early Empire, to about fifty
+years after Christ: Egyptianising ornamental style
+distinguished by beautiful and pure forms, and
+delicate, finely distinguished colours (<a href="#fig067p048">fig.&nbsp;67</a>).</p>
+
+<p>4. Ornamental Style of the last period of Pompeii,
+with special preference for architectural painting,
+fantastically slender and of a playfully ornamental
+fashion. The examples of this style are in Pompeii by
+far the most numerous (<a href="#fig069p050">fig.&nbsp;69</a>).</p>
+
+
+<p>Above the plinth of uniform shape the walls are for
+the most part divided into panels, which usually are
+painted alternately yellow and red; in their midst
+they have figures of various kinds floating in the
+air, women, satyrs, Loves, Victories and such like,
+or they are adorned with imitations of easelpictures,
+the subjects being taken from mythology. Numerous too
+are scenes from every day life, still more numerous
+landscapes; the historical motive is as yet only very
+rarely indicated. Very frequently mythological figures
+are introduced as engaged in the avocations of daily
+life in the midst of the fantastical architecture
+which covers the walls as ornament. The artistic value
+is naturally very different, but in general it must be
+admitted that the vividness of colour, the lightness
+of touch in creations which are due assuredly to no
+famous artist cannot be sufficiently admired. As to
+the process by which the wall-paintings were executed
+the most multifarious conjectures were formerly made;
+now on the contrary the view universally adopted is
+that we have to do almost exclusively with fresco
+painting, i. e. painting on fresh plaster, only that
+here and there recourse was also had to painting in
+tempera (<a href="#fig068p049">fig.&nbsp;68</a>).</p>
+
+<p>Some wall-paintings still in their original position
+will be dealt with later when we come to speak of the
+respective houses; a few examples out of the rich
+treasure removed to the Museo Nazionale in Naples may
+here suffice.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp76" id="fig069p050" style="max-width: 75.0em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/fig069p050.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    Fig. 69. Wall Decoration. Fourth Style
+    (<a href="#Page_49">p.&nbsp;49</a>).
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp74" id="fig070p050" style="max-width: 75.0em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/fig070p050.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    Fig. 70. Sacrifice of Iphigenia (<a href="#Page_49">p.&nbsp;49</a>).
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><a href="#fig070p050">Figure 70</a> represents a painting which may rank as one
+of the most famous and the most frequently discussed,
+the Sacrifice of Iphigenia, probably a copy, though a
+feeble one, of a famous picture of an earlier period.
+Ulysses and Diomedes are holding the hapless maiden
+through whose sacrifice Agamemnon <span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_50"></a><a id="Page_51"></a>51</span>desires to appease
+the wrath of Artemis and to obtain a favourable wind
+for the expedition to Troy; they hold her ready for
+sacrifice before the image of Artemis standing on a
+column. Calchas the priest has already drawn the knife
+from its sheath to give the fatal stroke, but still
+he hesitates, as though he felt some scruple as to
+undertaking the cruel deed. Agamemnon stands aside,
+shrouded entirely in his robe, since as a father he
+cannot bring himself to look with his own eyes upon
+the carrying out of the sacrifice, to which as king
+and leader of the army he sees himself compelled. In
+the gaze which Ulysses directs to the image of Artemis
+we may read the reproach that she, the goddess, should
+demand such cruelty. Yet the merciful solution is
+prepared by the scene enacted above in the sky; there
+we see the goddess Artemis herself, to her hastens
+a nymph who brings the deer that is to fall <span class="pagenum" id="Page_52">52</span>by the
+sacrificial knife in place of Iphigenia. <a href="#fig071p051">Figure 71</a>
+is derived at any rate from a famous ancient theme,
+perhaps after a painting by Timomachos; this is the
+single figure of Medea, who sword in hand plans the
+murder of her sons. The sword is still sheathed, sunk
+in deep deliberation she has folded her hands, and
+pressed thumb against thumb, she is a mother who loves
+her children tenderly, but she is also a wife who is
+bitterly sensible of every neglect on the part of her
+husband. Which feeling will gain the victory? Will it
+be gained by a mother’s love which pardons everything,
+or by the jealousy that knows how to strike the
+husband in the most painful way through the slaying of
+his children? The conflict of feelings is undoubtedly
+expressed in a most striking manner in the picture.
+<a href="#fig073p052">Figure 73</a> also represents a picture remarkable for
+excellent preservation, the abduction of Europa by
+Zeus in the form of a bull. Europa daughter of Agenor,
+sports with her companions on <span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_53"></a><a id="Page_54"></a>54</span>the shore of the sea,
+gathers flowers and weaves garlands. There a bull
+approaches them (Zeus had concealed himself under this
+form), who through his tameness gives the maidens
+courage to busy themselves sportively with him. They
+deck him with flowers, caress him, nay at last Europa
+becoming bold mounts his back. It is this moment that
+the painter has chosen to depict. Europa has lain
+down on his back, the girls are still playing with
+him, yet he is already striding forward, only a few
+steps and he is in the sea, and then will Zeus bear
+his sweet burden to Crete, and her terrified playmates
+will vainly stretch forth their arms after the king’s
+daughter borne far away.</p>
+
+<div class="column2"><figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="fig071p051" >
+  <img style="max-width: 10em;" class="w100" src="images/fig071p051.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    Fig. 71. Medea, from Herculaneum<br>(<a href="#Page_52">p.&nbsp;52</a>).
+  </figcaption>
+</figure></div>
+
+<div class="column2"><figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="fig072p051" >
+  <img style="max-width: 15em;" class="w100" src="images/fig072p051.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    Fig. 72. The so-called Ephebus of
+    bronze<br>(<a href="#Page_57">p.&nbsp;57</a>).
+  </figcaption>
+</figure></div>
+
+<figure class="clear figcenter illowp57" id="fig073p052" style="max-width: 75.0em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/fig073p052.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    Fig. 73. Europa with the Bull (<a href="#Page_52">p.&nbsp;52</a>).
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<div class="column2"><figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="fig074p053" style="max-width: 37.5em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/fig074p053.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    Fig. 74. Mars and Venus (<a href="#Page_54">p.&nbsp;54</a>).
+  </figcaption>
+</figure></div>
+
+<div class="column2"><figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="fig075p053" style="max-width: 37.5em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/fig075p053.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    Fig. 75. Paquius Proculus and his wife
+    (<a href="#Page_54">p.&nbsp;54</a>).
+  </figcaption>
+</figure></div>
+
+<figure class="clear figcenter illowp100" id="fig076p054" style="max-width: 40.0em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/fig076p054.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    Fig. 76. Garden of the Casa di Lucrezio
+    (<a href="#Page_59">p.&nbsp;59</a>).
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><a href="#fig074p053">Figure 74</a> represents a subject often occurring at
+Pompeii, Venus united with Mars. Mars lays his left
+hand on the left arm of Venus, who resting at ease
+lays her left arm on the right thigh of Mars, who with
+his right hand raises the robe of the goddess so that
+the whole upper part of her person is uncovered. That
+the god of war has already quite forgotten his own
+peculiar mission, and is quite given up to love, is
+shown by the two Cupids, of whom the one is engaged
+in girding himself with the god’s sword, while the
+other is trying his helmet on his own head. <a href="#fig075p053">Figure 75</a>
+offers us a picture with quite a modern interest. The
+worthy baker Paquius Proculus has had his portrait
+painted with his better half, since photography has
+not yet been invented. But for this purpose it is not
+sufficient to have brought the external form into
+order, to have neatly smoothed the moustache, and
+to have crisped the little locks so that they curl
+daintily over forehead and cheeks and roll deep upon
+the neck, no, they wish their intellectual interests
+to be recognised; <span class="pagenum" id="Page_55">55</span>therefore he takes in his hand
+a written roll, and she grasps with her left hand
+a diptychon, while with her right she holds to her
+lips the style to write on the wax tablet, as though
+in the next moment some brilliant idea would occur
+to her which she need only write down in order to be
+included for all time in the list of the intellectual
+Bluestockings. Just as in our own day many people
+get their portraits taken with books in their hands
+as though the study of literature formed their whole
+ordinary day’s work.</p>
+
+<div class="column3"><figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="fig077p055" style="max-width: 20em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/fig077p055.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    Fig. 77.<br>The Dancing Faun<br>(<a href="#Page_55">p.&nbsp;55</a>).
+  </figcaption>
+</figure></div>
+
+<div class="column3"><figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="fig078p055" style="max-width: 20em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/fig078p055.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    Fig. 78.<br> The so-called Narcissus<br>(<a href="#Page_56">p.&nbsp;56</a>).
+  </figcaption>
+</figure></div>
+
+<div class="column3"><figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="fig080p056" style="max-width: 20em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/fig080p056.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    Fig. 80.<br> Casa del Balcone pensile<br>(<a href="#Page_59">p.&nbsp;59</a>).
+  </figcaption>
+</figure></div>
+
+<div class="clear fll40"><figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="fig079p056" style="max-width: 15em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/fig079p056.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    Fig. 79. Cupid with a Dolphin (<a href="#Page_57">p.&nbsp;57</a>).
+  </figcaption>
+</figure></div>
+
+<p>The decoration too of houses by means of statues of
+marble and bronze must here be briefly mentioned.
+It has already been stated that in the temples and
+public buildings numerous marble and bronze statues
+have been found. These discoveries can therefore be
+passed over here. As the most beautiful of the works
+of art which have been discovered in private houses
+may be mentioned the statue of the Dancing Faun
+(after which the Casa del Fauno is named) and the
+so-called Narcissus, found in a house of the Vico del
+Balcone pensile. In the former (<a href="#fig077p055">fig.&nbsp;77</a>) the artist
+has represented a comrade of the circle of Dionysos,
+full of Bacchic pleasure, turning in wild dance; it
+is a rough sensual comrade, whose half animal being
+is sufficiently suggested by <span class="pagenum" id="Page_56">56</span>his goat’s ears and
+the little tail that is just visible. The strained
+muscles show with what energy he gives himself up
+to the activity of the dance, while on the other
+side the unrestrained joyousness expressed in his
+countenance, and the freedom and ease he displays in
+the movement of the upper part of his body and his
+arms clearly reveal with what sportive agility he
+copes with the exertion. Almost more beautiful is the
+so-called Narcissus (<a href="#fig078p055">fig.&nbsp;78</a>) a youth just outgrown
+the years of boyhood, over whose left shoulder hangs
+the skin of a goat or a doe, who however is otherwise
+naked except the feet which are clothed with elegant
+sandals. With slight movement of the arm he supports
+the left hand against the hip, and stretches out the
+right hand, while at the same time he bends his head
+to this side as though he were turning his attention
+to some distant sounds. People have chosen to see in
+this figure a Narcissus listening to the flattering
+words of Echo, but such a situation is nowhere to be
+found in the myth. Others suggest Dionysos playing
+with his panther; for this the doeskin and the wreath
+of ivy in the hair would be <span class="pagenum" id="Page_57">57</span>very suitable, as also
+the beautiful sandals; but then we should have to
+suppose that the figure had already in antiquity
+been removed from its original base and placed on a
+new pedestal. For the enjoyment however which the
+work of art affords us the name which is given it is
+a matter of indifference, and this enjoyment will
+be experienced by every one who contemplates the
+beautiful statuette. Also the recently found statuette
+of a youth, completely plated with silver, (<a href="#fig072p051">fig.&nbsp;72</a>)
+which in antiquity was altered into a lampholder,
+and therefore has experienced some damage, deserves
+careful inspection on account of its beauty.</p>
+
+<figure class="clear figcenter illowp52" id="fig081p057" style="max-width: 75.0em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/fig081p057.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    Fig. 81. Mosaic Fountain (<a href="#Page_59">p.&nbsp;59</a>).
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="fig082p058" style="max-width: 40.0em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/fig082p058.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    Fig. 82. Atrium of the Casa di Cornelio
+    Rufo (<a href="#Page_60">p.&nbsp;60</a>).
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<div class="column2"><figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="fig083p058" style="max-width: 20em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/fig083p058.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    Fig. 83.<br>Bust of the Banker L.
+    Caecilius Jucundus<br>(<a href="#Page_60">p.&nbsp;60</a>).
+  </figcaption>
+</figure></div>
+
+<div class="column2"><figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="fig084p058" style="max-width: 20em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/fig084p058.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    Fig. 84.<br>Bust of Cornelius Rufus<br>(<a href="#Page_60">p.&nbsp;60</a>).
+  </figcaption>
+</figure></div>
+
+<p class="clear">While this figure was to be employed in the house for
+lighting purposes, both the others seem to have had
+their place at the fountain of the house, with which
+in a certain way they were connected, in that the
+relation of Satyrs and similar beings to springs is
+a well-known one in antiquity. In other places the
+marble and the bronze statues are employed actually
+as fountain figures, so in the case of <a href="#fig079p056">figure 79</a>, the
+bronze statuette of a Cupid who exerting <span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_58"></a><a id="Page_59"></a>59</span>all his
+strength holds a dolphin up high, from whose mouth the
+water flows. As to how such statuettes were grouped
+with fountains and how also in small houses an attempt
+was made to enliven the narrow space left for the
+garden by the erection of all sorts of works of art, a
+sufficiently clear example is afforded by the little
+garden of the Casa di Lucrezio (<a href="#fig076p054">fig.&nbsp;76</a>). Here on both
+sides of the fountain niche in which stands a Silenus
+as distributor of water, double Herms or busts are
+placed which represent Bacchus with Ariadne. Of the
+other figures above all let the group standing in the
+foreground be mentioned, a group of a Satyr extracting
+a thorn from Pan’s foot. A dainty motive too is that
+of a fountain figure (<a href="#fig080p056">fig.&nbsp;80</a>) from the Casa del
+Balcone pensile. A boy whose dress falls down long
+over his back (in this way a support for the marble
+figure is obtained) stands in easy pose, while he lays
+his right arm on his head and stretches out the left
+hand with a mussel shell. From this shell trickled
+the water, and a more copious stream flowed from the
+waterpipe straight into the marble basin.</p>
+
+<div class="column2"><figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="fig085p059" style="max-width: 20em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/fig085p059.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    Fig. 85. A <i>Bisellium</i> (<a href="#Page_62">p.&nbsp;62</a>).
+  </figcaption>
+</figure></div>
+
+<div class="column2"><figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="fig086p059" style="max-width: 20em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/fig086p059.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    Fig. 86. Marble Table (<a href="#Page_62">p.&nbsp;62</a>).
+  </figcaption>
+</figure></div>
+
+<p class="clear">Mosaic is frequently united with sculpture in the
+ornamentation of fountains, for example in that of the
+Casa delle Fontana Grande (<a href="#fig081p057">fig.&nbsp;81</a>). Here the fountain
+takes the form of a retiring arched niche, in which
+the water from beneath the mask of a water-god flowed
+out of an aperture in a broad jet over a flight of
+steps, while marble masks with wide opened eyes are
+placed on the piers of the niche.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_60">60</span></p>
+
+<p>Between the columns of the Peristyle, to judge
+from the wall-paintings, there were often placed
+also medallions hung on ribbons, the so-called
+<i>Oscilla</i>, now and then shaped like a
+<i>pelta</i> (i. e. as the shields of Amazons are
+commonly represented). These are sculptured in
+relief on both sides. None are of course found in
+their original position, but a whole series of such
+medallions, which were found lying on the ground, is
+exhibited in the Naples Museum.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="fig087p060" style="max-width: 33.0em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/fig087p060.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    Fig. 87. Dining-couch of Bronze (<a href="#Page_62">p.&nbsp;62</a>).
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>An entirely different class of ornament is to be found
+in the Atrium; here sometimes a portrait bust of the
+owner has been found inserted in its pedestal, which
+in at least one instance is plainly designated as
+a dedication on the part of one formerly belonging
+to the house. <a href="#fig084p058">Figure 84</a> represents the bust of C.
+Cornelius Rufus, an interesting work in marble, which
+clearly shows how remarkably well the sculptors of the
+earlier Roman Empire understood how to seize and to
+reproduce the characteristic features of their sitter.
+The bust is let into a square pillar, from which,
+right and left, instead of arms, quadrangular stumps
+protrude, on which it was customary to hang wreaths as
+ornaments on days of commemoration. <a href="#fig082p058">Figure 82</a> gives a
+view of the whole atrium with the bust, by which we
+are enabled to recognise the harmonious way in which
+this ornament fits into the whole surroundings. Still
+more striking perhaps in its effect is the bronze
+bust of L. Caecilius Jucundus (<a href="#fig083p058">fig.&nbsp;83</a>:—the original
+is now in Naples), the Banker, in whose house was
+found the chest with wax tablets, of which mention
+has been made on another page. Here is a bronze bust
+which has been inserted in its marble pedestal, a
+dedication by the Freedman Felix to the Genius of his
+master (<i>Genio L. nostri Felix L.</i>). Many a one
+who has seen the bust in the Museo Nazionale, has, at
+a first glance, without knowing any more about it,
+been led to exclaim that he might <span class="pagenum" id="Page_61">61</span>be off at once to
+the Exchange, so characteristically has the sculptor
+rendered his portrait. Friend Caecilius is certainly
+not handsome, so he cannot have been flattered by
+the artist, who has suppressed neither the broad
+outstanding ears, nor the great ugly wart, almost
+suggesting representations of Satyrs. But through the
+marvellous mixture of bonhomie which is stamped on his
+countenance and keen calculation and decision which
+are expressed in the closed lips and the glance of the
+eyes (unfortunately the pupils formerly represented
+by coloured smalt have fallen out) a personality has
+been successfully depicted which carries in itself the
+stamp of genuineness. Caecilius Jucundus evidently
+knew full well how to feather his nest, but he was no
+mere miser who only brooded over his treasures, no, he
+not only prized very highly his cheerful enjoyment of
+life, but he also loved gaiety and good fellowship,
+and in the circle of his boon-companions he was ready
+to take a joke, and was himself capable of enlivening
+conversation by many a jest.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp68" id="fig088p061" style="max-width: 25.0em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/fig088p061.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    Fig. 88. A Symposium. Pompeian
+    Wall-painting (<a href="#Page_63">p.&nbsp;63</a>).
