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*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 78154 ***




                                ART AND
                           THE HUMAN SPIRIT

               _The Meaning and Relations of Sculpture,
                      Painting, Poetry and Music_

                     A Handbook of Eight Lectures
                                  By
                         EDWARD HOWARD GRIGGS


                               NEW YORK
                             B. W. HUEBSCH
                                 1908




                            COPYRIGHT, 1908
                                  BY
                         EDWARD HOWARD GRIGGS

“I believe in God, Mozart, and Beethoven, and in their disciples and
apostles; I believe in the Holy Ghost and the truth of Art--one and
indivisible; I believe that this art proceeds from God and dwells in
the hearts of all enlightened men; I believe that whoever has revelled
in the glorious joys of this high art must be forever devoted to it
and can never repudiate it; I believe that all may become blessed
through this art, and that therefore it is permitted to any one to
die of hunger for its sake; I believe that I shall become most happy
through death; I believe that I have been on earth a discordant chord,
that shall be made harmonious and clear by death. I believe in a
last judgment, that shall fearfully damn all those who have dared on
this earth to make profit out of this chaste and holy art--who have
disgraced it and dishonored it through badness of heart and the coarse
instincts of sensuality; I believe that such men will be condemned to
hear their own music through all eternity. I believe, on the other
hand, that the true disciples of pure art will be glorified in a divine
atmosphere of sun-illumined, fragrant concords, and united eternally
with the divine source of all harmony. And may a merciful lot be
granted me! Amen!”

--Wagner, in “_An End in Paris_,” _Art Life and Theories_, p. 90.




INDEX


                                                               PAGE

     Note: Spirit of the Course                                   7

  1. The Expression and Interpretation of Human Life in Art       9

  2. The Primitive Sources of Art                                14

  3. The Race, the Epoch and the Individual in Art               19

  4. The Meaning and Function of Sculpture and Painting          24

  5. The Meaning and Function of Music                           29

  6. The Meaning and Function of Poetry                          35

  7. Literature and Liberal Culture                              40

  8. Beauty and the Culture of the Spirit                        45

     Suggestions to Students                                     50

     Book List                                                   51




SPIRIT OF THE COURSE


There is evident in our country to-day a great turning of energy to the
higher interests of human life, especially to the fine arts. Apparently
some part of the enthusiasm and youthful power that has built so
wonderful a material civilization is now set free for the pursuit of
beauty and wisdom. We send our students far and wide to the schools and
galleries of the old world; we build art museums in all our cities,
and cultivate music with a new earnestness. Unfortunately the noble
promise in this awakening is hampered by grave misconceptions as to
the meaning of art in relation to the human spirit. Widely, among high
and low alike, art is regarded as a pleasant adornment of life, worth
seeking after the serious business of our existence is fulfilled, but
quite dispensable meantime. Others--well-meaning people--hold art to be
justified only by some obvious moral teaching it conveys. In reaction
against this view and as a result of the difficult technical problems
art presents, many artists fall into the equally unfortunate error of
regarding art as primarily an exhibition of skill, interpreting “art
for art’s sake” to mean art for technique’s sake.

There is no hope of giving art the place it should occupy in our
culture until these errors have been overcome. We must learn that art
is serious business, that beauty is the most useful thing we know, and
that art is not for adornment’s sake, or preaching’s sake, or art’s
sake, but that it is for _life’s sake_.

The aim of this course is, therefore, to consider as fully and
searchingly as possible the place and meaning of the fine arts in
relation to the spirit of man. We shall study first the unity of the
arts, their expression and interpretation in common of the universal
elements of human experience. Then the historic sources of the arts
and the great forces that determine the specific characteristics of
a masterpiece will be studied. The heart of the course will be an
effort to define the particular meaning and function of each of the
arts, the way in which it can express and interpret some phase of the
common human life more effectively than any other. Finally, the work
will close with a study of the ministry of the arts to man’s spirit and
their place in culture.

If art is for life’s sake for the appreciative student, even more is
it so for the creative artist. If often the lesser men have lived
to paint, or carve, or write, or sing, the great masters have ever
found art a way of life, have painted, carved, written, sung, _to
live_,--that through creative expression in art they might grow up into
the fullness of their own potential humanity. Thus it is necessary
that every one should be an artist in this high sense of the word; and
if that is impossible in what we call the fine arts, it is possible
in the finest of all, the one supreme art of living. The need is, not
that beauty should be added artificially to daily life, but that life
itself, in work, relationship and environment, should be made a fine
art. That this study may help a little to that end and so add something
of the joy that comes from supreme beauty, redeeming the commonplace
detail of life by clothing it with a transfiguring atmosphere and
exalting the spirit to a place where a serene vision of life in
relation is possible, is the hope with which the work is undertaken.




I. THE EXPRESSION AND INTERPRETATION OF HUMAN LIFE IN ART

 Art is the adequate and harmonious expression and interpretation of
 some phase of man’s life in true relation to the whole.

 --Edward Howard Griggs.


=Purpose of the course.=--To consider the whole meaning of the fine
arts; the relations they sustain to each other; the sources from
which they spring; their two-fold relation to the human spirit,--as
expressing and interpreting life and as contributing to the higher
culture of man. The need and value of such study to-day, especially in
America.

=Popular superstitions in relation to art.=--Misconceptions met on
the threshold of our study: (1) The notion that art is a dispensable
luxury, to be cultivated as an adornment of life after our serious
business is accomplished. Prevalence of this error in the mind of the
general public; among those who regard themselves as polite society.
The artist’s bitter protest against this attitude in all epochs:
compare Carlyle; Goethe.

(2) The notion prevailing in the minds of many good people that art is
justified only by the moral lessons it teaches. Goethe’s view that this
destroys the artist’s vocation. The ethical significance of true art
organically in it, not tacked on in an Æsop’s fable moral at the end.

(3) In reaction against the second error, one prevailing in the
minds of many artists below the highest rank: the notion that art is
for the sake merely of exhibiting technical skill in the mastery of
difficulties. Causes of this error.

Essential that these three misconceptions should be corrected before
art can assume its rightful place in relation to our life. Our first
questions therefore: What is art, and what relation does it sustain to
the spirit of man?

=Unity and variety in art.=--Bewildering diversity of works of
art: compare in the same art; in different arts. Thus difficulty
of gathering all in a common statement. Yet the fact that we may
appreciate all, indicating a common basis. The arts, moreover,
springing from one historical source; while possible for the most
highly developed works of art in different fields to produce the
same dominant impression. Illustrate in the groups of men who are
brothers across the centuries. The source of this unity in all art the
expression everywhere of the same universal basis of human life.

The simple, generic elements of life as always expressed in art through
the medium of personality. Thus true art ever fresh and vital--a new
equation of old forces. Compare Homer’s _Odyssey_ and Stephen Phillip’s
_Ulysses_.

Not all expression art. The conditioning principles of adequacy and
harmony of expression distinguishing true art from what fails to rise
to its plane. The further principle that the part must be treated in
sound relation to the whole of human life. Compare in the portrayal of
moral evil. What distinguishes Dante and Shakespeare from the vicious
type of novel in such portrayal.

=Interpretation of life.=--All expression involving as well some
measure of interpretation; that is, all art inevitably ideal as well as
real in the presentation of life and nature. Compare even in amateur
photography: how there is inevitably selection of material and point of
view. Compare in the novel that attempts merely a realistic portraiture
of life. How even the selection of the part of the material out of
the whole and the adoption of a view-point in its treatment, bringing
certain elements into the foreground and subordinating others in the
background, means putting life and nature through the transmuting
spectrum of the artist’s spirit in expressing them.

=Further elements of idealism.=--Raising life to a higher plane of
expression than is usual in the real world: compare the characters of
Shakespeare; the paintings of Corot and Millet.

The tendency in art to carry the laws of life out full circle, thus
giving an ethical completeness wanting in actual life.

The addition of a unifying and interpreting atmosphere. Compare in
Titian; Beethoven; Dante.

=The definition of art.=--Summing up of all the aspects developed in
the relation of art to the human spirit: thus the inclusive definition.

Hence the serious business of art. The relation of the beautiful to the
useful. The meaning of art in the life of man.


ILLUSTRATIONS

 “The useful encourages itself; for the multitude produce it, and no
 one can dispense with it: the beautiful must be encouraged; for few
 can set it forth, and many need it.”

 --Goethe, _Wilhelm Meister_, translated by Carlyle (A. C. McClurg &
 Co., 1890), vol. 2, p. 129.

 “I do not object to a dramatic poet having a moral influence in view;
 but when the point is to bring his subject clearly and effectively
 before his audience, his moral purpose proves of little use, and he
 needs much more a faculty for delineation and a familiarity with the
 stage to know what to do and what to leave undone. If there be a moral
 in the subject, it will appear, and the poet has nothing to consider
 but the effective and artistic treatment of his subject. If the poet
 has as high a soul as Sophocles, his influence will always be moral,
 let him do what he will.”

 --Goethe, _Conversations with Eckermann and Soret_, p. 228.

 “The praiseworthy object of pursuing everywhere moral good as
 the supreme aim, which has already brought forth in art so much
 mediocrity, has caused also in theory a similar prejudice. To assign
 to the fine arts a really elevated position, to conciliate for them
 the favour of the State, the veneration of all men, they are pushed
 beyond their true domain, and a vocation is imposed upon them contrary
 to their nature. It is supposed that a great service is awarded them
 by substituting for a frivolous aim,--that of charming--a moral aim;
 and their influence upon morality, which is so apparent, necessarily
 militates in favour of this pretension.”

 --Schiller, _Essays Æsthetical and Philosophical_, pp. 361, 362.

 “Just as the sun cannot shed its light but to the eye that sees it,
 nor music sound but to the hearing ear, so the value of all masterly
 work in art and science is conditioned by the kinship and capacity
 of the mind to which it speaks. It is only such a mind as this that
 possesses the magic word to stir and call forth the spirits that lie
 hidden in great work. To the ordinary mind a masterpiece is a sealed
 cabinet of mystery,--an unfamiliar musical instrument from which
 the player, however much he may flatter himself, can draw none but
 confused tones. How different a painting looks when seen in a good
 light, instead of in some dark corner! Just in the same way, the
 impression made by a masterpiece varies with the capacity of the mind
 to understand it.”

 --Schopenhauer, _The Art of Literature_, p. 94.

 “From the combined effort of the two schools of criticism, guardians
 of public tranquillity, there results a salutary reaction. This
 reaction has already produced some specimens of poets,--steady,
 well-bred, prudent, whose style always keeps good hours; who never
 indulge in an outing with those mad creatures, Ideas; who are
 never met at the corner of a wood, _solus cum solâ_, with Reverie,
 that gypsy girl; who are incapable of having relations either with
 Imagination, dangerous vagabond, or with the bacchante Inspiration, or
 with the grisette Fancy; who have never in their lives given a kiss to
 that beggarly chit, the Muse; who never sleep away from home, and who
 are honored with the esteem of their door-keeper, Nicholas Boileau. If
 Polyhymnia goes by with her hair floating a little, what a scandal!
 Quick! they call the hairdresser. M. de la Harpe comes hastily. These
 two sister schools of criticism, that of the doctrinaire and that of
 the sacristan, undertake to educate. They bring up little writers.
 They keep a place to wean them,--a boarding-school for juvenile
 reputations.”

 --Victor Hugo, _William Shakespeare_, pp. 208, 209.

 “The passions, whether violent or not, must never be carried in their
 expression to the verge of disgust, and music, even in the most awful
 situations, must not offend the ear, but always please.”

 --Mozart, in Kerst, _Mozart: The Man and the Artist_, pp. 34, 35.

 “He was a good man and on that very account, a great man. For when
 a good man is gifted with talent, he always works morally for the
 salvation of the world, as poet, philosopher, artist, or in whatever
 way it may be.”

 --Goethe, _Conversations with Eckermann and Soret_, p. 364.

 “The historical painter also must take good care, if he would not
 produce a caricature, even in subjects of an action moved by passion,
 not to give every one of his figures the sharply imprinted expression
 of an emotion. Thus, Orcagna, in his _Last Judgment_ (in the _Campo
 santo_ at Pisa), represents with fearful truthfulness, and in a most
 startling manner, on the side of the damned, terrified surprise,
 horror, lamentation and despair; but for all that it would be but a
 crowd of people making faces if the artist did not contrast it with
 the uniformly tranquil, radiant joy on the faces of the saved, and the
 solemn gravity of the patriarchs and prophets. In Leonardo da Vinci’s
 _Last Supper_ is placed by the side of the violent gesticulations and
 excited looks of some of the apostles, in well-calculated contrasting
 relief, the composed demeanor of others, especially of the one
 sitting at the right of the beholder at the end of the table, but
 particularly the divinely mild gravity and the sorrowful resignation
 of the principal figure in the middle. Even in the most tumultuous
 of all historical pictures, the celebrated Pompeian mosaic picture
 of Alexander’s battle, the universal horror at the fall of the
 commander-in-chief is _completely_ portrayed only in some figures.”

 --Ambros, _The Boundaries of Music and Poetry_, pp. 56, 57.

 “Beauty results from the harmony between spirit and sense; it
 addresses all the faculties of man, and can only be appreciated if
 a man employs fully all his strength. He must bring to it an open
 sense, a broad heart, a spirit full of freshness. All a man’s nature
 must be on the alert, and this is not the case with those divided by
 abstraction, narrowed by formulas, enervated by application.”

 --Schiller, _Essays Æsthetical and Philosophical_, p. 330.

 “A masterpiece exists once for all. The first poet who arrives,
 arrives at the summit. You shall ascend after him, as high, not
 higher. Ah! Your name is Dante? Very well; but he who sits yonder is
 named Homer!”

 --Victor Hugo, _William Shakespeare_, p. 101.

 “The unpoetical lover of art, ensconced in his burgess-like comfort,
 is apt to take offence at any part of a poetical work which entails
 trouble on him, such as the solution, colouring or concealment of
 a problem. The somnolent reader wants everything to pursue its
 natural course, little imagining in his obstinate conceit how the
 extraordinary may also be natural.”

 --Goethe, _Travels in Italy_, p. 466.


