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+*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 78154 ***
+
+
+
+
+                                ART AND
+                           THE HUMAN SPIRIT
+
+               _The Meaning and Relations of Sculpture,
+                      Painting, Poetry and Music_
+
+                     A Handbook of Eight Lectures
+                                  By
+                         EDWARD HOWARD GRIGGS
+
+
+                               NEW YORK
+                             B. W. HUEBSCH
+                                 1908
+
+
+
+
+                            COPYRIGHT, 1908
+                                  BY
+                         EDWARD HOWARD GRIGGS
+
+“I believe in God, Mozart, and Beethoven, and in their disciples and
+apostles; I believe in the Holy Ghost and the truth of Art--one and
+indivisible; I believe that this art proceeds from God and dwells in
+the hearts of all enlightened men; I believe that whoever has revelled
+in the glorious joys of this high art must be forever devoted to it
+and can never repudiate it; I believe that all may become blessed
+through this art, and that therefore it is permitted to any one to
+die of hunger for its sake; I believe that I shall become most happy
+through death; I believe that I have been on earth a discordant chord,
+that shall be made harmonious and clear by death. I believe in a
+last judgment, that shall fearfully damn all those who have dared on
+this earth to make profit out of this chaste and holy art--who have
+disgraced it and dishonored it through badness of heart and the coarse
+instincts of sensuality; I believe that such men will be condemned to
+hear their own music through all eternity. I believe, on the other
+hand, that the true disciples of pure art will be glorified in a divine
+atmosphere of sun-illumined, fragrant concords, and united eternally
+with the divine source of all harmony. And may a merciful lot be
+granted me! Amen!”
+
+--Wagner, in “_An End in Paris_,” _Art Life and Theories_, p. 90.
+
+
+
+
+INDEX
+
+
+                                                               PAGE
+
+     Note: Spirit of the Course                                   7
+
+  1. The Expression and Interpretation of Human Life in Art       9
+
+  2. The Primitive Sources of Art                                14
+
+  3. The Race, the Epoch and the Individual in Art               19
+
+  4. The Meaning and Function of Sculpture and Painting          24
+
+  5. The Meaning and Function of Music                           29
+
+  6. The Meaning and Function of Poetry                          35
+
+  7. Literature and Liberal Culture                              40
+
+  8. Beauty and the Culture of the Spirit                        45
+
+     Suggestions to Students                                     50
+
+     Book List                                                   51
+
+
+
+
+SPIRIT OF THE COURSE
+
+
+There is evident in our country to-day a great turning of energy to the
+higher interests of human life, especially to the fine arts. Apparently
+some part of the enthusiasm and youthful power that has built so
+wonderful a material civilization is now set free for the pursuit of
+beauty and wisdom. We send our students far and wide to the schools and
+galleries of the old world; we build art museums in all our cities,
+and cultivate music with a new earnestness. Unfortunately the noble
+promise in this awakening is hampered by grave misconceptions as to
+the meaning of art in relation to the human spirit. Widely, among high
+and low alike, art is regarded as a pleasant adornment of life, worth
+seeking after the serious business of our existence is fulfilled, but
+quite dispensable meantime. Others--well-meaning people--hold art to be
+justified only by some obvious moral teaching it conveys. In reaction
+against this view and as a result of the difficult technical problems
+art presents, many artists fall into the equally unfortunate error of
+regarding art as primarily an exhibition of skill, interpreting “art
+for art’s sake” to mean art for technique’s sake.
+
+There is no hope of giving art the place it should occupy in our
+culture until these errors have been overcome. We must learn that art
+is serious business, that beauty is the most useful thing we know, and
+that art is not for adornment’s sake, or preaching’s sake, or art’s
+sake, but that it is for _life’s sake_.
+
+The aim of this course is, therefore, to consider as fully and
+searchingly as possible the place and meaning of the fine arts in
+relation to the spirit of man. We shall study first the unity of the
+arts, their expression and interpretation in common of the universal
+elements of human experience. Then the historic sources of the arts
+and the great forces that determine the specific characteristics of
+a masterpiece will be studied. The heart of the course will be an
+effort to define the particular meaning and function of each of the
+arts, the way in which it can express and interpret some phase of the
+common human life more effectively than any other. Finally, the work
+will close with a study of the ministry of the arts to man’s spirit and
+their place in culture.
+
+If art is for life’s sake for the appreciative student, even more is
+it so for the creative artist. If often the lesser men have lived
+to paint, or carve, or write, or sing, the great masters have ever
+found art a way of life, have painted, carved, written, sung, _to
+live_,--that through creative expression in art they might grow up into
+the fullness of their own potential humanity. Thus it is necessary
+that every one should be an artist in this high sense of the word; and
+if that is impossible in what we call the fine arts, it is possible
+in the finest of all, the one supreme art of living. The need is, not
+that beauty should be added artificially to daily life, but that life
+itself, in work, relationship and environment, should be made a fine
+art. That this study may help a little to that end and so add something
+of the joy that comes from supreme beauty, redeeming the commonplace
+detail of life by clothing it with a transfiguring atmosphere and
+exalting the spirit to a place where a serene vision of life in
+relation is possible, is the hope with which the work is undertaken.
+
+
+
+
+I. THE EXPRESSION AND INTERPRETATION OF HUMAN LIFE IN ART
+
+ Art is the adequate and harmonious expression and interpretation of
+ some phase of man’s life in true relation to the whole.
+
+ --Edward Howard Griggs.
+
+
+=Purpose of the course.=--To consider the whole meaning of the fine
+arts; the relations they sustain to each other; the sources from
+which they spring; their two-fold relation to the human spirit,--as
+expressing and interpreting life and as contributing to the higher
+culture of man. The need and value of such study to-day, especially in
+America.
+
+=Popular superstitions in relation to art.=--Misconceptions met on
+the threshold of our study: (1) The notion that art is a dispensable
+luxury, to be cultivated as an adornment of life after our serious
+business is accomplished. Prevalence of this error in the mind of the
+general public; among those who regard themselves as polite society.
+The artist’s bitter protest against this attitude in all epochs:
+compare Carlyle; Goethe.
+
+(2) The notion prevailing in the minds of many good people that art is
+justified only by the moral lessons it teaches. Goethe’s view that this
+destroys the artist’s vocation. The ethical significance of true art
+organically in it, not tacked on in an Æsop’s fable moral at the end.
+
+(3) In reaction against the second error, one prevailing in the
+minds of many artists below the highest rank: the notion that art is
+for the sake merely of exhibiting technical skill in the mastery of
+difficulties. Causes of this error.
+
+Essential that these three misconceptions should be corrected before
+art can assume its rightful place in relation to our life. Our first
+questions therefore: What is art, and what relation does it sustain to
+the spirit of man?
+
+=Unity and variety in art.=--Bewildering diversity of works of
+art: compare in the same art; in different arts. Thus difficulty
+of gathering all in a common statement. Yet the fact that we may
+appreciate all, indicating a common basis. The arts, moreover,
+springing from one historical source; while possible for the most
+highly developed works of art in different fields to produce the
+same dominant impression. Illustrate in the groups of men who are
+brothers across the centuries. The source of this unity in all art the
+expression everywhere of the same universal basis of human life.
+
+The simple, generic elements of life as always expressed in art through
+the medium of personality. Thus true art ever fresh and vital--a new
+equation of old forces. Compare Homer’s _Odyssey_ and Stephen Phillip’s
+_Ulysses_.
+
+Not all expression art. The conditioning principles of adequacy and
+harmony of expression distinguishing true art from what fails to rise
+to its plane. The further principle that the part must be treated in
+sound relation to the whole of human life. Compare in the portrayal of
+moral evil. What distinguishes Dante and Shakespeare from the vicious
+type of novel in such portrayal.
+
+=Interpretation of life.=--All expression involving as well some
+measure of interpretation; that is, all art inevitably ideal as well as
+real in the presentation of life and nature. Compare even in amateur
+photography: how there is inevitably selection of material and point of
+view. Compare in the novel that attempts merely a realistic portraiture
+of life. How even the selection of the part of the material out of
+the whole and the adoption of a view-point in its treatment, bringing
+certain elements into the foreground and subordinating others in the
+background, means putting life and nature through the transmuting
+spectrum of the artist’s spirit in expressing them.
+
+=Further elements of idealism.=--Raising life to a higher plane of
+expression than is usual in the real world: compare the characters of
+Shakespeare; the paintings of Corot and Millet.
+
+The tendency in art to carry the laws of life out full circle, thus
+giving an ethical completeness wanting in actual life.
+
+The addition of a unifying and interpreting atmosphere. Compare in
+Titian; Beethoven; Dante.
+
+=The definition of art.=--Summing up of all the aspects developed in
+the relation of art to the human spirit: thus the inclusive definition.
+
+Hence the serious business of art. The relation of the beautiful to the
+useful. The meaning of art in the life of man.
+
+
+ILLUSTRATIONS
+
+ “The useful encourages itself; for the multitude produce it, and no
+ one can dispense with it: the beautiful must be encouraged; for few
+ can set it forth, and many need it.”
+
+ --Goethe, _Wilhelm Meister_, translated by Carlyle (A. C. McClurg &
+ Co., 1890), vol. 2, p. 129.
+
+ “I do not object to a dramatic poet having a moral influence in view;
+ but when the point is to bring his subject clearly and effectively
+ before his audience, his moral purpose proves of little use, and he
+ needs much more a faculty for delineation and a familiarity with the
+ stage to know what to do and what to leave undone. If there be a moral
+ in the subject, it will appear, and the poet has nothing to consider
+ but the effective and artistic treatment of his subject. If the poet
+ has as high a soul as Sophocles, his influence will always be moral,
+ let him do what he will.”
+
+ --Goethe, _Conversations with Eckermann and Soret_, p. 228.
+
+ “The praiseworthy object of pursuing everywhere moral good as
+ the supreme aim, which has already brought forth in art so much
+ mediocrity, has caused also in theory a similar prejudice. To assign
+ to the fine arts a really elevated position, to conciliate for them
+ the favour of the State, the veneration of all men, they are pushed
+ beyond their true domain, and a vocation is imposed upon them contrary
+ to their nature. It is supposed that a great service is awarded them
+ by substituting for a frivolous aim,--that of charming--a moral aim;
+ and their influence upon morality, which is so apparent, necessarily
+ militates in favour of this pretension.”
+
+ --Schiller, _Essays Æsthetical and Philosophical_, pp. 361, 362.
+
+ “Just as the sun cannot shed its light but to the eye that sees it,
+ nor music sound but to the hearing ear, so the value of all masterly
+ work in art and science is conditioned by the kinship and capacity
+ of the mind to which it speaks. It is only such a mind as this that
+ possesses the magic word to stir and call forth the spirits that lie
+ hidden in great work. To the ordinary mind a masterpiece is a sealed
+ cabinet of mystery,--an unfamiliar musical instrument from which
+ the player, however much he may flatter himself, can draw none but
+ confused tones. How different a painting looks when seen in a good
+ light, instead of in some dark corner! Just in the same way, the
+ impression made by a masterpiece varies with the capacity of the mind
+ to understand it.”
+
+ --Schopenhauer, _The Art of Literature_, p. 94.
+
+ “From the combined effort of the two schools of criticism, guardians
+ of public tranquillity, there results a salutary reaction. This
+ reaction has already produced some specimens of poets,--steady,
+ well-bred, prudent, whose style always keeps good hours; who never
+ indulge in an outing with those mad creatures, Ideas; who are
+ never met at the corner of a wood, _solus cum solâ_, with Reverie,
+ that gypsy girl; who are incapable of having relations either with
+ Imagination, dangerous vagabond, or with the bacchante Inspiration, or
+ with the grisette Fancy; who have never in their lives given a kiss to
+ that beggarly chit, the Muse; who never sleep away from home, and who
+ are honored with the esteem of their door-keeper, Nicholas Boileau. If
+ Polyhymnia goes by with her hair floating a little, what a scandal!
+ Quick! they call the hairdresser. M. de la Harpe comes hastily. These
+ two sister schools of criticism, that of the doctrinaire and that of
+ the sacristan, undertake to educate. They bring up little writers.
+ They keep a place to wean them,--a boarding-school for juvenile
+ reputations.”
+
+ --Victor Hugo, _William Shakespeare_, pp. 208, 209.
+
+ “The passions, whether violent or not, must never be carried in their
+ expression to the verge of disgust, and music, even in the most awful
+ situations, must not offend the ear, but always please.”
+
+ --Mozart, in Kerst, _Mozart: The Man and the Artist_, pp. 34, 35.
+
+ “He was a good man and on that very account, a great man. For when
+ a good man is gifted with talent, he always works morally for the
+ salvation of the world, as poet, philosopher, artist, or in whatever
+ way it may be.”
+
+ --Goethe, _Conversations with Eckermann and Soret_, p. 364.
+
+ “The historical painter also must take good care, if he would not
+ produce a caricature, even in subjects of an action moved by passion,
+ not to give every one of his figures the sharply imprinted expression
+ of an emotion. Thus, Orcagna, in his _Last Judgment_ (in the _Campo
+ santo_ at Pisa), represents with fearful truthfulness, and in a most
+ startling manner, on the side of the damned, terrified surprise,
+ horror, lamentation and despair; but for all that it would be but a
+ crowd of people making faces if the artist did not contrast it with
+ the uniformly tranquil, radiant joy on the faces of the saved, and the
+ solemn gravity of the patriarchs and prophets. In Leonardo da Vinci’s
+ _Last Supper_ is placed by the side of the violent gesticulations and
+ excited looks of some of the apostles, in well-calculated contrasting
+ relief, the composed demeanor of others, especially of the one
+ sitting at the right of the beholder at the end of the table, but
+ particularly the divinely mild gravity and the sorrowful resignation
+ of the principal figure in the middle. Even in the most tumultuous
+ of all historical pictures, the celebrated Pompeian mosaic picture
+ of Alexander’s battle, the universal horror at the fall of the
+ commander-in-chief is _completely_ portrayed only in some figures.”
+
+ --Ambros, _The Boundaries of Music and Poetry_, pp. 56, 57.
+
+ “Beauty results from the harmony between spirit and sense; it
+ addresses all the faculties of man, and can only be appreciated if
+ a man employs fully all his strength. He must bring to it an open
+ sense, a broad heart, a spirit full of freshness. All a man’s nature
+ must be on the alert, and this is not the case with those divided by
+ abstraction, narrowed by formulas, enervated by application.”
+
+ --Schiller, _Essays Æsthetical and Philosophical_, p. 330.
+
+ “A masterpiece exists once for all. The first poet who arrives,
+ arrives at the summit. You shall ascend after him, as high, not
+ higher. Ah! Your name is Dante? Very well; but he who sits yonder is
+ named Homer!”
+
+ --Victor Hugo, _William Shakespeare_, p. 101.
+
+ “The unpoetical lover of art, ensconced in his burgess-like comfort,
+ is apt to take offence at any part of a poetical work which entails
+ trouble on him, such as the solution, colouring or concealment of
+ a problem. The somnolent reader wants everything to pursue its
+ natural course, little imagining in his obstinate conceit how the
+ extraordinary may also be natural.”
+
+ --Goethe, _Travels in Italy_, p. 466.
+
+
+TOPICS FOR STUDY AND DISCUSSION
+
+1. What is common and universal in the subject-matter of the fine arts?
+
+2. Compare Homer’s _Odyssey_ and the _Ulysses_ of Stephen Phillips as
+artistic treatments of the same theme.
+
+3. Can you discover a musical composition and a work in painting that
+produce the same dominant impression with the _Agamemnon Trilogy_ of
+Æschylus?