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>So much for the decoration that was provided for the
+house by painter and sculptor. How stands it then with
+the household furniture?</p>
+
+<div class="fll40"><figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="fig089p062" style="max-width: 20em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/fig089p062.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    Fig. 89.<br>Drinking-cup from Bosco Reale<br>
+    (<a href="#Page_73">p.&nbsp;73</a>).
+  </figcaption>
+</figure></div>
+
+<p>Our rooms are filled with a quantity of furniture,
+numerous tables, chairs, cupboards with every possible
+name and object, sofas, and whatever else pertains
+to modern housekeeping. Compared with all this the
+ancient house <span class="pagenum" id="Page_62">62</span>would seem to us empty. In the first
+place cupboards for keeping clothes and the like are
+hardly to be found. To a great extent small rooms
+were made available for keeping movable articles by
+putting up shelves, but for clothes chests standing on
+the ground had to serve, which might be compared with
+our presses and trunks. They were the better suited
+for this purpose inasmuch as the dress consisted more
+of stuffs which did not assume their definite form
+as dress until they were put on. These trunks could
+at the same time be used as seats, often, as at the
+present day in the East, for reclining on. There were
+too regular seats, for the most part without backs,
+and like foot-stools; among them we ought particularly
+to mention the <i>bisellium</i> which properly could
+hold two persons, but as a special honour was granted
+by decree of the Decurions to a single individual
+(<a href="#fig085p059">fig.&nbsp;85</a>). Tables, especially show tables of costly
+woods, to display the ornamental tableservice may have
+existed, but none of these have come down to us; on
+the other hand marble tables, generally placed close
+to the impluvium (<a href="#fig086p059">fig.&nbsp;86</a>), have in many instances
+been preserved. Among them are some that can be raised
+at pleasure. They often have feet artistically shaped,
+the forms of all possible fabulous beings, griffins
+&amp;c. being employed as ornaments. Such tables as we
+are accustomed to take our meals at are no where to
+be seen, because the custom of the ancients was to
+eat while lying down. The furnishing of a triclinium
+was as follows:—around a central point of masonry
+only about a foot and a half in height, on which the
+table-top or tray was placed, stand three low couches
+abutting on one another at right angles, occasionally
+(in the open air) of masonry, otherwise of bronze
+(<a href="#fig087p060">fig.&nbsp;87</a>), or of wood, on each of which three persons
+recline at meals; the fourth side is left open for the
+attendants. The arrangement of the couches can often
+still be seen by examining the mosaic floor. To one or
+other of the couches a still lower seat is frequently
+attached, probably for the children. The inner side of
+the <i>lecti</i> (for that is the name of these sofas)
+was as a rule somewhat higher than the outer; people
+got upon them from the lower side, and lay with the
+left arm on the cushions serving as a support in such
+a manner that the right arm was free to take the food
+to the mouth. The tables of masonry were generally
+without ornament, since they were covered <span class="pagenum" id="Page_63">63</span>by the
+tray with food; once only has an ornament been found
+in this position at Pompeii, a mosaic representing
+a death’s head, a motive borrowed no doubt from the
+Egypto-Alexandrian custom of inviting people to
+brighter enjoyment of life by allusion to its fleeting
+nature and the nearness of death. When towards the
+beginning of the Empire round tables (<i>orbes</i>)
+came more generally into use in place of square ones,
+the three couches arranged at right angles around
+the table had naturally to be united in a single
+semicircular sofa corresponding to the circular shape
+now adopted for the table. Such a semicircular sofa
+received the name <i>Sigma</i> or <i>Stibadium</i> on
+account of its resemblance to the Greek letter C. This
+style must—to judge from wall-paintings—have been
+usual in Pompeii, yet we are unable to point it out
+among the existing remains in the rooms. (<a href="#fig088p061">Fig.&nbsp;88</a> is
+from a wall-painting; this gives also the conversation
+of the guests at table: <i>facitis vobis suaviter</i>,
+you are having a good time, says one; another, <i>ego
+canto</i>, I sing; <i>est ita</i>, <i>valeas</i>, so
+it is, good luck to you, says the third.)</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="fig090p063" style="max-width: 40.0em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/fig090p063.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    Fig. 90. Food-warmer (<a href="#Page_64">p.&nbsp;64</a>).
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="fig091p064" style="max-width: 40.0em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/fig091p064.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    Fig. 91. Tripods and Bronze Table (<a href="#Page_63">p.&nbsp;63</a>).
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<div class="fll40"><figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="fig092p065" style="max-width: 20em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/fig092p065.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    Fig. 92. Portable Stove (<a href="#Page_64">p.&nbsp;64</a>).
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="fig093p065" style="max-width: 20em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/fig093p065.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    Fig. 93. Bronze Vessel for the
+    preparation of <i>Calda</i> (<a href="#Page_65">p.&nbsp;65</a>).
+  </figcaption>
+</figure></div>
+
+<p>Of tripods, which in the ancient house formed part of
+the necessary furniture, beautiful shapes have come
+down to us, (cf. <a href="#fig091p064">fig. 91</a>). Tables then and chairs,
+chests and couches, with these the house furniture is
+pretty well exhausted; but one must include with them
+the movable stoves by which in winter some measure
+of warmth could be secured. Stoves, as we know them
+were non-existent in antiquity, as even now in the
+greatest part of Italy. If <span class="pagenum" id="Page_64">64</span>it became cold, a brazier
+of charcoal was brought, as at the present day, at
+which people warmed themselves. (The best example of
+such a brazier is that dedicated by one Vaccula in
+the Baths, which may be seen in <a href="#fig048p037">figure 48</a> behind the
+railing.) Richer folk had for this purpose also a
+special stove which could be carried from one room to
+another, as now in Paris, see <a href="#fig092p065">figure 92</a>. The question
+of heating, as that of chimneys in the kitchen, is
+for us northeners one of great importance, which
+however for the South plays no great part, as one
+can see any day at the present time. Apart from the
+resorts of foreigners, in which on practical grounds
+full allowance is made for the ideas and usages of
+people belonging to northern countries, the Italy
+of to-day remains for the most part at the stand
+point of antiquity. There are no stoves and as few
+chimneys, because the fuel used is almost exclusively
+charcoal, which kindled in the open air continues to
+glow without requiring a special exit for smoke. And
+if there is any smoke, it has to find its way where it
+pleases. This is the origin of the name <i>Atrium</i>,
+because everything became black (<i>ater</i>) through
+smoke. However we must not omit to mention that in
+some Pompeian kitchens a wide pipe or channel is
+provided, through which an escape to the street is
+allowed to any smoke that there may be, subject to its
+own good will. To suppose any such thing as an actual
+chimney (apart of course from baking ovens) would be
+mere wild imagining, there was in fact absolutely no
+necessity for such a thing.</p>
+
+
+
+<p>We must consider charcoal as the fuel also for various
+utensils which served for the preparation of warm
+drinks, the so-called <i>Calda</i>, or for keeping
+food warm, and which certainly had their place not in
+the kitchen but in the diningroom or other apartments.
+One of such utensils (<a href="#fig090p063">fig.&nbsp;90</a>) is garnished after the
+fashion of a fortress with towers at the four angles
+and battlements on the surrounding wall; while the
+interior served for the reception of charcoal <span class="pagenum" id="Page_65">65</span>and for
+keeping food warm, the surrounding wall and towers
+were used for water, which at pleasure could be drawn
+off by a tap. On the other hand the vase represented
+in <a href="#fig093p065">figure 93</a> is near akin to the Russian samovar;
+here a wide pipe is introduced into the body of the
+vessel, which could be filled with glowing charcoal in
+order to heat the liquid contained in the vessel. Or
+on the contrary if the liquid was to be cooled, all
+that was necessary was to fill the pipe with snow.
+Of course owing to the open pipe the liquid could in
+neither case be poured out, but had to be ladled out.
+For the preparation of warm drink as well as for the
+heating of food the apparatus represented in <a href="#fig094p066">figure 94</a>
+was also undoubtedly employed. In this instance a
+high cask-like vessel is connected with a cylindrical
+one having a spout, while the enclosed space holds
+charcoal.</p>
+
+
+
+<p>The question of lighting also merits some brief
+consideration. It has already been stated that the
+apartments on the principal floor had scarcely ever
+any direct light from the street, but received
+indirect light from the atrium or the peristyle. We
+are not however on this account to imagine them to
+have <span class="pagenum" id="Page_66">66</span>been dark; the sun’s power in the South is
+so great that even in the case of indirect light a
+very considerable brightness is attained; if the
+door-spaces were closed by wooden doors, or by
+curtains, still sufficient light fell into the room
+through an opening introduced above the door, or the
+doors and curtains were so arranged that the light
+above was not shut out. Artificial lighting was
+supplied by oil lamps, which must have been employed
+in great numbers, to ensure sufficient brilliancy.
+Hence lamps, especially of course the ordinary
+terracotta lamps, are the most numerous of the objects
+found. Candelabra served to support them, of these
+very elegant forms have been preserved. One of the
+most interesting is represented in <a href="#fig096p067">figure 96</a>, where
+four lamps, each with two wicks, hang down from a
+pillar raised on a basis semicircular in front. The
+candelabra also often take the form of trees, on
+the boughs of which the lamps are suspended, so for
+example in <a href="#fig097p067">figure 97</a>. Besides these there are lofty
+candelabra which spring from a basis usually supported
+by the feet of an animal, and rise to a considerable
+height in the form of slender columns; on the top,
+which generally spreads out as a calyx, there usually
+stood only one lamp with several wicks.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp76" id="fig094p066" style="max-width: 25.0em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/fig094p066.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    Fig. 94. Food-warmer (<a href="#Page_65">p.&nbsp;65</a>).
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="fig095p067" style="max-width: 40.0em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/fig095p067.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    Fig. 95. Silver Cups (<a href="#Page_68">p.&nbsp;68</a>).
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<div class="column2"><figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="fig096p067" style="max-width: 20em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/fig096p067.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    Fig. 96. Candelabrum (<a href="#Page_66">p.&nbsp;66</a>).
+  </figcaption>
+</figure></div>
+
+<div class="column2"><figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="fig097p067" style="max-width: 20em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/fig097p067.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    Fig. 97. Candelabrum (<a href="#Page_66">p.&nbsp;66</a>).
+  </figcaption>
+</figure></div>
+
+<div class="fll40"><figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="fig098p068" style="max-width: 20.0em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/fig098p068.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    Fig. 98. Bronze Vessel (<a href="#Page_67">p.&nbsp;67</a>).
+  </figcaption>
+</figure></div>
+
+<p>Next to the candelabra may be mentioned under the
+head of domestic utensils more or less costly vases,
+which were frequently displayed on handsome <span class="pagenum" id="Page_67">67</span>tables
+or the tripods described above. Of these too a great
+number have been found in Pompeii and deposited in
+the Museo Nazionale at Naples. Thus <a href="#fig098p068">figure 98</a> shows a
+large vessel of bronze, a crater or mixing bowl, the
+elegant twisted handles of which are fastened to the
+body of the vase by means of a winged Medusa mask.
+That its purpose was merely ornamental is shown by the
+circumstance that it is placed on a separate basis
+supported by lion’s claws. A more bowl-like vessel,
+also supported by lion’s claws, is <span class="pagenum" id="Page_68">68</span>represented on
+page 107.—On each side of this two united bodies of
+lions connected with serpents are employed as handles.
+The jugs in <a href="#fig099p069">figure 99</a> display different shapes, in
+the one the handle is formed by a soaring bird with
+broad bill (a swan or perhaps a goose), while an
+eagle sits enthroned above the mouth; in the other
+the body of the vessel consists of a head with eyes
+separately inlaid, but now lost. Numerous too are the
+ornamental vessels of silver. Two cups famous above
+all are represented in <a href="#fig095p067">figure 95</a>, on one side of which
+is placed a male centaur, on the other a female.
+On their backs are seated Erotes (Loves). Although
+both cups are without doubt intended as companion
+pieces which belong so to speak to the same set, yet
+there are distinctions in details. These cups, so
+finely chiselled, are provided with a smooth lining
+inserted specially for the reception of the liquid, a
+circumstance illustrating a well-known passage in the
+speech of Cicero against Verres. There it is stated
+that Verres in Sicily had in preference to everything
+seized the silver vessels, that he had not however
+set so much value on the silver, but had restored the
+cups <i>emblemate</i> or <i>sigillo avulso</i>. Now
+the <i>emblemata</i> or <i>sigilla</i> are nothing
+else than the outer cases adorned with work in relief,
+which were united by solder to the smooth inner cases.</p>
+
+<p>If we would form a more accurate estimate of the
+valuables with which the show tables (<i>abaci</i>)
+were loaded, we can avail ourselves of a recent
+discovery not indeed made in Pompeii itself, but yet
+in its entire character belonging to Pompeii. In Bosco
+Reale, a small town situated nearer Vesuvius, where
+in ancient times there seems to have been a sort of
+suburb of Pompeii, a villa had been discovered in 1894
+on the estate of Cav. de Prisco, buried under the
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_69">69</span>ashes from Vesuvius, and in this every chamber was
+found in an undisturbed state. In one apartment, the
+storeroom, there were found large vessels full of corn
+and pulse, in another place the explorers came upon a
+great heap of agricultural implements, a furnace for
+baths was unearthed, in which all the water pipes with
+their taps were preserved (the same that is now placed
+in position behind the Forum), in short everything
+was found intact, exactly in the condition (except of
+course changes brought about by length of time) in
+which the villa was on the 24th of August in the year
+79. But still greater treasures were destined to come
+to light from the villa. On the 13th of April 1896
+the skeleton of a man was suddenly discovered: he had
+fallen with his face on the ground, stifled under the
+hot showers of ashes which pressed upon him from every
+side. In his convulsively clasped hands he grasped
+bracelets and a long gold chain; many gold coins with
+the heads of the Emperors from Augustus to Vespasian,
+several of them still quite fresh as if they had just
+been issued by the mint, lay scattered near him on
+the ground. He had sunk to the earth before a little
+niche, in which he had doubtless just laid down a part
+of his burden, and where he had wished to put also the
+remainder that he was carrying, in order to protect
+all from unbidden intruders.</p>
+
+<div class="column2"><figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="fig099p069" style="max-width: 20em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/fig099p069.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    Fig. 99. Silver Jugs (<a href="#Page_68">p.&nbsp;68</a>).
+  </figcaption>
+</figure></div>
+
+<div class="column2"><figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="fig100p070" style="max-width: 20em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/fig100p070.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    Fig. 100. The Tutelary Goddess of
+    Alexandria (<a href="#Page_70">p.&nbsp;70</a>).
+  </figcaption>
+</figure></div>
+
+<p class="clear">In the niche itself, wrapped in a piece of coarse
+woollen stuff, lay a great treasure of silver, which
+through the liberality of Baron Edm. de Rothschild
+has reached the Louvre. It falls into two categories,
+in the first place such vessels as can be designated
+objects of use (these however also merit careful
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_70">70</span>observation on account of the fine ornament that
+appears on them); and secondly a series of cups,
+bowls, and other utensils which are adorned with
+artistic representations. Though the others are also
+interesting we can here deal only with the latter of
+the two classes, so far as representations of them are
+available. Chief among them is a bowl that in size
+and shape compares best with the Minerva bowl of the
+Hildesheim Treasure. In quite free form there raises
+itself from the ground as a centrepiece the bust of
+a goddess who wears on her head the spoils of an
+elephant, so that the trunk projects over the centre
+of her forehead and the tusks on both sides over her
+temples. She is clad in a light chiton with many
+folds, fastened over the arm by numerous studs; the
+overlapping portion of the chiton is gathered together
+at the breast into a roll in which appear ears of corn
+with grapes and all kinds of fruit. In her left hand
+the goddess holds a cornucopia containing bunches
+of grapes, pomegranates &amp;c., in her right a Uraeus
+serpent. There is no question that the tutelary deity
+of Alexandria alone can be intended by the figure
+(<a href="#fig100p070">fig.&nbsp;100</a>).</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp60" id="fig101p071" style="max-width: 33.0em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/fig101p071.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    Fig. 101. Mirror with the Bust of
+    Ariadne (<a href="#Page_71">p.&nbsp;71</a>).
