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diff --git a/78658-0.txt b/78658-0.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..3838fb2 --- /dev/null +++ b/78658-0.txt @@ -0,0 +1,3465 @@ +*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 78658 *** + + + + + FAMOUS ART CITIES; + + No. 1, + + POMPEII + + + + + POMPEII + + BY + + RICHARD ENGELMANN + + + TRANSLATED BY + TALFOURD ELY, M. A., F. S. A.; + FELLOW OF UNIVERSITY COLLEGE, LONDON + + + [Illustration] + + + 1904 + LONDON, W. C. NEW YORK + H. GREVEL & CO. CHARLES SCRIBNER’S SONS + + LEIPZIG, E. A. SEEMANN + + + + +PRINTED BY ERNST HEDRICH NACHF., G. M. B. H., LEIPZIG + + + + + Table of Contents + + Preface + Index + List of Illustrations + + + + +PREFACE + + +The present work forms the first of a series of volumes published under +the general title of “_Famous Art Cities_”. The second, (by Dr. Gustav +Pauli), treats of Venice; its immediate successors will deal with +Florence and Nuremberg. Rome, Siena, Ravenna and Cairo will represent a +continuation. + +Whoever visits Pompeii for the first time will not grudge a corner +beside his guide-book for a _Vademecum_ such as this, which offers the +inspiration of the _Genius loci_ to the traveller of artistic tastes. +As the one meets his material needs, so the other ministers to the +intellectual interests of the man of education, and may, at a later +time, preserve or renew in the liveliest fashion his remembrance of +what he has seen. + + + + +[Illustration: Excavation (p. 9).] + + +“Vedi Napoli e poi muori”; “See Naples and die!” is a saying one often +hears, a saying which means that after seeing Naples in all her beauty +one has nothing on earth left to admire. + +And in a certain sense this is true enough: there are but few places +which in beauty of scenery can compare with the Bay of Naples. Yet +a visit to Naples is not all; equally with the City of the Living, +so attractive to the stranger for its life ever freshly throbbing +early and late, the City of the Dead, Pompeii, deserves also thorough +investigation and careful study. Whoever goes to Naples must not fail +to turn his attention also to its near neighbour Pompeii. This nowadays +is so easy a matter, whether one drives along the beautiful roads +between smiling gardens that adorn the slopes of Vesuvius, or takes +train across the lavabeds close to the sea, whose waves break on the +embankment. The goal is quickly reached: there is music and refreshment +in one of the hotels which are in front of the ruins; then quickly to +the entrance; where we settle as to tickets and guides, and through the +Porta Marina or Sea Gate we enter the ancient city. + +But what is Pompeii, and why should we not leave Naples without seeing +Pompeii also. Those whose memory goes far back enough remember that +in April 1872 the eyes of all were turned to the neighbourhood of +Naples. But this time it was not the splendour of the country that +caused universal attention, and brought to the Bay of Naples countless +foreigners from near and far. It was a drama of Nature at once imposing +and terrible that formed the attraction for the hosts that gathered +there. Vesuvius which for several years (since 1865) had never quite +slumbered, showed itself once more in all its terrors, and ever more +awful than before: showers of fire burst forth to a vast height from +old craters and new, clouds of ashes darkened the air for miles, and +filled the streets even of distant towns: immense streams of lava burst +from the mountain’s flanks hurling death and destruction before them. + +[Illustration: Fig. 1. Vesuvius before the eruption (p. 3).] + +And yet in spite of all its terrors the eruption did not equal the +one with which Vesuvius first in historic times announced itself as +a volcano and covered with lava and ejected stones the three cities +of Herculaneum, Pompeii, and Stabiae, to say nothing of less famous +places. The desolate cone of ashes which now towers high above the +ordinary surface did not exist at an earlier period; right up to the +summit the mountain was clothed with woods, while on its flanks the +grape ripened into costly wine (see fig. 1, a Pompeian wall-painting +representing in all probability Monte di Somma before the evolution +of the crater of Vesuvius). And if one enquirer or another drew some +conclusion as to the volcanic nature from the depression on its summit +and the fruitfulness of the neighbouring land, yet people thought it +altogether extinct, and believed they had nothing to fear from it. + +[Illustration: Fig. 2. Contest between Pompeians and Nucerians in the +amphitheatre (p. 6).] + +Then, on August 24th, A. D. 79, clouds of smoke rose suddenly from the +mountain, stones were hurled forth, the heavens grew dark, so that +it might well be thought night had come on, every one took to flight +as he could, one got in another’s way. Whoever was out of the city +hastened back into it, to rescue what he could. He who was in the city +sought to reach the open country as quickly as possible. Those on shore +hurried to the sea, those at sea hurried to the shore. In short there +was everywhere the most terrible confusion, no one knew what was to +come next. We can scarcely realise sufficiently the horrors of the +situation. What in 1872 is reported of Portici and Resina and Torre +del Greco, can give but a faint idea of what happened in 79 when the +danger came much nearer and was far more unexpected. A description by +the younger Pliny, whose uncle met his death at Stabiae in the eruption +of Vesuvius, has been preserved for us, telling of what happened that +day at Misenum, a place distant from Vesuvius about twenty miles in +a straight line. This may be abridged as follows--“For several days +vibrations of the earth had been noticed, but less fear was aroused +because this is not an unusual phenomenon in Campania. On that night +however they were so violent that everything seemed to be upset.” + +[Illustration: Fig. 3. Plaster-cast of a Pompeian woman (p. 6).] + +“My mother burst into my bedroom, and I too was in the act of getting +up to wake her in case she should still be asleep. It was now the +seventh hour, yet it was still gloomy and dark. Since the neighbouring +houses were much damaged and ready to fall, we decided to leave the +city, and our example was followed by the whole of the terrorstricken +inhabitants who hustled and pushed past us as we went. When we were out +of the immediate neighbourhood of the houses we stopped:--there were +extraordinary things to see. The vehicles which we had collected were +being thrown in opposite directions, although the surface of the ground +was quite level, and even stones thrust under them could not keep them +in the same position. Besides, the sea appeared to retire, at least +the shore was extended, and many creatures belonging to the sea were +stranded on the sands. From the other side came a threatening black +cloud, pierced by glittering lightning: it seemed to descend upon the +earth and brood over the waters; already it had quite enveloped Capri +and withdrawn Cape Misenum from our sight. When my mother saw this, she +adjured me to abandon her and take to flight alone, that I might at +least save my own life; I on the contrary refused to think of escaping +without her, seized her hand, and compelled her to set forth. Ashes +were already falling, though as yet to but a slight extent; I look +behind me, thick mist is threatening in the rear and pursues us; let +us, said I, while we can still see, step aside, so as not by remaining +in the road to be thrown down and trampled on in the darkness by the +multitude following us. Scarcely had we seated ourselves when dark +night fell round us as it does in closed rooms when the light is put +out. Then were heard lamentations of women, cries of children, shouts +of men, some called to their parents, others to their children, others +to husband or wife; some bemoaned their own fate, others that of their +dear ones, some even prayed for death. Many raised their hands to the +gods, still more cried that the gods no longer existed, that the last +eternal night had come. Nor were there wanting those who increased +existing terrors by false news, that Misenum had fallen in ruin and +was in flames, which was loudly proclaimed and believed though it was +not true. Gradually things became clear again; this seemed to us not +the light of day, but a token of the approaching fire. Then followed +again darkness and showers of ashes; had we not often stood up to shake +ourselves free of the ashes we should have been covered by them and +overwhelmed by their weight. At last the thick cloud little by little +dispersed as if dissolved like smoke; soon it was actually day, and +the sun broke forth, though overcast as it is wont to be in time of +eclipse; everything seemed to our eyes altered and covered with ashes +as if with snow.” + +[Illustration: Fig. 4. Plaster-cast of a dog (p. 6).] + +If at Misenum, at so considerable a distance from the actual point of +eruption, things went on as here described, what scenes must have been +enacted in Pompeii, the inhabitants of which were drawn into joint +suffering in quite another way. It is commonly said that the people +of Pompeii were at the time congregated together in the amphitheatre +at the extreme end of the city, to witness gladiatorial contests, so +that for the most part they could more easily escape. This however is +a mere myth, as is proved by the ruinous condition of the amphitheatre +when first discovered as well as from the history of the city. In A. +D. 60 the city had been deprived by the Roman Senate of the privilege +of exhibiting gladiatorial contests because such a performance had +given occasion to a sanguinary struggle between the inhabitants of +Pompeii and those of Nuceria who were allowed a share in the use of the +amphitheatre (the scene is represented in a Pompeian wall-painting, +fig. 2); and in A. D. 63 a terrible earthquake had destroyed a great +number of buildings and among them the amphitheatre so that it is +certain that at the time of the eruption neither gladiatorial shows nor +wild beast hunts could have been held in it. Yet the greatest number +of the inhabitants must have succeeded in escaping since on the basis +of the skeletons found up to the present time the number of those who +perished within the city can be estimated at 2,000, out of a total of +30,000 inhabitants. Many of course may have fallen a sacrifice to the +eruption of Vesuvius also outside the city walls; thus for example in +1880-81 there were found the remains of such, who had met with their +death to the south of the city, probably on what was then the bank of +the Sarno. Those however who had fled before the storm to cellars or +similar places were doomed to certain destruction, because all exit was +cut off by the falling pumice-stone and ashes, others who had taken +refuge in the upper rooms may still have escaped during a pause in the +shower of pumice-stone. Many indeed in vain: after they had worked +their way through the layer of pumice-stone they sank down exhausted +and were enveloped by the ashes. But since these ashes which came +down mixed with rain contained much Pozzolana earth they have taken a +fixed shape around the bodies; in the course of centuries the bodies +have shrunk to a few remains of bones, but the hollow impression has +remained in the shape. Thus attention having been drawn to this through +the frequent occurrence of similar cases, as soon as a hollow appeared +in the stratum of ashes during the excavation, the opportunity has been +seized and liquid plaster poured in. By this process the bodily forms +of various inhabitants of Pompeii, of animals, and of inanimate objects +have been preserved, casts which do not indeed exhibit the sharp +outlines to which we are accustomed in those produced by artistically +prepared moulds, yet which are of the highest interest to the observer +as direct reminders of those terrible hours. See figures 3 and 4. + + * * * * * + +[Illustration: Fig. 5. Panorama of Pompeii (p. 11).] + +When the mountain had in some measure discontinued its work, the +showers of stones and ashes had ceased, and the sun had appeared again, +the inhabitants of Pompeii who had escaped returned to their city; but +they had some trouble to find it, for it was buried beneath stones +and ashes. They endeavoured as far as it was possible, to secure some +salvage from the ruins; and so many a work of art, as well as most of +the treasures in gold and silver, may well have been withdrawn from +the protecting bosom of the earth either by their lawful owners or by +unauthorised persons. A systematic excavation of the houses, however, +and a reoccupation of the city were not to be thought of, the ruin was +too complete for that. So much the better for us for whom in this way +under the ashes from Vesuvius an ancient Roman city has been preserved +in the precise condition in which it was on the twenty fourth of August +A. D. 79 (apart of course from the changes which certain materials must +have undergone in so long a time). It seems that the people of Pompeii +settled further towards Vesuvius; the ruins of their old city so far as +they appeared above the accumulated rubbish gradually collapsed, others +disappeared before the plough which began to pass over the fields, +and thus after a few centuries the name of Pompeii with the place +which pertained to it vanished from the memory of men. So it remained +throughout the whole of the Middle Ages; often enough indeed the +countryfolk while tilling their fields struck against old masonry or +found ancient utensils, but the isolated occurrences remained unnoticed. + +[Illustration: Fig. 6. The Street of Mercury (p. 15).] + +More remarkable indeed is it that when the architect Domenico Fontana +in the year 1594 constructed a canal to bring the water of the Sarno +to Torre dell’ Annunziata, a canal which still at the present day +intersects Pompeii, people were not incited to a thorough investigation +by the numerous relics of antiquity that during these operations must +have been cleared out of the way. It was not till the discovery of +Herculaneum (1709) that men’s thoughts were directed to another city, +smitten by a like fate--Pompeii--and when in 1748 peasants again struck +upon masonry and other more valuable objects, then at last people began +to mark the spot and to undertake more extensive excavations. Not, +it is true, in a very commendable way, since it was gold and silver +and the greater treasures of art that were especially sought, the +excavators contented themselves with grubbing the earth, and when at +most the better wall-paintings had been cut away, filling up again the +excavated houses. Such for a long time was the system of excavation; +even after an interest in the matter had been roused in higher quarters +the work was carried on with more or less provision of labour, often +only two or three workmen being employed--for many years indeed the +excavations were altogether discontinued. Only the time when Naples +was under the rule of France forms a glorious exception: the work was +entered on with zeal: as many as six-hundred and seventy four persons +with twenty six carts and seven mules were employed to remove the +_lapilli_, and thus the few years 1806-1815 shew more results than +the preceding period of more than half a century. With the return of +the Bourbon _régime_ the old conditions of course reappeared, and it +is only in modern times that an improvement in this respect has been +brought about. Since Naples has become part of the Kingdom of Italy the +work (and this is especially due to the energy of Giuseppe Fiorelli) +has been arranged in a rational manner and vigorously pushed forward, +so that the completion of the excavations may be expected within a +conceivable time. Men and a great many boys are daily employed, some +in excavating, others in carrying the _lapilli_ in baskets to the +waggons which then are taken on a railway away from Pompeii. (See the +illustration on page 1.) + +[Illustration: Fig. 7. The Street of Nola and its continuation (p. 15).] + +While Herculaneum for the most part (only with the exception of some +portions lying close to the sea, which resemble Pompeii) has been +covered by a vast stream of mud to a depth of twenty metres, the +mass of which hardened into tufa cannot be broken up without great +trouble, so that the excavation of the city can be effected only by +a process of mining, and this too with great care, on account of the +city of Resina lying above it, the stratum which covers Pompeii may be +called comparatively light. Whitish-grey pumice-stones, the so-called +_lapilli_, of various sizes, cover the ground to the height of two to +three metres; above lies a layer of volcanic ashes, which mixed with +a quantity of pozzolana earth and falling with frightful torrents of +rain, the usual accompaniment of volcanic eruptions, passed through the +upper layers of pumice-stone, and made their way where the _lapilli_ +could not fall (e. g. into the cellars). Over these lie in some +places, but less abundantly, other _lapilli_ which proceeded from +later eruptions of Vesuvius, and the scanty soil that in the course +of centuries has developed from the ashes. All this therefore had to +be removed in order to lay bare the ruins. The system and method then +according to which the excavations were in earlier times conducted was +in the highest degree prejudicial to the remains of the buildings; for +since after once reaching the original ground level the excavators +worked onwards uniformly upon that level, it necessarily followed that +the upper parts of the buildings, which after the decay of the beams +were supported only by the surrounding masses of pumice-stone, fell in +ruin, and so always only slight remains were preserved. + +[Illustration: Fig. 8. Section of a Tower.] + +[Illustration: Fig. 9. View of the City Wall from outside.] + +[Illustration: Fig. 10. Section of the City Wall (p. 17).] + +In modern times on the contrary, since Fiorelli’s administration +(1861), the aim has been to preserve in its original position every +part of the ancient walls that is concealed under the surface. This +object is attained by the excavators as they work from above carefully +removing one horizontal layer after another and supporting the masonry +thus brought to light until it is possible to replace the woodwork +destroyed in the course of centuries by new timber of equal size. Thus +they have succeeded in preserving not only a part of an upper story +overhanging the street, but also others of the higher portions of +the buildings altogether uninjured. In this way the parts of the city +lately excavated present an appearance essentially different from that +of those previously uncovered; and since too everything is left on the +spot that can be left, especially pictures and mosaics, and since every +effort is made to protect them against the unfavourable effects of the +weather, by roofing, and coating with wax, and other means; while it is +no longer the case (as it used to be) that everything is either removed +to the Naples Museum, or (as also often happened) wantonly destroyed, +the visitor is afforded an opportunity of forming for himself a far +more truthful picture of ancient life than was possible at an earlier +period. (See fig. 5, giving a view of part of the excavated city. The +Street of Mercury lies before us, which reaches to the Forum. The roofs +which are seen in the illustration serve to protect the wall-paintings, +mosaics, &c. and are therefore almost exclusively modern.) + +[Illustration: Fig. 11. The Gate of Herculaneum (p. 17).] + +That the movable objects, especially those of gold, silver, bronze, and +terracotta, should have been brought to the Museum is of course only +reasonable and proper. Considering the various characters of the host +of visitors to Pompeii, it could scarcely fail to happen that one or +other article was destroyed through too rigid an examination, quite +apart from the fact that among such visitors there are always some who +“out of love for Antiquity” are ever ready to carry away with them +some souvenir of the city. Hence it is necessary, if we would form an +accurate representation of the life of the ancients, to avail ourselves +of the Museo Nazionale in Naples, where all the furniture from Pompeii +is preserved so far as place has not been found for it in the little +museum in Pompeii itself at the Porta della Marina. Perhaps however +if Italy’s financial difficulties come to an end (as they must some +day) a plan will be carried out which has long been talked of, viz., +that a house in Pompeii should be furnished exactly as it was ages ago, +equipped with all the articles which were used in daily life, even if +they have to be collected from different houses. Thus with less trouble +one could form a general conception of the life of that epoch, a much +more difficult task under present circumstances when one has to examine +the various articles of furniture one by one in the Museum far from +their original position. + +[Illustration: Fig. 12. The Street of Abundance (p. 18).] + +These movable objects moreover are commonly to be found in the lowest +layer of pumice-stone to the height of one metre; torn from their +proper places by the breaking down of the roof they have necessarily +assumed this position. For this reason the rooms are first of all +cleared to