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+*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 77246 ***
+
+                         SAFE FOUNDRY PRACTICE
+
+
+                Reasons for selecting THE TRAVELERS for
+
+                         Workmen’s Compensation
+                       _and_ Employers’ Liability
+
+                         INSURANCE AND SERVICE
+
+ It is the Greatest Casualty Company.
+
+ It has splendid resources, conservatively managed.
+
+ It is forward-looking in its ideas.
+
+ It provides unsurpassed service in the administration of claims and
+ the prevention of accidents.
+
+ It is a multiple line company affording those who require several
+ kinds of insurance an opportunity to obtain them all in the same
+ company--and thus obtain the highest possible quality of service,
+ _Entirely Free_.
+
+ The Travelers has spent more than $6,500,000 for the prevention of
+ accidents by inspection
+
+
+                    THE TRAVELERS INSURANCE COMPANY
+                    THE TRAVELERS INDEMNITY COMPANY
+                         HARTFORD, CONNECTICUT
+
+                    _Lines written by The TRAVELERS_
+
+          include LIFE, ACCIDENT and HEALTH, GROUP, WORKMEN’S
+         COMPENSATION, EMPLOYERS’ LIABILITY, PUBLIC LIABILITY,
+              AUTOMOBILE, AIRCRAFT, STEAM BOILER, ENGINE,
+                   ELEVATOR, BURGLARY and PLATE GLASS
+
+
+
+
+                              SAFE FOUNDRY
+                                PRACTICE
+
+
+                    THE TRAVELERS INSURANCE COMPANY
+                         HARTFORD, CONNECTICUT
+
+21381. 12-29-’19.
+
+
+
+
+                          Copyright, 1920, by
+                    THE TRAVELERS INSURANCE COMPANY,
+                         Hartford, Connecticut
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE
+
+
+The foundry, viewing it from all angles, presents one of the greatest
+problems in the industrial world. The fact that the production of
+castings depends not only on a mechanical process, but also on a
+chemical process, makes it specially difficult to fasten upon any
+individual the responsibility for imperfect work. And yet there is
+a definite (even though unassignable) reason for the loss of every
+defective casting produced,--some one member of the department failed
+in properly performing his part of the work. Every man must therefore
+be taught to appreciate the importance of his own particular task,
+and must be impressed with the necessity of performing that task
+conscientiously, and as correctly and efficiently as he can. There
+should be a spirit of cooperation as earnest and sincere as that which
+prevails in a beehive, where every worker performs the task of the
+moment with singleness of purpose, and with no thought or motive other
+than the production of the best final result, from the united labors of
+all. The development of a point of view of this nature among the men
+will also have a profound effect in the way of reducing accidents,--a
+greater effect, in fact, than could be realized by any other single
+means.
+
+One of the problems that must receive special consideration in
+connection with accident-prevention work in foundries relates to the
+class of persons employed. It is not necessary to employ skilled
+labor for all the operations in the foundry, and for that reason
+a certain portion of the work is intrusted to unskilled help,--to
+men, namely, who do not understand the necessity for safety methods.
+The most practical and effective way of dealing with a situation
+of this kind is to adopt the team-work idea--that is, to teach
+cooperation--and to introduce a well-organized safety department
+that will educate the men to the extent of developing in them sound
+and correct accident-prevention ideals. Useful practical suggestions
+for accomplishing this, and for making the accident-prevention work
+effective, are given in a booklet entitled “_Organization in Safety
+Work_”, which is published by the Engineering and Inspection Division
+of THE TRAVELERS INSURANCE COMPANY.
+
+Even the best-equipped, most orderly, and most effectively organized
+foundry is not free from accidents, and it is too much to expect
+that complete immunity will ever be possible. The experience of many
+concerns that have adopted safety methods in their foundries shows,
+however, that it is possible to eliminate a large proportion of the
+commoner causes of accidents, without much expense and without any
+serious disturbance of existing conditions. The Engineering and
+Inspection Division of THE TRAVELERS INSURANCE COMPANY, in the course
+of its extensive experience with foundries, has given a great deal of
+study to this subject, and the recommendations and suggestions that it
+has made in the course of its practical inspection work have been well
+received by foundry managers, and have been particularly effective in
+bringing about better and safer conditions. The present booklet, based
+upon this study and experience, contains some of the suggestions that
+have been found to be most serviceable and important in dealing with
+the accident-prevention problem in its broader phases. Every foundry
+has important special safety problems of its own, which must be dealt
+with effectively if the best results are to be obtained; but to include
+all features of this kind would swell this booklet to such dimensions
+that its effectiveness and usefulness would be impaired. We have
+therefore confined our attention to danger-points of wide and almost
+universal occurrence.
+
+There are few machines in foundries in comparison with the number in
+industrial plants of many other kinds. The machines that are used,
+however, must be provided with guards at all points where accidents
+might occur, and the necessary special guards have been described
+in more or less detail in the following pages. The construction and
+arrangement of the various forms of guards for belts and pulleys are
+not fully explained, but it should be understood that these are to
+comply with the standards approved by the Industrial Compensation
+Rating Bureau. The Engineering and Inspection Division of THE TRAVELERS
+INSURANCE COMPANY will furnish upon request, copies of an illustrated
+pamphlet entitled “_Industrial Standards_,” which clearly explains the
+requirements of the Bureau.
+
+In the main, the present booklet deals with iron foundries; but we have
+also included certain special hazards that are encountered chiefly in
+foundries where other metals are cast.
+
+       THE TRAVELERS INSURANCE COMPANY,
+                      Hartford, Connecticut.
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS
+
+
+                                   PAGE
+  Introductory                        1
+  Clothing                            1
+  Shoes and leggings                  2
+  Eye-protectors                      3
+  Gloves                              4
+  Aprons and rubber boots             5
+  Ladles                              5
+  Flasks and molds                   16
+  Crucibles                          19
+  Cupolas                            30
+  Traveling cranes                   35
+  Chains and hooks                   44
+  Wire-rope slings                   45
+  Slings in general                  46
+  Hoisting apparatus in general      47
+  Tumbling barrels                   47
+  Sand mixers and sifters            49
+  Automatic molding machines         50
+  Chipping department                50
+  Grinding wheels                    52
+  Compressed air                     52
+  Sand-blasting                      53
+  Illumination                       56
+  The foundry yard                   58
+
+
+
+
+SAFE FOUNDRY PRACTICE
+
+
+Introductory.
+
+According to the best statistics available, it appears that about
+eighty per cent. of the injuries received in foundries are in the
+nature of burns of greater or lesser severity; the remaining twenty
+per cent. being caused by defective hooks, chains, slings, flasks,
+mold-boards, bottom-boards, and other equipment, and by unguarded
+machinery, by falls and falling objects, and, indirectly, by inadequate
+illumination, poor ventilation, and other similar general conditions.
+Suitable clothing and shoes will materially reduce the severity of
+foundry burns, and will entirely eliminate many of them. Approved
+protection of this kind is described in the following pages, together
+with safeguards for various machines, and advice is also given with
+regard to precautions to be taken for the prevention of accidents in
+handling the various tools and appliances that are used in foundries.
+
+
+Clothing.
+
+Suitable clothing is an important factor in protecting foundry workers
+from burns. Ordinary cotton shirts and overalls afford but little
+protection, because molten metal burns through them almost instantly;
+and although the legs and feet are the parts of the body most often
+burned in the foundry, it is advisable for the men to wear shirts (as
+well as trousers) made of a thick, stout, hard-finished material,
+such as khaki (twilled cotton), which will shed the molten metal to
+some extent. The bottoms of the trouser-legs should never be rolled
+or folded up, and there should be no other folds, nor any creases
+or pockets in the clothing, in which molten metal or highly-heated
+particles of any kind may lodge. Torn garments and those having holes
+in them are unsafe, and should not be worn. Woolen undershirts furnish
+the best protection against “shot” or molten metal, but on account of
+the intense heat to which foundrymen are exposed it is hard to get the
+men to wear them, particularly during the summer months.
+
+
+Shoes and Leggings.
+
+The number of burns received by foundry workers on the feet and legs
+may be greatly reduced or almost entirely eliminated by the use of
+proper shoes and leggings. These should be worn by every foundry worker
+who has to handle molten metal, or who is exposed to it, and no one
+should be permitted to work without them, where the danger of such
+burns exists. Strong, substantial, well-made shoes of the “congress”
+type are the most suitable for general wear in foundries, because when
+they are in good condition they contain no holes through which molten
+metal may enter, while in laced and buttoned shoes there are many such
+openings. Moreover, congress shoes may be quickly and easily removed
+when hot metal is spilled upon them. Low-cut or Oxford shoes should
+never be worn by foundry workers.
+
+Suitable leggings are almost as necessary as good, serviceable
+shoes. Under some conditions safety requires that the leggings be of
+asbestos or leather, but for general foundry work canvas or twilled
+cotton of good quality may be used. These materials will meet with
+all but the most severe requirements. The leggings, like the shoes
+previously described, should be fastened in such a way that they may
+be quickly and easily removed, and ordinary buckles are therefore
+unsuitable. Laces and buttons are likewise unsatisfactory, and any
+type of fastening that forms projections upon which molten metal may
+lodge does not afford the best sort of protection. Flat spring clasps,
+properly inclosed, at the top and bottom of the leggings, are the most
+satisfactory type of fastening devised up to the present time. The
+leggings should completely incase the legs from the knees down, and
+should fit snugly, especially at the top, to prevent the entrance of
+molten metal at this point.
+
+
+Eye-protectors.
+
+It is extremely important to protect the eyes of foundrymen against the
+intense light and heat from molten metal and from welding flames, and
+also against dust and grit, flying chips, and molten metal that may
+be splashed about. Eye-protectors (also called “safety glasses” and
+“goggles”) of various types are now available for all the different
+hazardous operations in foundries. To insure comfort, eye-protectors
+should fit well, and should be light in weight and easily adjustable
+for size. They should be provided with side protectors composed of
+metal screens or of perforated leather, to stop flying particles and
+small objects that might otherwise enter the eyes from the sides.
+The lenses should not be made of ordinary window glass, but in order
+to prevent serious eye strains they should be made of clear glass
+without flaws, and polished on both sides. They should also be strongly
+framed, so that pieces will not enter the eyes in case the lenses are
+broken. The lenses of eye-protectors that are to be used by furnacemen,
+welders, and others whose eyes are exposed to unusually brilliant
+light-sources should be suitably colored, to temper the intensity of
+the rays and to exclude those that are specially harmful to the eyes.
+
+Experience has shown that where eye-protectors have been provided and
+worn faithfully, there has been a marked decrease in the number of eye
+injuries.
+
+
+Gloves.
+
+Cupola men and others working where the heat is intense must provide
+protection for their hands and arms. Gloves and sleeves of calfskin,
+buckskin, canvas, and asbestos are used,--the choice of material
+depending upon conditions. When gloves with gauntlets are used, the
+sleeves of the shirt, coat, or jumper (whichever is worn) should be
+pulled down over the gauntlets. The sleeves should then be arranged
+with as few folds or creases as possible, and be secured about the
+wrists by means of buttons or clasps or in some other suitable manner.
+(By leaving the gauntlets _outside_ of the sleeves lodging places for
+molten metal are provided, and serious burns are likely to result.)
+There should be no slits or openings in the lower ends of the sleeves
+(at the wrists) as in ordinary shirts, because molten metal would be
+likely to find entrance through them.
+
+Hand-leathers and gloves of various kinds must be worn by men handling
+scrap, pig iron, and hot castings; and rubber gloves are important to
+afford protection against acids employed in pickling processes. Thick,
+clumsy gloves, which interfere with the safe handling of tools and
+implements, should not be used. Care should be taken to see that no
+workman wears ragged gloves, or gloves with frayed fingers, which are
+specially likely to be caught by moving parts of machines or on the
+sharp edges of objects being handled.