TOPICS FOR STUDY AND DISCUSSION

1. What is common and universal in the subject-matter of the fine arts?

2. Compare Homer’s _Odyssey_ and the _Ulysses_ of Stephen Phillips as
artistic treatments of the same theme.

3. Can you discover a musical composition and a work in painting that
produce the same dominant impression with the _Agamemnon Trilogy_ of
Æschylus?

4. Can you find a type of poetry and of painting akin in impression to
the music of Chopin?

5. What makes possible our common appreciation of works of art in
widely different fields and coming from remotely separated races and
epochs?

6. Explain how all the characters of Shakespeare can speak such
beautiful poetry, and yet Shakespeare be regarded as the great realist
in the portrayal of life.

7. What relation do the paintings of Corot sustain to Nature?

8. How far may moral disease wisely be portrayed in art?

9. Show what is necessary to make expression truly artistic.

10. Formulate your own definition of art.


REFERENCES

NOTE: See Book List, pp. 51-57, for publisher and place and date of
publication of all books referred to.

 Ambros, _Boundaries of Music and Poetry_. Carpenter, _Angels’ Wings_.
 Corson, _Aims of Literary Study_. Crawshaw, _Literary Interpretation
 of Life_. Emerson, _Art_ (in _Essays, first series_, pp. 325-343);
 _Art_ (in _Society and Solitude_, pp. 39-59). Hand, _Æsthetics of
 Musical Art_. Hugo, _William Shakespeare_. Knight, _The Philosophy of
 the Beautiful_. Lanier, _Music and Poetry_. Leighton, _Addresses_.
 Lewes, _Principles of Success in Literature_. Mabie, _Short Studies
 in Literature_. Parry, _The Evolution of the Art of Music_.
 Partridge, _Art for America_. Raymond, _Art in Theory_; _Essentials
 of Æsthetics_. Ruskin, _Lectures on Art_; _Modern Painters_; _The Two
 Paths_. Schiller, _Essays_. Schopenhauer, _The Art of Literature_.
 Shairp, _Aspects of Poetry_. Stedman, _Nature and Elements of Poetry_.
 Tolstoy, _What is Art?_ Van Dyke, _How to Judge of a Picture_;
 _Principles of Art_. Wagner, _Art Life and Theories of_. Wilde, _The
 Critic as Artist_.




II. THE PRIMITIVE SOURCES OF ART

 “The secret, mysterious relations of the human heart to the strange
 nature around it, have not yet come to an end. In its eloquent
 silence, this latter still speaks to the heart just as it did a
 thousand years ago; and what was told in the very gray of antiquity is
 understood to-day as easily as then. For this reason it is that the
 legend of nature ever remains the inexhaustible resource of the poet
 in his intercourse with his people.”

 --Wagner, in “Der Freischütz in Paris,” _Art Life and Theories_, p. 99.


=Evolution of the arts.=--The primitive hymns sung in honor of a
God and accompanied by interpretative dancing. How the various fine
arts are differentiated from this historic basis. The same law of
evolution applying to all expressions of life evident in the arts. A
generic unity in the primitive basis, sometimes wanting in the later
differentiated forms.

=The original inspiration of art.=--Significance in the fact that all
art springs first from religion. Profound seriousness of early art.
This religious earnestness persisting in all great art. Thus deep
meaning in the primitive sources from which art springs.

=The character of early art.=--Antecedent to written literature a great
storehouse of popular thought, feeling and imagination which we call
mythology. The process by which this is developed, accumulated and
handed down from generation to generation. Value of the product as a
condensed and refined result of long ages of human life. Compare in
value with great literary masterpieces produced by individual geniuses.

Vitality of mythology, due to the closeness of primitive man to Nature
and the simple things of human life. Evidence in the spontaneous
metaphorical character of all early language: Illustrations.

The truth in mythology, due to a sound reaction on the world. Contrast
the truth of incident with the truth of character. Aristotle’s view of
poetry as truer than history. The true and the false fairy-tale: a mere
jumble of adventure contrasted with a portrayal of character naturally
unfolding in relation to circumstance and law.

Universality of mythology. The few, great, simple elements that make
up human life in all times and places. Tendency to hark back to these
from the conventions and artificialities of civilization. Constant
expression of these in primitive art: compare the Brunhild story. Thus
ethical depth in all the gathered-up result of early life. Simple but
clear recognition of the great laws of life.

Natural but inevitable art in the great expressions of early life.
Characteristics of that art in comparison with the form of later
masterpieces.

=The ethical value of mythology.=--The moral plane of primitive life in
comparison with later civilization. Thus elements in mythology below
the level of our ethical standards of to-day. Yet moral development
proceeding not only from the lower to the higher, but from the simple
to the complex. Compare the complication of ethical situations and
standards in our life. Difficulty in distinguishing good and evil.
Expression of this in Ibsen and Goethe. Contrasting simplicity of
primitive mythology: its simple and clear opposition of good and evil.
Usual representation of good as conquering. Illustrations in both
Greek and northern legends. Thus mythology presenting the basal moral
principles that should be clearly recognized before the literature
is studied that portrays the ethical subtleties and complications of
modern life.

A further ethical element in primitive mythology: good not always
conquering; but when defeated, going down with colors flying, thus
making of defeat the noblest of moral victories. Compare in the
Prometheus legend; the story of Beowulf.

=The relation of mythology to later art.=--The need of the late
artist to saturate himself in the springs of the race life: compare
in Tennyson and Wagner. The use of mythology and religion in Greek
sculpture; Renaissance painting; poetry; music.

=Important types of primitive material.=--The three sources of early
material drawn from most largely by European art: (1) Hebraic stories;
(2) Greek and Latin mythology; (3) Norse legends. The complementary
character of these three bodies of material. The Hebraic stories as
presenting the deepest recognition of moral law and purpose. Greek
mythology as beautiful and artistic. Norse stories as most deeply human
and at the same time the ethnic background from which our art springs.

Thus the value of primitive mythology and religion: (1) as sources
of later art; (2) as inspiration of art to-day; (3) as valuable
permanently in education.


ILLUSTRATIONS

 “Art rests upon a kind of religious sense: it is deeply and
 ineradicably in earnest. Thus it is that Art so willingly goes hand in
 hand with Religion.”

 --Goethe, _Maxims and Reflections_, p. 174.

 “The essence of the Scandinavian, as indeed of all pagan mythologies,
 we found to be recognition of the divineness of nature; sincere
 communion of man with the mysterious invisible powers visibly seen at
 work in the world round him. This, I should say, is more sincerely
 done in the Scandinavian than in any mythology I know. Sincerity is
 the great character of it. Superior sincerity (far superior) consoles
 us for the total want of old Grecian grace. Sincerity, I think, is
 better than grace. I feel that these old northmen were looking into
 nature with open eye and soul most earnest, honest; childlike, and yet
 manlike; with a great-hearted simplicity and depth and freshness, in a
 true, loving, admiring, unfearing way.”

 --Carlyle, _Heroes and Hero-Worship_, p. 30.

 “When imagination incessantly escapes from reality, and does not
 abandon the simplicity of nature in its wanderings: then and then only
 the mind and the senses, the receptive force and the plastic force,
 are developed in that happy equilibrium which is the soul of the
 beautiful and the condition of humanity.”

 --Schiller, _Essays Æsthetical and Philosophical_, p. 106.

 “The law of simplicity and naïvety holds good of all fine art; for it
 is quite possible to be at once simple and sublime.”

 --Schopenhauer, _The Art of Literature_, p. 31.

 “To speak out once for all, man only plays when in the full meaning of
 the word he is a man, and _he is only completely a man when he plays_.”

 --Schiller, _Essays Æsthetical and Philosophical_, p. 71.

 “Ah!--if you would and could but hear and see our _true_
 Freischütz,--you might feel the anxiety that now oppresses me, in the
 form of a friendly appreciation on your own part of the peculiarity
 of that spiritual life, which belongs to the German nation as a
 birthright; you would look kindly upon the silent attraction that
 draws the German away from the life of his large cities,--wretched
 and clumsily imitative of foreign influences, as it is,--and takes
 him back to nature; attracts him to the solitude of the forests, that
 he may there re-awaken those emotions for which your language has not
 even a word,--but which those mystic, clear tones of our Weber explain
 to us as thoroughly as your exquisite decorations and enervating music
 must make them lifeless and irrecognizable for you.”

 --Wagner, in “Der Freischütz in Paris,” _Art Life and Theories_, pp.
 106, 107.

 “You remember the fancy of Plato’s, of a man who had grown to maturity
 in some dark distance, and was brought on a sudden into the upper air
 to see the sun rise. What would his wonder be, his rapt astonishment
 at the sight we daily witness with indifference! With the free open
 sense of a child, yet with the ripe faculty of a man, his whole
 heart would be kindled by that sight, he would discern it well to be
 godlike, his soul would fall down in worship before it. Now, just
 such a childlike greatness was in the primitive nations. The first
 pagan thinker among rude men, the first man that began to think,
 was precisely this child-man of Plato’s. Simple, open as a child,
 yet with the depth and strength of a man. Nature had as yet no name
 to him; he had not yet united under a name the infinite variety of
 sights, sounds, shapes and motions, which we now collectively name
 universe, nature, or the like,--and so with a name dismiss it from us.
 To the wild deep-hearted man all was yet new, not veiled under names
 or formulas; it stood naked, flashing-in on him there, beautiful,
 awful, unspeakable. Nature was to this man, what to the thinker and
 prophet it forever is, _preter_-natural. This green flowery rock-built
 earth, the trees, the mountains, rivers, many-sounding seas;--that
 great deep sea of azure that swims overhead; the wind sweeping through
 it; the black cloud fashioning itself together, now pouring out fire,
 now hail and rain; what _is_ it? Ay, what? At bottom we do not yet
 know; we can never know at all. It is not by our superior insight
 that we escape the difficulty; it is by our superior levity, our
 inattention, our _want_ of insight. It is by _not_ thinking that we
 cease to wonder at it. Hardened round us, encasing wholly every notion
 we form, is a wrappage of traditions, hearsays; mere _words_. We
 call that fire of the black thunder cloud “electricity,” and lecture
 learnedly about it, and grind the like of it out of glass and silk;
 but _what_ is it? What made it? Whence comes it? Whither goes it?
 Science has done much for us; but it is a poor science that would hide
 from us the great deep sacred infinitude of Nescience, whither we can
 never penetrate, on which all science swims as a mere superficial
 film. This world, after all our science and sciences, is still a
 miracle; wonderful, inscrutable, _magical_ and more, to whosoever will
 _think_ of it.”

 --Carlyle, _Heroes and Hero-Worship_, pp. 7, 8.


TOPICS FOR STUDY AND DISCUSSION

1. Compare, in ethical vitality and artistic beauty, primitive
mythology and later masterpieces.

2. To what extent do the different arts depend upon primitive mythology
and religion as sources for their material?

3. What is the relative value, for the understanding of European art,
of Greek and Norse mythology?

4. Compare, in ethical vitality and artistic beauty, Tennyson’s
_Passing of Arthur_ and the concluding portion of _Beowulf_.

5. Why is the late artist led so frequently to saturate himself with
the expressions of early life?

6. What is the relative ethical value of Hebrew stories and Norse myths?

7. From what early sources does Renaissance painting chiefly draw?

8. Compare the ethical plane in Greek and Norse mythology with that
achieved in later civilization.

9. From what historic sources does English poetry chiefly draw?

10. What is the value of primitive mythology for the education of
children?


REFERENCES

 Anderson, _Norse Mythology_; _The Younger Edda_. Brown, _The
 Fine Arts_. Bulfinch, _The Age of Chivalry_; _The Age of Fable_.
 Carlyle, _The Hero as Divinity_. Cox, _Introduction to the Science
 of Comparative Mythology_; _The Mythology of the Aryan Nations_.
 Donaldson, _Theatre of the Greeks_. Fairbanks, _The Mythology of
 Greece and Rome_. Gayley, _Classic Myths in English Literature_.
 Goldziher, _Mythology among the Hebrews_. Grosse, _The Beginnings of
 Art_. Guerber, _Myths of Greece and Rome_; _Myths of Northern Lands_.
 Gummere, _The Beginnings of Poetry_; _Handbook of Poetics_. Mabie,
 _Short Studies in Literature_. Malory, _Le Morte Darthur_. Parry, _The
 Evolution of the Art of Music_. Posnett, _Comparative Literature_.
 Shairp, _Poetic Interpretation of Nature_. Wagner, _Art Life and
 Theories of_.




III. THE RACE, THE EPOCH AND THE INDIVIDUAL IN ART

 “We live in this world only that we may go onward without ceasing, a
 peculiar help in this direction being that one enlightens the other by
 communicating his ideas; in the sciences and fine arts there is always
 more to learn.”

 --Mozart, in Kerst, _Mozart: The Man and the Artist_, p. 89.


=Determining forces behind art.=--So far we have considered the
great common sources of art; now to turn to the causes giving unique
characteristics to each work of art.

=The personal element.=--In art the great common basis of human life
expressed only through the medium of personality; thus the character
and experience of the artist always revealed in the work, and molding
it. Compare Mozart and Beethoven in music; Fra Angelico and Fra Lippo
Lippi in painting.

Compare Tennyson’s _Crossing the Bar_ and Browning’s _Epilogue to
Asolando_. Differences in imagery, music, type of thought and feeling,
general view of life. Yet these two poems coming from the same time and
race. Complete revelation of Tennyson and Browning in these fragments.

Relation of the material given in biography to the self-confession in
art. Compare the revelation of Andrea del Sarto in the traditional
biography and in his painting. The expression of Chopin’s personality
and experience in his music. Revelation of the artist even when the
work is most objective and dramatic in character. Compare how it is
possible to find Shakespeare behind his dramas.

The development of the artist revealed where works come from different
periods of his life. Illustrations in Goethe, Wagner, Shakespeare; in
the early and late _Pietà_ of Michael Angelo.

=The epoch.=--The forces of the time always molding the spirit of the
individual artist. The epoch a complex of many forces, yet out of them
a true “time-spirit” created. Effect of internal changes in a land; of
the reception of foreign stimulus; of the natural growth and decay of
the forces of life.