within half a metre of the ground, and then the remainder +is subjected to a thorough examination by experienced excavators. +Since there are always some such rooms ready, it is possible, if +distinguished visitors arrive even unexpectedly, to arrange a so-called +gala excavation, such as is often mentioned in the papers. The stratum +of pumice-stone only half a metre thick is simply removed, and +something is sure to be found. For the most part it is objects used in +daily life, utensils of bronze or terracotta, with or without their +contents, also candelabra, lamps, &c. Statuettes too of bronze are not +uncommonly found. These “war-preparations” are however the cause of +great dangers to the buildings, the pumice-stone sucks up water like +a sponge, and so never allows the walls to get quite dry, which is +however the first and most important condition for their preservation. + +[Illustration: Fig. 13. Window in Pompeii (p. 19).] + +[Illustration: Fig. 14. Pompeian inscription on wall (p. 20).] + +[Illustration: Fig. 15. Pompeian graffito (p. 20).] + +But enough of excavations. Let us turn to the consideration of the city +itself. + +At first sight the city gives the impression of the greatest +uniformity. Apart from size and the wealth of its former inhabitants +one house seems to have been built at the same time, and adorned with +the same artistic resources as another. Yet that is the result of the +stucco-coating which under the Empire gradually became so fashionable +that it was deemed advisable to cover everything with it. A more +accurate examination however convinces us that under the stucco lie +concealed the most distinct periods of building, with the help of which +the gradual development of the city can be recognised. + +[Illustration: Fig. 16. Public Fountain (p. 21).] + +[Illustration: Fig. 17. Street of Stabiae with water reservoir (p. 21).] + +[Illustration: Fig. 18. Restored View of a Cookshop (p. 21).] + +To determine the architectural history of the city there are--apart +from the very meagre literary tradition--two means, firstly the +distinction of the material of which the houses are built, and secondly +the measures employed. In respect of the first point it proves that +limestone which could be procured in the immediate neighbourhood of +Pompeii from the deposits of the Sarno, was employed in the earliest +period for building houses, with clay as cement. With this was +associated also tufa, a volcanic product which when just quarried can +be easily cut. An essential progress was made by the introduction of +lime-mortar, the knowledge of which was apparently transmitted through +the Carthaginians to the western Greeks and the inhabitants of Italy. +By the aid of this lighter and smaller stones could be utilised to +form walls capable of supporting considerable weight. In place of +lime-mortar there was gradually introduced Pozzolana (named from +Pozzuoli on the Bay of Naples), a volcanic earth resembling cement +in its effect. Of lasting influence was further the introduction +and gradual spread of building with kiln-baked bricks, although in +private buildings they were never employed to such an extent as in +Rome and other Italian cities. Finally, the last period, that of the +restoration, when the question was how in the shortest time and with +limited means to rebuild the city which had been almost entirely +destroyed by the earthquake of the year A. D. 63. (The devastation had +been so complete that the Roman Senate could deliberate as to whether +the people of Pompeii should be permitted to rebuild their city.) Haste +and negligence and the use of the first materials that came to hand +characterise this epoch. + +As a second means of distinguishing the various periods one from +another we have the standard of measure employed. According as the +walls have been built in conformity with the Oscan or the Roman +foot (the Oscan foot has a length of .273 of a metre, the Roman of +.29) the corresponding buildings can be assigned to the one or the +other period, and since it was not usual to demolish what already +existed, but to make use of it as far as possible, people have through +observation of the various measures, attained even to the possibility +of distinguishing the older parts of buildings from the later, and +often recognising their earlier destination. + +With the help of those distinguishing marks, and of the scanty notices +handed down by ancient writers, and of the inscriptions we are enabled +to establish the following as to the city’s history. + +Whether the name Pompeii is connected with πέμπω, πομπή or is derived +from the Oscan _pompe_ = five is all the same to us, since we can draw +no further conclusion therefrom. In any case nothing further is known +as to the year of foundation: though from the ruins of the temple in +the Triangular Forum which belongs to the sixth century we may conclude +that the city was already in existence at that period. It was founded +in regular form by the Oscans on a hill formed by an old stream of +lava, but was at a later time about B. C. 420 occupied by the Samnites. +Two streets the _Strada di Mercurio_ with its extension southwards from +the Forum (Fig. 6) and the _Strada di Nola_ (_Decumanus major_, Fig. +7) traverse the city from one end to the other, and fix thereby the +direction of the streets from north to south and east to west. Only +now and then have special peculiarities of the surface led to slight +deviations in the parallel streets. The city was encircled by a wall, +which was protected by towers at regular intervals to give it greater +security, on the other side in order to allow of large bodies of armed +citizens mounting the wall in time of danger, steps were in parts added +to the wall, in other parts a slope of earth was placed against it. +Only on the west and southwest sides had the walls been broken down in +antiquity and replaced by houses, apparently to gain space for the +extension of the city. Pompeii, true to its origin, had, in the Social +War (B. C. 90-88), joined the Italians and with the rest had bravely +defended its independence against the Romans; nay in the year 89 it had +sustained a siege by Sulla himself. For this it was punished, being +compelled to give up part of its possessions to the colonists sent by +Sulla in the year 80. (Hence the new name of the city _Colonia Cornelia +Veneria Pompeianorum_.) + +[Illustration: Fig. 19. Cookshop of the Casa di Sallustio (p. 21).] + +[Illustration: Fig. 20. Oilmerchant’s Shop (p. 21).] + +[Illustration: Fig. 21. Entrance to the Triangular Forum (p. 22).] + +[Illustration: Fig. 22. The Triangular Forum (p. 22).] + +Under Augustus also was an enlargement of the city undertaken, the +_Pagus Augustus Felix_ being then founded. That numerous storms have +broken over Pompeii may be seen by the walls, stripped as they have +been completely of their massive facing and restored only to such an +extent as was absolutely necessary (originally two massive walls were +built and the space between them filled with rubble and concrete, +see fig. 8-10); the towers seem not to have been placed on the wall +till a later time. The city has eight gates, which were more or less +strengthened by fortifications; especially in the case of the Gate of +Nola, on the east side, on which attack was most to be expected, one +can clearly recognise how one fortification has been from time to time +strengthened by others. Interesting too in another way is the Gate of +Herculaneum on the northwest side of the city, in front of which the +road is bordered right and left by graves, in accordance with the usage +of the ancients to place their graves beside the public roads outside +the city. (See fig. 11.) + +[Illustration: Fig. 23. The Forum Civile, seen from the South (p. 23).] + +[Illustration: Fig. 24. Forum Civile, from the Temple of Jupiter (p. +23).] + +The streets of the city are essentially distinguished from those of our +cities by their narrowness; the widest measure barely seven metres, +some indeed are not more than from two and a half to three metres +broad. They were made so narrow with the object of securing shade in +the streets, so necessary a requisite in the South, the want of which +one feels in a most unpleasant way for example now where in Pompeii +there is no shade. A part of the width is taken up by the footpath +running on each side, which slightly raised above the level of the +street is paved with small stones, or bricks, or pieces of marble, +according as the fancy or the wealth of the owner of the adjoining +property, (on whom evidently rested the care of the footway), prompted +the choice of one method or another. The carriage road itself is +paved with polygonal blocks of lava, in which the wheels have often +worn deep ruts. (See Fig. 12 and 17.) If the ruts were too deep, or +otherwise repair of the street was found necessary, the remedy was +applied in the simplest fashion, the stones were merely relaid so +that those little used came where the wheels ran and those cut up by +traffic were transferred to another place. This explains the curious +fact that stones worn into deep ruts are often found in positions +where no wheel can ever have come. Then on both sides of the street +run gutters, through which the water is conducted into deep drains +and so removed from the city. In the violent showers of rain which +in the South at times pour down in torrents these provisions might +often have proved insufficient and the street also may have been +under water. In order therefore to provide the foot passenger with as +dry as possible a crossing from one side of the roads to the other, +stepping-stones have been placed at intervals across the street. These +met the requirements of the case without interfering with the carriage +traffic (for the draught-animals were attached only at the extremity +of the pole, so they could pass between the stones more easily than +would be possible with our modern way of harnessing). Some streets on +the other hand were entirely closed against wheel-traffic. This was +quite possible, carriages being as a rule employed for the transport of +persons only in travelling outside the city. Besides the difference in +width the streets of Pompeii are essentially distinguished from those +of our cities by the circumstance that the houses at any rate on the +groundfloor have no windows. The ancient house in its main features was +built solely with regard to interior effect. Only occasionally was the +surface of the outer wall broken by small openings widening inwards, +which are all that can be compared with our windows (Fig. 13); and +these too, raised far above the height of a man, are barred by lattice +of iron or terracotta. On the other hand the street-front was often +enlivened by painting, the outer wall was divided into panels which +were painted red or yellow with various ornaments according to the +taste of the respective householders. Larger paintings are often to be +found, as the twelve gods, sacrifices to the Lares, the household gods, +_etc._ In places likely to be misused were painted a pair of serpents +_etc._ as a deterrent. Besides these things there were all sorts of +inscriptions on the houses. A distinction is usually made between two +classes of inscriptions, _Dipinti_ and _Graffiti_. The former are +painted on the walls with a broad brush in large letters, for the most +part in red colour on a white ground. By _Graffiti_ on the other hand +are understood inscriptions slightly scratched with a pointed style +or nail in the plaster. The _Dipinti_ contain summonses to elections, +announcements of Games &c. _Duumviri juri dicundo_, the Board of Two, +the highest magistracy of the city, are to be elected; there being +no newspaper, the names of the candidates are painted on the walls, +and underneath is written Proposed by so and so (Fig. 14). Or a new +troop of gladiators arrives: in order to entice as many spectators as +possible, an advertisement is written on the walls with the names of +the principal combatants and the number of their victories, nor do they +forget to add that to guard against the sun’s heat awnings are spread +over the theatre; in short one lights on the very footsteps and traces +of quickly throbbing life, so that one feels oneself carried back into +the time of the old citizens of Pompeii. + +[Illustration: Fig. 25. Life in the Forum (p. 23).] + +With almost greater originality the life of the old Pompeians rises +before us in the _Graffiti_. Scarcely a spot strikes the eye that is +not covered with such outpourings of gay or wicked fancy scratched in +the slightest strokes. Here one tells another’s secrets, there one +celebrates in verse a sweetheart, a third complains of the obstinacy +of a maiden, a fourth, no doubt a boy fresh from school--he could +not reach far--attempts to write down the beginning of a well-known +poem but he does not get much further than the first words. A second, +proud of his learning, begins the verse afresh, yet he too comes to a +standstill when he has carried the verse a little further. A third at +last completes the whole verse. At another place a parasite gives a +broad hint for an invitation or pays his debt of thanks. (See fig. 15. +Semper M. Terentius Eudoxus unus supstenet amicos et tenet et tutat, +supstenet omnem modum.) + +[Illustration: Fig. 26. Bust of Jupiter (p. 25).] + +Thus witticisms and drolleries abound in those inscriptions, so that +one who passed through the streets and had a liking to decipher these +scrawls need not want for amusement. Variety too is afforded by the +fountains (Fig. 16) which were fed from the public water-supply +(probably this was a branch of the conduit which brought the water to +Naples from the mountain range on the east). In Pompeii, as in Palermo +at the present day, the water was for better distribution conducted +into reservoirs raised on high pillars. From these the water was +brought through lead pipes to the public fountains and to the houses. +(See fig. 17, representing a corner of the Stabiae Street with the +pillars to support the water.) These fountains were ornamented with +small reliefs, for example a Silenus leaning on a wine-skin, from +the opening of which the water escapes; an eagle that has seized a +hare (here the water flows out of the hare’s mouth), and similar +representations. On the fountain’s brim may still often be seen the +place where the young people drinking straight from the spout used to +put their hands. To this picture of the streets however the liveliest +touches were given by the shops, rooms open on the outside their whole +breadth, in which retail trade was carried on. As at the present time, +in the palaces of Italian cities, the groundfloor is occupied by shops +which bring in to the owner an excellent rent, the rich Pompeians also +did not disdain to establish shops on the street-side of their houses +which without any connection with the principal edifice were let to +persons engaged in trade, to whom a kind of upper chamber above the +shop often served as a dwelling. Or the householder himself carried +on a trade, in which case he established a connection with the inner +part of the house by means of a door, to facilitate his watching over +the business, whether he managed it in his own person or through a +slave. There are cook shops, recognised as such by the hearth and the +pots fixed in it, from which the food was ladled out (fig. 18 and +19), oil shops with large pitchers similarly fixed, and huge barrels +in the background (fig. 20), shops where wine and other drinks were +sold, with shelves built up like steps so as to admit of arranging +the drinking vessels conveniently, and with a little room at the back +for regular customers: there are butchers’ and bakers’ shops that by +means of pictures bring before the passer by the various objects to be +purchased therein. In short an abundance of fresh sights, so that the +eye can experience no weariness. + +[Illustration: Fig. 27. The Temple of Jupiter (p. 25).] + +[Illustration: Fig. 28. The Temple of Jupiter, Reconstruction (p. 25).] + +[Illustration: Fig. 29. The Macellum, (the Meat market) (p. 25).] + +[Illustration: Fig. 30. Wall ornamented with pictures in the Macellum +(p. 26).] + +So much for the streets of Pompeii. Of open spaces for public use +there have been found as yet two, if we leave out of consideration +the doubtful Forum Boarium, excavated at an earlier period in the +neighbourhood of the amphitheatre, but afterwards filled up again, +viz., the principal Forum (_Forum Civile_) and the one called from its +shape the Triangular Forum. The latter a three-cornered space in the +southwest angle of the city lying close to both theatres from which +an open flight of steps leads, is certainly one of the oldest parts +of the city, as is amply proved by the scanty remains of the Temple +situated there, which is contemporary with the most ancient temples of +Paestum and Selinus. The open space was surrounded on three sides by a +colonnade, and a portico or Propylaion forms the entrance to it (fig. +21 and 22). The Temple, dedicated according to the latest researches +to Minerva, had apparently like the Temple of Zeus at Agrigentum, +seven columns on the narrow sides, and according to its form must be +classified as Pseudodipteros (before the eruption it had already been +destroyed and on its site a very modest sanctuary had been erected). +Close to it is a seat, from which could be enjoyed the magnificent +view over the sea and the splendid Monte Santangelo far spreading and +towering high into the air. On the other side a small dome indicates +an ancient fountain. To a later epoch belongs the _Forum Civile_, lying +to the northwest of the above, and forming a rectangle (fig. 23 taken +from the south side, fig. 24 from the north). That the laying out +of this is comparatively modern, follows from the fact that through +the surrounding buildings a series of streets have been reduced to +blind-alleys, which at the time of their formation was assuredly not +intended. The decoration of the Forum, it seems, was not yet completed +when the eruption of Vesuvius buried Pompeii. The footpath was to +be paved with marble slabs, and a colonnade was to be erected all +round, double on the South, with a gallery above for women, when the +games were held in the Forum. But this was never carried out; the +architectural members lie around still unused. The built up bases too +for statues of honour and equestrian statues seem to have been still +unoccupied, if some excavation made shortly after the eruption has not +robbed us of the chief objects. The ancestors of the emperors, the +Julian family, and the Kings of Rome ought to have been placed around +on pedestals, yet the only inscriptions found are those referring to +Romulus and Aeneas. Of the business prevailing in the Forum, taken +up as it was with trade and commerce and even schoolwork, we derive +information from the Pompeian wall-paintings, e. g. fig. 25. Vehicles +were not admitted, and there are indeed indications that (at elections +and on similar occasions) the approaches could be completely closed +with railings. In no other part of Pompeii are there so many public +buildings, no private house ventured to intrude here. In the first +place at the north end, the Temple of Jupiter, clearly identified by +the bust found in it (fig. 26), springs forward far into the Forum +and rises on a lofty substructure, to which led a flight of steps +with projecting sides, once adorned with equestrian statues. Twelve +Corinthian columns, six in front, three on each side, supported the +Vestibule; while other columns within the cella (probably Ionic, above +which rose Corinthian) supported the entablature. The large pedestal +at the back was no doubt intended for the Capitoline Trinity, Jupiter, +Juno, and Minerva (fig. 27 and 28). On the right, abutting on the +Temple is a Triumphal Arch, which formerly covered with marble and +adorned with statues and fountains must have presented an imposing +appearance. The eastern long side of the Forum, is, on the north, +occupied by the so-called Pantheon, more correctly the Macellum, i. +e. Meat market (fig. 29). That such it is, is shown above all by the +space on the right at the back, which clearly contained a butcher’s +stall built up with arrangement for discharge of water, and also by +the shops on the south side, which to judge by the pictures placed +there, contained stalls for provisions of various kinds. In the midst +of the court rose apparently a domed structure on columns (hence the +pedestals). Here the fish were stripped of their scales, at least +a great number of scales were found in the drain. United with the +Macellum there was a chapel for the cult of the Imperial family; the +marble statues found here have been removed to Naples, and are replaced +in Pompeii by plaster casts. The paintings of the entrance wall (fig. +30) deserve special notice on account of the beautiful architecture. +The central picture represents Io watched by Argos. Next comes an +apartment once splendidly furnished, which is usually called Senaculum, +but its destination is not as yet ascertained. It is thought that +it was a sanctuary of the tutelary deities of the city, the _Lares +Publici_. With greater certainty the adjoining building on the right +may be designated as a “Temple of Vespasian” (fig. 31). From a relief +on the altar standing in front of the temple (fig. 32) in which the +temple itself