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diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6833f05 --- /dev/null +++ b/.gitattributes @@ -0,0 +1,3 @@ +* text=auto +*.txt text +*.md text diff --git a/77246-0.txt b/77246-0.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..d6150f3 --- /dev/null +++ b/77246-0.txt @@ -0,0 +1,2263 @@ +*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 77246 *** + + SAFE FOUNDRY PRACTICE + + + Reasons for selecting THE TRAVELERS for + + Workmen’s Compensation + _and_ Employers’ Liability + + INSURANCE AND SERVICE + + It is the Greatest Casualty Company. + + It has splendid resources, conservatively managed. + + It is forward-looking in its ideas. + + It provides unsurpassed service in the administration of claims and + the prevention of accidents. + + It is a multiple line company affording those who require several + kinds of insurance an opportunity to obtain them all in the same + company--and thus obtain the highest possible quality of service, + _Entirely Free_. + + The Travelers has spent more than $6,500,000 for the prevention of + accidents by inspection + + + THE TRAVELERS INSURANCE COMPANY + THE TRAVELERS INDEMNITY COMPANY + HARTFORD, CONNECTICUT + + _Lines written by The TRAVELERS_ + + include LIFE, ACCIDENT and HEALTH, GROUP, WORKMEN’S + COMPENSATION, EMPLOYERS’ LIABILITY, PUBLIC LIABILITY, + AUTOMOBILE, AIRCRAFT, STEAM BOILER, ENGINE, + ELEVATOR, BURGLARY and PLATE GLASS + + + + + SAFE FOUNDRY + PRACTICE + + + THE TRAVELERS INSURANCE COMPANY + HARTFORD, CONNECTICUT + +21381. 12-29-’19. + + + + + Copyright, 1920, by + THE TRAVELERS INSURANCE COMPANY, + Hartford, Connecticut + + + + +PREFACE + + +The foundry, viewing it from all angles, presents one of the greatest +problems in the industrial world. The fact that the production of +castings depends not only on a mechanical process, but also on a +chemical process, makes it specially difficult to fasten upon any +individual the responsibility for imperfect work. And yet there is +a definite (even though unassignable) reason for the loss of every +defective casting produced,--some one member of the department failed +in properly performing his part of the work. Every man must therefore +be taught to appreciate the importance of his own particular task, +and must be impressed with the necessity of performing that task +conscientiously, and as correctly and efficiently as he can. There +should be a spirit of cooperation as earnest and sincere as that which +prevails in a beehive, where every worker performs the task of the +moment with singleness of purpose, and with no thought or motive other +than the production of the best final result, from the united labors of +all. The development of a point of view of this nature among the men +will also have a profound effect in the way of reducing accidents,--a +greater effect, in fact, than could be realized by any other single +means. + +One of the problems that must receive special consideration in +connection with accident-prevention work in foundries relates to the +class of persons employed. It is not necessary to employ skilled +labor for all the operations in the foundry, and for that reason +a certain portion of the work is intrusted to unskilled help,--to +men, namely, who do not understand the necessity for safety methods. +The most practical and effective way of dealing with a situation +of this kind is to adopt the team-work idea--that is, to teach +cooperation--and to introduce a well-organized safety department +that will educate the men to the extent of developing in them sound +and correct accident-prevention ideals. Useful practical suggestions +for accomplishing this, and for making the accident-prevention work +effective, are given in a booklet entitled “_Organization in Safety +Work_”, which is published by the Engineering and Inspection Division +of THE TRAVELERS INSURANCE COMPANY. + +Even the best-equipped, most orderly, and most effectively organized +foundry is not free from accidents, and it is too much to expect +that complete immunity will ever be possible. The experience of many +concerns that have adopted safety methods in their foundries shows, +however, that it is possible to eliminate a large proportion of the +commoner causes of accidents, without much expense and without any +serious disturbance of existing conditions. The Engineering and +Inspection Division of THE TRAVELERS INSURANCE COMPANY, in the course +of its extensive experience with foundries, has given a great deal of +study to this subject, and the recommendations and suggestions that it +has made in the course of its practical inspection work have been well +received by foundry managers, and have been particularly effective in +bringing about better and safer conditions. The present booklet, based +upon this study and experience, contains some of the suggestions that +have been found to be most serviceable and important in dealing with +the accident-prevention problem in its broader phases. Every foundry +has important special safety problems of its own, which must be dealt +with effectively if the best results are to be obtained; but to include +all features of this kind would swell this booklet to such dimensions +that its effectiveness and usefulness would be impaired. We have +therefore confined our attention to danger-points of wide and almost +universal occurrence. + +There are few machines in foundries in comparison with the number in +industrial plants of many other kinds. The machines that are used, +however, must be provided with guards at all points where accidents +might occur, and the necessary special guards have been described +in more or less detail in the following pages. The construction and +arrangement of the various forms of guards for belts and pulleys are +not fully explained, but it should be understood that these are to +comply with the standards approved by the Industrial Compensation +Rating Bureau. The Engineering and Inspection Division of THE TRAVELERS +INSURANCE COMPANY will furnish upon request, copies of an illustrated +pamphlet entitled “_Industrial Standards_,” which clearly explains the +requirements of the Bureau. + +In the main, the present booklet deals with iron foundries; but we have +also included certain special hazards that are encountered chiefly in +foundries where other metals are cast. + + THE TRAVELERS INSURANCE COMPANY, + Hartford, Connecticut. + + + + +CONTENTS + + + PAGE + Introductory 1 + Clothing 1 + Shoes and leggings 2 + Eye-protectors 3 + Gloves 4 + Aprons and rubber boots 5 + Ladles 5 + Flasks and molds 16 + Crucibles 19 + Cupolas 30 + Traveling cranes 35 + Chains and hooks 44 + Wire-rope slings 45 + Slings in general 46 + Hoisting apparatus in general 47 + Tumbling barrels 47 + Sand mixers and sifters 49 + Automatic molding machines 50 + Chipping department 50 + Grinding wheels 52 + Compressed air 52 + Sand-blasting 53 + Illumination 56 + The foundry yard 58 + + + + +SAFE FOUNDRY PRACTICE + + +Introductory. + +According to the best statistics available, it appears that about +eighty per cent. of the injuries received in foundries are in the +nature of burns of greater or lesser severity; the remaining twenty +per cent. being caused by defective hooks, chains, slings, flasks, +mold-boards, bottom-boards, and other equipment, and by unguarded +machinery, by falls and falling objects, and, indirectly, by inadequate +illumination, poor ventilation, and other similar general conditions. +Suitable clothing and shoes will materially reduce the severity of +foundry burns, and will entirely eliminate many of them. Approved +protection of this kind is described in the following pages, together +with safeguards for various machines, and advice is also given with +regard to precautions to be taken for the prevention of accidents in +handling the various tools and appliances that are used in foundries. + + +Clothing. + +Suitable clothing is an important factor in protecting foundry workers +from burns. Ordinary cotton shirts and overalls afford but little +protection, because molten metal burns through them almost instantly; +and although the legs and feet are the parts of the body most often +burned in the foundry, it is advisable for the men to wear shirts (as +well as trousers) made of a thick, stout, hard-finished material, +such as khaki (twilled cotton), which will shed the molten metal to +some extent. The bottoms of the trouser-legs should never be rolled +or folded up, and there should be no other folds, nor any creases +or pockets in the clothing, in which molten metal or highly-heated +particles of any kind may lodge. Torn garments and those having holes +in them are unsafe, and should not be worn. Woolen undershirts furnish +the best protection against “shot” or molten metal, but on account of +the intense heat to which foundrymen are exposed it is hard to get the +men to wear them, particularly during the summer months. + + +Shoes and Leggings. + +The number of burns received by foundry workers on the feet and legs +may be greatly reduced or almost entirely eliminated by the use of +proper shoes and leggings. These should be worn by every foundry worker +who has to handle molten metal, or who is exposed to it, and no one +should be permitted to work without them, where the danger of such +burns exists. Strong, substantial, well-made shoes of the “congress” +type are the most suitable for general wear in foundries, because when +they are in good condition they contain no holes through which molten +metal may enter, while in laced and buttoned shoes there are many such +openings. Moreover, congress shoes may be quickly and easily removed +when hot metal is spilled upon them. Low-cut or Oxford shoes should +never be worn by foundry workers. + +Suitable leggings are almost as necessary as good, serviceable +shoes. Under some conditions safety requires that the leggings be of +asbestos or leather, but for general foundry work canvas or twilled +cotton of good quality may be used. These materials will meet with +all but the most severe requirements. The leggings, like the shoes +previously described, should be fastened in such a way that they may +be quickly and easily removed, and ordinary buckles are therefore +unsuitable. Laces and buttons are likewise unsatisfactory, and any +type of fastening that forms projections upon which molten metal may +lodge does not afford the best sort of protection. Flat spring clasps, +properly inclosed, at the top and bottom of the leggings, are the most +satisfactory type of fastening devised up to the present time. The +leggings should completely incase the legs from the knees down, and +should fit snugly, especially at the top, to prevent the entrance of +molten metal at this point. + + +Eye-protectors. + +It is extremely important to protect the eyes of foundrymen against the +intense light and heat from molten metal and from welding flames, and +also against dust and grit, flying chips, and molten metal that may +be splashed about. Eye-protectors (also called “safety glasses” and +“goggles”) of various types are now available for all the different +hazardous operations in foundries. To insure comfort, eye-protectors +should fit well, and should be light in weight and easily adjustable +for size. They should be provided with side protectors composed of +metal screens or of perforated leather, to stop flying particles and +small objects that might otherwise enter the eyes from the sides. +The lenses should not be made of ordinary window glass, but in order +to prevent serious eye strains they should be made of clear glass +without flaws, and polished on both sides. They should also be strongly +framed, so that pieces will not enter the eyes in case the lenses are +broken. The lenses of eye-protectors that are to be used by furnacemen, +welders, and others whose eyes are exposed to unusually brilliant +light-sources should be suitably colored, to temper the intensity of +the rays and to exclude those that are specially harmful to the eyes. + +Experience has shown that where eye-protectors have been provided and +worn faithfully, there has been a marked decrease in the number of eye +injuries. + + +Gloves. + +Cupola men and others working where the heat is intense must provide +protection for their hands and arms. Gloves and sleeves of calfskin, +buckskin, canvas, and asbestos are used,--the choice of material +depending upon conditions. When gloves with gauntlets are used, the +sleeves of the shirt, coat, or jumper (whichever is worn) should be +pulled down over the gauntlets. The sleeves should then be arranged +with as few folds or creases as possible, and be secured about the +wrists by means of buttons or clasps or in some other suitable manner. +(By leaving the gauntlets _outside_ of the sleeves lodging places for +molten metal are provided, and serious burns are likely to result.) +There should be no slits or openings in the lower ends of the sleeves +(at the wrists) as in ordinary shirts, because molten metal would be +likely to find entrance through them. + +Hand-leathers and gloves of various kinds must be worn by men handling +scrap, pig iron, and hot castings; and rubber gloves are important to +afford protection against acids employed in pickling processes. Thick, +clumsy gloves, which interfere with the safe handling of tools and +implements, should not be used. Care should be taken to see that no +workman wears ragged gloves, or gloves with frayed fingers, which are +specially likely to be caught by moving parts of machines or on the +sharp edges of objects being handled. + + +Aprons and Rubber Boots. + +In connection with pickling processes, rubber boots and rubber +aprons are often necessary to prevent acid burns and damage to +clothing. Aprons are of value in other departments of foundries also, +particularly when flasks and rough, hot castings and other objects +are being carried about, and when it is necessary for grinders to +support castings in position at the grinding wheels. For work of this +kind, and for foundrymen engaged in pouring metals, leather aprons +are recommended. In view of the high cost of good leather, however, +aprons of other suitable material may be used where the leather is not +absolutely required. + + +Ladles. + +Several types of ladles are used in foundries, including reservoir, +crane, sulky or buggy, trolley, bull, and single-hand ladles. Many +burns are caused by defects in ladles, and by lack of care in handling +and transporting them. All ladles should be frequently, regularly, and +critically examined, and when defects are observed the ladles in which +they are found should be immediately set aside for repairs, or should +be discarded if the defects are of a serious nature. + +Reservoir ladles and all other ladles operated by gearing should +receive special attention. The motors of motor-operated ladles should +be completely inclosed, not only to protect the workmen against +electric shocks and burns, but also to prevent accidents which might +be caused by metal being spilled