+
+
+Aprons and Rubber Boots.
+
+In connection with pickling processes, rubber boots and rubber
+aprons are often necessary to prevent acid burns and damage to
+clothing. Aprons are of value in other departments of foundries also,
+particularly when flasks and rough, hot castings and other objects
+are being carried about, and when it is necessary for grinders to
+support castings in position at the grinding wheels. For work of this
+kind, and for foundrymen engaged in pouring metals, leather aprons
+are recommended. In view of the high cost of good leather, however,
+aprons of other suitable material may be used where the leather is not
+absolutely required.
+
+
+Ladles.
+
+Several types of ladles are used in foundries, including reservoir,
+crane, sulky or buggy, trolley, bull, and single-hand ladles. Many
+burns are caused by defects in ladles, and by lack of care in handling
+and transporting them. All ladles should be frequently, regularly, and
+critically examined, and when defects are observed the ladles in which
+they are found should be immediately set aside for repairs, or should
+be discarded if the defects are of a serious nature.
+
+Reservoir ladles and all other ladles operated by gearing should
+receive special attention. The motors of motor-operated ladles should
+be completely inclosed, not only to protect the workmen against
+electric shocks and burns, but also to prevent accidents which might
+be caused by metal being spilled upon the motors, resulting in short
+circuits or other kinds of trouble. All the gears on geared ladles
+should be completely inclosed, the covers or guards being constructed
+in such a way that they may be readily removed for oiling, cleaning,
+and inspecting the various parts. If guards are not provided the gears
+will soon become clogged with dirt and with metal that has hardened or
+set after having been spilled upon them while in a molten state; and
+clogged gears are likely to be broken or stripped, and to cause serious
+accidents.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1. A CRANE LADLE.
+
+(The gears should be completely inclosed, to prevent them from becoming
+clogged with dirt and spattered metal.)]
+
+Many ladles are equipped with direct-acting spur gears. This
+arrangement permits rapid operation of the ladles, but it often imposes
+severe strains upon the operators, making it difficult for them to hold
+the ladles steady while pouring. This often results in spilling the
+metal and causing it to be spattered about when it strikes the sand on
+the tops of the flasks. A tilting arrangement composed of a train of
+spur gears, or a combination of worm gearing and spur or bevel gears,
+is to be preferred. The gears should be so designed and arranged that
+at least two teeth of each wheel will be in mesh at all times. Unless
+this point receives due attention a serious accident is likely to occur
+if the teeth become badly worn, or if one of them should break, thus
+permitting the ladle to tilt suddenly when pouring. The small pinions
+and worms of geared ladles often deteriorate quite rapidly, and they
+should therefore be inspected frequently and with special care, so that
+they may be renewed before they become a source of danger. Every geared
+ladle should be provided with a safety locking device to hold it in an
+upright position while it is being carried.
+
+The bail of each crane ladle should be examined frequently, and
+particularly at the point where the crane hook engages it, because
+that is where the wear is greatest. The lower parts of these ladles
+should also be watched carefully for evidences of injury caused by
+carelessness on the part of cranemen when transporting or depositing
+them.
+
+Sulky and buggy ladles are used only to a limited extent, but they
+cause many accidents. In some foundries steel plates are laid to serve
+as runways for buggy ladles, and plates are often placed between the
+rails of narrow-gage industrial railway tracks also. Molten metal is
+sure to splash when spilled on clean, smooth plates of this kind, and
+it also forms into “shot” which roll under the feet and cause the men
+to fall or to spill more metal. The danger from splashing might be
+minimized by sprinkling sand on the floor, but the sand would hinder
+the free movement of the wheels, and greater effort would be required
+to move the buggies. This would tend to make spills more frequent, even
+though in any individual case the sand might reduce the likelihood of
+injury from splashing, after the metal had been spilled. Floors of
+concrete and brick have been tried in other foundries, with the result
+that the number of burns from spills has been materially reduced. An
+excellent floor may also be constructed of metal plates with _checkered
+surfaces_,--the elevations on these plates providing a surface that
+is sufficiently smooth for the wheels, while the depressions (which
+are filled with sand) tend to check the splashing. Overhead trolley
+systems are used in some foundries for transporting ladles, and in this
+way the spills and splashes that are due to poor floor conditions are
+eliminated.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2. A BUGGY OR SULKY LADLE.
+
+(Observe the inclosure for the gears, and the shield to prevent the
+molten metal from splashing on the operator when pouring and when
+pushing the ladle along the track.)]
+
+It is necessary to maintain a clear path for buggies that are being
+moved about, because metal is likely to be spilled from them if even a
+very small obstruction is encountered. Moreover, the buggies or trucks
+should be inspected frequently, paying particular attention to the
+wheels and bearings to make sure that they are in good condition so
+that the buggies will run easily and smoothly. Each buggy should be
+equipped with prong guards to hold it rigidly while pouring, and the
+ladle should be properly counterbalanced so that it will automatically
+return to an upright position when empty.
+
+Bull ladles are much safer to handle than ordinary single-hand ladles,
+and should be used whenever possible. Several styles of shank-handles
+are used with bull ladles, one of them consisting of a rigid fork
+handle on one side and a rigid single handle on the other side. In
+another style (which is preferable) both handles are forked; and in
+still another form a swivel is provided at one end, which permits
+the ladle to be tilted more easily and emptied with less danger of
+spilling. The bowls of bull ladles should be held securely in position
+in their shanks by means of clamps made of round or flat iron. The
+shanks must be amply strong for the weight to be carried, and the
+joints should be carefully inspected for poor welding, flaws, and other
+weaknesses. Defective ladle shanks should be removed from the pouring
+floor as soon as discovered, so that there will be no possibility of
+using them again, either intentionally or otherwise. Ladle shanks
+should not be left exposed to the weather, because such exposure causes
+them to corrode and become weakened.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 3. A BULL LADLE IN USE.
+
+(The handle is provided with a swivel, and one man tilts the ladle
+while the other man simply sustains a part of the weight.)]
+
+When single-hand ladles are used the shanks should be securely attached
+to the bowls, because otherwise the bowls are likely to slip out when
+pouring, and to cause accidents. A sheet-metal guard or shield, 6 or 8
+inches high, should be firmly secured to the top of the bowl of every
+hand ladle on the side next to the shank, to protect the workman’s hand
+while carrying the ladle.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 4. POURING FROM A HAND LADLE.
+
+ (This illustration shows the correct attitude for a man to assume when
+ pouring. Observe also the shield on the ladle, to protect the hand
+ from burns caused by spattering metal. The leggings are of a good type
+ but, unfortunately, are not clearly shown. On general principles we
+ disapprove of the unbuttoned vest, although the upper part of the body
+ is unlikely to be burned so long as the man is engaged solely in work
+ of the kind here shown.)
+]
+
+When several workmen are carrying ladles from the cupola to the
+molds it is better for them to pass on the side on which the bowls
+are carried. This not only tends to avoid confusion and disorder,
+but it is also safer, because there is less danger of burns when two
+bowls are struck together by passing workmen, than there is when two
+shank-handles collide.
+
+“Horse play” and purposeless activities of other kinds should not be
+permitted among the men who are waiting their turns at the cupola,
+because the work is hard and dangerous, and the men must take it
+seriously at all times and give their undivided attention to it, if
+burns are to be avoided. The ladles should never be completely filled,
+because if they are, the hot metal will surely spill while being
+carried. “Cutting in” from the _back_ of a continuous stream of molten
+metal at the cupola spout causes unnecessary spattering; always cut in
+from the front.
+
+New employees in foundries, and particularly the unskilled help, should
+be carefully instructed with regard to the proper method of carrying
+the ladles and the correct position to assume when pouring into the
+molds, and they should be watched and supervised for a considerable
+time after being assigned to such work, in order to make sure that
+they understand how to do it properly. The men should stand at a safe
+distance from the molds, so that their feet will not be burned if the
+metal spills or runs out between the cope and the drag or nowel.
+
+Ladles of all kinds, except hand ladles, are likely to cause accidents
+by tilting unexpectedly, unless the bowls are properly balanced on
+their shanks or trunnions, or are arranged to be locked in an upright
+position. It is specially important to see that the bowls are not
+top-heavy, even when full of metal. On the other hand, if the bowls
+are weighted too heavily at the bottom it is difficult to tilt them,
+and an unnecessary strain is imposed upon the operator and also upon
+the gearing and other mechanism; furthermore, it is not easy to pour
+a smooth, continuous stream from a ladle which requires considerable
+exertion to hold it in the pouring position. In particular, all ladles
+that are provided with bails for hoisting and transporting by cranes
+should be so constructed that, when full of metal, the center of
+gravity will be well below the bail, unless they are arranged with
+geared devices for tilting. In addition, they should be provided with
+clips or clamps to prevent unexpected or accidental overturning.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 5. A TROLLEY LADLE IN POSITION AT THE CUPOLA.]
+
+When buying new ladles it is important to see that the lips are of the
+correct shape to insure a smooth, narrow, undivided stream at pouring,
+and to prevent the molten metal from backing up and running over the
+sides at other points. Both safety and efficiency are promoted by the
+use of ladles with proper lips.
+
+“Leave-overs” (excess metal left in ladles after the molds have been
+poured) are sometimes poured on the foundry floor. In this way puddles
+of molten metal are left, which soon become covered over with a thin
+coating of sand or dust so that they are not readily observed. The
+consequence is that men are often severely burned by stepping into or
+upon these puddles while the metal is still hot. Pouring leave-overs
+on the floor should be prohibited, and suitable receptacles should be
+provided at convenient points to receive the excess metal.
+
+Many serious accidents have been caused by pouring molten metal
+into damp ladles, the result usually being an explosion, and the
+scattering of the metal in all directions. In every foundry, therefore,
+special care should be taken in drying the ladles. In some plants the
+core ovens or crucible furnaces may be utilized for the purpose, while
+in other cases it may be necessary to provide special ovens or heaters.
+Ladles should not be dried in the molding rooms by means of wood fires,
+unless adequate exhaust ventilation is provided.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 6. A CONVENIENT LABOR-SAVING POURING DEVICE.
+
+(By installing a monorail system a device of this kind can be used for
+main-aisle and side-floor work. It can be operated by one man, with
+safety. The ladle can be hoisted and lowered, thus making it possible
+to pour molds at various heights. The metal shield protects the eyes
+of the operator against heat and glare, and also prevents burns from
+spattering metal.)]
+
+All ladles that are not in use should be stored in a dry place, and
+preferably on elevated racks, or on supports of some other kind that
+will permit the air to circulate freely about the ladles.
+
+Foundry ladles must be relined from time to time (bull and hand ladles
+are relined each day), and it is advisable to have all of this work
+done by men selected for reliability and experience, who are interested
+in making the ladles safe and willing to give them the necessary time
+and attention.
+
+All of the ladles that are in use should be examined carefully every
+day, preferably by an experienced and conscientious man who has been
+specially selected for this work. The bowls should be inspected for
+cracks and thin, weak spots, and the shanks should be examined to
+discover defective welds and erosion. Inspectors should also look out
+for loose rivets and bolts, and should see that all necessary guards
+are in good condition and properly secured in place, and that all
+ladles are properly balanced.
+
+
+Flasks and Molds.
+
+Wooden, steel, and iron flasks are used in foundries, but those of
+iron and steel are so much superior that preference should be given to
+them under all possible circumstances. Iron flasks may be cast in the
+foundry, and the subsequent maintenance and depreciation charges are
+quite small as compared with what must be expended upon wooden flasks.
