path: root/77360-0.txt

*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 77360 ***




  U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
  BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY—BULLETIN NO. 139.
  B. T. GALLOWAY, _Chief of Bureau_.


  AMERICAN MEDICINAL BARKS.

  BY

  ALICE HENKEL,
  ASSISTANT, DRUG-PLANT INVESTIGATIONS.


  ISSUED JUNE 5, 1909.

  [Illustration: UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE]

  WASHINGTON:
  GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE.
  1909.




  BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY.


  _Chief of Bureau_, BEVERLY T. GALLOWAY.
  _Assistant Chief of Bureau_, ALBERT F. WOODS.
  _Editor_, J. E. ROCKWELL.
  _Chief Clerk_, JAMES E. JONES.


  DRUG-PLANT INVESTIGATIONS.

  SCIENTIFIC STAFF.

  R. H. True, _Physiologist in Charge_.

  W. W. Stockberger, Frank Rabak, Arthur F. Sievers, _Experts_.
  Alice Henkel, _Assistant_.
  G. Fred Klugh, T. B. Young, S. C. Hood, _Scientific Assistants_.




  LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL.


  U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,
  BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY,
  OFFICE OF THE CHIEF,

  _Washington, D. C., September 1, 1908_.


  SIR: I have the honor to transmit herewith and to recommend for
  publication as Bulletin No. 139 of the series of this Bureau the
  accompanying manuscript, entitled “American Medicinal Barks.” This
  paper was prepared by Miss Alice Henkel, Assistant in Drug-Plant
  Investigations, and has been submitted by the Physiologist in Charge
  with a view to its publication.

  Thirty-five drugs are fully described, and under many of the
  descriptions briefer information concerning closely related species
  is included. All of the “official” barks obtained from trees and
  shrubs occurring in this country are described, as well as many
  “nonofficial” ones.

  This bulletin forms the second installment on the subject of American
  medicinal plants, the first one treating of American root drugs,
  and has been prepared to meet the steady demand for information
  concerning the medicinal plants of this country. It is intended as a
  guide and reference book for those who may be interested in the study
  or collection of the medicinal plants found in the United States.

  Respectfully,

                     B. T. GALLOWAY,
                       _Chief of Bureau_.

  Hon. JAMES WILSON,
    _Secretary of Agriculture_.




  CONTENTS.


                                                                Page.

  Introduction                                                     7

  The collection of barks                                          8

  Trees and shrubs furnishing medicinal barks                      9

  White pine (_Pinus strobus_)                                     9

  Tamarack (_Larix laricina_)                                     10

  Aspen (_Populus tremuloides_)                                   11

  White willow (_Salix alba_)                                     12

  Bayberry (_Myrica cerifera_)                                    14

  Butternut (_Juglans cinerea_)                                   15

  Ironwood (_Ostrya virginiana_)                                  15

  Sweet birch (_Betula lenta_)                                    16

  Tag-alder (_Alnus rugosa_)                                      18

  White oak (_Quercus alba_)                                      18

  Slippery elm (_Ulmus pubescens_)                                20

  Magnolia (_Magnolia acuminata_, _M. tripetala_, and
    _M. glauca_)                                                  21

  Tulip-poplar (_Liriodendron tulipifera_)                        23

  Sassafras (_Sassafras sassafras_)                               25

  Spicebush (_Benzoin benzoin_)                                   26

  Witch-hazel (_Hamamelis virginiana_)                            27

  Blackberry (_Rubus villosus_, _R. nigrobaccus_,
    and _R. cuneifolius_)                                         28

  American mountain-ash (_Sorbus americana_)                      29

  Wild cherry (_Prunus serotina_)                                 30

  Prickly ash (_Xanthoxylum americanum_ and _X. clava-herculis_)  31

  Wafer-ash (_Ptelea trifoliata_)                                 33

  Black alder (_Ilex verticillata_)                               34

  Wahoo (_Euonymus atropurpureus_)                                35

  False bittersweet (_Celastrus scandens_)                        36

  Horse-chestnut (_Aesculus hippocastanum_)                       37

  Cascara sagrada (_Rhamnus purshiana_)                           38

  Cotton (_Gossypium hirsutum_)                                   40

  Dogwood (_Cornus florida_)                                      41

  Moosewood (_Dirca palustris_)                                   43

  White ash (_Fraxinus americana_)                                44

  Fringe-tree (_Chionanthus virginica_)                           45

  Bittersweet (_Solanum dulcamara_)                               46

  Buttonbush (_Cephalanthus occidentalis_)                        47

  Cramp-bark tree (_Viburnum opulus_)                             48

  Black haw (_Viburnum prunifolium_)                              48

  Index                                                           51




  ILLUSTRATIONS.


  Page.

  FIG. 1. White pine (_Pinus strobus_), leaves and cones          10

  2. Tamarack (_Larix laricina_), leaves and cones                10

  3. Aspen (_Populus tremuloides_), trunk                         11

  4. Aspen (_Populus tremuloides_), leaves and capsules           12

  5. Bayberry (_Myrica cerifera_), leaves and fruit               14

  6. Butternut (_Juglans cinerea_), trunk                         15

  7. Ironwood (_Ostrya virginiana_), leaves and fruit             16

  8. Sweet birch (_Betula lenta_), trunk                          17

  9. Sweet birch (_Betula lenta_), leaves, catkins, and fruit     17

  10. Tag-alder (_Alnus rugosa_), leaves, catkins, and fruit      18

  11. White oak (_Quercus alba_), trunk                           19

  12. White oak (_Quercus alba_), leaves and acorns               19

  13. Slippery elm (_Ulmus pubescens_), trunk                     20

  14. Slippery elm (_Ulmus pubescens_), leaves, flowers, and
        fruits                                                    21

  15. Cucumber-tree (_Magnolia acuminata_), leaves                21

  16. Umbrella-tree (_Magnolia tripetala_), leaves                22

  17. Sweet bay (_Magnolia glauca_), leaves and fruiting cones    23

  18. Tulip-poplar (_Liriodendron tulipifera_), trunk             24

  19. Tulip-poplar (_Liriodendron tulipifera_), leaves, flowers,
        and fruit                                                 24

  20. Sassafras (_Sassafras sassafras_), leaves and fruits        25

  21. Spicebush (_Benzoin benzoin_), leaves, flowers, and fruits  26

  22. Witch-hazel (_Hamamelis virginiana_), leaves, flowers, and
  capsules                                                        27

  23. American mountain-ash (_Sorbus americana_), leaves and
        fruits                                                    29

  24. Wild cherry (_Prunus serotina_), trunk                      30

  25. Wild cherry (_Prunus serotina_), leaves, flowers, and
        fruits                                                    30

  26. Southern prickly ash (_Xanthoxylum clava-herculis_),
        trunk                                                     32

  27. Southern prickly ash (_Xanthoxylum clava-herculis_),
        leaves, fruits, and branchlet showing prickles            32

  28. Wafer-ash (_Ptelea trifoliata_), leaves and fruits          33

  29. Black alder (_Ilex verticillata_), fruits                   34

  30. Wahoo (_Euonymus atropurpureus_), leaves and fruits         35

  31. False bittersweet (_Celastrus scandens_), leaves, flowers,
        and fruits                                                36

  32. Horse-chestnut (_Aesculus hippocastanum_), trunk            37

  33. Horse-chestnut (_Aesculus hippocastanum_), leaves and
        fruits                                                    37

  34. Cascara sagrada (_Rhamnus purshiana_), five-year-old tree   38

  35. Cascara sagrada (_Rhamnus purshiana_), leaves and fruits    39

  36. Cotton (_Gossypium hirsutum_), leaves, flowers, and bolls   41

  37. Dogwood (_Cornus florida_), trunk                           42

  38. Dogwood (_Cornus florida_), leaves, flowers, and fruits     42

  39. Moosewood (_Dirca palustris_), leaves and flowers           43

  40. White ash (_Fraxinus americana_), trunk                     44

  41. White ash (_Fraxinus americana_), leaves and fruits         44

  42. Fringe-tree (_Chionanthus virginica_), leaves and flowers   45

  43. Bittersweet (_Solanum dulcamara_), leaves, flowers, and
        fruits                                                    46

  44. Buttonbush (_Cephalanthus occidentalis_), leaves and
        flowers                                                   47

  45. Black haw and nanny-berry (_Viburnum prunifolium_ and _V.
  lentago_), leaves and flowers                                   49




B. P. I.—424.


AMERICAN MEDICINAL BARKS.




INTRODUCTION.


Among the manifold uses of the trees of our forests not the least
important is the utilization of their barks for medicinal purposes.

While the “official” barks—that is, those that are recognized in the
Eighth Decennial Revision of the United States Pharmacopœia—number only
seventeen in all, twelve of which are furnished by trees and shrubs
growing in the United States either as native or introduced species,
there are many others which are nevertheless used in medicine to a
considerable extent by one or another school of practitioners. All of
the “official” barks are described in this bulletin, and an effort
has been made to include such “nonofficial” ones as seemed to be most
in demand, judging from the trade catalogues of wholesale dealers in
crude drugs, but a number of others that are not so much used have
been omitted on account of lack of space. The number of drugs fully
described is thirty-five, but under many of the descriptions closely
related species are also briefly treated.

Many factors have contributed to the destruction of our forests.
Beginning with the settlement of this country, when land had to be
cleared of timber to make way for homes, and on through the centuries
there have been steady and increasingly heavy drafts upon our natural
forest resources by an increasing population and the building up of
various new enterprises, and until within very recent years with little
or no thought for the needs and welfare of generations to come. In the
collection of barks, too, may be seen another instance contributing
in a measure to the depletion of our forests; for too often trees
are felled and killed outright simply for the sake of obtaining the
bark, or a tree is peeled to such an extent that death is certain
to result. When it is considered that of cascara sagrada (_Rhamnus
purshiana_) alone about 100,000 trees are annually sacrificed, and that
the oak, pine, elm, birch, poplar, willow, and larch all contribute
their quota of bark, it will be seen that at no very distant date
more careful methods of bark collection and the replanting of now
denuded areas will be needed. The Forest Service of the United States
Department of Agriculture has issued Forest Planting Leaflets, giving
full information in regard to the planting and propagation of many of
our forest trees, and anyone interested in the subject can have these
leaflets for the asking.

The statements herein regarding medicinal uses are based on the
information contained in various dispensatories and other works
relating to materia medica, and in a publication of the character of
this bulletin can, of course, be referred to only in the most general
manner. It is not the purpose herein to prescribe the use of any of
these barks for medicinal purposes; such use should be made only under
the direction of a physician.

The writer is indebted to Mr. George B. Sudworth, Dendrologist of the
Forest Service, for an examination of the manuscript and for the use of
a number of photographs taken by him and other members of that Service.

Other illustrations in this bulletin have been reproduced from
photographs taken from nature by Mr. C. L. Lochman, and use has also
been made of a number of illustrations found in the Handbook of the
Trees of the Northern States and Canada, by Mr. R. B. Hough.

The writer also wishes to gratefully acknowledge information of various
kinds furnished by wholesale drug dealers.




THE COLLECTION OF BARKS.


As with other medicinal portions of plants, the best time to collect
the barks is at a period when the greatest quantity of the active
constituents is contained therein. In the case of barks this is in
early spring, before active growth takes place, or in late fall or even
winter.

There are various methods of obtaining the bark. In some cases the
outer corky layer is first shaved off before the bark is peeled, a
process which is known as “rossing.” This is generally done where the
outer layer is considered inert. Then incisions a few inches wide are
made, and, depending upon the nature of the bark, sometimes strips
several feet in length are peeled. The barks of some branches or roots
are removed by making long, lengthwise incisions, permitting the bark
to be readily slipped off, or in other cases the bark is first loosened
by pounding with a mallet.

After collection, the bark is taken to a clean, well-aired place for
drying, spread out on shelves or on the floor and protected from
moisture. Barks contain less moisture and absorb less moisture than
other parts of plants, but they nevertheless need to be protected
from wet weather. Sometimes barks are strung on wires or strings to
facilitate drying.

When the barks are thoroughly dried and have been broken or cut up into
suitable lengths, they may be packed in dry, clean barrels or other
proper containers ready for shipment.

It will be well to repeat here what has been said in the first of this
series of papers, entitled “American Root Drugs,” with regard to the
advisability of correspondence with crude-drug dealers previous to
shipment, in order to ascertain whether a particular drug is desired,
how large a quantity is wanted, and what price will be paid. Samples
representative of the drug to be disposed of should be sent at the same
time.

It is necessary also to emphasize the fact that the prices given in
this bulletin are approximations only, being those paid at the present
writing, and it must be remembered that before this bulletin is off
the press a drug now listed at 10 cents a pound may have declined
to 5 cents or less, while a drug quoted at 2 cents may be worth 5
or 10 cents or more. The object in noting prices is simply to give
prospective collectors an idea of the range of prices, but with the
constant fluctuations that take place in the drug market it will be
readily understood that these prices can be but remotely approximate
and that the actual price to be paid can be ascertained only through
correspondence with drug dealers.




TREES AND SHRUBS FURNISHING MEDICINAL BARKS.


Each section contains synonyms and the pharmacopœial name, if any, the
common names, habitat, range, descriptions of the tree or shrub, as
well as of the bark as found in commerce, and information concerning
collection, prices, and uses.

Bittersweet (_Solanum dulcamara_) is the only one of American
medicinal plants of which the young branches alone are used, but it is
nevertheless given a place with the barks, as it can more properly be
included in this series than in any other.


WHITE PINE.

_Pinus strobus_ L.

[Illustration: FIG. 1.—White pine (_Pinus strobus_), leaves and cones.]

_Other common names._—Northern pine, Weymouth pine, American white
pine, American deal-pine, soft deal-pine, spruce-pine.

_Habitat and range._—The white pine, indigenous to this country, occurs
in woods from Canada south to Georgia and Iowa.

_Description of tree._—This large, handsome evergreen tree—sometimes
200 feet in height and with a straight trunk measuring 3 to 4 feet in
diameter—has horizontal branches, both trunk and branches covered with
a smooth, grayish green bark when young, becoming dark and rough with
age, and longitudinally fissured. The wood is soft and white, and much
used for flooring, etc.

The slender, pale green leaves, or needles, are usually five in a
sheath, about 3 to 5 inches long, the flowers rather inconspicuous,
and the cones cylindrical, drooping, sometimes slightly curved,
resinous, about 5 to 10 inches long and about an inch in thickness, but
much wider after the scales spread apart, which generally occurs in
September, allowing the seeds to fall out. (Fig. 1.) It requires two
seasons for the cones to mature. The white pine belongs to the pine
family (Pinaceæ).

_Description of bark._—The inner bark of the white pine is the part
employed medicinally. It occurs in flat pieces of irregular size,
about an eighth of an inch in thickness, brownish on the outside, the
inner surface sometimes lighter colored and sometimes darker than the
outside, smoothish, and marked with fine grooves. It breaks with a
tough, fibrous fracture, and has a slight turpentine odor. The taste is
described as “mucilaginous, sweetish, bitterish, and astringent.”

_Prices and uses._—At present collectors are paid from about 1/2 to 3
cents a pound.

White pine bark is used as an expectorant, forming one of the
ingredients in the sirup which bears its name, which is much used for
coughs and colds to facilitate expectoration.


TAMARACK.

_Larix laricina_ (Du Roi) Koch.

[Illustration: FIG. 2.—Tamarack (_Larix laricina_), leaves and cones.]

_Synonym._—_Larix americana_ Michx.

_Other common names._—American larch, black larch, red larch,
hackmatack.

_Habitat and range._—This tree frequents swamps and moist places from
Canada south to New Jersey, Indiana, and Minnesota. It is native in
this country.

_Description of tree._—In spring the light green, feathery appearance
of the young leaves of the tamarack make it a rather conspicuous and
attractive tree. It is a slender tree belonging to the pine family
(Pinaceæ), but unlike other members of this family, except bald
cypress, it loses its leaves upon the approach of winter. The bark is
thin and close, finally becoming scaly. The wood, which is light brown
in color, hard and resinous, is strong and durable.

The tamarack has horizontally spreading branches, and reaches a
maximum height of 100 feet. The pale green leaves, which appear early
in spring, are short, very slender, and needle shaped, from 20 to 40
together in a fascicle, or bundle, similar to the manner in which pine
needles grow, except that they are without sheaths (fig. 2).

The aments, or flower clusters, are inconspicuous, and are of two
kinds, staminate or male, and pistillate or female. The female clusters
have a reddish and greenish tinge, and develop later into small erect
cones, resembling in miniature cones of some of the pines and spruces
(fig. 2).

_Description of bark._—The tamarack bark, as found in the stores, is in
rather large, coarse pieces or slabs, having the outer layer removed.
The outer surface has a rather fibrous appearance, cinnamon brown in
color, occasionally showing patches of brownish red or almost purplish
where the outside layer has been imperfectly shaved off; the inner
surface is smooth and light brown. The whole breaks with a somewhat
woody fracture, showing ragged, splintery edges. The odor is rather
strong and disagreeable.

_Prices and uses._—Tamarack bark at present is paid for at the rate of
from 1-1/2 to 3 cents a pound.

The bark, in decoction, is said to be useful as a tonic and alterative,
and also as a laxative and diuretic.


ASPEN.

_Populus tremuloides_ Michx.

_Other common names._—White poplar, American poplar, trembling
poplar, American aspen, mountain-asp, quaking asp, quiverleaf,
auld-wives’-tongues.

_Habitat and range._—The aspen is found in dry or moist soil from
northern Canada and Alaska south to the mountains of Pennsylvania, to
southern Illinois, northwestern Missouri, and in the Rocky Mountains to
Lower California.

[Illustration: FIG. 3.—Aspen (_Populus tremuloides_), trunk.]

[Illustration: FIG. 4.—Aspen (_Populus tremuloides_), leaves and
capsules.]