Different types of epoch: in production and preparation, faith and
doubt, creation and criticism. The artist inevitably influenced by
the spirit of the age, whether conscious of the fact or not. The two
contrasting types of relation the artist may sustain to his time.
Compare Emerson in relation to America’s civilization; Fra Angelico
as an expression of the Renaissance. So compare Dante as a voice of
the middle ages; Leonardo da Vinci in relation to the Renaissance. The
common spirit in the Elizabethan dramatists. Wagner’s operas as an
embodiment of modern life. Significance of the two dominant motives in
modern painting.

Possible further to trace the development of an epoch through the
art in which it is expressed. The half-circle through which every
productive epoch tends to pass. This due to the birth, maturing
and decay of the forces influencing life. Contrasting tendencies
in the artists appearing on the upward and on the downward slope.
Illustrations in Elizabethan drama and Renaissance painting.

=The race.=--The epoch but a moment in the life of a people. As the
time-spirit finds varying expression in the different artists in which
it is clothed, so the deeper, organic life of a race as beneath all
the epochs characterizing its unfolding. Evidence in the fact that
each race is apt to find its highest expression in one art. Compare
sculpture in Greece; painting in Italy; music in Germany; the drama in
England. Similarly every expression of a race revealing its spirit.
Compare the coloring in Dutch and Italian painting; nature-imagery in
English and Italian poetry.

Possible also to trace the development of a race through its artistic
expression. The life of a race as comparable to a great on-flowing
stream with rise and fall, ever deepening and enlarging as the race
develops. Compare in the development of English literature. Elements
which persist under all the changes. Compare Tennyson’s _Passing of
Arthur_ and the closing portion of _Beowulf_.

Thus the least fragment of art embodying the spirit of the artist, the
deeper life of the epoch, the still more fundamental characteristics
of the race, while beneath all are the great, universal tendencies of
humanity.


ILLUSTRATIONS

 “The most profound erudition is no more akin to genius than a
 collection of dried plants is like Nature, with its constant flow of
 new life, ever fresh, ever young, ever changing. There are no two
 things more opposed than the childish naïvety of an ancient author and
 the learning of his commentator.”

 --Schopenhauer, _The Art of Literature_, p. 52.

 “At a distance we only hear of the first artists, and then we are
 often contented with names only; but when we draw nearer to this
 starry sky, and the luminaries of the second and third magnitude also
 begin to twinkle, each one coming forward and occupying his proper
 place in the whole constellation, then the world becomes wide, and art
 becomes rich.”

 --Goethe, _Travels in Italy_, p. 36.

 “I carry my thoughts about me for a long time, often a very long time,
 before I write them down; meanwhile my memory is so faithful that I
 am sure never to forget, not even in years, a theme that has once
 occurred to me. I change many things, discard, and try again until I
 am satisfied. Then, however, there begins in my head the development
 in every direction, and, inasmuch as I know exactly what I want, the
 fundamental idea never deserts me,--it arises before me, grows,--I see
 and hear the picture in all its extent and dimensions stand before
 my mind like a cast, and there remains for me nothing but the labor
 of writing it down, which is quickly accomplished when I have the
 time, for I sometimes take up other work, but never to the confusion
 of one with the other. You will ask me where I get my ideas. That
 I can not tell you with certainty; they come unsummoned, directly,
 indirectly,--I could seize them with my hands,--out in the open air;
 in the woods; while walking; in the silence of the nights; early in
 the morning; incited by moods, which are translated by the poet into
 words, by me into tones that sound, and roar and storm about me until
 I have set them down in notes.”

 --Beethoven, in Kerst, _Beethoven: The Man and the Artist_, p. 29.

 “Art has to leave reality, it has to raise itself boldly above
 necessity and neediness; for art is the daughter of freedom, and it
 requires its prescriptions and rules to be furnished by the necessity
 of spirits and not by that of matter. But in our day it is necessity,
 neediness, that prevails, and bends a degraded humanity under its iron
 yoke. _Utility_ is the great idol of the time, to which all powers
 do homage and all subjects are subservient. In this great balance of
 utility, the spiritual service of art has no weight, and, deprived of
 all encouragement, it vanishes from the noisy Vanity Fair of our time.
 The very spirit of philosophical inquiry itself robs the imagination
 of one promise after another, and the frontiers of art are narrowed,
 in proportion as the limits of science are enlarged.”

 --Schiller, _Essays Æsthetical and Philosophical_, pp. 27, 28.

 “People always fancy that we must become old to become wise; but, in
 truth, as years advance, it is hard to keep ourselves as wise as we
 were. Man becomes, indeed, in the different stages of his life, a
 different being; but he cannot say that he is a better one, and, in
 certain matters, he is as likely to be right in his twentieth, as in
 his sixtieth year.

 “We see the world one way from a plain, another way from the heights
 of a promontory, another from the glacier fields of the primary
 mountains. We see, from one of these points, a larger piece of the
 world than from the other; but that is all, and we cannot say that
 we see more truly from any one than from the rest. When a writer
 leaves monuments on the different steps of his life, it is chiefly
 important that he should have an innate foundation and goodwill; that
 he should, at each step, have seen and felt clearly, and that, without
 any secondary aims, he should have said distinctly and truly what has
 passed in his mind. Then will his writings, if they were right at the
 step where they originated, remain always right, however the writer
 may develop or alter himself in after times.”

 --Goethe, _Conversations with Eckermann and Soret_, p. 512.

 “That which distinguishes genius, and should be the standard for
 judging it, is the height to which it is able to soar when it is in
 the proper mood and finds a fitting occasion--a height always out of
 the reach of ordinary talent.”

 --Schopenhauer, _The Art of Literature_, p. 88.

 “It seems as though purely human feeling, grown stronger by its very
 repression on the side of conventional civilization, had sought out a
 means of bringing into use some laws of language peculiar to itself,
 by means of which it could express itself intelligibly, freed from the
 trammels of logical rules of thought. The extraordinary popularity of
 music in our age, the ever-increasing participation (extending through
 all classes of society) in the production of music of the deepest
 character, the growing desire to make of musical culture a necessary
 part of every education,--all these things which are certainly obvious
 and undeniable, distinctly prove the justice of the assumption that a
 deep-rooted and earnest need of humanity finds expression in modern
 musical development; and that music, unintelligible as its language is
 when tried by the laws of logic, must bear within it a more convincing
 means of making itself understood, than even those laws contain.”

 --Wagner, in “The Music of the Future,” _Art Life and Theories_, p.
 159.


TOPICS FOR STUDY AND DISCUSSION

1. What different types of relationship may artists sustain to the
world in which they live?

2. Show how Tennyson and Browning are revealed respectively in
_Crossing the Bar_ and the _Epilogue to Asolando_.

3. Compare Michael Angelo’s two interpretations of the same theme at
opposite ends of his artistic career: the _Pietà_ of St. Peter’s in
Rome, and the _Pietà_ of the Cathedral in Florence.

4. Compare English and Italian poetry in nature-imagery.

5. What relation does landscape painting sustain to the spirit of our
time?

6. In what ways are the tendencies of modern civilization expressed in
Wagner’s operas?

7. Through what type of movement does a creative period tend to pass,
and why?

8. What relation does sculpture sustain to the other arts in Greece?

9. What makes the Elizabethan drama the best expression of Anglo-Saxon
genius?

10. Show how the development of a race may be traced through its
artistic expressions.

11. Show the common racial tendencies in Tennyson’s _Passing of Arthur_
and the closing portion of _Beowulf_.


REFERENCES

 Bascom, _Philosophy of English Literature_. Carlyle, _The Hero
 as Divinity_. Carpenter, _Angels’ Wings_. Crawshaw, _Literary
 Interpretation of Life_. Engel, _Introduction to the Study of National
 Music_. Goethe, _Conversations with Eckermann_; _Travels in Italy_.
 Hugo, _William Shakespeare_. Kerst, _Beethoven_; _Mozart_. Lanier,
 _Music and Poetry_. Leighton, _Addresses_. Mabie, _Books and Culture_;
 _Short Studies in Literature_. Mach, _Greek Sculpture_. Morris, _Hopes
 and Fears for Art_. Palgrave, _Golden Treasury_. Partridge, _Art for
 America_. Posnett, _Comparative Literature_. Ruskin, _The Two Paths_.
 Schiller, _Essays_. Schopenhauer, _The Art of Literature_. Sturgis,
 _The Appreciation of Pictures_; _The Appreciation of Sculpture_.
 Taine, _Lectures on Art_. Van Dyke, _The Meaning of Pictures_. Vinci,
 _Leonardo da Vinci’s Note-Books_. Wagner, _Art Life and Theories of_;
 _Beethoven_. Warner, _The Relation of Literature to Life_. Wilde, _The
 Soul of Man under Socialism_. Witt, _How to Look at Pictures_.




IV. THE MEANING AND FUNCTION OF SCULPTURE AND PAINTING

 “If you know how to describe and write down the appearance of the
 forms, the painter can make them so that they appear enlivened with
 lights and shadows which create the very expression of the faces;
 herein you cannot attain with the pen where he attains with the brush.”

 --Leonardo da Vinci, _Leonardo da Vinci’s Note-Books_, arranged by
 Edward McCurdy, p. 159.


=Differences among the arts.=--Each fine art possessing its distinctive
line of appeal. This evidenced in the fact that it is rare to find
an artist, practising one, adequately appreciating others. Tendency
in artist and student alike to see the one art from within and
appreciate its significance, the others from without and perceive
their limitations. Evil of this. Great need that the artist should
saturate himself with the material of other arts than his own. Thus
need to see broadly and impersonally the meaning and function of each
art in relation to the spirit of man and in relation to the other arts
expressing the same universal basis.

The three questions: (1) What of the whole content of the human spirit
does the particular art express? (2) What is the means and method of
its expression? (3) What are its limitations?

Method of answering: not by philosophic theory, but by an open study
of works of art in each field. A little first-hand study of art better
worth while than much reading of criticism.

The fact of the permanence of a particular art proving that it
expresses or interprets some aspect of man’s spirit better or more
easily than any other. Compare, otherwise the art would not persist
except as novelty. Note the rise and subsidence of certain arts
historically. The reasons why mosaic work has lost the place it
occupied in the days when Ravenna’s churches were being adorned.
Compare changes in fresco painting. Significance of the permanence of
sculpture, painting, poetry and music.

=Characteristics of sculpture.=--The _Venus de Milo_ as a
representative work of ancient art. What is given in this statue?
Character of the conception embodied. Method by which it is expressed.
Effect on the beholder of the color of the marble and of the beauty
of technical execution. The deeper feelings one has in the presence
of the statue. Significance that these emotions vary with different
individuals; yet, the conception, if understood, entirely definite and
embodied in defined, permanent form. Thus the conception given, the
emotions, relatively speaking, associated.

The _Hermes_ of Praxiteles and the three _Goddesses_ of the Parthenon.
What these express in idea and execution. Causes of the feelings they
tend to arouse in the beholder. Difference in the ancient and modern
feeling associated with such a statue as the _Amazon_ of the Villa
Mattei.

Michael Angelo’s statues on the Medicean tombs. Comparison with Greek
sculpture in conception, execution and associated emotions.

Modern work in the field of sculpture analyzed. The _Joan of Arc_
of Chapu; other characteristic work in the Luxembourg gallery. Max
Klinger’s _Salome_.

Transition from sculpture to painting through relief-work. The _Nymph
and Infant Bacchus_; the bronze doors of Ghiberti.

=Painting.=--The Pompeian frescoes as painting in its nearest approach
to sculpture. These as presenting human figures, simply treated, with
slight background. Less complete and realistic form than in sculpture;
but vastly increased scope in both breadth and depth. Effect of the
much greater use of color.

Michael Angelo’s _Creation of Adam_; his _Last Judgment_. Difference in
feelings aroused by the latter work in accordance with the training and
belief of the beholder.

Raphael’s _Sistine Madonna_: the conception given; method by which
expressed. Direct emotional effect of the color used and of the grace
and beauty of execution.

Characteristics of a Corot landscape: what we feel in the presence of
it as compared with what the Greeks might have felt. The interpretation
of humanity in modern art: compare in Millet, Bastien-Lepage, Cormon.
Relation of conception to emotion in such work; contrast with the
painting of the Italian Renaissance.

=Summary.=--What sculpture and painting are alike capable of giving
definitely. Elements common to both in method. Differences between
them. What neither is capable of achieving. Why sculpture was the
characteristic art of the ancient Greeks, painting of the Renaissance
Italians.

All art appealing immediately to the senses; danger if it stops there.
The true appeal through the senses to the soul. Thus how art may
degenerate and become dangerous. The problem of Faust’s vision in the
mirror.


ILLUSTRATIONS

 “The eye, which is called the window of the soul, is the chief means
 whereby the understanding may most fully and abundantly appreciate the
 infinite works of nature; and the ear is the second inasmuch as it
 acquires its importance from the fact that it hears the things which
 the eye has seen. If you historians, or poets, or mathematicians had
 never seen things with your eyes you would be ill able to describe
 them in your writings. And if you, O poet, represent a story by
 depicting it with your pen, the painter with his brush will so render
 it as to be more easily satisfying and less tedious to understand.
 If you call painting ‘dumb poetry,’ then the painter may say of the
 poet that his art is ‘blind painting.’ Consider then which is the more
 grievous affliction, to be blind or be dumb! Although the poet has as
 wide a choice of subjects as the painter, his creations fail to afford
 as much satisfaction to mankind as do paintings, for while poetry
 attempts with words to represent forms, actions, and scenes, the
 painter employs the exact images of the forms in order to reproduce
 these forms. Consider, then, which is more fundamental to man, the
 name of man or his image? The name changes with change of country; the
 form is unchanged except by death.”

 --Leonardo da Vinci, _Leonardo da Vinci’s Note-Books_, arranged by
 Edward McCurdy, pp. 156, 157.