+Moreover, after a wooden flask has been used for some time the faces
+of the cope and the nowel become burned or broken off, with the result
+that instead of fitting closely together they may be separated by a
+space of an inch or more. Although this space is filled with sand, the
+hot metal is likely to break through and run down the sides of the
+flask. “Run-outs”, as leakages of this kind are called, often cause
+severe burns on the feet and legs of the workmen. If iron or steel
+flasks are used, and the cope and nowel faces are planed to insure
+a close fit, there will be little likelihood of the occurrence of
+run-outs.
+
+Iron and steel flasks, as well as wooden ones, require frequent and
+careful inspection to see that none of the lugs, handles, or other
+parts are broken. If a flask is found with a broken or cracked lug or
+handle it should be immediately removed from the shop for repairs;
+otherwise, it might be used again by some person unaware of its
+dangerous condition, and a serious accident might result when it was
+picked up by the crane.
+
+Congestion on the molding floor is noticeable in many foundries,
+particularly in those where the work is greatly diversified; and
+numerous burns are the direct result of such a condition. Sufficient
+space should be left between flasks so that the molders and their
+helpers will not be crowded while pouring, and so that they will be
+able to get out of danger quickly and easily in case of a “run-out”.
+There should always be a clear space of at least 18 inches between the
+rows of flasks when pouring “side floor” by hand, and for crane work
+in general; and passages 24 inches or wider are much to be preferred.
+Portable horses may sometimes be used to advantage for supporting bull
+ladles when pouring work of certain kinds.
+
+Flasks, when in storage, should be piled in an orderly and systematic
+manner, and the maximum height for stacking them should be such that
+the workmen can handle them easily and conveniently while standing with
+both feet on the floor. Unevenly piled flasks sometimes fall over and
+cause serious injuries; and even though they are piled well enough to
+be stable if undisturbed, they may fall in consequence of jarring due
+to the motion of neighboring cranes, and sometimes they are pulled over
+by chains dangling from the cranes.
+
+Workmen often collide one with another, and are severely burned or
+otherwise injured, in consequence of their view being obstructed by
+foundry equipment. Obstructions likely to cause accidents of this kind
+should be moved to the sides of the room. It is highly essential, also,
+to keep all the aisles clear of flasks, tools, implements, and other
+obstructions, particularly in plants where the illumination is not of
+the best, and where, on account of insufficient ventilation, large
+quantities of smoke obscure the vision.
+
+Orderliness and adequate light and ventilation not only increase
+efficiency, but also materially reduce the number of accidents; and
+any reasonable expense that is involved in securing good conditions in
+these respects will pay for itself by lessening the time that is lost
+in consequence of the temporary demoralization to which the working
+force is subject whenever an accident occurs.
+
+
+Crucibles.
+
+Crucibles are extensively employed in founding, especially in
+connection with non-ferrous metals; and the importance of exercising
+special care in handling them, not only to avoid accidents but also to
+insure greater length of service from the crucibles themselves, has
+been greatly underestimated in the past. In our larger plants, however,
+foundrymen are now giving considerable attention to the systematic
+instruction of their furnacemen, melters, and helpers, with a view to
+keeping the number of accidents as low as possible, and obtaining as
+great a number of heats as practicable from each crucible.
+
+The clay crucibles of former days have been extensively supplanted by
+better ones made largely of graphite, which is capable of resisting
+exceedingly high temperatures. In fact, crucibles composed wholly of
+clay have practically gone out of use for the melting of steel and
+brass, because they can often be employed for only one or two heats,
+and they are far more likely to break or crack unexpectedly, thereby
+causing workmen to be seriously burned. Moreover, the temperatures that
+occur in metal-working plants at the present time are higher than those
+that prevailed when the all-clay crucible was the standard type. The
+crucible that is now in general use consists mainly of the substance
+that is variously known as graphite, plumbago, or black lead, and which
+is a practically incombustible form of carbon. This is combined with a
+small amount of a special variety of clay as a binding material, and
+perhaps a little fire sand to give the mixture an open grain, so that
+it can better withstand sudden changes of temperature. Some makers use,
+in addition, a certain quantity of material obtained by grinding up
+old, worn-out crucibles; but this practice cannot be recommended.
+
+The graphite crucible is doubtless the most efficient yet devised, when
+cost and all other elements are considered, but it is nevertheless
+somewhat fragile, in view of the fact that it is expected to withstand
+a heat sufficient to melt the refractory metals, and to support, at
+the same time, very considerable pressures due to the weight of its
+heavy fluid contents. It is exceedingly important, therefore, to
+see that all employees fully understand how to handle crucibles in
+order to reduce the danger of breakage to a minimum; and a great deal
+can be accomplished in this direction, because graphite crucibles,
+when properly made and carefully used, can be kept in a fairly safe
+condition.
+
+The number of accidents from breakage is greater in small plants than
+in large ones, in proportion to the number of crucibles in use. This
+is due partly to the greater care that the crucibles receive in the
+large plants, and partly to the fact that large foundries buy supplies
+of crucibles considerably in excess of their immediate requirements,
+storing the surplus ones and allowing them to age or “season”. It
+is an old saying that crucibles improve as they grow older, and as
+experience shows that this belief has some actual basis in fact, the
+date of manufacture should be stamped upon every crucible, to assist
+the annealing men in selecting the oldest and best seasoned of them,
+when additional ones are required for use.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 7. A CRUCIBLE WHICH BROKE AFTER BEING RUN ONLY TWO
+HEATS.]
+
+Good crucibles are expensive, and every foundryman therefore desires to
+obtain the maximum service from them. The foundryman who attempts to
+increase the useful life of his crucibles by careful handling, and by
+the adoption of approved methods of every other kind, is at the same
+time promoting safety by preventing accidents from premature breakage.
+Foundrymen, melters, pourers, and helpers, usually expect a crucible
+to run a certain definite number of heats, and they are likely to be
+somewhat careless when a new crucible is put in service. For this
+reason it is wise to assign a number to each crucible, for recording
+the number of heats taken. The record may conveniently be kept upon
+a black-board, opposite the appropriate crucible number and in plain
+view. Everybody then knows just how many heats each crucible has
+run, and this knowledge often arouses a spirit of competition, which
+tends to make the men more careful in handling the crucibles, and to
+increase the service that can safely be had from them. (The dating and
+numbering here recommended are now being done, quite generally.)
+
+When crucibles are first received, it is important that they be
+critically examined for cracks and flaws, not only by the eye but also
+by tapping them with a light hammer; and all imperfect ones should be
+rejected. If there is evidence that any of the crucibles in a given
+shipment have become wet while in transit to the foundry, they should
+be stored for at least four or five weeks, before being used, in a
+place where they will dry out thoroughly--even though they may be
+apparently dry at the time they are received.
+
+When a new supply of crucibles has been carefully inspected and
+found to be free from defects, the entire lot should be stored for a
+considerable time in a warm, dry place, and provision should be made to
+protect them as thoroughly as possible from contact with moisture or
+with moist air. The roof of a continuously-operating core oven is an
+excellent place for the storage chamber.
+
+The proper annealing of crucibles is of far more importance than is
+generally realized. It is said that crucibles, when they come from the
+manufacturer’s kilns, contain less than one-quarter of one per cent.
+of moisture; but after they have cooled off they absorb moisture again
+from the air. To anneal a crucible properly, it should first be slowly
+heated to a temperature somewhat above 250° Fahr., and it should be
+maintained (or “soaked”) at this temperature for a sufficient time to
+entirely remove the moisture. It may then be put into service, if it
+has been thoroughly annealed by the makers. If there is any doubt on
+this point, however, the crucible should next be heated for some hours
+to a dull red heat, after which it should be allowed to cool again,
+very slowly, to about 250°. In any case the crucible should still be at
+a temperature of 250° or over, when it goes into the furnace, or the
+drying-out process will not be wholly successful.
+
+Large crucibles, with thick shells, require a higher temperature
+than small-sized ones in the preliminary heat-treatment, and a
+correspondingly longer “soaking” period, in order to reduce the
+absorbed moisture to the allowable limit. In drying out a No. 200
+crucible, for example, ten hours or more should be allowed for bringing
+it up to a temperature of 250° Fahr., and fully ten hours more should
+be allowed for “soaking”,--that is, for reducing the percentage of
+moisture which may have been absorbed. If a crucible that has a
+considerable amount of moisture in its walls is quickly subjected to a
+high temperature, the moisture will be changed into steam, and this,
+because it is confined within the walls of the crucible, may expand so
+as to cause a rupture or crack. The same result may also follow from
+the natural contraction of the drying crucible, if the moisture is
+driven out rapidly or unevenly. The small “pinholes” and “skelping”
+that may often be seen on crucibles are caused in this way. These
+pinholes and fissures form one of the chief sources of trouble against
+which users of crucibles have to guard; for although a crucible having
+defects of this nature may endure for a considerable number of heats,
+it is nevertheless likely to fail at a critical time (for example,
+during pouring or while being pulled from the furnace), spilling the
+molten metal and causing severe hand and foot burns.
+
+After receiving heat-treatment for the removal of moisture, crucibles
+are often placed on a layer of damp sand, or on the comparatively cold
+furnace floor, and left there for an indefinite length of time before
+charging. This should not be permitted, because when the temperature
+of the crucible falls to a point materially below 250°, it will again
+absorb moisture.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 8. THE CRACK IN THIS CRUCIBLE DEVELOPED AFTER FIVE
+HEATS.]
+
+Fine cracks (called “alligator cracks”) often cover the entire surface
+of a crucible. These may be caused in a number of ways. Sometimes
+they are due to heating the crucible with fuel containing too high
+a percentage of sulphur; or, in oil furnaces, they may be caused by
+using too little oil or too much steam. It is specially important for
+the operators to thoroughly understand their work when using an oil
+furnace, because an excess of air or steam, or an insufficient supply
+of oil, may give rise to an oxidizing action, whereby a portion of the
+carbon (or graphite) is burned out of the crucible wall, leaving the
+binding clay in a somewhat porous condition; and this action, when it
+occurs, greatly facilitates the formation of cracks.
+
+When crucibles are stored on the top of a furnace, the melters or
+furnacemen should make sure that the covers over the furnace openings
+fit properly. If the furnaceman is careless in this respect the moist
+gases that are given off when fresh fuel is placed on the fire will
+escape through the openings to some extent, and they are likely to come
+in contact with the crucibles, causing alligator cracks to form.
+
+Cracks and fissures are also likely to form if the metal to be melted
+is not carefully placed in the crucibles. The men usually work rapidly
+when introducing the ingots, so that the furnaces will not be left open
+any longer than necessary; and the ingots are often thrown in with a
+force sufficient to indent the bottoms of the crucibles, or otherwise
+damage them. An indentation in a crucible, whether caused in this way
+or in any other way, is quite likely to develop, shortly, into a crack
+or fracture. The ingots should be introduced carefully and loosely,
+sufficient time being taken to insure that this is properly done. When
+a crucible is first filled it is desirable to place as many ingots
+in it, for the first melting, as practicable; but it is exceedingly
+important to see that they are not wedged or jammed, because when they
+are heated they will expand more than the crucible itself, and the
+walls of the crucible are likely to be cracked in consequence.
+
+When a new crucible is put in service for melting, it should be heated
+quite slowly for a few runs, and this is _specially important the first
+time it is used_. After one or two runs it will become vitrified, and
+the danger from too sudden a heating is then materially reduced. It is
+a good plan to keep on hand a few extra crucibles that have been used
+before, to avoid loss of time in case an extra crucible is needed on
+short notice.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 9. A CARRYING POT, WITH SHANK.]
+
+A great deal of harm is done by carelessness in handling the tongs and
+shanks, and the life of a crucible may be seriously shortened in this
+way. When a tilting furnace is used, as many as fifty heats can often
+be obtained from a crucible; but if the heating is in furnaces from
+which the crucibles must be removed by means of tongs, they can be used
+for only about fifteen heats, on an average.