+
+4. Can you find a type of poetry and of painting akin in impression to
+the music of Chopin?
+
+5. What makes possible our common appreciation of works of art in
+widely different fields and coming from remotely separated races and
+epochs?
+
+6. Explain how all the characters of Shakespeare can speak such
+beautiful poetry, and yet Shakespeare be regarded as the great realist
+in the portrayal of life.
+
+7. What relation do the paintings of Corot sustain to Nature?
+
+8. How far may moral disease wisely be portrayed in art?
+
+9. Show what is necessary to make expression truly artistic.
+
+10. Formulate your own definition of art.
+
+
+REFERENCES
+
+NOTE: See Book List, pp. 51-57, for publisher and place and date of
+publication of all books referred to.
+
+ Ambros, _Boundaries of Music and Poetry_. Carpenter, _Angels’ Wings_.
+ Corson, _Aims of Literary Study_. Crawshaw, _Literary Interpretation
+ of Life_. Emerson, _Art_ (in _Essays, first series_, pp. 325-343);
+ _Art_ (in _Society and Solitude_, pp. 39-59). Hand, _Æsthetics of
+ Musical Art_. Hugo, _William Shakespeare_. Knight, _The Philosophy of
+ the Beautiful_. Lanier, _Music and Poetry_. Leighton, _Addresses_.
+ Lewes, _Principles of Success in Literature_. Mabie, _Short Studies
+ in Literature_. Parry, _The Evolution of the Art of Music_.
+ Partridge, _Art for America_. Raymond, _Art in Theory_; _Essentials
+ of Æsthetics_. Ruskin, _Lectures on Art_; _Modern Painters_; _The Two
+ Paths_. Schiller, _Essays_. Schopenhauer, _The Art of Literature_.
+ Shairp, _Aspects of Poetry_. Stedman, _Nature and Elements of Poetry_.
+ Tolstoy, _What is Art?_ Van Dyke, _How to Judge of a Picture_;
+ _Principles of Art_. Wagner, _Art Life and Theories of_. Wilde, _The
+ Critic as Artist_.
+
+
+
+
+II. THE PRIMITIVE SOURCES OF ART
+
+ “The secret, mysterious relations of the human heart to the strange
+ nature around it, have not yet come to an end. In its eloquent
+ silence, this latter still speaks to the heart just as it did a
+ thousand years ago; and what was told in the very gray of antiquity is
+ understood to-day as easily as then. For this reason it is that the
+ legend of nature ever remains the inexhaustible resource of the poet
+ in his intercourse with his people.”
+
+ --Wagner, in “Der Freischütz in Paris,” _Art Life and Theories_, p. 99.
+
+
+=Evolution of the arts.=--The primitive hymns sung in honor of a
+God and accompanied by interpretative dancing. How the various fine
+arts are differentiated from this historic basis. The same law of
+evolution applying to all expressions of life evident in the arts. A
+generic unity in the primitive basis, sometimes wanting in the later
+differentiated forms.
+
+=The original inspiration of art.=--Significance in the fact that all
+art springs first from religion. Profound seriousness of early art.
+This religious earnestness persisting in all great art. Thus deep
+meaning in the primitive sources from which art springs.
+
+=The character of early art.=--Antecedent to written literature a great
+storehouse of popular thought, feeling and imagination which we call
+mythology. The process by which this is developed, accumulated and
+handed down from generation to generation. Value of the product as a
+condensed and refined result of long ages of human life. Compare in
+value with great literary masterpieces produced by individual geniuses.
+
+Vitality of mythology, due to the closeness of primitive man to Nature
+and the simple things of human life. Evidence in the spontaneous
+metaphorical character of all early language: Illustrations.
+
+The truth in mythology, due to a sound reaction on the world. Contrast
+the truth of incident with the truth of character. Aristotle’s view of
+poetry as truer than history. The true and the false fairy-tale: a mere
+jumble of adventure contrasted with a portrayal of character naturally
+unfolding in relation to circumstance and law.
+
+Universality of mythology. The few, great, simple elements that make
+up human life in all times and places. Tendency to hark back to these
+from the conventions and artificialities of civilization. Constant
+expression of these in primitive art: compare the Brunhild story. Thus
+ethical depth in all the gathered-up result of early life. Simple but
+clear recognition of the great laws of life.
+
+Natural but inevitable art in the great expressions of early life.
+Characteristics of that art in comparison with the form of later
+masterpieces.
+
+=The ethical value of mythology.=--The moral plane of primitive life in
+comparison with later civilization. Thus elements in mythology below
+the level of our ethical standards of to-day. Yet moral development
+proceeding not only from the lower to the higher, but from the simple
+to the complex. Compare the complication of ethical situations and
+standards in our life. Difficulty in distinguishing good and evil.
+Expression of this in Ibsen and Goethe. Contrasting simplicity of
+primitive mythology: its simple and clear opposition of good and evil.
+Usual representation of good as conquering. Illustrations in both
+Greek and northern legends. Thus mythology presenting the basal moral
+principles that should be clearly recognized before the literature
+is studied that portrays the ethical subtleties and complications of
+modern life.
+
+A further ethical element in primitive mythology: good not always
+conquering; but when defeated, going down with colors flying, thus
+making of defeat the noblest of moral victories. Compare in the
+Prometheus legend; the story of Beowulf.
+
+=The relation of mythology to later art.=--The need of the late
+artist to saturate himself in the springs of the race life: compare
+in Tennyson and Wagner. The use of mythology and religion in Greek
+sculpture; Renaissance painting; poetry; music.
+
+=Important types of primitive material.=--The three sources of early
+material drawn from most largely by European art: (1) Hebraic stories;
+(2) Greek and Latin mythology; (3) Norse legends. The complementary
+character of these three bodies of material. The Hebraic stories as
+presenting the deepest recognition of moral law and purpose. Greek
+mythology as beautiful and artistic. Norse stories as most deeply human
+and at the same time the ethnic background from which our art springs.
+
+Thus the value of primitive mythology and religion: (1) as sources
+of later art; (2) as inspiration of art to-day; (3) as valuable
+permanently in education.
+
+
+ILLUSTRATIONS
+
+ “Art rests upon a kind of religious sense: it is deeply and
+ ineradicably in earnest. Thus it is that Art so willingly goes hand in
+ hand with Religion.”
+
+ --Goethe, _Maxims and Reflections_, p. 174.
+
+ “The essence of the Scandinavian, as indeed of all pagan mythologies,
+ we found to be recognition of the divineness of nature; sincere
+ communion of man with the mysterious invisible powers visibly seen at
+ work in the world round him. This, I should say, is more sincerely
+ done in the Scandinavian than in any mythology I know. Sincerity is
+ the great character of it. Superior sincerity (far superior) consoles
+ us for the total want of old Grecian grace. Sincerity, I think, is
+ better than grace. I feel that these old northmen were looking into
+ nature with open eye and soul most earnest, honest; childlike, and yet
+ manlike; with a great-hearted simplicity and depth and freshness, in a
+ true, loving, admiring, unfearing way.”
+
+ --Carlyle, _Heroes and Hero-Worship_, p. 30.
+
+ “When imagination incessantly escapes from reality, and does not
+ abandon the simplicity of nature in its wanderings: then and then only
+ the mind and the senses, the receptive force and the plastic force,
+ are developed in that happy equilibrium which is the soul of the
+ beautiful and the condition of humanity.”
+
+ --Schiller, _Essays Æsthetical and Philosophical_, p. 106.
+
+ “The law of simplicity and naïvety holds good of all fine art; for it
+ is quite possible to be at once simple and sublime.”
+
+ --Schopenhauer, _The Art of Literature_, p. 31.
+
+ “To speak out once for all, man only plays when in the full meaning of
+ the word he is a man, and _he is only completely a man when he plays_.”
+
+ --Schiller, _Essays Æsthetical and Philosophical_, p. 71.
+
+ “Ah!--if you would and could but hear and see our _true_
+ Freischütz,--you might feel the anxiety that now oppresses me, in the
+ form of a friendly appreciation on your own part of the peculiarity
+ of that spiritual life, which belongs to the German nation as a
+ birthright; you would look kindly upon the silent attraction that
+ draws the German away from the life of his large cities,--wretched
+ and clumsily imitative of foreign influences, as it is,--and takes
+ him back to nature; attracts him to the solitude of the forests, that
+ he may there re-awaken those emotions for which your language has not
+ even a word,--but which those mystic, clear tones of our Weber explain
+ to us as thoroughly as your exquisite decorations and enervating music
+ must make them lifeless and irrecognizable for you.”
+
+ --Wagner, in “Der Freischütz in Paris,” _Art Life and Theories_, pp.
+ 106, 107.
+
+ “You remember the fancy of Plato’s, of a man who had grown to maturity
+ in some dark distance, and was brought on a sudden into the upper air
+ to see the sun rise. What would his wonder be, his rapt astonishment
+ at the sight we daily witness with indifference! With the free open
+ sense of a child, yet with the ripe faculty of a man, his whole
+ heart would be kindled by that sight, he would discern it well to be
+ godlike, his soul would fall down in worship before it. Now, just
+ such a childlike greatness was in the primitive nations. The first
+ pagan thinker among rude men, the first man that began to think,
+ was precisely this child-man of Plato’s. Simple, open as a child,
+ yet with the depth and strength of a man. Nature had as yet no name
+ to him; he had not yet united under a name the infinite variety of
+ sights, sounds, shapes and motions, which we now collectively name
+ universe, nature, or the like,--and so with a name dismiss it from us.
+ To the wild deep-hearted man all was yet new, not veiled under names
+ or formulas; it stood naked, flashing-in on him there, beautiful,
+ awful, unspeakable. Nature was to this man, what to the thinker and
+ prophet it forever is, _preter_-natural. This green flowery rock-built
+ earth, the trees, the mountains, rivers, many-sounding seas;--that
+ great deep sea of azure that swims overhead; the wind sweeping through
+ it; the black cloud fashioning itself together, now pouring out fire,
+ now hail and rain; what _is_ it? Ay, what? At bottom we do not yet
+ know; we can never know at all. It is not by our superior insight
+ that we escape the difficulty; it is by our superior levity, our
+ inattention, our _want_ of insight. It is by _not_ thinking that we
+ cease to wonder at it. Hardened round us, encasing wholly every notion
+ we form, is a wrappage of traditions, hearsays; mere _words_. We
+ call that fire of the black thunder cloud “electricity,” and lecture
+ learnedly about it, and grind the like of it out of glass and silk;
+ but _what_ is it? What made it? Whence comes it? Whither goes it?
+ Science has done much for us; but it is a poor science that would hide
+ from us the great deep sacred infinitude of Nescience, whither we can
+ never penetrate, on which all science swims as a mere superficial
+ film. This world, after all our science and sciences, is still a
+ miracle; wonderful, inscrutable, _magical_ and more, to whosoever will
+ _think_ of it.”
+
+ --Carlyle, _Heroes and Hero-Worship_, pp. 7, 8.
+
+
+TOPICS FOR STUDY AND DISCUSSION
+
+1. Compare, in ethical vitality and artistic beauty, primitive
+mythology and later masterpieces.
+
+2. To what extent do the different arts depend upon primitive mythology
+and religion as sources for their material?
+
+3. What is the relative value, for the understanding of European art,
+of Greek and Norse mythology?
+
+4. Compare, in ethical vitality and artistic beauty, Tennyson’s
+_Passing of Arthur_ and the concluding portion of _Beowulf_.
+
+5. Why is the late artist led so frequently to saturate himself with
+the expressions of early life?
+
+6. What is the relative ethical value of Hebrew stories and Norse myths?
+
+7. From what early sources does Renaissance painting chiefly draw?
+
+8. Compare the ethical plane in Greek and Norse mythology with that
+achieved in later civilization.
+
+9. From what historic sources does English poetry chiefly draw?
+
+10. What is the value of primitive mythology for the education of
+children?
+
+
+REFERENCES
+
+ Anderson, _Norse Mythology_; _The Younger Edda_. Brown, _The
+ Fine Arts_. Bulfinch, _The Age of Chivalry_; _The Age of Fable_.
+ Carlyle, _The Hero as Divinity_. Cox, _Introduction to the Science
+ of Comparative Mythology_; _The Mythology of the Aryan Nations_.
+ Donaldson, _Theatre of the Greeks_. Fairbanks, _The Mythology of
+ Greece and Rome_. Gayley, _Classic Myths in English Literature_.
+ Goldziher, _Mythology among the Hebrews_. Grosse, _The Beginnings of
+ Art_. Guerber, _Myths of Greece and Rome_; _Myths of Northern Lands_.
+ Gummere, _The Beginnings of Poetry_; _Handbook of Poetics_. Mabie,
+ _Short Studies in Literature_. Malory, _Le Morte Darthur_. Parry, _The
+ Evolution of the Art of Music_. Posnett, _Comparative Literature_.
+ Shairp, _Poetic Interpretation of Nature_. Wagner, _Art Life and
+ Theories of_.
+
+
+
+
+III. THE RACE, THE EPOCH AND THE INDIVIDUAL IN ART
+
+ “We live in this world only that we may go onward without ceasing, a
+ peculiar help in this direction being that one enlightens the other by
+ communicating his ideas; in the sciences and fine arts there is always
+ more to learn.”
+
+ --Mozart, in Kerst, _Mozart: The Man and the Artist_, p. 89.
+
+
+=Determining forces behind art.=--So far we have considered the
+great common sources of art; now to turn to the causes giving unique
+characteristics to each work of art.
+
+=The personal element.=--In art the great common basis of human life
+expressed only through the medium of personality; thus the character
+and experience of the artist always revealed in the work, and molding
+it. Compare Mozart and Beethoven in music; Fra Angelico and Fra Lippo
+Lippi in painting.
+
+Compare Tennyson’s _Crossing the Bar_ and Browning’s _Epilogue to
+Asolando_. Differences in imagery, music, type of thought and feeling,
+general view of life. Yet these two poems coming from the same time and
+race. Complete revelation of Tennyson and Browning in these fragments.
+
+Relation of the material given in biography to the self-confession in
+art. Compare the revelation of Andrea del Sarto in the traditional
+biography and in his painting. The expression of Chopin’s personality
+and experience in his music. Revelation of the artist even when the
+work is most objective and dramatic in character. Compare how it is
+possible to find Shakespeare behind his dramas.
+
+The development of the artist revealed where works come from different
+periods of his life. Illustrations in Goethe, Wagner, Shakespeare; in
+the early and late _Pietà_ of Michael Angelo.
+
+=The epoch.=--The forces of the time always molding the spirit of the
+individual artist. The epoch a complex of many forces, yet out of them
+a true “time-spirit” created. Effect of internal changes in a land; of
+the reception of foreign stimulus; of the natural growth and decay of
+the forces of life.
+
+Different types of epoch: in production and preparation, faith and
+doubt, creation and criticism. The artist inevitably influenced by
+the spirit of the age, whether conscious of the fact or not. The two
+contrasting types of relation the artist may sustain to his time.
+Compare Emerson in relation to America’s civilization; Fra Angelico
+as an expression of the Renaissance. So compare Dante as a voice of
+the middle ages; Leonardo da Vinci in relation to the Renaissance. The
+common spirit in the Elizabethan dramatists. Wagner’s operas as an
+embodiment of modern life. Significance of the two dominant motives in
+modern painting.
+
+Possible further to trace the development of an epoch through the
+art in which it is expressed. The half-circle through which every
+productive epoch tends to pass. This due to the birth, maturing
+and decay of the forces influencing life. Contrasting tendencies
+in the artists appearing on the upward and on the downward slope.