is represented, (it is the sacrifice of a bull that is +depicted, as usually offered to the Genius of the emperor), we can +recognise that the edifice was dedicated to the worship of the emperor. +Since it was built before the earthquake of A. D. 63, yet was not quite +ready for use at the time of the catastrophe, it is most probable that +it was founded in honour of Vespasian’s Genius. + +[Illustration: Fig. 31. The Temple of Vespasian (p. 26).] + +[Illustration: Fig. 32. Altar of the Temple of Vespasian (p. 26).] + +On the south of this follows the large building raised according to the +inscription by the priestess Eumachia at her own cost and dedicated to +Concordia Augusta and Pietas. This was apparently devoted to industrial +purposes. Since the fullers (fullones) have dedicated a statue to +the foundress in the crypt (fig. 33) we may surmise that the whole +structure served as a market hall for woollen stuffs. + +The south side of the Forum is occupied by three buildings closely +resembling one another, each of which consists of a large hall. The +central hall was apparently intended for the meetings of the Decurions, +the city magistrates of Pompeii, while on its left the judicial +Duumvirs had their seat, on the right the Aediles. + +On the West side first of all comes the Basilica, with its end +bordering on the Forum (fig. 35). This served for market purposes, to +the relief of the Forum, and at the same time afforded space for the +administration of justice in the raised tribunal at the end opposite +the Forum. It must have produced an impression of grandeur with its +internal columns on which the roof rested, and its walls decorated +with pillars arranged in two rows one above another, the walls being +in their upper story provided with wide openings flanked by columns. +Under the tribunal is found a cellar-like room which was formerly +always called a prison; it is however little suited for this purpose, +not being sufficiently enclosed, if at least it were a question of +imprisonment for a long period. Next comes the Temple of Apollo (fig. +36), separated from the Basilica by the Strada della Marina. That +the sanctuary which was formerly designated the Temple of Venus was +dedicated to Apollo results both from an Oscan inscription on the +floor of the Temple and also from the _Omphalos_, the Navel of the +earth introduced into the _cella_, which on account of its relation +to Delphi is frequently indicated in connection with Apollo. A Tripod +also, equally an attribute of Apollo, is painted on a pilaster in the +courtyard. This courtyard was surrounded by a Corinthian colonnade, +in front of which stood statues of deities that were honoured in +conjunction with Apollo (Venus, Diana, Mercury and others; also +a bronze statue of Apollo himself, see fig. 34). In front of the +steps leading up to the Temple stands the great altar on which the +burnt-offerings were placed. When we return to the Forum we at once +notice the gauging table with the standard measures (the original is +in Naples) with openings beneath, which can be closed or opened to +let the measured fluids or corn run out (fig. 37). Next to this is a +dilapidated chamber which is now supposed to have been a sale-room, and +north of this a public lavatory, so situated as not to be overlooked +from the Forum. An edifice of uncertain purpose (Prison? Treasury?) +ends this side of the Forum, which is united with the Temple of Jupiter +by a wall pierced by a door. + +[Illustration: Fig. 33. Portrait statue of Eumachia (p. 26).] + +[Illustration: Fig. 34. Statue of Apollo (p. 28).] + +[Illustration: Fig. 35. The Basilica (p. 26).] + +[Illustration: Fig. 36. The Temple of Apollo (p. 27).] + +[Illustration: Fig. 37. Gauging Table from the Forum (p. 29).] + +Of other sanctuaries there are in Pompeii the Temple of Fortuna in the +wide mainstreet leading northwards from the Forum, placed at the corner +of the Street of Nola (here too the temple is approached by a flight +of steps, on a landing in which stands the altar, see fig. 38); and +also, in the Street of Stabiae, the small temple of Zeus Meilichios +(this name belongs to it according to an Oscan inscription found at +the Gate of Stabiae). In this during the building of the temple of +Jupiter the deities worshipped in the latter sanctuary had found +refuge. Then there is the Temple of Isis near the _Forum Triangulare_ +(fig. 39). This according to the inscription over the entrance had been +rebuilt after the earthquake, at his own cost, by the six years old N. +Popidius Celsinus (i. e. wealthy freedpeople who wished to obtain for +their son a position of greater distinction than they themselves could +assume must have done this in his name). In consequence of this Master +Popidius Celsinus received the title of Town-Councillor. + +Besides the flight of steps in front the temple was approached by means +of a secret staircase, serving no doubt to give the priests access to +the temple unseen by the multitude of worshippers of Isis. The small +building on the left of the temple, the so-called _Purgatorium_, +contains a staircase which most likely led to a reservoir filled with +water from the Nile which was used in the ceremonies. In front of +this lies an altar approached from the side, and on this altar at the +time of its excavation were found ashes and remains of sacrifices. +On the right near the entrance is a walled up cavity which contained +the ashes and remnants of burnt fruits, undoubtedly the remains of +sacrifice. It may here be mentioned that in front of the temple there +was found a tablet of hieroglyphics which had nothing to do with the +worship of Isis, and therefore served only as an imposition; also that +at the time of the eruption the temple was shut; in the ashes from +Vesuvius there was preserved so exact an impression of the door with +its three leaves that a drawing of it could be made from the impression. + +In the open space behind the Tribunal of the Basilica the latest +excavations (since 1898) have resulted in the discovery of a temple +which certainly was dedicated to the guardian goddess of the Roman +colony, Venus Pompeiana. At the time of the catastrophe of the year 63 +it was thrown down, and was to have been completely rebuilt, as the +building stones lying around indicate. It would assuredly have been the +largest and most splendid sanctuary of the city, if the outbreak of +Vesuvius had not prevented the carrying out of the plan. + +[Illustration: Fig. 38. The Temple of Fortune (p. 29).] + +[Illustration: Fig. 39. The Temple of Isis (p. 29).] + +[Illustration: Fig. 40. The smaller Theatre (p. 32).] + +[Illustration: Fig. 41. The larger Theatre (p. 32).] + +[Illustration: Fig. 42. Scene from a Comedy. Mosaic of Dioscurides (p. +32).] + +Of first rank among the other public buildings are the two theatres, +which closely connected with each other lie between the _Forum +Triangulare_ and the Street of Stabiae (a broad flight of steps +designed for festive processions leads from the _Forum Triangulare_ to +the Theatres). The smaller theatre (fig. 40), formerly roofed over, +served probably for musical performances, while the larger (fig. 41) +was employed for scenic exhibitions. Of these figure 42, an extremely +fine mosaic from Pompeii may perhaps serve as a specimen. It is to be +observed that, as in the case of most theatres, the seats have at the +back a hollow for the feet of those sitting above. The broad low steps +of the lowest row were utilised for the arrangement of _bisellia_, +that is wide seats properly intended for two persons, the use of which +was a privilege of the Decurions. Above, on the edge of the enclosing +wall, stones are to be seen which served to carry the masts from which +awnings were stretched for protection against the glare of the sun. It +is to this that the promise _vela erunt_ refers in the advertisements +of the theatre. + +[Illustration: Fig. 43. Interior view of the Amphitheatre (p. 34).] + +[Illustration: Fig. 44. Barracks of the Gladiators (p. 36).] + +[Illustration: Fig. 45. Weapons of Gladiators (p. 36).] + +Together with the theatres should be named the amphitheatre, situated +at the southeast extremity of the city, a building of very great size, +which was calculated to meet the requirements of the neighbouring +towns as well. Apparently it originally lay without the walls, and +was included in the time of fortification only at a later period as +forming a point of danger. Seen from without the building produces +a comparatively mean impression (fig. 57), since to avoid having to +raise the outer walls too high the arena or fighting place has been +dug out (fig. 43). From the outside steps lead to the upper tiers, +the lower tiers are reached by means of steps from a vaulted corridor +which runs round the whole amphitheatre under the second tier. This +is interrupted in the middle of both the longer sides, on the west +by reason of a small entrance to the arena by which the corpses of +the slain gladiators were dragged out. To the arena itself two wide +entrances led from north and south, one of which, the southern, turns +at a right angle on account of its nearness to the city wall. At the +northern entrance a small separate passage could be made in order to +keep the spectators apart from the gladiators who passed in and out at +this point. This was effected by means of a latticed partition, for +which purpose stones with holes in them were used, which are still +to be seen. Small dark rooms at the entrances, provided with very +low doorways, may have served as cages for wild beasts. Here too, as +in the Theatre, the steps of the first row were broad and low, being +intended for the arrangement of _Bisellia_. The wall which separated +the spectators from the arena were found when first excavated to be +adorned with paintings, which are now indeed completely destroyed, +but are preserved in copies made immediately after their discovery. +Without exception they represent scenes from the Amphitheatre, partly +fights between wild beasts, partly combats of gladiators. (See fig. 56 +as to which it is doubtful whether it was found in the amphitheatre; +the gladiator standing on the right being badly wounded has let fall +his shield; standing quietly he raises the thumb of the left hand to +entreat the mercy of the people, for only if he looks death in the +face unmoved can he hope to be granted his life; in our case his death +seems certain, for his opponent steps up to him with drawn dagger +to give him the _coup de grâce_.) On the breastwork wall traces were +still visible of a lattice by means of which the spectators were to be +protected against possible attacks of the wild beasts in the arena. + +[Illustration: Fig. 46. Wall at the Stabian Baths (p. 37).] + +[Illustration: Fig. 47. The Apodyterium (p. 37).] + +In connection with the amphitheatre may be mentioned also the barracks +for gladiators, situated to the south of the large Theatre (fig. 44). +To all appearances the large space surrounded by columns belonged +originally to the Theatre, and was intended to afford protection to +visitors to the Theatre in case of rain occurring suddenly. But when +the passion for gladiatorial exhibitions had so prevailed that even +smaller cities thought themselves obliged to keep special bands of +gladiators, the second row of columns that no doubt originally existed +was done away with and in its place paltry cells erected for them. +That we have to do with gladiators and not, as has been supposed, with +soldiers, a garrison for Pompeii, has been indisputably proved by the +discovery of gladiators’ weapons (now in the Naples Museum, fig. 45 and +60) of paintings and _Graffiti_ relating to gladiators. The cells were +raised in two stories, and in such a way that the upper were approached +by means of a wooden gallery. In one cell on the west side a great set +of fetters was found used for chaining prisoners; in the same room, but +not as is commonly reported fastened in the fetters, some skeletons +were found, those therefore of prisoners who when the catastrophe +came had not been able to escape. The surrounding columns are painted +red and yellow, only the two centre ones of the east and west sides +are blue, perhaps because these served as marks in certain military +exercises. + +[Illustration: Fig. 48. The Tepidarium of the Forum Baths (p. 38).] + +[Illustration: Fig. 49. Arrangement of a Caldarium (p. 38).] + +The baths too, which played so great a part in the life of the +ancients, must not be forgotten among the public places of resort. +Of large Public Baths three have up to the present time been found +in Pompeii, the so-called Central Baths, which at the time of the +eruption of Vesuvius were still in course of construction, the Baths +by the Forum, and the Stabian Baths, at the corner of the Stabiae +and Abbondanza streets. These last named are the best preserved, and +deserve on this account a more thorough consideration. We come first +into a large courtyard surrounded with pillars, the Palaestra, devoted +to gymnastic exercises; here there was a stone track constructed, for +rolling stone balls, further a swimming bath (_Natatio_), with the +dressingrooms appertaining thereto (fig. 46). The reliefs in stucco, +which are preserved on the outer walls of these rooms, merit special +notice. On the right of the principal entrance two doors lead to the +men’s bath, which consisted of the _Apodyterium_, where people took +off their clothes (the niches served to keep them in, fig. 47), the +_Frigidarium_ or cold bath, the _Tepidarium_ or lukewarm bath, and the +_Caldarium_ or hot bath. (Fig. 48 represents the Tepidarium of the +Baths near the Forum; here the heating is derived from a large brazier +presented by Vaccula.) Both these rooms received their heating through +the hollow pavement and hollow walls, i. e. the pavement rests on +small pilasters about two feet high, and the walls are overlaid with +tiles, which being provided with raised sidewalls form a kind of flue +on the wall (figs. 49 and 50). By this method the heat introduced from +beneath, could penetrate under the pavement and between the double +walls. Of late it is true this way of heating has been disputed. + +[Illustration: Fig. 50. Section of the Caldarium (p. 38).] + +[Illustration: Fig. 51. Ground Plan of the House of Pansa (p. 39).] + +[Illustration: Fig. 52. Atrium Tuscanicum (p. 41).] + +The women’s bath adjoins the men’s, with the same rooms required for +bathing; between the _Caldarium_ of the men’s bath and that of the +women’s bath lies the furnace-room; here were placed three large +caldrons for hot, tepid, and cold water. Of such a furnace-room and +the arrangement of caldrons an idea may also be formed from the well +preserved bathing plant excavated in a Roman villa at Bosco Reale +(where was made the great discovery of silverplate, now at Paris). This +has recently been set up at Pompeii, in a small house behind the Temple +of Jupiter in the street called Del Foro. + +Besides these public bathing establishments there were of course +also in the better class of houses private baths which show the same +arrangements, though naturally more or less curtailed. + +[Illustration: Fig. 53. Cave Canem (p. 40).] + +[Illustration: Fig. 54. Doorknockers (p. 40).] + +[Illustration: Fig. 55. Roman Dwellinghouse. Vista from the Atrium to +the Peristyle (p. 42).] + +[Illustration: Fig. 56. Scene from the Amphitheatre (p. 35).] + +[Illustration: Fig. 57. External View of the Amphitheatre (p. 34).] + +[Illustration: Fig. 58. Iron Strongbox (p. 42).] + +[Illustration: Fig. 59. Domestic Shrine (p. 42).] + +The private houses are of course, according to the wealth of the +owners, of very various descriptions, and planned on a sometimes +more, sometimes less imposing and costly scale, since here one, there +another circumstance must have influenced the building of the house +and altered its form. Something however remains common to all, and out +of the variety it is possible to reconstruct the design of a standard +Pompeian house. The house has in general the form of a rectangle of +which the small side faces the street, see fig. 51. The door is in the +middle of this side, and is flanked right and left by one or two rooms, +which are either used as shops and then open outwards for their whole +width, or are entered from the interior and form part of the house. +Between these a passage leads from the door to the chief apartment +situated behind, viz., the _Atrium_. This passage is called _fauces_ +or _prothyron_. In the superior class of houses the door is set back a +little so as to leave a free space in front, called _Vestibulum_. Then +there are usually two doors, one a wide folding-door corresponding in +size to the passage leading to the Atrium, and a smaller door at the +side intended for the _Ostiarius_, or porter, who could thus refuse +admittance to an importunate or unpleasant visitor, without exposing +the interior of the house to the gaze of those standing before the +door. A salutation such as _Have_ or _Ave_, “Hail” inlaid in the +threshold of the door, or a _Cave Canem_, “Beware of the Dog” with the +representation of a dog in mosaic (fig. 53) is a not unusual ornament +which meets the eye as one enters. A knocker on the door served to +summon the _ostiarius_. The _atrium_, a room usually square, contains +in the middle a rectangular tank sunk in the ground for the reception +of rainwater; for this an opening was left in the roof. Five classes +of _Atrium_ are generally distinguished. In the simplest, the _Atrium +Tuscanicum_, the roof sloping inwards was supported by two main beams +crossing the Atrium and two side beams resting on them (fig. 52; in +the new _Casa_ of Reg. V, Ins. IV the ancient construction of the roof +of the Atrium has been re-erected). If the opening thus formed was to +be large, or it was impossible on account of the breadth of the Atrium +to leave the weight of the roof to rest only on two beams, pillars +were placed under the four points of junction and on these pillars the +beams were laid; this is the _Atrium Tetrastylum_. If it was desirable +to make the aperture still larger, additional pillars were employed +besides the four at the corners, so that regular halls with colonnades +were produced (_Atrium Corinthiacum_). If the roof sloped outwards so +that above the _impluvium_ there rose walls supported by the principal +beams or the pillars, the Atrium was called _displuviatum_, from the +fact that in this case the rain flowed away outwards. Finally the +_atrium testudinatum_, a very rare form at Pompeii, had its roof +equally sloping outwards, but was devoid of the quadrangular opening. +This opening is called _compluvium_; the name _impluvium_ is given +to the tank sunk beneath to receive the water, and out of which the +water was conducted by pipes into the reservoirs under the atrium. +For protection against the intrusion of unbidden visitors who might +without difficulty let themselves down from the roof into the room +through the _compluvium_, the opening could be closed beneath by means +of an iron grating. On both sides of the _Atrium_, which receives +its light from above, are placed mostly small chambers, storerooms +or sleeping apartments; the last one on each side usually opened its +whole width to the atrium and is called _Ala_. Here in Patrician +houses of distinction the representations of ancestors were generally +placed. Opposite the entrance lies the _Tablinum_, usually opening +with full width on the _Atrium_, and closed only by curtains (fig. +55). This was specially the room of the master of the house, here he +kept his valuable documents, here he received visits, in front of the +_Tablinum_; in the _Atrium_ is as a rule the place for keeping the +_Arca_, or strongbox, made of iron, often artistically decorated, and +let into a huge stone, to prevent its being stolen (fig. 58). Past the +_Tablinum_ a narrow passage generally leads into the back rooms of the +house, which, grouped around the Peristyle, an oblong quadrangular +court surrounded by columns, comprising not only livingrooms and +bedchambers, but also diningrooms, often different ones for winter and +for summer. These are for the most part rather small, sufficing only +for the arrangement of the three couches around the little table, from +which the _Triclinium_ has its name. In this part a little on one side +is usually found the kitchen with other rooms required for domestic +purposes, and placed in close proximity to the kitchen for the sake +of supply and discharge of water. The wealthier establishments have +also one of the chambers lying round the Peristyle fitted up as a kind +of domestic chapel for the worship of the _Lares_, if there is not a +special _Sacrarium_ erected in the _Atrium_ for this purpose. Houses +of more moderate pretensions content themselves with having their +household gods, the _Lares_ and the serpents sacred to them, painted +in the kitchen above or near the hearth, in order to offer sacrifice +to them there (figs. 59 and 62). From the Peristyle we pass on further +to the garden, in which, where the owner was a rich man, there is +likewise no lack of architectural adornments, airy halls and porticoes. +Upper stories were generally in little favour, with the increase of +population however they could not have been dispensed with. For the +most part they were let, as a rule with the shops situated on the +street, on which account stairs leading upwards