_Description of tree._—The greatest height attained by the aspen is
100 feet, with a trunk measuring about 3 feet in diameter. It is a
native of this country and belongs to the willow family (Salicaceæ).
The branches and trunks of the younger trees are covered with a smooth,
light grayish green bark, but on older trees the bark becomes dark and
deeply fissured (fig. 3). The young unfolding leaves are whitish and
woolly, but become smooth as they expand. The leaves are broadly oval
or rounded, with a somewhat heart-shaped base, a short-pointed apex,
and finely round-toothed or frequently saw-toothed margin (fig. 4).
They are about 1-1/2 to 2 inches in length, and are borne on long,
slender stalks which are flattened on the sides, causing the leaves
to be set in motion by the slightest breeze and to quiver and tremble
almost continually, which has given rise to some of the tree’s common
names, such as quaking asp, trembling poplar, and quiverleaf. Early
in spring, before the leaves are out, the drooping catkins appear,
the staminate (male) from 1-1/2 to 2-1/2 inches long, the pistillate
(female) crowded and longer. The capsules which follow are conical in
shape, pointed, and two-valved (fig. 4).

_Description of bark._—This bark generally occurs in straight pieces
from about 2 to 5 inches long and about one-fourth to one-half inch
wide. The outside is grayish and smoothish except here and there where
marked with lenticels. The inner surface is somewhat rough to the
touch, light colored to brownish. The fracture is even, somewhat corky,
and the odor faintly aromatic.

_Collection, prices, and uses._—The bark of the aspen, or white or
American poplar, as it is often known in the drug trade, is collected
in spring, and collectors are paid from about 1 to 4 cents a pound.

It is used for its tonic properties, and has also been employed in the
treatment of intermittent fever.

As in the case of the willows, to which family (Salicaceæ) the poplars
belong, the glucoside salicin is also obtained from the barks of the
various species of Populus.


WHITE WILLOW.

_Salix alba_ L.

_Other common names._—Salix, common European willow, duck-willow,
Huntington willow.

_Habitat and range._—The white willow has been introduced into this
country from Europe, and has sparingly escaped from cultivation. It
occurs in wet soil along streams from Pennsylvania northward to New
Brunswick and Ontario.

_Description of tree._—This is a tree of very rapid growth, and attains
quite a size, sometimes 90 feet in height, with a trunk perhaps 6 feet
in diameter. There is a group of willows known as “crack willows,” on
account of the brittleness of the twigs where they are attached to
the branches, and the white willow belongs to this group, as does the
“crack willow,” or “brittle willow,” (_S. fragilis_), mentioned farther
on. All of the species described are members of the willow family
(Salicaceæ).

The gray and rough-barked white willow has lance-shaped leaves, pointed
at the apex and narrowed at the base, and with saw-toothed margins.
When young, both sides of the leaves are covered with silky hairs, but
as they mature they become less hairy and are pale green on the lower
surface, or covered with a “bloom.”

The long, loose, green, cylindrical aments, or catkins, are staminate
and pistillate and are borne on different trees, appearing with the
leaves in spring.

A variety of this species, with yellowish green twigs and with leaves
smooth on the upper surface, is known as golden osier (_S. alba_ var.
_vitellina_ (L.) Koch), and is the most common form found in North
America.

_Description of bark._—The white willow bark of commerce is generally
in tough, flexible strips, the outer surface smooth or slightly
wrinkled, and of a yellowish brown or grayish brown color. The inner
surface varies from a light brown to darker brown, and is marked with
long, fine lines. White willow bark has a bitter, astringent taste, but
practically no odor.

_Collection, prices, and uses._—The best time to collect white willow
bark is in the spring when the sap begins to flow, at which time it is
easy to remove.

White willow bark should not be kept very long, as the salicin content
diminishes with age. This bark itself is not official in the United
States Pharmacopœia, but the glucoside salicin obtained from it is so
recognized. The medicinal properties of willow bark depend upon its two
most important constituents, salicin and tannin.

Salicin has tonic, antiperiodic, and febrifuge properties, and is
occasionally employed in rheumatic affections.

The wood of white willow furnishes a very pure charcoal which is used
in the manufacture of gunpowder. The young branches, known as osiers,
are much used in the manufacture of baskets, etc.

The prices paid to collectors range from 2 to 5 cents a pound.

_Other species._—Roughly speaking, the willows, or Salix species, may
be said to be divided into two classes, those with yellowish twigs and
those with reddish or purplish twigs. Most of the yellow-barked species
belong to the “crack willows,” which have their twigs attached in such
a manner that they break off very easily. It is claimed that the red or
purple barked twigs contain the most salicin, while those with yellow
twigs are richest in tannin.[1]

Of those containing the most salicin may be mentioned the crack willow,
or brittle willow (_Salix fragilis_ L.). This, a native of Europe, has
escaped from cultivation in this country, and occurs from Massachusetts
to New Jersey and Pennsylvania. It is a tall and slender tree, the
trunk covered with a rough gray bark, and the twigs with reddish green
bark. At the point of attachment the twigs are very fragile and break
off readily. The twigs when planted grow very rapidly. The leaves
are 3 to 6 inches in length, long pointed and narrowing toward the
base, smooth, dark green on the upper surface, and of a lighter color
underneath, and with margins slightly toothed. The flowers appear in
April or May; the fruiting catkin is rather loose and about 3 to 5
inches in length, while the staminate or male catkin is only about 1 or
2 inches long.

Another species employed in medicine is the black willow, pussy-willow,
or swamp-willow (_Salix nigra_ Marsh). This is a native willow and
occurs along the banks of rivers from Canada to Florida; it is not
found west of the Great Plains, except in southern New Mexico and
Arizona and isolated in California. It is tall and has a rough dark
brown or black bark, and brittle yellowish branches. The leaves are
narrowly lance shaped, and the catkins (pussy-willows) appear about the
same time as the leaves, the male catkins about 1 to 2 inches long,
and the female catkins as long as 3 inches, spreading apart in fruit.
The bark of this species is used in medicine and the fresh aments, or
catkins, are also employed.

[Footnote 1: The National Standard Dispensatory, 1905.]


BAYBERRY.

_Myrica cerifera_ L.

_Other common names._—Wax-myrtle, candleberry, candleberry-myrtle,
wax-berry, tallow-bayberry, tallow-shrub, bayberry wax-tree, American
vegetable tallow-tree, vegetable-tallow, American vegetable-wax.

_Habitat and range._—The bayberry, which is indigenous, is found in
sandy swamps or wet woods from Texas and Florida northward to Arkansas
and along the coast of Maryland. In its southern home it is a small
evergreen tree, but as it goes farther north it becomes, successively,
a tall semideciduous shrub or a dwarfed and deciduous shrub.

[Illustration: FIG. 5.—Bayberry (_Myrica cerifera_), leaves and fruit.]

_Description of tree._—The greatest height attained by the bayberry is
about 40 feet, but it is usually only 3 to 12 feet high. It is slender,
with a gray, smoothish bark. The leaves, when crushed, have a fragrant
odor, and are 1 to 4 inches long, narrow, dark green and shining above,
lighter colored and dotted with resin cells beneath, and generally with
margins entire (fig. 5).

The flowers appear from about March to May, according to locality,
and generally before the leaves are fully expanded. They are borne
in aments, or spikelike clusters, the male and female flowers being
produced on separate trees. The yellowish aments bearing the staminate
or male flowers are cylindrical, while the pistillate or female aments
are oblong, shorter than the staminate, and greenish. The fruit, which
remains on the tree for several years, consists of clusters of round,
bluish white berries having a granulated appearance and covered with a
greenish white wax (fig. 5). Each berry contains one seed. The bayberry
belongs to the bayberry family (Myricaceæ).

_Description of bark._—As found in commerce, bayberry bark occurs in
curved or quilled pieces, sometimes only about an inch in length and
sometimes 6 inches or more. The outside is covered with a thin corky
layer, which is whitish and somewhat fissured. Underneath this layer
the dark reddish brown, smooth bark may be seen. The inner surface
of the bark is also reddish brown, but marked with faint lines. The
fracture is light red and granular. The bark, when powdered, has a
pungent, aromatic odor, causing sneezing and coughing, and the taste is
bitter, pungent, and acrid.

_Collection, prices, and uses._—Late autumn is the best time to collect
this root, and after it has been thoroughly cleaned and while still
fresh the bark is loosened and removed by beating the root with a
mallet or similar instrument.

Bayberry bark brings from 2 to 5 cents a pound. It is used for its
tonic and astringent properties.

The wax obtained from the berries is used for making candles.


BUTTERNUT.

_Juglans cinerea_ L.

[Illustration: FIG. 6.—Butternut (_Juglans cinerea_), trunk.]

_Other common names._—Juglans, white walnut, lemon-walnut, oilnut.

_Habitat and range._—The butternut tree, which is indigenous to this
country, is of common occurrence in rich woods from New Brunswick to
North Dakota and south to Georgia, Mississippi, and Arkansas.

_Description of tree._—This much-branched tree, belonging to the walnut
family (Juglandaceæ), is generally from 30 to 50 feet in height,
rarely exceeding 100 feet, and when old has a thick, rough, brownish
gray, furrowed bark (fig. 6), and the twigs, leaf stems, and leaflets,
especially in the early stages of growth, are furnished with sticky
hairs.

The yellowish green leaves are composed of from 11 to 19 leaflets, all
stemless except the terminal one; the leaflets are 2 to 3 inches long,
oblong lance shaped and long pointed at the apex, rounded or blunt
at the base, and toothed. The flowers are produced in May, or about
the same time as the leaves, the yellowish green male catkins 3 to 5
inches in length, and the female flowers in clusters of 6 to 8 flowers
each. In October the sweet and oily oblong nut matures, enveloped in a
strong-smelling, sticky husk. The edible nut itself has a thick, hard
shell, which is marked with deep furrows or lines.

_Description of bark._—Butternut bark, from the root collected in
autumn, was official in the United States Pharmacopœia for 1890. It
occurs in quilled pieces varying in length, and about an eighth of
an inch or a trifle more in thickness, deep brown and smoothish or
somewhat scaly on the outside, the inner surface likewise brown and
with parts of the thin, stringy inner layer of the bark attached. It
breaks with a short, fibrous fracture, finely checkered with white and
brown. The odor is faint, and the taste bitter and acrid.

_Collection, prices, and uses._—Butternut bark, which will bring the
collector from 1 to 4 cents a pound, is taken from the root collected
in autumn. Its use in medicine is that of a mild cathartic and tonic.


IRONWOOD.

_Ostrya virginiana_ (Mill.) K. Koch.

_Synonym._—_Carpinus virginiana_ Mill.

_Other common names._—Hop-hornbeam, deerwood, leverwood, black hazel,
Indian cedar.

_Habitat and range._—The ironwood is indigenous to this country, and
is common in rich woods in Canada and the eastern United States, and
westward to Minnesota and Texas. It is occasionally cultivated.

[Illustration: FIG. 7.—Ironwood (_Ostrya virginiana_), leaves and
fruit.]

_Description of tree._—This usually slender tree attains its greatest
height, sometimes 50 feet, in the western part of its range, while
farther eastward it grows only about 15 to 20 feet high. The brownish
trunk is finely furrowed in short, lengthwise lines. The wood is very
hard and heavy, and is employed in making farm implements.

The leaves somewhat resemble those of the sweet birch, to which family
(Betulaceæ) this tree belongs, but they are rough to the touch,
instead of smooth and shining like the birch leaf. They are from 2-1/2
to 4 inches in length and about an inch or more in width, oval or
oblong-oval in shape, long pointed at the apex, and rounded at the
base, and with margins very sharply double toothed. The upper surface
of the leaves is usually smooth, except sometimes slightly hairy on the
veins, while the lower surface is hairy or even woolly. (Fig. 7.) The
green, inconspicuous flowers are borne in catkins, male and female,
and are produced from April to May. The male catkins are cylindrical,
and about 1-1/2 to 3 inches long, while the female catkins are short,
maturing in July or August into large fruiting cones from 1-1/2 to
about 2-1/2 inches in length, and very much resembling hops (fig. 7).

_Description of wood and bark._—The inner wood and the bark, which are
bitter, are the parts employed in medicine. The wood is white, very
hard and strong, and occurs in pieces a few inches in length and of
varying thickness. The bark as found in the stores is in flat pieces
about 2 inches in length; the outside grayish green with thin, short
scales; the inside brown, marked with long fine lines or ridges, and
generally with considerable of the woody portion adhering. There is
practically no odor.

_Prices and uses._—At present the price paid to collectors runs from
about 5 to 6 cents a pound.

Ironwood is used for its tonic, alterative, and antiperiodic properties.


SWEET BIRCH.

_Betula lenta_ L.

_Other common names._—Black birch, cherry-birch, spice-birch,
river-birch, mahogany-birch, mountain-mahogany.

_Habitat and range._—This indigenous tree occurs in rich woodlands from
Newfoundland to Ontario, south to Florida and Tennessee.

[Illustration: FIG. 8.—Sweet birch (_Betula lenta_), trunk.]

_Description of tree._—Sweet birch, which somewhat resembles the
cherry tree, attains a height of from 50 to 80 feet, and has brownish
red, sweet, and aromatic bark. The bark of the trunk of older trees
is rather thick, as much as one-half inch, and has rough, platelike
fissures (fig. 8). The younger branches are covered with a beautiful,
shining, reddish brown bark, with a layer of yellowish green beneath
the surface, and furnished with numerous small, whitish spots, known
technically as “lenticels,” and which may be designated as “breathing
pores.” In most of the birches the bark comes off in layers, but this
is not the case with the sweet birch. The youngest twigs of the sweet
birch are densely hairy. The wood is much used in cabinet work, being
fine and close grained, and taking on a very high polish. It has a rosy
color when first cut, which becomes darker by exposure.

[Illustration: FIG. 9.—Sweet birch (_Betula lenta_), leaves, catkins,
and fruit.]

The young leaves are covered with shining, silvery, silky hairs, but as
they grow older these disappear almost entirely. In shape the leaves
are oval or oblong-oval, acute or acuminate at the apex, somewhat heart
shaped at the base, and sharply toothed; they are about 3 to 4 inches
long and 1 to 2 inches wide, smooth, bright green and shining on the
upper surface, and dull green on the lower surface with hairy veins.
(Fig. 9.) Like the bark, the leaves are also aromatic.

The flowers are of two kinds, staminate or male and pistillate or
female, and are borne in separate catkins or slender spikes. The male
catkins are in drooping clusters 2 to 3 inches long, while the female
catkins are shorter, only about 1 inch or less in length, thicker,
stemless, and nearly erect. (Fig. 9.) They expand with the leaves or
before, about April or May. The cylindrical, conelike fruit is about an
inch in length. The sweet birch belongs to the birch family (Betulaceæ).

_Description of bark._—The birch bark of commerce consists of pieces of
irregular size, generally reddish brown and smooth on the outside, the
thin outer layer having been removed, but with pieces of it sometimes
adhering. The inner surface is also reddish brown and smooth. Birch
bark breaks with a clean, even, somewhat granular fracture.

_Collection, prices, and uses._—The bark is collected in late summer.
It furnishes the oil of sweet birch or oil of Betula, official in
the United States Pharmacopœia, and obtained by maceration and
distillation. It is almost identical with wintergreen oil, and
is employed for similar purposes. Both bark and oil are used for
flavoring. Birch bark will bring from about 1 to 3 cents a pound.

The bitter, aromatic leaves are also used in domestic practice, and
birch beer is made from the sweet sap.


TAG-ALDER.

_Alnus rugosa_ (Du Roi) K. Koch.

[Illustration: FIG. 10.—Tag-alder (_Alnus rugosa_), leaves, catkins,
and fruit.]

_Synonym._—_Alnus serrulata_ Willd.

_Other common names._—Common alder, red alder, smooth alder, green
alder, American alder, speckled alder, swamp-alder, notch-leaved alder.

_Habitat and range._—Tag-alder is found in swamps and along the marshy
banks of streams from New England south to Florida and Texas, and
westward to Ohio and Minnesota. It is a native of this country.

_Description of tree._—Sometimes the tag-alder, which belongs to the
birch family (Betulaceæ), attains the height of a tree, but more often
it is only a shrub, growing from 5 to 20 feet high, with a smooth
brownish gray bark. The leaves are 2 to 4-1/2 inches long, oval,
somewhat leathery, green above and below, the apex round or blunt, and
the base narrowed or rounded, the margins minutely but sharply toothed.
The flowers are produced before the leaves are out, early in spring,
about March or April. They are reddish green, the female flowers borne
in an erect catkin, while the male flowers are borne in a drooping
catkin. The small, oval, conelike fruit usually remains on the shrub
throughout the winter. (Fig. 10.)

_Description of bark._—As it occurs in commerce, tag-alder bark is in
straight, curved, or occasionally quilled pieces of varying length and
width, but generally broken up into rather small pieces, the outer
surface brownish gray or greenish gray and smoothish, the inside
cinnamon colored and closely and coarsely ridged. It breaks with a
sharp, even fracture. The odor is strong and rather aromatic, and the
taste astringent and bitter.

_Prices and uses._—The amount paid to collectors ranges from 1 to 4
cents a pound.

Tag-alder bark is used in medicine for its astringent, alterative, and
emetic properties.


WHITE OAK.

_Quercus alba_ L.

_Pharmacopœial name._—Quercus.

_Other common names._—Stone-oak, stave-oak.

[Illustration: FIG. 11.—White oak (_Quercus alba_), trunk.]

_Habitat and range._—The white oak is found in woods from Maine to
Minnesota, south to Florida and Texas, but is most abundant in the
Middle States. It is indigenous to this country.

[Illustration: FIG. 12.—White oak (_Quercus alba_), leaves and acorns.]

_Description of tree._—In dense woods this stately tree sometimes
reaches a height of 150 feet. Usually it is about 60 to 80 feet high,
the trunk about 3 to 4 feet in diameter, and with many wide-spreading
branches. The bark is grayish and comes off in thin scales (fig. 11).
When young, the leaves are red and hairy, becoming smooth and thin
when older, with a light green upper surface and paler lower surface
furnished with prominent veins. In autumn they turn a beautiful red.
The leaves are 4 to 7 inches long, and about half as wide, borne on
stems about half an inch in length; they are divided into from 3 to 9
oblong, blunt lobes, with entire or toothed margins (fig. 12). About
the time that the leaves appear, the very small greenish or yellowish
flowers are produced. The male flowers are borne in slender, usually
drooping aments, or spikelike clusters, and the female flowers singly.
The fruits (acorns) mature the first autumn, and are about 1 inch in
length, about one-fourth covered by the scaly cup (fig. 12). The white
oak is a member of the beech family (Fagaceæ).