+Illustrations in Elizabethan drama and Renaissance painting.
+
+=The race.=--The epoch but a moment in the life of a people. As the
+time-spirit finds varying expression in the different artists in which
+it is clothed, so the deeper, organic life of a race as beneath all
+the epochs characterizing its unfolding. Evidence in the fact that
+each race is apt to find its highest expression in one art. Compare
+sculpture in Greece; painting in Italy; music in Germany; the drama in
+England. Similarly every expression of a race revealing its spirit.
+Compare the coloring in Dutch and Italian painting; nature-imagery in
+English and Italian poetry.
+
+Possible also to trace the development of a race through its artistic
+expression. The life of a race as comparable to a great on-flowing
+stream with rise and fall, ever deepening and enlarging as the race
+develops. Compare in the development of English literature. Elements
+which persist under all the changes. Compare Tennyson’s _Passing of
+Arthur_ and the closing portion of _Beowulf_.
+
+Thus the least fragment of art embodying the spirit of the artist, the
+deeper life of the epoch, the still more fundamental characteristics
+of the race, while beneath all are the great, universal tendencies of
+humanity.
+
+
+ILLUSTRATIONS
+
+ “The most profound erudition is no more akin to genius than a
+ collection of dried plants is like Nature, with its constant flow of
+ new life, ever fresh, ever young, ever changing. There are no two
+ things more opposed than the childish naïvety of an ancient author and
+ the learning of his commentator.”
+
+ --Schopenhauer, _The Art of Literature_, p. 52.
+
+ “At a distance we only hear of the first artists, and then we are
+ often contented with names only; but when we draw nearer to this
+ starry sky, and the luminaries of the second and third magnitude also
+ begin to twinkle, each one coming forward and occupying his proper
+ place in the whole constellation, then the world becomes wide, and art
+ becomes rich.”
+
+ --Goethe, _Travels in Italy_, p. 36.
+
+ “I carry my thoughts about me for a long time, often a very long time,
+ before I write them down; meanwhile my memory is so faithful that I
+ am sure never to forget, not even in years, a theme that has once
+ occurred to me. I change many things, discard, and try again until I
+ am satisfied. Then, however, there begins in my head the development
+ in every direction, and, inasmuch as I know exactly what I want, the
+ fundamental idea never deserts me,--it arises before me, grows,--I see
+ and hear the picture in all its extent and dimensions stand before
+ my mind like a cast, and there remains for me nothing but the labor
+ of writing it down, which is quickly accomplished when I have the
+ time, for I sometimes take up other work, but never to the confusion
+ of one with the other. You will ask me where I get my ideas. That
+ I can not tell you with certainty; they come unsummoned, directly,
+ indirectly,--I could seize them with my hands,--out in the open air;
+ in the woods; while walking; in the silence of the nights; early in
+ the morning; incited by moods, which are translated by the poet into
+ words, by me into tones that sound, and roar and storm about me until
+ I have set them down in notes.”
+
+ --Beethoven, in Kerst, _Beethoven: The Man and the Artist_, p. 29.
+
+ “Art has to leave reality, it has to raise itself boldly above
+ necessity and neediness; for art is the daughter of freedom, and it
+ requires its prescriptions and rules to be furnished by the necessity
+ of spirits and not by that of matter. But in our day it is necessity,
+ neediness, that prevails, and bends a degraded humanity under its iron
+ yoke. _Utility_ is the great idol of the time, to which all powers
+ do homage and all subjects are subservient. In this great balance of
+ utility, the spiritual service of art has no weight, and, deprived of
+ all encouragement, it vanishes from the noisy Vanity Fair of our time.
+ The very spirit of philosophical inquiry itself robs the imagination
+ of one promise after another, and the frontiers of art are narrowed,
+ in proportion as the limits of science are enlarged.”
+
+ --Schiller, _Essays Æsthetical and Philosophical_, pp. 27, 28.
+
+ “People always fancy that we must become old to become wise; but, in
+ truth, as years advance, it is hard to keep ourselves as wise as we
+ were. Man becomes, indeed, in the different stages of his life, a
+ different being; but he cannot say that he is a better one, and, in
+ certain matters, he is as likely to be right in his twentieth, as in
+ his sixtieth year.
+
+ “We see the world one way from a plain, another way from the heights
+ of a promontory, another from the glacier fields of the primary
+ mountains. We see, from one of these points, a larger piece of the
+ world than from the other; but that is all, and we cannot say that
+ we see more truly from any one than from the rest. When a writer
+ leaves monuments on the different steps of his life, it is chiefly
+ important that he should have an innate foundation and goodwill; that
+ he should, at each step, have seen and felt clearly, and that, without
+ any secondary aims, he should have said distinctly and truly what has
+ passed in his mind. Then will his writings, if they were right at the
+ step where they originated, remain always right, however the writer
+ may develop or alter himself in after times.”
+
+ --Goethe, _Conversations with Eckermann and Soret_, p. 512.
+
+ “That which distinguishes genius, and should be the standard for
+ judging it, is the height to which it is able to soar when it is in
+ the proper mood and finds a fitting occasion--a height always out of
+ the reach of ordinary talent.”
+
+ --Schopenhauer, _The Art of Literature_, p. 88.
+
+ “It seems as though purely human feeling, grown stronger by its very
+ repression on the side of conventional civilization, had sought out a
+ means of bringing into use some laws of language peculiar to itself,
+ by means of which it could express itself intelligibly, freed from the
+ trammels of logical rules of thought. The extraordinary popularity of
+ music in our age, the ever-increasing participation (extending through
+ all classes of society) in the production of music of the deepest
+ character, the growing desire to make of musical culture a necessary
+ part of every education,--all these things which are certainly obvious
+ and undeniable, distinctly prove the justice of the assumption that a
+ deep-rooted and earnest need of humanity finds expression in modern
+ musical development; and that music, unintelligible as its language is
+ when tried by the laws of logic, must bear within it a more convincing
+ means of making itself understood, than even those laws contain.”
+
+ --Wagner, in “The Music of the Future,” _Art Life and Theories_, p.
+ 159.
+
+
+TOPICS FOR STUDY AND DISCUSSION
+
+1. What different types of relationship may artists sustain to the
+world in which they live?
+
+2. Show how Tennyson and Browning are revealed respectively in
+_Crossing the Bar_ and the _Epilogue to Asolando_.
+
+3. Compare Michael Angelo’s two interpretations of the same theme at
+opposite ends of his artistic career: the _Pietà_ of St. Peter’s in
+Rome, and the _Pietà_ of the Cathedral in Florence.
+
+4. Compare English and Italian poetry in nature-imagery.
+
+5. What relation does landscape painting sustain to the spirit of our
+time?
+
+6. In what ways are the tendencies of modern civilization expressed in
+Wagner’s operas?
+
+7. Through what type of movement does a creative period tend to pass,
+and why?
+
+8. What relation does sculpture sustain to the other arts in Greece?
+
+9. What makes the Elizabethan drama the best expression of Anglo-Saxon
+genius?
+
+10. Show how the development of a race may be traced through its
+artistic expressions.
+
+11. Show the common racial tendencies in Tennyson’s _Passing of Arthur_
+and the closing portion of _Beowulf_.
+
+
+REFERENCES
+
+ Bascom, _Philosophy of English Literature_. Carlyle, _The Hero
+ as Divinity_. Carpenter, _Angels’ Wings_. Crawshaw, _Literary
+ Interpretation of Life_. Engel, _Introduction to the Study of National
+ Music_. Goethe, _Conversations with Eckermann_; _Travels in Italy_.
+ Hugo, _William Shakespeare_. Kerst, _Beethoven_; _Mozart_. Lanier,
+ _Music and Poetry_. Leighton, _Addresses_. Mabie, _Books and Culture_;
+ _Short Studies in Literature_. Mach, _Greek Sculpture_. Morris, _Hopes
+ and Fears for Art_. Palgrave, _Golden Treasury_. Partridge, _Art for
+ America_. Posnett, _Comparative Literature_. Ruskin, _The Two Paths_.
+ Schiller, _Essays_. Schopenhauer, _The Art of Literature_. Sturgis,
+ _The Appreciation of Pictures_; _The Appreciation of Sculpture_.
+ Taine, _Lectures on Art_. Van Dyke, _The Meaning of Pictures_. Vinci,
+ _Leonardo da Vinci’s Note-Books_. Wagner, _Art Life and Theories of_;
+ _Beethoven_. Warner, _The Relation of Literature to Life_. Wilde, _The
+ Soul of Man under Socialism_. Witt, _How to Look at Pictures_.
+
+
+
+
+IV. THE MEANING AND FUNCTION OF SCULPTURE AND PAINTING
+
+ “If you know how to describe and write down the appearance of the
+ forms, the painter can make them so that they appear enlivened with
+ lights and shadows which create the very expression of the faces;
+ herein you cannot attain with the pen where he attains with the brush.”
+
+ --Leonardo da Vinci, _Leonardo da Vinci’s Note-Books_, arranged by
+ Edward McCurdy, p. 159.
+
+
+=Differences among the arts.=--Each fine art possessing its distinctive
+line of appeal. This evidenced in the fact that it is rare to find
+an artist, practising one, adequately appreciating others. Tendency
+in artist and student alike to see the one art from within and
+appreciate its significance, the others from without and perceive
+their limitations. Evil of this. Great need that the artist should
+saturate himself with the material of other arts than his own. Thus
+need to see broadly and impersonally the meaning and function of each
+art in relation to the spirit of man and in relation to the other arts
+expressing the same universal basis.
+
+The three questions: (1) What of the whole content of the human spirit
+does the particular art express? (2) What is the means and method of
+its expression? (3) What are its limitations?
+
+Method of answering: not by philosophic theory, but by an open study
+of works of art in each field. A little first-hand study of art better
+worth while than much reading of criticism.
+
+The fact of the permanence of a particular art proving that it
+expresses or interprets some aspect of man’s spirit better or more
+easily than any other. Compare, otherwise the art would not persist
+except as novelty. Note the rise and subsidence of certain arts
+historically. The reasons why mosaic work has lost the place it
+occupied in the days when Ravenna’s churches were being adorned.
+Compare changes in fresco painting. Significance of the permanence of
+sculpture, painting, poetry and music.
+
+=Characteristics of sculpture.=--The _Venus de Milo_ as a
+representative work of ancient art. What is given in this statue?
+Character of the conception embodied. Method by which it is expressed.
+Effect on the beholder of the color of the marble and of the beauty
+of technical execution. The deeper feelings one has in the presence
+of the statue. Significance that these emotions vary with different
+individuals; yet, the conception, if understood, entirely definite and
+embodied in defined, permanent form. Thus the conception given, the
+emotions, relatively speaking, associated.
+
+The _Hermes_ of Praxiteles and the three _Goddesses_ of the Parthenon.
+What these express in idea and execution. Causes of the feelings they
+tend to arouse in the beholder. Difference in the ancient and modern
+feeling associated with such a statue as the _Amazon_ of the Villa
+Mattei.
+
+Michael Angelo’s statues on the Medicean tombs. Comparison with Greek
+sculpture in conception, execution and associated emotions.
+
+Modern work in the field of sculpture analyzed. The _Joan of Arc_
+of Chapu; other characteristic work in the Luxembourg gallery. Max
+Klinger’s _Salome_.
+
+Transition from sculpture to painting through relief-work. The _Nymph
+and Infant Bacchus_; the bronze doors of Ghiberti.
+
+=Painting.=--The Pompeian frescoes as painting in its nearest approach
+to sculpture. These as presenting human figures, simply treated, with
+slight background. Less complete and realistic form than in sculpture;
+but vastly increased scope in both breadth and depth. Effect of the
+much greater use of color.
+
+Michael Angelo’s _Creation of Adam_; his _Last Judgment_. Difference in
+feelings aroused by the latter work in accordance with the training and
+belief of the beholder.
+
+Raphael’s _Sistine Madonna_: the conception given; method by which
+expressed. Direct emotional effect of the color used and of the grace
+and beauty of execution.
+
+Characteristics of a Corot landscape: what we feel in the presence of
+it as compared with what the Greeks might have felt. The interpretation
+of humanity in modern art: compare in Millet, Bastien-Lepage, Cormon.
+Relation of conception to emotion in such work; contrast with the
+painting of the Italian Renaissance.
+
+=Summary.=--What sculpture and painting are alike capable of giving
+definitely. Elements common to both in method. Differences between
+them. What neither is capable of achieving. Why sculpture was the
+characteristic art of the ancient Greeks, painting of the Renaissance
+Italians.
+
+All art appealing immediately to the senses; danger if it stops there.
+The true appeal through the senses to the soul. Thus how art may
+degenerate and become dangerous. The problem of Faust’s vision in the
+mirror.
+
+
+ILLUSTRATIONS
+
+ “The eye, which is called the window of the soul, is the chief means
+ whereby the understanding may most fully and abundantly appreciate the
+ infinite works of nature; and the ear is the second inasmuch as it
+ acquires its importance from the fact that it hears the things which
+ the eye has seen. If you historians, or poets, or mathematicians had
+ never seen things with your eyes you would be ill able to describe
+ them in your writings. And if you, O poet, represent a story by
+ depicting it with your pen, the painter with his brush will so render
+ it as to be more easily satisfying and less tedious to understand.
+ If you call painting ‘dumb poetry,’ then the painter may say of the
+ poet that his art is ‘blind painting.’ Consider then which is the more
+ grievous affliction, to be blind or be dumb! Although the poet has as
+ wide a choice of subjects as the painter, his creations fail to afford
+ as much satisfaction to mankind as do paintings, for while poetry
+ attempts with words to represent forms, actions, and scenes, the
+ painter employs the exact images of the forms in order to reproduce
+ these forms. Consider, then, which is more fundamental to man, the
+ name of man or his image? The name changes with change of country; the
+ form is unchanged except by death.”
+
+ --Leonardo da Vinci, _Leonardo da Vinci’s Note-Books_, arranged by
+ Edward McCurdy, pp. 156, 157.
+
+ “If the artist, out of ever-varying nature, can only make use of a
+ single moment, and the painter especially can only use this moment
+ from one point of view, whilst their works are intended to stand
+ the test not only of a passing glance, but of long and repeated
+ contemplation, it is clear that this moment, and the point from which
+ this moment is viewed, cannot be chosen with too great a regard to
+ results. Now that only is a happy choice which allows the imagination
+ free scope. The longer we gaze, the more must our imagination add;
+ and the more our imagination adds, the more we must believe we see.
+ In the whole course of an emotion there is no moment which possesses
+ this advantage so little as its highest stage. There is nothing beyond
+ this; and the presentation of extremes to the eye clips the wings
+ of fancy, prevents her from soaring beyond the impression of the
+ senses, and compels her to occupy herself with weaker images; further
+ than these she ventures not, but shrinks from the visible fulness of
+ expression as her limit. Thus, if Laokoön sighs, the imagination can
+ hear him shriek; but if he shrieks, it can neither rise a step higher
+ above nor descend a step below this representation, without seeing
+ him in a condition which, as it will be more endurable, becomes less
+ interesting. It either hears him merely moaning, or sees him already
+ dead.
+
+ “Furthermore, this single moment receives through art an unchangeable
+ duration; therefore it must not express anything, of which we can
+ think only as transitory. All appearances, to whose very being,
+ according to our ideas, it is essential that they suddenly break forth
+ and as suddenly vanish, that they can be what they are but for a
+ moment,--all such appearances, be they pleasing or be they horrible,
+ receive, through the prolongation which art gives them, such an
+ unnatural character, that at every repeated glance the impression they
+ make grows weaker and weaker, and at last fills us with dislike or
+ disgust of the whole object.”