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>A second bowl has as its central ornament the
+upper portion of a man’s <span class="pagenum" id="Page_71">71</span>body boldly projecting
+from the surface, which may be noted as extremely
+characteristic. The shortcropped hair lies closely
+on the head, the large ears protrude, many a wrinkle
+furrows the brow, clearly marked crow’s feet enable us
+to infer that the subject is pretty well advanced in
+age. The cheeks have fallen in, and so leave the cheek
+bones standing forth in strong relief. The attribution
+of the figure to the Emperor Claudius is assuredly
+groundless, still the features remind one of members
+of the House of the Claudii, and above all this one
+thing cannot be questioned that we have to deal with
+a Roman and no Greek. Of the companion bowl with a
+woman’s bust the centrepiece has come to London. On
+the other hand the Louvre has secured two hand mirrors
+once belonging to the <i>mundus muliebris</i>, the
+toilet apparatus of a Pompeian lady; one with elegant
+handle formed of twigs intertwined bears as <span class="pagenum" id="Page_72">72</span>an
+ornament in the middle of its back a wonderful bust of
+Ariadne (<a href="#fig101p071">fig.&nbsp;101</a>); the head slightly inclined towards
+the left arm is crowned with a wreath of ivy, and
+the drapery leaves free the left breast shaped with
+wondrous beauty. A second mirror bears as ornament
+for the back (the polished front always serves as the
+actual reflecting surface) the representation of Leda
+with the swan. Leda almost nude is seated on a rock,
+and while she supports herself on the rock with her
+left hand, holds out with her right a bowl to the swan
+standing before her.</p>
+
+<div class="column2"><figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="fig102p072" style="max-width: 20em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/fig102p072.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    Fig. 102. Cup with Olivewreath (<a href="#Page_73">p.&nbsp;73</a>).
+  </figcaption>
+</figure></div>
+
+<div class="column2"><figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="fig103p072" style="max-width: 20em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/fig103p072.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    Fig. 103. Cup with Still Life (<a href="#Page_73">p.&nbsp;73</a>).
+  </figcaption>
+</figure></div>
+
+<p class="clear">Besides these there are comprised in the treasure four
+eggshaped cups <span class="pagenum" id="Page_73">73</span>with large handles rising above the
+rim, and twisted feet, two of which have the exterior
+adorned with storks in low relief which are seeking
+food in the neighbourhood of their nest, while both
+the others represent the life of cranes, how they
+search for food, struggle over their booty, and engage
+their rivals with powerful blows of their beaks. Other
+vases remind us of the great bell-shaped vessel of the
+Hildesheim treasure. From a graceful calyx grows up
+a flower-stem divided into joints, on which as they
+spread out are introduced groups of animals fighting,
+while elegant arabesques springing from flower cups
+fill the body of the vase with their charming windings
+and twinings. Of wonderfully fine execution also are
+two low vessels, each provided with two handles,
+round the body of which twine two olive branches
+with berries. (<a href="#fig102p072">Fig.&nbsp;102</a>.) Other cups are ornamented
+with so-called “Still Life” (<a href="#fig103p072">fig.&nbsp;103</a>); others have
+allusions to literary efforts. There we see skeletons
+of poets as Euripides and Menander (<a href="#fig089p062">fig.&nbsp;89</a>), or
+philosophers as Zeno and Epicurus in various actions,
+with inscriptions appended which show the connection.
+One and all preach the doctrine of Epicurus, enjoy
+life while you may, life passes away only too quickly.
+The placing of such scenes on vessels destined to
+minister to the keener enjoyment of life is for
+antiquity no unusual thing; I need refer only to the
+above mentioned mosaic of a death’s head which served
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_74">74</span>as the ornament of a table, and to the well-known
+scene from Trimalchio’s Banquet (in Petronius), who
+has a silver skeleton with movable limbs brought
+upon the table, and invites his guests to brighter
+enjoyment of life with the words “Alas for us poor
+wretches! What a nothing we are! Like this skeleton
+shall we all be as soon as Orcus carries us off; so
+let us enjoy life while we may!”</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp58" id="fig104p073" style="max-width: 25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/fig104p073.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    Fig. 104. House of Pansa (<a href="#Page_75">p.&nbsp;75</a>).
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>Fine tables laden with such and similar vases must
+have been found in every one of the better class of
+houses in Pompeii, so they could not be passed over
+in describing the furniture. Yet some may miss in the
+catalogue of furniture the mention of looking-glasses.
+In Pompeii however these would be sought in vain.
+There were indeed mirrors enough for the toilet, as
+we have seen in the treasure from Bosco Reale, but
+only hand mirrors, mostly of metal, occasionally, as
+it seems, also of glass, yet always only so small
+that even if fixed on a stand they are to be treated
+as articles of the toilet, not as constituent parts
+of the furniture. We may suppose that refined luxury
+in individual cases may have led to the employment
+of larger mirrors (cf. Lessing, <i>Rettung des
+Horaz</i>), but these things have nothing to do with
+Pompeii, to judge at least by what has been found
+there.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp99" id="fig105p074" style="max-width: 40.0em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/fig105p074.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    Fig. 105. Bakery with Mills (<a href="#Page_76">p.&nbsp;76</a>).
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp98" id="fig106p075" style="max-width: 40.0em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/fig106p075.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    Fig. 106. House of the Tragic Poet (<a href="#Page_76">p.&nbsp;76</a>).
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>Now that we have gained an idea of the Pompeian house
+in general and <span class="pagenum" id="Page_75">75</span>of its equipment, it is possible to
+examine more thoroughly individual houses of special
+note. We begin with the Casa di Pansa, or, as the
+house has been officially named from a painted
+inscription, which has now disappeared, the Domus Cn.
+Allei Nigidi Mai. For two appellations have usually
+to be distinguished, a popular one, often due to
+the presence of people of rank on the occasion of
+the excavation (e. g. in the case of the Casa dell’
+Imperatore di Germania), or derived from special
+objects discovered (Casa del Fauno); frequently too
+the electioneering inscriptions which are written on
+the houses have led to (unauthorised) conclusions
+as to the owner. On the other hand the second, the
+official appellation, is founded on the discovery of
+seals or inscriptions within the house that allow of a
+conclusion as to the former possessor. The so-called
+House of Pansa then (<a href="#fig104p073">fig.&nbsp;104</a>) is situated in the
+Street of Nola, opposite the Baths. It displays a
+façade of tufa, of the Samnite epoch, with unusually
+lofty doorway, which runs back from the street and
+so forms a <i>vestibulum</i>. Through the doorway we
+catch sight of the <i>Atrium</i> with its very deep
+<i>impluvium</i>, and behind this the <i>tablinum</i>,
+from which two steps lead to the peristyle. The tufa
+columns of the peristyle are of the Ionic order, but
+by a coat of stucco were turned into Corinthian.
+Behind the peristyle an entrance leads to the kitchen
+garden, the beds of which were still discernible <span class="pagenum" id="Page_76">76</span>at
+the time of the excavation. A large portion of the
+ground pertaining to the house is taken up by shops
+and a bakery with three mills. It is worth while to
+examine such a bakery somewhat more in detail.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="fig107p076" style="max-width: 40.0em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/fig107p076.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    Fig. 107. Pompeian Loaves (<a href="#Page_76">p.&nbsp;76</a>).
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>Every bakery was connected with several mills, in
+which was prepared the flour required for baking. Each
+mill consists of a conical support (<i>Meta</i>) and
+upper part forming a double funnel (<i>Catillus</i>);
+the latter is so placed over the supporting cone
+that the upper cavity serves to receive the corn as
+it is poured in, while by the rubbing between the
+lower funnel and the fixed cone the grains of corn
+are reduced to powder. That the turning may proceed
+more easily the external double funnel rests by means
+of a cross bar of wood upon an iron point fixed in
+the cone beneath, at the narrowest point of the
+<i>catillus</i> holes are made in which are fixed bars
+by means of which the turning of the mill is effected
+by a donkey. For this reason the ground round about is
+paved. Near the space in which the mills stand is the
+oven, and by this is seen a hollow for the reception
+of water (<a href="#fig105p074">fig.&nbsp;105</a>); to the left was a room in which
+the bread was put into shape. Here are also often
+remains of a peculiar contrivance for the kneading
+of dough, a cylindrical vessel of lava in which the
+dough was kneaded by means of a roller turning round
+an iron rod. Shelves on the wall, of which there are
+still to be seen traces served to display the baker’s
+wares. It may here be remarked that in the villages
+of Sardinia at the present day mills are in use which
+correspond almost exactly to those at Pompeii, and
+also that the machine for kneading dough is still
+employed in a similar form at Palermo. From a well
+closed baking oven eighty-one loaves were taken which
+naturally were somewhat stale, inasmuch as they were
+put into the oven as early as the 24th of August
+79! (<a href="#fig107p076">Fig.&nbsp;107</a>.) Some of them are exhibited in the
+museum at Pompeii. Next to the House of Pansa comes
+the House of the Tragic Poet, which plays a part in
+Bulwer’s romance as the house of Glaucus (<a href="#fig106p075">fig.&nbsp;106</a>).
+It has its name from a painting wrongly explained as a
+rehearsal (in reality the myth of Admetus and Alcestis
+is represented), <span class="pagenum" id="Page_77">77</span>and also a Mosaic relating to the
+theatre. On account, however, of the magnificent
+paintings found in the Atrium which refer to Homeric
+themes <span class="pagenum" id="Page_78">78</span>(the carrying off of Briseis, Zeus and Hera
+on Ida <i>etc.</i>) it is also called Casa Omerica.
+Here the photograph is taken from the Atrium; the
+fountain close to the impluvium is seen in the
+foreground, behind, a step higher, is the tablinum,
+with mosaic ornament, opening with its whole width on
+the peristyle. There is still to be seen the little
+chapel of the Lares in which a statuette of Silenus
+was found. From this house comes the Sacrifice of
+Iphigenia, a painting represented on an earlier page.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp99" id="fig108p077" style="max-width: 40.0em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/fig108p077.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    Fig. 108. Fullonica (Fulling-mill) (<a href="#Page_78">p.&nbsp;78</a>).
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="fig109p077" style="max-width: 40.0em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/fig109p077.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    Fig. 109. Casa del Fauno (<a href="#Page_80">p.&nbsp;80</a>).
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp83" id="fig110p078" style="max-width: 25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/fig110p078.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    Fig. 110. The Fuller at his Work (<a href="#Page_78">p.&nbsp;78</a>).
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>Bordering on the house of the Tragic Poet is
+the Fullonica, the house of a fuller, where the
+arrangements necessary for carrying on the trade are
+so completely preserved and so clearly illustrated
+by wall-paintings that one can form an accurate idea
+of the process of fulling. In <a href="#fig108p077">figure 108</a> is given a
+picture of the second fulling-mill situated in the
+Street of Stabiae. In the atrium are preserved the
+marble table and the troughlike basin into which fell
+the stream of water; in the peristyle beyond the
+tablinum we have a glimpse of the vats of masonry in
+which the cleansing of the woollen stuffs took place.
+In the small entrance which near the tablinum led to
+the workroom was found at the time of the excavation
+a great mass of whitish argillaceous earth (<i>terra
+fullonica</i>), which was used for the cleansing of
+woollen stuffs. The pictures of the other Fullonica
+(<a href="#fig110p078">fig.&nbsp;110</a>) inform us as to the process itself. Vats
+placed in niches are seen, standing in which the
+fullers partly wash the material partly tread it with
+the feet. Beyond we see a workman carrying a frame
+like a crinoline (on this the clothes were spread
+to be bleached with sulphur), while another brushes
+or cards the garment hung up on a bar; beneath on
+the left sits a woman who seems to be giving a girl
+instructions as to the treatment of a piece of cloth.
+Another painting represents the press with which the
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_79"></a><a id="Page_80"></a>80</span>woollen material when washed was smoothed; it is
+exactly like those in use at the present day.</p>
+
+<div class="column2"><figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="fig111p079" style="max-width: 25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/fig111p079.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    Fig. 111. Casa dei Capitelli colorati (Casa d’Arianna) (<a href="#Page_81">p.&nbsp;81</a>).
+  </figcaption>
+</figure></div>
+
+<div class="column2"><figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="fig112p079" style="max-width: 25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/fig112p079.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    Fig. 112. Casa dei Capitelli colorati (Casa d’Arianna) (<a href="#Page_81">p.&nbsp;81</a>).
+  </figcaption>
+</figure></div>
+
+<div class="clear column2"><figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="fig113p079" style="max-width: 25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/fig113p079.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    Fig. 113. Casa del Centenario (<a href="#Page_81">p.&nbsp;81</a>).
+  </figcaption>
+</figure></div>
+
+<div class="column2"><figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="fig114p079" style="max-width: 25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/fig114p079.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    Fig. 114. Casa del Imperatore di
+    Germania (<a href="#Page_82">p.&nbsp;82</a>).
+  </figcaption>
+</figure></div>
+
+<p class="clear">If one follows the Street of Nola further towards the
+East one soon comes to a house which may be designated
+as one of the most famous and best preserved of those
+in Pompeii, the Casa del Fauno (<a href="#fig109p077">fig.&nbsp;109</a>), so named
+from the bronze statue of the dancing faun found
+therein (<a href="#fig077p055">fig.&nbsp;77</a>). In the footway before the threshold
+the visitor is greeted on entrance with the word
+<i>Have</i> (Hail!). The house has two entrances with
+two <i>Atria</i>, of which the one here represented,
+the principal Atrium, may serve at the same time as an
+example of the <i>Atrium Tuscanicum</i>, inasmuch as
+no columns are placed around the impluvium as supports
+for the beams of the roof.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp65" id="fig115p080" style="max-width: 33.0em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/fig115p080.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    Fig. 115. Wax tablet from the House of
+    Caecilius Jucundus (<a href="#Page_83">p.&nbsp;83</a>).
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>The house is decorated in the first style, that is
+to say its decoration consists of an imitation of
+marble slabs. It is a curious fact that the walls are
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_81">81</span>covered with sheets of lead beneath the stucco to
+keep all dampness from it. Paintings are not to be
+found here; on the other hand the house was rich in
+valuable finely executed mosaics, among which is to
+be specially mentioned the greatest of all mosaics,
+Alexander’s Battle. It was in the chamber opening upon
+the peristyle, the red columns of which are visible
+in the illustration beyond the tablinum. The columns
+seen behind belong to a second peristyle embracing the
+whole breadth of the house, which has taken the place
+of what must be supposed to have been originally a
+garden.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp99" id="fig116p081" style="max-width: 40.0em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/fig116p081.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    Fig. 116. House with several stories
+    (<a href="#Page_83">p.&nbsp;83</a>).
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>The Casa dei Capitelli Colorati, also called Casa
+d’ Arianna, is placed obliquely with regard to the
+Casa del Fauno. We pass from the Street of Nola first
+into the garden, which is surrounded by a colonnade
+(figs. <a href="#fig111p079">111</a> and <a href="#fig112p079">112</a>); next comes the peristyle with the
+sittingrooms. The house has received its name from the
+fact that in the last period of Pompeii the capitals
+of the Ionic columns dating from the Samnite period
+were newly covered with stucco and painted.</p>
+
+<p>One more house in the Street of Nola deserves special
+attention, the Casa del Centenario, so entitled
+because it was excavated on the occasion of the
+celebration of the eighteenhundredth year after the
+overwhelming of Pompeii (<a href="#fig113p079">fig.&nbsp;113</a>). Here also are two
+<i>atria</i> with a large peristyle behind, which had
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_82">82</span>a low railing between the columns as may be seen by
+the incisions in them. The claim of this house to
+rank among the most important properties in Pompeii
+is established by the discovery of many paintings
+and statuettes of bronze and marble, as well as of
+ample baths, for warming which the heat from an oven
+was employed, besides a Shrine of Lares of some
+importance, in which was a small portable altar. Here
+too was discovered the picture given on an earlier
+page, which represents Bacchus entirely made up of
+grape clusters, in close proximity to a mountain, in
+which may be recognised the present Monte di Somma
+before the eruption of Vesuvius.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="fig117p082" style="max-width: 40.0em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/fig117p082.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    Fig. 117. Kitchen with Hearth (<a href="#Page_84">p.&nbsp;84</a>).
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>To the north of the Casa del Centenario lies the
+Casa delle Nozze d’ Argento, also called Casa dell’
+Imperatore di Germania, because the house was
+excavated in 1893 on the occasion of the Silver
+Wedding of the King and Queen of Italy in the presence
+of the Emperor of Germany (<a href="#fig114p079">fig.&nbsp;114</a>). The Atrium is
+<i>Tetrastylum</i>, that is the roof beams rest on
+four columns which are excellently preserved; behind
+comes the tablinum with a mosaic pavement, and thence
+one reaches a peristyle which is in an equally good
+state of preservation.</p>
+
+<p>Here too let there be described a house in the Street
+of Stabiae, the little garden of which adorned with
+statuettes has been mentioned above (<a href="#fig076p054">fig.&nbsp;76</a>).