upon the motors, resulting in short +circuits or other kinds of trouble. All the gears on geared ladles +should be completely inclosed, the covers or guards being constructed +in such a way that they may be readily removed for oiling, cleaning, +and inspecting the various parts. If guards are not provided the gears +will soon become clogged with dirt and with metal that has hardened or +set after having been spilled upon them while in a molten state; and +clogged gears are likely to be broken or stripped, and to cause serious +accidents. + +[Illustration: FIG. 1. A CRANE LADLE. + +(The gears should be completely inclosed, to prevent them from becoming +clogged with dirt and spattered metal.)] + +Many ladles are equipped with direct-acting spur gears. This +arrangement permits rapid operation of the ladles, but it often imposes +severe strains upon the operators, making it difficult for them to hold +the ladles steady while pouring. This often results in spilling the +metal and causing it to be spattered about when it strikes the sand on +the tops of the flasks. A tilting arrangement composed of a train of +spur gears, or a combination of worm gearing and spur or bevel gears, +is to be preferred. The gears should be so designed and arranged that +at least two teeth of each wheel will be in mesh at all times. Unless +this point receives due attention a serious accident is likely to occur +if the teeth become badly worn, or if one of them should break, thus +permitting the ladle to tilt suddenly when pouring. The small pinions +and worms of geared ladles often deteriorate quite rapidly, and they +should therefore be inspected frequently and with special care, so that +they may be renewed before they become a source of danger. Every geared +ladle should be provided with a safety locking device to hold it in an +upright position while it is being carried. + +The bail of each crane ladle should be examined frequently, and +particularly at the point where the crane hook engages it, because +that is where the wear is greatest. The lower parts of these ladles +should also be watched carefully for evidences of injury caused by +carelessness on the part of cranemen when transporting or depositing +them. + +Sulky and buggy ladles are used only to a limited extent, but they +cause many accidents. In some foundries steel plates are laid to serve +as runways for buggy ladles, and plates are often placed between the +rails of narrow-gage industrial railway tracks also. Molten metal is +sure to splash when spilled on clean, smooth plates of this kind, and +it also forms into “shot” which roll under the feet and cause the men +to fall or to spill more metal. The danger from splashing might be +minimized by sprinkling sand on the floor, but the sand would hinder +the free movement of the wheels, and greater effort would be required +to move the buggies. This would tend to make spills more frequent, even +though in any individual case the sand might reduce the likelihood of +injury from splashing, after the metal had been spilled. Floors of +concrete and brick have been tried in other foundries, with the result +that the number of burns from spills has been materially reduced. An +excellent floor may also be constructed of metal plates with _checkered +surfaces_,--the elevations on these plates providing a surface that +is sufficiently smooth for the wheels, while the depressions (which +are filled with sand) tend to check the splashing. Overhead trolley +systems are used in some foundries for transporting ladles, and in this +way the spills and splashes that are due to poor floor conditions are +eliminated. + +[Illustration: FIG. 2. A BUGGY OR SULKY LADLE. + +(Observe the inclosure for the gears, and the shield to prevent the +molten metal from splashing on the operator when pouring and when +pushing the ladle along the track.)] + +It is necessary to maintain a clear path for buggies that are being +moved about, because metal is likely to be spilled from them if even a +very small obstruction is encountered. Moreover, the buggies or trucks +should be inspected frequently, paying particular attention to the +wheels and bearings to make sure that they are in good condition so +that the buggies will run easily and smoothly. Each buggy should be +equipped with prong guards to hold it rigidly while pouring, and the +ladle should be properly counterbalanced so that it will automatically +return to an upright position when empty. + +Bull ladles are much safer to handle than ordinary single-hand ladles, +and should be used whenever possible. Several styles of shank-handles +are used with bull ladles, one of them consisting of a rigid fork +handle on one side and a rigid single handle on the other side. In +another style (which is preferable) both handles are forked; and in +still another form a swivel is provided at one end, which permits +the ladle to be tilted more easily and emptied with less danger of +spilling. The bowls of bull ladles should be held securely in position +in their shanks by means of clamps made of round or flat iron. The +shanks must be amply strong for the weight to be carried, and the +joints should be carefully inspected for poor welding, flaws, and other +weaknesses. Defective ladle shanks should be removed from the pouring +floor as soon as discovered, so that there will be no possibility of +using them again, either intentionally or otherwise. Ladle shanks +should not be left exposed to the weather, because such exposure causes +them to corrode and become weakened. + +[Illustration: FIG. 3. A BULL LADLE IN USE. + +(The handle is provided with a swivel, and one man tilts the ladle +while the other man simply sustains a part of the weight.)] + +When single-hand ladles are used the shanks should be securely attached +to the bowls, because otherwise the bowls are likely to slip out when +pouring, and to cause accidents. A sheet-metal guard or shield, 6 or 8 +inches high, should be firmly secured to the top of the bowl of every +hand ladle on the side next to the shank, to protect the workman’s hand +while carrying the ladle. + +[Illustration: FIG. 4. POURING FROM A HAND LADLE. + + (This illustration shows the correct attitude for a man to assume when + pouring. Observe also the shield on the ladle, to protect the hand + from burns caused by spattering metal. The leggings are of a good type + but, unfortunately, are not clearly shown. On general principles we + disapprove of the unbuttoned vest, although the upper part of the body + is unlikely to be burned so long as the man is engaged solely in work + of the kind here shown.) +] + +When several workmen are carrying ladles from the cupola to the +molds it is better for them to pass on the side on which the bowls +are carried. This not only tends to avoid confusion and disorder, +but it is also safer, because there is less danger of burns when two +bowls are struck together by passing workmen, than there is when two +shank-handles collide. + +“Horse play” and purposeless activities of other kinds should not be +permitted among the men who are waiting their turns at the cupola, +because the work is hard and dangerous, and the men must take it +seriously at all times and give their undivided attention to it, if +burns are to be avoided. The ladles should never be completely filled, +because if they are, the hot metal will surely spill while being +carried. “Cutting in” from the _back_ of a continuous stream of molten +metal at the cupola spout causes unnecessary spattering; always cut in +from the front. + +New employees in foundries, and particularly the unskilled help, should +be carefully instructed with regard to the proper method of carrying +the ladles and the correct position to assume when pouring into the +molds, and they should be watched and supervised for a considerable +time after being assigned to such work, in order to make sure that +they understand how to do it properly. The men should stand at a safe +distance from the molds, so that their feet will not be burned if the +metal spills or runs out between the cope and the drag or nowel. + +Ladles of all kinds, except hand ladles, are likely to cause accidents +by tilting unexpectedly, unless the bowls are properly balanced on +their shanks or trunnions, or are arranged to be locked in an upright +position. It is specially important to see that the bowls are not +top-heavy, even when full of metal. On the other hand, if the bowls +are weighted too heavily at the bottom it is difficult to tilt them, +and an unnecessary strain is imposed upon the operator and also upon +the gearing and other mechanism; furthermore, it is not easy to pour +a smooth, continuous stream from a ladle which requires considerable +exertion to hold it in the pouring position. In particular, all ladles +that are provided with bails for hoisting and transporting by cranes +should be so constructed that, when full of metal, the center of +gravity will be well below the bail, unless they are arranged with +geared devices for tilting. In addition, they should be provided with +clips or clamps to prevent unexpected or accidental overturning. + +[Illustration: FIG. 5. A TROLLEY LADLE IN POSITION AT THE CUPOLA.] + +When buying new ladles it is important to see that the lips are of the +correct shape to insure a smooth, narrow, undivided stream at pouring, +and to prevent the molten metal from backing up and running over the +sides at other points. Both safety and efficiency are promoted by the +use of ladles with proper lips. + +“Leave-overs” (excess metal left in ladles after the molds have been +poured) are sometimes poured on the foundry floor. In this way puddles +of molten metal are left, which soon become covered over with a thin +coating of sand or dust so that they are not readily observed. The +consequence is that men are often severely burned by stepping into or +upon these puddles while the metal is still hot. Pouring leave-overs +on the floor should be prohibited, and suitable receptacles should be +provided at convenient points to receive the excess metal. + +Many serious accidents have been caused by pouring molten metal +into damp ladles, the result usually being an explosion, and the +scattering of the metal in all directions. In every foundry, therefore, +special care should be taken in drying the ladles. In some plants the +core ovens or crucible furnaces may be utilized for the purpose, while +in other cases it may be necessary to provide special ovens or heaters. +Ladles should not be dried in the molding rooms by means of wood fires, +unless adequate exhaust ventilation is provided. + +[Illustration: FIG. 6. A CONVENIENT LABOR-SAVING POURING DEVICE. + +(By installing a monorail system a device of this kind can be used for +main-aisle and side-floor work. It can be operated by one man, with +safety. The ladle can be hoisted and lowered, thus making it possible +to pour molds at various heights. The metal shield protects the eyes +of the operator against heat and glare, and also prevents burns from +spattering metal.)] + +All ladles that are not in use should be stored in a dry place, and +preferably on elevated racks, or on supports of some other kind that +will permit the air to circulate freely about the ladles. + +Foundry ladles must be relined from time to time (bull and hand ladles +are relined each day), and it is advisable to have all of this work +done by men selected for reliability and experience, who are interested +in making the ladles safe and willing to give them the necessary time +and attention. + +All of the ladles that are in use should be examined carefully every +day, preferably by an experienced and conscientious man who has been +specially selected for this work. The bowls should be inspected for +cracks and thin, weak spots, and the shanks should be examined to +discover defective welds and erosion. Inspectors should also look out +for loose rivets and bolts, and should see that all necessary guards +are in good condition and properly secured in place, and that all +ladles are properly balanced. + + +Flasks and Molds. + +Wooden, steel, and iron flasks are used in foundries, but those of +iron and steel are so much superior that preference should be given to +them under all possible circumstances. Iron flasks may be cast in the +foundry, and the subsequent maintenance and depreciation charges are +quite small as compared with what must be expended upon wooden flasks. +Moreover, after a wooden flask has been used for some time the faces +of the cope and the nowel become burned or broken off, with the result +that instead of fitting closely together they may be separated by a +space of an inch or more. Although this space is filled with sand, the +hot metal is likely to break through and run down the sides of the +flask. “Run-outs”, as leakages of this kind are called, often cause +severe burns on the feet and legs of the workmen. If iron or steel +flasks are used, and the cope and nowel faces are planed to insure +a close fit, there will be little likelihood of the occurrence of +run-outs. + +Iron and steel flasks, as well as wooden ones, require frequent and +careful inspection to see that none of the lugs, handles, or other +parts are broken. If a flask is found with a broken or cracked lug or +handle it should be immediately removed from the shop for repairs; +otherwise, it might be used again by some person unaware of its +dangerous condition, and a serious accident might result when it was +picked up by the crane. + +Congestion on the molding floor is noticeable in many foundries, +particularly in those where the work is greatly diversified; and +numerous burns are the direct result of such a condition. Sufficient +space should be left between flasks so that the molders and their +helpers will not be crowded while pouring, and so that they will be +able to get out of danger quickly and easily in case of a “run-out”. +There should always be a clear space of at least 18 inches between the +rows of flasks when pouring “side floor” by hand, and for crane work +in general; and passages 24 inches or wider are much to be preferred. +Portable horses may sometimes be used to advantage for supporting bull +ladles when pouring work of certain kinds. + +Flasks, when in storage, should be piled in an orderly and systematic +manner, and the maximum height for stacking them should be such that +the workmen can handle them easily and conveniently while standing with +both feet on the floor. Unevenly piled flasks sometimes fall over and +cause serious injuries; and even though they are piled well enough to +be stable if undisturbed, they may fall in consequence of jarring due +to the motion of neighboring cranes, and sometimes they are pulled over +by chains dangling from the cranes. + +Workmen often collide one with another, and are severely burned or +otherwise injured, in consequence of their view being obstructed by +foundry equipment. Obstructions likely to cause accidents of this kind +should be moved to the sides of the room. It is highly