_Description of bark._—The dried bark of the white oak is official in
the United States Pharmacopœia. As found in the stores it is in nearly
flat pieces about one-eighth of an inch or more in thickness, rough and
fibrous on the outside, with the outer layer removed, brownish, and the
inside with short, coarse grooves, the whole breaking with a coarse,
tough, and splintery fracture. The odor is rather strong, reminding one
somewhat of tanbark, and the taste very astringent. The Pharmacopœia
adds that it does not tinge the saliva yellow when chewed.

_Collection, prices, and uses._—The best time for collecting white
oak bark is in the spring, as at that time it is said to contain the
greatest amount of tannic acid. The outer layer is first scraped off.
As directed by the United States Pharmacopœia, the bark should be
“collected from trunks or branches 10 to 25 years of age, and deprived
of the periderm.”

The price paid for white oak bark ranges from 1 to 3 cents a pound.

The bark is a powerful astringent and is also antiseptic.


SLIPPERY ELM.

_Ulmus pubescens_ Walt.

_Pharmacopœial name._—Ulmus.

_Synonym._—_Ulmus fulva_ Michx.[2]

_Other common names._—Moose-elm, red elm, Indian elm, rock-elm, sweet
elm.

_Habitat and range._—This tree is native in woods, along streams, and
on hills from Quebec to North Dakota, south to Florida and Texas. It is
more common in the western part of its range.

[Illustration: FIG. 13.—Slippery elm (_Ulmus pubescens_), trunk.]

_Description of tree._—The slippery elm is usually about 40 to 50 feet
in height, although it will sometimes grow as tall as 70 feet, with a
trunk about 2-1/2 feet in thickness. In dense woods it grows tall and
straight, branching some distance from the ground, but in open woods
and fields, where it often occurs singly, it is more spreading and
irregular in growth. It has a dark, reddish wood, hard and durable,
and is covered with a rough, reddish brown bark (fig 13). Even the
small branches are rough and the twigs are furnished with rough hairs.
The leaf buds, a few weeks before expanding, are soft and downy with
rust-colored hairs. Short downy stalks support the rather large leaves,
the upper surface of which is very rough and the lower hairy. The
leaves are about 4 to 8 inches long and about 2 to 2-1/2 inches wide,
pointed at the apex, usually lance-shaped oval in outline, sharply
toothed, and with an obtuse, unevenly shaped and generally heart-shaped
base. The flowers appear very early in the spring (in March or April),
before the leaves. They occur in dense, lateral clusters and consist
of a bell-shaped, downy calyx, usually 7 lobed, no corolla, and 5 or 7
reddish stamens. The winged fruit which follows, known botanically as a
“samara,” is flattened and circular; the seed is borne in the center,
surrounded by the winged, membranous margin, which aids its dispersion
by the wind (fig. 14). Slippery elm belongs to the elm family (Ulmaceæ).

[Illustration: FIG. 14.—Slippery elm (_Ulmus pubescens_), leaves,
flowers, and fruits.]

_Description of bark._—The commercial article consists of pale brown
or whitish brown flat pieces tied in bundles, and it also occurs on
the market in smaller pieces of uneven size, suitable for grinding
purposes, but which bring a lower price. The flat pieces are of varying
length and width, about an eighth of an inch in thickness, the outer
bark having been removed in accordance with the requirements of the
Pharmacopœia, but sometimes patches of it are still found adhering.
They are tough, and break with a fibrous fracture. The inner surface is
yellowish brown and marked with fine furrows. Slippery elm has a faint,
peculiar odor, and a mucilaginous but insipid taste.

_Collection, prices, and uses._—The outer bark is rossed or shaved off
before removing the inner bark from the tree, which alone is recognized
as official in the United States Pharmacopœia. It is taken from the
tree in long strips, and generally dried under pressure so that it will
remain flat.

The price paid for slippery elm bark is from 3 to 10 cents a pound,
depending upon quality, the small, irregular pieces having less value
than the large, flat pieces.

The mucilaginous character of slippery elm bark renders it useful
in relieving coughs, and it is also employed in treating diarrheal
complaints. It is soothing and allays inflammation, and is also
somewhat nutritious. In certain sections of the country poultices are
made from the bark and applied to abscesses.

[Footnote 2: The pharmacopœial usage.]


MAGNOLIA.

(1) _Magnolia acuminata_ L.; (2) _Magnolia tripetala_ L.; (3) _Magnolia
glauca_ L.

[Illustration: FIG. 15.—Cucumber-tree (_Magnolia acuminata_), leaves.]

_Synonyms._—(1) _Magnolia umbrella_ Lam.; (2) _Magnolia virginiana_ L.

_Other common names._—(1) Cucumber-tree, mountain-magnolia, blue
magnolia; (2) cucumber-tree, umbrella-tree, elkwood; (3) sweet bay,
white bay, sweet magnolia, beaver-tree, swamp-sassafras, swamp-laurel.

_Habitat and range._—(1) _Magnolia acuminata_ occurs in the mountainous
regions from New York to Georgia, but is most abundant in the Southern
States; (2) _Magnolia tripetala_ grows in rather moist, rich soil; it
is nowhere very common, but is widely distributed in the Appalachian
Mountain region; (3) _Magnolia glauca_ is found in swamps and swampy
woods from Massachusetts to the Gulf of Mexico.

_Descriptions of trees._—_Magnolia acuminata_, which is native in this
country, reaches a height of from 60 to 80 feet, the trunk straight,
from 4 to 5 feet in diameter, and with a rough, dark gray bark. The
leaves are 6 to 10 inches long and about 3 inches wide, oval and thin,
pointed at the apex, and generally rounded at the base; they are pale
green underneath and somewhat hairy, especially along the veins (fig.
15). The numerous, slightly fragrant flowers, which appear from May
to June, are rather large, measuring 5 to 6 inches across, oblong
bell shaped, greenish yellow with a bluish tinge, and having 6 to 9
obovate petals. The cylindrical, fleshy fruit cone, about 3 inches in
length, turns rose colored as it matures. In form it resembles a small
cucumber, whence the name “cucumber-tree” is derived. When ripe, the
several capsules composing these cones burst open, disclosing bright
scarlet, shining seeds about the size of a pea, which after a while
are suspended from the cone by means of a slender, elastic thread for
some time before falling to the ground. All of the species of Magnolia
here mentioned, and which belong to the magnolia family (Magnoliaceæ),
bear these scarlet seeds, and the method of separating from the cone is
the same. The soft heartwood is yellowish brown, while the sapwood is
lighter.

[Illustration: FIG. 16.—Umbrella-tree (_Magnolia tripetala_), leaves.]

_Magnolia tripetala_ is a smaller tree, not exceeding 40 feet in
height, also native; the smooth, gray, slender trunk measures from 4
to 18 inches in diameter. Its leaves are clustered at the ends of the
flowering branches, and are from 12 to 18 inches long and about 4 to
8 inches wide, obovate, pointed at both ends, the upper surface dark
green and smooth, the lower light green and more or less pubescent
(fig. 16). The flowers are white, faintly odorous, produced in May,
and are 7 to 8 inches in diameter, with 5 to 12 narrow, lance-shaped
petals. The mature fruit cone is rose colored, conical, 4 to 6 inches
long, and contains numerous scarlet seeds.

[Illustration: FIG. 17.—Sweet bay (_Magnolia glauca_), leaves and
fruiting cones.]

_Magnolia glauca_ averages about 25 feet in height, with a smooth
whitish gray trunk from a few inches to about a foot in diameter. The
leaves, which are scattered along the flowering branches, are thick and
leathery, smooth, dark green above, and on the lower surface pale green
and glaucous or somewhat hairy (fig. 17). The solitary flowers are
large, terminal, of a creamy white color, somewhat globular in shape,
with obovate, rounded petals, and a very fragrant odor; they measure
about 2 to 3 inches in diameter. The fruit cone is 1-1/2 to 2 inches in
height, oblong, and pink, with numerous scarlet seeds (fig. 17.)

_Description of bark._—Magnolia bark, as found in commerce, sometimes
varies considerably, on account of the different species from which it
is collected. They all possess similar properties, however, and the
barks of the three species herein described were official from 1820 to
1890.

The last edition of the National Standard Dispensatory (1905) contains
the following paragraph regarding the description of the bark:

“The commercial bark varies most widely, according to the species,
the age, and the presence or absence of the corky layer, so that a
general description is extremely difficult. The outer surface of old
bark of all species is more or less ashy gray, due to the growth of
lichens. When young, it is smooth or even glossy and of a brown color,
varying more or less to orange or purplish red. With age it gradually
becomes warty, the warts at length confluent into ridges and the ridges
at length fissured. The inner surface is at first whitish, becoming
gradually yellowish or pale brown, smooth, and very finely and closely
striate, the striæ long and straight. When the bark has been deprived
of the corky layer, the outer surface is almost exactly like the inner.
In young bark, however, a green layer appears upon the removal of the
cork. The fracture of the outer layer is smooth, short, and granular,
of the inner more or less tough-fibrous. The transverse section is
brownish and exhibits rather broad bast-wedges and medullary rays. The
odor is slight, the taste warm, spicy, and somewhat astringent and,
especially of the young bark, bitter.”

_Collection, prices, and uses._—The bark of the trunk or root is
removed in spring and summer.

At present there does not seem to be much demand for magnolia bark. The
price paid for the collection of the bark is about 3 cents a pound.

The bark is used for its tonic properties, for exciting perspiration,
and in the treatment of fevers.


TULIP-POPLAR.

_Liriodendron tulipifera_ L.

_Other common names._—Liriodendron, tulip-tree, whitewood, canoewood,
yellow poplar, blue poplar, hickory-poplar, lyre-tree, saddle-leaf,
saddle-tree, cucumber-tree.

[Illustration: FIG. 18.—Tulip-poplar (_Liriodendron tulipifera_),
trunk.]

_Habitat and range._—The tulip-poplar, which occurs in rich woods,
attains its greatest size in the Middle and Southern States; its range
extends from New England to Florida, westward to Michigan and Arkansas.
It is also cultivated.

_Description of tree._—This most handsome native forest tree, a member
of the magnolia family (Magnoliaceæ), is readily distinguished by
its somewhat peculiarly shaped leaves, and in spring by its greenish
yellow tulip-shaped flowers. It attains great height, from 60 to 190
feet, and is very symmetrical in shape, with a straight, cylindrical
trunk covered with grayish brown bark which in young trees is smooth,
but becoming rough and fissured as the tree grows older (fig. 18). The
leaves are smooth, generally rounded at the base, the top notched, or
appearing as though cut straight across. They are roundish in outline
or broadly oval, from 3 to 6 inches long, and have two to four lobes at
the base and two at the top, the margins between the lobes rounded out,
the base rounded or abruptly obtuse. (Fig. 19.)

[Illustration: FIG. 19.—Tulip-poplar (_Liriodendron tulipifera_),
leaves, flowers, and fruit.]

The erect flowers appear in spring, and although they are quite
large—about 2 inches long—they are not very conspicuous for the reason
that their colors so blend with the yellow-green foliage of early
spring that they pass almost unnoticed. On examining these flowers more
closely they will be found to resemble tulips in form, with a very
modest coloring, however, of green with a slight orange tinge toward
the base of the petals, and the inside of the flower orange colored.
The flowers have six petals and three reflexed petal-like sepals, and
numerous stamens. The fruit ripens in the form of a dry, pointed cone,
about 3 inches in length. (Fig. 19.)

_Description of bark._—The bark of both trunk and root, deprived of
the outer layer, is used medicinally, and the tulip-poplar, or, as
it is most frequently called in the drug trade, yellow poplar, or
Liriodendron, was official in the United States Pharmacopœia from 1820
to 1880. It consists of slab-like pieces 3 or 4 inches long, very
light, the outside as well as the inside of the inner bark yellowish
white. When broken the fracture is ragged, splintery, and uneven. There
is a pronounced heavy, unpleasant odor, and the taste is aromatic,
pungent, bitter, and somewhat astringent. The root bark is somewhat
darker than that of the tree and is considered much more powerful.

_Collection, prices, and uses._—In spring the bark is easily separated
from the wood; the outer layer is shaved off, and the inner bark is
then peeled in large slabs about 6 inches in width and from 3 to 6 feet
in length. The root bark is collected in winter.

Collectors receive from about 1-1/4 to 3 cents a pound.

The bark of the tulip-poplar is regarded as a bitter, stimulant tonic,
and is considered useful in fevers, rheumatism, and digestive disorders.


SASSAFRAS.

_Sassafras sassafras_ (L.) Karst.

_Pharmacopœial name._—Sassafras.

_Synonyms._—_Sassafras officinale_ Nees & Eberm.; _Sassafras
variifolium_ (Salisb.) O. Kuntze.[3]

_Other common names._—Ague-tree, saxifrax, cinnamonwood, saloop,
smelling-stick.

_Habitat and range._—Sassafras is a native tree, occurring in rich
woods from Massachusetts to Ontario and Michigan, south to Florida and
Texas.

[Illustration: FIG. 20.—Sassafras (_Sassafras sassafras_), leaves and
fruits.]

_Description of tree._—Sometimes the sassafras reaches almost 100 feet
in height, its greatest height being attained in the South, but in
the North it occurs principally as a shrub. The bark of old trees is
rough and fissured, and of a grayish color, but the young twigs are
smooth and green. The leaves are very variable in outline—some oval,
some with three lobes, and some with but one lobe on the side, shaped
like a mitten (fig. 20). The flowers are yellowish green and fragrant,
and are borne in inconspicuous clusters, the staminate and pistillate
on different trees; they appear in early spring, about the time that
the leaves unfold. The fruit, which ripens about September, is oblong
roundish, about the size of a pea, dark blue, one seeded, and borne
on a thick, club-shaped red stalk (fig. 20). All parts of the tree
are aromatic. It belongs to the laurel family (Lauraceæ). The wood is
light, but strong and durable, whitish or with a reddish tinge, and
also aromatic, except in the older trees.

_Description of bark._—The dried bark of the root of sassafras is
official in the United States Pharmacopœia. As it occurs in the shops,
it is in irregular curved pieces of varying length; smooth, the outer
grayish layer having been removed; rusty red, soft, and breaking with a
short, cork-like fracture. The inside of the bark is marked with short,
indefinite lines. The odor is very aromatic, and the taste is sweetish,
bitingly aromatic, and astringent.

_Collection, prices, and uses._—Sassafras bark is collected in early
spring or autumn from the root, and the outer layer removed.

Sassafras bark is used for its tonic properties. It forms a popular
domestic “spring medicine,” and in early spring the market women
display on their stands bundles of sassafras bark, to be made into a
tea, by many people regarded as a useful remedy.

Sassafras oil, also official in the United States Pharmacopœia, is
distilled especially from the root bark, but often also from the whole
root. Maryland, Virginia, and Pennsylvania are the most important
centers of production. It is used as an anodyne, also as a stimulant in
neuralgia, and for the purpose of flavoring confectionery and soaps.

The dried pith (or medulla) from the branches is likewise official.
It yields a mucilaginous liquid with water, and forms a soothing
application for inflamed conditions.

The price paid to collectors may range from 2 to 10 cents a pound,
according to quality.

[Footnote 3: The pharmacopœial usage.]


SPICEBUSH.

_Benzoin benzoin_ (L.) Coulter.

_Synonyms._—_Laurus benzoin_ L.; _Lindera benzoin_ Meissn.; _Benzoin
odoriferum_ Nees.

_Other common names._—Feverbush, Benjamin-bush, wild allspice,
spicewood, snapwood.

[Illustration: FIG. 21.—Spicebush (_Benzoin benzoin_), leaves, flowers,
and fruits.]

_Habitat and range._—This indigenous shrub frequents damp, shady woods
and is seen along streams from Ontario south to North Carolina and
Kansas.

_Description of shrub._—The stemless clusters of yellow flowers of the
spicebush appear very early in spring, about March or April, before the
leaves. This shrub, a member of the laurel family (Lauraceæ), ranges
from 4 to 20 feet in height, and has a smooth bark and slender green
twigs. The leaves are oval, sharp pointed, 2 to 5 inches long, about
half as wide and narrowing toward the base, lighter colored on the
lower surface, and with margins entire. Some of the leaves are rounded
at the top. The flowers are small, bright yellow, with a fragrant
odor, and about four to six in a cluster, the staminate and pistillate
flowers produced separately. The clusters of fruit ripen in autumn, and
each bright red, obovate fruit contains one large white seed. (Fig. 21.)

_Description of bark._—The thin quilled pieces of bark, as found in
commerce, are dark brown on the outside, with small corky warts, and
lighter brown and smooth on the inner surface. In older bark the corky
excrescences will be found more prominent, and the color is also
more ashen. The bark of the spicebush breaks with a short, granular
fracture, has a faint, pleasant odor, and a warm, spicy, and astringent
taste.

_Collection, prices, and uses._—In the spring the bark can be readily
removed in quills, and this is generally the time when it is gathered.

At present the price paid to collectors is about 3 cents a pound.

The bark is used as a remedy against worms and is also employed in the
treatment of fevers.

The fruits are likewise employed in medicine.


WITCH-HAZEL.

_Hamamelis virginiana_ L.

_Pharmacopœial name._—Hamamelis.

_Other common names._—Snapping hazel, winterbloom, wych-hazel, striped
alder, spotted alder, tobacco-wood.

_Habitat and range._—Witch-hazel is found in low damp woods from New
Brunswick to Minnesota, south to Florida and Texas.

[Illustration: FIG. 22.—Witch-hazel (_Hamamelis virginiana_), leaves,
flowers, and capsules.]