+
+A crucible is soft and plastic at a white heat, and may easily be
+squeezed out of shape by the pressure exerted upon it when the handles
+of the tongs are forced together. The walls of the crucible gradually
+become weakened by treatment of this kind, and eventually, if the
+crucible is not discarded, a complete rupture will probably occur, with
+its attendant toll of injuries and burns.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 10. TONGS PROPERLY APPLIED TO A CRUCIBLE, FOR
+REMOVING IT FROM A STATIONARY FURNACE.]
+
+Three styles of tongs are in general use in foundries--one-pronged,
+two-pronged, and spade tongs. The different styles are designed for
+various special purposes and operations, but they are sometimes
+improperly used interchangeably. It is essential to see that the tongs
+that are used are of the proper shape, and that they fit perfectly
+from the widest part of the crucible (usually called the “bilge” or
+“belly”), down to within a few inches of the bottom. They should not
+extend to the _extreme_ bottom, however, because this would make it
+hard to place the crucible in the shank. On the other hand, if they do
+not extend down far enough the crucible will be badly squeezed. The
+proper use of the tongs consists in taking hold of the crucible below
+the bilge and lifting it in such a way that the least possible pressure
+is exerted against the crucible walls.
+
+One-pronged tongs should be used only for lifting the smaller-sized
+crucibles,--say up to size No. 40. For larger sizes two-pronged tongs
+should be used. It is not uncommon to see large crucibles, ranging
+from No. 200 to No. 300, lifted by one-pronged tongs. This practice
+should be condemned, because when one-pronged tongs are used for
+lifting a crucible, pressure is exerted against only a single point of
+contact,--namely, at the bottom,--and the crucible, when hot and soft,
+is likely to be cut or ruptured, if it is large and heavy, because the
+pressure at the point of support is severe. Serious burns, from the
+spilling of the molten metal, often result when the lower prong of a
+two-pronged pair of tongs is cut off, on account of a lack of space
+between the crucible and the furnace wall; because the crucible is then
+lifted from above the bilge, and tilted. Melters should be cautioned
+against the practice of driving down the ring of the tongs with a
+skimmer or other implement, because this is almost sure to cause cracks
+and fissures in the crucibles.
+
+Molten metal is often spilled from crucibles in consequence of using
+tongs that have become bent or otherwise misshapen. It is important to
+see that the tongs fit the crucibles properly, and that they are also
+in good condition in every other way. For restoring bent tongs to
+their proper shape, it is advisable to procure a set of cast-iron forms
+similar in size and general shape to the crucibles that are used in the
+plant, but slightly larger from the bilge upward. To restore the tongs
+to their original form it is only necessary to put them in the furnace,
+raise them to a red heat, clamp them to the proper iron form, and bring
+them back into shape by means of a heavy hammer. Tongs may be fitted
+easily and cheaply in this way, and a great saving of time results. If
+cast-iron forms are not provided, the blacksmith cannot be expected to
+restore the tongs to their correct shape with accuracy; but if iron
+crucible-forms of the proper sizes and shapes are used, and the tongs
+are fitted to them as here recommended, the likelihood of squeezing and
+distorting the crucibles will be reduced to a minimum.
+
+Two pairs of tongs, at least, should be provided for each size of
+crucible, so that if one pair becomes badly bent or worn, the other
+pair may be placed in service without loss of time.
+
+Furnacemen should make sure that no clinkers or pieces of unburned coal
+or coke are stuck to the walls of the crucibles when about to grasp
+them with the tongs, because if the tongs are applied over a clinker
+the clinker will probably be forced into the crucible and a rupture
+may then occur at any moment. It is also important to see that the
+bottom of the crucible (on the outer surface) is free from clinkers or
+other adherent substances, so that when the crucible is in the furnace
+its weight will be evenly distributed, and not concentrated at a few
+projecting spots or regions. It is best to support the crucible by
+means of a foundation or pedestal, of graphite, fire-brick, or other
+infusible substance, though the fire-bed may be made to give a fairly
+satisfactory support if it is carefully prepared and smoothed.
+
+When a heat has been poured it is important to see that no metal is
+left in the bottom of the crucible, because when a residual mass (or
+“button”) of such metal cools, it contracts at a different rate from
+the crucible, and serious strains and cracks are likely to result.
+
+Ramming the fuel bed is bad practice, in general, because it is likely
+to damage the crucibles seriously. If ramming appears to be necessary
+at special times, the utmost care should be exercised in doing it.
+
+(We are indebted to the General Electric Company for the photographs
+that are used in this section.)
+
+
+Cupolas.
+
+Tapping-out is the most hazardous part of cupola work. This is
+specially true if the melter is inexperienced or careless, for it is
+almost entirely within his power to prevent excessive spattering of
+the hot metal if he properly controls the flow from the cupola. If
+dangerous spattering of the molten metal, with its attendant burns,
+is to be eliminated, it is important that the melter be taught the
+correct and only safe method of stopping up the tap hole. Under no
+circumstances should the stopping bot be thrust directly into the
+stream of flowing metal in order to “bot-up” the hole. Instead of this,
+it should be brought immediately _over_ the stream, and, when near the
+hole, should be carried down obliquely so that it will make a sharp
+angle with the stream, and thus effectively and instantly close up the
+hole without any undue spattering. In drawing molten metal from the
+cupola into buggy or trolley ladles, it is necessary to stop the flow
+of metal when a ladle has been filled and while another is being moved
+into position. This is done by the melter, who inserts the stopping
+bot into the hole and holds it there temporarily. After doing this
+several times the fire clay on the end of the stopping bot becomes
+burned off, and consequently the hole may not be closed properly. One
+or more extra stopping bots, already prepared with fire clay, should
+be conveniently at hand, which may be substituted for the burned-off
+one when necessary. The melter and all other workmen engaged about the
+cupola should wear well-designed goggles having side shields, because
+statistics show that a high percentage of eye injuries occur about the
+cupola.
+
+Accidents occur about cupolas not only when drawing off the metal, but
+also during charging time, and when repair work is being done. As a
+general thing workmen engaged in charging a cupola must bring the coke
+and the iron (both scrap and pig) from the storage bins or yard, up to
+the charging platform. These workmen should be instructed to pile the
+iron evenly on the barrows, and to exercise great care in taking the
+scrap from the pile, in case the latter is in such a condition that
+it is likely to collapse or slide. Many workmen have been severely
+injured, while filling their barrows, by the sudden collapse of piles
+of scrap iron.
+
+In many foundries elevators are used for conveying the charges to the
+charging floors. In every such case it is essential that a gong or
+other signal be sounded before the elevator is taken from the charging
+floor by a workman below; and the elevator should not be moved, after
+the signal has been given, until sufficient time has elapsed for any
+person who may be in danger to respond and to move into a place of
+safety. Many serious accidents have been caused by elevators suddenly
+descending while the workmen were loading or unloading them. To further
+guard against such accidents there should be a door or gate at each
+entrance to the hoistway, provided with an interlocking device so
+arranged that the elevator cannot be started until the door or gate has
+been closed. The unused sides of the car platform should be completely
+inclosed to a height of 6-1/2 feet (or to the top of the crosshead),
+and a substantial iron grating should be placed on the top of the car,
+to stop falling tools and other objects.[1]
+
+[1] Further information with regard to the care and operation of
+elevators in general is given in a booklet published by the Engineering
+and Inspection Division of THE TRAVELERS INSURANCE COMPANY. Copies
+of this booklet may be procured by applying to the Home Office at
+Hartford, Connecticut.
+
+The charging opening in a cupola should be fitted with a door or
+gate, which should always be closed except when charging is going on,
+and workmen engaged in charging should be specially careful to avoid
+tripping or losing their balance when in the vicinity of the opening,
+and especially when throwing heavy pieces of scrap or pig metal into
+the cupola.
+
+When the interior of a cupola is being relined it is recommended that a
+watchman be stationed near the opening, or that a conspicuous warning
+sign be posted beside it, stating that men are working inside. We
+have known of cases where metal thrown into the cupola has struck and
+seriously injured workmen who were engaged in making repairs to the
+shell or lining. An effective guard against accidents of this kind
+consists in a circular screen of a diameter slightly smaller than the
+inside of the cupola, and made of heavy wire netting or of stout
+expanded metal, substantially framed. The screen should be divided in
+the center, and the two sections hinged together. In using this device
+it is suspended above the point where the men are at work, from a piece
+of scantling laid diametrically across the cupola so that it rests upon
+the walls where they are offset for the single brick lining, or upon
+the ledge formed by the charging doors,--the screen being supported
+by chains at several points around its circumference, and having its
+hinges on the under sides. When arranged in this way it tends to remain
+open and flat, although it can easily be folded by raising it at the
+middle. A screen of this kind will intercept falling pieces of slag and
+brick, and other objects, and will thus protect the workmen below.
+
+When furnaces are to be entirely relined, only trustworthy and
+experienced men should be allowed to perform the work. Moreover, the
+fire-bricks that are used should be of the best quality obtainable, in
+order to insure long life of the cupola. Between the bricks and the
+shell a space of about 3/4 of an inch should be left, which should
+be filled with dry sand to act as a cushion, so that severe stresses
+will not be thrown on the shell when the bricks expand. The rivets and
+the shells of all cupolas should be inspected periodically, to see if
+any of the rivets have sheared off or worked loose, or if the shell
+has become weakened in any way. After making repairs of any kind,
+care should be taken to see that the cupola is thoroughly dried out,
+and that all tools, and all materials used for scaffolding or other
+purposes, are removed.
+
+Explosions occur in cupolas from time to time, and if the shell of a
+cupola is weak, a serious catastrophe is likely to result. Carbon
+monoxide, when combined with air in certain proportions, forms a highly
+inflammable and explosive mixture, and the explosions are mainly due
+to this gas, which collects in the wind box and blast pipe during
+interruptions in operation. In an incredibly short time enough carbon
+monoxide gas may collect in this way to cause a violent explosion
+when the blast is turned on again. If the iron comes too fast a
+temporary shut-down may be unavoidable; but interruptions from other
+causes,--such, for example, as the slipping of the blower belt,--should
+be prevented, so far as possible, by frequent inspections of the
+equipment and by making all necessary adjustments and repairs when the
+cupola is not in operation.
+
+A gate or damper should be placed in the blast pipe, close to the
+cupola, to prevent the explosive gas from entering the pipe. This gate
+should be closed _immediately_, whenever the blast is shut off, and it
+should be opened cautiously and slowly when starting up again. At the
+time that the blower is shut down one of the tuyeres should be opened
+also, to maintain a slight draft of air.
+
+Explosion doors provide another means for preventing damage from gas
+explosions. Some authorities recommend that these doors be placed in
+front of the tuyeres, so that when the blast is turned off the doors
+may be opened to admit the outside air. When this arrangement is
+adopted the doors should not be closed until the blast has entered the
+wind box, so that any gas remaining therein may escape through the
+doors.
+
+With a positive-pressure blower, which is probably the best type for
+cupola work, a safety-valve should be provided for the protection
+of the blast pipe or blower. This will prevent the bursting of the
+blast pipe in case the blast gate is closed suddenly, or if the cupola
+becomes clogged with slag in such a manner as to obstruct the passage
+of the air to a dangerous extent. The weights on the safety-valve
+should be sufficient to prevent blowing-off unless the obstruction
+is quite serious, because a constant blast-volume is required in
+modern cupola operation, and if the volume is decreased an undesirable
+lowering of the temperature occurs.
+
+Charging and lighting-up should be done carefully and by experienced
+workmen, and the charges should be laid as nearly level as possible.
+When the charging has been completed, and after lighting-up, sufficient
+time should be allowed for the cupola to become thoroughly warmed up
+before starting the blower.