are often found in the +shops; in wealthier establishments the upper chambers were allotted to +the slaves. These upper stories, just as in our mediaeval towns, often +project considerably over the street; one such projecting apartment, as +was stated above, is well preserved (fig. 61). + +[Illustration: Fig. 60. Helmets for Gladiators (p. 36).] + +[Illustration: Fig. 61. House with _maenianum_ (p. 43).] + +[Illustration: Fig. 62. Domestic Altar (p. 42).] + +How was the Pompeian house decorated? Let us begin with the floor. In +most houses the flooring is provided with _opus signinum_, that is +pieces of tile are pressed into a mass of stucco and then the surface +is polished; in better houses their place is taken by mosaic, generally +only black and white, and comprising only patterns and ornaments; +more rarely a coloured picture is produced with smaller cubes in the +middle of the room. Quite peculiarly rich in mosaics, and indeed such +as artistically belong to the most splendid that have come down to +us in this department of art, was the so-called Casa del Fauno, in +which was discovered the famous Battle of Alexander, now in the Naples +Museum (fig. 64). The irresistible onset of the Greeks who in spite +of inferiority in number drive the Persians in headlong flight before +them is expressed with unsurpassable power. Alexander whose helmet has +fallen from his head in the impetuous attack has just transfixed with +a powerful thrust of his spear one of the leaders of the Persian host, +who was in the act of leaping from his dying horse and saving himself +on a fresh one offered to him by a faithful follower. His fall arouses +in the king who stands in his chariot, the deepest sympathy, so that +in his sorrow for his general’s death he almost loses sight of his own +escape. His charioteer however thinks only of bringing the chariot and +his lord to safety over dead and dying. From the same house comes also +the mosaic threshold in the Naples Museum, a portion of which we give +in figure 63. Leaves and fruits of all kinds are joined to a cylinder +held together by rings and garnished with various masks. + +Figure 65 recommends itself by remarkable fidelity to nature. A cat has +seized a bird (apparently a partridge) with the intention of strangling +it. The cat probably belongs to the species of wild cats, since cats +as domestic animals were not common among the Greeks and Romans +before the fourth century of our era (hence is explained the fact that +no skeleton of a cat has been met with among the ruins of Pompeii). +Below two ducks are swimming, and mussels and other aquatic animals +are represented. At Pompeii too mosaic had begun to be employed for +the covering of walls, especially beside fountains. The paving of the +ground with slabs of marble, a practice very common at Rome since the +time of Sulla, seems to have been comparatively rare at Pompeii. + +[Illustration: Fig. 63. Mosaic Threshold (p. 44).] + +[Illustration: Fig. 64. Alexander’s Battle (p. 43).] + +The eyes of visitors will be attracted by the walls even more than +by the pavements. Although, as said before, the greatest number of +the wall-paintings discovered have been cut out and brought to the +Naples Museum, yet sufficient material exists in Pompeii also to form +a judgment as to the effect of the Pompeian wall-painting, especially +in the more recently excavated houses, in which the colours are still +more fresh. (For the removal of wall-paintings a wooden frame is +placed over and around the pictures, and the stones are taken away from +behind till the stucco is reached; then plaster is poured in at the +back of the picture, and so the whole becomes one single mass and can +be removed.) We must not however forget that the rooms in which the +paintings are found have at the present day a much more glaring light +than in antiquity, a circumstance not without influence on the effect +of the painting. + +[Illustration: Fig. 65. Pompeian Mosaic (p. 44).] + +[Illustration: Fig. 66. Wall Decoration of the First Style (Casa di +Sallustio) (p. 47).] + +[Illustration: Fig. 67. Wall Decoration of the Third Style (House of +Spurius Mesor) (p. 48).] + +[Illustration: Fig. 68. Process of Plastering (p. 49).] + +According to A. Mau four consecutive styles are to be distinguished. + +1. Pre-Roman Period: Imitation of marble incrustation by means of +plastic stucco work; no pictures (fig. 66). + +2. Period of the Republic: Imitation of Marble incrustation by means +of simple painting, together with representation of architecture, not +fantastical but as it might actually exist. This style is however but +scantily represented at Pompeii. + +3. Period of the Early Empire, to about fifty years after Christ: +Egyptianising ornamental style distinguished by beautiful and pure +forms, and delicate, finely distinguished colours (fig. 67). + +4. Ornamental Style of the last period of Pompeii, with special +preference for architectural painting, fantastically slender and of a +playfully ornamental fashion. The examples of this style are in Pompeii +by far the most numerous (fig. 69). + +Above the plinth of uniform shape the walls are for the most part +divided into panels, which usually are painted alternately yellow and +red; in their midst they have figures of various kinds floating in +the air, women, satyrs, Loves, Victories and such like, or they are +adorned with imitations of easelpictures, the subjects being taken from +mythology. Numerous too are scenes from every day life, still more +numerous landscapes; the historical motive is as yet only very rarely +indicated. Very frequently mythological figures are introduced as +engaged in the avocations of daily life in the midst of the fantastical +architecture which covers the walls as ornament. The artistic value +is naturally very different, but in general it must be admitted that +the vividness of colour, the lightness of touch in creations which +are due assuredly to no famous artist cannot be sufficiently admired. +As to the process by which the wall-paintings were executed the most +multifarious conjectures were formerly made; now on the contrary the +view universally adopted is that we have to do almost exclusively with +fresco painting, i. e. painting on fresh plaster, only that here and +there recourse was also had to painting in tempera (fig. 68). + +Some wall-paintings still in their original position will be dealt with +later when we come to speak of the respective houses; a few examples +out of the rich treasure removed to the Museo Nazionale in Naples may +here suffice. + +[Illustration: Fig. 69. Wall Decoration. Fourth Style (p. 49).] + +[Illustration: Fig. 70. Sacrifice of Iphigenia (p. 49).] + +Figure 70 represents a painting which may rank as one of the most +famous and the most frequently discussed, the Sacrifice of Iphigenia, +probably a copy, though a feeble one, of a famous picture of an +earlier period. Ulysses and Diomedes are holding the hapless maiden +through whose sacrifice Agamemnon desires to appease the wrath of +Artemis and to obtain a favourable wind for the expedition to Troy; +they hold her ready for sacrifice before the image of Artemis standing +on a column. Calchas the priest has already drawn the knife from its +sheath to give the fatal stroke, but still he hesitates, as though he +felt some scruple as to undertaking the cruel deed. Agamemnon stands +aside, shrouded entirely in his robe, since as a father he cannot +bring himself to look with his own eyes upon the carrying out of the +sacrifice, to which as king and leader of the army he sees himself +compelled. In the gaze which Ulysses directs to the image of Artemis +we may read the reproach that she, the goddess, should demand such +cruelty. Yet the merciful solution is prepared by the scene enacted +above in the sky; there we see the goddess Artemis herself, to her +hastens a nymph who brings the deer that is to fall by the sacrificial +knife in place of Iphigenia. Figure 71 is derived at any rate from a +famous ancient theme, perhaps after a painting by Timomachos; this is +the single figure of Medea, who sword in hand plans the murder of her +sons. The sword is still sheathed, sunk in deep deliberation she has +folded her hands, and pressed thumb against thumb, she is a mother who +loves her children tenderly, but she is also a wife who is bitterly +sensible of every neglect on the part of her husband. Which feeling +will gain the victory? Will it be gained by a mother’s love which +pardons everything, or by the jealousy that knows how to strike the +husband in the most painful way through the slaying of his children? +The conflict of feelings is undoubtedly expressed in a most striking +manner in the picture. Figure 73 also represents a picture remarkable +for excellent preservation, the abduction of Europa by Zeus in the +form of a bull. Europa daughter of Agenor, sports with her companions +on the shore of the sea, gathers flowers and weaves garlands. There +a bull approaches them (Zeus had concealed himself under this form), +who through his tameness gives the maidens courage to busy themselves +sportively with him. They deck him with flowers, caress him, nay at +last Europa becoming bold mounts his back. It is this moment that the +painter has chosen to depict. Europa has lain down on his back, the +girls are still playing with him, yet he is already striding forward, +only a few steps and he is in the sea, and then will Zeus bear his +sweet burden to Crete, and her terrified playmates will vainly stretch +forth their arms after the king’s daughter borne far away. + +[Illustration: Fig. 71. Medea, from Herculaneum (p. 52).] + +[Illustration: Fig. 72. The so-called Ephebus of bronze (p. 57).] + +[Illustration: Fig. 73. Europa with the Bull (p. 52).] + +[Illustration: Fig. 74. Mars and Venus (p. 54).] + +[Illustration: Fig. 75. Paquius Proculus and his wife (p. 54).] + +[Illustration: Fig. 76. Garden of the Casa di Lucrezio (p. 59).] + +Figure 74 represents a subject often occurring at Pompeii, Venus united +with Mars. Mars lays his left hand on the left arm of Venus, who +resting at ease lays her left arm on the right thigh of Mars, who with +his right hand raises the robe of the goddess so that the whole upper +part of her person is uncovered. That the god of war has already quite +forgotten his own peculiar mission, and is quite given up to love, is +shown by the two Cupids, of whom the one is engaged in girding himself +with the god’s sword, while the other is trying his helmet on his own +head. Figure 75 offers us a picture with quite a modern interest. The +worthy baker Paquius Proculus has had his portrait painted with his +better half, since photography has not yet been invented. But for this +purpose it is not sufficient to have brought the external form into +order, to have neatly smoothed the moustache, and to have crisped the +little locks so that they curl daintily over forehead and cheeks and +roll deep upon the neck, no, they wish their intellectual interests +to be recognised; therefore he takes in his hand a written roll, and +she grasps with her left hand a diptychon, while with her right she +holds to her lips the style to write on the wax tablet, as though in +the next moment some brilliant idea would occur to her which she need +only write down in order to be included for all time in the list of +the intellectual Bluestockings. Just as in our own day many people get +their portraits taken with books in their hands as though the study of +literature formed their whole ordinary day’s work. + +[Illustration: Fig. 77. The Dancing Faun (p. 55).] + +[Illustration: Fig. 78. The so-called Narcissus (p. 56).] + +[Illustration: Fig. 80. Casa del Balcone pensile (p. 59).] + +[Illustration: Fig. 79. Cupid with a Dolphin (p. 57).] + +The decoration too of houses by means of statues of marble and bronze +must here be briefly mentioned. It has already been stated that in the +temples and public buildings numerous marble and bronze statues have +been found. These discoveries can therefore be passed over here. As +the most beautiful of the works of art which have been discovered in +private houses may be mentioned the statue of the Dancing Faun (after +which the Casa del Fauno is named) and the so-called Narcissus, found +in a house of the Vico del Balcone pensile. In the former (fig. 77) the +artist has represented a comrade of the circle of Dionysos, full of +Bacchic pleasure, turning in wild dance; it is a rough sensual comrade, +whose half animal being is sufficiently suggested by his goat’s ears +and the little tail that is just visible. The strained muscles show +with what energy he gives himself up to the activity of the dance, +while on the other side the unrestrained joyousness expressed in his +countenance, and the freedom and ease he displays in the movement +of the upper part of his body and his arms clearly reveal with what +sportive agility he copes with the exertion. Almost more beautiful is +the so-called Narcissus (fig. 78) a youth just outgrown the years of +boyhood, over whose left shoulder hangs the skin of a goat or a doe, +who however is otherwise naked except the feet which are clothed with +elegant sandals. With slight movement of the arm he supports the left +hand against the hip, and stretches out the right hand, while at the +same time he bends his head to this side as though he were turning his +attention to some distant sounds. People have chosen to see in this +figure a Narcissus listening to the flattering words of Echo, but such +a situation is nowhere to be found in the myth. Others suggest Dionysos +playing with his panther; for this the doeskin and the wreath of ivy in +the hair would be very suitable, as also the beautiful sandals; but +then we should have to suppose that the figure had already in antiquity +been removed from its original base and placed on a new pedestal. For +the enjoyment however which the work of art affords us the name which +is given it is a matter of indifference, and this enjoyment will be +experienced by every one who contemplates the beautiful statuette. +Also the recently found statuette of a youth, completely plated with +silver, (fig. 72) which in antiquity was altered into a lampholder, and +therefore has experienced some damage, deserves careful inspection on +account of its beauty. + +[Illustration: Fig. 81. Mosaic Fountain (p. 59).] + +[Illustration: Fig. 82. Atrium of the Casa di Cornelio Rufo (p. 60).] + +[Illustration: Fig. 83. Bust of the Banker L. Caecilius Jucundus (p. +60).] + +[Illustration: Fig. 84. Bust of Cornelius Rufus (p. 60).] + +While this figure was to be employed in the house for lighting +purposes, both the others seem to have had their place at the fountain +of the house, with which in a certain way they were connected, in that +the relation of Satyrs and similar beings to springs is a well-known +one in antiquity. In other places the marble and the bronze statues are +employed actually as fountain figures, so in the case of figure 79, +the bronze statuette of a Cupid who exerting all his strength holds +a dolphin up high, from whose mouth the water flows. As to how such +statuettes were grouped with fountains and how also in small houses an +attempt was made to enliven the narrow space left for the garden by the +erection of all sorts of works of art, a sufficiently clear example +is afforded by the little garden of the Casa di Lucrezio (fig. 76). +Here on both sides of the fountain niche in which stands a Silenus as +distributor of water, double Herms or busts are placed which represent +Bacchus with Ariadne. Of the other figures above all let the group +standing in the foreground be mentioned, a group of a Satyr extracting +a thorn from Pan’s foot. A dainty motive too is that of a fountain +figure (fig. 80) from the Casa del Balcone pensile. A boy whose dress +falls down long over his back (in this way a support for the marble +figure is obtained) stands in easy pose, while he lays his right arm on +his head and stretches out the left hand with a mussel shell. From this +shell trickled the water, and a more copious stream flowed from the +waterpipe straight into the marble basin. + +[Illustration: Fig. 85. A _Bisellium_ (p. 62).] + +[Illustration: Fig. 86. Marble Table (p. 62).] + +Mosaic is frequently united with sculpture in the ornamentation of +fountains, for example in that of the Casa delle Fontana Grande (fig. +81). Here the fountain takes the form of a retiring arched niche, in +which the water from beneath the mask of a water-god flowed out of an +aperture in a broad jet over a flight of steps, while marble masks with +wide opened eyes are placed on the piers of the niche. + +Between the columns of the Peristyle, to judge from the wall-paintings, +there were often placed also medallions hung on ribbons, the so-called +_Oscilla_, now and then shaped like a _pelta_ (i. e. as the shields of +Amazons are commonly represented). These are sculptured in relief on +both sides. None are of course found in their original position, but a +whole series of such medallions, which were found lying on the ground, +is exhibited in the Naples Museum. + +[Illustration: Fig. 87. Dining-couch of Bronze (p. 62).] + +An entirely different class of ornament is to be found in the Atrium; +here sometimes a portrait bust of the owner has been found inserted in +its pedestal, which in at least one instance is plainly designated as a +dedication on the part of one formerly belonging to the house. Figure +84 represents the bust of C. Cornelius Rufus, an interesting work in +marble, which clearly shows how remarkably well the sculptors of the +earlier Roman Empire understood how to seize and to reproduce the +characteristic features of their sitter. The bust is let into a square +pillar, from which, right and left, instead of arms, quadrangular +stumps protrude, on which it was customary to hang wreaths as ornaments +on days of commemoration. Figure 82 gives a view of the whole atrium +with the bust, by which we are enabled to recognise the harmonious +way in which this ornament fits into the whole surroundings. Still +more striking perhaps in its effect is the bronze bust of L. Caecilius +Jucundus (fig. 83:--the original is now in Naples), the Banker, in +whose house was found the chest with wax tablets, of which mention +has been made on another page. Here is a bronze bust which has been +inserted in its marble pedestal, a dedication by the Freedman Felix +to the Genius of his master (_Genio L. nostri Felix L._). Many a one +who has seen the bust in the Museo Nazionale, has, at a first glance, +without knowing any more about it, been led to exclaim that he might +be off at once to the Exchange, so characteristically has the sculptor +rendered his portrait. Friend Caecilius is certainly not handsome, so +he cannot have been flattered by the artist, who has suppressed neither +the broad outstanding ears, nor the great ugly wart, almost suggesting +representations of Satyrs. But through the marvellous mixture of +bonhomie which is stamped on his countenance and keen calculation and +decision which are expressed in the closed lips and the glance of +the eyes (unfortunately the pupils formerly represented by coloured +smalt have fallen out) a personality has been successfully depicted +which carries in itself the stamp of genuineness. Caecilius Jucundus +evidently knew full well how to feather his nest, but he was no mere +miser who only brooded over his treasures, no, he not only prized very +highly his cheerful enjoyment of life, but he also loved gaiety and +good fellowship, and in the circle of his boon-companions he was ready +to take a joke, and was himself capable of enlivening conversation by +many a jest. + +[Illustration: Fig. 88. A Symposium. Pompeian Wall-painting (p. 63).] + +So much for the decoration that was provided for the house by painter +and sculptor. How stands it then with the household furniture? + +[Illustration: Fig. 89. Drinking-cup from Bosco Reale (p. 73).] + +Our rooms are filled with a quantity of furniture, numerous tables, +chairs, cupboards with every possible name and object, sofas, and +whatever else pertains to modern housekeeping. Compared with all +this the ancient house would seem to us empty. In the first place +cupboards for keeping clothes and the like are hardly to be found. To +a great extent small rooms were made available for keeping movable +articles by putting up shelves, but for clothes chests standing on +the ground had to serve, which might be compared with our presses and +trunks. They were the better suited for this purpose inasmuch as the +dress consisted more of stuffs which did not assume their definite +form as dress until they were put on. These trunks could at the same +time be used as seats, often, as at the present day in the East, for +reclining on. There were too regular seats, for the most part without +backs, and like foot-stools; among them we ought particularly to +mention the _bisellium_ which properly could hold two persons, but as +a special honour was granted by decree of the Decurions to a single +individual (fig. 85). Tables, especially show tables of costly woods, +to display the ornamental tableservice may have existed, but none of +these have come down to us; on the other hand marble tables, generally +placed close to the impluvium (fig. 86), have in many instances been +preserved. Among them are some that can be raised at pleasure. They +often have feet artistically shaped, the forms of all possible