_Description of shrub._—This indigenous shrub is one of our most
peculiar plants, inasmuch as it begins to flower when all other trees
and plants not only are through flowering, but generally have lost
their foliage, namely, in November or even December. The seed is
formed, but does not ripen until the following season. The peculiar,
yellow, threadlike flowers among the usually bare branches at a season
when most other vegetation is dead and the snow sometimes flies is a
novel sight.

Witch-hazel sometimes grows to about 25 feet in height, usually only
8 to 15 feet, with a crooked stem covered with smoothish brown bark,
often with a growth of lichens, and having many long, forking branches.
The leaves are 3 to 5 inches long, broadly oval or heart-shaped oval,
with uneven sides, wavy margins and downy hairs when young, but
becoming smooth as they grow older (fig 22).

The flowers, as already stated, appear very late in autumn; they are
bright yellow, and consist of a 4-parted corolla, with four long,
narrow, strap-shaped petals, which are variously twisted when in full
flower. The beaked, densely hairy seed capsule matures the following
season, bursting open elastically, and scattering the large, black and
shining, bonelike seeds for a distance of several feet. Thus, while the
tree is in flower, there may be seen at the same time the mature seed
capsules of the previous season. (Fig. 22.) This shrub belongs to the
witch-hazel family (Hamamelidaceæ).

_Description of bark._—Under witch-hazel or hamamelis bark, official
in the United States Pharmacopœia, is understood the bark and twigs of
the witch-hazel. The bark is found in commerce in the form of quills,
varying in length and width, and is sometimes a purplish brown on the
outside, sometimes a whitish or grayish brown color; occasionally it is
smooth with a few warty protuberances or numerous lenticels, and again
it is furrowed and scaly, or even ragged. The inside is pale brown or
yellowish, usually with long, straight lines. Sometimes fragments of
the whitish wood are found adhering to the inner surface, and such bark
should be discarded. Witch-hazel bark breaks with a weak fracture.
There is a scarcely perceptible odor, and the taste is astringent and
somewhat bitter.

The tough, flexible twigs do not exceed one-quarter of an inch
in diameter, are branching, yellowish brown to a very dark or
purplish brown, faintly wrinkled lengthwise, and with small, round,
light-colored lenticels. There is a small central pith, and the bark
which surrounds the greenish white wood occupies about one-fifth of the
radius. If the twigs are more than a quarter of an inch in thickness,
there will be too large a percentage of wood, which is inert.

_Collection, prices, and uses._—The bark and twigs are the parts
designated as official in the United States Pharmacopœia. In the
United States Pharmacopœia, 1890, the leaves only were official. The
witch-hazel industry is carried on to a considerable extent in portions
of the New England States, the farmers bringing in to the distilleries
cartloads of the brush. Witch-hazel bark brings about 1 to 4 cents a
pound.

Witch-hazel is generally used for relieving inflammation of various
kinds, and its soothing properties were known to the American Indians.
The name “witch-hazel” is derived from the fact that formerly the
forked branches were used as “divining rods,” it having been the belief
that these branches were endowed with a miraculous power of locating
treasures, sources of water for wells, etc.

The leaves are still official in the United States Pharmacopœia.


BLACKBERRY.

(1) _Rubus villosus_ Ait.; (2) _Rubus nigrobaccus_ Bailey; (3) _Rubus
cuneifolius_ Pursh.

_Pharmacopœial name._—Rubus.

_Synonym._—(2) _Rubus villosus_ A. Gray, _not_ Ait.

_Common names._—(1) American blackberry, bramble high-bush blackberry,
one-flowered dewberry, fingerberry; (2) high-bush blackberry; (3)
sand-blackberry, knee-high blackberry.

_Habitat and range._—(1) The American blackberry is found in sandy
or dry soil near the coast from Maine to South Carolina; (2) the
high-bush blackberry occurs in dry fields and along roadsides from
the New England States to Florida, west to Arkansas; and (3) the
sand-blackberry frequents sandy soil from Connecticut to Florida, west
to Missouri and Louisiana.

_Descriptions of plants._—The blackberries are so well known that it
is unnecessary to describe them. They are very similar to each other,
differing principally in their habit of growth, the American blackberry
being a trailing plant with slender branches, whereas the high-bush
blackberry and sand-blackberry are more shrubby plants.

_Other species._—Besides the blackberries just mentioned, and which
are official in the United States Pharmacopœia, Eighth Revision, there
are two others which were official in the United States Pharmacopœia
for 1890, and which are still collected. These are the low-running
blackberry (_Rubus procumbens_ Muhl., syn., _R. canadensis_ T. & G.,
_not_ L.), and the low-bush blackberry or southern dewberry (_Rubus
trivialis_ Michx.), both being generally trailing plants. All are
members of the rose family (Rosaceæ).

_Description of bark._—The three species of blackberries mentioned as
official have long, horizontal rootstocks covered with a thick bark,
which is the part used medicinally. In the stores it is found in long,
quilled pieces, or in bands, tough and flexible, the outside a dark
reddish brown or dark brownish gray, rather smooth or slightly scaly;
inside pale brown, with long coarse grooves. It breaks with a tough,
fibrous fracture, and has no odor, but an astringent, somewhat bitter
taste.

_Collection, prices, and uses._—The bark of the root is the part
collected, and is stripped by making an incision lengthwise on one side
of the root, after which it separates easily from the root, forming
long quills.

At present the amount paid for the collection of blackberry bark ranges
from 2 to 4 cents.

The blackberry barks possess tonic and astringent properties and form a
popular remedy in the treatment of diarrheal complaints.


AMERICAN MOUNTAIN-ASH.

_Sorbus americana_ Marsh.

[Illustration: FIG. 23.—American mountain-ash (_Sorbus americana_),
leaves and fruits.]

_Synonym._—_Pyrus americana_ DC.

_Other common names._—Roundwood, round-tree, American rowan-tree,
American service-tree, mountain-sumac, dogberry, quick-beam, wild ash,
wine-tree, witchwood, life-of-man, Indian mozemize, missey-moosey,
moose-misse.

_Habitat and range._—The American mountain-ash occurs in swamps, low
woods, or moist ground from Newfoundland south along the mountains to
North Carolina, and to Michigan. It is most abundant in the northern
portion of its range.

_Description of tree._—This is a rather small, smooth-barked tree, very
brilliant in fall and early winter with its clusters of bright red
berries. Its greatest height is about 30 feet, with the trunk measuring
about 18 inches in diameter, and covered with a smooth, dull brown or
grayish bark. The leaves, resembling those of the sumac, consist of
from 11 to 17 lance-shaped, long-pointed leaflets about 1-1/4 to 4
inches long (fig. 23). When young they are somewhat hairy, both sides
becoming smooth later, bright green on the upper surface, but usually
lighter colored on the lower, the margins sharply toothed with short,
stiff teeth. The white flowers are borne in dense clusters measuring
3 to 6 inches across, and have an urn-shaped calyx, 5 rounded petals,
and numerous stamens. The American mountain-ash, which belongs to the
apple family (Malaceæ), flowers about May or June, and is followed
later in the season by large, dense, showy clusters of round, bright
red berries, about the size of peas (fig. 23). It is indigenous to this
country.

_Description of bark._—As found in the stores, American mountain-ash
bark consists of coarse pieces of varying length, about a quarter of
an inch in thickness, with the outer layer removed; the outside is
yellowish or pale brown, smoothish or sometimes with faint, lengthwise
wrinkles, the inside smooth and brown. It is odorless, but the taste is
bitter and astringent.

_Prices and uses._—At present American mountain-ash bark brings from
about 3 to 5 cents a pound. It is used for its tonic, astringent, and
antiseptic properties.


WILD CHERRY.

_Prunus serotina_ Ehrh.

[Illustration: FIG. 24.—Wild cherry (_Prunus serotina_), trunk.]

_Pharmacopœial name._—Prunus virginiana.

_Synonym._—_Prunus virginiana_ Mill., _not_ of Linnæus.

_Other common names._—Wild black cherry, cabinet-cherry, black choke,
rum-cherry, whisky-cherry, Virginian prune-bark.

_Habitat and range._—The wild cherry occurs in woods or open places,
and is most abundant in the Southeastern States, but its range extends
from Nova Scotia to Florida, westward to Texas, and north through
Indian Territory, the eastern portions of Kansas, Nebraska, and South
Dakota.

[Illustration: FIG. 25.—Wild cherry (_Prunus serotina_), leaves,
flowers, and fruits.]

_Description of tree._—The elongated, drooping, pretty clusters of
white flowers of the wild cherry are usually produced in May. The tree
sometimes reaches a height of 90 feet, and a maximum trunk diameter of
4 feet. The trunk is straight and covered with a rough black bark (fig.
24), the young branches, however, smooth and reddish. The reddish brown
wood of the wild cherry is fine grained, hard and strong, susceptible
of polish, and is used in cabinetmaking.

The leaves are thick and oval, about 2 to 5 inches long, smooth and
shining, bright green above and somewhat hairy on the veins beneath,
the margins furnished with callous teeth. The clusters of flowers borne
at the ends of leafy branches are generally somewhat drooping, and
consist of many small, white, 5-petaled flowers with numerous yellow
stamens, the clusters of white against the green background making it a
rather attractive tree. The cherries ripen about August or September,
and are globular, black, or very dark purple, about the size of a pea,
and have a sweet, somewhat astringent, and bitter taste. (Fig. 25.) The
wild cherry, which is a native of this country, belongs to the plum
family (Amygdalaceæ).

_Description of bark._—In commerce wild cherry bark is usually found
in curved or irregular pieces, the outer surface smooth and somewhat
shining, of a light green or brownish green color, and showing numerous
transverse, light-colored lines or grooves, or “lenticels,” as they
are technically known. The inner surface is rust colored, marked
with netlike grooves, or fissures. It breaks with a short, granular
fracture. The taste is aromatic, astringent, and pleasantly bitter,
reminding one somewhat of bitter almonds, as does the odor when the
bark is soaked in water.

_Collection, prices, and uses._—The bark, which is official in the
United States Pharmacopœia, should be collected in autumn, as at that
time it contains the greatest amount of hydrocyanic acid. The outside
layer is removed, so that the green layer underneath shows, and the
bark is then carefully dried and preserved. Wild cherry bark should not
be kept longer than a year, as it deteriorates with age. The bark from
very small or very old branches should not be used. Young, thin bark is
considered superior.

The price to collectors at present ranges from 1 to 6 cents a pound,
the highest amount being paid for the “thin green,” the next best price
for the “thick green,” and the lowest for the “thick rossed.”

Wild cherry bark is used for its tonic properties, and it also exerts a
sedative action.


PRICKLY ASH.

(1) _Xanthoxylum americanum_ Mill. and (2) _Xanthoxylum clava-herculis_
L.

_Pharmacopœial name._—Xanthoxylum.

_Synonyms._—(1) _Xanthoxylum fraxineum_ Willd.; (2) _Xanthoxylum
carolinianum_ Lam.; _Fagara clava-herculis_ (L.) Small.[4]

_Other common names._—(1) Northern prickly ash, toothache-tree,
toothache-bush, yellowwood, angelica-tree, pellitory-bark, suterberry;
(2) southern prickly ash, toothache-tree, Hercules-club, yellow
Hercules, yellowthorn, yellowwood, yellow prickly ash, prickly
yellowwood, West Indian yellowwood, sea-ash, pepperwood, wild orange.

_Habitat and range._—The northern prickly ash is common in woods,
thickets, and along river banks from Virginia, Missouri, and Nebraska
northward to Canada, while the southern prickly ash grows along streams
from southern Virginia to Florida, west to Texas and Arkansas. Both are
indigenous to this country, and are members of the rue family (Rutaceæ).

[Illustration: FIG. 26.—Southern prickly ash (_Xanthoxylum
clava-herculis_), trunk.]

_Descriptions of trees._—The northern prickly ash (_Xanthoxylum
americanum_) is smaller than the southern, usually 10 to 12 feet
and rarely exceeding 25 feet in height, the branches having brown
cone-shaped prickles. The leaflets in this species number from 5 to 11,
and are ovate, practically stemless, 1-1/2 to 2 inches long, somewhat
pointed at the apex, and with margins wavy toothed or entire. When
young the leaflets are somewhat hairy, but later they become smooth or
retain only a slight hairiness, and are dark green on the upper surface
and paler underneath. The greenish yellow flowers appear before the
leaves, about April or May, but instead of being borne in terminal
clusters, like those of the southern prickly ash, they are produced
from the axils of the branches, many crowded together in small stemless
clusters. The seed capsules, containing one to two shining black seeds,
are roundish or somewhat oval and greenish red, wrinkled and pitted,
and have a lemon odor. The leaves and flowers are also aromatic.

The southern prickly ash (_Xanthoxylum clava-herculis_), although
generally a taller tree than the northern, does not attain great
height, not exceeding 45 feet, and sometimes it is only a shrub.
The trunk is covered with a slate-gray bark, and the entire tree is
furnished with sharp spines, or prickles, those of the trunk smaller
and borne on broad corky excrescences which remain after the spines
have fallen away (fig. 26), while those of the branches and leaf stems
are larger, but also have a broad base (fig. 27).

[Illustration: FIG. 27.—Southern prickly ash (_Xanthoxylum
clava-herculis_), leaves, fruits, and branchlet showing prickles.]

The leaves consist of 5 to 17 ovate lance-shaped leaflets 1-1/2 to 3
inches long, with pointed apex and uneven sides, smooth and shining on
the upper surface, dull beneath, and margins wavy toothed (fig. 27).
After the leaves are out—about June—the numerous small greenish white
flowers appear, borne in large clusters at the ends of the branches,
and not in axillary clusters like those of the northern prickly
ash. The seed capsules are roundish-obovoid, wrinkled, and contain
roundish-oblong, black, and coarsely wrinkled seeds (fig. 27).

_Description of bark._—The dried bark of both of these species is
official in the United States Pharmacopœia under the general name
Xanthoxylum. That of the northern prickly ash occurs in commerce in
small curved or quilled pieces about 2 inches in length and sometimes
nearly one-eighth of an inch thick, with a brownish gray, corky
outside layer showing whitish patches and small black dots, slightly
wrinkled, and a few shining, brown, straight spines, or prickles, about
one-fourth of an inch in length and with a base about three-fourths of
an inch long. The inner surface of northern prickly ash bark is smooth,
whitish, or yellowish. It breaks with a short fracture, showing the
green outer layer and the yellowish inner layer. The taste is very
pungent and somewhat bitter, but there is no odor.

Southern prickly ash, as found in the trade, is in large sheets or
quilled pieces, the outside a bluish gray or slate gray, with patches
of silvery gray and numerous large corky excrescences sometimes with
the large spines still attached. In other particulars it resembles the
northern prickly ash.

_Prices and uses._—The price paid to collectors ranges from about 4 to
9 cents a pound for the northern prickly ash and from 3 to 8 cents for
the southern prickly ash.

Prickly ash bark has alterative, stimulant, and sialagogue properties,
and is used in rheumatism and for increasing the secretions, for
toothache, and externally as a counterirritant.

[Footnote 4: The pharmacopœial usage.]


WAFER-ASH.

_Ptelea trifoliata_ L.

_Other common names._—Ptelea, wingseed, hop-tree, shrubby trefoil,
swamp-dogwood, three-leaved hop-tree, ague-bark, prairie-grub,
quinine-tree, stinking ash, stinking prairie-bush, sang-tree,
pickaway-anise.

[Illustration: FIG. 28.—Wafer-ash (_Ptelea trifoliata_), leaves and
fruits.]

_Habitat and range._—This indigenous shrub is found in shady woods from
New York to Florida, west to Minnesota and Texas, occurring in greatest
abundance west of the Alleghanies.

_Description of shrub._—The wafer-ash, belonging to the rue family
(Rutaceæ), is a shrub or small tree usually from 6 to 8 feet and not
more than 20 feet in height, with leaves consisting of three oval
leaflets 2 to 5 inches long, dark green and shining above, paler
beneath, the margins slightly round toothed (fig. 28). The leaves are
borne on long stems, but the leaflets are stemless. The flowers, which
appear in June, are numerous in terminal compound clusters, greenish
white, and have a disagreeable odor. The foliage also has an unpleasant
odor. The flowers are followed by large clusters of winged fruits, each
one containing two seeds. These fruits are flat, rounded in outline,
the seeds surrounded by a membranous, veined wing (fig. 28). They have
a bitter taste and have been used in place of hops. The wood of the
wafer-ash is light brown.

_Description of bark._—The dried bark of the root is the part employed
in medicine, and as found in the stores it is in quilled pieces
varying in length from one to several inches. The thin cuter layer is
pale brown and irregularly ridged and wrinkled. The inner surface is
yellowish white, becoming darker with age. The bark, which is brittle,
breaks with a smooth fracture, has a peculiar odor, and a bitter,
pungent, and somewhat acrid taste.

_Collection, prices, and uses._—The bark is taken from the roots. At
present it brings collectors from about 4 to 8 cents a pound.

Wafer-ash bark possesses tonic properties, and is employed in fevers.
It is also said to be useful as an anthelmintic.


BLACK ALDER.

_Ilex verticillata_ (L.) A. Gray.

[Illustration: FIG. 29.—Black alder (_Ilex verticillata_), fruits.]

_Synonym._—_Prinos verticillata_ L.

_Other common names._—Prinos, winterberry, common winterberry, Virginia
winterberry, false alder, white alder, feverbush.

_Habitat and range._—The black alder is native in swamps, moist woods,
and along banks of streams, in Canada and the eastern United States,
and westward to Wisconsin and Missouri.

_Description of shrub._—The fruits of the black alder are a familiar
sight in the Christmas markets, the bare branches with the persistent,
shining, bright red berries being much used for decorative purposes
during the holiday season. Black alder is a shrub usually from 6 to 8
feet high (sometimes 25 feet), with grayish bark and smooth twigs. The
leaves are oval or oblong lanceolate, pointed at the apex, about 2 to
3 inches long, and about an inch in width. They are rather thick and
leathery in texture, dark green and smoothish on the upper surface,
hairy on the lower surface, especially along the veins, and sharply
toothed. In autumn the leaves turn black.