+
+
+Traveling Cranes.
+
+Cranes of various types are used in the foundry, but most of the heavy
+work is done by electrically-operated traveling cranes. The suggestions
+that follow therefore relate mainly to that type, although many of them
+are applicable to all cranes, and to hoisting devices of other kinds.
+
+A substantial stairway or ladder should be installed at one end of the
+crane runway, to provide access to the crane cab or cage; and when two
+cranes are operated on the same runway, stairways or ladders should
+be installed at both ends of the runway. Cranemen should always use
+this means of entering and leaving the cages. Every crane cab should
+be inclosed to a height of at least 42 inches on all sides, except
+where entrance is actually effected. The inclosure should preferably
+be of sheet metal or expanded metal, or of heavy, woven-wire mesh. If
+railings are used there should be an intermediate rail midway between
+the top rail and the floor of the cab, and a six-inch toe-board should
+also be installed. A stairway or a ladder should always be provided for
+passing from the cab to the top of the crane bridge. This should be
+substantially built, and properly protected so that the crane operator
+or repairman will be in no danger of falling when he uses it.
+
+A foot-walk should be constructed along the bridge of the crane, or
+on both sides where the width of the bridge demands. This will give
+easy and safe access to the trolley in any position, and to any part
+of the bridge. The construction should be substantial, and the width
+must be sufficient to provide ample room for passage. Double railguards
+42 inches high should be erected along each foot-walk, and six-inch
+toe-boards should also be provided.
+
+Whenever possible, a substantial walk should be installed beside the
+crane runway, and this should be protected by strong railings and
+toe-boards along its entire length. All traveling cranes should be
+equipped with spring bumpers or oil bumpers, and suitable stops should
+be installed at each end of each rail of the runway.
+
+All gears on the trolley and other parts of the crane should be
+completely incased, and no one should be allowed on top of the crane
+while it is in motion. A stout sheet-metal pan, or a substantial floor,
+should be provided under the trolley, to catch any parts that may work
+loose, and to prevent them from falling upon employees below. This
+pan or floor should be solid except for the cable openings. Guards,
+fenders, or brushes should be attached in front of the bridge and
+trolley wheels, to remove any obstructions that may be upon the tracks,
+and to prevent injury to persons who may be working in such positions
+that their hands or feet might be crushed by the wheels.
+
+[Illustration:
+
+ _Courtesy of The Alliance Machine Company._
+
+FIG. 11. SAFEGUARDS ON A LARGE LADLE CRANE.
+
+(This crane is larger than is used in the average foundry but it has
+some safety features that should be universally adopted. At A is the
+landing platform leading to the foot-walk on the crane bridge; B is a
+stairway which extends from the safety platform, C, just outside the
+operator’s cage, to the landing platform. The railing and toe-board on
+the crane bridge and on the trolley are also essential for safety.)]
+
+All electrical wiring should be installed in conduits; and it is
+particularly important that hoist-limit stops be provided, in all
+cases, both for the main and for the auxiliary hoists. In the best
+crane practice the hoist-limit stops employ dynamic braking to check
+overtravel and to assist in lowering loads. To prevent the crane from
+being operated by unauthorized persons, or while repairs are being
+made, there should be a safety switch in the main line, mounted above
+the cab where it can be conveniently reached from the foot-walk. This
+switch should be fitted with a lock so that it can be secured in the
+open position, and the key should be only in the possession of the
+crane operator or the head repairman.
+
+Woodwork should not be used about a crane, because it is likely to
+become oil-soaked, and it is then exceedingly combustible. If it should
+take fire and the craneman, in order to make his escape, should run the
+crane to a stairway, the time required for this purpose might increase
+his danger quite materially, and the motion of the crane would also
+tend to increase the fire. If, on the other hand, he tries to leave the
+crane in any other way than by the regular stairway, he will be exposed
+to hazards of other kinds, and these will be accentuated by his haste.
+
+[Illustration:
+
+ _Courtesy of the Shepard Electric Crane & Hoist Company._
+
+FIG. 12. SOME SAFETY FEATURES OF A TRAVELING CRANE.
+
+(This illustration shows a part of a crane on the erecting floor of
+the manufacturer. There are no exposed revolving parts throughout the
+entire length of the crane bridge. Some of the safety features are as
+follows: A--inclosed gearing; B--inclosed drive-shaft coupling; C--pipe
+inclosure for drive shaft; D--device for sanding rails when crane is
+used out-of-doors. See also Fig. 13.)]
+
+Keep all tools, oil-cans, and waste in a closed metal box securely
+fastened to the crane or to the runway at some convenient point.
+
+Careful, watchful, intelligent, and trustworthy crane operators,
+floormen, and repairmen, can do a great deal toward preventing
+accidents, and only such men should be employed about cranes. The
+following suggestions relate to the work of these men, and if
+faithfully followed will be the means of promoting safety in a marked
+degree.
+
+[Illustration:
+
+ _Courtesy of the Shepard Electric Crane & Hoist Company._
+
+FIG. 13. SOME SAFETY FEATURES OF A TRAVELING CRANE.
+
+(This is a nearer view of some of the safeguards shown in Fig. 12. A
+is the track sander which is operated by a rope or cable attached to
+the lever and extended to the craneman’s cage; B shows more clearly the
+drive-shaft coupling. The shaft inclosure also appears more plainly.)]
+
+During the ordinary operation of an electric crane the craneman should
+never leave his cage without making sure that all the controllers are
+in the off position, and that the main switch is open. Before he leaves
+the crane the safety switch should also be locked open. If the electric
+current should be shut off at any time, the same precautions should be
+observed; and before closing the main switch, when about to resume work
+after an interruption due to any cause whatsoever, the craneman should
+again make certain that all the controllers are in the off position.
+
+When about to lift a load, the motor should be run at low speed
+until the slack in the chain or cable has been taken up, after which
+the controller handle may be advanced slowly from point to point to
+increase the speed. Before a motor is reversed it should be brought
+to a full stop, except when an accident can be averted only by
+disregarding this advice.
+
+When handling a heavy load the craneman should hoist it a few inches
+above the floor, and then, before proceeding further, he should assure
+himself that it is properly balanced and that the slings are secure,
+and should also test the brakes to make sure that they will hold the
+load safely. If there is any doubt whatsoever about the safety of
+the operation, the load should be lowered and the slings or brakes
+adjusted, or other necessary measures taken to avoid danger. It is also
+desirable, at the beginning of each shift, to test the foot brakes and
+limit switches thoroughly.
+
+It is extremely important, at all times, and particularly when handling
+molten metal, to “spot” the trolley directly above the load to be
+hoisted. Failure to do this will cause the load to swing sidewise
+as soon as it is clear of the floor, and usually the metal will be
+spilled, or men or objects near by may be struck by the load.
+
+Loads should be raised high enough to give proper clearance above
+men and objects on the floor, but they should not be carried for
+any considerable distance at an unnecessary elevation. So far as
+possible, the craneman should avoid transporting loads directly over
+workmen. Special care should be exercised to keep loads under control
+when lowering them, and the speed should always be restricted to a
+reasonable and safe limit.
+
+Some definite person must be held responsible for the selection of the
+chains and slings that are used for hoisting, and for making suitable
+hitches about the loads. If the foundry is large enough to employ
+a special floorman, these matters may well be left to him, because
+he is necessarily familiar with the constantly-changing conditions,
+and he should therefore be able to select the proper sling quickly
+and intelligently. Moreover, experience will have taught him the
+best method for attaching the sling, or for hooking on to the load.
+If no special floorman is employed, this part of the work should be
+supervised by a specially assigned foreman, or by a skilled hooker-on.
+When applying the hook to the load, and when holding the hook in place
+while the slack is being taken up, the hooker-on should be careful
+to avoid having his hands caught and crushed between the sling and
+the load. Hooks with safety handles may be had, and these add greatly
+to the safety of the men when hooking up. If safety handles are not
+provided, pieces of wood notched at the end may be used with advantage
+for holding the hooks in place,--the notch being pressed against the
+hook to prevent it from moving before the tension comes on it.
+
+When the hooks or slings are in place and the slack has been taken up,
+the workmen should immediately move back several feet from the load.
+When a load is being deposited, all persons should keep at a safe
+distance while the slings are being withdrawn from under it, because
+the slings may snap out suddenly, or may catch on the load and tip it
+over. When slackening-off the hoisting cables the hooker-on should
+avoid pulling down on the _inrunning_ side of the block, because his
+fingers may be caught between the sheave and the cable and be cut
+off or badly crushed. It is far safer to grasp the outrunning side,
+and pull up and away from the sheave. Greater safety in this work is
+insured by inclosing the block to which the hook is secured. Blocks
+guarded in this manner are available and should be generally adopted.
+
+The crane operator should never allow chains, slings, cables, or hooks
+to drag along the floor, and he should never start the crane carriage
+or trolley until all such appendages are entirely clear. Even in the
+short distance that the crane might travel before they leave the floor,
+the slings or hooks might become caught on some obstruction and cause
+an accident.
+
+No one should be permitted to ride on a load or on the crane hook; and
+if the craneman observes a violation of this rule he should stop the
+crane and refuse to move it until the person who is riding is in a safe
+place on the floor.
+
+In a busy foundry the craneman must be specially alert, and his
+attention must be given, unremittingly, to following the various
+operations on the floor, taking the signals from the floorman, and
+controlling the movements of the crane.
+
+Before an inexperienced man is permitted to take charge of a crane, he
+should be thoroughly trained in the work by a careful, well-qualified
+craneman, who should see that he becomes familiar with the operating
+mechanism, and skilled in the manipulation of the various levers and
+controls.
+
+A signal gong, operated by hand or foot, or electrically, should be
+part of the equipment of every crane, and should be rung when the
+crane is started, and as frequently thereafter as may be necessary.
+Occasionally the gong is actuated by the mechanism that moves the
+crane, so that the warning signal is sounded automatically and
+continuously so long as the crane is moving. The objection to this
+method is that the sound of the gong is likely to become so familiar
+that its value as a warning of danger will be lost and the men will
+give little heed to it. Furthermore, the gong should always be treated
+as an _extra safeguard_, and no other safety precaution should be
+omitted or allowed to fall into disuse merely because the gong is used,
+nor should vigilance and caution be relaxed in any respect whatever.
+
+Some person should be specially designated to transmit to the craneman
+the signals for moving the loads, and the craneman should disregard
+signals given by other men. The signalman should stand in plain view
+of the craneman and should take care to give all his signals clearly.
+A definite and unmistakable code of signals, consisting of motions
+of the hands and arms, should be arranged. Signals given orally are
+unsatisfactory and unsafe, not only because it is often difficult to
+distinguish them with certainty unless the foundry is quiet, but also
+because the sound of loud voices will always distract the attention of
+other men from their work. When a load is being transported some person
+designated for this purpose should always walk in front of it to warn
+workmen who are in danger of being struck, and he should also see that
+the load is carried high enough to clear all obstacles in its path,
+because the craneman, on account of his location, sometimes finds it
+hard to judge the height of the load correctly.
+
+A crane that is to be repaired should be moved to one end of the runway
+or to some other point where it will cause the least interference
+with the movements of other cranes. The controllers and the main and
+emergency switches should be placed in the off position before starting
+any repair work on cranes, and the safety switches should be locked, or
+the fuses removed, to prevent any movement of the crane, and to avoid
+accidental short circuits that might result in injury to the repairmen.
+
+Suitable warning signs should be placed on cranes that are undergoing
+repairs, and buffers or rail stops should be clamped to the crane rails
+a few yards in front of the disabled crane when others are operated
+on the same runway. If practicable, a suitable floor area directly
+underneath the disabled crane should be roped off or inclosed in some
+other way, to prevent accidents that might be caused by tools or other
+objects falling from the crane. Similar precautions should be taken
+when men are at work on the runways, and red flags or other warning
+devices should be placed at both ends of the section undergoing repairs.