fabulous +beings, griffins &c. being employed as ornaments. Such tables as we +are accustomed to take our meals at are no where to be seen, because +the custom of the ancients was to eat while lying down. The furnishing +of a triclinium was as follows:--around a central point of masonry +only about a foot and a half in height, on which the table-top or tray +was placed, stand three low couches abutting on one another at right +angles, occasionally (in the open air) of masonry, otherwise of bronze +(fig. 87), or of wood, on each of which three persons recline at meals; +the fourth side is left open for the attendants. The arrangement of +the couches can often still be seen by examining the mosaic floor. To +one or other of the couches a still lower seat is frequently attached, +probably for the children. The inner side of the _lecti_ (for that is +the name of these sofas) was as a rule somewhat higher than the outer; +people got upon them from the lower side, and lay with the left arm +on the cushions serving as a support in such a manner that the right +arm was free to take the food to the mouth. The tables of masonry were +generally without ornament, since they were covered by the tray with +food; once only has an ornament been found in this position at Pompeii, +a mosaic representing a death’s head, a motive borrowed no doubt from +the Egypto-Alexandrian custom of inviting people to brighter enjoyment +of life by allusion to its fleeting nature and the nearness of death. +When towards the beginning of the Empire round tables (_orbes_) came +more generally into use in place of square ones, the three couches +arranged at right angles around the table had naturally to be united +in a single semicircular sofa corresponding to the circular shape now +adopted for the table. Such a semicircular sofa received the name +_Sigma_ or _Stibadium_ on account of its resemblance to the Greek +letter C. This style must--to judge from wall-paintings--have been +usual in Pompeii, yet we are unable to point it out among the existing +remains in the rooms. (Fig. 88 is from a wall-painting; this gives also +the conversation of the guests at table: _facitis vobis suaviter_, you +are having a good time, says one; another, _ego canto_, I sing; _est +ita_, _valeas_, so it is, good luck to you, says the third.) + +[Illustration: Fig. 90. Food-warmer (p. 64).] + +[Illustration: Fig. 91. Tripods and Bronze Table (p. 63).] + +[Illustration: Fig. 92. Portable Stove (p. 64).] + +[Illustration: Fig. 93. Bronze Vessel for the preparation of _Calda_ +(p. 65).] + +Of tripods, which in the ancient house formed part of the necessary +furniture, beautiful shapes have come down to us, (cf. fig. 91). Tables +then and chairs, chests and couches, with these the house furniture +is pretty well exhausted; but one must include with them the movable +stoves by which in winter some measure of warmth could be secured. +Stoves, as we know them were non-existent in antiquity, as even now in +the greatest part of Italy. If it became cold, a brazier of charcoal +was brought, as at the present day, at which people warmed themselves. +(The best example of such a brazier is that dedicated by one Vaccula +in the Baths, which may be seen in figure 48 behind the railing.) +Richer folk had for this purpose also a special stove which could be +carried from one room to another, as now in Paris, see figure 92. The +question of heating, as that of chimneys in the kitchen, is for us +northeners one of great importance, which however for the South plays +no great part, as one can see any day at the present time. Apart from +the resorts of foreigners, in which on practical grounds full allowance +is made for the ideas and usages of people belonging to northern +countries, the Italy of to-day remains for the most part at the stand +point of antiquity. There are no stoves and as few chimneys, because +the fuel used is almost exclusively charcoal, which kindled in the open +air continues to glow without requiring a special exit for smoke. And +if there is any smoke, it has to find its way where it pleases. This +is the origin of the name _Atrium_, because everything became black +(_ater_) through smoke. However we must not omit to mention that in +some Pompeian kitchens a wide pipe or channel is provided, through +which an escape to the street is allowed to any smoke that there may +be, subject to its own good will. To suppose any such thing as an +actual chimney (apart of course from baking ovens) would be mere wild +imagining, there was in fact absolutely no necessity for such a thing. + +We must consider charcoal as the fuel also for various utensils which +served for the preparation of warm drinks, the so-called _Calda_, or +for keeping food warm, and which certainly had their place not in the +kitchen but in the diningroom or other apartments. One of such utensils +(fig. 90) is garnished after the fashion of a fortress with towers +at the four angles and battlements on the surrounding wall; while +the interior served for the reception of charcoal and for keeping +food warm, the surrounding wall and towers were used for water, which +at pleasure could be drawn off by a tap. On the other hand the vase +represented in figure 93 is near akin to the Russian samovar; here a +wide pipe is introduced into the body of the vessel, which could be +filled with glowing charcoal in order to heat the liquid contained in +the vessel. Or on the contrary if the liquid was to be cooled, all +that was necessary was to fill the pipe with snow. Of course owing to +the open pipe the liquid could in neither case be poured out, but had +to be ladled out. For the preparation of warm drink as well as for +the heating of food the apparatus represented in figure 94 was also +undoubtedly employed. In this instance a high cask-like vessel is +connected with a cylindrical one having a spout, while the enclosed +space holds charcoal. + +The question of lighting also merits some brief consideration. It has +already been stated that the apartments on the principal floor had +scarcely ever any direct light from the street, but received indirect +light from the atrium or the peristyle. We are not however on this +account to imagine them to have been dark; the sun’s power in the +South is so great that even in the case of indirect light a very +considerable brightness is attained; if the door-spaces were closed by +wooden doors, or by curtains, still sufficient light fell into the room +through an opening introduced above the door, or the doors and curtains +were so arranged that the light above was not shut out. Artificial +lighting was supplied by oil lamps, which must have been employed in +great numbers, to ensure sufficient brilliancy. Hence lamps, especially +of course the ordinary terracotta lamps, are the most numerous of the +objects found. Candelabra served to support them, of these very elegant +forms have been preserved. One of the most interesting is represented +in figure 96, where four lamps, each with two wicks, hang down from a +pillar raised on a basis semicircular in front. The candelabra also +often take the form of trees, on the boughs of which the lamps are +suspended, so for example in figure 97. Besides these there are lofty +candelabra which spring from a basis usually supported by the feet of +an animal, and rise to a considerable height in the form of slender +columns; on the top, which generally spreads out as a calyx, there +usually stood only one lamp with several wicks. + +[Illustration: Fig. 94. Food-warmer (p. 65).] + +[Illustration: Fig. 95. Silver Cups (p. 68).] + +[Illustration: Fig. 96. Candelabrum (p. 66).] + +[Illustration: Fig. 97. Candelabrum (p. 66).] + +[Illustration: Fig. 98. Bronze Vessel (p. 67).] + +Next to the candelabra may be mentioned under the head of domestic +utensils more or less costly vases, which were frequently displayed on +handsome tables or the tripods described above. Of these too a great +number have been found in Pompeii and deposited in the Museo Nazionale +at Naples. Thus figure 98 shows a large vessel of bronze, a crater or +mixing bowl, the elegant twisted handles of which are fastened to the +body of the vase by means of a winged Medusa mask. That its purpose was +merely ornamental is shown by the circumstance that it is placed on a +separate basis supported by lion’s claws. A more bowl-like vessel, also +supported by lion’s claws, is represented on page 107.--On each side +of this two united bodies of lions connected with serpents are employed +as handles. The jugs in figure 99 display different shapes, in the +one the handle is formed by a soaring bird with broad bill (a swan or +perhaps a goose), while an eagle sits enthroned above the mouth; in the +other the body of the vessel consists of a head with eyes separately +inlaid, but now lost. Numerous too are the ornamental vessels of +silver. Two cups famous above all are represented in figure 95, on one +side of which is placed a male centaur, on the other a female. On their +backs are seated Erotes (Loves). Although both cups are without doubt +intended as companion pieces which belong so to speak to the same set, +yet there are distinctions in details. These cups, so finely chiselled, +are provided with a smooth lining inserted specially for the reception +of the liquid, a circumstance illustrating a well-known passage in the +speech of Cicero against Verres. There it is stated that Verres in +Sicily had in preference to everything seized the silver vessels, that +he had not however set so much value on the silver, but had restored +the cups _emblemate_ or _sigillo avulso_. Now the _emblemata_ or +_sigilla_ are nothing else than the outer cases adorned with work in +relief, which were united by solder to the smooth inner cases. + +If we would form a more accurate estimate of the valuables with which +the show tables (_abaci_) were loaded, we can avail ourselves of a +recent discovery not indeed made in Pompeii itself, but yet in its +entire character belonging to Pompeii. In Bosco Reale, a small town +situated nearer Vesuvius, where in ancient times there seems to have +been a sort of suburb of Pompeii, a villa had been discovered in 1894 +on the estate of Cav. de Prisco, buried under the ashes from Vesuvius, +and in this every chamber was found in an undisturbed state. In one +apartment, the storeroom, there were found large vessels full of corn +and pulse, in another place the explorers came upon a great heap of +agricultural implements, a furnace for baths was unearthed, in which +all the water pipes with their taps were preserved (the same that is +now placed in position behind the Forum), in short everything was found +intact, exactly in the condition (except of course changes brought +about by length of time) in which the villa was on the 24th of August +in the year 79. But still greater treasures were destined to come to +light from the villa. On the 13th of April 1896 the skeleton of a man +was suddenly discovered: he had fallen with his face on the ground, +stifled under the hot showers of ashes which pressed upon him from +every side. In his convulsively clasped hands he grasped bracelets and +a long gold chain; many gold coins with the heads of the Emperors from +Augustus to Vespasian, several of them still quite fresh as if they had +just been issued by the mint, lay scattered near him on the ground. He +had sunk to the earth before a little niche, in which he had doubtless +just laid down a part of his burden, and where he had wished to put +also the remainder that he was carrying, in order to protect all from +unbidden intruders. + +[Illustration: Fig. 99. Silver Jugs (p. 68).] + +[Illustration: Fig. 100. The Tutelary Goddess of Alexandria (p. 70).] + +In the niche itself, wrapped in a piece of coarse woollen stuff, lay a +great treasure of silver, which through the liberality of Baron Edm. +de Rothschild has reached the Louvre. It falls into two categories, +in the first place such vessels as can be designated objects of use +(these however also merit careful observation on account of the fine +ornament that appears on them); and secondly a series of cups, bowls, +and other utensils which are adorned with artistic representations. +Though the others are also interesting we can here deal only with +the latter of the two classes, so far as representations of them are +available. Chief among them is a bowl that in size and shape compares +best with the Minerva bowl of the Hildesheim Treasure. In quite free +form there raises itself from the ground as a centrepiece the bust of +a goddess who wears on her head the spoils of an elephant, so that the +trunk projects over the centre of her forehead and the tusks on both +sides over her temples. She is clad in a light chiton with many folds, +fastened over the arm by numerous studs; the overlapping portion of the +chiton is gathered together at the breast into a roll in which appear +ears of corn with grapes and all kinds of fruit. In her left hand the +goddess holds a cornucopia containing bunches of grapes, pomegranates +&c., in her right a Uraeus serpent. There is no question that the +tutelary deity of Alexandria alone can be intended by the figure (fig. +100). + +[Illustration: Fig. 101. Mirror with the Bust of Ariadne (p. 71).] + +A second bowl has as its central ornament the upper portion of a +man’s body boldly projecting from the surface, which may be noted as +extremely characteristic. The shortcropped hair lies closely on the +head, the large ears protrude, many a wrinkle furrows the brow, clearly +marked crow’s feet enable us to infer that the subject is pretty well +advanced in age. The cheeks have fallen in, and so leave the cheek +bones standing forth in strong relief. The attribution of the figure +to the Emperor Claudius is assuredly groundless, still the features +remind one of members of the House of the Claudii, and above all this +one thing cannot be questioned that we have to deal with a Roman and +no Greek. Of the companion bowl with a woman’s bust the centrepiece +has come to London. On the other hand the Louvre has secured two hand +mirrors once belonging to the _mundus muliebris_, the toilet apparatus +of a Pompeian lady; one with elegant handle formed of twigs intertwined +bears as an ornament in the middle of its back a wonderful bust of +Ariadne (fig. 101); the head slightly inclined towards the left arm +is crowned with a wreath of ivy, and the drapery leaves free the left +breast shaped with wondrous beauty. A second mirror bears as ornament +for the back (the polished front always serves as the actual reflecting +surface) the representation of Leda with the swan. Leda almost nude is +seated on a rock, and while she supports herself on the rock with her +left hand, holds out with her right a bowl to the swan standing before +her. + +[Illustration: Fig. 102. Cup with Olivewreath (p. 73).] + +[Illustration: Fig. 103. Cup with Still Life (p. 73).] + +Besides these there are comprised in the treasure four eggshaped cups +with large handles rising above the rim, and twisted feet, two of +which have the exterior adorned with storks in low relief which are +seeking food in the neighbourhood of their nest, while both the others +represent the life of cranes, how they search for food, struggle over +their booty, and engage their rivals with powerful blows of their +beaks. Other vases remind us of the great bell-shaped vessel of the +Hildesheim treasure. From a graceful calyx grows up a flower-stem +divided into joints, on which as they spread out are introduced groups +of animals fighting, while elegant arabesques springing from flower +cups fill the body of the vase with their charming windings and +twinings. Of wonderfully fine execution also are two low vessels, each +provided with two handles, round the body of which twine two olive +branches with berries. (Fig. 102.) Other cups are ornamented with +so-called “Still Life” (fig. 103); others have allusions to literary +efforts. There we see skeletons of poets as Euripides and Menander +(fig. 89), or philosophers as Zeno and Epicurus in various actions, +with inscriptions appended which show the connection. One and all +preach the doctrine of Epicurus, enjoy life while you may, life passes +away only too quickly. The placing of such scenes on vessels destined +to minister to the keener enjoyment of life is for antiquity no unusual +thing; I need refer only to the above mentioned mosaic of a death’s +head which served as the ornament of a table, and to the well-known +scene from Trimalchio’s Banquet (in Petronius), who has a silver +skeleton with movable limbs brought upon the table, and invites his +guests to brighter enjoyment of life with the words “Alas for us poor +wretches! What a nothing we are! Like this skeleton shall we all be as +soon as Orcus carries us off; so let us enjoy life while we may!” + +[Illustration: Fig. 104. House of Pansa (p. 75).] + +Fine tables laden with such and similar vases must have been found +in every one of the better class of houses in Pompeii, so they could +not be passed over in describing the furniture. Yet some may miss in +the catalogue of furniture the mention of looking-glasses. In Pompeii +however these would be sought in vain. There were indeed mirrors enough +for the toilet, as we have seen in the treasure from Bosco Reale, but +only hand mirrors, mostly of metal, occasionally, as it seems, also of +glass, yet always only so small that even if fixed on a stand they are +to be treated as articles of the toilet, not as constituent parts of +the furniture. We may suppose that refined luxury in individual cases +may have led to the employment of larger mirrors (cf. Lessing, _Rettung +des Horaz_), but these things have nothing to do with Pompeii, to judge +at least by what has been found there. + +[Illustration: Fig. 105. Bakery with Mills (p. 76).] + +[Illustration: Fig. 106. House of the Tragic Poet (p. 76).] + +Now that we have gained an idea of the Pompeian house in general and +of its equipment, it is possible to examine more thoroughly individual +houses of special note. We begin with the Casa di Pansa, or, as the +house has been officially named from a painted inscription, which has +now disappeared, the Domus Cn. Allei Nigidi Mai. For two appellations +have usually to be distinguished, a popular one, often due to the +presence of people of rank on the occasion of the excavation (e. g. +in the case of the Casa dell’ Imperatore di Germania), or derived +from special objects discovered (Casa del Fauno); frequently too the +electioneering inscriptions which are written on the houses have led +to (unauthorised) conclusions as to the owner. On the other hand the +second, the official appellation, is founded on the discovery of +seals or inscriptions within the house that allow of a conclusion +as to the former possessor. The so-called House of Pansa then (fig. +104) is situated in the Street of Nola, opposite the Baths. It +displays a façade of tufa, of the Samnite epoch, with unusually lofty +doorway, which runs back from the street and so forms a _vestibulum_. +Through the doorway we catch sight of the _Atrium_ with its very deep +_impluvium_, and behind this the _tablinum_, from which two steps lead +to the peristyle. The tufa columns of the peristyle are of the Ionic +order, but by a coat of stucco were turned into Corinthian. Behind the +peristyle an entrance leads to the kitchen garden, the beds of which +were still discernible at the time of the excavation. A large portion +of the ground pertaining to the house is taken up by shops and a bakery +with three mills. It is worth while to examine such a bakery somewhat +more in detail. + +[Illustration: Fig. 107. Pompeian Loaves (p. 76).] + +Every bakery was connected with several mills, in which was prepared +the flour required for baking. Each mill consists of a conical support +(_Meta_) and upper part forming a double funnel (_Catillus_); the +latter is so placed over the supporting cone that the upper cavity +serves to receive the corn as it is poured in, while by the rubbing +between the lower funnel and the fixed cone the grains of corn are +reduced to powder. That the turning may proceed more easily the +external double funnel rests by means of a cross bar of wood upon an +iron point fixed in the cone beneath, at the narrowest point of the +_catillus_ holes are made in which are fixed bars by means of which +the turning of the mill is effected by a donkey. For this reason the +ground round about is paved. Near the space in which the mills stand +is the oven, and by this is seen a hollow for the reception of water +(fig. 105); to the left was a room in which the bread was put into +shape. Here are also often remains of a peculiar contrivance for the +kneading of dough, a cylindrical vessel of lava in which the dough was +kneaded by means of a roller turning round an iron rod. Shelves on the +wall, of which there are still to be seen traces served to display the +baker’s wares. It may here be remarked that in the villages of Sardinia +at the present day mills are in use which correspond almost exactly +to those at Pompeii, and also that the machine for kneading dough is +still employed in a similar form at Palermo. From a well closed baking +oven eighty-one loaves were taken which naturally were somewhat stale, +inasmuch as they were put into the oven as early as the 24th of August +79! (Fig. 107.) Some of them are exhibited in the museum at Pompeii. +Next to the House of Pansa comes the House of the Tragic