+
+ --Lessing, _Laokoön_, pp. 19, 20.
+
+ “It is neither charm nor is it dignity which speaks from the glorious
+ face of the Juno Ludovici; it is neither of these, for it is both at
+ once. While the female god challenges our veneration, the godlike
+ woman at the same time kindles our love. But while in ecstacy we give
+ ourselves up to the heavenly beauty, the heavenly self-repose awes
+ us back. The whole form rests and dwells in itself--a fully complete
+ creation in itself--and as if she were out of space, without advance
+ or resistance; it shows no force contending with force, no opening
+ through which time could break in. Irresistibly carried away and
+ attracted by her womanly charm, kept off at a distance by her godly
+ dignity, we also find ourselves at length in the state of the greatest
+ repose, and the result is a wonderful impression, for which the
+ understanding has no idea and language no name.”
+
+ --Schiller, _Essays Æsthetical and Philosophical_, p. 72.
+
+ “As practising myself the art of sculpture no less than that of
+ painting, and doing both the one and the other in the same degree,
+ it seems to me that without suspicion of unfairness I may venture to
+ give an opinion as to which of the two is the more intellectual, and
+ of the greater difficulty and perfection. In the first place sculpture
+ is dependent on certain lights, namely those from above, while a
+ picture carries everywhere with it its own light and shade; light
+ and shade therefore are essential to sculpture. In this respect the
+ sculptor is aided by the nature of the relief which produces these
+ of its own accord, but the painter artificially creates them by his
+ art in places where nature would normally do the like. The sculptor
+ cannot render the difference in the varying natures of the colours of
+ objects; painting does not fail to do so in any particular. The lines
+ of perspective of sculptors do not seem in any way true; those of
+ painters may appear to extend a hundred miles beyond the work itself.”
+
+ --Leonardo da Vinci, _Leonardo da Vinci’s Note-Books_, arranged by
+ Edward McCurdy, pp. 160, 161.
+
+ “What the artist does or has done excites in us the mood in which he
+ himself was when he did it. A free mood in the artist makes us free; a
+ constrained one makes us uncomfortable. We usually find this freedom
+ of the artist where he is fully equal to his subject. It is on this
+ account we are so pleased with Dutch pictures; the artists painted the
+ life around them, of which they were perfect masters. If we are to
+ feel this freedom of mind in an actor, he must, by study, imagination,
+ and natural disposition, be perfect master of his part, must have all
+ bodily requisites at his command, and must be upheld by a certain
+ youthful energy. But study is not enough without imagination, and
+ study and imagination together are not enough without natural
+ disposition. Women do the most through imagination and temperament.”
+
+ --Goethe, _Conversations with Eckermann and Soret_, pp. 417, 418.
+
+ “If you would have me speak only of panel painting I am content to
+ give an opinion between it and sculpture by saying that painting is
+ more beautiful, more imaginative, and richer in resource, while
+ sculpture is more enduring, but excels in nothing else. Sculpture
+ reveals what it is with little effort; painting seems a thing
+ miraculous, making things intangible appear tangible, presenting in
+ relief things which are flat, in distance things near at hand. In fact
+ painting is adorned with infinite possibilities of which sculpture can
+ make no use.”
+
+ --Leonardo da Vinci, _Leonardo da Vinci’s Note-Books_, arranged by
+ Edward McCurdy, p. 162.
+
+
+TOPICS FOR STUDY AND DISCUSSION
+
+1. What peculiar excellences has sculpture that are shown by no other
+art?
+
+2. What special excellences has painting that are shown by no other art?
+
+3. What cannot be directly or adequately expressed in sculpture? In
+painting?
+
+4. Compare in conception, execution and associated emotions Andrea del
+Sarto’s and Leonardo da Vinci’s painting of the _Last Supper_.
+
+5. What effect has the color and texture of marble upon the emotions?
+
+6. Analyze carefully the effect of Michael Angelo’s _Last Judgment_
+upon your senses, intellect and emotions.
+
+7. Compare carefully, in the effect upon the beholder, the _Venus de
+Milo_, Michael Angelo’s _Pietà_ (in St. Peter’s) and Chapu’s _Joan of
+Arc_.
+
+8. Study the relation of significance to beauty in Raphael’s _Sistine
+Madonna_ and Millet’s _Sower_.
+
+9. What is the significance for the function of sculpture and painting
+that in both arts form is statical and relatively permanent?
+
+10. Study the respective effects of form and color in sculpture; in
+painting.
+
+
+REFERENCES
+
+ Brown, _The Fine Arts_. Caffin, _How to Study Pictures_. Goethe,
+ _Travels in Italy_. Holden, _Audiences_. Knight, _The Philosophy of
+ the Beautiful_. LaFarge, _Considerations on Painting_. Leighton,
+ _Addresses_. Lessing, _Laokoön_. Mach, _Greek Sculpture_. Noyes, _The
+ Enjoyment of Art_. Palgrave, _Poetry Compared with the Other Fine
+ Arts_. Parry, _The Ministry of Fine Art to the Happiness of Life_.
+ Puffer, _The Psychology of Beauty_, chapter iv. Raymond, _Painting,
+ Sculpture and Architecture as Representative Arts_. Ruskin, _Aratra
+ Pentelici_; _Lectures on Art_; _Modern Painters_. Sturgis, _The
+ Appreciation of Pictures_; _The Appreciation of Sculpture_. Van Dyke,
+ _Art for Art’s Sake_; _How to Judge of a Picture_; _The Meaning
+ of Pictures_; _Principles of Art_. Vinci, _Leonardo da Vinci’s
+ Note-Books_; _Treatise on Painting_. Witt, _How to Look at Pictures_.
+
+
+
+
+V. THE MEANING AND FUNCTION OF MUSIC
+
+ “Continue to translate yourself to the heaven of art; there is no more
+ undisturbed, unmixed, purer happiness than may thus be attained.”
+
+ --Beethoven, in Kerst, _Beethoven: The Man and the Artist_, p. 12.
+
+
+=The art of music.=--Music the most difficult of the arts to define in
+function and meaning, because the most subtle, seeming to produce its
+effects as by a miracle.
+
+The relation of music to Nature. The sounds utilized in music all
+found in the natural world. Compare the effect of the wind sighing
+in the pine-trees; bird songs; the rhythmic beat of waves upon the
+shore. Yet music not often directly imitating nature as do sculpture
+and painting. Music resolving natural forms into their elements and
+then recombining these independently. Thus music accomplishing in time
+relations more what architecture does in space relations. Compare the
+use in architecture of forms given by Nature, as in the tree column or
+cave roof. Hence deep significance in the oft-repeated comparison of
+music and architecture. Architecture as “frozen music”; music as liquid
+architecture. Illustrate in _Notre Dame de Paris_; in Beethoven’s
+_Moonlight Sonata_.
+
+=The appeal of architecture.=--The effect upon the beholder of the
+Greek temple at Pæstum. Sensuous delight in beautiful forms and colors;
+conception given; emotion aroused. Contrast a mediæval temple such
+as _Notre Dame_ or the cathedral at Milan. What is dominant and what
+subordinate in each work.
+
+=The effect of music.=--The appeal in a relatively slight musical
+composition such as Schumann’s _Arabesque_ (Op. 18) or Chopin’s
+_Impromptu_ (Op. 29). Type of sensuous pleasure as compared with the
+other arts. The dynamic series of forms arousing a series of emotional
+states. The reflections associated with these states of feeling. Thus
+the two-fold contrast between music and the arts dealing with space
+relations: (1) What is dominant in the one, associated or subordinate
+in the other; (2) In the one form dynamic and evanescent, in the other
+statical and relatively permanent.
+
+The direct intellectual element in analyzing the composition: compare
+the study of motives and harmony. Relation of this to the immediate
+response to the appeal of art. Intellectual analysis possible in
+relation to all the arts; yet while this may lead to deepened
+appreciation, standing somewhat aside from the response to the art
+itself.
+
+Fuller illustration of the line of appeal of music in the best of
+Chopin’s _Nocturnes_ and the _Ninth Symphony_ of Beethoven. What is
+given in each of these works. The means by which the effect is attained.
+
+=The unique sphere of music.=--Significance that music must be
+recreated every time it is enjoyed. Forms in music successive in a
+dynamic series, each element dying in the same moment in which it is
+created. Thus sublimation of form in music and the freeing of the
+content from sensuous association.
+
+Possibility of expressing for the emotions what cannot be represented
+for the imagination. Note, possible to conceive God, an immaterial
+soul, a transcendent heaven; but impossible to carve or paint these.
+Power of music to express or awaken the emotions we associate with
+the conceptions of the transcendent, the supernatural and the divine.
+True sense in which music is the one art “capable of revealing the
+infinite.” Browning’s illustration of this in _Abt Vogler_.
+
+Music as the most personal of the fine arts in expressing emotions
+no other art can adequately embody; at the same time music the most
+social of the fine arts in arousing the feelings that unite men,
+where intellectual opinions and convictions tend to separate them.
+Illustration in the _Ouverture to Tannhäuser_.
+
+The obvious reason why it is so much more difficult to put music into
+intellectual terms than is true of the other arts. Various attempts
+to associate a definite series of intellectual conceptions with the
+sensuous and emotional appeal of music. Compare in naming compositions;
+in “program music”; in interpretations. Rigid limits to these attempts.
+
+=Composite arts.=--The reasons why music lends itself so readily to
+combination with other arts. The song: its appeal as compared with
+music unassociated with words. Church music and its development.
+
+The opera as a peculiarly characteristic composite modern art. Elements
+composing it; the question as to which should be central. The value of
+Wagner’s answer.
+
+=The cultural value of music.=--Peculiar danger in music since it may
+arouse emotional sensibility without directing its expression. Plato’s
+view. The effect of merely sensuous music. The need to choose your
+companions wisely in hearing even great music.
+
+Yet the danger in music merely the corollary of its peculiar strength
+and power. Supreme value of its refining and exalting influence. Its
+high significance for our time, indeed for the human spirit in all
+time.
+
+
+ILLUSTRATIONS
+
+ “And indeed the greatness of the poet may be best measured by that
+ concerning which he is silent, in order to let the unspeakable itself
+ speak to us silently. It is only the musician who can bring this
+ that is silent into clear expression; and the unerring form of _his_
+ loud-resounding silence is endless _melody_!”
+
+ --Wagner, in “The Music of the Future,” _Art Life and Theories_, p.
+ 180.
+
+ “The more definitely a composer aims at making his music an expression
+ of emotion, the more firmly must he fashion it according to the
+ dictates of intellect, for were he to attempt emotional expression
+ without preserving the supremacy of the reason in his work, he would
+ speedily fall into formlessness, and instead of enlightening would
+ merely bewilder his hearers. In all art creative, or interpretative,
+ the emotion must be under the dominance of the reason, or else there
+ is no method, and art without method is inconceivable.”
+
+ --Henderson, _What is Good Music_, p. 98.
+
+ “What _instrumental music_ is unable to achieve, lies also beyond
+ the pale of _music proper_; for it alone is pure and self-subsistent
+ music. No matter whether we regard vocal music as superior to, or more
+ effective than instrumental music--an unscientific proceeding, by
+ the way, which is generally the upshot of one-sided dilettantism--we
+ can not help admitting that the term ‘music,’ in its true meaning,
+ must exclude compositions in which words are set to music. In vocal
+ or operatic music it is impossible to draw so nice a distinction
+ between the effect of the music, and that of the words, that an exact
+ definition of the share which each has had in the production of the
+ whole becomes practicable. An enquiry into the subject of music
+ must leave out even compositions with inscriptions, or so-called
+ programme-music. Its union with poetry, though enhancing the power of
+ music, does not widen its limits.”
+
+ --Hanslick, _The Beautiful in Music_, pp. 44, 45.
+
+ “How, ye formal philosophers, ye men of the ‘sounding arabesque,’ unto
+ whom the spirit shows itself not, because ye do not believe in it, or
+ search after it in the organic structure with the gross scalpel of the
+ anatomist--know ye not that Goethe’s ‘disengaging one’s self from a
+ mood,’ which he found in poetry, also applies to the musician--that
+ every truly artistic tone-work is also an ‘occasional poem’? Surely,
+ no musical thought has ever been generated with vital power in your
+ soul, or, if you had one, it was a greenhouse plant. Otherwise you
+ would know, that the artist hastens with everything that delights
+ and pains him to his beloved art, and desires of it that it should
+ preserve each mood for him in the sacred vessel of its beautiful form
+ for all time.”
+
+ --Ambros, _The Boundaries of Music and Poetry_, p. 106.
+
+ “While _sound_ in _speech_ is but a sign, that is, a _means_ for the
+ purpose of expressing something which is quite distinct from its
+ medium; _sound_ in _music_ is the _end_, that is, the ultimate and
+ absolute object in view. The intrinsic beauty of the musical forms in
+ the latter case, and the exclusive dominion of thought over sound as a
+ mere medium of expression, in the former, are so utterly distinct as
+ to render the union of these two elements a logical impossibility.”
+
+ --Hanslick, _The Beautiful in Music_, p. 94.
+
+ “Let us establish first of all the fact that the _one true form of
+ music is melody_; that without melody music is inconceivable, and
+ that music and melody are inseparable. That a piece of music has _no_
+ melody, can therefore only mean that the musician has not attained
+ to the real formation of an effective form, that can have a decisive
+ influence upon the feelings; which simply shows the absence of talent
+ in the composer.”
+
+ --Wagner, in “The Music of the Future,” _Art Life and Theories_, p.
+ 175.
+
+ “In its _ideal_ feature music keeps within its natural boundaries,
+ so long as it does not undertake to go beyond its expressional
+ capacity--that is, so long as the poetical thought of the composer
+ becomes intelligible from the moods called forth by his work and the
+ train of ideas stimulated thereby, that is, from the composition
+ itself, and so long as nothing foreign, not organically connected
+ with the music itself, must be dragged in, in order to assist
+ comprehension.”
+
+ --Ambros, _The Boundaries of Music and Poetry_, pp. 181, 182.
+
+ “It must be in music, that language intelligible to all men, that
+ the great equalizing power is to be found, which, converting the
+ language of ideas into the language of the feelings, would bring the
+ deepest secrets of the artistic conception to general comprehension,
+ especially if this comprehension can be made distinct through the
+ plastic expression of dramatic representation,--can be given such a
+ distinctness as up to this time painting alone has been able to claim
+ as its peculiar influence.”
+
+ --Wagner, in “The Music of the Future,” _Art Life and Theories_, p.
+ 141.
+
+ “In opera, willy-nilly, poetry must be the obedient daughter of music.
+ Why do Italian operas please everywhere, even in Paris, as I have
+ been a witness, despite the wretchedness of their librettos? Because
+ in them music rules and compels us to forget everything else. All
+ the more must an opera please in which the plot is well carried out,
+ and the words are written simply for the sake of the music and not
+ here and there to please some miserable rhyme, which, God knows, adds
+ nothing to a theatrical representation but more often harms it. Verses
+ are the most indispensable thing in music, but rhymes, for the sake of
+ rhymes, the most injurious. Those who go to work so pedantically will
+ assuredly come to grief along with the music. It were best if a good
+ composer, who understands the stage, and is himself able to suggest
+ something, and a clever poet could be united in one, like a phœnix.”
+
+ --Mozart, in Kerst, _Mozart: The Man and the Artist_, p. 28.