+
+
+Chains and Hooks.
+
+Chains and hooks should be carefully inspected at regular intervals,
+and they should also be annealed from time to time by competent
+workmen who thoroughly understand the art of annealing, and who know
+how to secure the results that are desired. Particular care should
+be taken with hooks in this respect, because a hook, when properly
+annealed, should gradually yield or straighten if subjected to a
+serious overload, and thus give warning of danger; whereas if it is
+not properly annealed, and therefore hard, it is likely to snap off
+suddenly, without warning. Chains and hooks should be inspected with
+care immediately after annealing, because they are then cleaner than
+at other times, and hence any existing defects or flaws in them may
+be detected with greater certainty. All chains and hooks should be
+numbered, and a careful record should be kept of the inspections and
+annealings. Hoisting chains are particularly liable to failure through
+fatigue or over-strain, on account of the severe treatment to which
+they are frequently subjected; and they should therefore be examined
+minutely, and link by link, to detect insecure welds and slight cracks
+or other defects. Chain slings should never be crossed or twisted when
+placed around loads, and every chain that is to be used as a sling
+should be made of the highest quality of wrought iron. All chains
+should be oiled frequently, to prevent rusting.
+
+Forged hooks, or laminated hooks made of steel plates securely riveted
+together, should be used in preference to those made of cast steel.
+Hooks are sometimes subjected to severe abuse by workmen who try to
+force them into position by striking them with heavy iron bars or
+other implements. This is a dangerous practice, and should be strictly
+prohibited.
+
+
+Wire-Rope Slings.
+
+Well-made wire-rope slings give better service than chain slings,
+because they are stronger, weight for weight, and also because
+deterioration is usually indicated by broken strands that are readily
+discoverable by an experienced and qualified inspector. Wire-rope
+slings are pliable, and may be adapted to almost every use. They should
+be kept in good condition, and to prevent rusting and unnecessary wear
+from friction they should be treated with oil or with a good cable
+lubricant prepared specially for the purpose. Wire-rope for slings used
+in handling molten metal or hot castings should have a soft iron-wire
+core, because a hemp core is quite likely to be destroyed by the heat.
+
+
+Slings in General.
+
+A sling should never be allowed to rest directly against the sharp
+corners of a heavy flask, casting, or other similar object, but should
+be protected by wooden corner-pieces, or by pads of burlap or other
+soft material.
+
+Every sling, whether composed of a chain or a rope, should be long
+enough not only to surround the load it has to support, but also to
+leave a considerable space between the sling and the upper surface of
+the load. The oblique parts of the sling, which lie above the load and
+join it to the hook (or to the point where the suspension first becomes
+vertical) should never be so flat as to make an angle of less than 45
+degrees with the ground. This precaution is highly important, but it
+is often overlooked or neglected, because the men do not realize that
+the stress on the ends of a sling is greater, the flatter (or more
+nearly horizontal) they lie. When the ends are inclined at an angle of
+45 degrees, the stress upon each of them is about 41 per cent. greater
+than it would be if the ends were vertical; and if the sling is so
+short that it barely goes around the load and has but little slack, the
+stress upon it may be very great indeed.
+
+We strongly advise that all slings, when not in actual use, be kept
+under lock and key and placed in charge of some responsible person who
+knows their condition and is competent to select safe and appropriate
+slings for every occasion. They may be stored in the tool room or
+supply room, for example, and be in charge of a qualified foreman.
+
+
+Hoisting Apparatus in General.
+
+Hoisting apparatus of every kind should be inspected frequently and
+thoroughly, and all parts that are defective in any way should be
+promptly repaired or replaced. The man charged with the operation
+of the apparatus should not attempt to make repairs or adjustments,
+however, unless the foundry is a small one, where this constitutes a
+part of his recognized duty. Under all other circumstances he should
+immediately report to the foreman or repairman, in order that the job
+may receive attention in the proper way. If the defect is serious
+enough to constitute a possible source of danger, the apparatus should
+not be operated until the necessary repairs or adjustments have been
+made.
+
+
+Tumbling Barrels.
+
+Tumbling barrels (or “rattlers”) for cleaning rough castings are of two
+general types, respectively known as wet and dry. There are numerous
+mechanical hazards in connection with both types, and with dry tumbling
+barrels considerable danger to health may be caused by the dust created
+by them unless suitable preventive measures are adopted.
+
+There are two methods that are commonly employed for removing the
+dust from dry tumbling barrels. One of these consists in attaching
+an exhaust system directly to the machine, and the other consists
+in inclosing the barrel in a dust-proof compartment from which the
+dust may be exhausted. The first method, as a rule, is practicable
+only in connection with tumbling barrels that are of special design,
+and are provided with the necessary attachments for connecting with
+exhaust fans. In nearly all other cases dust-proof inclosures must be
+built, and it is practicable to secure satisfactory results in this
+way when the system is properly arranged. The compartments should be
+made as tight as possible, and should be constructed of sheet metal or
+well-seasoned lumber. The doors may be arranged to fold, or to slide
+upward or sidewise; or they may be hinged to open in any way that
+is most convenient. In some cases rolling steel shutters are used.
+Doors that rise vertically should be suitably counterweighted so that
+they will not drop upon the workmen, and the counterweights should be
+inclosed. In addition to the counterweights we recommend the use of
+catches or fastenings for holding up the doors.
+
+When tumbling barrels (either wet or dry) are not located in
+compartments, substantial double railings, at least 42 inches high,
+should be placed about them, with a clearance of not less than 15
+inches nor more than 20 inches. (When railings are placed more than
+20 inches away, workmen are likely to crawl inside of them to do any
+necessary work, and they are then in greater danger than they would
+be in if no railings were present; whereas if railings are omitted
+altogether, the workmen are likely to be struck or to have their
+clothing caught by small objects that may work through perforated or
+loosely-fitting covers, or by the projecting cover-fastenings.) The
+railings should be provided with gates so arranged that opening the
+gates will automatically throw the driving belts or clutches into the
+off position, and will prevent the machines from being started until
+the gates are closed. Driving belts should be guarded to a height
+of at least 6 feet above the floor, and all exposed gears should be
+completely inclosed. Chain hoists should be provided for lifting heavy
+covers, and suitable brakes or locking devices should be installed to
+prevent any movement of the machines while they are being loaded or
+unloaded. Securing the barrels in position by means of bars or props is
+a mere makeshift method, and is manifestly unsafe.
+
+
+Sand Mixers and Sifters.
+
+Sand mixers are of two general types, one of which simply mixes the
+materials, while the other not only mixes but also grinds them. The
+mixer consists of a horizontal semi-cylindrical vessel in which
+the sand is placed and the mixing is done by revolving blades. The
+top of the cylinder should be covered by a substantial grating
+composed of 3/8-inch round stock suitably reinforced to insure
+rigidity, and provided with free-swinging discharging doors. All
+gears should be inclosed by substantial guards, and the driving belt
+should be protected to a height of at least 6 feet above the floor.
+A well-designed belt-shifter should be provided, and should be so
+arranged that it may be locked to prevent creeping of the belt.
+
+The combination mixer and grinder is similar to the revolving dry-pan
+used in the manufacture of bricks, and it may be driven either from
+underneath or from overhead. In either case the driving gears and all
+other exposed gears should be suitably inclosed, and the driving belt
+should be protected and be fitted with a belt-shifter, as described
+above in connection with the sand mixer. The revolving pan should be
+completely surrounded by a substantial guard of heavy, reinforced wire
+netting extending to a height well above the hubs of the grinding
+wheels. An opening should be left in one side of the guard, and at this
+point a sheet-metal feeding hopper should be securely riveted on. A
+drag or other suitable mechanical device should be provided to force
+the sand out through the discharging door, and the use of hand shovels
+for removing the sand from the pan while it is in motion should be
+prohibited.
+
+Pipe or angle-iron railings 42 inches high should be installed at the
+sides of rotating sand sifters, at a distance of at least 15 inches,
+and not more than 20 inches, from them. Belt-shifters should be
+provided, and the belts should be guarded to a height of at least 6
+feet above the floor.
+
+When sand mixers and sifters are driven by electric motors every
+precaution should be taken to prevent electric shocks and burns. See
+that all live wires and other parts are thoroughly insulated, and guard
+all dangerous rotating parts. Inclosed switches should be used, and
+they should be located in convenient and easily accessible positions;
+fuses of the inclosed type should also be used.
+
+
+Automatic Molding Machines.
+
+The gears on both sides of these machines should be entirely inclosed
+by substantial guards of sheet metal, expanded metal, or close-mesh
+woven wire. The connecting rods should be similarly guarded, the
+inclosures in the latter case to extend as high as possible without
+interfering with the adjustment. Whether the machines are driven by
+belts or by electric motors, such precautions should be taken with
+regard to belt-shifters, belt-guards, and electrical safeguards as have
+been recommended above in connection with sand mixers.
+
+
+Chipping Department.
+
+Many serious eye injuries occur in the chipping department, and
+practically all of these may be prevented by requiring the general
+use of suitably-designed eye-protectors or goggles. Eye-protectors
+for cupola men and others engaged in handling molten metal have been
+described in a previous paragraph, and those to be used by chippers
+should be similar. Cheap, flimsy eye-protectors should not be used.
+It is economy to buy substantial goggles at a higher price, not only
+because they afford better protection, but also because they are more
+durable.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 14. MOLDING MACHINE OPERATED BY COMPRESSED AIR.]
+
+In addition to the eye-protectors, shields of canvas or other suitable
+material, mounted on substantial frames, should be provided, wherever
+needed, to protect near-by workmen from flying chips.
+
+Chippers should not be permitted to work with battered or otherwise
+defective tools. Broken hammers and sledges should be discarded, and
+cold-chisels and other implements should be dressed when they become
+burred or mushroomed.
+
+
+Grinding Wheels.
+
+Emery wheels and wheels of other abrasive materials are used in
+grinding castings, and these sometimes burst and cause serious
+injuries to the operators. All grinding wheels should be fitted with
+safety collars or flanges, and, where practicable, should be inclosed
+by substantial metal hoods connected to exhaust fans for removing
+the dust. Stationary grinding machines should be mounted on solid
+foundations to prevent vibration, and their bearings should be ample in
+size and be kept well lubricated and properly adjusted. It is important
+that grinders wear goggles, to protect their eyes from flying dust and
+sparks.
+
+Further details with regard to the design, care, and operation of
+grinding wheels will be found in a booklet, entitled “_Grinding
+Wheels_”, published by the Engineering and Inspection Division of THE
+TRAVELERS INSURANCE COMPANY.
+
+
+Compressed Air.
+
+Compressed air is commonly used in foundries for operating air
+hoists, blow guns, spraying devices, pneumatic hammers and chisels,
+sand-blasts, molding machines, and sand-blast tumbling barrels. Serious
+accidents are often the result of the improper use of compressed air,
+and workmen should never be allowed to play pranks with it, but should
+use it only for the purposes for which it is provided. In particular,
+a sand-blast should never be turned upon a person, because it might
+easily destroy his eyesight or cause other serious injuries.
+
+The introduction of compressed air into the human body causes great
+distention of the intestines, accompanied by agonizing pain; and the
+victim usually dies after a short period of intense suffering. Every
+man about the foundry should therefore make it his special business
+to see that no attempt is made to use the air lines for perpetrating
+so-called “practical jokes”.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 15. A SPECIAL CHAMBER FOR SAND-BLASTING.
+
+(Strong air suction, through the exhaust hoods shown in the upper
+part of the picture, will remove a large quantity of the dust that is
+created, but it would be better if the ducts were placed in the floor,
+with gratings over them, or in the side walls. The helmet which the
+operator is wearing is of a type commonly used in work of this kind.