Poet, which +plays a part in Bulwer’s romance as the house of Glaucus (fig. 106). +It has its name from a painting wrongly explained as a rehearsal (in +reality the myth of Admetus and Alcestis is represented), and also a +Mosaic relating to the theatre. On account, however, of the magnificent +paintings found in the Atrium which refer to Homeric themes (the +carrying off of Briseis, Zeus and Hera on Ida _etc._) it is also +called Casa Omerica. Here the photograph is taken from the Atrium; the +fountain close to the impluvium is seen in the foreground, behind, a +step higher, is the tablinum, with mosaic ornament, opening with its +whole width on the peristyle. There is still to be seen the little +chapel of the Lares in which a statuette of Silenus was found. From +this house comes the Sacrifice of Iphigenia, a painting represented on +an earlier page. + +[Illustration: Fig. 108. Fullonica (Fulling-mill) (p. 78).] + +[Illustration: Fig. 109. Casa del Fauno (p. 80).] + +[Illustration: Fig. 110. The Fuller at his Work (p. 78).] + +Bordering on the house of the Tragic Poet is the Fullonica, the +house of a fuller, where the arrangements necessary for carrying on +the trade are so completely preserved and so clearly illustrated by +wall-paintings that one can form an accurate idea of the process of +fulling. In figure 108 is given a picture of the second fulling-mill +situated in the Street of Stabiae. In the atrium are preserved the +marble table and the troughlike basin into which fell the stream of +water; in the peristyle beyond the tablinum we have a glimpse of +the vats of masonry in which the cleansing of the woollen stuffs +took place. In the small entrance which near the tablinum led to the +workroom was found at the time of the excavation a great mass of +whitish argillaceous earth (_terra fullonica_), which was used for +the cleansing of woollen stuffs. The pictures of the other Fullonica +(fig. 110) inform us as to the process itself. Vats placed in niches +are seen, standing in which the fullers partly wash the material +partly tread it with the feet. Beyond we see a workman carrying a +frame like a crinoline (on this the clothes were spread to be bleached +with sulphur), while another brushes or cards the garment hung up on +a bar; beneath on the left sits a woman who seems to be giving a girl +instructions as to the treatment of a piece of cloth. Another painting +represents the press with which the woollen material when washed was +smoothed; it is exactly like those in use at the present day. + +[Illustration: Fig. 111. Casa dei Capitelli colorati (Casa +d’Arianna) (p. 81).] + +[Illustration: Fig. 112. Casa dei Capitelli colorati (Casa +d’Arianna) (p. 81).] + +[Illustration: Fig. 113. Casa del Centenario (p. 81).] + +[Illustration: Fig. 114. Casa del Imperatore di Germania (p. 82).] + +If one follows the Street of Nola further towards the East one soon +comes to a house which may be designated as one of the most famous and +best preserved of those in Pompeii, the Casa del Fauno (fig. 109), so +named from the bronze statue of the dancing faun found therein (fig. +77). In the footway before the threshold the visitor is greeted on +entrance with the word _Have_ (Hail!). The house has two entrances with +two _Atria_, of which the one here represented, the principal Atrium, +may serve at the same time as an example of the _Atrium Tuscanicum_, +inasmuch as no columns are placed around the impluvium as supports for +the beams of the roof. + +[Illustration: Fig. 115. Wax tablet from the House of Caecilius +Jucundus (p. 83).] + +The house is decorated in the first style, that is to say its +decoration consists of an imitation of marble slabs. It is a curious +fact that the walls are covered with sheets of lead beneath the stucco +to keep all dampness from it. Paintings are not to be found here; on +the other hand the house was rich in valuable finely executed mosaics, +among which is to be specially mentioned the greatest of all mosaics, +Alexander’s Battle. It was in the chamber opening upon the peristyle, +the red columns of which are visible in the illustration beyond +the tablinum. The columns seen behind belong to a second peristyle +embracing the whole breadth of the house, which has taken the place of +what must be supposed to have been originally a garden. + +[Illustration: Fig. 116. House with several stories (p. 83).] + +The Casa dei Capitelli Colorati, also called Casa d’ Arianna, is placed +obliquely with regard to the Casa del Fauno. We pass from the Street of +Nola first into the garden, which is surrounded by a colonnade (figs. +111 and 112); next comes the peristyle with the sittingrooms. The house +has received its name from the fact that in the last period of Pompeii +the capitals of the Ionic columns dating from the Samnite period were +newly covered with stucco and painted. + +One more house in the Street of Nola deserves special attention, the +Casa del Centenario, so entitled because it was excavated on the +occasion of the celebration of the eighteenhundredth year after the +overwhelming of Pompeii (fig. 113). Here also are two _atria_ with a +large peristyle behind, which had a low railing between the columns +as may be seen by the incisions in them. The claim of this house to +rank among the most important properties in Pompeii is established by +the discovery of many paintings and statuettes of bronze and marble, +as well as of ample baths, for warming which the heat from an oven was +employed, besides a Shrine of Lares of some importance, in which was +a small portable altar. Here too was discovered the picture given on +an earlier page, which represents Bacchus entirely made up of grape +clusters, in close proximity to a mountain, in which may be recognised +the present Monte di Somma before the eruption of Vesuvius. + +[Illustration: Fig. 117. Kitchen with Hearth (p. 84).] + +To the north of the Casa del Centenario lies the Casa delle Nozze d’ +Argento, also called Casa dell’ Imperatore di Germania, because the +house was excavated in 1893 on the occasion of the Silver Wedding of +the King and Queen of Italy in the presence of the Emperor of Germany +(fig. 114). The Atrium is _Tetrastylum_, that is the roof beams rest on +four columns which are excellently preserved; behind comes the tablinum +with a mosaic pavement, and thence one reaches a peristyle which is in +an equally good state of preservation. + +Here too let there be described a house in the Street of Stabiae, the +little garden of which adorned with statuettes has been mentioned +above (fig. 76). The house has received its name from a painting +representing a letter with the address of Marcus Lucretius, _M. +Lucretio flam. Martis decurioni Pompei_; on the left of this is +represented a _diptychon_, a doubled wax tablet with the style for +writing, on the right, beneath, an inkpot with pen. The house of +Lucretius had many well preserved paintings of the last period of the +city. Together with this letter the wax tablets may also be mentioned +which have been found in the house of Caecilius Jucundus. Figure 115 +represents such a tablet. + +[Illustration: Fig. 118. Plan of the House of the Vettii (p. 83).] + +From another point of view the house depicted above (fig. 116) is +noteworthy. As said above on p. 6 the citywall is on the west and +southwest sides for the most part broken down and its place taken by +houses. Since these houses thus overlapped the wall and descended to +the level of the plain below, they gained at the back an additional +story on this lower level; and the top of this story formed a terrace +from which a marvellous view over plain and sea could be enjoyed. And +so many more houses in Pompeii might be examined in detail, were it +not that the very abundance warns us to observe due moderation.--We +must not however leave Pompeii without taking sufficient notice of one +more house, a house that on account of the good condition in which +it has risen out of the ashes from Vesuvius, and on account of its +great number of paintings, and the decoration of its peristyle will +leave a lasting impression on every beholder. This is the house of the +Vettii only recently excavated, in which everything that could be left +has been left in its original position, in order to produce the most +complete idea of a Pompeian house. + +The new house lies to the east of the so-called Casa del Labirinto, +and is entered from the east side, the Vicolo which represents the +continuation of the Vicolo degli scienziati. We first enter the +vestibulum (fig. 118 at _a_). To pass hence into the ostium proper +persons either availed themselves of the wide opening principal door, +or were admitted through a smaller sidedoor on the right. Thence they +stepped into the Atrium (_c_), in the centre of which is placed the +impluvium with a wastepipe passing into the street; right and left +are seen large slabs of stone with remains of the iron chests let +into them, the strongboxes of the master of the house. Right and left +of the ostium two small chambers open on the atrium, so also on the +west of the two strongboxes are situated the two alae and a chamber +by each strongbox, one of these chambers, however, has in later times +been cut off from the atrium by a low wall, and turned into a kind of +storeroom. But here ends the symmetrical arrangement of the atrium; +while on the left an apartment opens widely on the atrium as a winter +triclinium, on the other side appears the entrance to a second atrium +provided with its own impluvium, and at the back with the shrine of +the Lares. On this small atrium open several rooms intended for the +slaves, and therefore left without ornament; there too lies the kitchen +with wide hearth of masonry, on and near which have been found a large +number (fig. 117) of utensils serving for boiling and grilling &c. The +little room, that could be entered only from the kitchen, evidently the +cook’s room, is now kept under lock and key, on account of the somewhat +objectionable paintings with which this household dignitary had had his +apartment adorned. + +[Illustration: Fig. 119. Love on a Crab (p. 86).] + +[Illustration: Fig. 120. Love with Dolphins (p. 86).] + +On the other side of the atrium also follow rooms for the household; +there, close to a staircase by which the upper story was reached, a +passage leads to two chambers of uncertain destination. Noteworthy is +a fountain beside the staircase, by means of which the water could be +drawn directly for the upper story. + +Out of the atrium in front of which in this instance no tablinum is +placed, we at once pass into the peristyle, the principal apartment +of the house, the portico of which is supported by seven columns +on the longer sides and four on the shorter; by this the garden is +enclosed. On the southeast, in the first place two rooms open on the +peristyle, and on the north two others, of which one, the large +Oecus, is a principal apartment of the building, further on the east +is a triclinium. From the peristyle a small suite of rooms is also +accessible, which, not without plausibility, have been designated +women’s apartments; here again a small garden is found. Let this +suffice for the orientation of the discovered chambers. How then as to +their decoration? + +The possessor of the property has evidently set no store by the +decoration of the pavement, for the better class of mosaic has nowhere +been employed, but the floor consists almost exclusively of stucco in +which small bits of marble have been inserted. All the more richly are +the walls ornamented. + +[Illustration: Fig. 121. Candelabrum, Wall-painting (p. 86).] + +Just as we go in (to say nothing of smaller pictures) there is seen on +the pilaster at the entrance to the atrium a Priapus. Pictures of this +kind were usually placed just at the entrance of a building in order +to avert disaster and the evil eye. The walls of the atrium, owing to +the numerous openings leading from it to the surrounding rooms, are +almost entirely broken up into mere pilasters, which however display a +style of painting systematically arranged. Above an imitation of marble +reaching to no great height, rises the yellow plinth, in which are +inserted pictures on a red ground; there we see boys bringing dishes +with fruits, others playing with parrots or guinea fowl, carrying +glass jugs and dishes; another raises the cover of a vessel to spy +curiously into its contents, again another tastes the contents of the +vessel entrusted to his care, others seem equipped for a festival, +they are clad in gala fashion and decked out with garlands, they hold +garlands too in their hands. Above this plinth there next comes a small +field of black, displaying Cupids in their merry pranks as imitators +of human pursuits. Here one has harnessed a ram to a chariot, another +has his carriage drawn by two dolphins (fig. 120). A sacrifice to +Fortune too is offered by the little rogues with all earnestness; +again a duel between two hero Loves is depicted with every truth of +detail; bestriding goats and armed with shield and lance they charge +each other, but while one at full gallop couches his lance against his +adversary, the latter, causing his steed to swerve, seems to avoid the +blow; two other Loves attend the duel on foot. Another picture must +certainly contain the continuation of this warfare; one has fallen +with his steed, and in this helpless condition is sorely maltreated +not only by his original opponent, but also by his seconds, while his +own second has made off. Again a race is represented, but as fiery +coursers dolphins are harnessed to the chariots. A highly droll effect +is produced by a Cupid mounted on a crab (fig. 119) and another on a +locust, who urges his steed on with whip and rein. Then the Cupids +are busy hunting butterflies, in short every pursuit of adult and +child is imitated by them in their bright busy way, but with all the +seriousness that the situation demands. Above the moulding adorned with +masks and lionheads by which the upper part of the wall is divided from +the lower, there follow now in an upward direction red (partly burnt +black) stripes, with columns and candelabra (fig. 121). The vases out +of which these grow are apparently richly adorned with reliefs. Behind +them are introduced balustrades, to which steps lead up; above they +support large hoops, on which figures are seated. A somewhat larger +wall surface is preserved only behind the strongbox on the right, here +is seen above the plinth a hunting scene on a larger scale. Hounds are +pursuing a wild boar and a bear, others have pulled down a stag; then +comes a stripe with two Psyches, who bring fruits in baskets and empty +them into other baskets. + +[Illustration: Fig. 122. Hero and Leander (p. 87).] + +[Illustration: Fig. 123. Cyparissus (p. 88).] + +The little room by the ostium displays in its plinth again an imitation +of marble, above this the wall is painted yellow with white panels +framed with green, in the middle of each of which is introduced +a picture. On the wall lying to the left of the entrance is the +abandonment of Ariadne on Naxos. The fair one deserted by Theseus at +the bidding of the gods is, as it seems, just awaked from slumber. +Astonished and terrified at being forsaken she lays her left hand +on her chin, while an Eros in order to bring her to understand her +position points to the ship of Theseus speeding away with sail full +set. The second picture is unfortunately destroyed, the slab of +stucco bearing it was in antiquity fastened on the wall with a series +of nails. The picture on the third wall represents the well-known +adventure of Hero and Leander (fig. 122). Besides these more important +pictures there are birds pecking fruit; above these comes a zone +of water with fish and other marine fauna, crowned by architecture +represented in perspective, on detached portions of which hanging +baskets and drinkinghorns are introduced, and also wild beasts chasing +one another. The room was once vaulted. + +A richer decoration is to be seen in the paintings of the next room +towards the south, a triclinium: here the plinth is yellow and +ornamented with garlands, arabesques, hanging masks _etc._; above +come white panels, between which rises architecture with seated +and recumbent sphinxes. Of larger pictures only two are preserved; +of the other two one was destroyed, probably before the eruption of +Vesuvius, while the other fell a sacrifice to the diggers for treasure +who after the destruction of Pompeii lawfully or unlawfully explored +the abandoned houses, and for this purpose knocked holes through the +walls. On the side opposite the entrance the wrestling match between +Eros and Pan is represented, on the entrance side, Cyparissus and his +hind (fig. 123). Above these panels decorated with pictures comes a +cornice plastically constructed, higher still than this rise fresh +architectural forms comprising in their midst a broad exedra, with the +fore-part of a building approached by three steps. The central panels +are devoted to the representation of Jupiter and his mortal favourites, +there is seen on the right of the entrance Jupiter in youthful form +seated on his throne, while the other walls show Leda, Danaë, and a +third lady. But also the side panels, the out buildings made accessible +by stairs, are decorated with figures mostly taken from the Bacchic +cycle. + +On the other side of the ostium the picture of the Lares (fig. +124) demands a brief notice. In the little temple supported by two +Corinthian columns and crowned by a pediment stands the Genius holding +patera and incense box. To right and left of him are painted the two +Lares, who symmetrically carry in one hand a bucket in the other a +drinkinghorn. Beneath them is observed the serpent that in many a curve +approaches the altar richly furnished with offerings. The remaining +apartments, with the exception of the cook’s bedroom, are without +painting. + +The two cubicles lying west of the strongboxes have only unimportant +decorations; both alae display a black plinth enlivened by green +shrubs, and have above yellow panels with red borders, and having in +the centre small representations of still life; of these a cockfight +executed in a most lively style merits special attention. Beside a herm +stands a table with a large vessel; there stand two cocks, preparing +themselves for the fight; a third, the defeated one, lies under the +table, while the fourth, the conqueror, proudly marches off to the +right, with a twig of palm in his beak. + +The peristyle has a black plinth decorated alternately with green +plants and vases (the pyramids of ivy there represented are now +imitated in nature in the garden of the peristyle). Above come +alternately large black panels framed in red, and fantastic pieces of +architecture on a white ground, which are bounded beneath by a yellow +slab with green or dark red border. The figure compositions introduced +in the centres of the panels consist for the most part of still life, +to which fish, fowls _etc._ contribute material, though there is no +lack of more important figures. To these belongs above all that of a +thick-set man who sits beside a chest filled with books. Scientific +efforts are suggested also by the figure of a Urania, who represented +as though in the act of imparting information, points with her staff +to the celestial globe lying before her (fig. 142); otherwise the +decoration of the hall is supplied by Satyrs and Bacchanals and the +winged female figures so frequently employed in Pompeii, together with +the attributes of various deities. + +[Illustration: Fig. 124. The Shrine of the Lares (p. 88).] + +Much more important however than these wall-paintings of the portico +are the sculptures which have been preserved in the enclosed garden +(fig. 125). In all four corners, and further at the second and third +columns of the narrower sides and the fourth and fifth of the long +sides there were once statuettes, twelve therefore in all, of which +nine are still preserved in their original position (fig. 126), while +two were removed to other parts of the building for repair. All these +statuettes, of which two are of bronze, the rest of marble, served +for fountains. The water either came directly out of them, or branch +pipes of the aqueduct were so laid on to them that it seemed as though +the water came from them; between them are placed several troughs and +receptacles of marble, which by their graceful shapes and beautiful +ornaments make a pleasing impression. The conduit too, save for slight +damage, was in such good repair that it has been found possible to +renew the play of the waters by means of a reservoir placed on the +roof. Marble tables between the columns and within the garden that is +still quite clearly marked out in beds, as well as two ivy-encircled +marble pedestals on each of which rests a double bust (fig. 127) +contribute in no slight measure to make the whole peristyle most +charming, and indeed a spot as yet unique in Pompeii. + +[Illustration: Fig. 125. The Peristyle of the House of the Vettii (p. +89).] + +A series of apartments too open on the peristyle, and in the first +place a triclinium. On a low foundation of imitation marble rises +the dark red plinth, over which again mounts a fanciful style of +architecture, leaving space in the centre for a sort of canopy. +The smaller pictures executed soberly in monochrome fall into the +background behind the