essential, also, +to keep all the aisles clear of flasks, tools, implements, and other +obstructions, particularly in plants where the illumination is not of +the best, and where, on account of insufficient ventilation, large +quantities of smoke obscure the vision. + +Orderliness and adequate light and ventilation not only increase +efficiency, but also materially reduce the number of accidents; and +any reasonable expense that is involved in securing good conditions in +these respects will pay for itself by lessening the time that is lost +in consequence of the temporary demoralization to which the working +force is subject whenever an accident occurs. + + +Crucibles. + +Crucibles are extensively employed in founding, especially in +connection with non-ferrous metals; and the importance of exercising +special care in handling them, not only to avoid accidents but also to +insure greater length of service from the crucibles themselves, has +been greatly underestimated in the past. In our larger plants, however, +foundrymen are now giving considerable attention to the systematic +instruction of their furnacemen, melters, and helpers, with a view to +keeping the number of accidents as low as possible, and obtaining as +great a number of heats as practicable from each crucible. + +The clay crucibles of former days have been extensively supplanted by +better ones made largely of graphite, which is capable of resisting +exceedingly high temperatures. In fact, crucibles composed wholly of +clay have practically gone out of use for the melting of steel and +brass, because they can often be employed for only one or two heats, +and they are far more likely to break or crack unexpectedly, thereby +causing workmen to be seriously burned. Moreover, the temperatures that +occur in metal-working plants at the present time are higher than those +that prevailed when the all-clay crucible was the standard type. The +crucible that is now in general use consists mainly of the substance +that is variously known as graphite, plumbago, or black lead, and which +is a practically incombustible form of carbon. This is combined with a +small amount of a special variety of clay as a binding material, and +perhaps a little fire sand to give the mixture an open grain, so that +it can better withstand sudden changes of temperature. Some makers use, +in addition, a certain quantity of material obtained by grinding up +old, worn-out crucibles; but this practice cannot be recommended. + +The graphite crucible is doubtless the most efficient yet devised, when +cost and all other elements are considered, but it is nevertheless +somewhat fragile, in view of the fact that it is expected to withstand +a heat sufficient to melt the refractory metals, and to support, at +the same time, very considerable pressures due to the weight of its +heavy fluid contents. It is exceedingly important, therefore, to +see that all employees fully understand how to handle crucibles in +order to reduce the danger of breakage to a minimum; and a great deal +can be accomplished in this direction, because graphite crucibles, +when properly made and carefully used, can be kept in a fairly safe +condition. + +The number of accidents from breakage is greater in small plants than +in large ones, in proportion to the number of crucibles in use. This +is due partly to the greater care that the crucibles receive in the +large plants, and partly to the fact that large foundries buy supplies +of crucibles considerably in excess of their immediate requirements, +storing the surplus ones and allowing them to age or “season”. It +is an old saying that crucibles improve as they grow older, and as +experience shows that this belief has some actual basis in fact, the +date of manufacture should be stamped upon every crucible, to assist +the annealing men in selecting the oldest and best seasoned of them, +when additional ones are required for use. + +[Illustration: FIG. 7. A CRUCIBLE WHICH BROKE AFTER BEING RUN ONLY TWO +HEATS.] + +Good crucibles are expensive, and every foundryman therefore desires to +obtain the maximum service from them. The foundryman who attempts to +increase the useful life of his crucibles by careful handling, and by +the adoption of approved methods of every other kind, is at the same +time promoting safety by preventing accidents from premature breakage. +Foundrymen, melters, pourers, and helpers, usually expect a crucible +to run a certain definite number of heats, and they are likely to be +somewhat careless when a new crucible is put in service. For this +reason it is wise to assign a number to each crucible, for recording +the number of heats taken. The record may conveniently be kept upon +a black-board, opposite the appropriate crucible number and in plain +view. Everybody then knows just how many heats each crucible has +run, and this knowledge often arouses a spirit of competition, which +tends to make the men more careful in handling the crucibles, and to +increase the service that can safely be had from them. (The dating and +numbering here recommended are now being done, quite generally.) + +When crucibles are first received, it is important that they be +critically examined for cracks and flaws, not only by the eye but also +by tapping them with a light hammer; and all imperfect ones should be +rejected. If there is evidence that any of the crucibles in a given +shipment have become wet while in transit to the foundry, they should +be stored for at least four or five weeks, before being used, in a +place where they will dry out thoroughly--even though they may be +apparently dry at the time they are received. + +When a new supply of crucibles has been carefully inspected and +found to be free from defects, the entire lot should be stored for a +considerable time in a warm, dry place, and provision should be made to +protect them as thoroughly as possible from contact with moisture or +with moist air. The roof of a continuously-operating core oven is an +excellent place for the storage chamber. + +The proper annealing of crucibles is of far more importance than is +generally realized. It is said that crucibles, when they come from the +manufacturer’s kilns, contain less than one-quarter of one per cent. +of moisture; but after they have cooled off they absorb moisture again +from the air. To anneal a crucible properly, it should first be slowly +heated to a temperature somewhat above 250° Fahr., and it should be +maintained (or “soaked”) at this temperature for a sufficient time to +entirely remove the moisture. It may then be put into service, if it +has been thoroughly annealed by the makers. If there is any doubt on +this point, however, the crucible should next be heated for some hours +to a dull red heat, after which it should be allowed to cool again, +very slowly, to about 250°. In any case the crucible should still be at +a temperature of 250° or over, when it goes into the furnace, or the +drying-out process will not be wholly successful. + +Large crucibles, with thick shells, require a higher temperature +than small-sized ones in the preliminary heat-treatment, and a +correspondingly longer “soaking” period, in order to reduce the +absorbed moisture to the allowable limit. In drying out a No. 200 +crucible, for example, ten hours or more should be allowed for bringing +it up to a temperature of 250° Fahr., and fully ten hours more should +be allowed for “soaking”,--that is, for reducing the percentage of +moisture which may have been absorbed. If a crucible that has a +considerable amount of moisture in its walls is quickly subjected to a +high temperature, the moisture will be changed into steam, and this, +because it is confined within the walls of the crucible, may expand so +as to cause a rupture or crack. The same result may also follow from +the natural contraction of the drying crucible, if the moisture is +driven out rapidly or unevenly. The small “pinholes” and “skelping” +that may often be seen on crucibles are caused in this way. These +pinholes and fissures form one of the chief sources of trouble against +which users of crucibles have to guard; for although a crucible having +defects of this nature may endure for a considerable number of heats, +it is nevertheless likely to fail at a critical time (for example, +during pouring or while being pulled from the furnace), spilling the +molten metal and causing severe hand and foot burns. + +After receiving heat-treatment for the removal of moisture, crucibles +are often placed on a layer of damp sand, or on the comparatively cold +furnace floor, and left there for an indefinite length of time before +charging. This should not be permitted, because when the temperature +of the crucible falls to a point materially below 250°, it will again +absorb moisture. + +[Illustration: FIG. 8. THE CRACK IN THIS CRUCIBLE DEVELOPED AFTER FIVE +HEATS.] + +Fine cracks (called “alligator cracks”) often cover the entire surface +of a crucible. These may be caused in a number of ways. Sometimes +they are due to heating the crucible with fuel containing too high +a percentage of sulphur; or, in oil furnaces, they may be caused by +using too little oil or too much steam. It is specially important for +the operators to thoroughly understand their work when using an oil +furnace, because an excess of air or steam, or an insufficient supply +of oil, may give rise to an oxidizing action, whereby a portion of the +carbon (or graphite) is burned out of the crucible wall, leaving the +binding clay in a somewhat porous condition; and this action, when it +occurs, greatly facilitates the formation of cracks. + +When crucibles are stored on the top of a furnace, the melters or +furnacemen should make sure that the covers over the furnace openings +fit properly. If the furnaceman is careless in this respect the moist +gases that are given off when fresh fuel is placed on the fire will +escape through the openings to some extent, and they are likely to come +in contact with the crucibles, causing alligator cracks to form. + +Cracks and fissures are also likely to form if the metal to be melted +is not carefully placed in the crucibles. The men usually work rapidly +when introducing the ingots, so that the furnaces will not be left open +any longer than necessary; and the ingots are often thrown in with a +force sufficient to indent the bottoms of the crucibles, or otherwise +damage them. An indentation in a crucible, whether caused in this way +or in any other way, is quite likely to develop, shortly, into a crack +or fracture. The ingots should be introduced carefully and loosely, +sufficient time being taken to insure that this is properly done. When +a crucible is first filled it is desirable to place as many ingots +in it, for the first melting, as practicable; but it is exceedingly +important to see that they are not wedged or jammed, because when they +are heated they will expand more than the crucible itself, and the +walls of the crucible are likely to be cracked in consequence. + +When a new crucible is put in service for melting, it should be heated +quite slowly for a few runs, and this is _specially important the first +time it is used_. After one or two runs it will become vitrified, and +the danger from too sudden a heating is then materially reduced. It is +a good plan to keep on hand a few extra crucibles that have been used +before, to avoid loss of time in case an extra crucible is needed on +short notice. + +[Illustration: FIG. 9. A CARRYING POT, WITH SHANK.] + +A great deal of harm is done by carelessness in handling the tongs and +shanks, and the life of a crucible may be seriously shortened in this +way. When a tilting furnace is used, as many as fifty heats can often +be obtained from a crucible; but if the heating is in furnaces from +which the crucibles must be removed by means of tongs, they can be used +for only about fifteen heats, on an average. + +A crucible is soft and plastic at a white heat, and may easily be +squeezed out of shape by the pressure exerted upon it when the handles +of the tongs are forced together. The walls of the crucible gradually +become weakened by treatment of this kind, and eventually, if the +crucible is not discarded, a complete rupture will probably occur, with +its attendant toll of injuries and burns. + +[Illustration: FIG. 10. TONGS PROPERLY APPLIED TO A CRUCIBLE, FOR +REMOVING IT FROM A STATIONARY FURNACE.] + +Three styles of tongs are in general use in foundries--one-pronged, +two-pronged, and spade tongs. The different styles are designed for +various special purposes and operations, but they are sometimes +improperly used interchangeably. It is essential to see that the tongs +that are used are of the proper shape, and that they fit perfectly +from the widest part of the crucible (usually called the “bilge” or +“belly”), down to within a few inches of the bottom. They should not +extend to the _extreme_ bottom, however, because this would make it +hard to place the crucible in the shank. On the other hand, if they do +not extend down far enough the crucible will be badly squeezed. The +proper use of the tongs consists in taking hold of the crucible below +the bilge and lifting it in such a way that the least possible pressure +is exerted against the crucible walls. + +One-pronged tongs should be used only for lifting the smaller-sized +crucibles,--say up to size No. 40. For larger sizes two-pronged tongs +should be used. It is not uncommon to see large crucibles, ranging +from No. 200 to No. 300, lifted by one-pronged tongs. This practice +should be condemned, because when one-pronged tongs are used for +lifting a crucible, pressure is exerted against only a single point of +contact,--namely, at the bottom,--and the crucible, when hot and soft, +is likely to be cut or ruptured, if it is large and heavy, because the +pressure at the point of support is severe. Serious burns, from the +spilling of the molten metal, often result when the lower prong of a +two-pronged pair of tongs is cut off, on account of a lack of space +between the crucible and the furnace wall; because the crucible is then +lifted from above the bilge, and tilted. Melters should be cautioned +against the practice of driving down the ring of the tongs with a +skimmer or other implement, because this is almost sure to cause cracks +and fissures in the crucibles. + +Molten metal is often spilled from crucibles in consequence of using +tongs that have become bent or otherwise misshapen. It is important to +see that the tongs fit the crucibles properly, and that they are also +in good condition in every other way. For restoring bent tongs to +their proper shape, it is advisable to procure a set of cast-iron forms +similar in size and general shape to the crucibles that are used in the +plant, but slightly larger from the bilge upward. To restore the tongs +to their original form it is only necessary to put them in the furnace, +raise them to a red heat, clamp them to the proper iron form, and bring +them back into shape by means of a heavy