+As explained in the text, no entirely satisfactory helmet has yet been
+devised.)]
+
+
+Sand-blasting.
+
+Sand-blasting may be done in the open air if eye-protectors and
+respirators are worn and other suitable precautions are taken, but
+it is far better to provide a dust-proof chamber for this work. The
+operator of the sand-blast should then wear an appropriate helmet,
+to effectively protect his lungs and eyes from the dust. The form of
+apparatus used should be adapted to the work to be done, and to the
+conditions that must be met. Considered from the point of view of
+the dust hazard alone, the ideal arrangement appears to consist in a
+helmet well ventilated by means of a hose supplying an adequate flow of
+dust-free air. The hose may be run from the compressed-air tank to the
+upper part of the helmet, and it should be provided with a regulating
+valve located where it may be easily controlled by the man who is to be
+supplied. The air current should be so adjusted that it will not only
+afford sufficient oxygen to serve for respiration, but also prevent
+dust from rising into the helmet through openings in the lower part of
+it. In practice, however, it is frequently found that the plan
+here outlined is highly objectionable to the men, and in fact they
+often refuse to wear apparatus of this type, claiming that the cool
+air passing down the neck soon causes them to catch cold. Baffles and
+various other distributing devices to regulate the flow of the air
+within the helmet have been tried, but no ideal and wholly satisfactory
+solution of the difficulty has yet been worked out, so far as we are
+aware. In the opinion of certain foundry experts, an ordinary helmet
+with a respirator attached, or used in conjunction with a separate
+respirator, constitutes the best device for the protection of the
+sand-blaster, when all phases of the problem are considered.
+
+Each compartment used for sand-blasting should be provided with an
+exhaust system capable of removing the dust in a satisfactory manner.
+
+[Illustration:
+
+ _Courtesy of the Western Electric News._
+
+FIG. 16. CABINETS FOR SAND-BLASTING SMALL CASTINGS.
+
+(The castings are placed in the cabinets and are held and turned about
+by the operators, who watch the progress of the work through glass
+panels. The dust is carried off through the exhaust ducts.)]
+
+
+Illumination.
+
+The average foundry is poorly lighted, and many accidents may be
+attributed directly to this condition. There are many problems to be
+considered in providing proper and adequate light for foundries, and as
+the conditions that have to be met vary a great deal, it is impossible
+to make any general recommendations that will be applicable in all
+cases.
+
+The floors, walls, supporting columns, ceilings, and materials in
+foundries are usually covered with grime and dust which absorb from 95
+to 98 per cent. of the light that strikes them, and which give them
+all the same general tone or color. With no contrasting background
+it becomes exceedingly difficult, at times, to distinguish objects
+lying upon the floor, and care should therefore be taken to see that
+the floor is kept free from tools, materials, and obstacles of every
+other kind, over which the workmen might stumble. Moreover, if the
+ventilating system is inadequate to keep the air reasonably clear,
+the dust, smoke, and gases will not only reduce the intensity of the
+illumination and thereby invite accidents, but may also affect the
+health of the working force.
+
+During certain stages of the work,--notably at pouring time,--the men
+are exposed to a dazzling, blinding radiation from the white-hot,
+molten metal. Very often, too, lighting units of intense intrinsic
+brilliance and high candle-power are placed where they shine directly
+into the eyes of the men. Conditions such as these impair the vision
+of the worker, thereby reducing his efficiency as a producer, and
+multiplying the opportunities for accidents.
+
+One of the best artificial lighting sources for foundry work is the
+Mazda C lamp (500 to 1,000 watt sizes). To determine the proper
+location of the lamps, and their spacing, suspension heights, and other
+features (such as the types of reflectors that should be used) it is
+necessary to understand, as fully as possible, the exact conditions
+that must be met. Where incandescent lighting units are to be used,
+wall brackets, fitted with angle reflectors, provide the best means of
+securing satisfactory illumination at the floor level. Good results may
+be obtained by installing the brackets on the supporting columns, under
+the crane runway and below the smoky zone.
+
+Although we have spoken only of artificial light for foundries, it is
+important to admit the greatest possible amount of natural light. As
+a usual thing, skylights are of little value on account of the clouds
+of smoke that often fill the upper part of the building, and therefore
+practically all the natural light that can be really serviceable
+must pass through windows in the side walls. For the same reason the
+effective window area must be considered as only that below a height of
+approximately twelve feet. It is essential that the windows occupy as
+much of the wall space as possible, and, where the width of the room
+is great, prism glass should be used. Prism glass, when properly set,
+will reflect the light into the room in a nearly horizontal direction.
+Satisfactory natural illumination can hardly be had without keeping
+the windows clean; and we also strongly advise whitewashing the walls,
+ceilings, and supporting columns, applying fresh coats whenever they
+are needed.
+
+[Illustration:
+
+ _Courtesy of American Blower Company._
+
+FIG. 17. GOOD DAYLIGHT CONDITIONS IN A FOUNDRY.
+
+(Observe also the ventilating duct, near the roof, and the
+downwardly-projecting Y-shaped nozzles connected to it through which
+the smoke and dust are drawn out of the building.)]
+
+
+The Foundry Yard.
+
+The fact that orderliness and system promote safety is probably nowhere
+better exemplified than in a large foundry yard. The maintenance and
+cost of a foundry yard is small as compared with that of the foundry
+itself, and it is good economy, therefore, to use the yard as much
+as practicable for the storing of scrap, sand, flasks, finished
+product, raw materials, and miscellaneous supplies; but the maximum
+efficiency and economy cannot be realized unless the yard is kept in a
+neat and orderly condition. If a yard is just large enough to meet the
+needs of a foundry, and is not used to its full capacity, it usually
+follows that the foundry floor space is littered with material that
+could be stored in the yard more advantageously; and the crowding of
+the foundry floor increases the number of accidents, many of which
+might be eliminated if the yard were utilized to better advantage.
+This is specially true of a foundry where every available foot of
+floor space is required for production. In this class belongs the
+“jobbing foundry,” in which work of a miscellaneous nature is done, as
+distinguished from the “repetition foundry,” in which the work consists
+mainly in the continuous reproduction of certain standard stock
+patterns.
+
+The jobbing foundry owes its existence to the fact that many
+manufacturers who use castings have no room for a foundry, or have too
+limited a need for castings to warrant the expense of maintaining a
+foundry of their own. A foundryman who depends largely or wholly upon
+job contracts to keep his plant in operation usually has to turn out
+an exceedingly varied assortment of castings, and speed is often an
+essential factor in the contract. This means that as soon as one job is
+finished, the flasks and patterns must be removed and a different set
+substituted. If the yard is not well kept there is little likelihood
+that there will be ample space in it for the flasks and sand, and
+if there is not, it may be necessary to use the foundry floor for
+storage until the new flasks are brought in. The floor is then in
+a disorderly, crowded state, just when clear space is needed. It is
+evident that the probability of accident is greatly increased when such
+conditions prevail.
+
+It is important for the foundry yard to be level and fairly smooth,
+and it will pay the owner well to put forth every reasonable effort to
+secure a yard of this kind. Material can be handled and stored with
+much greater safety and facility, in a level yard, than in one that is
+sloping or uneven. Foot paths, and passageways for wheelbarrows and
+trucks, can also be kept in good condition more easily.
+
+A considerable part of the space in a yard, particularly when it
+belongs to a jobbing foundry, is devoted to the storage of flasks. The
+flasks should be carefully piled, so that they will not fall over, and
+they should also be arranged in an orderly manner, according to size,
+type, or combinations. Attention to these details will no doubt consume
+more time than would be required to store the flasks promiscuously;
+but the extra time is well worth taking, on account of the ease with
+which the flasks can be located, and the safety with which they can be
+withdrawn when they are again needed in the foundry,--to say nothing of
+the greater safety that proper storing insures, during the intervening
+period. If the flasks are heaped up in disorderly piles, or stored in
+other indiscriminate ways, accidents are likely to happen when the
+workmen are endeavoring to extricate one that is more or less buried or
+hidden. If the particular flask required cannot be located readily, a
+less desirable one is used, or a makeshift is hastily constructed. In
+the foundry these misfit flasks often cause burns, many of which could
+be avoided if more system were used in storing the flasks in the yard,
+so that the right one could be found without delay.
+
+[Illustration:
+
+ _Courtesy of the General Electric Company._
+
+FIG. 18. DANGEROUS LOADING OF A CAR USED FOR TRANSPORTING FOUNDRY
+MATERIAL.]
+
+When materials or equipment are stored or piled by the side of car
+tracks, a clear space of not less than six feet should be maintained
+between the tracks and the piles. Workmen engaged in the movement of
+cars, or other employees who are obliged to use the car tracks in the
+performance of their work, are likely to be caught and killed, or
+severely injured, unless ample clearance is provided.
+
+At all places where railroad tracks cross roadways, runways, or
+footways, planks should be nailed down between the rails and at both
+sides of them, or other equivalent measures should be taken, to provide
+a smooth passageway over the rails for wagons, trucks, or barrows,
+as well as for foot passers. This greatly facilitates the crossing
+of the tracks, and it also reduces, in large measure, the shocks to
+which loads would otherwise be subjected, and the consequent danger
+of material falling off and injuring the men. The planks (or their
+equivalent) should be _flush_ with the rails, however, and they should
+come snugly up to the rails on the outside, and as close to them, on
+the inside, as the flanges of the car wheels will permit. Warning signs
+should be posted at all crossings, and the men engaged in car movements
+should always blow a whistle or sound a gong or bell as the cars
+approach a crossing.
+
+Whenever tracks or roadways are depressed, they should be guarded by
+substantial railings. Furnace pits and excavations of all kinds should
+also have effective protection of the same nature.
+
+All manholes should be kept covered with wooden tops, or with covers
+made safe by the use of non-slip material or by being checkered with a
+raised pattern; and the covers should be set as nearly flush with the
+surrounding surfaces as possible. Many serious injuries have resulted
+from workmen slipping on smooth, wet manhole covers of iron or steel,
+and from tripping over covers projecting above the level of the floor
+or the ground. When it is necessary to remove a cover, a guard rail
+should be placed about the hole immediately, and a danger signal
+secured to the guard rail.
+
+Sand bins and coke bins, particularly those constructed of wood, often
+get badly out of repair. The boards become warped and bulge out under
+the weight of their contents, and they often split or crack in such a
+way as to present dagger-like points, or slivers, that are likely to
+catch the unwary workman, especially at night or during late afternoons
+in winter months, when the light is poor.
+
+Good, serviceable walks should be provided throughout the yard. If the
+walks are conveniently located and are kept in good order, the workmen
+will use them; but if these conditions are not fulfilled, the men will
+climb over scrap piles or under cars, in order to “make a short cut.”
+Cinder paths are no doubt the most serviceable for foundry yards.
+Loosely-laid boards are continually getting out of place, and they are
+also likely to become warped so that they will not lie flat. Boards
+often warp enough to split, even when they are nailed down; and in such
+cases they may constitute a more or less dangerous tripping hazard to
+the workmen.
+
+The safest way to store pig iron is to stow it in bins, or pile it
+up in neat stacks. This is more costly, however, than throwing it
+down promiscuously in piles, and hence the safer methods are often
+neglected. Electromagnetic cranes are coming into wide use for
+handling pig iron, and although they are very convenient, they have
+serious drawbacks when regarded from the safety standpoint, and their
+hazards should be clearly understood and carefully avoided. When the
+electromagnet is used no one should be permitted to stand, walk, or
+work near the path followed by the magnet, because any interruption of
+the electric service, from the opening of a switch, the blowing of a
+fuse, the short-circuiting of the magnet coil, or any other cause, will
+instantly let the whole load drop. Sometimes, too, a pig is barely held
+by the magnet, so that the least jar will break its contact and allow
+it to fall.