The flowers, which appear from about May to July, are small and white,
the male clusters consisting of 2 to 10 flowers, and the female of only
1 to 3. The fruits are bright red and shining, about the size of a pea,
clustered around the stem, and each containing six seeds (fig. 29).
Black alder belongs to the holly family (Aquifoliaceæ).

_Description of bark._—The bark, which was official in the United
States Pharmacopœia from 1820 to 1890, occurs in commerce in somewhat
quilled strips or pieces of an ashy brown color outside, with whitish
patches and round black spots and lines. The inner surface is greenish
or yellowish, and marked with short lines. The fracture is short,
showing a greenish tinge. It has a faint, peculiar odor and a bitter,
astringent taste.

_Collection, prices, and uses._—Black alder bark is collected in
autumn. The amount paid to collectors ranges from 2 to about 5 cents a
pound.

It is used in medicine as a tonic and astringent. The berries are
employed for similar purposes as the bark.


WAHOO.

_Euonymus atropurpureus_ Jacq.

_Pharmacopœial name._—Euonymus.

[Illustration: FIG. 30.—Wahoo (_Euonymus atropurpureus_), leaves and
fruits.]

_Other common names._—Burning-bush, spindle-tree, Indian arrowwood,
bursting-heart, strawberry-tree, strawberry-bush, American
spindle-tree, bitter ash, pegwood.

_Habitat and range._—Wahoo is found in woods and thickets from Ontario
and the eastern United States west to Montana.

_Description of shrub._—This native shrub or small tree is from 6 to
25 feet in height, more often reaching only 10 feet, with an ashy gray
bark, twigs somewhat 4 angled, and leaves from 1-1/2 to 5 inches in
length and about half as wide, oval-oblong or elliptical, and long
pointed at the apex (fig. 30). They are rather thin in texture, with a
prominent midrib, more hairy on the lower surface than above, and the
margins round toothed. The 4-petaled purple flowers are produced in
June, in loose, slender-stemmed clusters of from 5 to 15 flowers each,
and have 4 wavy, obovate petals. The pale purple fruits are rather odd
looking, consisting of 4 deeply cleft, flattened lobes, smooth, each
cell containing 1 or 2 seeds (fig. 30). These capsules open after they
ripen, about October, and disclose the seed surrounded by a red aril
(false coat enveloping the seed), the bush at this time presenting a
very bright and showy appearance.

The name “wahoo” is applied indiscriminately to _Euonymus
atropurpureus_ and _E. americanus_—the latter a low or trailing bush
having crimson capsules, to which the appellation “burning-bush” more
properly belongs. Both species, which are members of the staff-tree
family (Celastraceæ), are used in medicine, although _E. atropurpureus_
alone is recognized in the United States Pharmacopœia.

_Description of bark._—The dried bark of the root of wahoo is official
in the United States Pharmacopœia. It is in quilled pieces of irregular
size. The outside of the bark is furrowed and ridged, of an ashy or
light brownish gray color, showing a few dark patches of soft cork.
The inner surface is smooth and whitish or somewhat pale brownish. The
fracture is short, whitish, and shows fine silky fibers. There is a
distinct odor, and the taste is sweetish, bitter, and somewhat acrid.

_Collection, prices, and uses._—Although the bark from the stem is also
sometimes gathered, it is the root bark only which is recognized as
official.

The root bark at present brings from 9 to 20 cents a pound. It has
tonic, diuretic, laxative, and antiperiodic properties; it acts on
the liver, increasing the flow of bile, and is also employed in
intermittent fevers and in dyspepsia.


FALSE BITTERSWEET.

_Celastrus scandens_ L.

_Other common names._—Climbing bittersweet, shrubby bittersweet,
fevertwig, fever-twitch, staff-tree, climbing staff-tree, staff-vine,
waxwork, Roxbury waxwork, yellowroot, climbing orange-root,
Jacob’s-ladder.

_Habitat and range._—This woody vine or climbing shrub is found
in woods and thickets, growing in rich damp soil, from Ontario to
Manitoba, south to North Carolina and New Mexico.

[Illustration: FIG. 31.—False bittersweet (_Celastrus scandens_),
leaves, flowers, and fruits.]

_Description of plant._—False bittersweet is a most attractive plant in
the fall, with its brilliant orange-yellow and scarlet seed capsules
adding a vivid dash of color to the fall and winter landscape,
remaining on the vine well into the cold season.

It is an indigenous woody and shrubby climber, growing over adjacent
trees or near-by fences. The leaves are thin and smooth, oval, 2 to
4 inches long, and about half as wide, pointed at the apex, and with
a pointed or rounded base, the margins furnished with fine, rounded
teeth. The small, greenish white or greenish yellow flowers are
produced in June, in short terminal clusters, and the fruit is in the
form of a roundish, 3-celled, orange-colored capsule, which opens
in autumn, disclosing the scarlet-covered seed, making a very showy
appearance. This covering is known as an “aril.” (Fig. 31.)

False bittersweet and true bittersweet, on account of the similarity of
the common names, are often confused, but the plants do not resemble
each other at all, belonging to entirely different families and
possessing different medicinal properties. False bittersweet belongs to
the staff-tree family (Celastraceæ), while the true bittersweet is a
member of the nightshade family (Solanaceæ).

_Description of bark._—The bark of both plant and root is employed,
but especially that of the root. The latter is rather smooth, in small
quilled pieces, the outer surface covered with a thin, papery layer
of dark orange-brown and the inner surface white and finely grooved.
The bark from the stem has a brown-gray color. There is practically no
odor, and the taste is bitter, becoming sweet, then somewhat acrid and
rather sickening.

_Prices and uses._—The price paid to collectors varies from 5 to 10
cents a pound.

The bark of false bittersweet possesses alterative, emetic,
diaphoretic, and diuretic properties, and some narcotic action is also
attributed to it.


HORSE-CHESTNUT.

_Aesculus hippocastanum_ L.

_Other common names._—Hippocastanum, bongay, konker-tree.

[Illustration: FIG. 32.—Horse-chestnut (_Aesculus hippocastanum_),
trunk.]

_Habitat and range._—This handsome tree is a native of Asia, largely
cultivated in this country as an ornamental shade tree. In parts of New
York and New Jersey it has escaped from cultivation.

_Description of tree._—The horse-chestnut is a rather large tree,
usually about 40 feet in height, and having many branches. Sometimes
it will grow as tall as 100 feet. The bark has a brownish gray color,
smoothish on the younger trees, but fissured and scaly on the older
ones (fig. 32). The large, shining, resinous leaf buds are a prominent
feature of the winter and early spring aspect of the tree. The leaves
when mature are smooth, except perhaps for tufts of hairs on the veins
of the lower surface, but the young unfolding leaf is quite hairy.
The leaves are large, composed of 5 to 7 leaflets 4 to 8 inches long,
pointed and broadest at the top and narrowing toward the base, with
irregularly round-toothed margins (fig. 33).

[Illustration: FIG. 33.—Horse-chestnut (_Aesculus hippocastanum_),
leaves and fruits.]

The flower cluster, sometimes 1 foot in length, is most handsome and
showy in appearance, consisting of a dense, somewhat pyramidal head of
large white flowers, the petals fringed, wavy, and spotted with yellow
and red, and having protruding stamens. They appear about June. The
fruit is roundish and prickly, about an inch or so in diameter, and
contains a large, shining brown nut (fig. 33). This tree belongs to the
buckeye family (Aesculaceæ).

_Other species._—The Ohio buckeye (_Aesculus glabra_ Willd.), called
also smooth buckeye and fetid buckeye, occurs in woods and along river
banks from Pennsylvania south to Alabama, and westward to Michigan
and the Indian Territory. It is a small tree, native in this country,
and found in great abundance in Ohio. It gives off a fetid odor, and
has leaves consisting of five ovate leaflets, and small insignificant
yellow flowers. The bark and nut of this species are also employed in
medicine, having properties similar to those of the horse-chestnut, but
it is said that their action is more powerful.

_Description of bark._—The horse-chestnut bark of commerce is thin,
brownish gray on the outside, and with a few warty protuberances,
leafscars, and lichens; the inside of the bark is smooth and whitish,
and the whole breaks with a tough, fibrous fracture, showing a brownish
color within. The bark has a faint, disagreeable odor, and a rough,
bitter, astringent taste.

_Collection, prices, and uses._—Horse-chestnut bark is collected in the
autumn, and preference is given to the bark from the younger branches.
From 1 to 4 cents a pound is the price paid to collectors.

This bark is used for its “tonic, astringent, febrifuge, narcotic, and
antiseptic” properties. The nuts are said to have a narcotic action,
and when powdered, excite sneezing.

The leaves are an old remedy in the treatment of whooping cough.


CASCARA SAGRADA.

_Rhamnus purshiana_ DC.

[Illustration: FIG. 34.—Cascara sagrada (_Rhamnus purshiana_),
five-year-old tree.]

_Pharmacopœial name._—Rhamnus purshiana.

_Other common names._—Chittem-bark, sacred bark (a translation of the
Spanish name “cascara sagrada”), bearberry-tree, bearwood, shittimwood,
Purshiana bark, Persiana bark.

_Habitat and range._—This indigenous tree occurs on the sides and
bottoms of canyons from the Rocky Mountains to the Pacific Ocean,
extending north into British America.

_Description of tree._—The tree furnishing the cascara sagrada of the
Pharmacopœia is of small size, usually from 15 to 20 feet in height
(fig. 34), the young twigs hairy, and the leaves rather thin. It
belongs to the buckthorn family (Rhamnaceæ). The dark green leaves
are elliptical in form, from 2 to 6 inches long, and about 1 to 3
inches wide, blunt at the apex or with a short sharp point, finely saw
toothed, rounded or slightly heart shaped at the base, somewhat hairy
on the lower surface, and rather prominently veined (fig. 35).

The rather small, insignificant greenish flowers are produced in
umbels, or clusters, and are followed by black, ovoid, 3-seeded
berries, of a somewhat insipid taste (fig. 35).

[Illustration: FIG. 35.—Cascara sagrada (_Rhamnus purshiana_), leaves
and fruits.]

_Another species._—Several species of Rhamnus occur in the cascara
district, only one of which, however, may be said to enter into
competition with the official cascara, and that is the one which is
supposed to have been first introduced in medicine. It is known as
wild coffee or coffee-berry (_Rhamnus californica_ Esch.). At the
present time, however, it is seldom collected, and then only because
it may be mistaken by collectors for the official bark. According to
the nineteenth edition of the United States Dispensatory (1907), _R.
californica_ “is chiefly distinguished from the official species by its
leaves being thin, and when not smooth having a short close pubescence,
and the primary veins of the under surface not nearly so numerous,
straight, or fine as those of _R. purshiana_.” _Rhamnus purshiana_ is
abundant in the northern part of California and only sparingly found
in the southern portion, whereas exactly the opposite is true of _R.
californica_. Professor Rusby (United States Dispensatory, nineteenth
edition, 1907) is of the opinion that as a further distinguishing
mark in the leaves the channel of the midrib of _R. californica_ is
“altogether absent, or shallow, or inconspicuous.”

It is very difficult to distinguish the barks of these two species
by their gross characters alone, but a microscopical examination
will show structural differences sufficiently distinct to aid in the
recognition of the barks.[5] In the powdered state the two species may
be distinguished by means of color tests.[6]

_Description of bark._—The cascara sagrada of commerce occurs in
curved or quilled pieces, the outer surface of which is reddish brown,
and usually covered with growths of light-colored or grayish lichen,
wrinkled and somewhat fissured. The inner surface of the bark is smooth
and marked with very fine lines; at first the inside is yellowish, but
with age it turns a dark brown color. The whole breaks with a short,
sharp, yellowish fracture, and has a somewhat aromatic odor and an
exceedingly bitter taste. The saliva is colored yellow by it, and
anything with which the bark comes in contact for any length of time
will also be stained yellow. Cascara sagrada is official in the United
States Pharmacopœia.

_Collection, prices, and uses._—The collecting season for cascara opens
about the end of May or early in June and closes about the end of
August, just before the rainy season sets in, as bark collected after
exposure to wet weather is difficult to cure properly.

After the strips of bark have been removed from the trees, they are
generally strung on wires to dry, care being taken not to expose the
inner surface to the sun, the object being to retain the yellow color,
as the action of the sunlight tends to darken the color, an undesirable
result, inasmuch as it lowers the market price. During the drying
process the strips curl up, forming quills, and when sufficiently dried
these are cut or broken up into smaller pieces.

Several years are generally required after collection to properly age
the bark for medicinal purposes, and the United States Pharmacopœia
directs that it should not be used until at least one year after it has
been gathered. Some crude-drug dealers undertake the “aging” of the
bark themselves rather than leave it to collectors.

Many trees are annually destroyed in the collection of cascara sagrada,
as they are usually peeled to such an extent that no new bark is
formed. It has been estimated that one tree furnishes approximately 10
pounds of bark, and granting a crop of 1,000,000 pounds a year, 100,000
trees are thus annually destroyed, and the world’s consumption is said
to be about 2,000,000 pounds a year.

The price at present paid to collectors for cascara sagrada varies from
3 to 4-1/2 cents a pound. On account of the fact that cascara sagrada
requires several years’ aging before use, a shortage in the crop is not
immediately felt.

Cascara sagrada is a most valuable laxative, differing from other drugs
of this character in that it tones up the entire intestinal tract,
making long-continued dosing or gradually increasing dosage unnecessary.

[Footnote 5: Rusby, H. H. Cascara Sagrada and Its Allies. Proc. Amer.
Pharm. Assoc., 1890, pp. 203-211.]

[Footnote 6: Sayre, L. E. Frangula and Cascara Barks. Amer. Jour.
Pharm., 1897, pp. 126-134.]


COTTON.

_Gossypium hirsutum_ L. (“_Gossypium herbaceum_ L.”)

_Species._—According to the United States Pharmacopœia, cotton-root
bark is obtained from “_Gossypium herbaceum_ Linne,” or from “other
cultivated species of Gossypium.”

For years the name _Gossypium herbaceum_ has been used in botanical
and other works as applying to American cotton, whereas it is really
a name belonging to an Old World species, known as Levant cotton,
cultivated in India and also in southern Europe, and it is stated that
the American species evidently received the appellation _herbaceum_ as
a result of wrong identification by early American authors, and the
assumption that it originated from European seed.[7]

[Illustration: FIG. 36.—Cotton (_Gossypium hirsutum_), leaves, flowers,
and bolls.]

American Upland cotton is the type most commonly cultivated in the
South, from Virginia to Oklahoma and Texas, and this with its hundred
or more recognized horticultural varieties all belong to one species,
namely, _Gossypium hirsutum_ L.,[8] and not to _G. herbaceum_, and
as practically all of the supply of cotton-root bark of the United
States is obtained in the United States, it can safely be asserted that
_Gossypium hirsutum_ L., and not _G. herbaceum_ L., is the principal
source of the bark found in the commerce of our country.

_Description of plant._—The cotton plant in flower or with the bursting
bolls showing the fluffy white fiber is very handsome. It belongs
to the mallow family (Malvaceæ), and ranges from about 1 to 4 feet
in height, with a woody and somewhat branching stem. The leaves of
the American Upland cotton, _Gossypium hirsutum_, are 5 lobed, the
lobes sharply pointed. The flowers when they first open are creamy
white, later on turning purple, and the bracts are deeply cleft. The
4 to 5 celled cotton bolls are roundish oval, bluntly pointed at the
top, green at first, but turning brown as they mature, bursting open
(September to November in the Southern States), and disclosing the fine
fiber that surrounds and completely hides the seeds, and which forms
the “cotton” of commerce. (Fig. 36.) This cotton is picked from the
bolls by hand, and sent to the cotton gins, where the seed is separated
from the lint by machines known by that name. The seed, aside from its
use for planting, is employed for fertilizing and feeding purposes, and
an oil is also expressed therefrom.

_Description of bark._—Cottonroot bark is official in the United States
Pharmacopœia, and the article of commerce consists of long, thin bands,
or quills, flexible, of a brownish yellow color on the outside, showing
faint ridges and dots or lines. Sometimes the entire outer corky layer,
which is thin, is wanting, or there are brownish orange patches where
this thin layer has rubbed off or worn away. The inner surface of the
bark has a whitish, silky, shining appearance, marked with fine lines.
The long, tough bast fibers separate into papery layers. There is no
odor, but a faintly acrid and astringent taste.

_Collection, prices, and uses._—The roots are taken up as late as
November or December, but before frost, washed, the bark removed
with knives, and carefully dried. The fresh bark is regarded as more
reliable than the old bark.

At present cotton-root bark is paid for at the rate of from 3 to 5
cents a pound.

This bark, with its emmenagogue and parturifacient properties, forms a
valuable remedy in the hands of the physician.

The cotton (the hairs of the seed), freed from impurities and deprived
of all fatty matter, is also official in the United States Pharmacopœia.

An oil is expressed from the seed, and various domestic uses have been
made of the seed and also of the flowers and leaves.

[Footnote 7: Dewey, L. H. The Identity of American Upland Cotton.
Science, n. s., vol. 19, p. 337. 1904.]

[Footnote 8: Dewey, L. H. Principal Commercial Plant Fibers. Yearbook,
U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1903, p. 388.]


DOGWOOD.

_Cornus florida_ L.

_Other common names._—Cornus, flowering dogwood, American dogwood,
Virginia dogwood, Florida dogwood, boxwood, New England boxwood, false
boxwood, American cornelian tree, flowering cornel, Florida cornel,
white cornel, Indian arrowwood, nature’s-mistake.

[Illustration: FIG. 37.—Dogwood (_Cornus florida_), trunk.]

_Habitat and range._—Dogwood, native in this country, occurs in
woods from Massachusetts and southern Ontario to Florida, Texas, and
Missouri, but grows most abundantly in the Middle States.

_Description of tree._—The dogwood, which belongs to the dogwood
family (Cornaceæ), is never a large tree, its greatest height being
40 feet, and more frequently it occurs as a shrub. It is one of the
most conspicuous trees in early spring, the naked, leafless branches
supporting numerous large, showy white flowers, so called. The white,
petal-like parts, however, which are the most showy portions, are in
reality “bracts,” the “flowers” themselves being greenish yellow and
inconspicuous, except for these four surrounding bracts. The four
bracts, or petal-like parts, are white, sometimes pink tinged, of
an inverted oval or heart shape, with prominent parallel veins, and
peculiarly notched at the end, as though a piece had been torn or
bitten out. (Fig. 38.)