+
+ “That which so strongly attracted our great poets towards music
+ was the fact that it was at the same time the purest form and the
+ most sensuous realization of that form. The abstract arithmetical
+ number, the mathematical figure, meets us here as a creation having
+ an irresistible influence upon the emotions--that is, it appears
+ as _melody_; and this can be as unerringly established, so as to
+ produce sensuous effect, as the poetic diction of written language,
+ on the contrary, is abandoned to every whim in the personal character
+ of the person reciting it. What was not practically possible
+ for Shakespeare--to be _himself_ the actor of each one of his
+ rôles--is practicable for the musical composer, and this with great
+ definiteness,--since he speaks to us directly through each one of the
+ musicians who execute his works. In this case the transmigration of
+ the poet’s soul into the body of the performer takes place according
+ to the infallible laws of the most positive _technique_; and the
+ composer who gives the correct measure for a technically right
+ performance of his work, becomes completely one with the musician who
+ performs it, to an extent that can at most only be affirmed of the
+ constructive artist in regard to a work which he had himself produced
+ in color or stone,--if, indeed, a transmigration of his soul into
+ lifeless matter is a supposable case.”
+
+ --Wagner, in “The Purpose of the Opera,” _Art Life and Theories_, pp.
+ 226, 227.
+
+
+TOPICS FOR STUDY AND DISCUSSION
+
+1. What relation has the art of music to the sounds given in the
+natural world?
+
+2. Choose two musical compositions you know well and analyze in detail
+the effect they produce upon you and the means by which the effect is
+produced.
+
+3. What element in music corresponds in any degree to color in painting?
+
+4. Compare carefully the art of music in dealing with time relations
+with architecture in dealing with space relations.
+
+5. Compare what is dominant in the appeal of music with what is
+dominant in the appeal of sculpture and painting.
+
+6. What results from the fact that in music form is dynamic and
+evanescent, while in sculpture and painting it is statical and
+relatively permanent?
+
+7. What may be said to be the intellectual element in music?
+
+8. Compare what is given in Gounod’s music to _Faust_ with what is
+given in a series of paintings dealing with the Faust story.
+
+9. Is the effect good or bad of merely sensuously enjoying slight music?
+
+10. Compare the cultural value of music with that of sculpture and
+painting.
+
+
+REFERENCES
+
+ Ambros, _Boundaries of Music and Poetry_. Browning, _Abt Vogler_;
+ _With Charles Avison_; _Master Hugues of Saxe-Gotha_; _Saul_.
+ Carpenter, _Angels’ Wings_. Davies, _The Musical Consciousness_.
+ Dwight, _Intellectual Influence of Music_; _Music as a Means of
+ Culture_. Eastman, _Musical Education and Musical Art_. Goddard,
+ _Reflections upon Musical Art_. Gurney, _The Power of Sound_.
+ Hanchett, _The Art of the Musician_. Hand, _Æsthetics of Musical Art_.
+ Hanslick, _The Beautiful in Music_. Helmholtz, _On the Sensations of
+ Tone_. Henderson, _What is Good Music?_ Holden, _Audiences_. Kerst,
+ _Beethoven_; _Mozart_. Knight, _The Philosophy of the Beautiful_.
+ Kobbé, _How to Appreciate Music_. Krehbiel, _How to Listen to
+ Music_. Kufferath, _Rhythm, Melody and Harmony_. Lanier, _Music and
+ Poetry_. Mathews, _How to Understand Music_; _Music: Its Ideals and
+ Methods_. Norton, _The Intellectual Element in Music_. Palgrave,
+ _Poetry Compared with the Other Fine Arts_. Parry, _The Evolution
+ of the Art of Music_. Plato, _Republic_ (books II and III). Puffer,
+ _The Psychology of Beauty_, chapter v. Raymond, _Rhythm and Harmony
+ in Poetry and Music_. Ritter, _Music in Its Relation to Intellectual
+ Life_. Saint-Saëns, _The Nature and Object of Music_. Schopenhauer,
+ _On the Metaphysics of Music_. Spencer, _The Origin and Function of
+ Music_. Surette and Mason, _The Appreciation of Music_. Wagner, _Art
+ Life and Theories of_; _Beethoven_.
+
+
+
+
+VI. THE MEANING AND FUNCTION OF POETRY
+
+ “Form without substance is a shadow of riches, and all possible
+ cleverness in expression is of no use to him who has nothing to
+ express.”
+
+ --Schiller, _Essays Æsthetical and Philosophical_, p. 239.
+
+
+=The nature of poetry.=--Poetry as the highest and most characteristic
+form of literature. Bewildering wealth of material in this art and most
+many-sided relation to the spirit of man. Hence difficulty in defining
+function.
+
+=Poetry in relation to sculpture and painting.=--Possibility in poetry
+of expressing definite conceptions for the intellect and imagination.
+Compare Shelley’s _Ozymandias of Egypt_. What is given in this sonnet:
+compare a statue. Less immediate portrayal for the vision in poetry.
+Hence less direct power in appeal to the imagination; but conceptions
+freed more from sense association. Moreover ideas expressed through a
+succession of forms in time relation.
+
+Power of poetry to paint a picture: compare Wordsworth’s sonnet _Upon
+Westminster Bridge_. Contrast in appeal with a painting of the same
+scene. The ways in which each art has its own superiority. Truth
+and error in Lessing’s theory of descriptive poetry as developed in
+_Laokoön_.
+
+=Poetry in relation to music.=--Direct musical appeal in the two
+sonnets studied. Direct expression of emotion and appeal to emotion in
+poetry. Compare Shelley’s lyric _To the Night_. Here music dominant,
+appealing to the emotions, as in _Ozymandias_ thought and imagination
+appealing to inner vision. How all poetry should be read aloud. Even
+when read silently, appeal to the ear in music through the imagination.
+The effect of poetry read aloud in a language the hearer does not know:
+direct appeal of music in poetry even when the ideas are not given at
+all. Thus poetry making a direct appeal to the emotions through music,
+though with less absoluteness than in music and without in any way
+usurping or replacing the functions of the latter art.
+
+Byron’s stanzas on the sunset hour in _Don Juan_. What they give in
+natural beauty; association of the human past, of religion and of
+literature; personal experience. Compare what is given in Millet’s
+_Angelus_; in a musical composition awakening the same emotions.
+
+=The two types of poetry.=--Poetry that is dominantly musical in
+appeal. Compare many lyrics of Shelley; Spenser. The description of
+the dwelling of Morpheus in _The Faery Queen_. Poetry in which the
+dominant appeal is through imaginative vision. Compare what is most
+characteristic in Dante and Shakespeare.
+
+=Relation of poetry to human life.=--Poetry combining in a new union
+the functions of the other arts without replacing them in their
+own fields. Poetry the most complex and universal of the fine arts
+in many-sided power to express and interpret all aspects of human
+experience. Compare in the lyric; the epic; the drama.
+
+Prose literature in relation to poetry. The same functions fulfilled on
+another plane. The rhythm of prose. The novel as a prose epic and drama
+set in a lower key.
+
+=The three types of art in relation.=--The different functions of the
+arts illustrated in great masterpieces. Compare Dante’s _Divine Comedy_
+with the _Last Judgment_ of Michael Angelo and a mediæval cathedral,
+and with a fugue of Bach and a symphony of Beethoven.
+
+Compare Cormon’s _Cain_, Wagner’s music in _The Twilight of the Gods_,
+and Shakespeare’s _King Lear_.
+
+Compare Watts’ painting of _Francesca and Paolo_, Wagner’s music in
+_Tristan und Isolde_, and the fifth canto of Dante’s _Inferno_.
+
+=Unity in the arts.=--The spirit of man a unity, hence also the appeal
+of the arts. In all, thought, emotion and imagination; in all, the same
+principles of form, of beauty and harmony.
+
+This evident in efforts to combine the arts in a more composite art.
+Compare the union of poetry and music in song; the union of all types
+of art in the Wagnerian opera. Inevitable sacrifice of something on
+the part of each of the arts so combined; peculiar adaptation of the
+composite art to the modern spirit. The question which art should be
+central in the composite whole.
+
+=The service of poetry.=--Danger in poetry as in the other arts. Evil
+of seeking merely sensuous beauty; evil of portraying life to satisfy a
+morbid and decadent taste. Yet the evil but indicating the correlative
+power in the true ministration of art to the human spirit.
+
+
+ILLUSTRATIONS
+
+ “Beauty of style and harmony and grace and good rhythm depend on
+ simplicity,--I mean the true simplicity of a rightly and nobly ordered
+ mind and character, not that other simplicity which is only an
+ euphemism for folly.”
+
+ --Plato, _Republic_, book III, section 400.
+
+ “I believed that I might form the theory that every _individual_
+ branch of art follows out a development of its powers that finally
+ leads it to their limits; and that it cannot pass these limits without
+ the danger of losing itself in the unintelligible and absolutely
+ fantastic--even in the absurd. I thought that I saw in this point the
+ necessity for it to join companionship at this stage with another
+ class of art, related to it, and the only one capable of going on
+ from this position. And as I was of necessity keenly interested
+ (having regard to my own ideal) in following out this tendency in
+ each special kind of art, I finally believed that I could recognize
+ it most distinctly in the relation of poetry to music,--especially
+ considering the remarkable importance modern music has assumed. And as
+ I thus endeavored to imagine that work of art in which all branches
+ of art could unite in their highest perfection, I came as a matter
+ of course to the _conscious_ contemplation of that ideal which had
+ _unconsciously_ gradually formed within me, and had hovered before the
+ seeking artist.”
+
+ --Wagner, in “The Music of the Future,” _Art Life and Theories_, p.
+ 147.
+
+ “If it is true that painting and poetry in their imitations make use
+ of entirely different means or symbols--the first, namely, of form
+ and colour in space, the second of articulated sounds in time--if
+ these symbols indisputably require a suitable relation to the thing
+ symbolized, then it is clear that symbols arranged in juxtaposition
+ can only express subjects of which the wholes or parts exist in
+ juxtaposition; while consecutive symbols can only express subjects of
+ which the wholes or parts are themselves consecutive.
+
+ “Subjects whose wholes or parts exist in juxtaposition are called
+ bodies. Consequently, bodies with their visible properties are the
+ peculiar subjects of painting.
+
+ “Subjects whose wholes or parts are consecutive are called actions.
+ Consequently, actions are the peculiar subject of poetry.
+
+ “Still, all bodies do not exist in space only, but also in time. They
+ endure, and in each moment of their duration may assume a different
+ appearance, or stand in a different combination. Each of these
+ momentary appearances and combinations is the effect of a preceding
+ one, may be the cause of a subsequent, one, and is therefore, as it
+ were, the centre of an action. Consequently, painting too can imitate
+ actions, but only indicatively, by means of bodies.
+
+ “On the other hand, actions cannot exist by themselves, they must
+ depend on certain beings. So far, therefore, as these beings are
+ bodies, or are regarded as such, poetry paints bodies, but only
+ indicatively, by means of actions.
+
+ “In its coexisting compositions painting can only make use of a single
+ instant of the action, and must therefore choose the one which is most
+ pregnant, and from which what precedes and what follows can be most
+ easily gathered.
+
+ “In like manner, poetry, in its progressive imitations, is confined to
+ the use of a single property of bodies, and must therefore choose that
+ which calls up the most sensible image of the body in the aspect in
+ which she makes use of it.”
+
+ --Lessing, _Laokoön_, pp. 91, 92.
+
+ “As to Homer, it is as if the scales had fallen from my eyes. The
+ descriptions, similes and so on appear to us poetical, and are yet
+ unspeakably natural, though of course drawn with a purity, an inward
+ truth enough to strike us poor moderns dumb. The very strangest
+ fictions are characterised by a naturalness I never felt so much as
+ in the presence of the objects described. To express the antithesis
+ briefly; _they_ presented the thing, _we_ usually present the effect;
+ _they_ described the dreadful, _we_ describe dreadfully; _they_ the
+ agreeable, _we_ agreeably, and so on. This will explain all our
+ extravagance, our affectation, our false grace, our inflation; for
+ once you elaborate and strain after effect, you fancy you can never
+ make it strong enough.”
+
+ --Goethe, _Travels in Italy_, p. 322.
+
+ “In instruments, the primal organs of creation and nature find their
+ representation; they cannot be sharply determined and defined, for
+ they but repeat primal feelings as they came forth from the chaos
+ of the first creation, when there were perhaps no human beings in
+ existence to receive them in their hearts. With the genius of the
+ human voice it is entirely otherwise; this represents the human
+ heart, and its isolated, individual emotion. Its character is
+ therefore limited, but fixed and defined. Let these two elements be
+ brought together, then; let them be united! Let those wild primal
+ emotions that stretch out into the infinite, that are represented
+ by instruments, be contrasted with the clear, definite emotions of
+ the human heart, represented by the human voice. The addition of the
+ second element will work beneficently and soothingly upon the conflict
+ of the elemental emotions, and give to their course a well-defined
+ and united channel; and the human heart itself, in receiving these
+ elemental emotions, will be immeasurably strengthened and broadened;
+ and made capable of feeling clearly what was before an uncertain
+ presage of the highest ideal, now changed into a divine knowledge.”
+
+ --Wagner, in “A Pilgrimage to Beethoven,” _Art Life and Theories_, p.
+ 63.
+
+ “I admit that the exercises of the gymnasium form athletic bodies;
+ but beauty is only developed by the free and equal play of the limbs.
+ In the same way the tension of the isolated spiritual forces may make
+ extraordinary men; but it is only the well-tempered equilibrium of
+ these forces that can produce happy and accomplished men.”
+
+ --Schiller, _Essays Æsthetical and Philosophical_, p. 43.
+
+ “The highest problem of any art is to produce by appearance the
+ illusion of a higher reality. But it is a false endeavour to realize
+ the appearance until at last only something commonly real remains.”
+
+ --Goethe, _Autobiography_, Bohn Library translation (George Bell &
+ Sons, London, 1891), vol. 1, p. 422.
+
+
+TOPICS FOR STUDY AND DISCUSSION
+
+1. What likenesses can you discover between poetry on the one hand and
+sculpture and painting on the other?
+
+2. What likenesses can you discover between poetry and music?
+
+3. What poets make the strongest appeal through imaginative vision?
+What poets make the dominant appeal through music?
+
+4. Compare what is given in Shakespeare’s sonnet beginning “That time
+of year thou mayst in me behold” with a painting of an autumn scene.
+
+5. Compare Shelley’s lyric _To the Night_ with the music of Chopin.
+
+6. Study carefully what is given in Millet’s _Man with the Hoe_ with
+what is given in Markham’s poem on the same subject.
+
+7. Estimate the value and limitations of Lessing’s theory of the arts
+as given in _Laokoön_.
+
+8. What elements of content and of form are common to all the arts?
+
+9. Compare in expression of thought, feeling and imagination and in
+type of appeal, the _Divine Comedy_ of Dante, the _Last Judgment_ of
+Michael Angelo and the _Ninth Symphony_ of Beethoven.
+
+10. What powers has poetry that are not present in the other arts?
+
+
+REFERENCES
+
+ Ambros, _Boundaries of Music and Poetry_. Aristotle, _Poetic_.
+ Beeching, _The Study of Poetry_. Bradley, _Poetry for Poetry’s Sake_.
+ Corson, _Aims of Literary Study_. Dabney, _Musical Basis of Verse_.
+ Goethe, _Conversations with Eckermann_; _Maxims and Reflections_.