hammer. Tongs may be fitted +easily and cheaply in this way, and a great saving of time results. If +cast-iron forms are not provided, the blacksmith cannot be expected to +restore the tongs to their correct shape with accuracy; but if iron +crucible-forms of the proper sizes and shapes are used, and the tongs +are fitted to them as here recommended, the likelihood of squeezing and +distorting the crucibles will be reduced to a minimum. + +Two pairs of tongs, at least, should be provided for each size of +crucible, so that if one pair becomes badly bent or worn, the other +pair may be placed in service without loss of time. + +Furnacemen should make sure that no clinkers or pieces of unburned coal +or coke are stuck to the walls of the crucibles when about to grasp +them with the tongs, because if the tongs are applied over a clinker +the clinker will probably be forced into the crucible and a rupture +may then occur at any moment. It is also important to see that the +bottom of the crucible (on the outer surface) is free from clinkers or +other adherent substances, so that when the crucible is in the furnace +its weight will be evenly distributed, and not concentrated at a few +projecting spots or regions. It is best to support the crucible by +means of a foundation or pedestal, of graphite, fire-brick, or other +infusible substance, though the fire-bed may be made to give a fairly +satisfactory support if it is carefully prepared and smoothed. + +When a heat has been poured it is important to see that no metal is +left in the bottom of the crucible, because when a residual mass (or +“button”) of such metal cools, it contracts at a different rate from +the crucible, and serious strains and cracks are likely to result. + +Ramming the fuel bed is bad practice, in general, because it is likely +to damage the crucibles seriously. If ramming appears to be necessary +at special times, the utmost care should be exercised in doing it. + +(We are indebted to the General Electric Company for the photographs +that are used in this section.) + + +Cupolas. + +Tapping-out is the most hazardous part of cupola work. This is +specially true if the melter is inexperienced or careless, for it is +almost entirely within his power to prevent excessive spattering of +the hot metal if he properly controls the flow from the cupola. If +dangerous spattering of the molten metal, with its attendant burns, +is to be eliminated, it is important that the melter be taught the +correct and only safe method of stopping up the tap hole. Under no +circumstances should the stopping bot be thrust directly into the +stream of flowing metal in order to “bot-up” the hole. Instead of this, +it should be brought immediately _over_ the stream, and, when near the +hole, should be carried down obliquely so that it will make a sharp +angle with the stream, and thus effectively and instantly close up the +hole without any undue spattering. In drawing molten metal from the +cupola into buggy or trolley ladles, it is necessary to stop the flow +of metal when a ladle has been filled and while another is being moved +into position. This is done by the melter, who inserts the stopping +bot into the hole and holds it there temporarily. After doing this +several times the fire clay on the end of the stopping bot becomes +burned off, and consequently the hole may not be closed properly. One +or more extra stopping bots, already prepared with fire clay, should +be conveniently at hand, which may be substituted for the burned-off +one when necessary. The melter and all other workmen engaged about the +cupola should wear well-designed goggles having side shields, because +statistics show that a high percentage of eye injuries occur about the +cupola. + +Accidents occur about cupolas not only when drawing off the metal, but +also during charging time, and when repair work is being done. As a +general thing workmen engaged in charging a cupola must bring the coke +and the iron (both scrap and pig) from the storage bins or yard, up to +the charging platform. These workmen should be instructed to pile the +iron evenly on the barrows, and to exercise great care in taking the +scrap from the pile, in case the latter is in such a condition that +it is likely to collapse or slide. Many workmen have been severely +injured, while filling their barrows, by the sudden collapse of piles +of scrap iron. + +In many foundries elevators are used for conveying the charges to the +charging floors. In every such case it is essential that a gong or +other signal be sounded before the elevator is taken from the charging +floor by a workman below; and the elevator should not be moved, after +the signal has been given, until sufficient time has elapsed for any +person who may be in danger to respond and to move into a place of +safety. Many serious accidents have been caused by elevators suddenly +descending while the workmen were loading or unloading them. To further +guard against such accidents there should be a door or gate at each +entrance to the hoistway, provided with an interlocking device so +arranged that the elevator cannot be started until the door or gate has +been closed. The unused sides of the car platform should be completely +inclosed to a height of 6-1/2 feet (or to the top of the crosshead), +and a substantial iron grating should be placed on the top of the car, +to stop falling tools and other objects.[1] + +[1] Further information with regard to the care and operation of +elevators in general is given in a booklet published by the Engineering +and Inspection Division of THE TRAVELERS INSURANCE COMPANY. Copies +of this booklet may be procured by applying to the Home Office at +Hartford, Connecticut. + +The charging opening in a cupola should be fitted with a door or +gate, which should always be closed except when charging is going on, +and workmen engaged in charging should be specially careful to avoid +tripping or losing their balance when in the vicinity of the opening, +and especially when throwing heavy pieces of scrap or pig metal into +the cupola. + +When the interior of a cupola is being relined it is recommended that a +watchman be stationed near the opening, or that a conspicuous warning +sign be posted beside it, stating that men are working inside. We +have known of cases where metal thrown into the cupola has struck and +seriously injured workmen who were engaged in making repairs to the +shell or lining. An effective guard against accidents of this kind +consists in a circular screen of a diameter slightly smaller than the +inside of the cupola, and made of heavy wire netting or of stout +expanded metal, substantially framed. The screen should be divided in +the center, and the two sections hinged together. In using this device +it is suspended above the point where the men are at work, from a piece +of scantling laid diametrically across the cupola so that it rests upon +the walls where they are offset for the single brick lining, or upon +the ledge formed by the charging doors,--the screen being supported +by chains at several points around its circumference, and having its +hinges on the under sides. When arranged in this way it tends to remain +open and flat, although it can easily be folded by raising it at the +middle. A screen of this kind will intercept falling pieces of slag and +brick, and other objects, and will thus protect the workmen below. + +When furnaces are to be entirely relined, only trustworthy and +experienced men should be allowed to perform the work. Moreover, the +fire-bricks that are used should be of the best quality obtainable, in +order to insure long life of the cupola. Between the bricks and the +shell a space of about 3/4 of an inch should be left, which should +be filled with dry sand to act as a cushion, so that severe stresses +will not be thrown on the shell when the bricks expand. The rivets and +the shells of all cupolas should be inspected periodically, to see if +any of the rivets have sheared off or worked loose, or if the shell +has become weakened in any way. After making repairs of any kind, +care should be taken to see that the cupola is thoroughly dried out, +and that all tools, and all materials used for scaffolding or other +purposes, are removed. + +Explosions occur in cupolas from time to time, and if the shell of a +cupola is weak, a serious catastrophe is likely to result. Carbon +monoxide, when combined with air in certain proportions, forms a highly +inflammable and explosive mixture, and the explosions are mainly due +to this gas, which collects in the wind box and blast pipe during +interruptions in operation. In an incredibly short time enough carbon +monoxide gas may collect in this way to cause a violent explosion +when the blast is turned on again. If the iron comes too fast a +temporary shut-down may be unavoidable; but interruptions from other +causes,--such, for example, as the slipping of the blower belt,--should +be prevented, so far as possible, by frequent inspections of the +equipment and by making all necessary adjustments and repairs when the +cupola is not in operation. + +A gate or damper should be placed in the blast pipe, close to the +cupola, to prevent the explosive gas from entering the pipe. This gate +should be closed _immediately_, whenever the blast is shut off, and it +should be opened cautiously and slowly when starting up again. At the +time that the blower is shut down one of the tuyeres should be opened +also, to maintain a slight draft of air. + +Explosion doors provide another means for preventing damage from gas +explosions. Some authorities recommend that these doors be placed in +front of the tuyeres, so that when the blast is turned off the doors +may be opened to admit the outside air. When this arrangement is +adopted the doors should not be closed until the blast has entered the +wind box, so that any gas remaining therein may escape through the +doors. + +With a positive-pressure blower, which is probably the best type for +cupola work, a safety-valve should be provided for the protection +of the blast pipe or blower. This will prevent the bursting of the +blast pipe in case the blast gate is closed suddenly, or if the cupola +becomes clogged with slag in such a manner as to obstruct the passage +of the air to a dangerous extent. The weights on the safety-valve +should be sufficient to prevent blowing-off unless the obstruction +is quite serious, because a constant blast-volume is required in +modern cupola operation, and if the volume is decreased an undesirable +lowering of the temperature occurs. + +Charging and lighting-up should be done carefully and by experienced +workmen, and the charges should be laid as nearly level as possible. +When the charging has been completed, and after lighting-up, sufficient +time should be allowed for the cupola to become thoroughly warmed up +before starting the blower. + + +Traveling Cranes. + +Cranes of various types are used in the foundry, but most of the heavy +work is done by electrically-operated traveling cranes. The suggestions +that follow therefore relate mainly to that type, although many of them +are applicable to all cranes, and to hoisting devices of other kinds. + +A substantial stairway or ladder should be installed at one end of the +crane runway, to provide access to the crane cab or cage; and when two +cranes are operated on the same runway, stairways or ladders should +be installed at both ends of the runway. Cranemen should always use +this means of entering and leaving the cages. Every crane cab should +be inclosed to a height of at least 42 inches on all sides, except +where entrance is actually effected. The inclosure should preferably +be of sheet metal or expanded metal, or of heavy, woven-wire mesh. If +railings are used there should be an intermediate rail midway between +the top rail and the floor of the cab, and a six-inch toe-board should +also be installed. A stairway or a ladder should always be provided for +passing from the cab to the top of the crane bridge. This should be +substantially built, and properly protected so that the crane operator +or repairman will be in no danger of falling when he uses it. + +A foot-walk should be constructed along the bridge of the crane, or +on both sides where the width of the bridge demands. This will give +easy and safe access to the trolley in any position, and to any part +of the bridge. The construction should be substantial, and the width +must be sufficient to provide ample room for passage. Double railguards +42 inches high should be erected along each foot-walk, and six-inch +toe-boards should also be provided. + +Whenever possible, a substantial walk should be installed beside the +crane runway, and this should be protected by strong railings and +toe-boards along its entire length. All traveling cranes should be +equipped with spring bumpers or oil bumpers, and suitable stops should +be installed at each end of each rail of the runway. + +All gears on the trolley and other parts of the crane should be +completely incased, and no one should be allowed on top of the crane +while it is in motion. A stout sheet-metal pan, or a substantial floor, +should be provided under the trolley, to catch any parts that may work +loose, and to prevent them from falling upon employees below. This +pan or floor should be solid except for the cable openings. Guards, +fenders, or brushes should be attached in front of the bridge and +trolley wheels, to remove any obstructions that may be upon the tracks, +and to prevent injury to persons who may be working in such positions +that their hands or feet might be crushed by the wheels. + +[Illustration: + + _Courtesy of The Alliance Machine Company._ + +FIG. 11. SAFEGUARDS ON A LARGE LADLE CRANE. + +(This crane is larger than is used in the average foundry but it has +some safety features that should be universally adopted. At A is the +landing platform leading to the foot-walk on the crane bridge; B is a +stairway which extends from the safety platform, C, just outside the +operator’s cage, to the landing platform. The railing and toe-board on +the crane bridge and on the trolley are also essential for safety.)] + +All electrical wiring should be installed in conduits; and it is +particularly important that hoist-limit stops be provided, in all +cases, both for the main and for the auxiliary hoists. In the best +crane practice the hoist-limit stops employ dynamic braking to check +overtravel and to assist in lowering loads. To prevent the crane from +being operated by unauthorized persons, or while repairs are being +made, there should be a safety switch in the main line, mounted above +the cab where it can be conveniently reached from the foot-walk. This +switch should be fitted with a lock so that it can be secured in the +open position, and the key should be only in the possession of the +crane operator or the head repairman. + +Woodwork should not be used about a crane, because it is likely to +become oil-soaked, and it is then exceedingly combustible. If it