 “If the artist, out of ever-varying nature, can only make use of a
 single moment, and the painter especially can only use this moment
 from one point of view, whilst their works are intended to stand
 the test not only of a passing glance, but of long and repeated
 contemplation, it is clear that this moment, and the point from which
 this moment is viewed, cannot be chosen with too great a regard to
 results. Now that only is a happy choice which allows the imagination
 free scope. The longer we gaze, the more must our imagination add;
 and the more our imagination adds, the more we must believe we see.
 In the whole course of an emotion there is no moment which possesses
 this advantage so little as its highest stage. There is nothing beyond
 this; and the presentation of extremes to the eye clips the wings
 of fancy, prevents her from soaring beyond the impression of the
 senses, and compels her to occupy herself with weaker images; further
 than these she ventures not, but shrinks from the visible fulness of
 expression as her limit. Thus, if Laokoön sighs, the imagination can
 hear him shriek; but if he shrieks, it can neither rise a step higher
 above nor descend a step below this representation, without seeing
 him in a condition which, as it will be more endurable, becomes less
 interesting. It either hears him merely moaning, or sees him already
 dead.

 “Furthermore, this single moment receives through art an unchangeable
 duration; therefore it must not express anything, of which we can
 think only as transitory. All appearances, to whose very being,
 according to our ideas, it is essential that they suddenly break forth
 and as suddenly vanish, that they can be what they are but for a
 moment,--all such appearances, be they pleasing or be they horrible,
 receive, through the prolongation which art gives them, such an
 unnatural character, that at every repeated glance the impression they
 make grows weaker and weaker, and at last fills us with dislike or
 disgust of the whole object.”

 --Lessing, _Laokoön_, pp. 19, 20.

 “It is neither charm nor is it dignity which speaks from the glorious
 face of the Juno Ludovici; it is neither of these, for it is both at
 once. While the female god challenges our veneration, the godlike
 woman at the same time kindles our love. But while in ecstacy we give
 ourselves up to the heavenly beauty, the heavenly self-repose awes
 us back. The whole form rests and dwells in itself--a fully complete
 creation in itself--and as if she were out of space, without advance
 or resistance; it shows no force contending with force, no opening
 through which time could break in. Irresistibly carried away and
 attracted by her womanly charm, kept off at a distance by her godly
 dignity, we also find ourselves at length in the state of the greatest
 repose, and the result is a wonderful impression, for which the
 understanding has no idea and language no name.”

 --Schiller, _Essays Æsthetical and Philosophical_, p. 72.

 “As practising myself the art of sculpture no less than that of
 painting, and doing both the one and the other in the same degree,
 it seems to me that without suspicion of unfairness I may venture to
 give an opinion as to which of the two is the more intellectual, and
 of the greater difficulty and perfection. In the first place sculpture
 is dependent on certain lights, namely those from above, while a
 picture carries everywhere with it its own light and shade; light
 and shade therefore are essential to sculpture. In this respect the
 sculptor is aided by the nature of the relief which produces these
 of its own accord, but the painter artificially creates them by his
 art in places where nature would normally do the like. The sculptor
 cannot render the difference in the varying natures of the colours of
 objects; painting does not fail to do so in any particular. The lines
 of perspective of sculptors do not seem in any way true; those of
 painters may appear to extend a hundred miles beyond the work itself.”

 --Leonardo da Vinci, _Leonardo da Vinci’s Note-Books_, arranged by
 Edward McCurdy, pp. 160, 161.

 “What the artist does or has done excites in us the mood in which he
 himself was when he did it. A free mood in the artist makes us free; a
 constrained one makes us uncomfortable. We usually find this freedom
 of the artist where he is fully equal to his subject. It is on this
 account we are so pleased with Dutch pictures; the artists painted the
 life around them, of which they were perfect masters. If we are to
 feel this freedom of mind in an actor, he must, by study, imagination,
 and natural disposition, be perfect master of his part, must have all
 bodily requisites at his command, and must be upheld by a certain
 youthful energy. But study is not enough without imagination, and
 study and imagination together are not enough without natural
 disposition. Women do the most through imagination and temperament.”

 --Goethe, _Conversations with Eckermann and Soret_, pp. 417, 418.

 “If you would have me speak only of panel painting I am content to
 give an opinion between it and sculpture by saying that painting is
 more beautiful, more imaginative, and richer in resource, while
 sculpture is more enduring, but excels in nothing else. Sculpture
 reveals what it is with little effort; painting seems a thing
 miraculous, making things intangible appear tangible, presenting in
 relief things which are flat, in distance things near at hand. In fact
 painting is adorned with infinite possibilities of which sculpture can
 make no use.”

 --Leonardo da Vinci, _Leonardo da Vinci’s Note-Books_, arranged by
 Edward McCurdy, p. 162.


TOPICS FOR STUDY AND DISCUSSION

1. What peculiar excellences has sculpture that are shown by no other
art?

2. What special excellences has painting that are shown by no other art?

3. What cannot be directly or adequately expressed in sculpture? In
painting?

4. Compare in conception, execution and associated emotions Andrea del
Sarto’s and Leonardo da Vinci’s painting of the _Last Supper_.

5. What effect has the color and texture of marble upon the emotions?

6. Analyze carefully the effect of Michael Angelo’s _Last Judgment_
upon your senses, intellect and emotions.

7. Compare carefully, in the effect upon the beholder, the _Venus de
Milo_, Michael Angelo’s _Pietà_ (in St. Peter’s) and Chapu’s _Joan of
Arc_.

8. Study the relation of significance to beauty in Raphael’s _Sistine
Madonna_ and Millet’s _Sower_.

9. What is the significance for the function of sculpture and painting
that in both arts form is statical and relatively permanent?

10. Study the respective effects of form and color in sculpture; in
painting.


REFERENCES

 Brown, _The Fine Arts_. Caffin, _How to Study Pictures_. Goethe,
 _Travels in Italy_. Holden, _Audiences_. Knight, _The Philosophy of
 the Beautiful_. LaFarge, _Considerations on Painting_. Leighton,
 _Addresses_. Lessing, _Laokoön_. Mach, _Greek Sculpture_. Noyes, _The
 Enjoyment of Art_. Palgrave, _Poetry Compared with the Other Fine
 Arts_. Parry, _The Ministry of Fine Art to the Happiness of Life_.
 Puffer, _The Psychology of Beauty_, chapter iv. Raymond, _Painting,
 Sculpture and Architecture as Representative Arts_. Ruskin, _Aratra
 Pentelici_; _Lectures on Art_; _Modern Painters_. Sturgis, _The
 Appreciation of Pictures_; _The Appreciation of Sculpture_. Van Dyke,
 _Art for Art’s Sake_; _How to Judge of a Picture_; _The Meaning
 of Pictures_; _Principles of Art_. Vinci, _Leonardo da Vinci’s
 Note-Books_; _Treatise on Painting_. Witt, _How to Look at Pictures_.




V. THE MEANING AND FUNCTION OF MUSIC

 “Continue to translate yourself to the heaven of art; there is no more
 undisturbed, unmixed, purer happiness than may thus be attained.”

 --Beethoven, in Kerst, _Beethoven: The Man and the Artist_, p. 12.


=The art of music.=--Music the most difficult of the arts to define in
function and meaning, because the most subtle, seeming to produce its
effects as by a miracle.

The relation of music to Nature. The sounds utilized in music all
found in the natural world. Compare the effect of the wind sighing
in the pine-trees; bird songs; the rhythmic beat of waves upon the
shore. Yet music not often directly imitating nature as do sculpture
and painting. Music resolving natural forms into their elements and
then recombining these independently. Thus music accomplishing in time
relations more what architecture does in space relations. Compare the
use in architecture of forms given by Nature, as in the tree column or
cave roof. Hence deep significance in the oft-repeated comparison of
music and architecture. Architecture as “frozen music”; music as liquid
architecture. Illustrate in _Notre Dame de Paris_; in Beethoven’s
_Moonlight Sonata_.

=The appeal of architecture.=--The effect upon the beholder of the
Greek temple at Pæstum. Sensuous delight in beautiful forms and colors;
conception given; emotion aroused. Contrast a mediæval temple such
as _Notre Dame_ or the cathedral at Milan. What is dominant and what
subordinate in each work.

=The effect of music.=--The appeal in a relatively slight musical
composition such as Schumann’s _Arabesque_ (Op. 18) or Chopin’s
_Impromptu_ (Op. 29). Type of sensuous pleasure as compared with the
other arts. The dynamic series of forms arousing a series of emotional
states. The reflections associated with these states of feeling. Thus
the two-fold contrast between music and the arts dealing with space
relations: (1) What is dominant in the one, associated or subordinate
in the other; (2) In the one form dynamic and evanescent, in the other
statical and relatively permanent.

The direct intellectual element in analyzing the composition: compare
the study of motives and harmony. Relation of this to the immediate
response to the appeal of art. Intellectual analysis possible in
relation to all the arts; yet while this may lead to deepened
appreciation, standing somewhat aside from the response to the art
itself.

Fuller illustration of the line of appeal of music in the best of
Chopin’s _Nocturnes_ and the _Ninth Symphony_ of Beethoven. What is
given in each of these works. The means by which the effect is attained.

=The unique sphere of music.=--Significance that music must be
recreated every time it is enjoyed. Forms in music successive in a
dynamic series, each element dying in the same moment in which it is
created. Thus sublimation of form in music and the freeing of the
content from sensuous association.

Possibility of expressing for the emotions what cannot be represented
for the imagination. Note, possible to conceive God, an immaterial
soul, a transcendent heaven; but impossible to carve or paint these.
Power of music to express or awaken the emotions we associate with
the conceptions of the transcendent, the supernatural and the divine.
True sense in which music is the one art “capable of revealing the
infinite.” Browning’s illustration of this in _Abt Vogler_.

Music as the most personal of the fine arts in expressing emotions
no other art can adequately embody; at the same time music the most
social of the fine arts in arousing the feelings that unite men,
where intellectual opinions and convictions tend to separate them.
Illustration in the _Ouverture to Tannhäuser_.

The obvious reason why it is so much more difficult to put music into
intellectual terms than is true of the other arts. Various attempts
to associate a definite series of intellectual conceptions with the
sensuous and emotional appeal of music. Compare in naming compositions;
in “program music”; in interpretations. Rigid limits to these attempts.

=Composite arts.=--The reasons why music lends itself so readily to
combination with other arts. The song: its appeal as compared with
music unassociated with words. Church music and its development.

The opera as a peculiarly characteristic composite modern art. Elements
composing it; the question as to which should be central. The value of
Wagner’s answer.

=The cultural value of music.=--Peculiar danger in music since it may
arouse emotional sensibility without directing its expression. Plato’s
view. The effect of merely sensuous music. The need to choose your
companions wisely in hearing even great music.

Yet the danger in music merely the corollary of its peculiar strength
and power. Supreme value of its refining and exalting influence. Its
high significance for our time, indeed for the human spirit in all
time.


ILLUSTRATIONS

 “And indeed the greatness of the poet may be best measured by that
 concerning which he is silent, in order to let the unspeakable itself
 speak to us silently. It is only the musician who can bring this
 that is silent into clear expression; and the unerring form of _his_
 loud-resounding silence is endless _melody_!”

 --Wagner, in “The Music of the Future,” _Art Life and Theories_, p.
 180.

 “The more definitely a composer aims at making his music an expression
 of emotion, the more firmly must he fashion it according to the
 dictates of intellect, for were he to attempt emotional expression
 without preserving the supremacy of the reason in his work, he would
 speedily fall into formlessness, and instead of enlightening would
 merely bewilder his hearers. In all art creative, or interpretative,
 the emotion must be under the dominance of the reason, or else there
 is no method, and art without method is inconceivable.”

 --Henderson, _What is Good Music_, p. 98.

 “What _instrumental music_ is unable to achieve, lies also beyond
 the pale of _music proper_; for it alone is pure and self-subsistent
 music. No matter whether we regard vocal music as superior to, or more
 effective than instrumental music--an unscientific proceeding, by
 the way, which is generally the upshot of one-sided dilettantism--we
 can not help admitting that the term ‘music,’ in its true meaning,
 must exclude compositions in which words are set to music. In vocal
 or operatic music it is impossible to draw so nice a distinction
 between the effect of the music, and that of the words, that an exact
 definition of the share which each has had in the production of the
 whole becomes practicable. An enquiry into the subject of music
 must leave out even compositions with inscriptions, or so-called
 programme-music. Its union with poetry, though enhancing the power of
 music, does not widen its limits.”

 --Hanslick, _The Beautiful in Music_, pp. 44, 45.

 “How, ye formal philosophers, ye men of the ‘sounding arabesque,’ unto
 whom the spirit shows itself not, because ye do not believe in it, or
 search after it in the organic structure with the gross scalpel of the
 anatomist--know ye not that Goethe’s ‘disengaging one’s self from a
 mood,’ which he found in poetry, also applies to the musician--that
 every truly artistic tone-work is also an ‘occasional poem’? Surely,
 no musical thought has ever been generated with vital power in your
 soul, or, if you had one, it was a greenhouse plant. Otherwise you
 would know, that the artist hastens with everything that delights
 and pains him to his beloved art, and desires of it that it should
 preserve each mood for him in the sacred vessel of its beautiful form
 for all time.”

 --Ambros, _The Boundaries of Music and Poetry_, p. 106.

 “While _sound_ in _speech_ is but a sign, that is, a _means_ for the
 purpose of expressing something which is quite distinct from its
 medium; _sound_ in _music_ is the _end_, that is, the ultimate and
 absolute object in view. The intrinsic beauty of the musical forms in
 the latter case, and the exclusive dominion of thought over sound as a
 mere medium of expression, in the former, are so utterly distinct as
 to render the union of these two elements a logical impossibility.”

 --Hanslick, _The Beautiful in Music_, p. 94.

 “Let us establish first of all the fact that the _one true form of
 music is melody_; that without melody music is inconceivable, and
 that music and melody are inseparable. That a piece of music has _no_
 melody, can therefore only mean that the musician has not attained
 to the real formation of an effective form, that can have a decisive
 influence upon the feelings; which simply shows the absence of talent
 in the composer.”

 --Wagner, in “The Music of the Future,” _Art Life and Theories_, p.
 175.