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_83">83</span>The house has received its name from a painting
+representing a letter with the address of Marcus
+Lucretius, <i>M. Lucretio flam. Martis decurioni
+Pompei</i>; on the left of this is represented a
+<i>diptychon</i>, a doubled wax tablet with the style
+for writing, on the right, beneath, an inkpot with
+pen. The house of Lucretius had many well preserved
+paintings of the last period of the city. Together
+with this letter the wax tablets may also be mentioned
+which have been found in the house of Caecilius
+Jucundus. <a href="#fig115p080">Figure 115</a> represents such a tablet.</p>
+
+<div class="fll40"><figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="fig118p083" style="max-width: 20em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/fig118p083.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    Fig. 118. Plan of the House of the
+    Vettii (<a href="#Page_83">p.&nbsp;83</a>).
+  </figcaption>
+</figure></div>
+
+<p>From another point of view the house depicted above
+(<a href="#fig116p081">fig.&nbsp;116</a>) is noteworthy. As said above on p. 6 the
+citywall is on the west and southwest sides for the
+most part broken down and its place taken by houses.
+Since these houses thus overlapped the wall and
+descended to the level of the plain below, they gained
+at the back an additional story on this lower level;
+and the top of this story formed a terrace from which
+a marvellous view over plain and sea could be enjoyed.
+And so many more houses in Pompeii might be examined
+in detail, were it not that the very abundance warns
+us to observe due moderation.—We must not however
+leave Pompeii without taking sufficient notice of
+one more house, a house that on account of the good
+condition in which it has risen out of the ashes
+from Vesuvius, and on account of its great number of
+paintings, and the decoration of its peristyle will
+leave a lasting impression on every beholder. This is
+the house of the Vettii only recently excavated, in
+which everything that could be left has been left in
+its original position, in order to produce the most
+complete idea of a Pompeian house.</p>
+
+<p>The new house lies to the east of the so-called Casa
+del Labirinto, and is entered from the east side,
+the Vicolo which represents the continuation of the
+Vicolo degli scienziati. We first enter the vestibulum
+(<a href="#fig118p083">fig.&nbsp;118</a> at <i>a</i>). To pass hence into the ostium
+proper persons either availed themselves of the wide
+opening principal door, or were admitted through a
+smaller sidedoor on the right. Thence they stepped
+into the Atrium (<i>c</i>), in the centre of which is
+placed the impluvium with a wastepipe passing into
+the street; right and left are seen large slabs of
+stone with remains of the iron chests let into them,
+the strongboxes of the master of the house. Right and
+left of the ostium two small chambers open on the
+atrium, so also on the west of the two strongboxes
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_84">84</span>are situated the two alae and a chamber by each
+strongbox, one of these chambers, however, has in
+later times been cut off from the atrium by a low
+wall, and turned into a kind of storeroom. But here
+ends the symmetrical arrangement of the atrium; while
+on the left an apartment opens widely on the atrium
+as a winter triclinium, on the other side appears
+the entrance to a second atrium provided with its
+own impluvium, and at the back with the shrine of
+the Lares. On this small atrium open several rooms
+intended for the slaves, and therefore left without
+ornament; there too lies the kitchen with wide hearth
+of masonry, on and near which have been found a large
+number (<a href="#fig117p082">fig.&nbsp;117</a>) of utensils serving for boiling and
+grilling &amp;c. The little room, that could be entered
+only from the kitchen, evidently the cook’s room,
+is now kept under lock and key, on account of the
+somewhat objectionable paintings with which this
+household dignitary had had his apartment adorned.</p>
+
+<div class="column2"><figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="fig119p084" style="max-width: 20em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/fig119p084.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    Fig. 119. Love on a Crab (<a href="#Page_86">p.&nbsp;86</a>).
+  </figcaption>
+</figure></div>
+
+<div class="column2"><figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="fig120p084" style="max-width: 20em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/fig120p084.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    Fig. 120. Love with Dolphins (<a href="#Page_86">p.&nbsp;86</a>).
+  </figcaption>
+</figure></div>
+
+<p class="clear">On the other side of the atrium also follow rooms for
+the household; there, close to a staircase by which
+the upper story was reached, a passage leads to two
+chambers of uncertain destination. Noteworthy is a
+fountain beside the staircase, by means of which the
+water could be drawn directly for the upper story.</p>
+
+<p>Out of the atrium in front of which in this instance
+no tablinum is placed, we at once pass into the
+peristyle, the principal apartment of the house, the
+portico of which is supported by seven columns on the
+longer sides and four on the shorter; by this the
+garden is enclosed. On the southeast, in the first
+place two rooms open on the peristyle, and on the
+north two others, of which <span class="pagenum" id="Page_85">85</span>one, the large Oecus, is
+a principal apartment of the building, further on
+the east is a triclinium. From the peristyle a small
+suite of rooms is also accessible, which, not without
+plausibility, have been designated women’s apartments;
+here again a small garden is found. Let this suffice
+for the orientation of the discovered chambers. How
+then as to their decoration?</p>
+
+<p>The possessor of the property has evidently set no
+store by the decoration of the pavement, for the
+better class of mosaic has nowhere been employed, but
+the floor consists almost exclusively of stucco in
+which small bits of marble have been inserted. All the
+more richly are the walls ornamented.</p>
+
+<div class="fll40"><figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="fig121p085" style="max-width: 20em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/fig121p085.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    Fig. 121. Candelabrum, Wall-painting
+    (<a href="#Page_86">p.&nbsp;86</a>).
+  </figcaption>
+</figure></div>
+
+<p>Just as we go in (to say nothing of smaller pictures)
+there is seen on the pilaster at the entrance to the
+atrium a Priapus. Pictures of this kind were usually
+placed just at the entrance of a building in order
+to avert disaster and the evil eye. The walls of the
+atrium, owing to the numerous openings leading from
+it to the surrounding rooms, are almost entirely
+broken up into mere pilasters, which however display
+a style of painting systematically arranged. Above an
+imitation of marble reaching to no great height, rises
+the yellow plinth, in which are inserted pictures on
+a red ground; there we see boys bringing dishes with
+fruits, others playing with parrots or guinea fowl,
+carrying glass jugs and dishes; another raises the
+cover of a vessel to spy curiously into its contents,
+again another tastes the contents of the vessel
+entrusted to his care, others seem equipped for a
+festival, they are clad in gala fashion and decked out
+with garlands, they hold garlands too in their hands.
+Above this plinth there next comes a small field of
+black, displaying Cupids in their merry pranks as
+imitators of human pursuits. Here one has harnessed a
+ram to a chariot, another has his carriage <span class="pagenum" id="Page_86">86</span>drawn by
+two dolphins (<a href="#fig120p084">fig.&nbsp;120</a>). A sacrifice to Fortune too
+is offered by the little rogues with all earnestness;
+again a duel between two hero Loves is depicted with
+every truth of detail; bestriding goats and armed
+with shield and lance they charge each other, but
+while one at full gallop couches his lance against his
+adversary, the latter, causing his steed to swerve,
+seems to avoid the blow; two other Loves attend the
+duel on foot. Another picture must certainly contain
+the continuation of this warfare; one has fallen with
+his steed, and in this helpless condition is sorely
+maltreated not only by his original opponent, but also
+by his seconds, while his own second has made off.
+Again a race is represented, but as fiery coursers
+dolphins are harnessed to the chariots. A highly droll
+effect is produced by a Cupid mounted on a crab (<a href="#fig119p084">fig.&nbsp;119</a>)
+and another on a locust, who urges his steed on
+with whip and rein. Then the Cupids are busy hunting
+butterflies, in short every pursuit of adult and child
+is imitated by them in their bright busy way, but with
+all the seriousness that the situation demands. Above
+the moulding adorned with masks and lionheads by which
+the upper part of the wall is divided from the lower,
+there follow now in an upward direction red (partly
+burnt black) stripes, with columns and candelabra
+(<a href="#fig121p085">fig.&nbsp;121</a>). The vases out of which these grow are
+apparently richly adorned with reliefs. Behind them
+are introduced balustrades, to which steps lead up;
+above they support large hoops, on which figures are
+seated. A somewhat larger wall surface is preserved
+only behind the strongbox on the right, here is seen
+above the plinth a hunting scene <span class="pagenum" id="Page_87">87</span>on a larger scale.
+Hounds are pursuing a wild boar and a bear, others
+have pulled down a stag; then comes a stripe with two
+Psyches, who bring fruits in baskets and empty them
+into other baskets.</p>
+
+<div class="column2"><figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="fig122p086" style="max-width: 20em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/fig122p086.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    Fig. 122. Hero and Leander (<a href="#Page_87">p.&nbsp;87</a>).
+  </figcaption>
+</figure></div>
+
+<div class="column2"><figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="fig123p087" style="max-width: 20em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/fig123p087.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    Fig. 123. Cyparissus (<a href="#Page_88">p.&nbsp;88</a>).
+  </figcaption>
+</figure></div>
+
+<p class="clear">The little room by the ostium displays in its plinth
+again an imitation of marble, above this the wall is
+painted yellow with white panels framed with green, in
+the middle of each of which is introduced a picture.
+On the wall lying to the left of the entrance is
+the abandonment of Ariadne on Naxos. The fair one
+deserted by Theseus at the bidding of the gods is, as
+it seems, just awaked from slumber. Astonished and
+terrified at being forsaken she lays her left hand
+on her chin, while an Eros in order to bring her to
+understand her position points to the ship of Theseus
+speeding away with sail full set. The second picture
+is unfortunately destroyed, the slab of stucco bearing
+it was in antiquity fastened on the wall with a series
+of nails. The picture on the third wall represents the
+well-known adventure of Hero and Leander (<a href="#fig122p086">fig.&nbsp;122</a>).
+Besides these more important pictures there are birds
+pecking fruit; above these comes a zone of water with
+fish and other marine fauna, crowned by architecture
+represented in perspective, on detached portions
+of which hanging baskets and drinkinghorns are
+introduced, and also wild beasts chasing one another.
+The room was once vaulted.</p>
+
+<p>A richer decoration is to be seen in the paintings of
+the next room towards the south, a triclinium: here
+the plinth is yellow and ornamented with garlands,
+arabesques, hanging masks <i>etc.</i>; above come
+white panels, between <span class="pagenum" id="Page_88">88</span>which rises architecture with
+seated and recumbent sphinxes. Of larger pictures
+only two are preserved; of the other two one was
+destroyed, probably before the eruption of Vesuvius,
+while the other fell a sacrifice to the diggers for
+treasure who after the destruction of Pompeii lawfully
+or unlawfully explored the abandoned houses, and for
+this purpose knocked holes through the walls. On the
+side opposite the entrance the wrestling match between
+Eros and Pan is represented, on the entrance side,
+Cyparissus and his hind (<a href="#fig123p087">fig.&nbsp;123</a>). Above these panels
+decorated with pictures comes a cornice plastically
+constructed, higher still than this rise fresh
+architectural forms comprising in their midst a broad
+exedra, with the fore-part of a building approached
+by three steps. The central panels are devoted to the
+representation of Jupiter and his mortal favourites,
+there is seen on the right of the entrance Jupiter in
+youthful form seated on his throne, while the other
+walls show Leda, Danaë, and a third lady. But also
+the side panels, the out buildings made accessible by
+stairs, are decorated with figures mostly taken from
+the Bacchic cycle.</p>
+
+<p>On the other side of the ostium the picture of the
+Lares (<a href="#fig124p089">fig.&nbsp;124</a>) demands a brief notice. In the little
+temple supported by two Corinthian columns and crowned
+by a pediment stands the Genius holding patera and
+incense box. To right and left of him are painted
+the two Lares, who symmetrically carry in one hand a
+bucket in the other a drinkinghorn. Beneath them is
+observed the serpent that in many a curve approaches
+the altar richly furnished with offerings. The
+remaining apartments, with the exception of the cook’s
+bedroom, are without painting.</p>
+
+<p>The two cubicles lying west of the strongboxes have
+only unimportant decorations; both alae display a
+black plinth enlivened by green shrubs, and have above
+yellow panels with red borders, and having in the
+centre small representations of still life; of these
+a cockfight executed in a most lively style merits
+special attention. Beside a herm stands a table with
+a large vessel; there stand two cocks, preparing
+themselves for the fight; a third, the defeated one,
+lies under the table, while the fourth, the conqueror,
+proudly marches off to the right, with a twig of palm
+in his beak.</p>
+
+<p>The peristyle has a black plinth decorated alternately
+with green plants and vases (the pyramids of ivy
+there represented are now imitated in nature in the
+garden of the peristyle). Above come alternately
+large black panels framed in red, and fantastic
+pieces of architecture on a white ground, which are
+bounded beneath by a yellow slab with green or dark
+red border. The figure compositions introduced in
+the centres of the panels consist for the most part
+of still life, to which fish, fowls <i>etc.</i>
+contribute material, though there is no lack of more
+important figures. To these belongs above all that of
+a thick-set man who sits beside a chest filled with
+books. Scientific efforts are suggested also <span class="pagenum" id="Page_89">89</span>by the
+figure of a Urania, who represented as though in the
+act of imparting information, points with her staff
+to the celestial globe lying before her (<a href="#fig142p105">fig.&nbsp;142</a>);
+otherwise the decoration of the hall is supplied by
+Satyrs and Bacchanals and the winged female figures
+so frequently employed in Pompeii, together with the
+attributes of various deities.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp72" id="fig124p089" style="max-width: 33.0em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/fig124p089.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    Fig. 124. The Shrine of the Lares (<a href="#Page_88">p.&nbsp;88</a>).
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>Much more important however than these wall-paintings
+of the portico are the sculptures which have been
+preserved in the enclosed garden (<a href="#fig125p090">fig.&nbsp;125</a>). In all
+four corners, and further at the second and third
+columns of the narrower sides and the fourth and fifth
+of the long sides there were once statuettes, twelve
+therefore in all, of which nine are still preserved
+in their original position (<a href="#fig126p091">fig.&nbsp;126</a>), while two were
+removed to other parts of the building for repair.
+All these statuettes, of which two are of bronze,
+the rest of marble, served for fountains. The water
+either came directly out of them, or branch pipes of
+the aqueduct were so laid on to them that it seemed
+as though the water came from them; between them are
+placed several troughs and receptacles of marble,
+which by their graceful shapes and beautiful ornaments
+make a pleasing <span class="pagenum" id="Page_90">90</span>impression. The conduit too, save for
+slight damage, was in such good repair that it has
+been found possible to renew the play of the waters
+by means of a reservoir placed on the roof. Marble
+tables between the columns and within the garden that
+is still quite clearly marked out in beds, as well as
+two ivy-encircled marble pedestals on each of which
+rests a double bust (<a href="#fig127p091">fig.&nbsp;127</a>) contribute in no slight
+measure to make the whole peristyle most charming, and
+indeed a spot as yet unique in Pompeii.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp97" id="fig125p090" style="max-width: 40.0em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/fig125p090.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    Fig. 125. The Peristyle of the House of
+    the Vettii (<a href="#Page_89">p.&nbsp;89</a>).
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>A series of apartments too open on the peristyle, and
+in the first place a triclinium. On a low foundation
+of imitation marble rises the dark red plinth, over
+which again mounts a fanciful style of architecture,
+leaving space in the centre for a sort of canopy. The
+smaller pictures executed soberly in monochrome fall
+into the background behind the large ones occupying
+the centre of the wall. Of these large pictures the
+first is Hercules strangling the serpents (<a href="#fig128p092">fig.&nbsp;128</a>).
+The child Hercules has seized both the serpents sent
+by Juno, and is throttling them, while his mother
+flies in terror, and Amphitryo, his earthly father,
+is in the act of hastening to the rescue. Yet the
+sight which presents itself to him checks any further
+action, he sees that the child needs no help against
+the wretched snakes: astonished and thoughtful he lays
+his right hand <span class="pagenum" id="Page_91">91</span>on his chin, and he has every reason
+to be full of thoughts, for he could not have expected
+such bravery from his own son. Jupiter in the meantime
+has despatched his eagle to receive information as to
+his hero son. The subject of the second picture is
+the punishment of Pentheus. The third picture also is
+taken from a Theban myth, it represents the punishment
+of Dirce, and corresponds to the well-known group of
+the so-called Farnese Bull.</p>
+
+<div class="column2"><figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="fig126p091" style="max-width: 15em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/fig126p091.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    Fig. 126. Bacchus (<a href="#Page_89">p.&nbsp;89</a>).
+  </figcaption>
+</figure></div>
+
+<div class="column2"><figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="fig127p091" style="max-width: 15em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/fig127p091.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    Fig. 127. Bacchus and Ariadne (<a href="#Page_90">p.&nbsp;90</a>).