+
+Safety, neatness, and convenience may be secured by constructing
+stout bins and dividing them into compartments, preferably of one-car
+capacity each, in which the pig iron can be deposited by the magnet
+crane,--always provided the dangers incident to the use of the magnet
+are borne in mind and avoided. When the iron is piled high in loose,
+irregular heaps, there is danger of one or more of the pigs becoming
+free and tumbling down upon workmen. This hazard is avoided when
+substantial bins are employed.
+
+In many foundry yards boxes and barrels are used to store worn-out
+tools, small scrap material, discarded lumber, and other rubbish. It
+will materially assist in keeping the yard in a neat, safe condition,
+if the barrels or boxes used for this purpose are kept in convenient
+places, because the men are then more likely to make use of them. It
+is important, too, to keep all such receptacles in good order. It is
+not uncommon to see the ragged edge of a worn-out shovel blade, or
+some other discarded tool, sticking out menacingly over the edge of a
+box or barrel. Heaping up the scrap so that it stands high above the
+receptacles, or allowing it to project over the edges of them as just
+described, should be prohibited, because careless habits of this kind
+increase the dangers about the yard and invite injury, especially at
+night.
+
+Barrel hoops are frequently left lying about, and when a workman steps
+on such a hoop it is likely to swing up and strike him smartly, often
+causing acute pain, or perhaps producing an actual abrasion or lesion,
+if it contains a sharp nail. This particular hazard may be taken as
+representative of a large class of others that are seemingly trivial in
+nature, but which are well worthy of attention in the aggregate. These
+minor accidents are often attended by grave consequences, not only
+because they may be followed by septic poisoning, but also because they
+frequently occur when the workman is engaged at some important task
+involving the safety of himself or others. Coming at such a time they
+take him by surprise, and they are likely to make his attention lapse
+momentarily from the work in hand,--perhaps with disastrous results. A
+book might be written about the big consequences of little things.
+
+When old castings and other metal objects are broken up the work should
+preferably be done in the yard. A “skull-cracker” or “yard-drop” is
+usually employed for breaking these objects, and this consists of a
+derrick or hoist which lifts a heavy metal ball and drops it on the
+castings. Pieces of the objects are likely to fly in all directions
+when the weight falls on and breaks them, and all persons in the
+immediate vicinity are endangered by these pieces. Every skull-cracker
+should therefore be entirely surrounded by a substantially constructed
+fence, barricade, or inclosure, of sufficient height to protect persons
+working in the vicinity, and all passers-by, from injury from flying
+fragments of metal. In addition, a suitable shelter-house should be
+provided for the operator of the skull-cracker and his helpers, and
+all these persons should go into the shelter-house _before the ball is
+raised_. A safety drop-hook should be used to prevent premature or
+accidental dropping of the ball, if the weight is held by mechanical
+means; and if an electromagnet is employed to raise and hold the
+weight, the utmost care should be taken to keep the electrical circuits
+and devices in perfect condition. All gears, sprockets, and other
+dangerous moving parts of the skull-cracker should be covered or
+otherwise rendered harmless by the installation of standard guards.
+
+
+
+
+INDEX
+
+
+  Accident in foundries, the causes of, 1.
+
+  Acid burns, protection against, 5.
+
+  Air, compressed, as employed in foundries, 52.
+    accidents caused by misusing, 52.
+
+  Annealing chains and hooks, 44.
+
+  Aprons, rubber and leather, 5.
+
+
+  Barrels, tumbling, wet and dry, 47.
+    guards for, 48.
+
+  Bins, sand and coke, dangers of, 63.
+
+  Boots, rubber, 5.
+
+  Bot, the proper use of the, 30.
+
+  Brakes, crane, testing, 40.
+
+  Braking, dynamic, for cranes, 37.
+
+  Buggy ladles.--See _Ladles_.
+
+  Bull ladles.--See _Ladles_; _Shanks_; _Clamps_.
+
+  Bumpers for cranes, 36.
+
+  Burns the most common injuries in foundries, 1.
+    --See also _Acid burns_.
+
+
+  Carbon monoxide in cupolas, 34.
+
+  Castings, old, method of breaking up, 65.
+
+  Chains, responsibility for selection of, 41.
+    and hooks, inspecting and annealing, 44.
+
+  Chipping department, accidents in the, 50.
+
+  Clamps for bowls of bull ladles, 9.
+
+  Clearance beside car tracks, 61.
+
+  Clinkers, crucibles damaged by, 29.
+
+  Clothing, suitable, for foundry workers, 1.
+
+  Crane operators, duties of, 39.
+    under repairs, precautions for, 44.
+    ladles.--See _Ladles_.
+
+  Cranes, traveling, safeguards for, 35.
+    electromagnetic, dangers of, 63.
+
+  Crucibles, the safe handling of, 19.
+    material for, 19.
+    improve with age, 20.
+    records of heats taken from, 21.
+    inspection, storage, and annealing of, 22.
+    “soaking”, 22.
+    “alligator cracks” in, 24.
+    care in filling, 25.
+    injured by tongs and shanks, 26.
+    the number of heats taken from, 26.
+    danger of leaving metal in bottom of, 30.
+
+  Cupola, gate for charging, opening of, 32.
+
+  Cupolas, proper method of tapping-out, 30.
+    precautions to be taken when relining, 32, 33.
+    explosions in, 33.
+    charging, lighting-up, and warming-up, 35.
+
+
+  Damper in blast pipe, 34.
+
+  Doors, explosion, for cupolas, 34.
+
+  Dust hazard in sand-blasting, 53.
+    from tumbling barrels, methods for removing, 47.
+
+  Drops.--See _Skull-crackers_.
+
+
+  Electricity, guarding against shocks and burns from, 50.
+
+  Elevators in foundries, 31.
+
+  Emery wheels.--See _Grinding wheels_.
+
+  Employees, new, instruction of, 12.
+
+  Explosion doors for cupolas, 34.
+
+  Explosions in cupolas, 33.
+
+  Eye-protectors for foundrymen, 3, 4, 50.
+
+
+  Fenders for cranes, 36.
+
+  Flasks and molds, 16.
+    iron and steel, superior to wooden, 16.
+    storage of, 18, 60.
+
+  Floors, concrete and brick, prevent spills, 8.
+
+  Foot-walks on crane bridges and runways, 36.
+
+  Foundry, jobbing, 59.
+    repetition, 59.
+    yard, the, 58.
+
+  Furnaces, oil, for heating crucibles, 25.
+
+
+  Garments.--See _Clothing_.
+
+  Gas.--See _Carbon monoxide_.
+
+  Gears on geared ladles to be completely inclosed, 5.
+
+  Glass, prism, for use in foundries, 57.
+
+  Glasses, safety.--See _Eye-protectors_.
+
+  Gloves for use in foundries, 4.
+
+  Goggles.--See _Eye-protectors_.
+
+  Gongs, signal, for cranes, 42.
+
+  Grinding wheels, guards for, 52.
+
+
+  Hand-leathers, 4.
+
+  Helmets for sand-blasters, 53.
+
+  Hoisting apparatus, care of, 47.
+    --See also _Cranes, traveling_; _Elevators_.
+
+  Hook, crane, method of applying, to load, 41.
+
+  Hooks, crane, with safety handles, 41.
+    and chains, inspecting and annealing, 44.
+    safety, for skull-crackers, 65.
+
+  Hoops, barrel, dangers of, 64.
+
+
+  Illumination in foundries, 56.
+
+  Injuries in foundries, the causes of, 1.
+
+  Iron, pig, storage of, 63.
+    scrap and pig, safety in handling, 31.
+
+
+  Jokes, practical, with compressed air, 53.
+
+
+  Khaki.--See _Clothing_.
+
+
+  Ladles, motor-operated, guards for, 5.
+    foundry, types of, 5.
+    geared, locking device for, 7.
+    crane, precautions in connection with, 7.
+    sulky and buggy, cause many accidents, 7.
+    bull, styles of shank-handles for, 9.
+    single-hand, guards for, 10.
+    proper method of filling, 12.
+    proper balancing of, 12.
+    damp, explosions caused by, 14.
+    relining, drying, and storing, 16.
+    --See also _Prong guards_; _Trolley systems_.
+
+  Lamps, electric, suitable for foundries, 57.
+
+  Leave-overs, proper disposition of, 14.
+
+  Leggings, suitable, for foundry workers, 2.
+
+  Lenses.--See _Eye-protectors_.
+
+  Lighting.--See _Illumination_.
+
+  Limit-stops, hoist, for cranes, 37.
+
+
+  Manholes, safe covers for, 62.
+
+  Molding machines, automatic, guards for, 50.
+
+  Molds and flasks, 16.
+
+
+  Orderliness in foundry yards, advantages of, 64.
+
+  Overalls.--See _Clothing_.
+
+
+  Passages, width of, between rows of flasks, 17.
+
+  Pickling processes, rubber gloves required for, 4.
+
+  Prong guards for buggy ladles, 9.
+
+
+  Railroad tracks in foundry yards, 62.
+
+  Rattlers.--See _Barrels, tumbling_.
+
+  Respirators.--See _Helmets_.
+
+  Riding on crane loads prohibited, 42.
+
+  Run-outs, 17.
+
+  Runways for buggy ladles, 7.
+
+
+  Safety-valves for cupolas, 34.
+
+  Sand-blasting, precautions in, 53.
+
+  Sand mixers and sifters, guards for, 49.
+    types of, 49.
+
+  Screen guard for use when relining cupola, 32.
+
+  Shanks for bull ladles, 9.
+
+  Shields for hand ladles, 10.
+    to intercept flying chips, 52.
+
+  Shirts.--See _Clothing_.
+
+  Shoes, congress, best for foundry workers, 2.
+
+  Signals for elevators, 31.
+    code of, for directing movements of crane, 43.
+    --See also _Gongs_.
+
+  Skull-crackers, guards for, 65.
+
+  Sleeves should be worn outside of gauntlets, 4.
+
+  Slings, responsibility for selection of, 41.
+    the safe angle of, 46.
+    to be locked up when not in use, 46.
+    protecting, at sharp corners of heavy objects, 46.
+    wire-rope, preferable to chain slings, 45.
+      lubricating, 45.
+    --See also _Chains and hooks_.
+
+  Stops, hoist-limit, for cranes, 37.
+    on crane runways, 36.
+
+  Sulky ladles.--See _Ladles_.
+
+  Switches, safety, for cranes, 37.
+
+
+  Tapping-out.--See _Cupolas_.
+
+  Tongs, types of, 27.
+    suitable, importance of using, 27.
+
+  Tongs, bent, method of re-shaping, 29.
+
+  Tools, defective, should not be used, 52.
+
+  Trolley systems for transporting ladles, 9.
+
+  Tumbling barrels.--See _Barrels, tumbling_.
+
+
+  Walks in foundry yards, 63.
+
+  Wiring for cranes to be installed in conduits, 37.
+
+  Woodwork about cranes, fire hazard of, 38.
+
+
+  Yard, foundry, the 58.
+
+  Yard-drops, guards for, 65.
+
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+TRANSCRIBER’S NOTES
+
+The only footnote has been renumbered and moved to
+the end of its paragraph.
+
+This file uses _underscores_ to indicate italic text.
+
+Itemized changes from the original text:
+ On page 43, changed “and and” to “and”,
+   in “danger will be lost and the men”
+ On page 59, changed “floor-space” to “floor space”,
+   in “foundry floor space is littered with material”
+ On page 68, changed “charging-opening” to “charging, opening”,
+   in “Cupola, gate for charging, opening”
+ On page 77, changed “electro-magnet” to “electromagnet”,
+   in “if an electromagnet is employed”
+
+*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 77246 ***