 “In its _ideal_ feature music keeps within its natural boundaries,
 so long as it does not undertake to go beyond its expressional
 capacity--that is, so long as the poetical thought of the composer
 becomes intelligible from the moods called forth by his work and the
 train of ideas stimulated thereby, that is, from the composition
 itself, and so long as nothing foreign, not organically connected
 with the music itself, must be dragged in, in order to assist
 comprehension.”

 --Ambros, _The Boundaries of Music and Poetry_, pp. 181, 182.

 “It must be in music, that language intelligible to all men, that
 the great equalizing power is to be found, which, converting the
 language of ideas into the language of the feelings, would bring the
 deepest secrets of the artistic conception to general comprehension,
 especially if this comprehension can be made distinct through the
 plastic expression of dramatic representation,--can be given such a
 distinctness as up to this time painting alone has been able to claim
 as its peculiar influence.”

 --Wagner, in “The Music of the Future,” _Art Life and Theories_, p.
 141.

 “In opera, willy-nilly, poetry must be the obedient daughter of music.
 Why do Italian operas please everywhere, even in Paris, as I have
 been a witness, despite the wretchedness of their librettos? Because
 in them music rules and compels us to forget everything else. All
 the more must an opera please in which the plot is well carried out,
 and the words are written simply for the sake of the music and not
 here and there to please some miserable rhyme, which, God knows, adds
 nothing to a theatrical representation but more often harms it. Verses
 are the most indispensable thing in music, but rhymes, for the sake of
 rhymes, the most injurious. Those who go to work so pedantically will
 assuredly come to grief along with the music. It were best if a good
 composer, who understands the stage, and is himself able to suggest
 something, and a clever poet could be united in one, like a phœnix.”

 --Mozart, in Kerst, _Mozart: The Man and the Artist_, p. 28.

 “That which so strongly attracted our great poets towards music
 was the fact that it was at the same time the purest form and the
 most sensuous realization of that form. The abstract arithmetical
 number, the mathematical figure, meets us here as a creation having
 an irresistible influence upon the emotions--that is, it appears
 as _melody_; and this can be as unerringly established, so as to
 produce sensuous effect, as the poetic diction of written language,
 on the contrary, is abandoned to every whim in the personal character
 of the person reciting it. What was not practically possible
 for Shakespeare--to be _himself_ the actor of each one of his
 rôles--is practicable for the musical composer, and this with great
 definiteness,--since he speaks to us directly through each one of the
 musicians who execute his works. In this case the transmigration of
 the poet’s soul into the body of the performer takes place according
 to the infallible laws of the most positive _technique_; and the
 composer who gives the correct measure for a technically right
 performance of his work, becomes completely one with the musician who
 performs it, to an extent that can at most only be affirmed of the
 constructive artist in regard to a work which he had himself produced
 in color or stone,--if, indeed, a transmigration of his soul into
 lifeless matter is a supposable case.”

 --Wagner, in “The Purpose of the Opera,” _Art Life and Theories_, pp.
 226, 227.


TOPICS FOR STUDY AND DISCUSSION

1. What relation has the art of music to the sounds given in the
natural world?

2. Choose two musical compositions you know well and analyze in detail
the effect they produce upon you and the means by which the effect is
produced.

3. What element in music corresponds in any degree to color in painting?

4. Compare carefully the art of music in dealing with time relations
with architecture in dealing with space relations.

5. Compare what is dominant in the appeal of music with what is
dominant in the appeal of sculpture and painting.

6. What results from the fact that in music form is dynamic and
evanescent, while in sculpture and painting it is statical and
relatively permanent?

7. What may be said to be the intellectual element in music?

8. Compare what is given in Gounod’s music to _Faust_ with what is
given in a series of paintings dealing with the Faust story.

9. Is the effect good or bad of merely sensuously enjoying slight music?

10. Compare the cultural value of music with that of sculpture and
painting.


REFERENCES

 Ambros, _Boundaries of Music and Poetry_. Browning, _Abt Vogler_;
 _With Charles Avison_; _Master Hugues of Saxe-Gotha_; _Saul_.
 Carpenter, _Angels’ Wings_. Davies, _The Musical Consciousness_.
 Dwight, _Intellectual Influence of Music_; _Music as a Means of
 Culture_. Eastman, _Musical Education and Musical Art_. Goddard,
 _Reflections upon Musical Art_. Gurney, _The Power of Sound_.
 Hanchett, _The Art of the Musician_. Hand, _Æsthetics of Musical Art_.
 Hanslick, _The Beautiful in Music_. Helmholtz, _On the Sensations of
 Tone_. Henderson, _What is Good Music?_ Holden, _Audiences_. Kerst,
 _Beethoven_; _Mozart_. Knight, _The Philosophy of the Beautiful_.
 Kobbé, _How to Appreciate Music_. Krehbiel, _How to Listen to
 Music_. Kufferath, _Rhythm, Melody and Harmony_. Lanier, _Music and
 Poetry_. Mathews, _How to Understand Music_; _Music: Its Ideals and
 Methods_. Norton, _The Intellectual Element in Music_. Palgrave,
 _Poetry Compared with the Other Fine Arts_. Parry, _The Evolution
 of the Art of Music_. Plato, _Republic_ (books II and III). Puffer,
 _The Psychology of Beauty_, chapter v. Raymond, _Rhythm and Harmony
 in Poetry and Music_. Ritter, _Music in Its Relation to Intellectual
 Life_. Saint-Saëns, _The Nature and Object of Music_. Schopenhauer,
 _On the Metaphysics of Music_. Spencer, _The Origin and Function of
 Music_. Surette and Mason, _The Appreciation of Music_. Wagner, _Art
 Life and Theories of_; _Beethoven_.




VI. THE MEANING AND FUNCTION OF POETRY

 “Form without substance is a shadow of riches, and all possible
 cleverness in expression is of no use to him who has nothing to
 express.”

 --Schiller, _Essays Æsthetical and Philosophical_, p. 239.


=The nature of poetry.=--Poetry as the highest and most characteristic
form of literature. Bewildering wealth of material in this art and most
many-sided relation to the spirit of man. Hence difficulty in defining
function.

=Poetry in relation to sculpture and painting.=--Possibility in poetry
of expressing definite conceptions for the intellect and imagination.
Compare Shelley’s _Ozymandias of Egypt_. What is given in this sonnet:
compare a statue. Less immediate portrayal for the vision in poetry.
Hence less direct power in appeal to the imagination; but conceptions
freed more from sense association. Moreover ideas expressed through a
succession of forms in time relation.

Power of poetry to paint a picture: compare Wordsworth’s sonnet _Upon
Westminster Bridge_. Contrast in appeal with a painting of the same
scene. The ways in which each art has its own superiority. Truth
and error in Lessing’s theory of descriptive poetry as developed in
_Laokoön_.

=Poetry in relation to music.=--Direct musical appeal in the two
sonnets studied. Direct expression of emotion and appeal to emotion in
poetry. Compare Shelley’s lyric _To the Night_. Here music dominant,
appealing to the emotions, as in _Ozymandias_ thought and imagination
appealing to inner vision. How all poetry should be read aloud. Even
when read silently, appeal to the ear in music through the imagination.
The effect of poetry read aloud in a language the hearer does not know:
direct appeal of music in poetry even when the ideas are not given at
all. Thus poetry making a direct appeal to the emotions through music,
though with less absoluteness than in music and without in any way
usurping or replacing the functions of the latter art.

Byron’s stanzas on the sunset hour in _Don Juan_. What they give in
natural beauty; association of the human past, of religion and of
literature; personal experience. Compare what is given in Millet’s
_Angelus_; in a musical composition awakening the same emotions.

=The two types of poetry.=--Poetry that is dominantly musical in
appeal. Compare many lyrics of Shelley; Spenser. The description of
the dwelling of Morpheus in _The Faery Queen_. Poetry in which the
dominant appeal is through imaginative vision. Compare what is most
characteristic in Dante and Shakespeare.

=Relation of poetry to human life.=--Poetry combining in a new union
the functions of the other arts without replacing them in their
own fields. Poetry the most complex and universal of the fine arts
in many-sided power to express and interpret all aspects of human
experience. Compare in the lyric; the epic; the drama.

Prose literature in relation to poetry. The same functions fulfilled on
another plane. The rhythm of prose. The novel as a prose epic and drama
set in a lower key.

=The three types of art in relation.=--The different functions of the
arts illustrated in great masterpieces. Compare Dante’s _Divine Comedy_
with the _Last Judgment_ of Michael Angelo and a mediæval cathedral,
and with a fugue of Bach and a symphony of Beethoven.

Compare Cormon’s _Cain_, Wagner’s music in _The Twilight of the Gods_,
and Shakespeare’s _King Lear_.

Compare Watts’ painting of _Francesca and Paolo_, Wagner’s music in
_Tristan und Isolde_, and the fifth canto of Dante’s _Inferno_.

=Unity in the arts.=--The spirit of man a unity, hence also the appeal
of the arts. In all, thought, emotion and imagination; in all, the same
principles of form, of beauty and harmony.

This evident in efforts to combine the arts in a more composite art.
Compare the union of poetry and music in song; the union of all types
of art in the Wagnerian opera. Inevitable sacrifice of something on
the part of each of the arts so combined; peculiar adaptation of the
composite art to the modern spirit. The question which art should be
central in the composite whole.

=The service of poetry.=--Danger in poetry as in the other arts. Evil
of seeking merely sensuous beauty; evil of portraying life to satisfy a
morbid and decadent taste. Yet the evil but indicating the correlative
power in the true ministration of art to the human spirit.


ILLUSTRATIONS

 “Beauty of style and harmony and grace and good rhythm depend on
 simplicity,--I mean the true simplicity of a rightly and nobly ordered
 mind and character, not that other simplicity which is only an
 euphemism for folly.”

 --Plato, _Republic_, book III, section 400.

 “I believed that I might form the theory that every _individual_
 branch of art follows out a development of its powers that finally
 leads it to their limits; and that it cannot pass these limits without
 the danger of losing itself in the unintelligible and absolutely
 fantastic--even in the absurd. I thought that I saw in this point the
 necessity for it to join companionship at this stage with another
 class of art, related to it, and the only one capable of going on
 from this position. And as I was of necessity keenly interested
 (having regard to my own ideal) in following out this tendency in
 each special kind of art, I finally believed that I could recognize
 it most distinctly in the relation of poetry to music,--especially
 considering the remarkable importance modern music has assumed. And as
 I thus endeavored to imagine that work of art in which all branches
 of art could unite in their highest perfection, I came as a matter
 of course to the _conscious_ contemplation of that ideal which had
 _unconsciously_ gradually formed within me, and had hovered before the
 seeking artist.”

 --Wagner, in “The Music of the Future,” _Art Life and Theories_, p.
 147.

 “If it is true that painting and poetry in their imitations make use
 of entirely different means or symbols--the first, namely, of form
 and colour in space, the second of articulated sounds in time--if
 these symbols indisputably require a suitable relation to the thing
 symbolized, then it is clear that symbols arranged in juxtaposition
 can only express subjects of which the wholes or parts exist in
 juxtaposition; while consecutive symbols can only express subjects of
 which the wholes or parts are themselves consecutive.

 “Subjects whose wholes or parts exist in juxtaposition are called
 bodies. Consequently, bodies with their visible properties are the
 peculiar subjects of painting.

 “Subjects whose wholes or parts are consecutive are called actions.
 Consequently, actions are the peculiar subject of poetry.

 “Still, all bodies do not exist in space only, but also in time. They
 endure, and in each moment of their duration may assume a different
 appearance, or stand in a different combination. Each of these
 momentary appearances and combinations is the effect of a preceding
 one, may be the cause of a subsequent, one, and is therefore, as it
 were, the centre of an action. Consequently, painting too can imitate
 actions, but only indicatively, by means of bodies.

 “On the other hand, actions cannot exist by themselves, they must
 depend on certain beings. So far, therefore, as these beings are
 bodies, or are regarded as such, poetry paints bodies, but only
 indicatively, by means of actions.

 “In its coexisting compositions painting can only make use of a single
 instant of the action, and must therefore choose the one which is most
 pregnant, and from which what precedes and what follows can be most
 easily gathered.

 “In like manner, poetry, in its progressive imitations, is confined to
 the use of a single property of bodies, and must therefore choose that
 which calls up the most sensible image of the body in the aspect in
 which she makes use of it.”

 --Lessing, _Laokoön_, pp. 91, 92.

 “As to Homer, it is as if the scales had fallen from my eyes. The
 descriptions, similes and so on appear to us poetical, and are yet
 unspeakably natural, though of course drawn with a purity, an inward
 truth enough to strike us poor moderns dumb. The very strangest
 fictions are characterised by a naturalness I never felt so much as
 in the presence of the objects described. To express the antithesis
 briefly; _they_ presented the thing, _we_ usually present the effect;
 _they_ described the dreadful, _we_ describe dreadfully; _they_ the
 agreeable, _we_ agreeably, and so on. This will explain all our
 extravagance, our affectation, our false grace, our inflation; for
 once you elaborate and strain after effect, you fancy you can never
 make it strong enough.”

 --Goethe, _Travels in Italy_, p. 322.

 “In instruments, the primal organs of creation and nature find their
 representation; they cannot be sharply determined and defined, for
 they but repeat primal feelings as they came forth from the chaos
 of the first creation, when there were perhaps no human beings in
 existence to receive them in their hearts. With the genius of the
 human voice it is entirely otherwise; this represents the human
 heart, and its isolated, individual emotion. Its character is
 therefore limited, but fixed and defined. Let these two elements be
 brought together, then; let them be united! Let those wild primal
 emotions that stretch out into the infinite, that are represented
 by instruments, be contrasted with the clear, definite emotions of
 the human heart, represented by the human voice. The addition of the
 second element will work beneficently and soothingly upon the conflict
 of the elemental emotions, and give to their course a well-defined
 and united channel; and the human heart itself, in receiving these
 elemental emotions, will be immeasurably strengthened and broadened;
 and made capable of feeling clearly what was before an uncertain
 presage of the highest ideal, now changed into a divine knowledge.”