[Illustration: FIG. 38.—Dogwood (_Cornus florida_), leaves, flowers,
and fruits.]

After the flowers have disappeared the leaves are put forth. These are
generally oval, entire, from 3 to 6 inches in length, the upper surface
dark green and smooth or only minutely hairy, while the under surface
is lighter in color with slightly hairy veins. The leaves turn a bright
red in autumn and with the scarlet fruit, or berries, form a very showy
and attractive addition to the autumnal woods. (Fig. 38.)

The trunk of the dogwood is covered with a grayish brown, rough, and
fissured bark (fig. 37), and the brown wood is hard and close grained.

_Description of bark._—The root bark as found in the stores has had the
fissured grayish brown outside layer removed and consists of short,
reddish brown, curved pieces or chips about one-eighth of an inch in
thickness. The inside is of a reddish purple color, with many short,
broad grooves. The fracture is short. It has an astringent, bitter
taste, but practically no odor.

_Collection, prices, and uses._—Dogwood bark is collected from the root
in the fall. It brings from 1 to 3 cents a pound.

It is used in medicine for its astringent, tonic, stimulant, and
febrifuge properties and in the fresh state is said to be emetic. The
root bark was official in the Pharmacopœia from 1830 to 1890. During
the Revolutionary war it was much employed as a substitute for Peruvian
bark or cinchona.

The flowers and fruits have properties similar to those of the bark.

_Other species._—The bark of the swamp-dogwood (_Cornus amomum_ Mill.,
syn., _C. sericea_ L.), and the round-leaved dogwood (_C. circinata_
L’Her.) are also used, being sometimes substituted for the flowering
dogwood.

The swamp-dogwood, known also as red osier, silky cornel, rose-willow,
blue-berried cornel, kinnikinnick, female dogwood, red-brush, red-rod,
red willow, and squawbush, is a shrub native in low woods and along
streams from Canada to Florida, west to Texas and the Dakotas.

The bark of this species, which was official from 1820 to 1880, is
used like the flowering dogwood bark, but is said to be less bitter
and astringent. It occurs in thin, quilled pieces, of a purplish brown
color on the outside, with fewer warty excrescences than the following
species, but otherwise similar. The price paid for this bark ranges
from 4 to 6 cents a pound.

The round-leaved dogwood or cornel, called also green osier, is an
indigenous shrub growing in shady places in Canada and the northeastern
United States.

This bark is also used like that of the flowering dogwood, and was
official from 1820 to 1880. It is said to possess less astringency than
the flowering dogwood, but is more bitter. In commerce it is found in
quilled or curved pieces, of a brownish gray or greenish color outside,
with corky warts or marked with lengthwise lines, the inside brown.
This also brings from about 4 to 6 cents a pound.


MOOSEWOOD.

_Dirca palustris_ L.

[Illustration: FIG. 39.—Moosewood (_Dirca palustris_), leaves and
flowers. (From Edwards’s Botanical Register.)]

_Other common names._—Dirca, American mezereon, leatherwood,
leatherbush, leverwood, leaverwood, rope-bark, swampwood, wickopy,
wickup.

_Habitat and range._—This native shrub is found in wet woods and
thickets from New Brunswick to Florida, west to Missouri and Minnesota,
but is most common in the Northern and Eastern States.

_Description of shrub._—The moosewood, a shrub belonging to the
mezereon family (Daphnaceæ), is from 2 to about 6 feet in height, with
tough, fibrous bark, and smooth, yellowish green twigs. The leaves,
which are hairy when young, are oval with a blunt apex, rounded or
narrowed at the base; they become smoother as they mature, and are
from 2 to 3 inches long. The flower clusters are produced from April
to May, from brown-hairy, scaly buds and consist of 2 to 4 yellowish,
funnel-shaped flowers about one-half inch in length, with stamens and
style protruding. (Fig. 39.) The one-seeded fruit, or berry, is small,
red, oval oblong, and poisonous.

_Description of bark._—Moosewood bark occurs in long, stringy, or
quilled pieces, light brown or grayish brown on the outside, slightly
wrinkled lengthwise, marked here and there with warty excrescences
and an occasional patch of lichen growth, the inside straw colored
and smooth. The bark is exceedingly tough and fibrous, and can not be
broken. The odor is rather strong and aromatic, and the taste pungent
and acrid.

_Prices and uses._—Moosewood bark brings from 5 to 10 cents a pound.

It has emetic and laxative properties, and in decoction is used as a
sudorific and expectorant. The fresh bark applied externally is very
irritating to the skin, causing redness and blisters.


WHITE ASH.

_Fraxinus americana_ L.

[Illustration: FIG. 40.—White ash (_Fraxinus americana_), trunk.]

_Synonyms._—_Fraxinus alba_ Marsh; _Fraxinus acuminata_ Lam.

_Other common names._—Ash, American white ash, cane-ash.

_Habitat and range._—The white ash is native in rich woods, occurring
from Nova Scotia to Minnesota, south to Florida and Texas, but chiefly
in the Northern States and Canada.

[Illustration: FIG. 41.—White ash (_Fraxinus americana_), leaves and
fruits.]

_Description of tree._—This tree, a member of the olive family
(Oleaceæ), sometimes attains a height of 120 feet or so, usually,
however, from 60 to 80 feet, the older trees with gray, deeply furrowed
bark (fig. 40), and smooth, greenish gray branches. The leaf buds are
rust colored, and the white ash is one of the latest trees to put out
leaves in the spring. The leaves measure about 12 inches in length and
consist of 5 to 9 leaflets; these are oval or lance-shaped oblong, the
margins entire, the apex pointed, dark green above and pale green or
silvery beneath, or sometimes hairy, 3 to 5 inches long, and somewhat
less than half as wide (fig. 41). In autumn they change to yellow,
mottled with green, and finally turn black. The small, whitish green
flowers are arranged in loose clusters, appearing from about April to
June, and the fruits which follow are in the form of clustered winged
seeds, or “samaras” (fig. 41), which remain on the branches for a long
time. Each samara is from 1 to 2 inches long, narrow, flat, and one
seeded. The wood of white ash is brown, hard, and strong.

_Description of bark._—The bark of white ash, as found in the stores,
is whitish or inclined to yellowish brown, about one-fourth of an
inch thick or less, the outside corky layer generally having been
removed, but pieces of it often adhering. The inner surface is smooth
and yellow. The fracture is very fibrous. White-ash bark has a faint
aromatic odor and a bitter, acrid taste.

_Collection, prices, and uses._—The bark of the root is preferred,
although that from the trunk is also collected; the outer layer is
usually removed. The amount at present paid for white-ash bark ranges
from 3 to 5 cents a pound.

White-ash bark has been employed as an antiperiodic in intermittent
fever, and is said to possess tonic and astringent properties. The
leaves in infusion have been used in the treatment of gout and
rheumatism.

_Another species._—The black ash (_Fraxinus nigra_ Marsh, syn.,
_Fraxinus sambucifolia_ Lam.) is also a native, inhabiting swamps and
wet woods from Canada to Virginia and Arkansas. Other names applied
to it are hoop-ash, swamp-ash, water-ash, and basket-ash. Its maximum
height is 100 feet, and its bark is darker gray and less fissured
than that of the white ash, and its leaves are darker green. The
leaves are about 16 inches in length, the 7 to 11 stemless leaflets
perhaps a trifle paler green on the lower surface than above, and with
rust-colored hairs on the midrib and veins of the lower surface. These
leaflets are 3 to 6 inches long, narrow, oblong lance shaped, with
long-pointed apex, the margins sharply toothed. The flowers appear from
about April to May, and are followed by clusters of winged seeds, each
flat, winged, linear-oblong fruit measuring from 1 to 1-1/2 inches in
length, narrow, with the winged portion extending all around the seed.

The bark, and also the leaves, are employed in medicine for similar
purposes as those of the white ash. The bark brings about 3 to 5 cents
a pound.


FRINGE-TREE.

_Chionanthus virginica_ L.

[Illustration: FIG. 42.—Fringe-tree (_Chionanthus virginica_), leaves
and flowers.]

_Other common names._—American fringe-tree, white fringe, flowering
ash, poison-ash, graybeard-tree, old-man’s-beard, shavings,
snowdrop-tree, snow-flower.

_Habitat and range._—The fringe-tree is native in moist thickets and
along streams from Delaware to Florida and Texas.

_Description of shrub._—When in full flower this shrub or small
tree, with its dense clusters of white, fringelike flowers, is very
attractive, and is often cultivated for ornament. It is a member of
the olive family (Oleaceæ), and is from 6 to 20 feet in height, the
trunk covered with a light-colored bark, the leaves oval or oblong, of
a leathery texture, and smooth. The flowers, which from their drooping
character give a fringelike appearance, are produced in May and June,
and are borne in dense clusters, each flower having four very narrow
white petals about an inch in length. (Fig. 42.) The fruits which
follow are fleshy, oval, and bluish black, containing a one-seeded nut.

_Description of bark._—The bark of the root is the part employed in
medicine, and it is in quilled or curved pieces of unequal size and
shape, rather thick, the outside of a yellowish brown color, somewhat
wrinkled, the inside yellowish brown or dark brown, marked with
lengthwise lines. It breaks with a short, smooth fracture, and has but
a faint odor.

_Prices and uses._—At present collectors are paid from about 5 to 8
cents a pound.

It possesses tonic, febrifuge, and laxative properties, and is also
said to have a narcotic action.


BITTERSWEET.

_Solanum dulcamara_ L.

[Illustration: FIG. 43.—Bittersweet (_Solanum dulcamara_), leaves,
flowers, and fruits.]

_Other common names._—Dulcamara, nightshade, climbing nightshade, woody
nightshade, amara-dulcis, fevertwig, violet-bloom, blue bindweed,
felonwort, poison-berry, poison-flower, pushion-berry, morrel,
snakeberry, wolf-grape, scarlet-berry, tether-devil, dwale, skawcoo.

_Habitat and range._—Bittersweet has been naturalized from Europe,
and occurs in low, damp grounds and moist banks of rivers from New
Brunswick to Minnesota, south to New Jersey and Kansas.

_Description of plant._—This climbing, shrubby perennial is often
planted as an ornamental, and with its clusters of pretty purplish
flowers and branches of berries ranging in color from green to yellow
and orange, and finally red, occurring on the vine together, it makes a
rather attractive showing. Bittersweet has a climbing, somewhat woody,
branched stem, about 2 to 8 feet long, and oval leaves 2 to 4 inches
long, pointed at the apex, and somewhat heart shaped at the base. Some
of the leaves have one lobe at the base, some three lobes, while others
are entire. The purplish flowers, resembling those of the potato (to
which family, Solanaceæ, this plant belongs), are produced from about
May to September, borne in compound lateral clusters. The fruits, or
berries, which ripen in autumn, are oval, red, and juicy, and contain
numerous whitish seeds. (Fig. 43.) The berries look very tempting, but
they are poisonous, and children have been known to be poisoned by
eating them.

_Description of medicinal part._—The young branches of bittersweet
are the parts employed in medicine, and were official in the United
States Pharmacopœia for 1890. As found in commerce, they consist
of cylindrical pieces of varying length and of not more than about
one-fifth of an inch in thickness, with a greenish gray thin bark,
marked with lengthwise lines. The woody portion is light, and the
center is sometimes hollow, and sometimes shows a spongy pith. There is
but a faint, somewhat narcotic odor, and the taste at first is bitter,
then sweet—“bittersweet.”

_Collection, prices, and uses._—Bittersweet branches are collected when
they are only one or two years old and at a time when the leaves have
fallen. The price paid ranges from 3 to 5 cents a pound.

Bittersweet is used for its diuretic and diaphoretic properties, and,
according to the dose employed, has a quieting, hypnotic influence.


BUTTONBUSH.

_Cephalanthus occidentalis_ L.

[Illustration: FIG. 44.—Buttonbush (_Cephalanthus occidentalis_),
leaves and flowers.]

_Other common names._—Buttonwood, buttonwood-shrub, button-tree,
swamp-dogwood, pond-dogwood, swampwood, river-bush, honey-ball,
pinball, whiteball, little snowball, globeflower, mountain-globeflower,
crane-willow, wild licorice, crouper-bush.

_Habitat and range._—The buttonbush is indigenous to this country, and
flourishes in swamps or damp places from southern Canada to Florida and
California.

_Description of shrub._—This is usually a widely spreading shrub from 3
to 12 feet in height or occasionally a small tree, with large, shining,
dark green leaves, and producing from June to September round heads of
creamy white flowers, the protruding, threadlike styles with the small,
knoblike stigmas giving them the appearance of inserted pins, whence
the name “pinball.” The stems are covered with a rough yellowish bark,
while the smaller branches are smooth and tinged with red. Some of the
leaves are opposite, others ternate—that is, arranged in threes—and are
ovate or ovate lance shaped, pointed, smooth, and glossy, with unbroken
margins, and from 3 to 5 inches long. The flower heads, about 1 inch in
diameter, consist of numerous creamy white, stemless flowers, densely
crowded together in globular form, each flower having a funnel-shaped
corolla with 4-toothed margin, from which the slender style with its
globular stigma protrudes. (Fig. 44.) The small dry fruit is inversely
pear shaped, splitting open into two to four cells, each containing one
seed. The buttonbush belongs to the madder family (Rubiaceæ).

_Description of bark._—The bark occurs commercially in small, curved
pieces, smooth and grayish brown and marked with fine lines if taken
from young trees, furrowed and scaly and of a dull gray color if
collected from older trees. The inner root bark, which is also used,
occurs in shorter pieces, and is of a reddish brown color. The inner
surface of the bark is whitish and smooth, becoming a pale rust color
when it is no longer fresh. It breaks with a tough, fibrous fracture,
and has no odor, but a bitter and somewhat astringent taste.

_Collection, prices, and uses._—The bark is collected from both stem
and root. It brings about 7 cents a pound, but at present there seems
to be no very great demand for it.

Buttonbush bark is used in fevers, and the inner bark is employed in
coughs and as a diuretic.


CRAMP-BARK TREE.

_Viburnum opulus_ L.

_Pharmacopœial name._—Viburnum opulus.

_Other common names._—Cranberry-tree, high-bush cranberry, wild
guelder-rose, gueldres-rose, cherry-wood, dog rowan-tree, whitten-tree,
red elder, rose-elder, marsh-elder, water-elder, white elder, gadrise,
gaiter-tree, gatten, love-rose, May-rose, pincushion-tree, squawbush,
witch-hobble, witch-hopple.

_Habitat and range._—This native shrub occurs in low rich woods and
borders of fields from New Jersey, Michigan, and Oregon, northward.

_Description of shrub._—The whitish flower heads of this species are
borne on stems about 1 inch in length, and measure from 3 to 4 inches
across; the flowers on the outside are large, sometimes an inch in
diameter, and sterile (without stamens or pistils), while those on the
inside of the flower cluster are considerably smaller and fertile.
The cultivated variety of this species, the well-known ornamental
“snowball” of the gardens, has all of its flowers sterile.

The cramp-bark tree grows from 8 to 10 feet high, with branches
generally erect and smooth, and broadly oval, 3-lobed leaves. The
leaves are usually smooth on the upper surface, but with the veins on
the lower surface somewhat hairy, and the margins coarsely toothed. The
showy white flower clusters appear about June. The red fruits, which
ripen rather late in the season and remain on the bush for some time,
are roundish or oval, sour, and contain a round, flat stone. As may be
inferred from some of the common names applied to this shrub, the fruit
in taste and appearance bears some resemblance to the cranberry. The
cramp-bark tree is a member of the honeysuckle family (Caprifoliaceæ).

_Description of bark._—Cramp bark, official in the United States
Pharmacopœia under the name “Viburnum opulus,” is in transversely
curved pieces, sometimes quilled, one-sixteenth of an inch or less in
thickness, the outside grayish brown surface marked with lengthwise
wrinkles and brown lenticels, and the inside pale brown, showing
lengthwise lines. It breaks with a tough, fibrous fracture. There is
practically no odor, and the taste is astringent and bitter.

_Collection, prices, and uses._—Cramp bark is collected in the fall,
and at present is paid for at the rate of about 2 to 4-1/2 cents a
pound.

Cramp bark, as this name indicates, is of use as an antispasmodic, and
is also said to possess nervine, tonic, and astringent properties.


BLACK HAW.

_Viburnum prunifolium_ L.

_Pharmacopœial name._—Viburnum prunifolium.

_Other common names._—Sloe, sloe-leaved viburnum, stagbush.

_Habitat and range._—The black haw occurs in dry woods and thickets
and on rocky hillsides from Connecticut to Florida, west to Michigan
and Texas, but is found in greatest abundance in the South. It is
indigenous to this country.

_Description of shrub._—This shrub or small tree, from 10 to about 20
feet in height, has rather stout, spreading branches. The winter buds
are small, short pointed, smooth, or sometimes with reddish hairs.
Black haw has broadly oval or roundish-oval leaves, blunt or somewhat
pointed at the top, 1 to 3 inches long, with a narrow or rounded base;
they are nearly smooth, bright green, and have a finely toothed margin.
The numerous stemless flower clusters are from 2 to 4 inches broad,
composed of numerous white flowers appearing from April to June. The
fruit, which is sweet and edible, is oval or somewhat roundish, about
half an inch long, bluish black, covered with a bloom, and ripens in
early autumn. It contains a somewhat flattened stone. (Fig. 45.)

[Illustration: FIG. 45.—Black haw and nanny-berry (_Viburnum
prunifolium_ and _V. lentago_), leaves and flowers.]

_Description of bark._—The bark of the stem was formerly official, but
now the dried bark of the root is the part prescribed by the United
States Pharmacopœia, Eighth Decennial Revision. It is in irregular or
quilled pieces, of a dull brown color on the outer surface, somewhat
scaly and with shallow furrows; the inner surface reddish brown, and
the whole breaking with a weak, short, uneven fracture. There is a
faint peculiar odor, and a very bitter, somewhat astringent taste.