should +take fire and the craneman, in order to make his escape, should run the +crane to a stairway, the time required for this purpose might increase +his danger quite materially, and the motion of the crane would also +tend to increase the fire. If, on the other hand, he tries to leave the +crane in any other way than by the regular stairway, he will be exposed +to hazards of other kinds, and these will be accentuated by his haste. + +[Illustration: + + _Courtesy of the Shepard Electric Crane & Hoist Company._ + +FIG. 12. SOME SAFETY FEATURES OF A TRAVELING CRANE. + +(This illustration shows a part of a crane on the erecting floor of +the manufacturer. There are no exposed revolving parts throughout the +entire length of the crane bridge. Some of the safety features are as +follows: A--inclosed gearing; B--inclosed drive-shaft coupling; C--pipe +inclosure for drive shaft; D--device for sanding rails when crane is +used out-of-doors. See also Fig. 13.)] + +Keep all tools, oil-cans, and waste in a closed metal box securely +fastened to the crane or to the runway at some convenient point. + +Careful, watchful, intelligent, and trustworthy crane operators, +floormen, and repairmen, can do a great deal toward preventing +accidents, and only such men should be employed about cranes. The +following suggestions relate to the work of these men, and if +faithfully followed will be the means of promoting safety in a marked +degree. + +[Illustration: + + _Courtesy of the Shepard Electric Crane & Hoist Company._ + +FIG. 13. SOME SAFETY FEATURES OF A TRAVELING CRANE. + +(This is a nearer view of some of the safeguards shown in Fig. 12. A +is the track sander which is operated by a rope or cable attached to +the lever and extended to the craneman’s cage; B shows more clearly the +drive-shaft coupling. The shaft inclosure also appears more plainly.)] + +During the ordinary operation of an electric crane the craneman should +never leave his cage without making sure that all the controllers are +in the off position, and that the main switch is open. Before he leaves +the crane the safety switch should also be locked open. If the electric +current should be shut off at any time, the same precautions should be +observed; and before closing the main switch, when about to resume work +after an interruption due to any cause whatsoever, the craneman should +again make certain that all the controllers are in the off position. + +When about to lift a load, the motor should be run at low speed +until the slack in the chain or cable has been taken up, after which +the controller handle may be advanced slowly from point to point to +increase the speed. Before a motor is reversed it should be brought +to a full stop, except when an accident can be averted only by +disregarding this advice. + +When handling a heavy load the craneman should hoist it a few inches +above the floor, and then, before proceeding further, he should assure +himself that it is properly balanced and that the slings are secure, +and should also test the brakes to make sure that they will hold the +load safely. If there is any doubt whatsoever about the safety of +the operation, the load should be lowered and the slings or brakes +adjusted, or other necessary measures taken to avoid danger. It is also +desirable, at the beginning of each shift, to test the foot brakes and +limit switches thoroughly. + +It is extremely important, at all times, and particularly when handling +molten metal, to “spot” the trolley directly above the load to be +hoisted. Failure to do this will cause the load to swing sidewise +as soon as it is clear of the floor, and usually the metal will be +spilled, or men or objects near by may be struck by the load. + +Loads should be raised high enough to give proper clearance above +men and objects on the floor, but they should not be carried for +any considerable distance at an unnecessary elevation. So far as +possible, the craneman should avoid transporting loads directly over +workmen. Special care should be exercised to keep loads under control +when lowering them, and the speed should always be restricted to a +reasonable and safe limit. + +Some definite person must be held responsible for the selection of the +chains and slings that are used for hoisting, and for making suitable +hitches about the loads. If the foundry is large enough to employ +a special floorman, these matters may well be left to him, because +he is necessarily familiar with the constantly-changing conditions, +and he should therefore be able to select the proper sling quickly +and intelligently. Moreover, experience will have taught him the +best method for attaching the sling, or for hooking on to the load. +If no special floorman is employed, this part of the work should be +supervised by a specially assigned foreman, or by a skilled hooker-on. +When applying the hook to the load, and when holding the hook in place +while the slack is being taken up, the hooker-on should be careful +to avoid having his hands caught and crushed between the sling and +the load. Hooks with safety handles may be had, and these add greatly +to the safety of the men when hooking up. If safety handles are not +provided, pieces of wood notched at the end may be used with advantage +for holding the hooks in place,--the notch being pressed against the +hook to prevent it from moving before the tension comes on it. + +When the hooks or slings are in place and the slack has been taken up, +the workmen should immediately move back several feet from the load. +When a load is being deposited, all persons should keep at a safe +distance while the slings are being withdrawn from under it, because +the slings may snap out suddenly, or may catch on the load and tip it +over. When slackening-off the hoisting cables the hooker-on should +avoid pulling down on the _inrunning_ side of the block, because his +fingers may be caught between the sheave and the cable and be cut +off or badly crushed. It is far safer to grasp the outrunning side, +and pull up and away from the sheave. Greater safety in this work is +insured by inclosing the block to which the hook is secured. Blocks +guarded in this manner are available and should be generally adopted. + +The crane operator should never allow chains, slings, cables, or hooks +to drag along the floor, and he should never start the crane carriage +or trolley until all such appendages are entirely clear. Even in the +short distance that the crane might travel before they leave the floor, +the slings or hooks might become caught on some obstruction and cause +an accident. + +No one should be permitted to ride on a load or on the crane hook; and +if the craneman observes a violation of this rule he should stop the +crane and refuse to move it until the person who is riding is in a safe +place on the floor. + +In a busy foundry the craneman must be specially alert, and his +attention must be given, unremittingly, to following the various +operations on the floor, taking the signals from the floorman, and +controlling the movements of the crane. + +Before an inexperienced man is permitted to take charge of a crane, he +should be thoroughly trained in the work by a careful, well-qualified +craneman, who should see that he becomes familiar with the operating +mechanism, and skilled in the manipulation of the various levers and +controls. + +A signal gong, operated by hand or foot, or electrically, should be +part of the equipment of every crane, and should be rung when the +crane is started, and as frequently thereafter as may be necessary. +Occasionally the gong is actuated by the mechanism that moves the +crane, so that the warning signal is sounded automatically and +continuously so long as the crane is moving. The objection to this +method is that the sound of the gong is likely to become so familiar +that its value as a warning of danger will be lost and the men will +give little heed to it. Furthermore, the gong should always be treated +as an _extra safeguard_, and no other safety precaution should be +omitted or allowed to fall into disuse merely because the gong is used, +nor should vigilance and caution be relaxed in any respect whatever. + +Some person should be specially designated to transmit to the craneman +the signals for moving the loads, and the craneman should disregard +signals given by other men. The signalman should stand in plain view +of the craneman and should take care to give all his signals clearly. +A definite and unmistakable code of signals, consisting of motions +of the hands and arms, should be arranged. Signals given orally are +unsatisfactory and unsafe, not only because it is often difficult to +distinguish them with certainty unless the foundry is quiet, but also +because the sound of loud voices will always distract the attention of +other men from their work. When a load is being transported some person +designated for this purpose should always walk in front of it to warn +workmen who are in danger of being struck, and he should also see that +the load is carried high enough to clear all obstacles in its path, +because the craneman, on account of his location, sometimes finds it +hard to judge the height of the load correctly. + +A crane that is to be repaired should be moved to one end of the runway +or to some other point where it will cause the least interference +with the movements of other cranes. The controllers and the main and +emergency switches should be placed in the off position before starting +any repair work on cranes, and the safety switches should be locked, or +the fuses removed, to prevent any movement of the crane, and to avoid +accidental short circuits that might result in injury to the repairmen. + +Suitable warning signs should be placed on cranes that are undergoing +repairs, and buffers or rail stops should be clamped to the crane rails +a few yards in front of the disabled crane when others are operated +on the same runway. If practicable, a suitable floor area directly +underneath the disabled crane should be roped off or inclosed in some +other way, to prevent accidents that might be caused by tools or other +objects falling from the crane. Similar precautions should be taken +when men are at work on the runways, and red flags or other warning +devices should be placed at both ends of the section undergoing repairs. + + +Chains and Hooks. + +Chains and hooks should be carefully inspected at regular intervals, +and they should also be annealed from time to time by competent +workmen who thoroughly understand the art of annealing, and who know +how to secure the results that are desired. Particular care should +be taken with hooks in this respect, because a hook, when properly +annealed, should gradually yield or straighten if subjected to a +serious overload, and thus give warning of danger; whereas if it is +not properly annealed, and therefore hard, it is likely to snap off +suddenly, without warning. Chains and hooks should be inspected with +care immediately after annealing, because they are then cleaner than +at other times, and hence any existing defects or flaws in them may +be detected with greater certainty. All chains and hooks should be +numbered, and a careful record should be kept of the inspections and +annealings. Hoisting chains are particularly liable to failure through +fatigue or over-strain, on account of the severe treatment to which +they are frequently subjected; and they should therefore be examined +minutely, and link by link, to detect insecure welds and slight cracks +or other defects. Chain slings should never be crossed or twisted when +placed around loads, and every chain that is to be used as a sling +should be made of the highest quality of wrought iron. All chains +should be oiled frequently, to prevent rusting. + +Forged hooks, or laminated hooks made of steel plates securely riveted +together, should be used in preference to those made of cast steel. +Hooks are sometimes subjected to severe abuse by workmen who try to +force them into position by striking them with heavy iron bars or +other implements. This is a dangerous practice, and should be strictly +prohibited. + + +Wire-Rope Slings. + +Well-made wire-rope slings give better service than chain slings, +because they are stronger, weight for weight, and also because +deterioration is usually indicated by broken strands that are readily +discoverable by an experienced and qualified inspector. Wire-rope +slings are pliable, and may be adapted to almost every use. They should +be kept in good condition, and to prevent rusting and unnecessary wear +from friction they should be treated with oil or with a good cable +lubricant prepared specially for the purpose. Wire-rope for slings used +in handling molten metal or hot castings should have a soft iron-wire +core, because a hemp core is quite likely to be destroyed by the heat. + + +Slings in General. + +A sling should never be allowed to rest directly against the sharp +corners of a heavy flask, casting, or other similar object, but should +be protected by wooden corner-pieces, or by pads of burlap or other +soft material. + +Every sling, whether composed of a chain or a rope, should be long +enough not only to surround the load it has to support, but also to +leave a considerable space between the sling and the upper surface of +the load. The oblique parts of the sling, which lie above the load and +join it to the hook (or to the point where the suspension first becomes +vertical) should never be so flat as to make an angle of less than 45 +degrees with the ground. This precaution is highly important, but it +is often overlooked or neglected, because the men do not realize that +the stress on the ends of a sling is greater, the flatter (or more +nearly horizontal) they lie. When the ends are inclined at an angle of +45 degrees, the stress upon each of them is about 41 per cent. greater +than it would be if the ends were vertical; and if the sling is so +short that it barely goes around the load and has but little slack, the +stress upon it may be very great indeed. + +We strongly advise that all slings, when not in actual use, be kept +under lock and key and placed in charge of some responsible person who +knows their condition and is competent to select safe and appropriate +slings for every occasion. They may be stored in the tool room or +supply room, for example, and be in charge of a qualified foreman. + + +Hoisting Apparatus in General. + +Hoisting apparatus of every kind should be inspected frequently and +thoroughly, and all parts that are defective in any way should be +promptly repaired or replaced. The man charged with the operation +of the apparatus should not attempt to make repairs or adjustments, +however, unless the foundry is a small one, where this constitutes a +part of his recognized duty. Under all other circumstances he should +immediately report to the foreman or repairman, in order that the job +may receive attention in the proper way. If the defect is serious +enough to constitute a possible source