 --Wagner, in “A Pilgrimage to Beethoven,” _Art Life and Theories_, p.
 63.

 “I admit that the exercises of the gymnasium form athletic bodies;
 but beauty is only developed by the free and equal play of the limbs.
 In the same way the tension of the isolated spiritual forces may make
 extraordinary men; but it is only the well-tempered equilibrium of
 these forces that can produce happy and accomplished men.”

 --Schiller, _Essays Æsthetical and Philosophical_, p. 43.

 “The highest problem of any art is to produce by appearance the
 illusion of a higher reality. But it is a false endeavour to realize
 the appearance until at last only something commonly real remains.”

 --Goethe, _Autobiography_, Bohn Library translation (George Bell &
 Sons, London, 1891), vol. 1, p. 422.


TOPICS FOR STUDY AND DISCUSSION

1. What likenesses can you discover between poetry on the one hand and
sculpture and painting on the other?

2. What likenesses can you discover between poetry and music?

3. What poets make the strongest appeal through imaginative vision?
What poets make the dominant appeal through music?

4. Compare what is given in Shakespeare’s sonnet beginning “That time
of year thou mayst in me behold” with a painting of an autumn scene.

5. Compare Shelley’s lyric _To the Night_ with the music of Chopin.

6. Study carefully what is given in Millet’s _Man with the Hoe_ with
what is given in Markham’s poem on the same subject.

7. Estimate the value and limitations of Lessing’s theory of the arts
as given in _Laokoön_.

8. What elements of content and of form are common to all the arts?

9. Compare in expression of thought, feeling and imagination and in
type of appeal, the _Divine Comedy_ of Dante, the _Last Judgment_ of
Michael Angelo and the _Ninth Symphony_ of Beethoven.

10. What powers has poetry that are not present in the other arts?


REFERENCES

 Ambros, _Boundaries of Music and Poetry_. Aristotle, _Poetic_.
 Beeching, _The Study of Poetry_. Bradley, _Poetry for Poetry’s Sake_.
 Corson, _Aims of Literary Study_. Dabney, _Musical Basis of Verse_.
 Goethe, _Conversations with Eckermann_; _Maxims and Reflections_.
 Gummere, _The Beginnings of Poetry_; _Handbook of Poetics_. Gurney,
 _The Power of Sound_. Holden, _Audiences_. Holmes, _What is Poetry?_
 Hugo, _William Shakespeare_. Knight, _The Philosophy of the
 Beautiful_. Lanier, _Music and Poetry_; _Science of English Verse_.
 Lessing, _Laokoön_. Moyse, _Poetry as a Fine Art_. Newman, _Poetry,
 with Reference to Aristotle’s Poetics_. Palgrave, _Golden Treasury_;
 _Poetry Compared with the Other Fine Arts_. Plato, _Republic_, books
 II. and III. Poe, _The Rationale of Verse and The Poetic Principle_.
 Puffer, _The Psychology of Beauty_, chapters vi.-viii. Raymond,
 _Poetry as a Representative Art_; _Rhythm and Harmony in Poetry and
 Music_. Santayana, _Elements and Function of Poetry_. Schiller,
 _Essays_. Shairp, _Aspects of Poetry_. Shelley, _A Defence of Poetry_.
 Sidney, _Defense of Poesy_. Stedman, _Nature and Elements of Poetry_.
 Wagner, _Art Life and Theories of_. Wilde, _The Critic as Artist_.
 Winchester, _Some Principles of Literary Criticism_.




VII. LITERATURE AND LIBERAL CULTURE

 “It is precisely minds of the first order that will never be
 specialists. For their very nature is to make the whole of existence
 their problem; and this is a subject upon which they will every one of
 them in some form provide mankind with a new revelation.”

 --Schopenhauer, _The Art of Literature_, p. 55.


=Significance of poetry for education.=--Each art supreme in its own
field and function. Thus impossibility of classing one as highest.
Of them all, poetry the most universal in function, combining in one
something of each of the great types of art, and broadest in power to
express and interpret human life. Permanence of poetry. Accessibility
of poetry as contrasted with the other arts. Thus whatever art appeals
most powerfully to the individual, poetry having a place in the
education of all. Hence reason for choosing this art for separate
discussion.

=What is literature?=--Relation of poetry to other forms of literature.
Two-fold distinction of artistic literature from other writing:
Requirement that it should be human in appeal, written for the man and
not the specialist, and that it should be adequate and harmonious in
expression. The vast field comprised within these limits.

=The study of literature.=--Literature many things to many men. Thus
studied for a multitude of special purposes. Compare the use of
literature as a mere text-book for philology, or as an opportunity for
expounding a particular philosophy. Frequent misuse of literature in
education.

The great value of literature, not in contributing to some phase of
special training, but in developing liberal culture. What such culture
means in the development of intellect, emotions and imagination.

The reasons for the vast development of specialization in our education
recently. Need that special training should rest always on a basis of
liberal culture. Thus the significance of the study of literature as
the art most broadly expressing human life, and thus contributing to
the liberal cultivation of the man as compared with the training of the
specialist.

=The four avenues of approach.=--Literature possessing a soul of
thought, feeling and imagination and a body of artistic expression.
Compare how all true art must be both significant and beautiful. Thus
two great aspects of literature: possible to focus attention on either
one. Which appeals more powerfully to the student as somewhat a matter
of temperament.

Content and form studied directly with the aim of understanding
significance and appreciating beauty; both aspects of literature
studied as embodying historical forces. Thus the four aspects of the
study of literature, with the aim of liberal culture.

=The direct study of the content of literature.=--The range of thought
given in literature. The problems constantly treated. Thought never
expressed alone in literature, but always transfused with feeling
and transfigured with imagination. Thus the appeal to the whole man.
Resulting education and its value. Compare in developing appreciation
of the beauty and sublimity of Nature, of the dignity, comedy and
tragedy of human life. Illustrations in the poetry of the sunset hour;
in the poetry of human experience.

=The second avenue of approach.=--The soul of literature given a
further meaning when studied in relation to the forces behind it.
Expression of the character of the artist in his work: Compare Milton
in _Paradise Lost_; Carlyle in _Sartor Resartus_. Embodiment of the
spirit of the epoch and race in literature. Deeper expression of what
is common to humanity in all time: Compare the _Antigone_ of Sophocles.

=The study of literary art.=--The analytical study of form in
literature as only a means to an end--the end of synthetic
appreciation. The need always to find the relation of the body of art
to the soul of thought, feeling and imagination expressed through it.

No accidents in art. The melody of a line or word always determined by
law, whether or not the poet was conscious of the law. Possible thus
for the student to discover the laws the art follows. Illustration of
these in the succession of poetic forms from common speech to the most
highly differentiated stanzas. The aim of art never merely to create
the sensuously pleasing, but to give adequate and harmonious expression.

=The fourth avenue of approach.=--The body of literature as much
as the soul an expression of historical forces. Evidence in the
contrasting imagery of Shelley and Wordsworth. The Elizabethan age
naturally creating the drama, modern life the lyric. Expression of
racial characteristics in the music of words and the stanzas of poetry.
Contrast _Beowulf_ and the _Iliad_.

=The culture given by literature.=--Type of education resulting from
all four lines of the study of literature. The widened relation to man
and Nature. The true cosmopolitanism of the spirit. Thus the service
of literature in making possible the discovery of the divine in the
commonplace and of the ideal in the real.


ILLUSTRATIONS

 “To use many words to communicate few thoughts is everywhere the
 unmistakable sign of mediocrity. To gather much thought into few words
 stamps the man of genius.”

 --Schopenhauer, _The Art of Literature_, p. 30.

 “We know that the sensibility of the mind depends, as to degree, on
 the liveliness, and for extent on the richness, of the imagination.
 Now the predominance of the faculty of analysis must necessarily
 deprive the imagination of its warmth and energy, and a restricted
 sphere of objects must diminish its wealth. It is for this reason
 that the abstract thinker has very often a _cold_ heart, because he
 analyses impressions, which only move the mind by their combination or
 totality; on the other hand, the man of business, the statesman, has
 very often a _narrow_ heart, because shut up in the narrow circle of
 his employment his imagination can neither expand nor adapt itself to
 another manner of viewing things.”

 --Schiller, _Essays Æsthetical and Philosophical_, pp. 41, 42.

 “One should not study contemporaries and competitors, but the great
 men of antiquity, whose works have, for centuries, received equal
 homage and consideration. Indeed, a man of really superior endowments
 will feel the necessity of this, and it is just this need for an
 intercourse with great predecessors, which is the sign of a higher
 talent. Let us study Molière, let us study Shakespeare, but above all
 things, the old Greeks, and always the Greeks.”

 --Goethe, _Conversations with Eckermann and Soret_, p. 236.

 “There is a fine art of passion, but an impassioned fine art is a
 contradiction in terms, for the infallible effect of the beautiful
 is emancipation from the passions. The idea of an instructive fine
 art (didactic art) or improving (moral) art is no less contradictory,
 for nothing agrees less with the idea of the beautiful than to give a
 determinate tendency to the mind.”

 --Schiller, _Essays Æsthetical and Philosophical_, p. 92.

 “To read a philosopher’s biography, instead of studying his thoughts,
 is like neglecting a picture and attending only to the style of its
 frame, debating whether it is carved well or ill, and how much it cost
 to gild it.”

 --Schopenhauer, _The Art of Literature_, p. 146.

 “Any one who is sufficiently young, and who is not quite spoiled,
 could not easily find any place that would suit him so well as a
 theatre. No one asks you any questions: you need not open your mouth
 unless you choose; on the contrary, you sit quite at your ease like a
 king, and let everything pass before you, and recreate your mind and
 senses to your heart’s content. There is poetry, there is painting,
 there are singing and music, there is acting, and what not besides.
 When all these arts, and the charm of youth and beauty heightened to
 an important degree, work in concert on the same evening, it is a
 bouquet to which no other can compare.”

 --Goethe, _Conversations with Eckermann and Soret_, p. 120.

 “It is therefore not going far enough to say that the light of the
 understanding only deserves respect when it reacts on the character;
 to a certain extent it is from the character that this light proceeds;
 for the road that terminates in the head must pass through the
 heart. Accordingly, the most pressing need of the present time is to
 educate the sensibility, because it is the means, not only to render
 efficacious in practice the improvement of ideas, but to call this
 improvement into existence.”

 --Schiller, _Essays Æsthetical and Philosophical_, p. 48.

 “A pupil from whom nothing is ever demanded which he cannot do, never
 does all he can.”

 --John Stuart Mill, _Autobiography_ (Henry Holt & Co., New York,
 1887), p. 32.


TOPICS FOR STUDY AND DISCUSSION

1. Define artistic literature as distinguished from other writings.

2. What characteristics give literature an exceptional place and value
as a means of liberal culture?

3. What education results from the study of thought, feeling and
imagination in literature?

4. Why is the poetry of sorrow filled with the imagery of the sea?

5. Is there a “pathetic fallacy” involved in using Nature as a language
for the expression of human emotions?

6. What place has the education of the emotions and the imagination in
relation to the whole of culture?

7. Study the imagery of Shelley and Wordsworth as expressing the
character of the two poets.

8. What is the cultural value of the analytical study of literary style?

9. Why was Elizabethan poetry characteristically dramatic, where modern
English poetry is predominantly lyrical?

10. What aspects of the study of literature are most important for
liberal culture, and why?


REFERENCES

 Arnold, _The Study of Poetry_. Baldwin, _The Book-Lover_. Bates,
 _Talks on the Study of Literature_. Beeching, _The Study of
 Poetry_. Collins, _The_ _True Functions of Poetry_. Corson, _Aims
 of Literary Study_. Crawshaw, _The Interpretation of Literature;
 Literary Interpretation of Life_. Dabney, _Musical Basis of Verse_.
 Hamerton, _The Intellectual Life_. Hugo, _William Shakespeare_.
 Lewes, _Principles of Success in Literature_. Mabie, _Books and
 Culture_. Mathews, _Music: Its Ideals and Methods_. Morison, _The
 Great Poets as Religious Teachers_. Newman, _Poetry, with Reference to
 Aristotle’s Poetics_. Palgrave, _Golden Treasury_. Pryde, _Highways of
 Literature_. Santayana, _Elements and Function of Poetry_. Schiller,
 _Essays_. Shairp, _Poetic Interpretation of Nature_. Sidney, _Defense
 of Poesy_. Stedman, _Nature and Elements of Poetry_. Warner, _The
 Relation of Literature to Life_. Winchester, _Some Principles of
 Literary Criticism_.




VIII. BEAUTY AND THE CULTURE OF THE SPIRIT

 “It is important, at the present time, to bear in mind that the human
 soul has still greater need of the ideal than of the real.

 It is by the real that we exist; it is by the ideal that we live.
 Would you realize the difference? Animals exist, man lives.”

 --Victor Hugo, _William Shakespeare_, p. 295.


=The life of appreciation.=--Art appealing to the whole man--intellect,
emotion, imagination. Hence difficulty in endeavoring to put the
meaning of art into terms of the intellect. How we appreciate much that
we never understand. The joy of life depending largely on appreciation.
Compare how life is always in advance of the theory of life. The three
aspects of the life of appreciation: beauty, love, faith. The sense in
which wisdom also belongs to appreciation.

Contrasting significance of art and philosophy. The reason for the
permanent value of every great work of art. The test of an artistic
masterpiece its power to grow with our growth, revealing new deeps as
we bring the key of enlarged experience to its interpretation.

=The nature of beauty.=--The fact that beauty belongs to the life of
appreciation as explaining the difficulty in defining beauty. Possible
to define the relations upon which beauty depends rather than beauty
itself.

The relation of habit and custom in the appreciation of beauty.
Evidence of a conventional element in changes of taste and standard in
reference both to Nature and the arts.

The relation of the parts to the whole in Nature or art; and the
relation of an organism or a thing made to the function it is to
fulfil. Contrast deformity and beauty. The sublimity of a great machine.

The deeper relation of body to soul, of form to content, as a
determining principle of beauty. Beauty depending less upon what is
sensuously pleasing, than upon adequate and harmonious expression, the
perfect marrying of body and soul.