+ Gummere, _The Beginnings of Poetry_; _Handbook of Poetics_. Gurney,
+ _The Power of Sound_. Holden, _Audiences_. Holmes, _What is Poetry?_
+ Hugo, _William Shakespeare_. Knight, _The Philosophy of the
+ Beautiful_. Lanier, _Music and Poetry_; _Science of English Verse_.
+ Lessing, _Laokoön_. Moyse, _Poetry as a Fine Art_. Newman, _Poetry,
+ with Reference to Aristotle’s Poetics_. Palgrave, _Golden Treasury_;
+ _Poetry Compared with the Other Fine Arts_. Plato, _Republic_, books
+ II. and III. Poe, _The Rationale of Verse and The Poetic Principle_.
+ Puffer, _The Psychology of Beauty_, chapters vi.-viii. Raymond,
+ _Poetry as a Representative Art_; _Rhythm and Harmony in Poetry and
+ Music_. Santayana, _Elements and Function of Poetry_. Schiller,
+ _Essays_. Shairp, _Aspects of Poetry_. Shelley, _A Defence of Poetry_.
+ Sidney, _Defense of Poesy_. Stedman, _Nature and Elements of Poetry_.
+ Wagner, _Art Life and Theories of_. Wilde, _The Critic as Artist_.
+ Winchester, _Some Principles of Literary Criticism_.
+
+
+
+
+VII. LITERATURE AND LIBERAL CULTURE
+
+ “It is precisely minds of the first order that will never be
+ specialists. For their very nature is to make the whole of existence
+ their problem; and this is a subject upon which they will every one of
+ them in some form provide mankind with a new revelation.”
+
+ --Schopenhauer, _The Art of Literature_, p. 55.
+
+
+=Significance of poetry for education.=--Each art supreme in its own
+field and function. Thus impossibility of classing one as highest.
+Of them all, poetry the most universal in function, combining in one
+something of each of the great types of art, and broadest in power to
+express and interpret human life. Permanence of poetry. Accessibility
+of poetry as contrasted with the other arts. Thus whatever art appeals
+most powerfully to the individual, poetry having a place in the
+education of all. Hence reason for choosing this art for separate
+discussion.
+
+=What is literature?=--Relation of poetry to other forms of literature.
+Two-fold distinction of artistic literature from other writing:
+Requirement that it should be human in appeal, written for the man and
+not the specialist, and that it should be adequate and harmonious in
+expression. The vast field comprised within these limits.
+
+=The study of literature.=--Literature many things to many men. Thus
+studied for a multitude of special purposes. Compare the use of
+literature as a mere text-book for philology, or as an opportunity for
+expounding a particular philosophy. Frequent misuse of literature in
+education.
+
+The great value of literature, not in contributing to some phase of
+special training, but in developing liberal culture. What such culture
+means in the development of intellect, emotions and imagination.
+
+The reasons for the vast development of specialization in our education
+recently. Need that special training should rest always on a basis of
+liberal culture. Thus the significance of the study of literature as
+the art most broadly expressing human life, and thus contributing to
+the liberal cultivation of the man as compared with the training of the
+specialist.
+
+=The four avenues of approach.=--Literature possessing a soul of
+thought, feeling and imagination and a body of artistic expression.
+Compare how all true art must be both significant and beautiful. Thus
+two great aspects of literature: possible to focus attention on either
+one. Which appeals more powerfully to the student as somewhat a matter
+of temperament.
+
+Content and form studied directly with the aim of understanding
+significance and appreciating beauty; both aspects of literature
+studied as embodying historical forces. Thus the four aspects of the
+study of literature, with the aim of liberal culture.
+
+=The direct study of the content of literature.=--The range of thought
+given in literature. The problems constantly treated. Thought never
+expressed alone in literature, but always transfused with feeling
+and transfigured with imagination. Thus the appeal to the whole man.
+Resulting education and its value. Compare in developing appreciation
+of the beauty and sublimity of Nature, of the dignity, comedy and
+tragedy of human life. Illustrations in the poetry of the sunset hour;
+in the poetry of human experience.
+
+=The second avenue of approach.=--The soul of literature given a
+further meaning when studied in relation to the forces behind it.
+Expression of the character of the artist in his work: Compare Milton
+in _Paradise Lost_; Carlyle in _Sartor Resartus_. Embodiment of the
+spirit of the epoch and race in literature. Deeper expression of what
+is common to humanity in all time: Compare the _Antigone_ of Sophocles.
+
+=The study of literary art.=--The analytical study of form in
+literature as only a means to an end--the end of synthetic
+appreciation. The need always to find the relation of the body of art
+to the soul of thought, feeling and imagination expressed through it.
+
+No accidents in art. The melody of a line or word always determined by
+law, whether or not the poet was conscious of the law. Possible thus
+for the student to discover the laws the art follows. Illustration of
+these in the succession of poetic forms from common speech to the most
+highly differentiated stanzas. The aim of art never merely to create
+the sensuously pleasing, but to give adequate and harmonious expression.
+
+=The fourth avenue of approach.=--The body of literature as much
+as the soul an expression of historical forces. Evidence in the
+contrasting imagery of Shelley and Wordsworth. The Elizabethan age
+naturally creating the drama, modern life the lyric. Expression of
+racial characteristics in the music of words and the stanzas of poetry.
+Contrast _Beowulf_ and the _Iliad_.
+
+=The culture given by literature.=--Type of education resulting from
+all four lines of the study of literature. The widened relation to man
+and Nature. The true cosmopolitanism of the spirit. Thus the service
+of literature in making possible the discovery of the divine in the
+commonplace and of the ideal in the real.
+
+
+ILLUSTRATIONS
+
+ “To use many words to communicate few thoughts is everywhere the
+ unmistakable sign of mediocrity. To gather much thought into few words
+ stamps the man of genius.”
+
+ --Schopenhauer, _The Art of Literature_, p. 30.
+
+ “We know that the sensibility of the mind depends, as to degree, on
+ the liveliness, and for extent on the richness, of the imagination.
+ Now the predominance of the faculty of analysis must necessarily
+ deprive the imagination of its warmth and energy, and a restricted
+ sphere of objects must diminish its wealth. It is for this reason
+ that the abstract thinker has very often a _cold_ heart, because he
+ analyses impressions, which only move the mind by their combination or
+ totality; on the other hand, the man of business, the statesman, has
+ very often a _narrow_ heart, because shut up in the narrow circle of
+ his employment his imagination can neither expand nor adapt itself to
+ another manner of viewing things.”
+
+ --Schiller, _Essays Æsthetical and Philosophical_, pp. 41, 42.
+
+ “One should not study contemporaries and competitors, but the great
+ men of antiquity, whose works have, for centuries, received equal
+ homage and consideration. Indeed, a man of really superior endowments
+ will feel the necessity of this, and it is just this need for an
+ intercourse with great predecessors, which is the sign of a higher
+ talent. Let us study Molière, let us study Shakespeare, but above all
+ things, the old Greeks, and always the Greeks.”
+
+ --Goethe, _Conversations with Eckermann and Soret_, p. 236.
+
+ “There is a fine art of passion, but an impassioned fine art is a
+ contradiction in terms, for the infallible effect of the beautiful
+ is emancipation from the passions. The idea of an instructive fine
+ art (didactic art) or improving (moral) art is no less contradictory,
+ for nothing agrees less with the idea of the beautiful than to give a
+ determinate tendency to the mind.”
+
+ --Schiller, _Essays Æsthetical and Philosophical_, p. 92.
+
+ “To read a philosopher’s biography, instead of studying his thoughts,
+ is like neglecting a picture and attending only to the style of its
+ frame, debating whether it is carved well or ill, and how much it cost
+ to gild it.”
+
+ --Schopenhauer, _The Art of Literature_, p. 146.
+
+ “Any one who is sufficiently young, and who is not quite spoiled,
+ could not easily find any place that would suit him so well as a
+ theatre. No one asks you any questions: you need not open your mouth
+ unless you choose; on the contrary, you sit quite at your ease like a
+ king, and let everything pass before you, and recreate your mind and
+ senses to your heart’s content. There is poetry, there is painting,
+ there are singing and music, there is acting, and what not besides.
+ When all these arts, and the charm of youth and beauty heightened to
+ an important degree, work in concert on the same evening, it is a
+ bouquet to which no other can compare.”
+
+ --Goethe, _Conversations with Eckermann and Soret_, p. 120.
+
+ “It is therefore not going far enough to say that the light of the
+ understanding only deserves respect when it reacts on the character;
+ to a certain extent it is from the character that this light proceeds;
+ for the road that terminates in the head must pass through the
+ heart. Accordingly, the most pressing need of the present time is to
+ educate the sensibility, because it is the means, not only to render
+ efficacious in practice the improvement of ideas, but to call this
+ improvement into existence.”
+
+ --Schiller, _Essays Æsthetical and Philosophical_, p. 48.
+
+ “A pupil from whom nothing is ever demanded which he cannot do, never
+ does all he can.”
+
+ --John Stuart Mill, _Autobiography_ (Henry Holt & Co., New York,
+ 1887), p. 32.
+
+
+TOPICS FOR STUDY AND DISCUSSION
+
+1. Define artistic literature as distinguished from other writings.
+
+2. What characteristics give literature an exceptional place and value
+as a means of liberal culture?
+
+3. What education results from the study of thought, feeling and
+imagination in literature?
+
+4. Why is the poetry of sorrow filled with the imagery of the sea?
+
+5. Is there a “pathetic fallacy” involved in using Nature as a language
+for the expression of human emotions?
+
+6. What place has the education of the emotions and the imagination in
+relation to the whole of culture?
+
+7. Study the imagery of Shelley and Wordsworth as expressing the
+character of the two poets.
+
+8. What is the cultural value of the analytical study of literary style?
+
+9. Why was Elizabethan poetry characteristically dramatic, where modern
+English poetry is predominantly lyrical?
+
+10. What aspects of the study of literature are most important for
+liberal culture, and why?
+
+
+REFERENCES
+
+ Arnold, _The Study of Poetry_. Baldwin, _The Book-Lover_. Bates,
+ _Talks on the Study of Literature_. Beeching, _The Study of
+ Poetry_. Collins, _The_ _True Functions of Poetry_. Corson, _Aims
+ of Literary Study_. Crawshaw, _The Interpretation of Literature;
+ Literary Interpretation of Life_. Dabney, _Musical Basis of Verse_.
+ Hamerton, _The Intellectual Life_. Hugo, _William Shakespeare_.
+ Lewes, _Principles of Success in Literature_. Mabie, _Books and
+ Culture_. Mathews, _Music: Its Ideals and Methods_. Morison, _The
+ Great Poets as Religious Teachers_. Newman, _Poetry, with Reference to
+ Aristotle’s Poetics_. Palgrave, _Golden Treasury_. Pryde, _Highways of
+ Literature_. Santayana, _Elements and Function of Poetry_. Schiller,
+ _Essays_. Shairp, _Poetic Interpretation of Nature_. Sidney, _Defense
+ of Poesy_. Stedman, _Nature and Elements of Poetry_. Warner, _The
+ Relation of Literature to Life_. Winchester, _Some Principles of
+ Literary Criticism_.
+
+
+
+
+VIII. BEAUTY AND THE CULTURE OF THE SPIRIT
+
+ “It is important, at the present time, to bear in mind that the human
+ soul has still greater need of the ideal than of the real.
+
+ It is by the real that we exist; it is by the ideal that we live.
+ Would you realize the difference? Animals exist, man lives.”
+
+ --Victor Hugo, _William Shakespeare_, p. 295.
+
+
+=The life of appreciation.=--Art appealing to the whole man--intellect,
+emotion, imagination. Hence difficulty in endeavoring to put the
+meaning of art into terms of the intellect. How we appreciate much that
+we never understand. The joy of life depending largely on appreciation.
+Compare how life is always in advance of the theory of life. The three
+aspects of the life of appreciation: beauty, love, faith. The sense in
+which wisdom also belongs to appreciation.
+
+Contrasting significance of art and philosophy. The reason for the
+permanent value of every great work of art. The test of an artistic
+masterpiece its power to grow with our growth, revealing new deeps as
+we bring the key of enlarged experience to its interpretation.
+
+=The nature of beauty.=--The fact that beauty belongs to the life of
+appreciation as explaining the difficulty in defining beauty. Possible
+to define the relations upon which beauty depends rather than beauty
+itself.
+
+The relation of habit and custom in the appreciation of beauty.
+Evidence of a conventional element in changes of taste and standard in
+reference both to Nature and the arts.
+
+The relation of the parts to the whole in Nature or art; and the
+relation of an organism or a thing made to the function it is to
+fulfil. Contrast deformity and beauty. The sublimity of a great machine.
+
+The deeper relation of body to soul, of form to content, as a
+determining principle of beauty. Beauty depending less upon what is
+sensuously pleasing, than upon adequate and harmonious expression, the
+perfect marrying of body and soul.
+
+Still deeper relation behind all appreciation of beauty. The rhythm
+or harmony that inevitably exists between man’s sensibilities and the
+Nature-world in relation to which these senses have been evolved.
+Since all forms utilized in the arts are drawn finally from Nature,
+this principle behind all appreciation of beauty in the arts as well as
+in Nature.
+
+Unity of the life of appreciation. Hence all cultivation of the true
+response to beauty deepening and refining the life of love and of
+religion.
+
+=Nature and art.=--The two worlds of beauty; each possessing its own
+superiority. Identity of form and content in the beauty of Nature;
+living and everchanging character of Nature. Hence the healing, resting
+and exalting power of Nature in ministering to the spirit of man. On
+the other hand, the soul in Nature dumb and brooding; carried to clear
+and conscious expression through human art. Art as Nature and life put
+through the spectrum of man’s mind and heart. Compare a Corot painting
+with a bit of Nature; a portrait by Titian or Rembrandt with a human
+face. Thus the ministration of art to the human spirit: in calming and
+exalting; in giving widened relation to Nature and life, developing
+power to see; in inspiring action.
+
+=Opportunities for the appreciation of beauty.=--The wealth of natural
+beauty poured out abundantly on every hand. Tendency to ignore or
+fail to see the beauty of Nature just because it is so universal and
+accessible. Need to put oneself in the way of beauty; to leave room for
+the heaven of the unexpected.
+
+If the beauty of art is less accessible, nevertheless far more than is
+utilized and enjoyed. Compare in poetry, painting, music. The current
+attitude toward museums of art and opportunities in music.
+
+=The conscious study of beauty.=--Not enough to give oneself
+opportunities for enjoying beauty. Compare the people who live close
+to Nature without seeing her beauty; who wander aimlessly through art
+galleries and sit unappreciatively through an evening of great music
+because it is the fashion. Need of conscious study of beauty as a means
+toward appreciation.
+
+The method of the conscious study of beauty in Nature and the arts.
+Need to isolate and analyze. The ways by which one may escape
+convention and react freshly on the appeal of beauty. The active
+questioning which the student should employ. The deepened conscious
+appreciation which results from such study. The greater value of
+a little of such direct and active study over much reading of art
+criticism and theory.
+
+Some expression necessary to complete such study. Various forms that
+may be employed. The value of keeping a book of reflections in which to
+formulate and record one’s study and appreciation.
+
+=The value of art for the artist.=--The ministry of beauty fulfilled
+in the supreme way for the creative artist. Clarifying and exalting
+influence of art upon the artist. Development in him of power to see
+and to achieve. Illustrations in great masters such as Michael Angelo
+and Dante. Thus for the artist supremely as for the student in lesser
+degree, _art for life’s sake_.