+  </figcaption>
+</figure></div>
+
+<p class="clear">In like manner the corresponding room to the north
+of the <i>Ala dextra</i>, which also opens its whole
+width on the peristyle, displays rich ornament on
+the walls. In the plinth there is again an imitation
+of marble, above in the middle is a red panel with
+a large square picture, next is on each side a blue
+panel with the usual fantastic architecture; then
+comes on both the longer sides a white panel. In the
+centre of each of the three wallsurfaces a painting of
+larger <span class="pagenum" id="Page_92">92</span>size is placed: first Daedalus and Pasiphae
+(<a href="#fig129p093">fig.&nbsp;129</a>). The ingenious craftsman has prepared the
+wooden cow as commissioned by the spouse of Minos,
+and now the queen comes into the master’s studio to
+inspect his work. The second picture treats of the
+punishment of Ixion. Mercury has delivered over the
+miscreant to punishment, and Vulcan is just fastening
+him to the wheel; vainly the mother or wife of Ixion
+implores Mercury to have mercy; for even if he on his
+own account were inclined to grant her prayer, yet
+this would be prevented by the presence of Juno, who
+in queenly state has appeared with Iris to take note
+of the due exaction of punishment (<a href="#fig130p094">fig.&nbsp;130</a>).</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp74" id="fig128p092" style="max-width: 33.0em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/fig128p092.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    Fig. 128. Hercules strangling Serpents
+    (<a href="#Page_90">p.&nbsp;90</a>).
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>While the connecting idea of both these pictures, viz
+unlawful love and its punishment, is clear enough, the
+third picture, the finding of Ariadne by Bacchus and
+his following, falls somewhat outside this range of
+thought. I believe however that critics have gone too
+far in their efforts to discover a harmonious unity
+of idea for the paintings of a room. That the owner
+of the house might often demand of the artist to see
+that a single harmonious train of thought was carried
+throughout a room, is of course easily understood,
+but on the other hand it is again quite clear that
+in the often great number of <span class="pagenum" id="Page_93">93</span>rooms to be decorated
+the whole mythology was more or less drawn upon, and
+that frequently the number of subjects at command,
+and therefore chance, determined the choice of the
+pictures. So we cannot be surprised if we see the
+Deliverance of Ariadne placed with pictures treating
+of the punishment of unlawful love. Ariadne in her
+grief at being deserted by Theseus, whose ship is
+still seen in the distance, has sunk into a slumber
+that frees her from care: then Bacchus with his
+followers approaches, who will raise Ariadne to be his
+bride.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp76" id="fig129p093" style="max-width: 33.0em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/fig129p093.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    Fig. 129. Daedalus and Pasiphae (<a href="#Page_92">p.&nbsp;92</a>).
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>The side panels of this room also are adorned with
+paintings, which though of smaller proportions are
+nevertheless well worth our notice. These are oblong
+pictures of ships. Two to four strongly manned vessels
+are represented, which rowed at full speed hasten
+against one another, and by clever turnings seek to
+escape the enemy’s onset, the dangerous blow with the
+ship’s beak. On the shorter sides the corresponding
+positions are occupied by subjects of still life
+(birds with fruit, and so on). Above these come flying
+figures arranged in pairs, swinging garlands over
+their heads: they are probably intended for the Four
+Seasons; above comes again architecture with figures.</p>
+
+<p>The most splendid room however and the most
+interesting in the house <span class="pagenum" id="Page_94">94</span>is, next to the garden of
+the peristyle, the large Oecus, which is connected
+by a wide doorway with the portico, and by a small
+door with another chamber devoid of ornament. The
+groundcolour of the whole room is in the lower
+portion red and black, the plinth is sober black
+and adorned with floral arabesques, above, however,
+the walls are red, with black stripes. Beneath each
+vertical black stripe a picture is introduced on the
+plinth, generally Amazons in warlike guise, buckler
+and battleaxe in hand, but also Satyrs, Maenads,
+persons offering sacrifice, <i>etc.</i> Over these
+figures comes a small oblong picture, usually Psyches
+gathering flowers (<a href="#fig131p096">fig.&nbsp;131</a>), here and there, however,
+mythological scenes also are inserted. Three of these
+are preserved, first Orestes and Pylades in Tauris.
+To the left sits Orestes, near him is Pylades,
+towards them Iphigenia advances with the image of
+Diana, on the right king Thoas is seated on a throne.
+The second picture represents the triumph of Apollo
+over the serpent Pytho. The god has killed the snake
+which guarded the sanctuary at Delphi; proud of his
+victory he seized the lyre to sound the first paean in
+praise of the omnipotence of the gods, and to his own
+especial glory; in his honour the goddess of the place
+brings a bull, who is to fall as a sacrifice. The
+third relates presumably to the sacrifice of Iphigenia
+in Aulis. Before an altar, on <span class="pagenum" id="Page_95">95</span>which fire is burning,
+stands a woman with bowl and chalice, from which she
+seems to besprinkle a hind standing in front of her.
+From the right of the altar a wide-striding warrior
+hastens up with drawn sword; a female figure wearing a
+wreath hurries away to the left, evidently terrified
+at the warrior’s action. The rendering varies from
+others relating to the same myth, yet scarcely any
+other interpretation is left. That Iphigenia is
+not herself introduced, but only the hind, may be
+pronounced remarkable, though why should not the
+painter have hit upon this means of representing the
+sudden change, especially if the other pictures in the
+room (cf. no. 1 of this series, Orestes and Pylades in
+Tauris) made the relations clear?</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp99" id="fig130p094" style="max-width: 40.0em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/fig130p094.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    Fig. 130. Ixion’s Punishment (<a href="#Page_92">p.&nbsp;92</a>).
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>The horizontal black bands beneath the red panels are
+occupied by Erotes and Psyches, who with a naturally
+bright earnestness and conscientiousness imitate the
+employments of daily life, chiefly the exercise of
+certain trades, so that these bands may be reckoned
+among the most interesting of Pompeii’s pictures. Here
+we have in the first place the representation of a
+game, Erotes are busied in throwing balls at a board.
+Further the manufacture and sale of garlands. Here
+flowers are brought to the city by the gardener and
+his son, there others are busy with the preparation of
+garlands, while on the left haggling is going on about
+the finished garlands. Then follows the production
+of oil, and the ointments prepared therefrom. A
+race too is introduced (<a href="#fig133p098">fig.&nbsp;133</a>); four Erotes
+distinguished by the four colours of the Circus drive
+chariots harnessed with gazelles. On this follows
+the representation of the goldsmith’s art, further
+that of the fuller’s work, so important for ancient
+cities: two Erotes tread in a vat the clothes to be
+cleaned, after this comes the removing of stains and
+the brushing, or the raising the nap of the clothes,
+still further on the clothes that have been cleaned
+are submitted to a thorough inspection by Psyches. The
+following picture, the festival of Vesta, representing
+the so-called <i>Vestalia</i> is pretty well ruined,
+Erotes and Psyches are reclining on the ground at a
+merry feast, and even the much tormented donkeys have
+for once some rest. The next picture too is not well
+preserved; on the left the vintage is represented,
+on the right the wine-press. On the vintage follows
+the triumph of Bacchus, who is of course represented
+by an Eros. The close of this series, so damaged
+unfortunately in several of its scenes, is formed
+by the tavern with the sale of wine (<a href="#fig132p097">fig.&nbsp;132</a>). On
+the left stand a number of amphoras just as they are
+still often found in Pompeii leaning on the wall in a
+somewhat slanting position, in front of them stands
+mine host in an easy posture, while he offers to his
+customer, who carries a little stick, a bowl of wine
+to taste; two other Erotes are busy in drawing wine
+for another sample from an amphora in a horizontal
+position.</p>
+
+<p>In the centre of the red panels flying couples are
+depicted, derived from <span class="pagenum" id="Page_96">96</span>mythology; we note, however,
+the want of freedom in choice which the requirement as
+to pictures has imposed on the artist; here, as in the
+War against the Giants at Pergamon, the whole force,
+so to speak, has been mobilised. The figures preserved
+are those of Poseidon with an inamorata, of Apollo
+with Daphne, of Bacchus with Ariadne, and of Perseus
+with Andromeda.</p>
+
+<p>In the centre of each wall there was also a large
+picture, these however have not survived. On the other
+hand the upper part of the wall above the red panels
+framed in black is still partly preserved; we see here
+again new structures rising, which were peopled by
+numerous figures, chiefly derived from the entourage
+of Bacchus.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="fig131p096" style="max-width: 40.0em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/fig131p096.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    Fig. 131. Psyches gathering Flowers (<a href="#Page_94">p.&nbsp;94</a>).
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>Now it remains to describe the small space set apart
+for the ladies. Here too the walls are adorned with
+paintings which attract less attention only because
+the abundance of treasures offered to our gaze in the
+Casa dei Vettii leaves scarcely time or inclination
+for the smaller works of art. The first room has
+a black plinth, with green shrubs and flowers as
+ornament, over this red panels separated by white
+stripes; in the centre of each panel is a fabulous
+creature. Here a Pegasus grazing beside a wall and the
+attributes of Athena is most deserving of notice. The
+second room has black walls with white bands, which as
+it were open up a view into the open air with trees
+&amp;c. In the centre of each wall there was originally a
+large picture, now however only two are left; first
+the Discovery of Achilles in Scyros, where Ulysses and
+Diomedes by a stratagem detect Achilles disguised in
+woman’s clothing among the daughters of Lycomedes, and
+induce him to take part in the expedition against Troy
+(<a href="#fig134p099">fig.&nbsp;134</a>). The second picture represents Hercules and
+Auge.</p>
+
+<p>Next to these large wall-pictures, medallions with
+flying female forms are placed on the side panels.
+It may be stated in passing that throughout the
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_97">97</span>whole mansion the medallions always prove to have
+been separately inserted: clearly these pieces were
+produced by the artists on slabs of stucco and kept
+in stock, so that during the preparation of a wall
+they had simply to be let into it. Hence we cannot be
+surprised if the medallions sometimes betray a style
+more or less at variance with the other decorations of
+the wall.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="fig132p097" style="max-width: 40.0em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/fig132p097.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    Fig. 132. Cupid as Host (<a href="#Page_95">p.&nbsp;95</a>).
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>Such are the paintings of the house known as <i>Domus
+Vettiorum</i>, a house that in the number of pictures
+which are placed in it, and in the beauty and grace
+of its peristyle, excels without doubt all other
+houses as yet excavated. Of course we have not always
+to do with masters of the first rank; should we
+ask as to the origin of the pictures and how they
+had come to a little provincial town like Pompeii,
+several hands that had been employed upon them might
+easily be distinguished. Taken as a whole however
+the wall decorations are unique; nay with regard to
+individual representations, above all in the case of
+the frieze of Cupids in the Oecus, one can pronounce
+only a favourable judgement, especially when one sees
+how lightly and naturally, and yet with what a sure
+hand, and how characteristically, the pictures have
+been conceived and executed. If ordinary decorative
+painters produced such wall decoration for a small
+provincial town, what triumph of art must have graced
+the mansions of the leading men in the great cities!
+We have indeed a specimen of these in what is called
+the House of Livia on the Palatine, and in the
+<i>Domus Transtiberina</i>, the remains of which are
+exhibited in the Baths of Diocletian; these, however,
+are but insignificant fragments as compared with the
+vast mass of that which has been irretrievably lost.</p>
+
+<p>Now that we have thus examined a house in its entirety
+we might take our departure. Yet hold! Pompeii is
+indeed, as said above, in contrast to Naples, the
+city of the Dead, yet in Pompeii there is still one
+spot that in a <span class="pagenum" id="Page_98">98</span>greater degree may be designated the
+place of the Dead, this is the Street of Tombs in
+front of the Gate of Herculaneum. Almost all roads
+that led out of ancient cities were lined by the
+monuments of the dead; so too at Pompeii, where on all
+the roads leading out of the city, e. g. on that to
+Scafati, numerous burial places have been discovered,
+but not one of these roads can compete with the
+place of sepulture that lies in front of the Gate
+of Herculaneum. This then deserves a more thorough
+investigation.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="fig133p098" style="max-width: 50.0em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/fig133p098.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    Fig. 133. A Race (<a href="#Page_95">p.&nbsp;95</a>).
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>This is not the proper place to describe the methods
+of burial prevailing among the Romans; it is
+sufficient here to state that in the most ancient
+times the dead were laid to rest in sarcophagi;
+examples of such a method of interment, which at
+Rome in particular gentes, or clans, was observed
+uninterruptedly to the latest period, e. g. among the
+Cornelii, are found also in Pompeii, but seem to go
+back to the Oscan epoch. In those times the bodies
+were laid in coffinlike chests of limestone, which
+were made up of square blocks or smaller stones,
+and covered with earth, after all sorts of little
+vases, chiefly of Nolan manufacture, had been put
+in with them. Examples of such a method of burial
+are exhibited in the small Museum at the Porta della
+Marina. Later, however, when Pompeii was added to
+the Roman Empire, cremation generally took the place
+of interment. For this purpose in a space specially
+set apart called <i>Ustrinum</i>, the funeral pile
+was erected, to which the form of an altar was
+regularly given, the height and decoration of which
+were naturally decided according to the rank and
+wealth of the deceased. Such <i>ustrina</i> were of
+course assigned by the city, frequently however,
+where space permitted and police regulations did not
+hinder, there were private grounds of this kind at the
+hereditary burying places of distinguished families.
+At Pompeii too <span class="pagenum" id="Page_99">99</span>such an <i>ustrinum</i> has been
+supposed to exist before the Gate of Herculaneum,
+but wrongly, for the insufficient distance from the
+city would alone have absolutely prohibited the
+burning of corpses there. The bier with the corpse was
+placed on the pyre and covered with sweet smelling
+unguents, incense, costly stuffs &amp;c. and then kindled
+by a relative or friend with averted face. When the
+funeral pile was burned to the ground the ashes had
+to be extinguished with water or wine, the bones that
+were left collected, and then, after the customary
+lustral sacrifice had been offered, the funeral feast
+had to be held at the grave. The place required for
+such a feast, the <i>triclinium funebre</i>, is still
+remaining at Pompeii. Some days later the bones,
+which in the meantime had been dried in the sun,
+were sprinkled with milk and wine, and, after the
+addition of fragrant materials, placed in a sepulchral
+urn, that was afterwards conveyed to the tomb. The
+sepulchral urns were generally hermetically sealed,
+but often provided with holes at the top, so that on
+appointed days the usual libations to the dead could
+be poured right on to the cremated remains, in order
+to ensure to the deceased person the enjoyment of the
+sacrifices offered to him. Nay pipes have (in the case
+of some of the graves situated on the road leading
+to Scafati) been fixed in such a way as to render it
+possible to <span class="pagenum" id="Page_100">100</span>convey directly to him such libations
+also as were dedicated to the dead man outside the
+tomb.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp80" id="fig134p099" style="max-width: 33.0em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/fig134p099.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    Fig. 134. Achilles at the Court of
+    Lycomedes (<a href="#Page_96">p.&nbsp;96</a>).
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="fig135p100" style="max-width: 40.0em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/fig135p100.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    Fig. 135. The Street of Tombs by the
+    Gate of Herculaneum (<a href="#Page_100">p.&nbsp;100</a>).
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>Apart from some few graves dating back to Oscan times,
+the monuments in front of the Gate of Herculaneum
+belong entirely to the Roman period (<a href="#fig135p100">fig.&nbsp;135</a>).
+Immediately to the left, behind the Gate, is seen a
+vaulted niche, in which then was originally placed a
+statue, that of course of the person buried there,
+with an altar before it for the sacrifices; according
+to the inscription the grave belongs to the Augustalis
+M. Cerrinius Restitutus, for whose burial the
+Decurions presented the ground. The <i>Augustales</i>
+formed a <i>collegium</i> consisting of freedmen
+dedicated to the cult of the emperors. This is the
+niche to which is attached the well-known legend of
+the sentry fabled to have remained at his post during
+the eruption of Vesuvius, and thereby met his death:
+in reality there is no question of a sentrybox nor
+of a sentry, for, according to the reports of the
+excavations, no skeleton at all was found at this
+point. Passing on from the grave of M. Cerrinius
+we come on the left to a semicircular bench which
+according to the inscription was erected by decree of
+the Decurions in honour of Aulus Veius, who had held
+the highest magistracies of the city. Probably his
+remains were interred behind the bench. His statue
+will have stood on the pedestal in the centre of the
+seat; it may be inferred from the <span class="pagenum" id="Page_101">101</span>dignities named in
+the inscription as enjoyed by him that he lived not
+later than Augustus.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp98" id="fig136p101" style="max-width: 40.0em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/fig136p101.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    Fig. 136. Continuation of the Street of
+    Tombs (<a href="#Page_103">p.&nbsp;103</a>).
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>The following grave belonged to M. Porcius, whose
+name is mentioned in connection with the smaller
+Theatre and the Amphitheatre; a son or other relative
+may of course have borne the same name. The third
+monument on the left hand side again takes the form
+of a semicircular seat, it marks the spot where the
+priestess Mamia was buried (behind the seat). We need
+not dwell on the pleasing thoughts aroused in the
+beholder when he recognises that the monument here
+assumes a form specially useful to the living, and
+affording rest to the wearied wanderer. Behind Mamia’s
+seat a large sepulchral building is preserved, in the
+chamber of which niches for the urns containing ashes
+are to be seen (<a href="#fig137p102">fig.&nbsp;137</a>). As is proved by several
+inscriptions, the tomb belonged to the distinguished
+Pompeian family of the Istacidii. After this comes a
+now closed street, which according to an inscription
+seems to have led to the bathing establishment of M.
+Crassus Frugi. This included, as we know from other
+sources, a medicinal spring rising out of the sea.