_Collection, prices, and uses._—Black haw bark is collected in autumn.
The present prices to collectors are from 3 to 8 cents a pound.

This bark has nervine, antispasmodic, tonic, and diuretic properties.

_Another species._—The sweet viburnum (_Viburnum lentago_ L.), known
also as nanny-berry and sheepberry, is a species which is collected
with _prunifolium_, and, with it, considered official. It grows in rich
soil from Canada south to Georgia and Kansas.

Sweet viburnum is an indigenous shrub or small tree, sometimes as
tall as 30 feet, and somewhat resembling _prunifolium_. The winter
buds, however, are longer pointed and smooth, the leaves have longer
slender stems and are oval, long pointed at the apex, and generally
rounded at the base. They are from 2 to 4 inches long, smooth on both
surfaces, and sharply toothed. The stemless flower clusters, 2 to 5
inches broad, appear about May, followed by the oval, bluish black,
bloom-covered fruit, which matures about October, becoming sweet and
edible. (Fig. 45.) The fruit sometimes remains on the shrub until the
following spring. It contains a very flat, round or oval seed. Like the
cramp-bark tree, the black haw and sweet viburnum both belong to the
honeysuckle family (Caprifoliaceæ).

The bark of the sweet viburnum is also collected in autumn, and is used
like _prunifolium_.




INDEX.


  Page.

  Aesculus glabra and A. hippocastanum. _See_ Chestnut, horse   37-38

  Ague-bark. _See_ Ash, wafer                                   33-34

       tree. _See_ Sassafras                                    25-26

  Alder, American, common, green, notch-leaved, red, smooth,
    speckled, and swamp. _See_ Alder, tag                          18

         black, description                                        34

         false, and white. _See_ Alder, black                      34

         spotted, and striped. _See_ Witch-hazel                27-28

         tag, description                                          18

  Allspice, wild. _See_ Spicebush                               26-27

  Alnus rugosa and A. serrulata. _See_ Alder, tag                  18

  Amara-dulcis. _See_ Bittersweet                               46-47

  Angelica-tree. _See_ Ash, prickly                             31-33

  Arrowwood, Indian. _See_ Wahoo and Dogwood                35, 41-43

  Ash, American mountain, description                           29-30

                white ash, basket-ash, black ash, cane-ash,
                 hoop-ash, swamp-ash, and water-ash. _See_
                 Ash, white                                     44-45

       bitter. _See_ Wahoo                                         35

       flowering, and poison. _See_ Fringe-tree                 45-46

       northern prickly. _See_ Ash, prickly                     31-33

       prickly, description                                     31-33

       sea. _See_ Ash, prickly                                  31-33

       southern prickly. _See_ Ash, prickly                     31-33

       stinking. _See_ Ash, wafer                               33-34

       wafer, description                                       33-34

       white, description                                       44-45

       wild. _See_ Ash, American mountain                       29-30

       yellow prickly. _See_ Ash, prickly                       31-33

  Asp, mountain, and quaking. _See_ Aspen                       11-12

  Aspen, American. _See_ Aspen, description                     11-12

         description                                            11-12

  Auld-wives’-tongues. _See_ Aspen                              11-12


  Barks, approximate prices                                         9

         collection                                               8-9

         dealers, communication necessary                           9

                  samples to be sent                                9

         descriptions                                             9-49

         medicinal, descriptions of trees and shrubs
           furnishing                                             9-49

                    uses                                             8

         methods of drying                                         8-9

                    obtaining                                        8

         official and nonofficial                                    7

         time for collecting                                         8

  Basket-ash. _See under_ Ash, white                             44-45

  Bay, sweet, and white. _See_ Magnolia                          21-23

  Bayberry, description                                             14

           tallow. _See_ Bayberry, description                      14

           wax-tree. _See_ Bayberry, description                    14

  Bearberry-tree. _See_ Cascara sagrada                          38-40

  Bearwood. _See_ Cascara sagrada                                38-40

  Beaver-tree. _See_ Magnolia                                    21-23

  Benjamin-bush. _See_ Spicebush                                 26-27

  Benzoin benzoin and B. odoriferum. _See_ Spicebush             26-27

  Betula lenta. _See_ Birch, sweet                               16-18

  Bindweed, blue. _See_ Bittersweet                              46-47

  Birch, black, cherry, mahogany, river, and spice. _See_
    Birch, sweet                                                 16-18

         sweet, description                                      16-18

  Bittersweet, classification with medicinal barks, explanation      9

               climbing, and shrubby. _See_ Bittersweet, false      36

               description                                       46-47

                 _See also under_ Bittersweet, false.

               false, description                                   36

  Black haw, description                                         48-49

  Blackberry, American, bramble high-bush, high-bush,
    knee-high, low-bush, low-running, and sand. _See_
    Blackberry, description                                      28-29

              description                                        28-29

  Bongay. _See_ Chestnut, horse                                  37-38

  Boxwood, false boxwood, and New England boxwood. _See_ Dogwood 41-43

  Brittle willow. _See under_ Willow, white                      12-13

  Buckeye, fetid, Ohio, and smooth. _See under_ Chestnut, horse  37-38

  Burning-bush. _See_ Wahoo                                         35

  Bursting-heart. _See_ Wahoo                                       35

  Butternut, description                                            15

  Buttonbush, description                                        47-48

  Button-tree, buttonwood, and buttonwood-shrub. _See_
    Buttonbush                                                   47-48


  Cabinet-cherry. _See_ Cherry, wild                             30-31

  Candleberry. _See_ Bayberry                                       14

               myrtle. _See_ Bayberry                               14

  Cane-ash. _See_ Ash, white                                     44-45

  Canoewood. _See_ Poplar, tulip                                 23-25

  Carpinus virginiana. _See_ Ironwood                            15-16

  Cascara sagrada, description                                   38-40

                   trees used annually for drug production           7

  Cedar, Indian. _See_ Ironwood                                  15-16

  Celastrus scandens. _See_ Bittersweet, false                      36

  Cephalanthus occidentalis. _See_ Buttonbush                    47-48

  Cherry-birch. _See_ Birch, sweet                               16-18

         cabinet, rum, whisky, and wild black. _See_ Cherry,
           wild                                                  30-31

         wild, description                                       30-31

         wood. _See_ Cramp-bark tree                                48

  Chestnut, horse, description                                   37-38

  Chionanthus virginica. _See_ Fringe-tree                       45-46

  Chittem-bark. _See_ Cascara sagrada                            38-40

  Choke, black. _See_ Cherry, wild                               30-31

  Cinnamonwood. _See_ Sassafras                                  25-26

  Coffee-berry. _See under_ Cascara sagrada                      38-40

         wild. _See under_ Cascara sagrada                       38-40

  Collection of barks                                              8-9

  Cornel, blue-berried, Florida, flowering, silky, round-leaved,
    and white. _See_ Dogwood                                     41-43

  Cornelian tree, American. _See_ Dogwood                        41-43

  Cornus, C. amomum, C. circinata, C. florida, and C. sericea.
    _See_ Dogwood                                                41-43

  Cotton, American Upland, and Levant. _See_ Cotton, description 40-41

  description                                                    40-41

  Crack willow. _See under_ Willow, white                       12, 13

  Cramp-bark tree, description                                      48

  Cranberry, high-bush. _See_ Cramp-bark tree                       48

             tree. _See_ Cramp-bark tree                            48

  Crane-willow. _See_ Buttonbush                                 47-48

  Crouper-bush. _See_ Buttonbush                                 47-48

  Cucumber tree. _See_ Magnolia, and Poplar, tulip               21-25


  Dealers in medicinal barks, communication necessary                9

                              samples to be sent                     9

  Deal-pine, American, and soft. _See_ Pine, white                9-10

  Deerwood. _See_ Ironwood                                       15-16

  Descriptions of barks                                           9-49

                  trees and shrubs furnishing medicinal barks     9-49

  Dewberry, one-flowered, and southern. _See_ Blackberry         28-29

  Dirca and D. palustris. _See_ Moosewood                        43-44

  Dog rowan-tree. _See_ Cramp-bark tree                             48

  Dogberry. _See_ Ash, American mountain                         29-30

  Dogwood, American, female, Florida, flowering, round-leaved,
    and Virginia. _See_ Dogwood, description                     41-43

          description                                            41-43

          pond. _See_ Buttonbush                                 47-48

          swamp. _See_ Ash, wafer, Dogwood, and
            Buttonbush                             33-34, 41-43, 47-48

  Duck-willow. _See_ Willow, white                               12-13

  Dulcamara. _See_ Bittersweet                                   46-47

  Dwale. _See_ Bittersweet                                       46-47


  Elder, marsh, red, rose, water, and white. _See_ Cramp-bark
    tree                                                            48

  Elkwood. _See_ Magnolia                                        21-23

  Elm, Indian, moose, red, rock, and sweet. _See_ Elm, slippery  20-21

       slippery, description                                     20-21

  Euonymus, E. americanus, and E. atropurpureus. _See_ Wahoo        35


  Fagara clava-herculis. _See_ Ash, prickly                      31-33

  Felonwort. _See_ Bittersweet                                   46-47

  Feverbush. _See_ Spicebush, and Alder, black               26-27, 34

  Fevertwig. _See_ Bittersweet, false; _also_ Bittersweet    36, 46-47

  Fever-twitch. _See_ Bittersweet, false                            36

  Fingerberry. _See_ Blackberry                                  28-29

  Fraxinus acuminata, F. alba, F. americana, F. nigra, and F.
    sambucifolia. _See_ Ash, white                               44-45

  Fringe-tree, American, and white. _See_ Fringe-tree,
    description                                                  45-46

               description                                       45-46


  Gadrise. _See_ Cramp-bark tree                                    48

  Gaiter-tree. _See_ Cramp-bark tree                                48

  Gatten. _See_ Cramp-bark tree                                     48

  Globeflower and mountain-globeflower. _See_ Buttonbush         47-48

  Gossypium herbaceum and G. hirsutum. _See_ Cotton              40-41

  Grape, wolf. _See_ Bittersweet                                 46-47

  Graybeard-tree. _See_ Fringe-tree                              45-46

  Guelder-rose, wild. _See_ Cramp-bark tree                         48

  Gueldres-rose. _See_ Cramp-bark tree                              48


  Hackmatack. _See_ Tamarack                                     10-11

  Hamamelis and H. virginiana. _See_ Witch-hazel                 27-28

  Haw, black, description                                        48-49

  Hazel, black. _See_ Ironwood                                   15-16

         snapping. _See_ Witch-hazel                             27-28

         witch, description                                      27-28

         wych. _See_ Witch-hazel                                 27-28

  Hercules-club. _See_ Ash, prickly                              31-33

           yellow. _See_ Ash, prickly                            31-33

  Hickory-poplar. _See_ Poplar, tulip                            23-25

  Hippocastanum. _See_ Chestnut, horse                           37-38

  Honey-ball. _See_ Buttonbush                                   47-48

  Hoop-ash. _See under_ Ash, white                               44-45

  Hop-hornbeam. _See_ Ironwood                                   15-16

      tree and three-leaved hop-tree. _See_ Ash, wafer           33-34

  Hornbeam, hop. _See_ Ironwood                                  15-16

  Horse-chestnut, description                                    37-38

  Huntington willow. _See_ Willow, white                         12-13


  Ilex verticillata. _See_ Alder, black                             34

  Indian arrowwood. _See_ Wahoo and Dogwood                  35, 41-43

         cedar. _See_ Ironwood                                   15-16

         elm. _See_ Elm, slippery                                20-21

         mozemize. _See_ Ash, American mountain                  29-30

  Introduction to bulletin                                         7-8

  Ironwood, description                                          15-16


  Jacob’s-ladder. _See_ Bittersweet, false                          36

  Juglans and J. cinerea. _See_ Butternut                           15


  Kinnikinnick. _See under_ Dogwood                                 43

  Konker-tree. _See_ Chestnut, horse                             37-38


  Larch, American, black, and red. _See_ Tamarack                10-11

  Larix americana and L. laricina. _See_ Tamarack                10-11

  Laurel, swamp. _See_ Magnolia                                  21-23

  Laurus benzoin. _See_ Spicebush                                26-27

  Leatherbush and leatherwood. _See_ Moosewood                   43-44

  Leaverwood. _See_ Moosewood                                    43-44

  Lemon-walnut. _See_ Butternut                                     15

  Leverwood. _See_ Ironwood and Moosewood                 15-16, 43-44

  Licorice, wild. _See_ Buttonbush                               47-48

  Life-of-man. _See_ Ash, American mountain                      29-30

  Lindera benzoin. _See_ Spicebush                               26-27

  Liriodendron and L. tulipifera. _See_ Poplar, tulip            23-25

  Love-rose. _See_ Cramp-bark tree                                  48

  Lyre-tree. _See_ Poplar, tulip                                 23-25


  Magnolia acuminata, M. glauca, M. tripetala, M. umbrella,
    and M. virginiana. _See_ Magnolia, description               21-23

           blue, mountain, and sweet. _See_ Magnolia,
            description                                          21-23

           description                                           21-23

  Mahogany-birch. _See_ Birch, sweet                             16-18

           mountain. _See_ Birch, sweet                          16-18

  Marketing barks for medicinal use, remarks                         9

  Marsh-elder. _See_ Cramp-bark tree                                48

  May-rose. _See_ Cramp-bark tree                                   48

  Medicine, uses of barks                                            8

  Methods of drying barks                                          8-9

             obtaining barks                                         8

  Mezereon, American. _See_ Moosewood                            43-44

  Missey-moosey. _See_ Ash, American mountain                    29-30

  Moose-elm. _See_ Elm, slippery                                 20-21

        misse. _See_ Ash, American mountain                      29-30

  Moosewood, description                                         43-44

  Morrel. _See_ Bittersweet                                      46-47

  Mountain-ash, American, description                            29-30

           asp. _See_ Aspen                                      11-12

           globeflower. _See_ Buttonbush                         47-48

           magnolia. _See_ Magnolia                              21-23

           mahogany. _See_ Birch, sweet                          16-18

           sumac. _See_ Ash, American mountain                   29-30

  Mozemize, Indian. _See_ Ash, American mountain                 29-30

  Myrica cerifera. _See_ Bayberry                                   14

  Myrtle, candleberry. _See_ Bayberry                               14

          wax. _See_ Bayberry                                       14


  Nanny-berry. _See under_ Haw, black                            48-49

  Nature’s-mistake. _See_ Dogwood                                41-43

  Nightshade, climbing nightshade, and woody nightshade. _See_
  Bittersweet                                                    46-47

  Northern pine. _See_ Pine, white                                9-10

           prickly ash. _See_ Ash, prickly                       31-33


  Oak, stave, and stone. _See_ Oak, white                        18-20

       white, description                                        18-20

  Oilnut. _See_ Butternut                                           15

  Old-man’s-beard. _See_ Fringe-tree                             45-46

  Orange-root, climbing. _See_ Bittersweet, false                   36

         wild. _See_ Ash, prickly                                31-33

  Osier, golden. _See under_ Willow, white                          13

         green, and red. _See under_ Dogwood                        43

  Ostrya virginiana. _See_ Ironwood                              15-16


  Pegwood. _See_ Wahoo                                              35

  Pellitory-bark. _See_ Ash, prickly                             31-33

  Pepperwood. _See_ Ash, prickly                                 31-33

  Persiana bark. _See_ Cascara sagrada                           38-40

  Pickaway-anise. _See_ Ash, wafer                               33-34

  Pinball. _See_ Buttonbush                                      47-48

  Pincushion-tree. _See_ Cramp-bark tree                            48

  Pine, American deal, American white, northern, soft deal,
    spruce, and Weymouth. _See_ Pine, white                       9-10

        white, description                                        9-10

  Pinus strobus. _See_ Pine, white                                9-10

  Poison-ash. _See_ Fringe-tree                                  45-46

         berry and poison-flower. _See_ Bittersweet              46-47

  Pond-dogwood. _See_ Buttonbush                                 47-48

  Poplar, American. _See_ Aspen                                  11-12

          blue, and hickory. _See_ Poplar, tulip                 23-25

          trembling. _See_ Aspen                                 11-12

          tulip, description                                     23-25

          white. _See_ Aspen                                     11-12

          yellow. _See_ Poplar, tulip                            23-25

  Populus tremuloides. _See_ Aspen                               11-12

  Prairie-bush, stinking. _See_ Ash, wafer                       33-34

          grub. _See_ Ash, wafer                                 33-34

  Prices, approximate, of medicinal barks                            9

  Prickly ash, description                                       31-33

               northern, southern, and yellow. _See_ Ash,
                 prickly                                         31-33

  Prinos and P. verticillata. _See_ Alder, black                    34

  Prune-bark, Virginian. _See_ Cherry, wild                      30-31

  Prunus serotina and P. virginiana. _See_ Cherry, wild          30-31

  Ptelea and P. trifoliata. _See_ Ash, wafer                     33-34

  Purshiana bark. _See_ Cascara sagrada                          38-40

  Pushion-berry. _See_ Bittersweet                               46-47

  Pussy-willow. _See under_ Willow, white                           13

  Pyrus americana. _See_ Ash, American mountain                  29-30


  Quaking asp. _See_ Aspen                                       11-12

  Quercus and Q. alba. _See_ Oak, white                          18-20

  Quick-beam. _See_ Ash, American mountain                       29-30

  Quinine-tree. _See_ Ash, wafer                                 33-34

  Quiverleaf. _See_ Aspen                                        11-12


  Red-brush. _See under_ Dogwood                                    43

      rod. _See under_ Dogwood                                      43

  Rhamnus californica and R. purshiana. _See_ Cascara sagrada    38-40

  River-birch. _See_ Birch, sweet                                16-18

        bush. _See_ Buttonbush                                   47-48

  Rock-elm. _See_ Elm, slippery                                  20-21

  Rope-bark. _See_ Moosewood                                     43-44

  Rose-elder. _See_ Cramp-bark tree                                 48

       gueldres, love, and May. _See_ Cramp-bark tree               48

       willow. _See under_ Dogwood                                  43

  Round-tree and roundwood. _See_ Ash, American mountain         29-30

  Rowan-tree, American. _See_ Ash, American mountain             29-30

              dog. _See_ Cramp-bark tree                            48

  Roxbury waxwork. _See_ Bittersweet, false                         36

  Rubus, R. canadensis, R. cuneifolius, R. nigrobaccus, R.
    procumbens, R. trivialis, and R. villosus. _See_ Blackberry  28-29