Still deeper relation behind all appreciation of beauty. The rhythm
or harmony that inevitably exists between man’s sensibilities and the
Nature-world in relation to which these senses have been evolved.
Since all forms utilized in the arts are drawn finally from Nature,
this principle behind all appreciation of beauty in the arts as well as
in Nature.

Unity of the life of appreciation. Hence all cultivation of the true
response to beauty deepening and refining the life of love and of
religion.

=Nature and art.=--The two worlds of beauty; each possessing its own
superiority. Identity of form and content in the beauty of Nature;
living and everchanging character of Nature. Hence the healing, resting
and exalting power of Nature in ministering to the spirit of man. On
the other hand, the soul in Nature dumb and brooding; carried to clear
and conscious expression through human art. Art as Nature and life put
through the spectrum of man’s mind and heart. Compare a Corot painting
with a bit of Nature; a portrait by Titian or Rembrandt with a human
face. Thus the ministration of art to the human spirit: in calming and
exalting; in giving widened relation to Nature and life, developing
power to see; in inspiring action.

=Opportunities for the appreciation of beauty.=--The wealth of natural
beauty poured out abundantly on every hand. Tendency to ignore or
fail to see the beauty of Nature just because it is so universal and
accessible. Need to put oneself in the way of beauty; to leave room for
the heaven of the unexpected.

If the beauty of art is less accessible, nevertheless far more than is
utilized and enjoyed. Compare in poetry, painting, music. The current
attitude toward museums of art and opportunities in music.

=The conscious study of beauty.=--Not enough to give oneself
opportunities for enjoying beauty. Compare the people who live close
to Nature without seeing her beauty; who wander aimlessly through art
galleries and sit unappreciatively through an evening of great music
because it is the fashion. Need of conscious study of beauty as a means
toward appreciation.

The method of the conscious study of beauty in Nature and the arts.
Need to isolate and analyze. The ways by which one may escape
convention and react freshly on the appeal of beauty. The active
questioning which the student should employ. The deepened conscious
appreciation which results from such study. The greater value of
a little of such direct and active study over much reading of art
criticism and theory.

Some expression necessary to complete such study. Various forms that
may be employed. The value of keeping a book of reflections in which to
formulate and record one’s study and appreciation.

=The value of art for the artist.=--The ministry of beauty fulfilled
in the supreme way for the creative artist. Clarifying and exalting
influence of art upon the artist. Development in him of power to see
and to achieve. Illustrations in great masters such as Michael Angelo
and Dante. Thus for the artist supremely as for the student in lesser
degree, _art for life’s sake_.

=Art and daily life.=--Need that each human being should be an artist:
this possible in the supreme art of living. Thus need to identify
beauty and use: to make one’s vocation, one’s environment, one’s
relationships art in the highest sense. How then every part and
aspect of life would be the adequate and harmonious expression and
interpretation of some phase of man’s life and experience in true
relation to the whole.


ILLUSTRATIONS

 “Supreme Art is the region of Equals. There is no primacy among
 masterpieces.”

 --Victor Hugo, _William Shakespeare_, p. 40.

 “The technical work of our time, which is done to an unprecedented
 perfection, has, by increasing and multiplying objects of luxury,
 given the favourites of fortune a choice between more leisure and
 culture upon the one side, and additional luxury and good living, but
 with increased activity, upon the other; and, true to their character,
 they choose the latter, and prefer champagne to freedom.”

 --Schopenhauer, _The Art of Literature_, p. 141.

 “The capacity of the sublime is one of the noblest aptitudes of man.
 Beauty is useful, but does not go beyond man. The sublime applies
 to the pure spirit. The sublime must be joined to the beautiful to
 complete the _æsthetic education_, and to enlarge man’s heart beyond
 the sensuous world.”

 --Schiller, _Essays Æsthetical and Philosophical_, p. 141.

 “Let us remember the prompter, very delicately and genially drawn by
 Goethe in a few touches, who is so much moved at certain places that
 he weeps hot tears; yet ‘it is, strictly speaking, _not the so-called
 moving places_ that affect him so, but the _beautiful_ places _from
 which the pure genius of the poet, so to speak, looks out from bright,
 open eyes_.’ In the case of persons of a predominantly tender, ardent
 disposition we not seldom meet this phenomenon. A beautiful poem, a
 sublime scene in nature--nay, the narration of a good deed, moves
 them to tears. And history tells us of the noble Saladin, who was a
 warlike hero, that the narration of great deeds and simple touching
 occurrences often moved him also to tears. It can hardly be assumed
 that a warlike hero is the possessor of weak nerves. What have these
 grayish-white threads to do at all with the eternal ideas of the
 Good and the Beautiful? The emotion of which we have just spoken is
 something better than mere nervous irritation; it is a higher kind
 of homesickness, which attacks us when the ideas of the Good and the
 Beautiful suddenly appear before us and remind us of our eternal home.”

 --Ambros, _The Boundaries of Music and Poetry_, pp. 42, 43.

 “We leave a grand musical performance with our feelings excited, the
 reading of a noble poem with a quickened imagination, a beautiful
 statue or building with an awakened understanding; but a man would
 not choose an opportune moment who attempted to invite us to abstract
 thinking after a high musical enjoyment, or to attend to a prosaic
 affair of common life after a high poetical enjoyment, or to kindle
 our imagination and astonish our feelings directly after inspecting
 a fine statue or edifice. The reason of this is, that music, _by its
 matter_, even when most spiritual, presents a greater affinity with
 the senses than is permitted by aesthetic liberty; it is because even
 the most happy poetry, having _for its medium_ the arbitrary and
 contingent play of the imagination, always shares in it more than
 the intimate necessity of the really beautiful allows; it is because
 the best sculpture touches on severe science _by what is determinate
 in its conception_. However, these particular affinities are lost
 in proportion as the works of these three kinds of art rise to a
 greater elevation, and it is a natural and necessary consequence of
 their perfection, that, without confounding their objective limits,
 the different arts come to resemble each other more and more, in the
 action _which they exercise on the mind_. At its highest degree of
 ennobling, music ought to become a form, and act on us with the calm
 power of an antique statue; in its most elevated perfection, the
 plastic art ought to become music and move us by the immediate action
 exercised on the mind by the senses; in its most complete development,
 poetry ought both to stir us powerfully like music and like plastic
 art to surround us with a peaceful light. In each art, the perfect
 style consists exactly in knowing how to remove specific limits, while
 sacrificing at the same time the particular advantages of the art,
 and to give it by a wise use of what belongs to it specially a more
 general character.”

 --Schiller, _Essays Æsthetical and Philosophical_, pp. 90, 91.

 “When a beautiful soul harmonizes with a beautiful form, and the two
 are cast in one mold, that will be the fairest of sights to him who
 has an eye to see it.”

 --Plato, _Republic_, book III, section 402.

 “The amphora which refuses to go to the fountain deserves the hisses
 of the water-pots.”

 --Victor Hugo, _William Shakespeare_, p. 319.

 “The true artist has no pride; unhappily he realizes that art has no
 limitations, he feels darkly how far he is from the goal, and while
 perhaps he is admired by others, he grieves that he has not yet
 reached the point where the better genius shall shine before him like
 a distant sun.”

 --Beethoven, in Kerst, _Beethoven: The Man and the Artist_, p. 49.


TOPICS FOR STUDY AND DISCUSSION

1. Define the respective functions of art and philosophy in relation to
the human spirit.

2. Compare in significance and relative value, beauty in Nature and in
human art.

3. Can beauty exist without definite and limited form?

4. What does creative expression in art do for the artist?

5. Is it possible to define beauty satisfactorily?

6. Sum up all the elements and relations involved in the appreciation
of beauty.

7. What end and aim is evident in the creation of all great art?

8. In what ways does the beauty of Nature and of art minister to the
spirit of man?

9. What should be the relation of art to daily life?

10. How can life be made a fine art?


REFERENCES

 Carpenter, _Angels’ Wings_. Dwight, _Intellectual Influence of Music_;
 _Music as a Means of Culture_. Eastman, _Musical Education and Musical
 Art_. Emerson, _Art_ (in _Essays, first series_, pp. 325-343); _Art_
 (in _Society and Solitude_, pp. 39-59). Gurney, _The Power of Sound_.
 Hamerton, _The Intellectual Life_. Hand, _Æsthetics of Musical Art_.
 Hanslick, _The Beautiful in Music_. Hegel, _Introduction to the
 Philosophy of Fine Art_. Holden, _Audiences_. Lanier, _Music and
 Poetry_. Mabie, _Nature and Culture_. Morris, _Hopes and Fears for
 Art_. Parry, _The Ministry of Fine Art to the Happiness of Life_.
 Partridge, _Art for America_. Plato, _Republic_, books II. and
 III. Puffer, _The Psychology of Beauty_. Raymond, _Essentials of
 Æsthetics_. Schiller, _Essays_. Surette and Mason, _The Appreciation
 of Music_. Tolstoy, _What is Art?_ Wagner, _Art Life and Theories of_.


SUGGESTIONS TO STUDENTS

 “You do ill if you praise, but worse if you censure, what you do not
 rightly understand.”

 --Leonardo da Vinci, _Leonardo da Vinci’s Note-Books_, arranged by
 Edward McCurdy, p. 58.

Dealing, as this course does, with the material of four great arts,
there is no limit to the work the student may do in connection with it.
The most significant point is to recognize that a little first-hand
study of works of art is worth more than a vast amount of reading of
criticism and theory of art. The best preparation for the course is
to select a few works of art in each of the four fields and study
them carefully; analyzing rigorously the effect each produces on the
student’s senses, emotions and intellect; seeking to discover the means
by which that effect is produced; and endeavoring to define what part
or aspect of man’s life and reaction on Nature finds expression and
interpretation in each artistic creation studied. The student must
formulate his own questioning and work with a mind consistently active,
not passive.

This is merely demanding in the field of the arts the same direct
inductive study of the material given, that is universally recognized
to-day as the only sound method in every field of science. It is
surprising how a little of such study will clarify the field of art.
Works drop quickly into place, each is understood in relation to others
and to the common background of human experience in both significance
and beauty. This intellectual result is, however, not all; indeed, it
is the less important consequence of the work. The great gain is in
deepened appreciation. The student turns to fresh works of art with a
multiplied power to respond to the appeal of each masterpiece. Thus
is his life widened and deepened in relation to man and Nature, and
blessed with the joy that beauty gives.

The reading of such books as are given in the following list should be
subordinated to the work above outlined, and should be used to clarify
and stimulate the student’s own thinking, following the direct study of
the works of art themselves.

The material in Palgrave’s _Golden Treasury of Songs and Lyrics_,
giving as it does brief but complete works of art selected from
widely different men and epochs should be used throughout the course
to represent the art of poetry. Where a gallery of painting and
sculpture is not accessible to the student, photographic reproductions
(obtainable to-day at insignificant price) of the works mentioned in
the outlines and lists of topics should be obtained and carefully
studied. In music the student should utilize with loving care such
opportunities as he can find or make available.




BOOK LIST


 =Ambros, Wilhelm August=, _The Boundaries of Music and Poetry_,
 translated by J. H. Cornell. Pp. xiii + 187. G. Schirmer, New York,
 1893.

 =Anderson, Rasmus B.=, _Norse Mythology_. Pp. 473. S. C. Griggs & Co.,
 Chicago, 1875.

 =Anderson, Rasmus B.= (translator), _The Younger Edda_. Pp. 302. S. C.
 Griggs & Co., Chicago, 1880.

 =Aristotle=, _The Poetic_, translated by Theodore Buckley, pp. 405-500
 in volume with Aristotle’s _Rhetoric_. Bohn Library, George Bell &
 Sons, London, 1890.

 =Arnold, Matthew=, _The Study of Poetry_, pp. 1-55 in _Essays in
 Criticism, second series_. The Macmillan Co., New York, 1906.

 =Baldwin, James=, _The Book-Lover_. Pp. 201. Jansen, McClurg & Co.,
 Chicago, 1885.

 =Bascom, John=, _Philosophy of English Literature_. Pp. xii + 318. G.
 P. Putnam’s Sons, New York, 1886.

 =Bates, Arlo=, _Talks on the Study of Literature_. Pp. 260. Houghton,
 Mifflin & Co., Boston, 1898.

 =Beeching, H. C.=, _The Study of Poetry_. Pp. 57. University Press,
 Cambridge, 1901.

 =Bradley, A. C.=, _Poetry for Poetry’s Sake_. Pp. 32. Clarendon Press,
 Oxford, 1901.

 =Brown, G. Baldwin=, _The Fine Arts_. Pp. xii + 321. Charles
 Scribner’s Sons, New York, 1906.

 =Browning, Robert=, _Abt Vogler_; _With Charles Avison_ (in
 _Parleyings with Certain People_); _Master Hugues of Saxe-Gotha_;
 _Saul_, in _Works_. Camberwell edition, T. Y. Crowell & Co., New York,
 1898.

 =Bulfinch, Thomas=, _The Age of Chivalry_. Pp. viii + 414. Crosby,
 Nichols & Co., Boston, 1859.

 =Bulfinch, Thomas=, _The Age of Fable_, edited by E. E. Hale. New
 edition. Pp. xxi + 568. S. W. Tilton & Co., Boston, 1894.

 =Caffin, Charles H.=, _How to Study Pictures_. Pp. xv + 513. The
 Century Co., New York, 1906.

 =Carlyle, Thomas=, _The Hero as Divinity_, pp. 1-41 in _Heroes and
 Hero-Worship_. Centenary edition. Charles Scribner’s Sons, New York,
 1897.

 =Carpenter, Edward=, _Angels’ Wings: A Series of Essays on Art and Its
 Relation to Life_. Pp. 248. Swan Sonnenschein & Co., London, 1898.

 =Collins, John Churton=, _The True Functions of Poetry_, pp. 263-291
 in _Studies in Poetry and Criticism_. George Bell & Sons, London, 1905.

 =Corson, Hiram=, _The Aims of Literary Study_. Pp. 153. The Macmillan
 Co., New York, 1895.

 =Cox, George W.=, _An Introduction to the Science of Comparative
 Mythology and Folk-Lore_. Pp. xvi + 380. Henry Holt & Co., New York,
 1881.