large ones occupying the centre of the wall. Of +these large pictures the first is Hercules strangling the serpents +(fig. 128). The child Hercules has seized both the serpents sent by +Juno, and is throttling them, while his mother flies in terror, and +Amphitryo, his earthly father, is in the act of hastening to the +rescue. Yet the sight which presents itself to him checks any further +action, he sees that the child needs no help against the wretched +snakes: astonished and thoughtful he lays his right hand on his chin, +and he has every reason to be full of thoughts, for he could not have +expected such bravery from his own son. Jupiter in the meantime has +despatched his eagle to receive information as to his hero son. The +subject of the second picture is the punishment of Pentheus. The third +picture also is taken from a Theban myth, it represents the punishment +of Dirce, and corresponds to the well-known group of the so-called +Farnese Bull. + +[Illustration: Fig. 126. Bacchus (p. 89).] + +[Illustration: Fig. 127. Bacchus and Ariadne (p. 90).] + +In like manner the corresponding room to the north of the _Ala +dextra_, which also opens its whole width on the peristyle, displays +rich ornament on the walls. In the plinth there is again an imitation +of marble, above in the middle is a red panel with a large square +picture, next is on each side a blue panel with the usual fantastic +architecture; then comes on both the longer sides a white panel. In the +centre of each of the three wallsurfaces a painting of larger size is +placed: first Daedalus and Pasiphae (fig. 129). The ingenious craftsman +has prepared the wooden cow as commissioned by the spouse of Minos, and +now the queen comes into the master’s studio to inspect his work. The +second picture treats of the punishment of Ixion. Mercury has delivered +over the miscreant to punishment, and Vulcan is just fastening him to +the wheel; vainly the mother or wife of Ixion implores Mercury to have +mercy; for even if he on his own account were inclined to grant her +prayer, yet this would be prevented by the presence of Juno, who in +queenly state has appeared with Iris to take note of the due exaction +of punishment (fig. 130). + +[Illustration: Fig. 128. Hercules strangling Serpents (p. 90).] + +While the connecting idea of both these pictures, viz unlawful love +and its punishment, is clear enough, the third picture, the finding of +Ariadne by Bacchus and his following, falls somewhat outside this range +of thought. I believe however that critics have gone too far in their +efforts to discover a harmonious unity of idea for the paintings of a +room. That the owner of the house might often demand of the artist to +see that a single harmonious train of thought was carried throughout a +room, is of course easily understood, but on the other hand it is again +quite clear that in the often great number of rooms to be decorated +the whole mythology was more or less drawn upon, and that frequently +the number of subjects at command, and therefore chance, determined +the choice of the pictures. So we cannot be surprised if we see the +Deliverance of Ariadne placed with pictures treating of the punishment +of unlawful love. Ariadne in her grief at being deserted by Theseus, +whose ship is still seen in the distance, has sunk into a slumber that +frees her from care: then Bacchus with his followers approaches, who +will raise Ariadne to be his bride. + +[Illustration: Fig. 129. Daedalus and Pasiphae (p. 92).] + +The side panels of this room also are adorned with paintings, which +though of smaller proportions are nevertheless well worth our notice. +These are oblong pictures of ships. Two to four strongly manned vessels +are represented, which rowed at full speed hasten against one another, +and by clever turnings seek to escape the enemy’s onset, the dangerous +blow with the ship’s beak. On the shorter sides the corresponding +positions are occupied by subjects of still life (birds with fruit, and +so on). Above these come flying figures arranged in pairs, swinging +garlands over their heads: they are probably intended for the Four +Seasons; above comes again architecture with figures. + +The most splendid room however and the most interesting in the house +is, next to the garden of the peristyle, the large Oecus, which is +connected by a wide doorway with the portico, and by a small door with +another chamber devoid of ornament. The groundcolour of the whole room +is in the lower portion red and black, the plinth is sober black and +adorned with floral arabesques, above, however, the walls are red, +with black stripes. Beneath each vertical black stripe a picture is +introduced on the plinth, generally Amazons in warlike guise, buckler +and battleaxe in hand, but also Satyrs, Maenads, persons offering +sacrifice, _etc._ Over these figures comes a small oblong picture, +usually Psyches gathering flowers (fig. 131), here and there, however, +mythological scenes also are inserted. Three of these are preserved, +first Orestes and Pylades in Tauris. To the left sits Orestes, near him +is Pylades, towards them Iphigenia advances with the image of Diana, +on the right king Thoas is seated on a throne. The second picture +represents the triumph of Apollo over the serpent Pytho. The god has +killed the snake which guarded the sanctuary at Delphi; proud of his +victory he seized the lyre to sound the first paean in praise of the +omnipotence of the gods, and to his own especial glory; in his honour +the goddess of the place brings a bull, who is to fall as a sacrifice. +The third relates presumably to the sacrifice of Iphigenia in Aulis. +Before an altar, on which fire is burning, stands a woman with bowl +and chalice, from which she seems to besprinkle a hind standing in +front of her. From the right of the altar a wide-striding warrior +hastens up with drawn sword; a female figure wearing a wreath hurries +away to the left, evidently terrified at the warrior’s action. The +rendering varies from others relating to the same myth, yet scarcely +any other interpretation is left. That Iphigenia is not herself +introduced, but only the hind, may be pronounced remarkable, though why +should not the painter have hit upon this means of representing the +sudden change, especially if the other pictures in the room (cf. no. 1 +of this series, Orestes and Pylades in Tauris) made the relations clear? + +[Illustration: Fig. 130. Ixion’s Punishment (p. 92).] + +The horizontal black bands beneath the red panels are occupied by +Erotes and Psyches, who with a naturally bright earnestness and +conscientiousness imitate the employments of daily life, chiefly the +exercise of certain trades, so that these bands may be reckoned among +the most interesting of Pompeii’s pictures. Here we have in the first +place the representation of a game, Erotes are busied in throwing +balls at a board. Further the manufacture and sale of garlands. Here +flowers are brought to the city by the gardener and his son, there +others are busy with the preparation of garlands, while on the left +haggling is going on about the finished garlands. Then follows the +production of oil, and the ointments prepared therefrom. A race too is +introduced (fig. 133); four Erotes distinguished by the four colours +of the Circus drive chariots harnessed with gazelles. On this follows +the representation of the goldsmith’s art, further that of the fuller’s +work, so important for ancient cities: two Erotes tread in a vat the +clothes to be cleaned, after this comes the removing of stains and the +brushing, or the raising the nap of the clothes, still further on the +clothes that have been cleaned are submitted to a thorough inspection +by Psyches. The following picture, the festival of Vesta, representing +the so-called _Vestalia_ is pretty well ruined, Erotes and Psyches are +reclining on the ground at a merry feast, and even the much tormented +donkeys have for once some rest. The next picture too is not well +preserved; on the left the vintage is represented, on the right the +wine-press. On the vintage follows the triumph of Bacchus, who is of +course represented by an Eros. The close of this series, so damaged +unfortunately in several of its scenes, is formed by the tavern with +the sale of wine (fig. 132). On the left stand a number of amphoras +just as they are still often found in Pompeii leaning on the wall in +a somewhat slanting position, in front of them stands mine host in an +easy posture, while he offers to his customer, who carries a little +stick, a bowl of wine to taste; two other Erotes are busy in drawing +wine for another sample from an amphora in a horizontal position. + +In the centre of the red panels flying couples are depicted, derived +from mythology; we note, however, the want of freedom in choice which +the requirement as to pictures has imposed on the artist; here, as in +the War against the Giants at Pergamon, the whole force, so to speak, +has been mobilised. The figures preserved are those of Poseidon with +an inamorata, of Apollo with Daphne, of Bacchus with Ariadne, and of +Perseus with Andromeda. + +In the centre of each wall there was also a large picture, these +however have not survived. On the other hand the upper part of the wall +above the red panels framed in black is still partly preserved; we +see here again new structures rising, which were peopled by numerous +figures, chiefly derived from the entourage of Bacchus. + +[Illustration: Fig. 131. Psyches gathering Flowers (p. 94).] + +Now it remains to describe the small space set apart for the ladies. +Here too the walls are adorned with paintings which attract less +attention only because the abundance of treasures offered to our gaze +in the Casa dei Vettii leaves scarcely time or inclination for the +smaller works of art. The first room has a black plinth, with green +shrubs and flowers as ornament, over this red panels separated by +white stripes; in the centre of each panel is a fabulous creature. +Here a Pegasus grazing beside a wall and the attributes of Athena is +most deserving of notice. The second room has black walls with white +bands, which as it were open up a view into the open air with trees &c. +In the centre of each wall there was originally a large picture, now +however only two are left; first the Discovery of Achilles in Scyros, +where Ulysses and Diomedes by a stratagem detect Achilles disguised in +woman’s clothing among the daughters of Lycomedes, and induce him to +take part in the expedition against Troy (fig. 134). The second picture +represents Hercules and Auge. + +Next to these large wall-pictures, medallions with flying female +forms are placed on the side panels. It may be stated in passing that +throughout the whole mansion the medallions always prove to have been +separately inserted: clearly these pieces were produced by the artists +on slabs of stucco and kept in stock, so that during the preparation of +a wall they had simply to be let into it. Hence we cannot be surprised +if the medallions sometimes betray a style more or less at variance +with the other decorations of the wall. + +[Illustration: Fig. 132. Cupid as Host (p. 95).] + +Such are the paintings of the house known as _Domus Vettiorum_, a +house that in the number of pictures which are placed in it, and +in the beauty and grace of its peristyle, excels without doubt all +other houses as yet excavated. Of course we have not always to do +with masters of the first rank; should we ask as to the origin of +the pictures and how they had come to a little provincial town like +Pompeii, several hands that had been employed upon them might easily +be distinguished. Taken as a whole however the wall decorations are +unique; nay with regard to individual representations, above all in +the case of the frieze of Cupids in the Oecus, one can pronounce only +a favourable judgement, especially when one sees how lightly and +naturally, and yet with what a sure hand, and how characteristically, +the pictures have been conceived and executed. If ordinary decorative +painters produced such wall decoration for a small provincial town, +what triumph of art must have graced the mansions of the leading men in +the great cities! We have indeed a specimen of these in what is called +the House of Livia on the Palatine, and in the _Domus Transtiberina_, +the remains of which are exhibited in the Baths of Diocletian; these, +however, are but insignificant fragments as compared with the vast mass +of that which has been irretrievably lost. + +Now that we have thus examined a house in its entirety we might take +our departure. Yet hold! Pompeii is indeed, as said above, in contrast +to Naples, the city of the Dead, yet in Pompeii there is still one spot +that in a greater degree may be designated the place of the Dead, this +is the Street of Tombs in front of the Gate of Herculaneum. Almost +all roads that led out of ancient cities were lined by the monuments +of the dead; so too at Pompeii, where on all the roads leading out of +the city, e. g. on that to Scafati, numerous burial places have been +discovered, but not one of these roads can compete with the place of +sepulture that lies in front of the Gate of Herculaneum. This then +deserves a more thorough investigation. + +[Illustration: Fig. 133. A Race (p. 95).] + +This is not the proper place to describe the methods of burial +prevailing among the Romans; it is sufficient here to state that in the +most ancient times the dead were laid to rest in sarcophagi; examples +of such a method of interment, which at Rome in particular gentes, or +clans, was observed uninterruptedly to the latest period, e. g. among +the Cornelii, are found also in Pompeii, but seem to go back to the +Oscan epoch. In those times the bodies were laid in coffinlike chests +of limestone, which were made up of square blocks or smaller stones, +and covered with earth, after all sorts of little vases, chiefly of +Nolan manufacture, had been put in with them. Examples of such a +method of burial are exhibited in the small Museum at the Porta della +Marina. Later, however, when Pompeii was added to the Roman Empire, +cremation generally took the place of interment. For this purpose in +a space specially set apart called _Ustrinum_, the funeral pile was +erected, to which the form of an altar was regularly given, the height +and decoration of which were naturally decided according to the rank +and wealth of the deceased. Such _ustrina_ were of course assigned +by the city, frequently however, where space permitted and police +regulations did not hinder, there were private grounds of this kind at +the hereditary burying places of distinguished families. At Pompeii +too such an _ustrinum_ has been supposed to exist before the Gate of +Herculaneum, but wrongly, for the insufficient distance from the city +would alone have absolutely prohibited the burning of corpses there. +The bier with the corpse was placed on the pyre and covered with sweet +smelling unguents, incense, costly stuffs &c. and then kindled by a +relative or friend with averted face. When the funeral pile was burned +to the ground the ashes had to be extinguished with water or wine, the +bones that were left collected, and then, after the customary lustral +sacrifice had been offered, the funeral feast had to be held at the +grave. The place required for such a feast, the _triclinium funebre_, +is still remaining at Pompeii. Some days later the bones, which in the +meantime had been dried in the sun, were sprinkled with milk and wine, +and, after the addition of fragrant materials, placed in a sepulchral +urn, that was afterwards conveyed to the tomb. The sepulchral urns were +generally hermetically sealed, but often provided with holes at the +top, so that on appointed days the usual libations to the dead could +be poured right on to the cremated remains, in order to ensure to the +deceased person the enjoyment of the sacrifices offered to him. Nay +pipes have (in the case of some of the graves situated on the road +leading to Scafati) been fixed in such a way as to render it possible +to convey directly to him such libations also as were dedicated to the +dead man outside the tomb. + +[Illustration: Fig. 134. Achilles at the Court of Lycomedes (p. 96).] + +[Illustration: Fig. 135. The Street of Tombs by the Gate of Herculaneum +(p. 100).] + +Apart from some few graves dating back to Oscan times, the monuments in +front of the Gate of Herculaneum belong entirely to the Roman period +(fig. 135). Immediately to the left, behind the Gate, is seen a vaulted +niche, in which then was originally placed a statue, that of course of +the person buried there, with an altar before it for the sacrifices; +according to the inscription the grave belongs to the Augustalis M. +Cerrinius Restitutus, for whose burial the Decurions presented the +ground. The _Augustales_ formed a _collegium_ consisting of freedmen +dedicated to the cult of the emperors. This is the niche to which is +attached the well-known legend of the sentry fabled to have remained +at his post during the eruption of Vesuvius, and thereby met his +death: in reality there is no question of a sentrybox nor of a sentry, +for, according to the reports of the excavations, no skeleton at all +was found at this point. Passing on from the grave of M. Cerrinius +we come on the left to a semicircular bench which according to the +inscription was erected by decree of the Decurions in honour of Aulus +Veius, who had held the highest magistracies of the city. Probably his +remains were interred behind the bench. His statue will have stood on +the pedestal in the centre of the seat; it may be inferred from the +dignities named in the inscription as enjoyed by him that he lived not +later than Augustus. + +[Illustration: Fig. 136. Continuation of the Street of Tombs (p. 103).] + +The following grave belonged to M. Porcius, whose name is mentioned +in connection with the smaller Theatre and the Amphitheatre; a son +or other relative may of course have borne the same name. The third +monument on the left hand side again takes the form of a semicircular +seat, it marks the spot where the priestess Mamia was buried (behind +the seat). We need not dwell on the pleasing thoughts aroused in the +beholder when he recognises that the monument here assumes a form +specially useful to the living, and affording rest to the wearied +wanderer. Behind Mamia’s seat a large sepulchral building is preserved, +in the chamber of which niches for the urns containing ashes are to +be seen (fig. 137). As is proved by several inscriptions, the tomb +belonged to the distinguished Pompeian family of the Istacidii. After +this comes a now closed street, which according to an inscription seems +to have led to the bathing establishment of M. Crassus Frugi. This +included, as we know from other sources, a medicinal spring rising out +of the sea. That the sea came up nearer Pompeii than is now the case +has already been stated. Here the buryingplaces on the left cease for +some distance, and there follows a villa site, now once more covered +with ashes _etc._, in which, without sufficient ground, people have +sought to recognise a villa of Cicero (who is known to have possessed a +villa at Pompeii). Let us therefore retrace our steps to the Gate, to +examine the graves placed on the righthandside. + +[Illustration: Fig. 137 Interior of a Grave (p. 101).] + +[Illustration: Fig. 138. Vessel of blue Glass (p. 103).] + +[Illustration: Fig. 139. Herm-cippus (p. 104).] + +Here first meets us a large altar-shaped grave without inscription in +the chamber of which, when opened a few years ago, two clay vessels +were found enclosed for better preservation in leaden covers, which +contained the remains of bones covered with a cloth, together with a +coin of the time of Augustus. Coins are frequently found placed with +the remains. Although originally the idea of such parting gifts was +that the property left was thereby purchased from the deceased, the +earnest money as it were being handed to him to prevent his return, yet +gradually the belief became universal that passage money was handed to +the dead man for Charon, whose boat was to carry him to the Underworld. +As long as the dead body was buried in the earth, it was the custom to +lay the coin in the mouth; when burning came into vogue in place of +burial, it was quite natural that the coin should still be added to +the remains. The second tomb on the right was erected to the Aedile M. +Terentius Felix Major, by his widow Flavia Sabina, after the city had +granted not only the site, but also a contribution of 2000 sesterces +(about 21 pounds). The remains of M. Terentius were discovered under +the table on the left, in a glass vessel, doubly protected by being +placed in a terracotta urn and wrapped in lead. Of the graves that +follow, number 6 deserves special notice, the Grave of the Garlands, +so called from the ornament affixed on one side. The structure is +solid; nevertheless there will be found in all probability a sepulchral +chamber underneath, but as yet no search for it has been made. The +grave no. 8 is famous for the discovery of the blue glass vessel (fig. +138) now in Naples, representing the vintage in white relief on a +blue ground. To the cheerful sound of flutes and the syrinx, a Genius +carries grape clusters to a vessel, in which another treads them down, +as he merrily swings the thyrsus, while on the other side the gathering +of grapes and the enjoyment of wine are brought to view. Most charming +however is the network of twining tendrils that form a web around the +whole vase. Then comes a semicircular niche, as to which it is doubtful +whether it has actually served for a funeral monument. It was certainly +erected for this purpose, but since the space for the inscription in +the pediment has remained unfilled, it seems as though the purpose for +which it was originally intended had not been carried out. + +[Illustration: Fig. 140. Sepulchral Monument of Naevoleia Tyche (p. +105).] + +At this point the graves come to an end on the right side also, and +there appear two villas bordering on the road, which have profited +by their favourable position through the construction of shops and +taverns for those passing along the street. From the mosaic fountain +there to be seen come the four pillars covered with mosaic, that have +been taken to the Naples Museum; they supported a pavilion in front +of the fountain. On the other hand the tombs soon begin again on the +left (fig. 136); in the first place one which passes for an unfinished +structure, because its upper portion is not completely preserved; here +is a gravestone the peculiar shape of which is found outside Pompeii +only at Sorrento, a stone formed in imitation of a bust, on the back +of which plaits of hair hang down; on the smooth surface in front it +bears the inscription.