of danger, the apparatus should +not be operated until the necessary repairs or adjustments have been +made. + + +Tumbling Barrels. + +Tumbling barrels (or “rattlers”) for cleaning rough castings are of two +general types, respectively known as wet and dry. There are numerous +mechanical hazards in connection with both types, and with dry tumbling +barrels considerable danger to health may be caused by the dust created +by them unless suitable preventive measures are adopted. + +There are two methods that are commonly employed for removing the +dust from dry tumbling barrels. One of these consists in attaching +an exhaust system directly to the machine, and the other consists +in inclosing the barrel in a dust-proof compartment from which the +dust may be exhausted. The first method, as a rule, is practicable +only in connection with tumbling barrels that are of special design, +and are provided with the necessary attachments for connecting with +exhaust fans. In nearly all other cases dust-proof inclosures must be +built, and it is practicable to secure satisfactory results in this +way when the system is properly arranged. The compartments should be +made as tight as possible, and should be constructed of sheet metal or +well-seasoned lumber. The doors may be arranged to fold, or to slide +upward or sidewise; or they may be hinged to open in any way that +is most convenient. In some cases rolling steel shutters are used. +Doors that rise vertically should be suitably counterweighted so that +they will not drop upon the workmen, and the counterweights should be +inclosed. In addition to the counterweights we recommend the use of +catches or fastenings for holding up the doors. + +When tumbling barrels (either wet or dry) are not located in +compartments, substantial double railings, at least 42 inches high, +should be placed about them, with a clearance of not less than 15 +inches nor more than 20 inches. (When railings are placed more than +20 inches away, workmen are likely to crawl inside of them to do any +necessary work, and they are then in greater danger than they would +be in if no railings were present; whereas if railings are omitted +altogether, the workmen are likely to be struck or to have their +clothing caught by small objects that may work through perforated or +loosely-fitting covers, or by the projecting cover-fastenings.) The +railings should be provided with gates so arranged that opening the +gates will automatically throw the driving belts or clutches into the +off position, and will prevent the machines from being started until +the gates are closed. Driving belts should be guarded to a height +of at least 6 feet above the floor, and all exposed gears should be +completely inclosed. Chain hoists should be provided for lifting heavy +covers, and suitable brakes or locking devices should be installed to +prevent any movement of the machines while they are being loaded or +unloaded. Securing the barrels in position by means of bars or props is +a mere makeshift method, and is manifestly unsafe. + + +Sand Mixers and Sifters. + +Sand mixers are of two general types, one of which simply mixes the +materials, while the other not only mixes but also grinds them. The +mixer consists of a horizontal semi-cylindrical vessel in which +the sand is placed and the mixing is done by revolving blades. The +top of the cylinder should be covered by a substantial grating +composed of 3/8-inch round stock suitably reinforced to insure +rigidity, and provided with free-swinging discharging doors. All +gears should be inclosed by substantial guards, and the driving belt +should be protected to a height of at least 6 feet above the floor. +A well-designed belt-shifter should be provided, and should be so +arranged that it may be locked to prevent creeping of the belt. + +The combination mixer and grinder is similar to the revolving dry-pan +used in the manufacture of bricks, and it may be driven either from +underneath or from overhead. In either case the driving gears and all +other exposed gears should be suitably inclosed, and the driving belt +should be protected and be fitted with a belt-shifter, as described +above in connection with the sand mixer. The revolving pan should be +completely surrounded by a substantial guard of heavy, reinforced wire +netting extending to a height well above the hubs of the grinding +wheels. An opening should be left in one side of the guard, and at this +point a sheet-metal feeding hopper should be securely riveted on. A +drag or other suitable mechanical device should be provided to force +the sand out through the discharging door, and the use of hand shovels +for removing the sand from the pan while it is in motion should be +prohibited. + +Pipe or angle-iron railings 42 inches high should be installed at the +sides of rotating sand sifters, at a distance of at least 15 inches, +and not more than 20 inches, from them. Belt-shifters should be +provided, and the belts should be guarded to a height of at least 6 +feet above the floor. + +When sand mixers and sifters are driven by electric motors every +precaution should be taken to prevent electric shocks and burns. See +that all live wires and other parts are thoroughly insulated, and guard +all dangerous rotating parts. Inclosed switches should be used, and +they should be located in convenient and easily accessible positions; +fuses of the inclosed type should also be used. + + +Automatic Molding Machines. + +The gears on both sides of these machines should be entirely inclosed +by substantial guards of sheet metal, expanded metal, or close-mesh +woven wire. The connecting rods should be similarly guarded, the +inclosures in the latter case to extend as high as possible without +interfering with the adjustment. Whether the machines are driven by +belts or by electric motors, such precautions should be taken with +regard to belt-shifters, belt-guards, and electrical safeguards as have +been recommended above in connection with sand mixers. + + +Chipping Department. + +Many serious eye injuries occur in the chipping department, and +practically all of these may be prevented by requiring the general +use of suitably-designed eye-protectors or goggles. Eye-protectors +for cupola men and others engaged in handling molten metal have been +described in a previous paragraph, and those to be used by chippers +should be similar. Cheap, flimsy eye-protectors should not be used. +It is economy to buy substantial goggles at a higher price, not only +because they afford better protection, but also because they are more +durable. + +[Illustration: FIG. 14. MOLDING MACHINE OPERATED BY COMPRESSED AIR.] + +In addition to the eye-protectors, shields of canvas or other suitable +material, mounted on substantial frames, should be provided, wherever +needed, to protect near-by workmen from flying chips. + +Chippers should not be permitted to work with battered or otherwise +defective tools. Broken hammers and sledges should be discarded, and +cold-chisels and other implements should be dressed when they become +burred or mushroomed. + + +Grinding Wheels. + +Emery wheels and wheels of other abrasive materials are used in +grinding castings, and these sometimes burst and cause serious +injuries to the operators. All grinding wheels should be fitted with +safety collars or flanges, and, where practicable, should be inclosed +by substantial metal hoods connected to exhaust fans for removing +the dust. Stationary grinding machines should be mounted on solid +foundations to prevent vibration, and their bearings should be ample in +size and be kept well lubricated and properly adjusted. It is important +that grinders wear goggles, to protect their eyes from flying dust and +sparks. + +Further details with regard to the design, care, and operation of +grinding wheels will be found in a booklet, entitled “_Grinding +Wheels_”, published by the Engineering and Inspection Division of THE +TRAVELERS INSURANCE COMPANY. + + +Compressed Air. + +Compressed air is commonly used in foundries for operating air +hoists, blow guns, spraying devices, pneumatic hammers and chisels, +sand-blasts, molding machines, and sand-blast tumbling barrels. Serious +accidents are often the result of the improper use of compressed air, +and workmen should never be allowed to play pranks with it, but should +use it only for the purposes for which it is provided. In particular, +a sand-blast should never be turned upon a person, because it might +easily destroy his eyesight or cause other serious injuries. + +The introduction of compressed air into the human body causes great +distention of the intestines, accompanied by agonizing pain; and the +victim usually dies after a short period of intense suffering. Every +man about the foundry should therefore make it his special business +to see that no attempt is made to use the air lines for perpetrating +so-called “practical jokes”. + +[Illustration: FIG. 15. A SPECIAL CHAMBER FOR SAND-BLASTING. + +(Strong air suction, through the exhaust hoods shown in the upper +part of the picture, will remove a large quantity of the dust that is +created, but it would be better if the ducts were placed in the floor, +with gratings over them, or in the side walls. The helmet which the +operator is wearing is of a type commonly used in work of this kind. +As explained in the text, no entirely satisfactory helmet has yet been +devised.)] + + +Sand-blasting. + +Sand-blasting may be done in the open air if eye-protectors and +respirators are worn and other suitable precautions are taken, but +it is far better to provide a dust-proof chamber for this work. The +operator of the sand-blast should then wear an appropriate helmet, +to effectively protect his lungs and eyes from the dust. The form of +apparatus used should be adapted to the work to be done, and to the +conditions that must be met. Considered from the point of view of +the dust hazard alone, the ideal arrangement appears to consist in a +helmet well ventilated by means of a hose supplying an adequate flow of +dust-free air. The hose may be run from the compressed-air tank to the +upper part of the helmet, and it should be provided with a regulating +valve located where it may be easily controlled by the man who is to be +supplied. The air current should be so adjusted that it will not only +afford sufficient oxygen to serve for respiration, but also prevent +dust from rising into the helmet through openings in the lower part of +it. In practice, however, it is frequently found that the plan +here outlined is highly objectionable to the men, and in fact they +often refuse to wear apparatus of this type, claiming that the cool +air passing down the neck soon causes them to catch cold. Baffles and +various other distributing devices to regulate the flow of the air +within the helmet have been tried, but no ideal and wholly satisfactory +solution of the difficulty has yet been worked out, so far as we are +aware. In the opinion of certain foundry experts, an ordinary helmet +with a respirator attached, or used in conjunction with a separate +respirator, constitutes the best device for the protection of the +sand-blaster, when all phases of the problem are considered. + +Each compartment used for sand-blasting should be provided with an +exhaust system capable of removing the dust in a satisfactory manner. + +[Illustration: + + _Courtesy of the Western Electric News._ + +FIG. 16. CABINETS FOR SAND-BLASTING SMALL CASTINGS. + +(The castings are placed in the cabinets and are held and turned about +by the operators, who watch the progress of the work through glass +panels. The dust is carried off through the exhaust ducts.)] + + +Illumination. + +The average foundry is poorly lighted, and many accidents may be +attributed directly to this condition. There are many problems to be +considered in providing proper and adequate light for foundries, and as +the conditions that have to be met vary a great deal, it is impossible +to make any general recommendations that will be applicable in all +cases. + +The floors, walls, supporting columns, ceilings, and materials in +foundries are usually covered with grime and dust which absorb from 95 +to 98 per cent. of the light that strikes them, and which give them +all the same general tone or color. With no contrasting background +it becomes exceedingly difficult, at times, to distinguish objects +lying upon the floor, and care should therefore be taken to see that +the floor is kept free from tools, materials, and obstacles of every +other kind, over which the workmen might stumble. Moreover, if the +ventilating system is inadequate to keep the air reasonably clear, +the dust, smoke, and gases will not only reduce the intensity of the +illumination and thereby invite accidents, but may also affect the +health of the working force. + +During certain stages of the work,--notably at pouring time,--the men +are exposed to a dazzling, blinding radiation from the white-hot, +molten metal. Very often, too, lighting units of intense intrinsic +brilliance and high candle-power are placed where they shine directly +into the eyes of the men. Conditions such as these impair the vision +of the worker, thereby reducing his efficiency as a producer, and +multiplying the opportunities for accidents. + +One of the best artificial lighting sources for foundry work is the +Mazda C lamp (500 to 1,000 watt sizes). To determine the proper +location of the lamps, and their spacing, suspension heights, and other +features (such as the types of reflectors that should be used) it is +necessary to understand, as fully as possible, the exact conditions +that must be met. Where incandescent lighting units are to be used, +wall brackets, fitted with angle reflectors, provide the best means of +securing satisfactory illumination at the floor level. Good results may +be obtained by installing the brackets on the supporting columns, under +the crane runway and below the smoky zone. + +Although we have spoken only of artificial light for foundries, it is +important to admit the greatest possible amount of natural light. As +a usual thing, skylights are of little value on account of the clouds +of smoke that often fill the upper part of the building, and therefore +practically all the natural light that can be really serviceable +must pass through windows in the side walls. For the same reason the +effective window area must be considered as only that below a height of +approximately twelve feet. It is essential that the windows occupy as +much of the wall space as possible, and, where the width of the room +is great, prism glass should be used. Prism glass, when properly set, +will reflect the light into the room in a nearly horizontal direction. +Satisfactory natural illumination can hardly be had without keeping +the windows clean; and we also strongly advise whitewashing the walls, +ceilings, and supporting columns, applying fresh coats whenever they +are needed. + +[Illustration: + + _Courtesy of American Blower Company._ + +FIG. 17. GOOD