+
+=Art and daily life.=--Need that each human being should be an artist:
+this possible in the supreme art of living. Thus need to identify
+beauty and use: to make one’s vocation, one’s environment, one’s
+relationships art in the highest sense. How then every part and
+aspect of life would be the adequate and harmonious expression and
+interpretation of some phase of man’s life and experience in true
+relation to the whole.
+
+
+ILLUSTRATIONS
+
+ “Supreme Art is the region of Equals. There is no primacy among
+ masterpieces.”
+
+ --Victor Hugo, _William Shakespeare_, p. 40.
+
+ “The technical work of our time, which is done to an unprecedented
+ perfection, has, by increasing and multiplying objects of luxury,
+ given the favourites of fortune a choice between more leisure and
+ culture upon the one side, and additional luxury and good living, but
+ with increased activity, upon the other; and, true to their character,
+ they choose the latter, and prefer champagne to freedom.”
+
+ --Schopenhauer, _The Art of Literature_, p. 141.
+
+ “The capacity of the sublime is one of the noblest aptitudes of man.
+ Beauty is useful, but does not go beyond man. The sublime applies
+ to the pure spirit. The sublime must be joined to the beautiful to
+ complete the _æsthetic education_, and to enlarge man’s heart beyond
+ the sensuous world.”
+
+ --Schiller, _Essays Æsthetical and Philosophical_, p. 141.
+
+ “Let us remember the prompter, very delicately and genially drawn by
+ Goethe in a few touches, who is so much moved at certain places that
+ he weeps hot tears; yet ‘it is, strictly speaking, _not the so-called
+ moving places_ that affect him so, but the _beautiful_ places _from
+ which the pure genius of the poet, so to speak, looks out from bright,
+ open eyes_.’ In the case of persons of a predominantly tender, ardent
+ disposition we not seldom meet this phenomenon. A beautiful poem, a
+ sublime scene in nature--nay, the narration of a good deed, moves
+ them to tears. And history tells us of the noble Saladin, who was a
+ warlike hero, that the narration of great deeds and simple touching
+ occurrences often moved him also to tears. It can hardly be assumed
+ that a warlike hero is the possessor of weak nerves. What have these
+ grayish-white threads to do at all with the eternal ideas of the
+ Good and the Beautiful? The emotion of which we have just spoken is
+ something better than mere nervous irritation; it is a higher kind
+ of homesickness, which attacks us when the ideas of the Good and the
+ Beautiful suddenly appear before us and remind us of our eternal home.”
+
+ --Ambros, _The Boundaries of Music and Poetry_, pp. 42, 43.
+
+ “We leave a grand musical performance with our feelings excited, the
+ reading of a noble poem with a quickened imagination, a beautiful
+ statue or building with an awakened understanding; but a man would
+ not choose an opportune moment who attempted to invite us to abstract
+ thinking after a high musical enjoyment, or to attend to a prosaic
+ affair of common life after a high poetical enjoyment, or to kindle
+ our imagination and astonish our feelings directly after inspecting
+ a fine statue or edifice. The reason of this is, that music, _by its
+ matter_, even when most spiritual, presents a greater affinity with
+ the senses than is permitted by aesthetic liberty; it is because even
+ the most happy poetry, having _for its medium_ the arbitrary and
+ contingent play of the imagination, always shares in it more than
+ the intimate necessity of the really beautiful allows; it is because
+ the best sculpture touches on severe science _by what is determinate
+ in its conception_. However, these particular affinities are lost
+ in proportion as the works of these three kinds of art rise to a
+ greater elevation, and it is a natural and necessary consequence of
+ their perfection, that, without confounding their objective limits,
+ the different arts come to resemble each other more and more, in the
+ action _which they exercise on the mind_. At its highest degree of
+ ennobling, music ought to become a form, and act on us with the calm
+ power of an antique statue; in its most elevated perfection, the
+ plastic art ought to become music and move us by the immediate action
+ exercised on the mind by the senses; in its most complete development,
+ poetry ought both to stir us powerfully like music and like plastic
+ art to surround us with a peaceful light. In each art, the perfect
+ style consists exactly in knowing how to remove specific limits, while
+ sacrificing at the same time the particular advantages of the art,
+ and to give it by a wise use of what belongs to it specially a more
+ general character.”
+
+ --Schiller, _Essays Æsthetical and Philosophical_, pp. 90, 91.
+
+ “When a beautiful soul harmonizes with a beautiful form, and the two
+ are cast in one mold, that will be the fairest of sights to him who
+ has an eye to see it.”
+
+ --Plato, _Republic_, book III, section 402.
+
+ “The amphora which refuses to go to the fountain deserves the hisses
+ of the water-pots.”
+
+ --Victor Hugo, _William Shakespeare_, p. 319.
+
+ “The true artist has no pride; unhappily he realizes that art has no
+ limitations, he feels darkly how far he is from the goal, and while
+ perhaps he is admired by others, he grieves that he has not yet
+ reached the point where the better genius shall shine before him like
+ a distant sun.”
+
+ --Beethoven, in Kerst, _Beethoven: The Man and the Artist_, p. 49.
+
+
+TOPICS FOR STUDY AND DISCUSSION
+
+1. Define the respective functions of art and philosophy in relation to
+the human spirit.
+
+2. Compare in significance and relative value, beauty in Nature and in
+human art.
+
+3. Can beauty exist without definite and limited form?
+
+4. What does creative expression in art do for the artist?
+
+5. Is it possible to define beauty satisfactorily?
+
+6. Sum up all the elements and relations involved in the appreciation
+of beauty.
+
+7. What end and aim is evident in the creation of all great art?
+
+8. In what ways does the beauty of Nature and of art minister to the
+spirit of man?
+
+9. What should be the relation of art to daily life?
+
+10. How can life be made a fine art?
+
+
+REFERENCES
+
+ Carpenter, _Angels’ Wings_. Dwight, _Intellectual Influence of Music_;
+ _Music as a Means of Culture_. Eastman, _Musical Education and Musical
+ Art_. Emerson, _Art_ (in _Essays, first series_, pp. 325-343); _Art_
+ (in _Society and Solitude_, pp. 39-59). Gurney, _The Power of Sound_.
+ Hamerton, _The Intellectual Life_. Hand, _Æsthetics of Musical Art_.
+ Hanslick, _The Beautiful in Music_. Hegel, _Introduction to the
+ Philosophy of Fine Art_. Holden, _Audiences_. Lanier, _Music and
+ Poetry_. Mabie, _Nature and Culture_. Morris, _Hopes and Fears for
+ Art_. Parry, _The Ministry of Fine Art to the Happiness of Life_.
+ Partridge, _Art for America_. Plato, _Republic_, books II. and
+ III. Puffer, _The Psychology of Beauty_. Raymond, _Essentials of
+ Æsthetics_. Schiller, _Essays_. Surette and Mason, _The Appreciation
+ of Music_. Tolstoy, _What is Art?_ Wagner, _Art Life and Theories of_.
+
+
+SUGGESTIONS TO STUDENTS
+
+ “You do ill if you praise, but worse if you censure, what you do not
+ rightly understand.”
+
+ --Leonardo da Vinci, _Leonardo da Vinci’s Note-Books_, arranged by
+ Edward McCurdy, p. 58.
+
+Dealing, as this course does, with the material of four great arts,
+there is no limit to the work the student may do in connection with it.
+The most significant point is to recognize that a little first-hand
+study of works of art is worth more than a vast amount of reading of
+criticism and theory of art. The best preparation for the course is
+to select a few works of art in each of the four fields and study
+them carefully; analyzing rigorously the effect each produces on the
+student’s senses, emotions and intellect; seeking to discover the means
+by which that effect is produced; and endeavoring to define what part
+or aspect of man’s life and reaction on Nature finds expression and
+interpretation in each artistic creation studied. The student must
+formulate his own questioning and work with a mind consistently active,
+not passive.
+
+This is merely demanding in the field of the arts the same direct
+inductive study of the material given, that is universally recognized
+to-day as the only sound method in every field of science. It is
+surprising how a little of such study will clarify the field of art.
+Works drop quickly into place, each is understood in relation to others
+and to the common background of human experience in both significance
+and beauty. This intellectual result is, however, not all; indeed, it
+is the less important consequence of the work. The great gain is in
+deepened appreciation. The student turns to fresh works of art with a
+multiplied power to respond to the appeal of each masterpiece. Thus
+is his life widened and deepened in relation to man and Nature, and
+blessed with the joy that beauty gives.
+
+The reading of such books as are given in the following list should be
+subordinated to the work above outlined, and should be used to clarify
+and stimulate the student’s own thinking, following the direct study of
+the works of art themselves.
+
+The material in Palgrave’s _Golden Treasury of Songs and Lyrics_,
+giving as it does brief but complete works of art selected from
+widely different men and epochs should be used throughout the course
+to represent the art of poetry. Where a gallery of painting and
+sculpture is not accessible to the student, photographic reproductions
+(obtainable to-day at insignificant price) of the works mentioned in
+the outlines and lists of topics should be obtained and carefully
+studied. In music the student should utilize with loving care such
+opportunities as he can find or make available.
+
+
+
+
+BOOK LIST
+
+
+ =Ambros, Wilhelm August=, _The Boundaries of Music and Poetry_,
+ translated by J. H. Cornell. Pp. xiii + 187. G. Schirmer, New York,
+ 1893.
+
+ =Anderson, Rasmus B.=, _Norse Mythology_. Pp. 473. S. C. Griggs & Co.,
+ Chicago, 1875.
+
+ =Anderson, Rasmus B.= (translator), _The Younger Edda_. Pp. 302. S. C.
+ Griggs & Co., Chicago, 1880.
+
+ =Aristotle=, _The Poetic_, translated by Theodore Buckley, pp. 405-500
+ in volume with Aristotle’s _Rhetoric_. Bohn Library, George Bell &
+ Sons, London, 1890.
+
+ =Arnold, Matthew=, _The Study of Poetry_, pp. 1-55 in _Essays in
+ Criticism, second series_. The Macmillan Co., New York, 1906.
+
+ =Baldwin, James=, _The Book-Lover_. Pp. 201. Jansen, McClurg & Co.,
+ Chicago, 1885.
+
+ =Bascom, John=, _Philosophy of English Literature_. Pp. xii + 318. G.
+ P. Putnam’s Sons, New York, 1886.
+
+ =Bates, Arlo=, _Talks on the Study of Literature_. Pp. 260. Houghton,
+ Mifflin & Co., Boston, 1898.
+
+ =Beeching, H. C.=, _The Study of Poetry_. Pp. 57. University Press,
+ Cambridge, 1901.
+
+ =Bradley, A. C.=, _Poetry for Poetry’s Sake_. Pp. 32. Clarendon Press,
+ Oxford, 1901.
+
+ =Brown, G. Baldwin=, _The Fine Arts_. Pp. xii + 321. Charles
+ Scribner’s Sons, New York, 1906.
+
+ =Browning, Robert=, _Abt Vogler_; _With Charles Avison_ (in
+ _Parleyings with Certain People_); _Master Hugues of Saxe-Gotha_;
+ _Saul_, in _Works_. Camberwell edition, T. Y. Crowell & Co., New York,
+ 1898.
+
+ =Bulfinch, Thomas=, _The Age of Chivalry_. Pp. viii + 414. Crosby,
+ Nichols & Co., Boston, 1859.
+
+ =Bulfinch, Thomas=, _The Age of Fable_, edited by E. E. Hale. New
+ edition. Pp. xxi + 568. S. W. Tilton & Co., Boston, 1894.
+
+ =Caffin, Charles H.=, _How to Study Pictures_. Pp. xv + 513. The
+ Century Co., New York, 1906.
+
+ =Carlyle, Thomas=, _The Hero as Divinity_, pp. 1-41 in _Heroes and
+ Hero-Worship_. Centenary edition. Charles Scribner’s Sons, New York,
+ 1897.
+
+ =Carpenter, Edward=, _Angels’ Wings: A Series of Essays on Art and Its
+ Relation to Life_. Pp. 248. Swan Sonnenschein & Co., London, 1898.
+
+ =Collins, John Churton=, _The True Functions of Poetry_, pp. 263-291
+ in _Studies in Poetry and Criticism_. George Bell & Sons, London, 1905.
+
+ =Corson, Hiram=, _The Aims of Literary Study_. Pp. 153. The Macmillan
+ Co., New York, 1895.
+
+ =Cox, George W.=, _An Introduction to the Science of Comparative
+ Mythology and Folk-Lore_. Pp. xvi + 380. Henry Holt & Co., New York,
+ 1881.
+
+ =Cox, George W.=, _The Mythology of the Aryan Nations_. 2 vols., pp.
+ xx + 460 and xv + 397. Longmans, Green, & Co., London, 1870.
+
+ =Crawshaw, W. H.=, _The Interpretation of Literature_. Pp. x + 235.
+ The Macmillan Co., New York, 1902.
+
+ =Crawshaw, W. H.=, _Literary Interpretation of Life_. Pp. viii + 266.
+ The Macmillan Co., New York, 1900.
+
+ =Dabney, J. P.=, _The Musical Basis of Verse_. Pp. x + 269. Longmans,
+ Green, & Co., London, 1901.
+
+ =Davies, Henry M.=, _The Musical Consciousness_. (In _Music_, vol.
+ XII, pp. 25-38, 171-180, 329-341, 462-472.)
+
+ =Donaldson, John William=, _The Theatre of the Greeks_. Pp. xii + 435.
+ George Bell & Sons, London, 1891.
+
+ =Dwight, John S.=, _Intellectual Influence of Music_. (In _The
+ Atlantic Monthly_, vol. XXVI, pp. 614-625.) Boston, Nov., 1870.
+
+ =Dwight, John S.=, _Music as a Means of Culture_. (In _The Atlantic
+ Monthly_, vol. XXVI, pp. 321-331.) Boston, Sept., 1870.
+
+ =Eastman, Edith V.=, _Musical Education and Musical Art_. Pp. 171.
+ Damrell & Upham, Boston, 1893.
+
+ =Emerson, Ralph Waldo=, _Art_, pp. 325-343 in _Essays, first series_.
+ Houghton, Mifflin & Co., Boston, 1883.
+
+ =Emerson, Ralph Waldo=, _Art_, pp. 39-59 in _Society and Solitude_.
+ Houghton, Mifflin & Co., Boston, 1898.
+
+ =Engel, Carl=, _Introduction to the Study of National Music_. Pp. x +
+ 435. Longmans, Green, & Co., London, 1886.
+
+ =Fairbanks, Arthur=, _The Mythology of Greece and Rome, with Special
+ Reference to its Influence on Literature_. Pp. xvii + 408. D. Appleton
+ & Co., New York, 1907.
+
+ =Gayley, C. M.= (editor), _Classic Myths in English Literature_. Pp.
+ xlv + 540. Ginn & Co., Boston, 1894.
+
+ =Goddard, Joseph=, _Reflections upon Musical Art Considered in its
+ Wider Relations_. Pp. viii + 87. Goddard & Co., London, 1893.
+
+ =Goethe=, _Conversations with Eckermann and Soret_, translated by John
+ Oxenford. Pp. xxvii + 583. Bohn Library, George Bell & Sons, London,
+ 1901.
+
+ =Goethe=, _The Maxims and Reflections of_, translated by T. Bailey
+ Saunders. Pp. 223. The Macmillan Co., New York, 1893.
+
+ =Goethe=, _Travels in Italy_, translated by A. J. W. Morrison and
+ Charles Nesbit. Pp. 589. Bohn Library, George Bell & Sons, London,
+ 1892.
+
+ =Goldziher, Ignaz=, _Mythology among the Hebrews and its Historical
+ Development_, translated by Russell Martineau. Pp. xxxv + 457.