 =Cox, George W.=, _The Mythology of the Aryan Nations_. 2 vols., pp.
 xx + 460 and xv + 397. Longmans, Green, & Co., London, 1870.

 =Crawshaw, W. H.=, _The Interpretation of Literature_. Pp. x + 235.
 The Macmillan Co., New York, 1902.

 =Crawshaw, W. H.=, _Literary Interpretation of Life_. Pp. viii + 266.
 The Macmillan Co., New York, 1900.

 =Dabney, J. P.=, _The Musical Basis of Verse_. Pp. x + 269. Longmans,
 Green, & Co., London, 1901.

 =Davies, Henry M.=, _The Musical Consciousness_. (In _Music_, vol.
 XII, pp. 25-38, 171-180, 329-341, 462-472.)

 =Donaldson, John William=, _The Theatre of the Greeks_. Pp. xii + 435.
 George Bell & Sons, London, 1891.

 =Dwight, John S.=, _Intellectual Influence of Music_. (In _The
 Atlantic Monthly_, vol. XXVI, pp. 614-625.) Boston, Nov., 1870.

 =Dwight, John S.=, _Music as a Means of Culture_. (In _The Atlantic
 Monthly_, vol. XXVI, pp. 321-331.) Boston, Sept., 1870.

 =Eastman, Edith V.=, _Musical Education and Musical Art_. Pp. 171.
 Damrell & Upham, Boston, 1893.

 =Emerson, Ralph Waldo=, _Art_, pp. 325-343 in _Essays, first series_.
 Houghton, Mifflin & Co., Boston, 1883.

 =Emerson, Ralph Waldo=, _Art_, pp. 39-59 in _Society and Solitude_.
 Houghton, Mifflin & Co., Boston, 1898.

 =Engel, Carl=, _Introduction to the Study of National Music_. Pp. x +
 435. Longmans, Green, & Co., London, 1886.

 =Fairbanks, Arthur=, _The Mythology of Greece and Rome, with Special
 Reference to its Influence on Literature_. Pp. xvii + 408. D. Appleton
 & Co., New York, 1907.

 =Gayley, C. M.= (editor), _Classic Myths in English Literature_. Pp.
 xlv + 540. Ginn & Co., Boston, 1894.

 =Goddard, Joseph=, _Reflections upon Musical Art Considered in its
 Wider Relations_. Pp. viii + 87. Goddard & Co., London, 1893.

 =Goethe=, _Conversations with Eckermann and Soret_, translated by John
 Oxenford. Pp. xxvii + 583. Bohn Library, George Bell & Sons, London,
 1901.

 =Goethe=, _The Maxims and Reflections of_, translated by T. Bailey
 Saunders. Pp. 223. The Macmillan Co., New York, 1893.

 =Goethe=, _Travels in Italy_, translated by A. J. W. Morrison and
 Charles Nesbit. Pp. 589. Bohn Library, George Bell & Sons, London,
 1892.

 =Goldziher, Ignaz=, _Mythology among the Hebrews and its Historical
 Development_, translated by Russell Martineau. Pp. xxxv + 457.
 Longmans, Green, & Co., London, 1877.

 =Grosse, Ernest=, _The Beginnings of Art_. Pp. xiv + 327. D. Appleton
 & Co., New York, 1897.

 =Guerber, H. A.=, _Myths of Greece and Rome_. Pp. 428. American Book
 Co., New York, 1893.

 =Guerber, H. A.=, _Myths of Northern Lands_. Pp. 319. American Book
 Co., New York, 1895.

 =Gummere, Francis B.=, _The Beginnings of Poetry_. Pp. x + 483. The
 Macmillan Co., New York, 1901.

 =Gummere, Francis B.=, _A Handbook of Poetics_. Pp. vi + 250. Ginn &
 Co., Boston, 1885.

 =Gurney, Edmund=, _The Power of Sound_. Pp. xi + 559. Smith, Elder, &
 Co., London, 1880.

 =Hamerton, Philip Gilbert=, _The Intellectual Life_. Pp. xix + 455.
 Roberts Bros., Boston, 1891.

 =Hamerton, Philip Gilbert=, _Thoughts About Art_. Pp. xxiv + 383.
 Roberts Bros., Boston, 1878.

 =Hanchett, Henry G.=, _The Art of the Musician: A Guide to the
 Intellectual Appreciation of Music_. Pp. viii + 327. The Macmillan
 Co., New York, 1905.

 =Hand, Ferdinand=, _Æsthetics of Musical Art; or, the Beautiful in
 Music_, translated from the German by Walter E. Lawson. Pp. xviii +
 187. London, 1880.

 =Hanslick, Dr. Eduard=, _The Beautiful in Music_, translated by Gustav
 Cohen. Novello, Ewer & Co., New York, 1891.

 =Hegel, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich=, _Introduction to the Philosophy of
 Fine Art_, translated by B. Bosanquet. Pp. xxxiii + 175. Kegan Paul,
 Trench & Co., London, 1886.

 =Helmholtz, Hermann L. F.=, _On the Sensations of Tone as a
 Physiological Basis for the Theory of Music_, translated by Alexander
 J. Ellis. Pp. xix + 576. Longmans, Green, & Co., London, 1885.

 =Henderson, W. J.=, _What is Good Music?_ Pp. xiii + 205. Charles
 Scribner’s Sons, New York, 1905.

 =Holden, Florence P.=, _Audiences: A Few Suggestions to Those Who Look
 and Listen_. A. C. McClurg & Co., Chicago, 1896.

 =Holmes, Edmond=, _What is Poetry?_ Pp. 98. Lane, New York, 1900.

 =Hugo, Victor=, _William Shakespeare_, translated by Melville B.
 Anderson. Pp. 24 + 424. A. C. McClurg & Co., Chicago, 1899.

 =Kerst, Friedrich= (compiler and annotator), _Beethoven: The Man and
 the Artist, as Revealed in His Own Words_, translated and edited by
 Henry Edward Krehbiel. Pp. 110. B. W. Huebsch, New York, 1905.

 =Kerst, Friedrich= (compiler and annotator), _Mozart: The Man and the
 Artist, as Revealed in His Own Words_, translated and edited by Henry
 Edward Krehbiel. Pp. 143. B. W. Huebsch, New York, 1905.

 =Knight, William=, _The Philosophy of the Beautiful_. 2 vols. Pp. xv +
 288 and xii + 281. John Murray, London, 1891-3.

 =Kobbé, Gustav=, _How to Appreciate Music_. Pp. 275. Moffat, Yard &
 Co., New York, 1906.

 =Krehbiel, Henry Edward=, _How to Listen to Music_. Pp. xv + 36l.
 Charles Scribner’s Sons, New York, 1897.

 =Kufferath, M.=, _Rhythm, Melody and Harmony_. (In _Music_, vol. XVII,
 pp. 31-39, 155-163.) Chicago, 1899, 1900.

 =LaFarge, J.=, _Considerations on Painting_. Pp. vi + 270. The
 Macmillan Co., New York, 1901.

 =Lanier, Sidney=, _Music and Poetry_. Pp. viii + 248. Charles
 Scribner’s Sons, New York, 1899.

 =Lanier, Sidney=, _The Science of English Verse._ Pp. 315. Charles
 Scribner’s Sons, New York, 1901.

 =Leighton, Lord=, _Addresses Delivered to the Students of the Royal
 Academy_. Pp. 310. Kegan Paul, Trench, Trübner & Co., London, 1896.

 =Lessing, G. E.=, _Laokoön_, pp. 1-169 in _Laokoön_, etc., translated
 by E. C. Beasley and Helen Zimmern. Bohn Library, George Bell & Sons,
 London, 1900.

 =Lewes, George Henry=, _The Principles of Success in Literature_. Pp.
 xv + 235. Walter Scott, London, n. d.

 =Mabie, Hamilton Wright=, _Books and Culture_. Pp. 279. Dodd, Mead &
 Co., New York, 1896.

 =Mabie, Hamilton Wright=, _Essays on Nature and Culture_. Pp. 326.
 Dodd, Mead & Co., New York, 1896.

 =Mabie, Hamilton Wright=, _Short Studies in Literature_. Pp. vi + 201.
 Dodd, Mead & Co., New York, 1892.

 =Mach, Edmund von=, _Greek Sculpture; Its Spirit and Principles_. Pp.
 xviii + 359 + xl. Ginn & Co., Boston, 1903.

 =Malory, Sir Thomas=, _Le Morte Darthur_, edited with introduction by
 Sir Edward Strachey. Pp. lvi + 509. The Macmillan Co., New York, 1901.

 =Mathews, W. S. B.=, _How to Understand Music_. 2 vols., pp. 216 + 87
 and viii + 208. Theodore Presser, Philadelphia, 1886, 1888.

 =Mathews, W. S. B.=, _Music: Its Ideals and Methods_. Pp. iii + 225.
 Theodore Presser, Philadelphia, 1897.

 =Morison, John H.=, _The Great Poets as Religious Teachers_. Pp. 200.
 Harper & Bros., New York, 1886.

 =Morris, William=, _Hopes and Fears for Art_. Pp. 217. Roberts Bros.,
 Boston, 1882.

 =Moyse, Charles E.=, _Poetry, as a Fine Art_. Pp. 79. Elliot Stock,
 London, 1883.

 =Münsterberg, Hugo=, _The Principles of Art Education_. Pp. 114. The
 Prang Educational Co., New York, 1905.

 =Newman, John Henry=, _Poetry, with Reference to Aristotle’s Poetics_.
 Pp. x + 36. Ginn & Co., Boston, 1891.

 =Norton, Edwin Lee=, _The Intellectual Element in Music_, pp. 167-201
 in _Studies in Philosophy and Psychology_. Houghton, Mifflin & Co.,
 Boston, 1906.

 =Noyes, Carleton=, _The Enjoyment of Art_. Pp. xiii + 101. Houghton,
 Mifflin & Co., Boston, 1903.

 =Palgrave, Francis Turner= (editor), _The Golden Treasury of the Best
 Songs and Lyrical Poems in the English Language_. Series I, pp. 381;
 series II, pp. xii + 275. The Macmillan Co., New York, 1896, 1897.

 =Palgrave, Francis Turner=, _Poetry Compared with the Other Fine
 Arts_. (In _Littell’s Living Age_, vol. CLXXI, pp. 259-267; vol.
 CLXXIII, pp. 579-589.) Boston, 1886, 1887.

 =Parry, C. Hubert H.=, _The Evolution of the Art of Music_. Pp. x +
 342. D. Appleton & Co., New York, 1906.

 =Parry, T. Gambier=, _The Ministry of Fine Art to the Happiness of
 Life_. Pp. viii + 368. John Murray, London, 1886.

 =Partridge, William Ordway=, _Art for America_. Pp. 192. Roberts
 Bros., Boston, 1894.

 =Plato=, _The Republic_, translated by B. Jowett. Books II and III.
 Oxford University Press, 1892.

 =Poe, Edgar Allen=, _The Rationale of Verse_ and _The Poetic
 Principle_, pp. 209-292 in vol. XIV of _Works_, edited by James A.
 Harrison. Thomas Y. Crowell & Co., New York, 1902.

 =Posnett, Hutcheson Macauley=, _Comparative Literature_. Pp. x + 402.
 D. Appleton & Co., New York, 1886.

 =Pryde, David=, _Highways of Literature_. Pp. 156. Funk & Wagnalls,
 New York, n. d.

 =Puffer, Ethel D.=, _The Psychology of Beauty_. Pp. vii + 286.
 Houghton, Mifflin & Co., Boston, 1906.

 =Raymond, George Lansing=, _Art in Theory_. Pp. xviii + 266. G. P.
 Putnam’s Sons, New York, 1894.

 =Raymond, George Lansing=, _The Essentials of Æsthetics_. Pp. xix +
 404. G. P. Putnam’s Sons, New York, 1906.

 =Raymond, George Lansing=, _The Genesis of Art-Form_. Pp. xxii + 311.
 G. P. Putnam’s Sons, New York, 1893.

 =Raymond, George Lansing=, _Painting, Sculpture, and Architecture as
 Representative Arts_. Pp. xxxv + 431. G. P. Putnam’s Sons, New York,
 1895.

 =Raymond, George Lansing=, _Poetry as a Representative Art_. Pp. xv +
 346. G. P. Putnam’s Sons, New York, 1886.

 =Raymond, George Lansing=, _Rhythm and Harmony in Poetry and Music_.
 Pp. xxxvi + 344. G. P. Putnam’s Sons, New York, 1904.

 =Ritter, Frederic Louis=, _Music in Its Relation to Intellectual Life;
 Romanticism in Music_. Pp. 98. Edward Schuberth & Co., New York, 1891.

 =Ruskin, John=, _Aratra Pentelici; Elements of Sculpture_. Pp. xi +
 181. John Wiley & Sons, New York, 1886.

 =Ruskin, John=, _Lectures on Art_. Pp. 202. Merrill & Baker, New York,
 n. d.

 =Ruskin, John=, _Modern Painters_. 5 vols., pp. lxxiii + 429, xiii +
 230, xii + 341, 403, and xiv + 390. Merrill & Baker, New York, n. d.

 =Ruskin, John=, _The Two Paths: Lectures on Art_. Pp. xvii + 270.
 Maynard, Merrill & Co., New York, 1893.

 =Saint-Saëns, Camille=, _The Nature and Object of Music_. (In _Music_,
 vol. V, pp. 557-572.) Chicago, March, 1894.

 =Santayana, George=, _The Elements and Function of Poetry_, pp.
 251-290 in _Interpretations of Poetry and Religion_. Charles
 Scribner’s Sons, New York, 1900.

 =Schiller, Friedrich=, _Essays Æsthetical and Philosophical_,
 translated from the German. Pp. 435. Bohn Library, George Bell & Sons,
 London, 1905.

 =Schopenhauer, Arthur=, _The Art of Literature_, translated by T.
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  Transcriber's Notes:

  Italics are shown thus: _sloping_.

  Variations in spelling and hyphenation are retained.

  Perceived typographical errors have been changed.

*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 78154 ***