DAYLIGHT CONDITIONS IN A FOUNDRY. + +(Observe also the ventilating duct, near the roof, and the +downwardly-projecting Y-shaped nozzles connected to it through which +the smoke and dust are drawn out of the building.)] + + +The Foundry Yard. + +The fact that orderliness and system promote safety is probably nowhere +better exemplified than in a large foundry yard. The maintenance and +cost of a foundry yard is small as compared with that of the foundry +itself, and it is good economy, therefore, to use the yard as much +as practicable for the storing of scrap, sand, flasks, finished +product, raw materials, and miscellaneous supplies; but the maximum +efficiency and economy cannot be realized unless the yard is kept in a +neat and orderly condition. If a yard is just large enough to meet the +needs of a foundry, and is not used to its full capacity, it usually +follows that the foundry floor space is littered with material that +could be stored in the yard more advantageously; and the crowding of +the foundry floor increases the number of accidents, many of which +might be eliminated if the yard were utilized to better advantage. +This is specially true of a foundry where every available foot of +floor space is required for production. In this class belongs the +“jobbing foundry,” in which work of a miscellaneous nature is done, as +distinguished from the “repetition foundry,” in which the work consists +mainly in the continuous reproduction of certain standard stock +patterns. + +The jobbing foundry owes its existence to the fact that many +manufacturers who use castings have no room for a foundry, or have too +limited a need for castings to warrant the expense of maintaining a +foundry of their own. A foundryman who depends largely or wholly upon +job contracts to keep his plant in operation usually has to turn out +an exceedingly varied assortment of castings, and speed is often an +essential factor in the contract. This means that as soon as one job is +finished, the flasks and patterns must be removed and a different set +substituted. If the yard is not well kept there is little likelihood +that there will be ample space in it for the flasks and sand, and +if there is not, it may be necessary to use the foundry floor for +storage until the new flasks are brought in. The floor is then in +a disorderly, crowded state, just when clear space is needed. It is +evident that the probability of accident is greatly increased when such +conditions prevail. + +It is important for the foundry yard to be level and fairly smooth, +and it will pay the owner well to put forth every reasonable effort to +secure a yard of this kind. Material can be handled and stored with +much greater safety and facility, in a level yard, than in one that is +sloping or uneven. Foot paths, and passageways for wheelbarrows and +trucks, can also be kept in good condition more easily. + +A considerable part of the space in a yard, particularly when it +belongs to a jobbing foundry, is devoted to the storage of flasks. The +flasks should be carefully piled, so that they will not fall over, and +they should also be arranged in an orderly manner, according to size, +type, or combinations. Attention to these details will no doubt consume +more time than would be required to store the flasks promiscuously; +but the extra time is well worth taking, on account of the ease with +which the flasks can be located, and the safety with which they can be +withdrawn when they are again needed in the foundry,--to say nothing of +the greater safety that proper storing insures, during the intervening +period. If the flasks are heaped up in disorderly piles, or stored in +other indiscriminate ways, accidents are likely to happen when the +workmen are endeavoring to extricate one that is more or less buried or +hidden. If the particular flask required cannot be located readily, a +less desirable one is used, or a makeshift is hastily constructed. In +the foundry these misfit flasks often cause burns, many of which could +be avoided if more system were used in storing the flasks in the yard, +so that the right one could be found without delay. + +[Illustration: + + _Courtesy of the General Electric Company._ + +FIG. 18. DANGEROUS LOADING OF A CAR USED FOR TRANSPORTING FOUNDRY +MATERIAL.] + +When materials or equipment are stored or piled by the side of car +tracks, a clear space of not less than six feet should be maintained +between the tracks and the piles. Workmen engaged in the movement of +cars, or other employees who are obliged to use the car tracks in the +performance of their work, are likely to be caught and killed, or +severely injured, unless ample clearance is provided. + +At all places where railroad tracks cross roadways, runways, or +footways, planks should be nailed down between the rails and at both +sides of them, or other equivalent measures should be taken, to provide +a smooth passageway over the rails for wagons, trucks, or barrows, +as well as for foot passers. This greatly facilitates the crossing +of the tracks, and it also reduces, in large measure, the shocks to +which loads would otherwise be subjected, and the consequent danger +of material falling off and injuring the men. The planks (or their +equivalent) should be _flush_ with the rails, however, and they should +come snugly up to the rails on the outside, and as close to them, on +the inside, as the flanges of the car wheels will permit. Warning signs +should be posted at all crossings, and the men engaged in car movements +should always blow a whistle or sound a gong or bell as the cars +approach a crossing. + +Whenever tracks or roadways are depressed, they should be guarded by +substantial railings. Furnace pits and excavations of all kinds should +also have effective protection of the same nature. + +All manholes should be kept covered with wooden tops, or with covers +made safe by the use of non-slip material or by being checkered with a +raised pattern; and the covers should be set as nearly flush with the +surrounding surfaces as possible. Many serious injuries have resulted +from workmen slipping on smooth, wet manhole covers of iron or steel, +and from tripping over covers projecting above the level of the floor +or the ground. When it is necessary to remove a cover, a guard rail +should be placed about the hole immediately, and a danger signal +secured to the guard rail. + +Sand bins and coke bins, particularly those constructed of wood, often +get badly out of repair. The boards become warped and bulge out under +the weight of their contents, and they often split or crack in such a +way as to present dagger-like points, or slivers, that are likely to +catch the unwary workman, especially at night or during late afternoons +in winter months, when the light is poor. + +Good, serviceable walks should be provided throughout the yard. If the +walks are conveniently located and are kept in good order, the workmen +will use them; but if these conditions are not fulfilled, the men will +climb over scrap piles or under cars, in order to “make a short cut.” +Cinder paths are no doubt the most serviceable for foundry yards. +Loosely-laid boards are continually getting out of place, and they are +also likely to become warped so that they will not lie flat. Boards +often warp enough to split, even when they are nailed down; and in such +cases they may constitute a more or less dangerous tripping hazard to +the workmen. + +The safest way to store pig iron is to stow it in bins, or pile it +up in neat stacks. This is more costly, however, than throwing it +down promiscuously in piles, and hence the safer methods are often +neglected. Electromagnetic cranes are coming into wide use for +handling pig iron, and although they are very convenient, they have +serious drawbacks when regarded from the safety standpoint, and their +hazards should be clearly understood and carefully avoided. When the +electromagnet is used no one should be permitted to stand, walk, or +work near the path followed by the magnet, because any interruption of +the electric service, from the opening of a switch, the blowing of a +fuse, the short-circuiting of the magnet coil, or any other cause, will +instantly let the whole load drop. Sometimes, too, a pig is barely held +by the magnet, so that the least jar will break its contact and allow +it to fall. + +Safety, neatness, and convenience may be secured by constructing +stout bins and dividing them into compartments, preferably of one-car +capacity each, in which the pig iron can be deposited by the magnet +crane,--always provided the dangers incident to the use of the magnet +are borne in mind and avoided. When the iron is piled high in loose, +irregular heaps, there is danger of one or more of the pigs becoming +free and tumbling down upon workmen. This hazard is avoided when +substantial bins are employed. + +In many foundry yards boxes and barrels are used to store worn-out +tools, small scrap material, discarded lumber, and other rubbish. It +will materially assist in keeping the yard in a neat, safe condition, +if the barrels or boxes used for this purpose are kept in convenient +places, because the men are then more likely to make use of them. It +is important, too, to keep all such receptacles in good order. It is +not uncommon to see the ragged edge of a worn-out shovel blade, or +some other discarded tool, sticking out menacingly over the edge of a +box or barrel. Heaping up the scrap so that it stands high above the +receptacles, or allowing it to project over the edges of them as just +described, should be prohibited, because careless habits of this kind +increase the dangers about the yard and invite injury, especially at +night. + +Barrel hoops are frequently left lying about, and when a workman steps +on such a hoop it is likely to swing up and strike him smartly, often +causing acute pain, or perhaps producing an actual abrasion or lesion, +if it contains a sharp nail. This particular hazard may be taken as +representative of a large class of others that are seemingly trivial in +nature, but which are well worthy of attention in the aggregate. These +minor accidents are often attended by grave consequences, not only +because they may be followed by septic poisoning, but also because they +frequently occur when the workman is engaged at some important task +involving the safety of himself or others. Coming at such a time they +take him by surprise, and they are likely to make his attention lapse +momentarily from the work in hand,--perhaps with disastrous results. A +book might be written about the big consequences of little things. + +When old castings and other metal objects are broken up the work should +preferably be done in the yard. A “skull-cracker” or “yard-drop” is +usually employed for breaking these objects, and this consists of a +derrick or hoist which lifts a heavy metal ball and drops it on the +castings. Pieces of the objects are likely to fly in all directions +when the weight falls on and breaks them, and all persons in the +immediate vicinity are endangered by these pieces. Every skull-cracker +should therefore be entirely surrounded by a substantially constructed +fence, barricade, or inclosure, of sufficient height to protect persons +working in the vicinity, and all passers-by, from injury from flying +fragments of metal. In addition, a suitable shelter-house should be +provided for the operator of the skull-cracker and his helpers, and +all these persons should go into the shelter-house _before the ball is +raised_. A safety drop-hook should be used to prevent premature or +accidental dropping of the ball, if the weight is held by mechanical +means; and if an electromagnet is employed to raise and hold the +weight, the utmost care should be taken to keep the electrical circuits +and devices in perfect condition. All gears, sprockets, and other +dangerous moving parts of the skull-cracker should be covered or +otherwise rendered harmless by the installation of standard guards. + + + + +INDEX + + + Accident in foundries, the causes of, 1. + + Acid burns, protection against, 5. + + Air, compressed, as employed in foundries, 52. + accidents caused by misusing, 52. + + Annealing chains and hooks, 44. + + Aprons, rubber and leather, 5. + + + Barrels, tumbling, wet and dry, 47. + guards for, 48. + + Bins, sand and coke, dangers of, 63. + + Boots, rubber, 5. + + Bot, the proper use of the, 30. + + Brakes, crane, testing, 40. + + Braking, dynamic, for cranes, 37. + + Buggy ladles.--See _Ladles_. + + Bull ladles.--See _Ladles_; _Shanks_; _Clamps_. + + Bumpers for cranes, 36. + + Burns the most common injuries in foundries, 1. + --See also _Acid burns_. + + + Carbon monoxide in cupolas, 34. + + Castings, old, method of breaking up, 65. + + Chains, responsibility for selection of, 41. + and hooks, inspecting and annealing, 44. + + Chipping department, accidents in the, 50. + + Clamps for bowls of bull ladles, 9. + + Clearance beside car tracks, 61. + + Clinkers, crucibles damaged by, 29. + + Clothing, suitable, for foundry workers, 1. + + Crane operators, duties of, 39. + under repairs, precautions for, 44. + ladles.--See _Ladles_. + + Cranes, traveling, safeguards for, 35. + electromagnetic, dangers of, 63. + + Crucibles, the safe handling of, 19. + material for, 19. + improve with age, 20. + records of heats taken from, 21. + inspection, storage, and annealing of, 22. + “soaking”, 22. + “alligator cracks” in, 24. + care in filling, 25. + injured by tongs and shanks, 26. + the number of heats taken from, 26. + danger of leaving metal in bottom of, 30. + + Cupola, gate for charging, opening of, 32. + + Cupolas, proper method of tapping-out, 30. + precautions to be taken when relining, 32, 33. + explosions in, 33. + charging, lighting-up, and warming-up, 35. + + + Damper in blast pipe, 34. + + Doors, explosion, for cupolas, 34. + + Dust hazard in sand-blasting, 53. + from tumbling barrels, methods for removing, 47. + + Drops.--See _Skull-crackers_. + + + Electricity, guarding against shocks and burns from, 50. + + Elevators in foundries, 31. + + Emery wheels.--See _Grinding wheels_. + + Employees, new, instruction of, 12. + + Explosion doors for cupolas, 34. + + Explosions in cupolas, 33. + + Eye-protectors for foundrymen, 3, 4, 50. + + + Fenders for cranes, 36. + + Flasks and molds, 16. + iron and steel, superior to wooden, 16. + storage of, 18, 60. + + Floors, concrete and brick, prevent spills, 8. + + Foot-walks on crane bridges and runways, 36. + + Foundry, jobbing, 59. + repetition, 59. + yard, the, 58. + + Furnaces, oil, for heating crucibles, 25. + + + Garments.--See _Clothing_. + + Gas.--See _Carbon monoxide_. + + Gears on geared ladles to be completely inclosed, 5. + + Glass, prism, for use in foundries, 57. + + Glasses, safety.--See _Eye-protectors_. + + Gloves for use in foundries, 4. + + Goggles.