--_Junoni Tyches Juliae Augustae vener._ While +the Genius is the protecting spirit of the man, the Juno takes this +place in the case of women; the Tyche whose remains are buried here was +probably a favourite slave of Julia Augusta, i. e. of Livia, but the +meaning of _vener_ is at least doubtful (fig. 139). + +[Illustration: Fig. 141. Villa of Diomedes (p. 105).] + +One of the most important monuments is the next one, belonging to +Umbricius Scaurus, erected by his father, when the Town Council had +granted the site and 2000 sesterces. The chief interest of this +monument consists in the stucco reliefs with which the front walls and +the steps of the altar are adorned, and which represent scenes from the +Amphitheatre, gladiatorial combats and wildbeast hunts. The deceased +had once given these spectacles to his native city, so that the father +could bethink himself of preserving the remembrance of this liberality +by the ornamentation of the monument. Next comes the so-called Round +Tomb, which in the interior has a peculiarly vaulted chamber with three +niches, in the bottom of which the urns are fixed in masonry and closed +with covers, just as in the Roman _columbaria_. Further on the grave +of the Augustal, Calventius Quietus, demands our special notice, on +whom on account, of his munificence the Town Council had conferred the +honour of the _bisellium_, i. e. had given him the right to sit on a +special seat in the Theatre among the Town Councillors. The _bisellium_ +is depicted on the monument. Particularly striking, however, through +its ornaments executed in relief, is the tomb of Naevoleia Tyche, +which she, according to the inscription, erected to herself and C. +Munatius Faustus, to whom also the Town Council had granted the honour +of the _bisellium_ (fig. 140). Over the inscription is represented +the portrait of the foundress, and underneath a sacrifice to the +dead, while the flanks of the altar show on one side the _bisellium_ +granted to Munatius, on the other side a ship, the sails of which are +reefed. By this no doubt allusion is made to the end of life. In the +gravechamber were found, with other more simple vases of terracotta, +three vases of glass, which were enclosed in a lead wrapping, and in +which the contents were preserved intact; they contained the burnt +bones in a fluid made up of water, wine, and oil mixed together. + +After this comes the _triclinium funebre_ mentioned before, a place in +which the funeral feasts were usually held. The triclinium is in its +general features not different from those occurring in private houses, +one sees three couches of masonry (with the higher end inwards) round a +table on which the food was placed. With this ends the series of tombs +on the left hand. + +[Illustration: Fig. 142. Urania (p. 89).] + +On the righthand our special attention is claimed by the tomb with the +marble door. The interior of the tomb was occupied by various urns +of ashes, yet the exterior was still incomplete, the coating with +squared stones originally contemplated is not entirely executed. Here +a street turns off to the right, in which the Oscan graves previously +mentioned were discovered. Of the tombs on the rising ground between +the two streets that of M. Arrius Diomedes should be mentioned, which +he erected to his former lady Arria, himself, and his family. Not as +though this were distinguished above others, but because the Villa +lying opposite the tombs has been designated as that of Diomedes. This +Villa of Diomedes requires more careful consideration before we quit +Pompeii (fig. 141). + +By a slope rising from the Street of Tombs we reach the door, which, +corresponding to the precepts of Vitruvius for villas, leads straight +into the peristyle. Among the chambers accessible from this are +first, on the side of the street, the bathrooms; here we distinguish +the _piscina_, that is the basin for the cold bath; further the +_tepidarium_, the air of which was warmed by an opening from the +_caldarium_, and which, on the garden side, was closed by a window +with four thick panes of glass; then the _caldarium_, the room for +the sweating-bath, the floor and walls of which were arranged for +conducting the heat in the way we have seen in the Public Baths. +Warm air and hot water were supplied from the kitchen close at hand. +Still more interesting is a sleeping-apartment, also reached from the +peristyle, in front of which is a room for the _cubicularis_, the +valet. The sleeping-apartment itself is built out into the garden +in a semicircle, here are placed three large windows which supplied +light and air, but could be quite closed by shutters according to +requirement. That even there fresh air should not be wanting was +provided for by a small quadrangular opening placed above. At the back +is seen the alcove for the bed, which was cut off by a curtain; the +rings for this were found when the excavation took place; close by we +observe a hollow in the masonry, presumably a sort of wash-hand basin. + +[Illustration: Fig. 143. Bronze Bowl (p. 68).] + +[Illustration: Fig. 144. Boy with Duck] + +Below these parts of the establishment, and approached by stairs, +and having a separate communication with the sloping street, lies, a +series of domestic offices, slaves’ rooms _etc._, of which nothing +need be said. Then we pass into the garden, a large pleasure-ground +surrounded by a colonnade, and with a large basin and fountain in the +centre, and an open portico supported by six columns. At the further +end of the colonnade lay a small room, from which, as from the middle +of the portico, a door led into the open air; here at the time of +the excavation were found two skeletons, those as it is supposed of +the master of the house and his servant; the former had a gold ring +on his finger and a large key in his hand, and near him lay ten gold +and eighty-eight silver coins. Both then had striven to reach the +open air, but had perished in doing so. Still more terrible was the +fate of his family and dependants; eighteen adults and two children +had fled for refuge to the large room under the colonnade, marked as +a wine-cellar by the numerous amphorae leaning against the walls, to +which light and air were admitted from the courtyard through small +windows; all perished miserably when the masses of pumice-stone had +cut off their escape. The ashes pressing in had enveloped them and +faithfully preserved their forms; unfortunately at the time when this +villa was excavated the process of taking plaster-casts had not yet +been invented, and so the moulds thus formed were destroyed; it has +been possible to preserve only one portion, the impression of the neck, +shoulders, and breast of a young girl, to judge by the impression +faultlessly beautiful, and wearing a dress of the finest material. This +mould is exhibited in the Museo Nazionale at Naples. + +We now come to the end of our story. The romantic histories that +have been recounted as to the destruction of Pompeii, the sentinel +who refused to desert his post, and thus met his death, the closely +embracing pair of youthful lovers overwhelmed in the street leading +from the Theatre to the Forum, the men said to have been surprised +by the eruption of Vesuvius in the midst of the funeral feast at the +_Triclinium funebre_ in the Street of Tombs--all this and whatever +else the ever active imagination has invented to depict the fate of +the city with all possible horror, are thrown deep into the shade +by the reality which the excavations reveal; we cannot depict to +ourselves darkly enough the scenes enacted in Pompeii on the 24th of +August in the year 79. And yet posterity has every reason to thank +the chance that throughout so many centuries has preserved for us an +ancient Roman city almost untouched. One cannot shut out from oneself +the thought that the eruption of Vesuvius in its ultimate results has +brought only a blessing, inasmuch as it has given us the opportunity +of casting a glance across so many centuries, right into the actual +condition and circumstances of an ancient city. There is indeed a +whole series of cities of far greater size and importance which have +existed uninterruptedly from the earliest times to the present day, +but the constant changes necessitated by the requirements and habits +of later generations have so altered their condition that the traces +of antiquity can be followed out only with the greatest toil. At +Pompeii the case is very different, there the ashes from Vesuvius +have preserved the city as a whole, just as the Pompeians left it on +the occasion of the eruption; there streets and squares, temples and +houses speak a language which cannot fail to be understood by every one +who has any power of grasping the conception of antiquity. How vastly +our knowledge of the ancient world must be advanced by such immediate +inspection of actual remains requires no further elucidation. Let then +the saying be once more repeated “Vedi Napoli e Pompei”, and, with a +slight alteration of the well-known saying as to Capri; “Non lasciar +Napoli senza aver visto Pompei”. + +[Illustration: POMPEI.] + + + + +INDEX + + The asterisks before the numerals refer to the illustrations. + W. = Wall-painting. + + + Abbondanza, via dell’, *12, 37 + + Achilles at the Court of Lycomedes, W., 96, *99 + + Ala, 41 + + Alexander’s Battle, 43, *46 + + Alexandria, Tutelary Deity of, *70 + + Altar, Domestic, *45 + + ---- of the temple of Vespasian, *26 + + Amor with Dolphin, *56 + + ---- with Crab, W., *84 + + ---- with Dolphins, W., *84 + + ---- as Host, W., *97 + + Amphitheatre, *33, 34, 36, *42 + + ---- Fight in between Pompeians & Nucerians, *36 + + Apodyterium, *36, 37 + + Apollo, *27, 28 + + ---- and Pytho, W., 94 + + ---- Temple of, 27, *28 + + Arca, 42, *43 + + Ariadne, Deliverance of, W., 92, 93 + + ---- in Naxos, W., 87 + + Atrium, 40-42 + + ---- Restoration of, *40, 41 + + ---- in the House of Rufus, *58, 60 + + ---- Tuscanicum, 41 + + Augustales, 100 + + Aulus Veius, 100 + + + Bacchus, *91 + + ---- and Ariadne, W., *91, 92 + + Bakery, *74, 76 + + Balcony, 43, *44 + + Basilica, 26, *28 + + Baths, 35-39 + + Bisellium, *59, 62 + + Bosco Reale, 68-74 + + Bowls, silver, 70, 71 + + Boy with duck, *110 + + Bread, *76 + + Bronze table, *64 + + Building, periods of, 47-49 + + Burning the Dead, 98, 99, 102 + + + Calda, 64 + + Caldarium, *38, 106 + + Candelabra, 66, *67 + + ---- Painted, W., 85 + + Casa d’Arianna, *79, 81 + + ---- del Balcone pensile, *56 + + ---- dei Capitelli Colorati, *79, 81 + + ---- del Centenario, *79, 81, 82 + + ---- del Imperatore di Germania, *79, 82 + + “_Cave Canem_”, *39, 40 + + Cerrinius Restitutus, 100 + + Chapel, Private, 42, *43 + + Comedy, Scene from, *32, 34 + + Compluvium, 41 + + Cookshop, *14, *15, 21 + + Cremation, 98, 99, 102 + + Cups, *62, *67, 70, *72 + + Cupid, *56, *84, 95, *97 + + Cyparissus, W., *87, 88 + + + Daedalus & Pasiphaë, W., 92, *93 + + Dining-couch, *60, 62 + + Diomedes, 105 + + Dioscurides, *32 + + Dipinti, 19, 20 + + Dog, in Mosaic, *39 + + Doorknocker, *39, 40 + + + Ephebus of Bronze, *51, 57 + + Erotes, *84, 85, 86, 95, *97 + + Eruption of Vesuvius, 3 + + Eumachia, 26, *27 + + Europa with the Bull, W., *52, 53 + + Excavations, *1, 8, 9 + + + Faun, Dancing, *55, 56 + + Feast, *61, 62 + + Fontana, Domenico, 8 + + Food-warmer, *63, *66 + + Fortuna, Temple of, 29, *30 + + Fountain figures, 57 + + Fountains, *13, 21 + + Fountain with mosaic, *57 + + Forum Civile, *18, *19, 23 + + ---- Scene in, *20, 23 + + ---- Triangular, *16, *17, 22 + + Frigidarium, 37 + + Fullers at Work, W., *78 + + Fulling, 78 + + Fullonica, *77, 78 + + Furniture, 61-64 + + + Garlands, 95, 103 + + Gates, 17 + + Gauging table, *29 + + Gladiators, 36, *41 + + ---- Barracks of, *33, 36 + + ---- Weapons of, *34, *41, *44 + + Glass vessel, Blue, *102, 103 + + Graffiti, *13, 19, 20 + + Graves, 98-105 + + + “_Have_”, 40, 80 + + Herculaneum, Discovery of, 8 + + ---- Gate of, *11, 17, 98 + + Hercules Strangling Serpents, W., 90, *92 + + Herms, 90, *91, *102, 103 + + Hero and Leander, W., *86, 87 + + House of the Faun, *77, 80 + + ---- Lucretius, *54, 59 + + ---- Pansa, *38, *73, 75 + + ---- C. Rufus, *58, 60 + + ---- the Tragic Poet, *75, 76-78 + + ---- the Vettii, 83-97, *83, *90 + + + Impluvium, 41 + + Inscriptions, *13, 19, 20 + + Interior of Grave, 101-5, *102, *103 + + Io, W., 26 + + Iphigenia, W., 49-52, *50, 94, 95 + + Isis, Temple of, 29-32, *30 + + Istacidii, 101 + + Ixion, W., 92, *94 + + + Jucundus, Caecilius, *58, 60, 61 + + “Junoni Tyches”, *102, 103, 104 + + Jupiter, Bust of, *21, 25 + + ---- Temple of, *22, *23, 25 + + + Kitchen, with Hearth, *82, 84 + + + Lamps, 66, *67 + + Lares, Shrine of, 88, *89 + + Lead plates, 81 + + Lecti, 62 + + Lighting of dwellingrooms, 65, 66 + + Loaves, *76 + + Loves, *84, 85, 86, 95, *97 + + + Macellum, *24, 25, 26 + + Maenianum, 43, *44 + + Mamia, 101 + + Marble Table, *59, 62 + + Mars and Venus, W., *53, 54 + + Meals, *61, 61-63 + + Meatmarket, *24, 24-26 + + Medea, W., *51, 52 + + Mercury, Street of, *8, 11, 15 + + Mirror with Bust of Ariadne, *71, 72 + + Misenum, 4 + + Mosaics, *39, 40, 43-47, *47 + + + Naevoleia Tyche, *103, 105 + + Narcissus, Statuette of, *55, 56 + + Nola, Street of, *9, 15 + + + Oilshops, *16, 21 + + Omphalos, 27 + + Orestes and Pylades, 94 + + Oscilla, 60 + + Ostiarius, 40 + + + Palaestra, 37 + + Panorama of Pompeii, *7 + + Pentheus, 91 + + Periods of Building, 47-49 + + Piscina, 106 + + Plasterer at Work, *49 + + Plastering, *49 + + Pliny the Younger, 4, 5 + + Pompeii, History of, 1-8 + + Porcius, 101 + + Porta della Marina, 1, 12 + + Priapus, 85 + + Private Houses, 39 + + Proculus and his Wife, W., *53, 53-55 + + Psyches, 95, *96 + + Punishment of Ixion, W., 92, *94 + + Purgatorium, 29 + + Pylades, 94 + + + Races, W., 95, *98 + + Rothschild, 69 + + Rufus, Cornelius, *58, 60 + + + Sacrifice of Iphigenia, W., 49, *50, 50-52 + + Sculpture, 89, *91 + + Senaculum, 26 + + Ships, Representations of, 93 + + Shops, 21 + + Stabiae, Street of, *14, 21 + + Standard measures, table of, *29 + + Stepping-stones, 18 + + Stibadium, 63 + + Stoves, 63, 64, *65 + + Streets, width of, 17 + + Strongboxes, 42, *43 + + Styles of art, *47, *48, 49 + + Sulla, 17 + + Symposium, W., *61 + + + Table of standard measures, *29 + + Tablinum, 42 + + Tepidarium, *37, 38, 106 + + Terentius Major, Tomb of, 102, 103 + + Theatres, *31, 32, 34 + + Thermae, *35, 35-39 + + Tombs, 98-105 + + Tombs, Street of, 98, *100, *101, 101-5 + + Towers, *10, 16 + + Triclinium, 42, 62 + + ---- Funebre, 99, 105, 107 + + Tripods, 63, *64 + + + Urania, 89, *105 + + Ustrinum, 98 + + + Vases, 73 + + Vespasian, Temple of, *25 + + Vestibulum, 40 + + Vesuvius, on a Wall-painting, *2, 82 + + Villa of Diomedes, *104, 104-106 + + + Wall Decorations, 45-55 + + Walls, *10, 16, 17 + + Wax tablets, 55, 60, *80, 83 + + Weapons, *34, *41, *44 + + Windows, *13, 19 + + + + +LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS + + + + + Front Excavation + + 1 Vesuvius before the Eruption + + 2 Contest between Pompeians and Nucerians in the Amphitheatre + + 3 Plaster-cast of a Pompeian Woman + + 4 Plaster-cast of a Dog + + 5 Panorama of Pompeii + + 6 The Street of Mercury + + 7 The Street of Nola and its continuation + + 8 Section of a Tower + + 9 View of the City Wall from outside + + 10 Section of the City Wall + + 11 The Gate of Herculaneum + + 12 The Street of Abundance + + 13 Window in Pompeii + + 14 Pompeian Inscription on Wall + + 15 Pompeian Graffito + + 16 Public Fountain + + 17 Street of Stabiae with water Reservoir + + 18 Restored View of a Cookshop + + 19 Cookshop of the Casa di Sullustio + + 20 Oilmerchant’s Shop + + 21 Entrance to the Triangular Forum + + 22 The Triangular Forum + + 23 The Forum Civile, seen from the South + + 24 Forum Civile, from the Temple of Jupiter + + 25 Life in the Forum + + 26 Bust of Jupiter + + 27 The Temple of Jupiter + + 28 The Temple of Jupiter, Reconstruction + + 29 The Macellum, (the Meat market) + + 30 Wall ornamented with pictures in the Macellum + + 31 The Temple of Vespasian + + 32 Altar of the Temple of Vespasian + + 33 Portrait statue of Eumachia + + 34 Statue of Apollo + + 35 The Basilica + + 36 The Temple of Apollo + + 37 Gauging Table from the Forum + + 38 The Temple of Fortune + + 39 The Temple of Isis + + 40 The smaller Theatre + + 41 The larger Theatre + + 42 Scene from a Comedy. Mosaic of Dioscurides + + 43 Interior view of the Amphitheatre + + 44 Barracks of the Gladiators + + 45 Weapons of Gladiators + + 46 Wall at the Stabian Baths + + 47 The Apodyterium + + 48 The Tepidarium of the Forum Baths + + 49 Arrangement of a Caldarium + + 50 Section of the Caldarium + + 51 Ground Plan of the House of Pansa + + 52 Atrium Tuscanicum + + 53 _Cave Canem_ + + 54 Doorknockers + + 55 Roman Dwellinghouse. Vista from the Atrium to the Peristyle + + 56 Scene from the Amphitheatre + + 57 External View of the Amphitheatre + + 58 Iron Strongbox + + 59 Domestic Shrine + + 60 Helmets for Gladiators + + 61 House with _Maenianum_ + + 62 Domestic Altar + + 63 Mosaic Threshold + + 64 Alexander’s Battle + + 65 Pompeian Mosaic + + 66 Wall Decoration of the First Style (Casa di Sallustio) + + 67 Wall Decoration of the Third Style (House of Spurius Mesor) + + 68 Process of Plastering + + 69 Wall Decoration. Fourth Style + + 70 Sacrifice of Iphigenia + + 71 Medea, from Herculaneum + + 72 The so-called Ephebus of bronze + + 73 Europa with the Bull + + 74 Mars and Venus + + 75 Paquius Proculus and his wife + + 76 Garden of the Casa di Lucrezio + + 77 The Dancing Faun + + 78 The so-called Narcissus + + 79 Cupid with a Dolphin + + 80 Casa del Balcone pensile + + 81 Mosaic Fountain + + 82 Atrium of the Casa di Cornelio Rufo + + 83 Bust of the Banker L. Caecilius Jucundus + + 84 Bust of Cornelius Rufus + + 85 A _Bisellium_ + + 86 Marble Table + + 87 Dining-couch of Bronze + + 88 A Symposium. Pompeian Wall-painting + + 89 Drinking-cup from Bosco Reale + + 90 Food-warmer + + 91 Tripods and Bronze Table + + 92 Portable Stove + + 93 Bronze Vessel for the preparation of _Calda_ + + 94 Food-warmer + + 95 Silver Cups + + 96 Candelabrum + + 97 Candelabrum + + 98 Bronze Vessel + + 99 Silver Jugs + + 100 The Tutelary Goddess of Alexandria + + 101 Mirror with the Bust of Ariadne + + 102 Cup with Olivewreath + + 103 Cup with Still Life + + 104 House of Pansa + + 105 Bakery with Mills + + 106 House of the Tragic Poet + + 107 Pompeian Loaves + + 108 Fullonica (Fulling-mill) + + 109 Casa del Fauno + + 110 The Fuller at his Work + + 111 Casa dei Capitelli colorati (Casa d’Arianna) + + 112 Casa dei Capitelli colorati (Casa d’Arianna) + + 113 Casa del Centenario + + 114 Casa del Imperatore di Germania + + 115 Wax tablet from the House of Caecilius Jucundus + + 116 House with several stories + + 117 Kitchen with Hearth + + 118 Plan of the House of the Vettii + + 119 Love on a Crab + + 120 Love with Dolphins + + 121 Candelabrum, Wall-painting + + 122 Hero and Leander + + 123 Cyparissus + + 124 The Shrine of the Lares + + 125 The Peristyle of the House of the Vettii + + 126 Bacchus + + 127 Bacchus and Ariadne + + 128 Hercules strangling Serpents + + 129 Daedalus and Pasiphae + + 130 Ixion’s Punishment + + 131 Psyches gathering Flowers + + 132 Cupid as Host + + 133 A Race + + 134 Achilles at the Court of Lycomedes + + 135 The Street of Tombs by the Gate of Herculaneum + + 136 Continuation of the Street of Tombs + + 137 Interior of a Grave + + 138 Vessel of blue Glass + + 139 Herm-cippus + + 140 Sepulchral Monument of Naevoleia Tyche + + 141 Villa of Diomedes + + 142 Urania + + 143 Bronze Bowl + + 144 Boy with Duck + + End Map of Pompeii + + +Transcriber’s Notes. + +Italic text is indicated with _underscores_, bold text with =equals=. +Small/mixed capitals have been replaced with ALL CAPITALS. + +Evident typographical and punctuation errors have been corrected +silently. Inconsistent spelling/hyphenation has been normalised. + +To improve text flow, illustrations have been relocated between +paragraphs. Page numbers in the list of illustrations have been +discarded. + + +*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 78658 *** |