+That the sea came up nearer Pompeii than is now the
+case has already been stated. Here the buryingplaces
+on the left cease for some distance, and there follows
+a villa site, now once more covered with ashes
+<i>etc.</i>, in which, without sufficient ground,
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_102">102</span>people have sought to recognise a villa of Cicero
+(who is known to have possessed a villa at Pompeii).
+Let us therefore retrace our steps to the Gate, to
+examine the graves placed on the righthandside.</p>
+
+<div class="narrow">
+<div class="column2"><figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="fig137p102" >
+  <img class="w100" src="images/fig137p102.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    Fig. 137 Interior of a Grave (<a href="#Page_101">p.&nbsp;101</a>).
+  </figcaption>
+</figure></div>
+
+<div class="flr50"><figure class="figcenter illowp90" id="fig138p102" >
+  <img class="w100" src="images/fig138p102.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    Fig. 138. Vessel of blue Glass (<a href="#Page_103">p.&nbsp;103</a>).
+  </figcaption>
+</figure></div>
+
+<div class="column2"><figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="fig139p102" >
+  <img class="w100" src="images/fig139p102.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    Fig. 139. Herm-cippus (<a href="#Page_104">p.&nbsp;104</a>).
+  </figcaption>
+</figure></div>
+</div>
+
+
+
+<p class="clear">Here first meets us a large altar-shaped grave
+without inscription in the chamber of which, when
+opened a few years ago, two clay vessels were found
+enclosed for better preservation in leaden covers,
+which contained the remains of bones covered with a
+cloth, together with a coin of the time of Augustus.
+Coins are frequently found placed with the remains.
+Although originally the idea of such parting gifts was
+that the property left was thereby purchased from the
+deceased, the earnest money as it were being handed to
+him to prevent his return, yet gradually the belief
+became universal that passage money was handed to the
+dead man for Charon, whose boat was to carry him to
+the Underworld. As long as the dead body was buried
+in the earth, it was the custom to lay the coin in
+the mouth; when burning came into vogue in place of
+burial, it was quite natural that the coin should
+still be added to the remains. The second tomb on the
+right was erected to the Aedile M. Terentius Felix
+Major, by his widow Flavia Sabina, after the city had
+granted not only the <span class="pagenum" id="Page_103">103</span>site, but also a contribution
+of 2000 sesterces (about 21 pounds). The remains of
+M. Terentius were discovered under the table on the
+left, in a glass vessel, doubly protected by being
+placed in a terracotta urn and wrapped in lead. Of
+the graves that follow, number 6 deserves special
+notice, the Grave of the Garlands, so called from the
+ornament affixed on one side. The structure is solid;
+nevertheless there will be found in all probability a
+sepulchral chamber underneath, but as yet no search
+for it has been made. The grave no. 8 is famous for
+the discovery of the blue glass vessel (<a href="#fig138p102">fig.&nbsp;138</a>) now
+in Naples, representing the vintage in white relief
+on a blue ground. To the cheerful sound of flutes
+and the syrinx, a Genius carries grape clusters to
+a vessel, in which another treads them down, as he
+merrily swings the thyrsus, while on the other side
+the gathering of grapes and the enjoyment of wine are
+brought to view. Most charming however is the network
+of twining tendrils that form a web around the whole
+vase. Then comes a semicircular niche, as to which
+it is doubtful whether it has actually served for a
+funeral monument. It was certainly erected for this
+purpose, but since the space for the inscription in
+the pediment has remained unfilled, it seems as though
+the purpose for which it was originally intended had
+not been carried out.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="fig140p103" style="max-width: 33.0em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/fig140p103.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    Fig. 140. Sepulchral Monument of
+    Naevoleia Tyche (<a href="#Page_105">p.&nbsp;105</a>).
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>At this point the graves come to an end on the right
+side also, and there appear two villas bordering on
+the road, which have profited by their favourable
+position through the construction of shops and taverns
+for those passing along the street. From the mosaic
+fountain there to be seen come the four pillars
+covered with mosaic, that have been taken to the
+Naples Museum; they supported a pavilion in front of
+the fountain. On the other hand the tombs soon begin
+again on the left (<a href="#fig136p101">fig.&nbsp;136</a>); in the first place one
+which passes for an unfinished structure, because
+its upper portion is not completely preserved; here
+is a gravestone the peculiar shape of which is found
+outside Pompeii only at Sorrento, a stone formed in
+imitation of a bust, on the back of which plaits
+of hair hang down; on the smooth surface in front
+it bears the inscription.—<i>Junoni Tyches Juliae
+Augustae vener.</i> While the Genius is the protecting
+spirit <span class="pagenum" id="Page_104">104</span>of the man, the Juno takes this place in the
+case of women; the Tyche whose remains are buried here
+was probably a favourite slave of Julia Augusta, i. e.
+of Livia, but the meaning of <i>vener</i> is at least
+doubtful (<a href="#fig139p102">fig.&nbsp;139</a>).</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp99" id="fig141p104" style="max-width: 40.0em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/fig141p104.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    Fig. 141. Villa of Diomedes (<a href="#Page_105">p.&nbsp;105</a>).
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>One of the most important monuments is the next
+one, belonging to Umbricius Scaurus, erected by
+his father, when the Town Council had granted the
+site and 2000 sesterces. The chief interest of
+this monument consists in the stucco reliefs with
+which the front walls and the steps of the altar
+are adorned, and which represent scenes from the
+Amphitheatre, gladiatorial combats and wildbeast
+hunts. The deceased had once given these spectacles
+to his native city, so that the father could bethink
+himself of preserving the remembrance of this
+liberality by the ornamentation of the monument.
+Next comes the so-called Round Tomb, which in the
+interior has a peculiarly vaulted chamber with three
+niches, in the bottom of which the urns are fixed
+in masonry and closed with covers, just as in the
+Roman <i>columbaria</i>. Further on the grave of the
+Augustal, Calventius Quietus, demands our special
+notice, on whom on account, of his munificence
+the Town Council had conferred the honour of the
+<i>bisellium</i>, i. e. had given him the right to
+sit on a special seat in the Theatre among the Town
+Councillors. The <i>bisellium</i> is depicted on the
+monument. <span class="pagenum" id="Page_105">105</span>Particularly striking, however, through its
+ornaments executed in relief, is the tomb of Naevoleia
+Tyche, which she, according to the inscription,
+erected to herself and C. Munatius Faustus, to whom
+also the Town Council had granted the honour of the
+<i>bisellium</i> (<a href="#fig140p103">fig.&nbsp;140</a>). Over the inscription
+is represented the portrait of the foundress, and
+underneath a sacrifice to the dead, while the flanks
+of the altar show on one side the <i>bisellium</i>
+granted to Munatius, on the other side a ship, the
+sails of which are reefed. By this no doubt allusion
+is made to the end of life. In the gravechamber were
+found, with other more simple vases of terracotta,
+three vases of glass, which were enclosed in a lead
+wrapping, and in which the contents were preserved
+intact; they contained the burnt bones in a fluid made
+up of water, wine, and oil mixed together.</p>
+
+<p>After this comes the <i>triclinium funebre</i>
+mentioned before, a place in which the funeral feasts
+were usually held. The triclinium is in its general
+features not different from those occurring in private
+houses, one sees three couches of masonry (with the
+higher end inwards) round a table on which the food
+was placed. With this ends the series of tombs on the
+left hand.</p>
+
+<div class="fll40"><figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="fig142p105" style="max-width: 20em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/fig142p105.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    Fig. 142. Urania (<a href="#Page_89">p.&nbsp;89</a>).
+  </figcaption>
+</figure></div>
+
+<p>On the righthand our special attention is claimed
+by the tomb with the marble door. The interior of
+the tomb was occupied by various urns of ashes, yet
+the exterior was still incomplete, the coating with
+squared stones originally contemplated is not entirely
+executed. Here a street turns off to the right, in
+which the Oscan graves previously mentioned were
+discovered. Of the tombs on the rising ground between
+the two streets that of M. Arrius Diomedes should be
+mentioned, which he erected to his former lady Arria,
+himself, and his family. Not as though this were
+distinguished above others, but because the Villa
+lying opposite the tombs has been designated as that
+of Diomedes. This Villa of Diomedes requires more
+careful consideration before we quit Pompeii (<a href="#fig141p104">fig.&nbsp;141</a>).</p>
+
+
+
+<p>By a slope rising from the Street of Tombs we reach
+the door, which, corresponding to the precepts
+of Vitruvius for villas, leads straight into the
+peristyle. Among the chambers accessible from this are
+first, on the side of <span class="pagenum" id="Page_106">106</span>the street, the bathrooms; here
+we distinguish the <i>piscina</i>, that is the basin
+for the cold bath; further the <i>tepidarium</i>,
+the air of which was warmed by an opening from the
+<i>caldarium</i>, and which, on the garden side,
+was closed by a window with four thick panes of
+glass; then the <i>caldarium</i>, the room for the
+sweating-bath, the floor and walls of which were
+arranged for conducting the heat in the way we have
+seen in the Public Baths. Warm air and hot water were
+supplied from the kitchen close at hand. Still more
+interesting is a sleeping-apartment, also reached from
+the peristyle, in front of which is a room for the
+<i>cubicularis</i>, the valet. The sleeping-apartment
+itself is built out into the garden in a semicircle,
+here are placed three large windows which supplied
+light and air, but could be quite closed by shutters
+according to requirement. That even there fresh air
+should not be wanting was provided for by a small
+quadrangular opening placed above. At the back is
+seen the alcove for the bed, which was cut off by
+a curtain; the rings for this were found when the
+excavation took place; close by we observe a hollow in
+the masonry, presumably a sort of wash-hand basin.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="fig143p107" style="max-width: 25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/fig143p107.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    Fig. 143. Bronze Bowl (<a href="#Page_68">p.&nbsp;68</a>).
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<div class="fll40"><figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="p110" style="max-width: 20em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/p110.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    Fig. 144. Boy with Duck
+  </figcaption>
+</figure></div>
+
+<p>Below these parts of the establishment, and approached
+by stairs, and having a separate communication with
+the sloping street, lies, a series of domestic
+offices, slaves’ rooms <i>etc.</i>, of which nothing
+need be said. Then we pass into the garden, a large
+pleasure-ground surrounded by a colonnade, and with a
+large basin and fountain in the centre, and an open
+portico supported by six columns. At the further end
+of the colonnade lay a small room, from which, as from
+the middle of the portico, a door led into the open
+air; here at the time of the excavation were found
+two skeletons, those as it is supposed of the master
+of the house and his servant; the former had a gold
+ring on his finger and a large key in his hand, and
+near him lay ten gold and eighty-eight silver coins.
+Both then had striven to reach the open air, but had
+perished in doing so. Still more terrible was the
+fate of his family and dependants; eighteen adults
+and two children had fled for refuge to the large
+room under the colonnade, marked as a wine-cellar by
+the numerous amphorae leaning against the walls, to
+which light and air were admitted from the courtyard
+through small windows; all perished miserably when the
+masses of pumice-stone had cut off their escape. The
+ashes pressing in had enveloped them and faithfully
+preserved their forms; unfortunately at the time
+when this villa was excavated the process of taking
+plaster-casts had not yet been invented, and so
+the moulds thus formed were destroyed; it has been
+possible to preserve only one portion, the impression
+of the neck, shoulders, and breast of a young girl,
+to judge by the impression faultlessly beautiful, and
+wearing a dress of the finest material. This mould is
+exhibited in the Museo Nazionale at Naples.</p>
+
+
+
+<p>We now come to the end of our story. The romantic
+histories that have <span class="pagenum" id="Page_107">107</span>been recounted as to the
+destruction of Pompeii, the sentinel who refused to
+desert his post, and thus met his death, the closely
+embracing pair of youthful lovers overwhelmed in the
+street leading from the Theatre to the Forum, the
+men said to have been surprised by the eruption of
+Vesuvius in the midst of the funeral feast at the
+<i>Triclinium funebre</i> in the Street of Tombs—all
+this and whatever else the ever active imagination
+has invented to depict the fate of the city with all
+possible horror, are thrown deep into the shade by
+the reality which the excavations reveal; we cannot
+depict to ourselves darkly enough the scenes enacted
+in Pompeii on the 24th of August in the year 79. And
+yet posterity has every reason to thank the chance
+that throughout so many centuries has preserved for
+us an ancient Roman city almost untouched. One cannot
+shut out from oneself the thought that the eruption of
+Vesuvius in its ultimate results has brought only a
+blessing, inasmuch as it has given us the opportunity
+of casting a glance across so many centuries, right
+into the actual condition and circumstances of an
+ancient city. There is indeed a whole series of
+cities of far greater size and importance which have
+existed uninterruptedly from the earliest times to the
+present day, but the constant changes necessitated
+by the requirements and habits of later generations
+have so altered their condition that the traces of
+antiquity can be followed out only with the greatest
+toil. At Pompeii the case is very different, there
+the ashes from Vesuvius have preserved the city as a
+whole, just as the Pompeians left it on the occasion
+of the eruption; there streets and squares, temples
+and houses speak a language which cannot fail to be
+understood by every one who has any power of grasping
+the conception of antiquity. How vastly our knowledge
+of the ancient world must be advanced by such
+immediate inspection of actual remains requires no
+further elucidation. Let then the saying be once more
+repeated “Vedi Napoli e Pompei”, and, with a slight
+alteration of the well-known saying as to Capri; “Non
+lasciar Napoli senza aver visto Pompei”.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="p113map">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/p113map.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+POMPEI.
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_108">108</span></p>
+
+
+  <h2 class="nobreak" id="INDEX">
+    INDEX
+  </h2>
+</div>
+
+<p class="center">
+  The asterisks before the numerals refer to the illustrations.<br>
+  W. = Wall-painting.