+ Longmans, Green, & Co., London, 1877.
+
+ =Grosse, Ernest=, _The Beginnings of Art_. Pp. xiv + 327. D. Appleton
+ & Co., New York, 1897.
+
+ =Guerber, H. A.=, _Myths of Greece and Rome_. Pp. 428. American Book
+ Co., New York, 1893.
+
+ =Guerber, H. A.=, _Myths of Northern Lands_. Pp. 319. American Book
+ Co., New York, 1895.
+
+ =Gummere, Francis B.=, _The Beginnings of Poetry_. Pp. x + 483. The
+ Macmillan Co., New York, 1901.
+
+ =Gummere, Francis B.=, _A Handbook of Poetics_. Pp. vi + 250. Ginn &
+ Co., Boston, 1885.
+
+ =Gurney, Edmund=, _The Power of Sound_. Pp. xi + 559. Smith, Elder, &
+ Co., London, 1880.
+
+ =Hamerton, Philip Gilbert=, _The Intellectual Life_. Pp. xix + 455.
+ Roberts Bros., Boston, 1891.
+
+ =Hamerton, Philip Gilbert=, _Thoughts About Art_. Pp. xxiv + 383.
+ Roberts Bros., Boston, 1878.
+
+ =Hanchett, Henry G.=, _The Art of the Musician: A Guide to the
+ Intellectual Appreciation of Music_. Pp. viii + 327. The Macmillan
+ Co., New York, 1905.
+
+ =Hand, Ferdinand=, _Æsthetics of Musical Art; or, the Beautiful in
+ Music_, translated from the German by Walter E. Lawson. Pp. xviii +
+ 187. London, 1880.
+
+ =Hanslick, Dr. Eduard=, _The Beautiful in Music_, translated by Gustav
+ Cohen. Novello, Ewer & Co., New York, 1891.
+
+ =Hegel, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich=, _Introduction to the Philosophy of
+ Fine Art_, translated by B. Bosanquet. Pp. xxxiii + 175. Kegan Paul,
+ Trench & Co., London, 1886.
+
+ =Helmholtz, Hermann L. F.=, _On the Sensations of Tone as a
+ Physiological Basis for the Theory of Music_, translated by Alexander
+ J. Ellis. Pp. xix + 576. Longmans, Green, & Co., London, 1885.
+
+ =Henderson, W. J.=, _What is Good Music?_ Pp. xiii + 205. Charles
+ Scribner’s Sons, New York, 1905.
+
+ =Holden, Florence P.=, _Audiences: A Few Suggestions to Those Who Look
+ and Listen_. A. C. McClurg & Co., Chicago, 1896.
+
+ =Holmes, Edmond=, _What is Poetry?_ Pp. 98. Lane, New York, 1900.
+
+ =Hugo, Victor=, _William Shakespeare_, translated by Melville B.
+ Anderson. Pp. 24 + 424. A. C. McClurg & Co., Chicago, 1899.
+
+ =Kerst, Friedrich= (compiler and annotator), _Beethoven: The Man and
+ the Artist, as Revealed in His Own Words_, translated and edited by
+ Henry Edward Krehbiel. Pp. 110. B. W. Huebsch, New York, 1905.
+
+ =Kerst, Friedrich= (compiler and annotator), _Mozart: The Man and the
+ Artist, as Revealed in His Own Words_, translated and edited by Henry
+ Edward Krehbiel. Pp. 143. B. W. Huebsch, New York, 1905.
+
+ =Knight, William=, _The Philosophy of the Beautiful_. 2 vols. Pp. xv +
+ 288 and xii + 281. John Murray, London, 1891-3.
+
+ =Kobbé, Gustav=, _How to Appreciate Music_. Pp. 275. Moffat, Yard &
+ Co., New York, 1906.
+
+ =Krehbiel, Henry Edward=, _How to Listen to Music_. Pp. xv + 36l.
+ Charles Scribner’s Sons, New York, 1897.
+
+ =Kufferath, M.=, _Rhythm, Melody and Harmony_. (In _Music_, vol. XVII,
+ pp. 31-39, 155-163.) Chicago, 1899, 1900.
+
+ =LaFarge, J.=, _Considerations on Painting_. Pp. vi + 270. The
+ Macmillan Co., New York, 1901.
+
+ =Lanier, Sidney=, _Music and Poetry_. Pp. viii + 248. Charles
+ Scribner’s Sons, New York, 1899.
+
+ =Lanier, Sidney=, _The Science of English Verse._ Pp. 315. Charles
+ Scribner’s Sons, New York, 1901.
+
+ =Leighton, Lord=, _Addresses Delivered to the Students of the Royal
+ Academy_. Pp. 310. Kegan Paul, Trench, Trübner & Co., London, 1896.
+
+ =Lessing, G. E.=, _Laokoön_, pp. 1-169 in _Laokoön_, etc., translated
+ by E. C. Beasley and Helen Zimmern. Bohn Library, George Bell & Sons,
+ London, 1900.
+
+ =Lewes, George Henry=, _The Principles of Success in Literature_. Pp.
+ xv + 235. Walter Scott, London, n. d.
+
+ =Mabie, Hamilton Wright=, _Books and Culture_. Pp. 279. Dodd, Mead &
+ Co., New York, 1896.
+
+ =Mabie, Hamilton Wright=, _Essays on Nature and Culture_. Pp. 326.
+ Dodd, Mead & Co., New York, 1896.
+
+ =Mabie, Hamilton Wright=, _Short Studies in Literature_. Pp. vi + 201.
+ Dodd, Mead & Co., New York, 1892.
+
+ =Mach, Edmund von=, _Greek Sculpture; Its Spirit and Principles_. Pp.
+ xviii + 359 + xl. Ginn & Co., Boston, 1903.
+
+ =Malory, Sir Thomas=, _Le Morte Darthur_, edited with introduction by
+ Sir Edward Strachey. Pp. lvi + 509. The Macmillan Co., New York, 1901.
+
+ =Mathews, W. S. B.=, _How to Understand Music_. 2 vols., pp. 216 + 87
+ and viii + 208. Theodore Presser, Philadelphia, 1886, 1888.
+
+ =Mathews, W. S. B.=, _Music: Its Ideals and Methods_. Pp. iii + 225.
+ Theodore Presser, Philadelphia, 1897.
+
+ =Morison, John H.=, _The Great Poets as Religious Teachers_. Pp. 200.
+ Harper & Bros., New York, 1886.
+
+ =Morris, William=, _Hopes and Fears for Art_. Pp. 217. Roberts Bros.,
+ Boston, 1882.
+
+ =Moyse, Charles E.=, _Poetry, as a Fine Art_. Pp. 79. Elliot Stock,
+ London, 1883.
+
+ =Münsterberg, Hugo=, _The Principles of Art Education_. Pp. 114. The
+ Prang Educational Co., New York, 1905.
+
+ =Newman, John Henry=, _Poetry, with Reference to Aristotle’s Poetics_.
+ Pp. x + 36. Ginn & Co., Boston, 1891.
+
+ =Norton, Edwin Lee=, _The Intellectual Element in Music_, pp. 167-201
+ in _Studies in Philosophy and Psychology_. Houghton, Mifflin & Co.,
+ Boston, 1906.
+
+ =Noyes, Carleton=, _The Enjoyment of Art_. Pp. xiii + 101. Houghton,
+ Mifflin & Co., Boston, 1903.
+
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+ Songs and Lyrical Poems in the English Language_. Series I, pp. 381;
+ series II, pp. xii + 275. The Macmillan Co., New York, 1896, 1897.
+
+ =Palgrave, Francis Turner=, _Poetry Compared with the Other Fine
+ Arts_. (In _Littell’s Living Age_, vol. CLXXI, pp. 259-267; vol.
+ CLXXIII, pp. 579-589.) Boston, 1886, 1887.
+
+ =Parry, C. Hubert H.=, _The Evolution of the Art of Music_. Pp. x +
+ 342. D. Appleton & Co., New York, 1906.
+
+ =Parry, T. Gambier=, _The Ministry of Fine Art to the Happiness of
+ Life_. Pp. viii + 368. John Murray, London, 1886.
+
+ =Partridge, William Ordway=, _Art for America_. Pp. 192. Roberts
+ Bros., Boston, 1894.
+
+ =Plato=, _The Republic_, translated by B. Jowett. Books II and III.
+ Oxford University Press, 1892.
+
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+ Harrison. Thomas Y. Crowell & Co., New York, 1902.
+
+ =Posnett, Hutcheson Macauley=, _Comparative Literature_. Pp. x + 402.
+ D. Appleton & Co., New York, 1886.
+
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+ New York, n. d.
+
+ =Puffer, Ethel D.=, _The Psychology of Beauty_. Pp. vii + 286.
+ Houghton, Mifflin & Co., Boston, 1906.
+
+ =Raymond, George Lansing=, _Art in Theory_. Pp. xviii + 266. G. P.
+ Putnam’s Sons, New York, 1894.
+
+ =Raymond, George Lansing=, _The Essentials of Æsthetics_. Pp. xix +
+ 404. G. P. Putnam’s Sons, New York, 1906.
+
+ =Raymond, George Lansing=, _The Genesis of Art-Form_. Pp. xxii + 311.
+ G. P. Putnam’s Sons, New York, 1893.
+
+ =Raymond, George Lansing=, _Painting, Sculpture, and Architecture as
+ Representative Arts_. Pp. xxxv + 431. G. P. Putnam’s Sons, New York,
+ 1895.
+
+ =Raymond, George Lansing=, _Poetry as a Representative Art_. Pp. xv +
+ 346. G. P. Putnam’s Sons, New York, 1886.
+
+ =Raymond, George Lansing=, _Rhythm and Harmony in Poetry and Music_.
+ Pp. xxxvi + 344. G. P. Putnam’s Sons, New York, 1904.
+
+ =Ritter, Frederic Louis=, _Music in Its Relation to Intellectual Life;
+ Romanticism in Music_. Pp. 98. Edward Schuberth & Co., New York, 1891.
+
+ =Ruskin, John=, _Aratra Pentelici; Elements of Sculpture_. Pp. xi +
+ 181. John Wiley & Sons, New York, 1886.
+
+ =Ruskin, John=, _Lectures on Art_. Pp. 202. Merrill & Baker, New York,
+ n. d.
+
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+ 230, xii + 341, 403, and xiv + 390. Merrill & Baker, New York, n. d.
+
+ =Ruskin, John=, _The Two Paths: Lectures on Art_. Pp. xvii + 270.
+ Maynard, Merrill & Co., New York, 1893.
+
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+ vol. V, pp. 557-572.) Chicago, March, 1894.
+
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+ 251-290 in _Interpretations of Poetry and Religion_. Charles
+ Scribner’s Sons, New York, 1900.
+
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+ translated from the German. Pp. 435. Bohn Library, George Bell & Sons,
+ London, 1905.
+
+ =Schopenhauer, Arthur=, _The Art of Literature_, translated by T.
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+
+ =Schopenhauer, Arthur=, _The Metaphysics of Fine Art_, pp. 125-140 in
+ _Religion and Other Essays_, translated by T. Bailey Saunders. Swan
+ Sonnenschein & Co., London, 1891.
+
+ =Schopenhauer, Arthur=, _On the Metaphysics of Music_, pp. 155-177 in
+ Wagner’s _Beethoven_. William Reeves, London, 1880.
+
+ =Shairp, John Campbell=, _Aspects of Poetry_. Pp. x + 401. Houghton,
+ Mifflin & Co., Boston, 1882.
+
+ =Shairp, John Campbell=, _Poetic Interpretation of Nature_. Pp. x +
+ 279. Houghton, Mifflin & Co., Boston, 1882.
+
+ =Shelley, Percy Bysshe=, _A Defence of Poetry_, pp. 1-41 in _Essays
+ and Letters_, edited by Ernest Rhys. Walter Scott, London, 1886.
+
+ =Sidney, Philip=, _Defense of Poesy_, edited by Albert S. Cook. Pp.
+ xlv + 143. Ginn & Co., Boston, 1890.
+
+ =Spencer, Herbert=, _The Origin and Function of Music_, pp. 401-451 in
+ _Essays_, vol. II. D. Appleton & Co., New York, 1892.
+
+ =Stedman, Edmund Clarence=, _The Nature and Elements of Poetry_. Pp.
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+
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+ & Taylor Co., New York, 1905.
+
+ =Sturgis, Russell=, _The Appreciation of Sculpture_. Pp. 235. The
+ Baker & Taylor Co., New York, 1904.
+
+ =Surette, Thoman Whitney, and Mason, Daniel Gregory=, _The
+ Appreciation of Music_. Pp. xi + 222. The Baker & Taylor Co., New
+ York, 1906.
+
+ =Taine, H.=, _Lectures on Art_, translated by John Durand. 2 vols.,
+ pp. 354 and 540. Henry Holt & Co., New York, 1889.
+
+ =Tolstoy, L. N.=, _What is Art?_, translated by Charles Johnston. Pp.
+ iii + 298. Henry Altemus, Philadelphia, 1898.
+
+ =Van Dyke, John C.=, _Art for Art’s Sake_. Pp. xii + 249. Charles
+ Scribner’s Sons, New York, 1893.
+
+ =Van Dyke, John C.=, _How to Judge of a Picture_. Pp. 168. Chautauqua
+ Press, Chautauqua, N. Y., 1888.
+
+ =Van Dyke, John C.=, _The Meaning of Pictures_. Pp. xiv + 161. Charles
+ Scribner’s Sons, New York, 1903.
+
+ =Van Dyke, John C.=, _Principles of Art_. Pp. 291. Fords, Howard &
+ Hulbert, New York, 1887.
+
+ =Vinci, Leonardo da=, _Leonardo da Vinci’s Note-Books_, arranged and
+ rendered into English with introductions by Edward McCurdy. Pp. xiv +
+ 289. Charles Scribner’s Sons, New York, 1908.
+
+ =Vinci, Leonardo da=, _A Treatise on Painting_, translated by J. F.
+ Rigand. Pp. lxvii + 238. George Bell & Sons, London, 1906.
+
+ =Wagner, Richard=, _Art Life and Theories of_, selected from his
+ writings and translated by Edward L. Burlingame. Pp. xiii + 305. Henry
+ Holt & Co., New York, 1904.
+
+ =Wagner, Richard=, _Beethoven_, translated by Edward Dannreuther. Pp.
+ viii + 177. William Reeves, London, 1880.
+
+ =Warner, Charles Dudley=, _The Relation of Literature to Life_. Pp.
+ 320. Harper & Bros., New York, 1897.
+
+ =Waterhouse, C. H.=, _The Signification and Principles of Art_. Pp.
+ 154. J. S. Virtue & Co., London, 1886.
+
+ =Wilde, Oscar=, _The Critic as Artist_, pp. 85-196 in _Intentions_.
+ Thomas B. Mosher, Portland, Me., 1904.
+
+ =Wilde, Oscar=, _The Soul of Man Under Socialism_. Pp. 90. Thomas B.
+ Mosher, Portland, Me., 1905.
+
+ =Winchester, C. T.=, _Some Principles of Literary Criticism_. Pp. xii
+ + 352. The Macmillan Co., New York, 1899.
+
+ =Witt, Robert Clermont=, _How to Look at Pictures_. Pp. xviii + 173.
+ George Bell & Sons. London, 1902.
+
+
+
+
+  Transcriber's Notes:
+
+  Italics are shown thus: _sloping_.
+
+  Variations in spelling and hyphenation are retained.
+
+  Perceived typographical errors have been changed.
+
+*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 78154 ***