  Rum-cherry. _See_ Cherry, wild                                 30-31


  Sacred bark. _See_ Cascara sagrada                             38-40

  Saddle-leaf and saddle-tree. _See_ Poplar, tulip               23-25

  Salix, S. alba, S. alba var. vitellina, S. fragilis, and S.
    nigra. _See_ Willow, white                                   12-13

  Saloop. _See_ Sassafras                                        25-26

  Sand-blackberry. _See_ Blackberry                              28-29

  Sang-tree. _See_ Ash, wafer                                    33-34

  Sassafras, description                                         25-26

             officinale, S. sassafras, and S. variifolium.
               _See_ Sassafras, description                      25-26

             swamp. _See_ Magnolia                               21-23

  Saxifrax. _See_ Sassafras                                      25-26

  Scarlet-berry. _See_ Bittersweet                               46-47

  Sea-ash. _See_ Ash, prickly                                    31-33

  Service-tree, American. _See_ Ash, American mountain           29-30

  Shavings. _See_ Fringe-tree                                    45-46

  Sheepberry. _See under_ Haw, black                             48-49

  Shittimwood. _See_ Cascara sagrada                             38-40

  Shrubs and trees furnishing medicinal barks, descriptions       9-49

  Skawcoo. _See_ Bittersweet                                     46-47

  Slippery elm, description                                      20-21

  Sloe. _See_ Haw, black                                         48-49

  Smelling-stick. _See_ Sassafras                                25-26

  Snakeberry. _See_ Bittersweet                                  46-47

  Snapwood. _See_ Spicebush                                      26-27

  Snowball, little. _See_ Buttonbush                             47-48

  Snowdrop-tree. _See_ Fringe-tree                               45-46

  Snow-flower. _See_ Fringe-tree                                 45-46

  Solanum dulcamara, classification with medicinal barks,
    explanation. _See also_ Bittersweet 9,                       46-47

  Sorbus americana. _See_ Ash, American mountain                 29-30

  Southern prickly ash. _See_ Ash, prickly                       31-33

  Spice-birch. _See_ Birch, sweet                                16-18

  Spicebush, description                                         26-27

  Spicewood. _See_ Spicebush                                     26-27

  Spindle-tree and American spindle-tree. _See_ Wahoo               35

  Spruce-pine. _See_ Pine, white                                  9-10

  Squawbush. _See under_ Dogwood and Cramp-bark tree            43, 48

  Staff-tree and climbing staff-tree. _See_ Bittersweet, false      36

  vine. _See_ Bittersweet, false                                    36

  Stagbush. _See_ Haw, black                                     48-49

  Stave-oak. _See_ Oak, white                                    18-20

  Stone-oak. _See_ Oak, white                                    18-20

  Strawberry-bush and strawberry-tree. _See_ Wahoo                  35

  Sumac, mountain. _See_ Ash, American mountain                  29-30

  Suterberry. _See_ Ash, prickly                                 31-33

  Swamp-alder. _See_ Alder, tag                                     18

        ash. _See under_ Ash, white                              44-45

        dogwood. _See_ Ash, wafer, Dogwood, and
         Buttonbush                                33-34, 41-43, 47-48

        laurel. _See_ Magnolia                                   21-23

        sassafras. _See_ Magnolia                                21-23

        willow. _See under_ Willow, white                           13

  Swampwood. _See_ Moosewood and Buttonbush               43-44, 47-48

  Sweet bay                                                      21-23

        birch, description                                       16-18

        viburnum. _See_ Haw, black                               48-49

  Tag-alder, description                                            18

  Tallow-bayberry. _See_ Bayberry                                   14

         shrub. _See_ Bayberry                                      14

         tree, American vegetable. _See_ Bayberry                   14

         vegetable. _See_ Bayberry                                  14

  Tamarack, description                                          10-11

  Tether-devil. _See_ Bittersweet                                46-47

  Tobacco-wood. _See_ Witch-hazel                                27-28

  Toothache-bush and toothache-tree. _See_ Ash, prickly          31-33

  Trees and shrubs furnishing medicinal barks, descriptions       9-49

  Trefoil, shrubby. _See_ Ash, wafer                             33-34

  Tulip-poplar, description                                      23-25

        tree. _See_ Poplar, tulip                                23-25


  Ulmus, U. fulva, and U. pubescens. _See_ Elm, slippery         20-21

  Umbrella-tree. _See_ Magnolia                                  21-23


  Vegetable-tallow. _See_ Bayberry                                  14

                   tree, American. _See_ Bayberry                   14

            wax, American. _See_ Bayberry                           14

  Viburnum lentago and V. prunifolium. _See_ Haw, black          48-49

           opulus. _See_ Cramp-bark tree                            48

           sloe-leaved, and sweet. _See_ Haw, black              48-49

  Violet-bloom. _See_ Bittersweet                                46-47


  Wafer-ash, description                                         33-34

  Wahoo, description                                                35

  Walnut, lemon, and white. _See_ Butternut                         15

  Water-ash. _See under_ Ash, white                              44-45

        elder. _See_ Cramp-bark tree                                48

  Waxberry. _See_ Bayberry                                          14

  Wax-myrtle. _See_ Bayberry                                        14

      tree, bayberry. _See_ Bayberry                                14

  Waxwork and Roxbury waxwork. _See_ Bittersweet, false             36

  West Indian yellowwood. _See_ Ash, prickly                     31-33

  Weymouth pine. _See_ Pine, white                                9-10

  Whisky-cherry. _See_ Cherry, wild                              30-31

  Whiteball. _See_ Buttonbush                                    47-48

  Whitewood. _See_ Poplar, tulip                                 23-25

  Whitten-tree. _See_ Cramp-bark tree                               48

  Wickopy and wickup. _See_ Moosewood                            43-44

  Willow, black, brittle, common European, crack, duck,
    Huntington, pussy, and swamp. _See_ Willow, white            12-13

          crane. _See_ Buttonbush                                47-48

          red, and rose. _See under_ Dogwood                        43

          white, description                                     12-13

  Wine-tree. _See_ Ash, American mountain                        29-30

  Wingseed. _See_ Ash, wafer                                     33-34

  Winterberry, common, and Virginia. _See_ Alder, black             34

  Winterbloom. _See_ Witch-hazel                                 27-28

  Witch-hazel, description                                       27-28

        hobble and witch-hopple. _See_ Cramp-bark tree              48

  Witchwood. _See_ Ash, American mountain                        29-30

  Wolf-grape. _See_ Bittersweet                                  46-47

  Wych-hazel. _See_ Witch-hazel                                  27-28


  Xanthoxylum, X. americanum, X. carolinianum, X.
    clava-herculis, and X. fraxineum. _See_ Ash, prickly         31-33


  Yellowroot. _See_ Bittersweet, false                              36

  Yellowthorn. _See_ Ash, prickly                                31-33

  Yellowwood, prickly, and West Indian. _See_ Ash, prickly       31-33




BULLETINS OF THE BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY.


The scientific and technical publications of the Bureau of Plant
Industry, which was organized July 1, 1901, are issued in a single
series of bulletins, a list of which follows.

Attention is directed to the fact that the publications in this series
are not for general distribution. The Superintendent of Documents,
Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C., is authorized by law
to sell them at cost, and to him all applications for these bulletins
should be made, accompanied by a postal money order for the required
amount or by cash. Numbers omitted from this list can not be furnished.

No. 1. The Relation of Lime and Magnesia to Plant Growth. 1901. Price,
10 cents.

  2. Spermatogenesis and Fecundation of Zamia. 1901. Price, 20 cents.

  3. Macaroni Wheats. 1901. Price, 20 cents.

  4. Range Improvement in Arizona. 1901. Price, 10 cents.

  6. A List of American Varieties of Peppers. 1902. Price, 10 cents.

  7. The Algerian Durum Wheats. 1902. Price, 15 cents.

  9. The North American Species of Spartina. 1902. Price, 10 cents.

  10. Records of Seed Distribution, etc. 1902. Price, 10 cents.

  11. Johnson Grass. 1902. Price, 10 cents.

  12. Stock Ranges of Northwestern California. 1902. Price, 15 cents.

  13. Range Improvement in Central Texas. 1902. Price, 10 cents.

  15. Forage Conditions on the Border of the Great Basin. 1902. Price,
  15 cents.

  17. Some Diseases of the Cowpea. 1902. Price, 10 cents.

  20. Manufacture of Semolina and Macaroni. 1902. Price, 15 cents.

  22. Injurious Effects of Premature Pollination. 1902. Price, 10 cents.

  24. Unfermented Grape Must. 1902. Price, 10 cents.

  25. Miscellaneous Papers. 1903. Price, 15 cents.

  27. Letters on Agriculture in the West Indies, Spain, etc. 1902.
  Price, 15 cents.

  29. The Effect of Black-Rot on Turnips. 1903. Price, 15 cents.

  31. Cultivated Forage Crops of the Northwestern States. 1902. Price,
  10 cents.

  32. A Disease of the White Ash. 1903. Price, 10 cents.

  33. North American Species of Leptochloa. 1903. Price, 15 cents.

  35. Recent Foreign Explorations. 1903. Price, 15 cents.

  36. The “Bluing” of the Western Yellow Pine, etc. 1903. Price, 30
  cents.

  37. Formation of the Spores in the Sporangia of Rhizopus Nigricans
  and of Phycomyces Nitens. 1903. Price, 15 cents.

  38. Forage Conditions in Eastern Washington, etc. 1903. Price, 15
  cents.

  39. The Propagation of the Easter Lily from Seed. 1903. Price, 10
  cents.

  41. The Commercial Grading of Corn. 1903. Price, 10 cents.

  43. Japanese Bamboos. 1903. Price, 10 cents.

  45. Physiological Rôle of Mineral Nutrients in Plants. 1903. Price, 5
  cents.

  47. The Description of Wheat Varieties. 1903. Price, 10 cents.

  48. The Apple in Cold Storage. 1903. Price, 15 cents.

  49. Culture of the Central American Rubber Tree. 1903. Price, 25
  cents.

  50. Wild Rice: Its Uses and Propagation. 1903. Price, 10 cents.

  51. Miscellaneous Papers. 1905. Price, 5 cents.

  54. Persian Gulf Dates. 1903. Price, 10 cents.

  55. The Dry-Rot of Potatoes. 1904. Price, 10 cents.

  56. Nomenclature of the Apple. 1905. Price, 30 cents.

  57. Methods Used for Controlling Sand Dunes. 1904. Price, 10 cents.

  58. The Vitality and Germination of Seeds. 1904. Price, 10 cents.

  59. Pasture, Meadow, and Forage Crops in Nebraska. 1904. Price, 10
  cents.

  60. A Soft Rot of the Calla Lily. 1904. Price, 10 cents.

  62. Notes on Egyptian Agriculture. 1904. Price, 10 cents.

  63. Investigation of Rusts. 1904. Price, 10 cents.

  64. A Method of Destroying or Preventing the Growth of Algæ and
  Certain Pathogenic Bacteria in Water Supplies. 1904. Price, 5 cents.

  65. Reclamation of Cape Cod Sand Dunes. 1904. Price, 10 cents.

  67. Range Investigations in Arizona. 1904. Price, 15 cents.

  68. North American Species of Agrostis. 1905. Price, 10 cents.

  69. American Varieties of Lettuce. 1904. Price, 15 cents.

  70. The Commercial Status of Durum Wheat. 1904. Price, 10 cents.

  71. Soil Inoculation for Legumes. 1905. Price, 15 cents.

  72. Miscellaneous Papers. 1905. Price, 5 cents.

  73. The Development of Single-Germ Beet Seed. 1905. Price, 10 cents.

  74. Prickly Pear and Other Cacti as Food for Stock. 1905. Price, 5
  cents.

  75. Range Management in the State of Washington. 1905. Price, 5 cents.

  76. Copper as an Algicide and Disinfectant in Water Supplies. 1905.
  Price, 5 cents.

  77. The Avocado, a Salad Fruit from the Tropics. 1905. Price, 5 cents.

  78. Improving the Quality of Wheat. 1905. Price, 10 cents.

  79. Variability of Wheat Varieties in Resistance to Toxic Salts.
  1905. Price, 5 cents.

  80. Agricultural Explorations in Algeria. 1905. Price, 10 cents.

  81. Evolution of Cellular Structures. 1905. Price, 5 cents.

  82. Grass Lands of the South Alaska Coast. 1905. Price, 10 cents.

  83. The Vitality of Buried Seeds. 1905. Price, 5 cents.

  84. The Seeds of the Bluegrasses. 1905. Price, 5 cents.

  86. Agriculture without Irrigation in the Sahara Desert. 1905. Price,
  5 cents.

  87. Disease Resistance of Potatoes. 1905. Price, 5 cents.

  88. Weevil-Resisting Adaptations of the Cotton Plant. 1906. Price, 10
  cents.

  89. Wild Medicinal Plants of the United States. 1906. Price, 5 cents.

  90. Miscellaneous Papers. 1906. Price, 5 cents.

  91. Varieties of Tobacco Seed Distributed, etc. 1906. Price, 5 cents.

  94. Farm Practice with Forage Crops in Western Oregon, etc. 1906.
  Price, 10 cents.

  95. A New Type of Red Clover. 1906. Price, 10 cents.

  96. Tobacco Breeding. 1907. Price, 15 cents.

  98. Soy Bean Varieties. 1907. Price, 15 cents.

  99. Quick Method for Determination of Moisture in Grain. 1907. Price,
  5 cents.

  100. Miscellaneous Papers. 1907. Price, 25 cents.

  101. Contents of and Index to Bulletins Nos. 1 to 100. 1907. Price,
  15 cents.

  102. Miscellaneous Papers. 1907. Price, 15 cents.

  103. Dry Farming in the Great Basin. 1907. Price, 10 cents.

  104. The Use of Feldspathic Rocks as Fertilizers. 1907. Price, 5
  cents.

  105. Relation of Composition of Leaf to Burning Qualities of Tobacco.
  1907. Price, 10 cents.

  106. Seeds and Plants Imported. Inventory No. 12. 1907. Price, 15
  cents.

  107. American Root Drugs. 1907. Price, 15 cents.

  108. The Cold Storage of Small Fruits. 1907. Price, 15 cents.

  110. Cranberry Diseases. 1907. Price, 20 cents.

  111. Miscellaneous Papers. 1907. Price, 15 cents.

  112. Use of Suprarenal Glands in the Physiological Testing of Drug
  Plants. 1907. Price, 10 cents.

  113. Comparative Tolerance of Plants for Salts Common in Alkali
  Soils. 1907. Price, 5 cents.

  114. Sap-Rot and Other Diseases of the Red Gum. 1907. Price, 15 cents.

  115. Disinfection of Sewage Effluents for Protection of Water
  Supplies. 1907. Price, 10 cents.

  116. The Tuna as Food for Man. 1907. Price, 25 cents.

  117. The Reseeding of Depleted Range and Native Pastures. 1907.
  Price, 10 cents.

  118. Peruvian Alfalfa. 1907. Price, 10 cents.

  119. The Mulberry and Other Silkworm Food Plants. 1907. Price, 10
  cents.

  120. Production of Easter Lily Bulbs in the United States. 1908.
  Price, 10 cents.

  121. Miscellaneous Papers. 1908. Price, 15 cents.

  122. Curly-Top, a Disease of Sugar Beets. 1908. Price, 15 cents.

  123. The Decay of Oranges in Transit from California. 1908. Price, 20
  cents.

  124. The Prickly Pear as a Farm Crop. 1908. Price, 10 cents.

  125. Dry-Land Olive Culture in Northern Africa. 1908. Price, 10 cents.

  126. Nomenclature of the Pear. 1908. Price, 30 cents.

  127. The Improvement of Mountain Meadows. 1908. Price, 10 cents.

  128. Egyptian Cotton in the Southwestern United States. 1908. Price,
  15 cents.

  129. Barium, a Cause of the Loco-Weed Disease. 1908. Price, 10 cents.

  130. Dry-Land Agriculture. 1908. Price, 10 cents.

  131. Miscellaneous Papers. 1908. Price, 10 cents.

  132. Seeds and Plants Imported. Inventory No. 13. 1908. Price, 20
  cents.

  133. Peach, Apricot, and Prune Kernels as By-Products of the Fruit
  Industry of the United States. 1908. Price, 5 cents.

  134. The Influence of a Mixture of Soluble Salts, Principally Sodium
  Chlorid, upon the Leaf Structure and Transpiration of Wheat, Oats,
  and Barley. 1908. Price, 5 cents.

  135. Orchard Fruits in the Piedmont and Blue Ridge Regions of
  Virginia and the South Atlantic States. 1908. Price, 20 cents.

  136. Methods and Causes of Evolution. 1908. Price, 10 cents.

  137. Seeds and Plants Imported. Inventory No. 14. 1909. Price, 10
  cents.

  138. The Production of Cigar-Wrapper Tobacco under Shade in the
  Connecticut Valley. 1908. Price, 15 cents.




TRANSCRIBER’S NOTES

  - A word seems to be missing between “considerable” and “of the woody
  portion” in “Description of wood and bark” section of the “Ironwood”
  entry. Nothing was added to it since it is not clear what word is
  missing.

  - Clear typos and wrong punctuation were corrected.

  - Inconsistent hyphenation has been corrected.

  - There is a list of works divided in two parts in the original
  publication, with one part at the beginning and another at the end.
  They have been merged and moved to the end in this edition.

  - Footnotes have been renumbered and moved to the end of their
  sections.

  - The original entry for Magnolia umbrella has both a “(2)” and a “(3)”
    item. They have been renumbered to “(1)” and “(2),” respectively.

  - Text between _underscores_ represent italics.




*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 77360 ***