+</p>
+
+
+<ul class="index">
+  <li class="ifrst">Abbondanza, via dell’, <a href="#fig012p012">*12</a>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a></li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Achilles at the Court of Lycomedes, W., <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#fig134p099">*99</a></li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Ala, <a href="#Page_41">41</a></li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Alexander’s Battle, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#fig091p064">*46</a></li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Alexandria, Tutelary Deity of, <a href="#fig100p070">*70</a></li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Altar, Domestic, <a href="#fig062p045">*45</a></li>
+
+  <li class="indx">—— of the temple of Vespasian, <a href="#fig032p026">*26</a></li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Amor with Dolphin, <a href="#fig079p056">*56</a></li>
+
+  <li class="indx">—— with Crab, W., <a href="#fig119p084">*84</a></li>
+
+  <li class="indx">—— with Dolphins, W., <a href="#fig120p084">*84</a></li>
+
+  <li class="indx">—— as Host, W., <a href="#fig132p097">*97</a></li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Amphitheatre, <a href="#fig043p033">*33</a>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#fig057p042">*42</a></li>
+
+  <li class="indx">—— Fight in between Pompeians &amp; Nucerians, <a href="#fig002p003">*36</a></li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Apodyterium, <a href="#fig047p036">*36</a>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a></li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Apollo, <a href="#fig034p027">*27</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a></li>
+
+  <li class="indx">—— and Pytho, W., <a href="#Page_94">94</a></li>
+
+  <li class="indx">—— Temple of, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#fig036p028">*28</a></li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Arca, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#fig058p043">*43</a></li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Ariadne, Deliverance of, W., <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a></li>
+
+  <li class="indx">—— in Naxos, W., <a href="#Page_87">87</a></li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Atrium, <a href="#Page_40">40-42</a></li>
+
+  <li class="indx">—— Restoration of, <a href="#fig055p040">*40</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a></li>
+
+  <li class="indx">—— in the House of Rufus, <a href="#fig082p058">*58</a>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a></li>
+
+  <li class="indx">—— Tuscanicum, <a href="#Page_41">41</a></li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Augustales, <a href="#Page_100">100</a></li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Aulus Veius, <a href="#Page_100">100</a></li>
+
+
+  <li class="ifrst">Bacchus, <a href="#fig126p091">*91</a></li>
+
+  <li class="indx">—— and Ariadne, W., <a href="#fig127p091">*91</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a></li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Bakery, <a href="#fig105p074">*74</a>, <a href="#Page_76">76</a></li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Balcony, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#fig061p044">*44</a></li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Basilica, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#fig035p028">*28</a></li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Baths, <a href="#Page_35">35-39</a></li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Bisellium, <a href="#fig085p059">*59</a>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a></li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Bosco Reale, <a href="#Page_68">68-74</a></li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Bowls, silver, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a></li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Boy with duck, <a href="#p110">*110</a></li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Bread, <a href="#fig107p076">*76</a></li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Bronze table, <a href="#fig091p064">*64</a></li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Building, periods of, <a href="#Page_47">47-49</a></li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Burning the Dead, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a></li>
+
+
+  <li class="ifrst">Calda, <a href="#Page_64">64</a></li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Caldarium, <a href="#fig049p038">*38</a>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a></li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Candelabra, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#fig096p067">*67</a></li>
+
+  <li class="indx">—— Painted, W., <a href="#Page_85">85</a></li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Casa d’Arianna, <a href="#fig111p079">*79</a>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a></li>
+
+  <li class="indx">—— del Balcone pensile, <a href="#fig080p056">*56</a></li>
+
+  <li class="indx">—— dei Capitelli Colorati, <a href="#fig111p079">*79</a>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a></li>
+
+  <li class="indx">—— del Centenario, <a href="#fig113p079">*79</a>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a></li>
+
+  <li class="indx">—— del Imperatore di Germania, <a href="#fig114p079">*79</a>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a></li>
+
+  <li class="indx">“<i>Cave Canem</i>”, <a href="#fig053p039">*39</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a></li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Cerrinius Restitutus, <a href="#Page_100">100</a></li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Chapel, Private, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#fig059p043">*43</a></li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Comedy, Scene from, <a href="#fig042p032">*32</a>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a></li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Compluvium, <a href="#Page_41">41</a></li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Cookshop, <a href="#fig018p014">*14</a>, <a href="#fig019p015">*15</a>, <a href="#Page_21">21</a></li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Cremation, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a></li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Cups, <a href="#fig089p062">*62</a>, <a href="#fig095p067">*67</a>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#fig102p072">*72</a></li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Cupid, <a href="#fig079p056">*56</a>, <a href="#fig119p084">*84</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#fig132p097">*97</a></li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Cyparissus, W., <a href="#fig123p087">*87</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a></li>
+
+
+  <li class="ifrst">Daedalus &amp; Pasiphaë, W., <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#fig129p093">*93</a></li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Dining-couch, <a href="#fig087p060">*60</a>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a></li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Diomedes, <a href="#Page_105">105</a></li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Dioscurides, <a href="#fig042p032">*32</a></li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Dipinti, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_20">20</a></li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Dog, in Mosaic, <a href="#fig053p039">*39</a></li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Doorknocker, <a href="#fig054p039">*39</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a></li>
+
+
+  <li class="ifrst">Ephebus of Bronze, <a href="#fig072p051">*51</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a></li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Erotes, <a href="#fig119p084">*84</a>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#fig132p097">*97</a></li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Eruption of Vesuvius, <a href="#Page_3">3</a></li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Eumachia, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#fig033p027">*27</a></li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Europa with the Bull, W., <a href="#fig073p052">*52</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a></li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Excavations, <a href="#p001">*1</a>, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_9">9</a></li>
+
+
+  <li class="ifrst">Faun, Dancing, <a href="#fig077p055">*55</a>, <a href="#Page_56">56</a></li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Feast, <a href="#fig088p061">*61</a>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a></li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Fontana, Domenico, <a href="#Page_8">8</a></li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Food-warmer, <a href="#fig090p063">*63</a>, <a href="#fig094p066">*66</a></li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Fortuna, Temple of, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#fig038p030">*30</a></li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Fountain figures, <a href="#Page_57">57</a></li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Fountains, <a href="#fig016p013">*13</a>, <a href="#Page_21">21</a></li>
+
+  <li class="indx"><span class="pagenum" id="Page_109">109</span>Fountain with mosaic, <a href="#fig081p057">*57</a></li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Forum Civile, <a href="#fig023p018">*18</a>, <a href="#fig024p019">*19</a>, <a href="#Page_23">23</a></li>
+
+  <li class="indx">—— Scene in, <a href="#fig025p020">*20</a>, <a href="#Page_23">23</a></li>
+
+  <li class="indx">—— Triangular, <a href="#fig021p016">*16</a>, <a href="#fig022p017">*17</a>, <a href="#Page_22">22</a></li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Frigidarium, <a href="#Page_37">37</a></li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Fullers at Work, W., <a href="#fig110p078">*78</a></li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Fulling, <a href="#Page_78">78</a></li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Fullonica, <a href="#fig108p077">*77</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a></li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Furniture, <a href="#Page_61">61-64</a></li>
+
+
+  <li class="ifrst">Garlands, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a></li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Gates, <a href="#Page_17">17</a></li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Gauging table, <a href="#fig037p029">*29</a></li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Gladiators, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#fig056p041">*41</a></li>
+
+  <li class="indx">—— Barracks of, <a href="#fig044p033">*33</a>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a></li>
+
+  <li class="indx">—— Weapons of, <a href="#fig045p034">*34</a>, <a href="#fig056p041">*41</a>, <a href="#fig060p044">*44</a></li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Glass vessel, Blue, <a href="#fig138p102">*102</a>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a></li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Graffiti, <a href="#fig015p013">*13</a>, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_20">20</a></li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Graves, <a href="#Page_98">98-105</a></li>
+
+
+  <li class="ifrst">“<i>Have</i>”, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a></li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Herculaneum, Discovery of, <a href="#Page_8">8</a></li>
+
+  <li class="indx">—— Gate of, <a href="#fig011p011">*11</a>, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a></li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Hercules Strangling Serpents, W., <a href="#Page_90">90</a>, <a href="#fig128p092">*92</a></li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Herms, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>, <a href="#fig127p091">*91</a>, <a href="#fig139p102">*102</a>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a></li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Hero and Leander, W., <a href="#fig122p086">*86</a>, <a href="#Page_87">87</a></li>
+
+  <li class="indx">House of the Faun, <a href="#fig109p077">*77</a>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a></li>
+
+  <li class="indx">—— Lucretius, <a href="#fig076p054">*54</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a></li>
+
+  <li class="indx">—— Pansa, <a href="#fig051p038">*38</a>, <a href="#fig104p073">*73</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a></li>
+
+  <li class="indx">—— C. Rufus, <a href="#fig082p058">*58</a>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a></li>
+
+  <li class="indx">—— the Tragic Poet, <a href="#fig106p075">*75</a>, <a href="#Page_76">76-78</a></li>
+
+  <li class="indx">—— the Vettii, <a href="#Page_83">83-97</a>, <a href="#fig118p083">*83</a>, <a href="#fig125p090">*90</a></li>
+
+
+  <li class="ifrst">Impluvium, <a href="#Page_41">41</a></li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Inscriptions, <a href="#fig014p013">*13</a>, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_20">20</a></li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Interior of Grave, <a href="#Page_101">101-5</a>, <a href="#fig137p102">*102</a>, <a href="#fig140p103">*103</a></li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Io, W., <a href="#Page_26">26</a></li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Iphigenia, W., <a href="#Page_49">49-52</a>, <a href="#fig070p050">*50</a>, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a></li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Isis, Temple of, <a href="#Page_29">29-32</a>, <a href="#fig039p030">*30</a></li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Istacidii, <a href="#Page_101">101</a></li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Ixion, W., <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#fig130p094">*94</a></li>
+
+
+  <li class="ifrst">Jucundus, Caecilius, <a href="#fig083p058">*58</a>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a></li>
+
+  <li class="indx">“Junoni Tyches”, <a href="#fig139p102">*102</a>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a></li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Jupiter, Bust of, <a href="#fig026p021">*21</a>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a></li>
+
+  <li class="indx">—— Temple of, <a href="#fig027p022">*22</a>, <a href="#fig028p023">*23</a>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a></li>
+
+
+  <li class="ifrst">Kitchen, with Hearth, <a href="#fig117p082">*82</a>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a></li>
+
+
+  <li class="ifrst">Lamps, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#fig096p067">*67</a></li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Lares, Shrine of, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="#fig124p089">*89</a></li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Lead plates, <a href="#Page_81">81</a></li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Lecti, <a href="#Page_62">62</a></li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Lighting of dwellingrooms, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a></li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Loaves, <a href="#fig107p076">*76</a></li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Loves, <a href="#fig119p084">*84</a>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#fig132p097">*97</a></li>
+
+
+  <li class="ifrst">Macellum, <a href="#fig029p024">*24</a>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_26">26</a></li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Maenianum, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#fig061p044">*44</a></li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Mamia, <a href="#Page_101">101</a></li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Marble Table, <a href="#fig086p059">*59</a>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a></li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Mars and Venus, W., <a href="#fig074p053">*53</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a></li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Meals, <a href="#fig088p061">*61</a>, <a href="#Page_61">61-63</a></li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Meatmarket, <a href="#fig029p024">*24</a>, <a href="#Page_24">24-26</a></li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Medea, W., <a href="#fig071p051">*51</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a></li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Mercury, Street of, <a href="#fig006p008">*8</a>, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_15">15</a></li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Mirror with Bust of Ariadne, <a href="#fig101p071">*71</a>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a></li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Misenum, <a href="#Page_4">4</a></li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Mosaics, <a href="#fig053p039">*39</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_43">43-47</a>, <a href="#fig065p047">*47</a></li>
+
+
+  <li class="ifrst">Naevoleia Tyche, <a href="#fig140p103">*103</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a></li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Narcissus, Statuette of, <a href="#fig078p055">*55</a>, <a href="#Page_56">56</a></li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Nola, Street of, <a href="#fig007p009">*9</a>, <a href="#Page_15">15</a></li>
+
+
+  <li class="ifrst">Oilshops, <a href="#fig020p016">*16</a>, <a href="#Page_21">21</a></li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Omphalos, <a href="#Page_27">27</a></li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Orestes and Pylades, <a href="#Page_94">94</a></li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Oscilla, <a href="#Page_60">60</a></li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Ostiarius, <a href="#Page_40">40</a></li>
+
+
+  <li class="ifrst">Palaestra, <a href="#Page_37">37</a></li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Panorama of Pompeii, <a href="#fig005p007">*7</a></li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Pentheus, <a href="#Page_91">91</a></li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Periods of Building, <a href="#Page_47">47-49</a></li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Piscina, <a href="#Page_106">106</a></li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Plasterer at Work, <a href="#fig068p049">*49</a></li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Plastering, <a href="#fig068p049">*49</a></li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Pliny the Younger, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_5">5</a></li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Pompeii, History of, <a href="#Page_1">1-8</a></li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Porcius, <a href="#Page_101">101</a></li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Porta della Marina, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_12">12</a></li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Priapus, <a href="#Page_85">85</a></li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Private Houses, <a href="#Page_39">39</a></li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Proculus and his Wife, W., <a href="#fig075p053">*53</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53-55</a></li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Psyches, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#fig131p096">*96</a></li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Punishment of Ixion, W., <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#fig130p094">*94</a></li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Purgatorium, <a href="#Page_29">29</a></li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Pylades, <a href="#Page_94">94</a></li>
+
+
+  <li class="ifrst">Races, W., <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#fig133p098">*98</a></li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Rothschild, <a href="#Page_69">69</a></li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Rufus, Cornelius, <a href="#fig084p058">*58</a>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a></li>
+
+
+  <li class="ifrst">Sacrifice of Iphigenia, W., <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#fig070p050">*50</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50-52</a></li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Sculpture, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, <a href="#fig126p091">*91</a></li>
+
+  <li class="indx"><span class="pagenum" id="Page_110">110</span>Senaculum, <a href="#Page_26">26</a></li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Ships, Representations of, <a href="#Page_93">93</a></li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Shops, <a href="#Page_21">21</a></li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Stabiae, Street of, <a href="#fig017p014">*14</a>, <a href="#Page_21">21</a></li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Standard measures, table of, <a href="#fig037p029">*29</a></li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Stepping-stones, <a href="#Page_18">18</a></li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Stibadium, <a href="#Page_63">63</a></li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Stoves, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="#fig092p065">*65</a></li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Streets, width of, <a href="#Page_17">17</a></li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Strongboxes, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#fig058p043">*43</a></li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Styles of art, <a href="#fig066p047">*47</a>, <a href="#fig067p048">*48</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a></li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Sulla, <a href="#Page_17">17</a></li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Symposium, W., <a href="#fig088p061">*61</a></li>
+
+
+  <li class="ifrst">Table of standard measures, <a href="#fig037p029">*29</a></li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Tablinum, <a href="#Page_42">42</a></li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Tepidarium, <a href="#fig048p037">*37</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a></li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Terentius Major, Tomb of, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a></li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Theatres, <a href="#fig040p031">*31</a>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a></li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Thermae, <a href="#fig046p035">*35</a>, <a href="#Page_35">35-39</a></li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Tombs, <a href="#Page_98">98-105</a></li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Tombs, Street of, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#fig135p100">*100</a>, <a href="#fig136p101">*101</a>, <a href="#Page_101">101-5</a></li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Towers, <a href="#fig008p010">*10</a>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a></li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Triclinium, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a></li>
+
+  <li class="indx">—— Funebre, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a></li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Tripods, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#fig091p064">*64</a></li>
+
+
+  <li class="ifrst">Urania, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, <a href="#fig142p105">*105</a></li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Ustrinum, <a href="#Page_98">98</a></li>
+
+
+  <li class="ifrst">Vases, <a href="#Page_73">73</a></li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Vespasian, Temple of, <a href="#fig031p025">*25</a></li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Vestibulum, <a href="#Page_40">40</a></li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Vesuvius, on a Wall-painting, <a href="#fig001p002">*2</a>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a></li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Villa of Diomedes, <a href="#fig141p104">*104</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104-106</a></li>
+
+
+  <li class="ifrst">Wall Decorations, <a href="#Page_45">45-55</a></li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Walls, <a href="#fig009p010">*10</a>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_17">17</a></li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Wax tablets, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#fig115p080">*80</a>, <a href="#Page_83">83</a></li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Weapons, <a href="#fig045p034">*34</a>, <a href="#fig056p041">*41</a>, <a href="#fig060p044">*44</a></li>
+
+  <li class="indx">Windows, <a href="#fig013p013">*13</a>, <a href="#Page_19">19</a></li>
+</ul>
+
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_111">111</span></p>
+
+
+  <h2 class="nobreak" id="LIST_OF_ILLUSTRATIONS">
+    LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
+  </h2>
+</div>
+
+
+
+<table class="autotable">
+
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">
+<a href="#p001">Front</a>
+</td>
+<td class="tdl">
+Excavation
+</td>
+
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">
+<a href="#fig001p002">1</a>
+</td>
+<td class="tdl">
+Vesuvius before the Eruption
+</td>
+
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">
+<a href="#fig002p003">2</a>
+</td>
+<td class="tdl">
+Contest between Pompeians and Nucerians in the Amphitheatre
+</td>
+
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">
+<a href="#fig003p004">3</a>
+</td>
+<td class="tdl">
+Plaster-cast of a Pompeian Woman
+</td>
+
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">
+<a href="#fig004p005">4</a>
+</td>
+<td class="tdl">
+Plaster-cast of a Dog
+</td>
+
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">
+<a href="#fig005p007">5</a>
+</td>
+<td class="tdl">
+Panorama of Pompeii
+</td>
+
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">
+<a href="#fig006p008">6</a>
+</td>
+<td class="tdl">
+The Street of Mercury
+</td>
+
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">
+<a href="#fig007p009">7</a>
+</td>
+<td class="tdl">
+The Street of Nola and its continuation
+</td>
+
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">
+<a href="#fig008p010">8</a>
+</td>
+<td class="tdl">
+Section of a Tower
+</td>
+
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">
+<a href="#fig009p010">9</a>
+</td>
+<td class="tdl">
+View of the City Wall from outside
+</td>
+
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">
+<a href="#fig010p010">10</a>
+</td>
+<td class="tdl">
+Section of the City Wall
+</td>
+
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">
+<a href="#fig011p011">11</a>
+</td>
+<td class="tdl">
+The Gate of Herculaneum
+</td>
+
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">
+<a href="#fig012p012">12</a>
+</td>
+<td class="tdl">
+The Street of Abundance
+</td>
+
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">
+<a href="#fig013p013">13</a>
+</td>
+<td class="tdl">
+Window in Pompeii
+</td>
+
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">
+<a href="#fig014p013">14</a>
+</td>
+<td class="tdl">
+Pompeian Inscription on Wall
+</td>
+
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">
+<a href="#fig015p013">15</a>
+</td>
+<td class="tdl">
+Pompeian Graffito
+</td>
+
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">
+<a href="#fig016p013">16</a>
+</td>
+<td class="tdl">
+Public Fountain
+</td>
+
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">
+<a href="#fig017p014">17</a>
+</td>
+<td class="tdl">
+Street of Stabiae with water Reservoir
+</td>
+
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">
+<a href="#fig018p014">18</a>
+</td>
+<td class="tdl">
+Restored View of a Cookshop
+</td>
+
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">
+<a href="#fig019p015">19</a>
+</td>
+<td class="tdl">
+Cookshop of the Casa di Sullustio
+</td>
+
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">
+<a href="#fig020p016">20</a>
+</td>
+<td class="tdl">
+Oilmerchant’s Shop
+</td>
+
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">
+<a href="#fig021p016">21</a>
+</td>
+<td class="tdl">
+Entrance to the Triangular Forum
+</td>
+
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">
+<a href="#fig022p017">22</a>
+</td>
+<td class="tdl">
+The Triangular Forum
+</td>
+
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">
+<a href="#fig023p018">23</a>
+</td>
+<td class="tdl">
+The Forum Civile, seen from the South
+</td>
+
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">
+<a href="#fig024p019">24</a>
+</td>
+<td class="tdl">
+Forum Civile, from the Temple of Jupiter
+</td>
+
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">
+<a href="#fig025p020">25</a>
+</td>
+<td class="tdl">
+Life in the Forum
+</td>
+
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">
+<a href="#fig026p021">26</a>
+</td>
+<td class="tdl">
+Bust of Jupiter
+</td>
+
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">
+<a href="#fig027p022">27</a>
+</td>
+<td class="tdl">
+The Temple of Jupiter
+</td>
+
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">
+<a href="#fig028p023">28</a>
+</td>
+<td class="tdl">
+The Temple of Jupiter, Reconstruction
+</td>
+
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">
+<a href="#fig029p024">29</a>
+</td>
+<td class="tdl">
+The Macellum, (the Meat market)
+</td>
+
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">
+<a href="#fig030p024">30</a>
+</td>
+<td class="tdl">
+Wall ornamented with pictures in the Macellum
+</td>
+
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">
+<a href="#fig031p025">31</a>
+</td>
+<td class="tdl">
+The Temple of Vespasian
+</td>
+
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">
+<a href="#fig032p026">32</a>
+</td>
+<td class="tdl">
+Altar of the Temple of Vespasian
+</td>
+
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">
+<a href="#fig033p027">33</a>
+</td>
+<td class="tdl">
+Portrait statue of Eumachia
+</td>
+
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">
+<a href="#fig034p027">34</a>
+</td>
+<td class="tdl">
+Statue of Apollo
+</td>
+
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">
+<a href="#fig035p028">35</a>
+</td>
+<td class="tdl">
+The Basilica
+</td>
+
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">
+<a href="#fig036p028">36</a>
+</td>
+<td class="tdl">
+The Temple of Apollo
+</td>
+
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">
+<a href="#fig037p029">37</a>
+</td>
+<td class="tdl">
+Gauging Table from the Forum
+</td>
+
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">
+<a href="#fig038p030">38</a>
+</td>
+<td class="tdl">
+The Temple of Fortune
+</td>
+
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">
+<a href="#fig039p030">39</a>
+</td>
+<td class="tdl">
+The Temple of Isis
+</td>
+
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">
+<a href="#fig040p031">40</a>
+</td>
+<td class="tdl">
+The smaller Theatre
+</td>
+
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">
+<a href="#fig041p031">41</a>
+</td>
+<td class="tdl">
+The larger Theatre
+</td>
+
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">
+<a href="#fig042p032">42</a>
+</td>
+<td class="tdl">
+Scene from a Comedy. Mosaic of Dioscurides
+</td>
+
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">
+<a href="#fig043p033">43</a>
+</td>
+<td class="tdl">
+Interior view of the Amphitheatre
+</td>
+
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">
+<a href="#fig044p033">44</a>
+</td>
+<td class="tdl">
+Barracks of the Gladiators
+</td>
+
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">
+<a href="#fig045p034">45</a>
+</td>
+<td class="tdl">
+Weapons of Gladiators
+</td>
+
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">
+<a href="#fig046p035">46</a>
+</td>
+<td class="tdl">
+Wall at the Stabian Baths
+</td>
+
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">
+<a href="#fig047p036">47</a>
+</td>
+<td class="tdl">
+The Apodyterium
+</td>
+
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">
+<a href="#fig048p037">48</a>
+</td>
+<td class="tdl">
+The Tepidarium of the Forum Baths
+</td>
+
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">
+<a href="#fig049p038">49</a>
+</td>
+<td class="tdl">
+Arrangement of a Caldarium
+</td>
+
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">
+<a href="#fig050p038">50</a>
+</td>
+<td class="tdl">
+Section of the Caldarium
+</td>
+
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">
+<a href="#fig051p038">51</a>
+</td>
+<td class="tdl">
+Ground Plan of the House of Pansa
+</td>
+
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">
+<a href="#fig052p039">52</a>
+</td>
+<td class="tdl">
+Atrium Tuscanicum
+</td>
+
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">
+<a href="#fig053p039">53</a>
+</td>
+<td class="tdl">
+<i>Cave Canem</i>
+</td>
+
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">
+<a href="#fig054p039">54</a>
+</td>
+<td class="tdl">
+Doorknockers
+</td>
+
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">
+<a href="#fig055p040">55</a>
+</td>
+<td class="tdl">
+Roman Dwellinghouse. Vista from the Atrium to the Peristyle
+</td>
+
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">
+<a href="#fig056p041">56</a>
+</td>
+<td class="tdl">
+Scene from the Amphitheatre
+</td>
+
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">
+<a href="#fig057p042">57</a>
+</td>
+<td class="tdl">
+External View of the Amphitheatre
+</td>
+
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">
+<a href="#fig058p043">58</a>
+</td>
+<td class="tdl">
+Iron Strongbox
+</td>
+
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">
+<a href="#fig059p043">59</a>
+</td>
+<td class="tdl">
+Domestic Shrine
+</td>
+
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">
+<a href="#fig060p044">60</a>
+</td>
+<td class="tdl">
+Helmets for Gladiators
+</td>
+
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">
+<a href="#fig061p044">61</a>
+</td>
+<td class="tdl">
+House with <i>Maenianum</i>
+</td>
+
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">
+<a href="#fig062p045">62</a>
+</td>
+<td class="tdl">
+Domestic Altar
+</td>
+
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">
+<a href="#fig063p045">63</a>
+</td>
+<td class="tdl">
+Mosaic Threshold
+</td>
+
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">
+<a href="#fig064p046">64</a>
+</td>
+<td class="tdl">
+Alexander’s Battle
+</td>
+
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">
+<a href="#fig065p047">65</a>
+</td>
+<td class="tdl">
+Pompeian Mosaic
+</td>
+
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">
+<a href="#fig066p047">66</a>
+</td>
+<td class="tdl">
+Wall Decoration of the First Style (Casa di Sallustio)
+</td>
+
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">
+<a href="#fig067p048">67</a>
+</td>
+<td class="tdl">
+Wall Decoration of the Third Style (House of Spurius Mesor)
+</td>
+
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">
+<a href="#fig068p049">68</a>
+</td>
+<td class="tdl">
+Process of Plastering
+</td>
+
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">
+<a href="#fig069p050">69</a>
+</td>
+<td class="tdl">
+Wall Decoration. Fourth Style
+</td>
+
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">
+<a href="#fig070p050">70</a>
+</td>
+<td class="tdl">
+Sacrifice of Iphigenia
+</td>
+
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">
+<a href="#fig071p051">71</a>
+</td>
+<td class="tdl">
+Medea, from Herculaneum
+</td>
+
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">
+<a href="#fig072p051">72</a>
+</td>
+<td class="tdl">
+The so-called Ephebus of bronze
+</td>
+
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">
+<a href="#fig073p052">73</a>
+</td>
+<td class="tdl">
+Europa with the Bull
+</td>
+
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">
+<a href="#fig074p053">74</a>
+</td>
+<td class="tdl">
+Mars and Venus
+</td>
+
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">
+<a href="#fig075p053">75</a>
+</td>
+<td class="tdl">
+Paquius Proculus and his wife
+</td>
+
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">
+<a href="#fig076p054">76</a>
+</td>
+<td class="tdl">
+Garden of the Casa di Lucrezio
+</td>
+
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">
+<a href="#fig077p055">77</a>
+</td>
+<td class="tdl">
+The Dancing Faun
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_112">112</span>
+</td>
+
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">
+<a href="#fig078p055">78</a>
+</td>
+<td class="tdl">
+The so-called Narcissus
+</td>
+
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">
+<a href="#fig079p056">79</a>
+</td>
+<td class="tdl">
+Cupid with a Dolphin
+</td>
+
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">
+<a href="#fig080p056">80</a>
+</td>
+<td class="tdl">
+Casa del Balcone pensile
+</td>
+
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">
+<a href="#fig081p057">81</a>
+</td>
+<td class="tdl">
+Mosaic Fountain
+</td>
+
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">
+<a href="#fig082p058">82</a>
+</td>
+<td class="tdl">
+Atrium of the Casa di Cornelio Rufo
+</td>
+
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">
+<a href="#fig083p058">83</a>
+</td>
+<td class="tdl">
+Bust of the Banker L. Caecilius Jucundus
+</td>
+
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">
+<a href="#fig084p058">84</a>
+</td>
+<td class="tdl">
+Bust of Cornelius Rufus
+</td>
+
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">
+<a href="#fig085p059">85</a>
+</td>
+<td class="tdl">
+A <i>Bisellium</i>
+</td>
+
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">
+<a href="#fig086p059">86</a>
+</td>
+<td class="tdl">
+Marble Table
+</td>
+
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">
+<a href="#fig087p060">87</a>
+</td>
+<td class="tdl">
+Dining-couch of Bronze
+</td>
+
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">
+<a href="#fig088p061">88</a>
+</td>
+<td class="tdl">
+A Symposium. Pompeian Wall-painting
+</td>
+
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">
+<a href="#fig089p062">89</a>
+</td>
+<td class="tdl">
+Drinking-cup from Bosco Reale
+</td>
+
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">
+<a href="#fig090p063">90</a>
+</td>
+<td class="tdl">
+Food-warmer
+</td>
+
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">
+<a href="#fig091p064">91</a>
+</td>
+<td class="tdl">
+Tripods and Bronze Table
+</td>
+
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">
+<a href="#fig092p065">92</a>
+</td>
+<td class="tdl">
+Portable Stove
+</td>
+
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">
+<a href="#fig093p065">93</a>
+</td>
+<td class="tdl">
+Bronze Vessel for the preparation of <i>Calda</i>
+</td>
+
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">
+<a href="#fig094p066">94</a>
+</td>
+<td class="tdl">
+Food-warmer
+</td>
+
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">
+<a href="#fig095p067">95</a>
+</td>
+<td class="tdl">
+Silver Cups
+</td>
+
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">
+<a href="#fig096p067">96</a>
+</td>
+<td class="tdl">
+Candelabrum
+</td>
+
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">
+<a href="#fig097p067">97</a>
+</td>
+<td class="tdl">
+Candelabrum
+</td>
+
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">
+<a href="#fig098p068">98</a>
+</td>
+<td class="tdl">
+Bronze Vessel
+</td>
+
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">
+<a href="#fig099p069">99</a>
+</td>
+<td class="tdl">
+Silver Jugs
+</td>
+
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">
+<a href="#fig100p070">100</a>
+</td>
+<td class="tdl">
+The Tutelary Goddess of Alexandria
+</td>
+
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">
+<a href="#fig101p071">101</a>
+</td>
+<td class="tdl">
+Mirror with the Bust of Ariadne
+</td>
+
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">
+<a href="#fig102p072">102</a>
+</td>
+<td class="tdl">
+Cup with Olivewreath
+</td>
+
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">
+<a href="#fig103p072">103</a>
+</td>
+<td class="tdl">
+Cup with Still Life
+</td>
+
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">
+<a href="#fig104p073">104</a>
+</td>
+<td class="tdl">
+House of Pansa
+</td>
+
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">
+<a href="#fig105p074">105</a>
+</td>
+<td class="tdl">
+Bakery with Mills
+</td>
+
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">
+<a href="#fig106p075">106</a>
+</td>
+<td class="tdl">
+House of the Tragic Poet
+</td>
+
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">
+<a href="#fig107p076">107</a>
+</td>
+<td class="tdl">
+Pompeian Loaves
+</td>
+
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">
+<a href="#fig108p077">108</a>
+</td>
+<td class="tdl">
+Fullonica (Fulling-mill)
+</td>
+
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">
+<a href="#fig109p077">109</a>
+</td>
+<td class="tdl">
+Casa del Fauno
+</td>
+
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">
+<a href="#fig110p078">110</a>
+</td>
+<td class="tdl">
+The Fuller at his Work
+</td>
+
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">
+<a href="#fig111p079">111</a>
+</td>
+<td class="tdl">
+Casa dei Capitelli colorati (Casa d’Arianna)
+</td>
+
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">
+<a href="#fig112p079">112</a>
+</td>
+<td class="tdl">
+Casa dei Capitelli colorati (Casa d’Arianna)
+</td>
+
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">
+<a href="#fig113p079">113</a>
+</td>
+<td class="tdl">
+Casa del Centenario
+</td>
+
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">
+<a href="#fig114p079">114</a>
+</td>
+<td class="tdl">
+Casa del Imperatore di Germania
+</td>
+
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">
+<a href="#fig115p080">115</a>
+</td>
+<td class="tdl">
+Wax tablet from the House of Caecilius Jucundus
+</td>
+
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">
+<a href="#fig116p081">116</a>
+</td>
+<td class="tdl">
+House with several stories
+</td>
+
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">
+<a href="#fig117p082">117</a>
+</td>
+<td class="tdl">
+Kitchen with Hearth
+</td>
+
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">
+<a href="#fig118p083">118</a>
+</td>
+<td class="tdl">
+Plan of the House of the Vettii
+</td>
+
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">
+<a href="#fig119p084">119</a>
+</td>
+<td class="tdl">
+Love on a Crab
+</td>
+
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">
+<a href="#fig120p084">120</a>
+</td>
+<td class="tdl">
+Love with Dolphins
+</td>
+
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">
+<a href="#fig121p085">121</a>
+</td>
+<td class="tdl">
+Candelabrum, Wall-painting
+</td>
+
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">
+<a href="#fig122p086">122</a>
+</td>
+<td class="tdl">
+Hero and Leander
+</td>
+
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">
+<a href="#fig123p087">123</a>
+</td>
+<td class="tdl">
+Cyparissus
+</td>
+
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">
+<a href="#fig124p089">124</a>
+</td>
+<td class="tdl">
+The Shrine of the Lares
+</td>
+
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">
+<a href="#fig125p090">125</a>
+</td>
+<td class="tdl">
+The Peristyle of the House of the Vettii
+</td>
+
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">
+<a href="#fig126p091">126</a>
+</td>
+<td class="tdl">
+Bacchus
+</td>
+
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">
+<a href="#fig127p091">127</a>
+</td>
+<td class="tdl">
+Bacchus and Ariadne
+</td>
+
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">
+<a href="#fig128p092">128</a>
+</td>
+<td class="tdl">
+Hercules strangling Serpents
+</td>
+
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">
+<a href="#fig129p093">129</a>
+</td>
+<td class="tdl">
+Daedalus and Pasiphae
+</td>
+
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">
+<a href="#fig130p094">130</a>
+</td>
+<td class="tdl">
+Ixion’s Punishment
+</td>
+
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">
+<a href="#fig131p096">131</a>
+</td>
+<td class="tdl">
+Psyches gathering Flowers
+</td>
+
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">
+<a href="#fig132p097">132</a>
+</td>
+<td class="tdl">
+Cupid as Host
+</td>
+
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">
+<a href="#fig133p098">133</a>
+</td>
+<td class="tdl">
+A Race
+</td>
+
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">
+<a href="#fig134p099">134</a>
+</td>
+<td class="tdl">
+Achilles at the Court of Lycomedes
+</td>
+
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">
+<a href="#fig135p100">135</a>
+</td>
+<td class="tdl">
+The Street of Tombs by the Gate of Herculaneum
+</td>
+
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">
+<a href="#fig136p101">136</a>
+</td>
+<td class="tdl">
+Continuation of the Street of Tombs
+</td>
+
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">
+<a href="#fig137p102">137</a>
+</td>
+<td class="tdl">
+Interior of a Grave
+</td>
+
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">
+<a href="#fig138p102">138</a>
+</td>
+<td class="tdl">
+Vessel of blue Glass
+</td>
+
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">
+<a href="#fig139p102">139</a>
+</td>
+<td class="tdl">
+Herm-cippus
+</td>
+
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">
+<a href="#fig140p103">140</a>
+</td>
+<td class="tdl">
+Sepulchral Monument of Naevoleia Tyche
+</td>
+
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">
+<a href="#fig141p104">141</a>
+</td>
+<td class="tdl">
+Villa of Diomedes
+</td>
+
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">
+<a href="#fig142p105">142</a>
+</td>
+<td class="tdl">
+Urania
+</td>
+
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">
+<a href="#fig143p107">143</a>
+</td>
+<td class="tdl">
+Bronze Bowl
+</td>
+
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">
+<a href="#p110">144</a>
+</td>
+<td class="tdl">
+Boy with Duck
+</td>
+
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">
+<a href="#p113map">End</a>
+</td>
+<td class="tdl">
+Map of Pompeii
+</td>
+
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_113">113</span></p>
+
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+<div class="chapter transnote">
+<p class="center"> Transcriber’s Notes.</p>
+
+<p>
+Evident typographical and punctuation errors have been corrected silently.  Inconsistent spelling/hyphenation has been normalised.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+To improve text flow, illustrations have been relocated between paragraphs. Page numbers in the list of illustrations have been discarded.
+</p>
+<p>
+In the index, page number references to illustrations are no longer relevant, but will link to the image location.
+</p>
+
+</div>
+<div style='text-align:center'>*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 78658 ***</div>
+</body>
+</html>
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diff --git a/LICENSE.txt b/LICENSE.txt
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+This book, including all associated images, markup, improvements,
+metadata, and any other content or labor, has been confirmed to be
+in the PUBLIC DOMAIN IN THE UNITED STATES.
+
+Procedures for determining public domain status are described in
+the "Copyright How-To" at https://www.gutenberg.org.
+
+No investigation has been made concerning possible copyrights in
+jurisdictions other than the United States. Anyone seeking to utilize
+this eBook outside of the United States should confirm copyright
+status under the laws that apply to them.
diff --git a/README.md b/README.md
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+Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for eBook #78658
+(https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/78658)