--See _Eye-protectors_. + + Gongs, signal, for cranes, 42. + + Grinding wheels, guards for, 52. + + + Hand-leathers, 4. + + Helmets for sand-blasters, 53. + + Hoisting apparatus, care of, 47. + --See also _Cranes, traveling_; _Elevators_. + + Hook, crane, method of applying, to load, 41. + + Hooks, crane, with safety handles, 41. + and chains, inspecting and annealing, 44. + safety, for skull-crackers, 65. + + Hoops, barrel, dangers of, 64. + + + Illumination in foundries, 56. + + Injuries in foundries, the causes of, 1. + + Iron, pig, storage of, 63. + scrap and pig, safety in handling, 31. + + + Jokes, practical, with compressed air, 53. + + + Khaki.--See _Clothing_. + + + Ladles, motor-operated, guards for, 5. + foundry, types of, 5. + geared, locking device for, 7. + crane, precautions in connection with, 7. + sulky and buggy, cause many accidents, 7. + bull, styles of shank-handles for, 9. + single-hand, guards for, 10. + proper method of filling, 12. + proper balancing of, 12. + damp, explosions caused by, 14. + relining, drying, and storing, 16. + --See also _Prong guards_; _Trolley systems_. + + Lamps, electric, suitable for foundries, 57. + + Leave-overs, proper disposition of, 14. + + Leggings, suitable, for foundry workers, 2. + + Lenses.--See _Eye-protectors_. + + Lighting.--See _Illumination_. + + Limit-stops, hoist, for cranes, 37. + + + Manholes, safe covers for, 62. + + Molding machines, automatic, guards for, 50. + + Molds and flasks, 16. + + + Orderliness in foundry yards, advantages of, 64. + + Overalls.--See _Clothing_. + + + Passages, width of, between rows of flasks, 17. + + Pickling processes, rubber gloves required for, 4. + + Prong guards for buggy ladles, 9. + + + Railroad tracks in foundry yards, 62. + + Rattlers.--See _Barrels, tumbling_. + + Respirators.--See _Helmets_. + + Riding on crane loads prohibited, 42. + + Run-outs, 17. + + Runways for buggy ladles, 7. + + + Safety-valves for cupolas, 34. + + Sand-blasting, precautions in, 53. + + Sand mixers and sifters, guards for, 49. + types of, 49. + + Screen guard for use when relining cupola, 32. + + Shanks for bull ladles, 9. + + Shields for hand ladles, 10. + to intercept flying chips, 52. + + Shirts.--See _Clothing_. + + Shoes, congress, best for foundry workers, 2. + + Signals for elevators, 31. + code of, for directing movements of crane, 43. + --See also _Gongs_. + + Skull-crackers, guards for, 65. + + Sleeves should be worn outside of gauntlets, 4. + + Slings, responsibility for selection of, 41. + the safe angle of, 46. + to be locked up when not in use, 46. + protecting, at sharp corners of heavy objects, 46. + wire-rope, preferable to chain slings, 45. + lubricating, 45. + --See also _Chains and hooks_. + + Stops, hoist-limit, for cranes, 37. + on crane runways, 36. + + Sulky ladles.--See _Ladles_. + + Switches, safety, for cranes, 37. + + + Tapping-out.--See _Cupolas_. + + Tongs, types of, 27. + suitable, importance of using, 27. + + Tongs, bent, method of re-shaping, 29. + + Tools, defective, should not be used, 52. + + Trolley systems for transporting ladles, 9. + + Tumbling barrels.--See _Barrels, tumbling_. + + + Walks in foundry yards, 63. + + Wiring for cranes to be installed in conduits, 37. + + Woodwork about cranes, fire hazard of, 38. + + + Yard, foundry, the 58. + + Yard-drops, guards for, 65. + + + THE TRAVELERS writes more GROUP INSURANCE than any other company + It is the recognized leader in this line + + Group Insurance + + LIFE · ACCIDENT · SICKNESS + + _A wonderful discovery of recent years adopted by great concerns + throughout the United States_ + + For a small sum, you can provide your shop family with comforting + wage-payments through all their accidents and illnesses; and, if they + die, give the distracted wife and children funds for the first hard + pull. + + It dovetails with Workmen’s Compensation, making the protection + complete. + + There is a fine feeling of satisfaction, as of something well done, in + giving Group insurance to the workers who make your business what it + is. + + +_Nine names taken at random from the long list of famous concerns +carrying Group insurance in THE TRAVELERS_ + + THE AMERICAN WOOLEN COMPANY + THE VICTOR TALKING MACHINE COMPANY + THE WASHBURN-CROSBY COMPANY + THE WESTINGHOUSE ELECTRIC & MFG. CO. + THE BURROUGHS ADDING MACHINE COMPANY + NATIONAL LAMP WORKS, AND EDISON LAMP WORKS + OF THE GENERAL ELECTRIC COMPANY + JOHN WANAMAKER, PHILADELPHIA + CRANE COMPANY + + _Write for further information_ + + GROUP DEPARTMENT + + THE TRAVELERS + HARTFORD, CONNECTICUT + + + + +The TRAVELERS + +unexcelled as a life company the greatest casualty company + + writes + Life + Health + Accident + Business + and + Group Insurance + as well as + Compensation + Employers’ Liability + Public Liability + Automobile + Elevator + Steam Boiler + Plate Glass + Burglary + Pay Roll Hold-up + and Other Forms + + +MORAL: Insure in The TRAVELERS + + + + +TRANSCRIBER’S NOTES + +The only footnote has been renumbered and moved to +the end of its paragraph. + +This file uses _underscores_ to indicate italic text. + +Itemized changes from the original text: + On page 43, changed “and and” to “and”, + in “danger will be lost and the men” + On page 59, changed “floor-space” to “floor space”, + in “foundry floor space is littered with material” + On page 68, changed “charging-opening” to “charging, opening”, + in “Cupola, gate for charging, opening” + On page 77, changed “electro-magnet” to “electromagnet”, + in “if an electromagnet is employed” + +*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 77246 *** diff --git a/77246-h/77246-h.htm b/77246-h/77246-h.htm new file mode 100644 index 0000000..f4767d5 --- /dev/null +++ b/77246-h/77246-h.htm @@ -0,0 +1,3070 @@ +<!DOCTYPE html> +<html lang="en"> +<head> + <meta charset="UTF-8"> + <title> + Safe Foundry Practice | Project Gutenberg + </title> + <link rel="icon" href="images/cover.jpg" type="image/x-cover"> + <style> + +body { + margin-left: 10%; + margin-right: 10%; +} + + h1,h2 { + text-align: center; /* all headings centered */ + clear: both; +} + +p { + margin-top: .51em; + text-align: justify; + margin-bottom: .49em; +} + +hr { + width: 33%; + margin-top: 2em; + margin-bottom: 2em; + margin-left: 33.5%; + margin-right: 33.5%; + clear: both; +} + +hr.chap {width: 65%; margin-left: 17.5%; margin-right: 17.5%;} +@media print { hr.chap {display: none; visibility: hidden;} } + +div.chapter {page-break-before: always;} +h2.nobreak {page-break-before: avoid;} + +ul.index { list-style-type: none; } +li.ifrst { + margin-top: 1em; + text-indent: -2em; + padding-left: 1em; +} +li.indx { + margin-top: .5em; + text-indent: -2em; + padding-left: 1em; +} +li.isub1 { + text-indent: -2em; + padding-left: 2em; +} +li.isub2 { + text-indent: -2em; + padding-left: 3em; +} + +table { + margin-left: auto; + margin-right: auto; +} +table.autotable { border-collapse: collapse; } +table.autotable td { padding: 0.25em; } + +.tdl {text-align: left;} +.tdr {text-align: right;} + +.pagenum { /* uncomment the next line for invisible page numbers */ + /* visibility: hidden; */ + position: absolute; + left: 92%; + font-size: small; + text-align: right; + font-style: normal; + font-weight: normal; + font-variant: normal; + text-indent: 0; +} /* page numbers */ + + +.blockquot { + margin-left: 5%; + margin-right: 10%; +} + +.center {text-align: center;} + +.smcap {font-variant: small-caps;} + +.allsmcap {font-variant: small-caps; text-transform: lowercase;} + +.caption {font-weight: bold;} + +/* Images */ + +img { + max-width: 100%; + height: auto; +} +img.w100 {width: 100%;} + + +.figcenter { + margin: auto; + text-align: center; + page-break-inside: avoid; + max-width: 100%; +} + +/* Footnotes */ + +.footnote {margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%; font-size: 0.9em;} + +.footnote .label {position: absolute; right: 84%; text-align: right;} + +.fnanchor { + vertical-align: super; + font-size: .8em; + text-decoration: + none; +} + +/* Transcriber's notes */ +.transnote {background-color: #E6E6FA; + color: black; + font-size:small; + padding:0.5em; + margin-bottom:5em; + font-family:sans-serif, serif; +} + +/* Added by Ed: */ +.text-right { + float: right; + text-align: right; +} +.text-center { + text-align: center; +} +.text-left { + float: left; + text-align: left; +} +.left-right-box { + border-style: none; +} +.text-center-narrow { + text-align: center; + margin-left: 15%; + margin-right: 15%; +} +.text-center-narrower { + text-align: center; + padding: 0.5em; + font-size: x-small; + margin-left: 15%; + margin-right: 15%; +} +.text-center-large { + text-align: center; + font-size: x-large; +} +.text-center-larger { + text-align: center; + font-size: xx-large; +} +.text-center-smaller { + text-align: center; + font-size: x-small; +} + + + +/* For illustrations */ +.illowp54 {width: 54%;} +.illowp69 {width: 69%;} +.illowp100 {width: 100%;} + + + </style> +</head> +<body> +<div style='text-align:center'>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 77246 ***</div> +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_i">[Pg i]</span></p> + +<h1>SAFE FOUNDRY PRACTICE</h1> + +<p class="center"> +Reasons for selecting <span class="smcap">The</span> TRAVELERS for</p> + +<p class="text-center-large">Workmen’s Compensation</p> +<p class="text-center-large"><i>and</i> Employers’ Liability</p> +<p class="center">INSURANCE AND SERVICE</p> + + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p class="center">It is the Greatest Casualty Company.</p> + +<p class="center">It has splendid resources, conservatively +managed.</p> + +<p class="center">It is forward-looking in its ideas.</p> + +<p class="center">It provides unsurpassed service in the +administration of claims and the +prevention of accidents.</p> + +<p class="center">It is a multiple line company affording those +who require several kinds of insurance an +opportunity to obtain them all in the same +company—and thus obtain the highest possible +quality of service, <em>Entirely Free</em>.</p> + +<p class="text-center-smaller">The Travelers has spent more than $6,500,000 +for the prevention of accidents by inspection</p> +</div> + + +<p class="text-center-large"> +<span class="smcap">The Travelers Insurance Company</span></p> + +<p class="text-center-large"> +<span class="smcap">The Travelers Indemnity Company</span></p> + +<p class="text-center"> +HARTFORD, CONNECTICUT +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<i>Lines written by The TRAVELERS</i></p> +<p class="text-center-smaller"> +include LIFE, ACCIDENT and HEALTH, GROUP, WORKMEN’S +COMPENSATION, EMPLOYERS’ LIABILITY, PUBLIC LIABILITY, +AUTOMOBILE, AIRCRAFT, STEAM BOILER, ENGINE, +ELEVATOR, BURGLARY and PLATE GLASS +</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_ii">[Pg ii]</span></p> +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + + +<div class="chapter"> +<p class="text-center-large">SAFE FOUNDRY</p> +<p class="text-center-large">PRACTICE</p> +<p class="center">THE TRAVELERS INSURANCE COMPANY</p> +<p class="center">HARTFORD, CONNECTICUT</p> +</div> + +<p>21381. 12-29-’19.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_iii">[Pg iii]</span></p> +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + + +<div class="chapter"> +<p class="center">Copyright, 1920, by</p> +<p class="center"><span class="smcap">The Travelers Insurance Company</span>,</p> +<p class="center">Hartford, Connecticut</p> +</div> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_iv">[Pg iv]</span></p> + +<h2 class="nobreak" id="PREFACE">PREFACE</h2> +</div> + + +<p>The foundry, viewing it from all angles, presents +one of the greatest problems in the industrial world. +The fact that the production of castings depends not +only on a mechanical process, but also on a chemical +process, makes it specially difficult to fasten upon any +individual the responsibility for imperfect work. And +yet there is a definite (even though unassignable) +reason for the loss of every defective casting produced,—some +one member of the department failed in properly +performing his part of the work. Every man must +therefore be taught to appreciate the importance of +his own particular task, and must be impressed with +the necessity of performing that task conscientiously, +and as correctly and efficiently as he can. There should +be a spirit of cooperation as earnest and sincere as +that which prevails in a beehive, where every worker +performs the task of the moment with singleness of purpose, +and with no thought or motive other than the +production of the best final result, from the united +labors of all. The development of a point of view of +this nature among the men will also have a profound +effect in the way of reducing accidents,—a greater +effect, in fact, than could be realized by any other +single means.</p> + +<p>One of the problems that must receive special +consideration in connection with accident-prevention +work in foundries relates to the class of persons employed. +It is not necessary to employ skilled labor for<span class="pagenum" id="Page_v">[Pg v]</span> +all the operations in the foundry, and for that reason +a certain portion of the work is intrusted to unskilled +help,—to men, namely, who do not understand the +necessity for safety methods. The most practical and +effective way of dealing with a situation of this kind +is to adopt the team-work idea—that is, to teach cooperation—and +to introduce a well-organized safety +department that will educate the men to the extent +of developing in them sound and correct accident-prevention +ideals. Useful practical suggestions for +accomplishing this, and for making the accident-prevention +work effective, are given in a booklet entitled +“<cite>Organization in Safety Work</cite>”, which is published by +the Engineering and Inspection Division of <span class="smcap">The +Travelers Insurance Company</span>.</p> + +<p>Even the best-equipped, most orderly, and most +effectively organized foundry is not free from accidents, +and it is too much to expect that complete immunity +will ever be possible. The experience of many concerns +that have adopted safety methods in their foundries +shows, however, that it is possible to eliminate a +large proportion of the commoner causes of accidents, +without much expense and without any serious disturbance +of existing conditions. The Engineering and +Inspection Division of <span class="smcap">The Travelers Insurance +Company</span>, in the course of its extensive experience with +foundries, has given a great deal of study to this subject, +and the recommendations and suggestions that it has +made in the course of its practical inspection work +have been well received by foundry managers, and have +been particularly effective in bringing about better and +safer conditions. The present booklet, based upon this +study and experience, contains some of the suggestions<span class="pagenum" id="Page_vi">[Pg vi]</span> +that have been found to be most serviceable and +important in dealing with the accident-prevention +problem in its broader phases. Every foundry has important +special safety problems of its own, which must +be dealt with effectively if the best results are to be obtained; +but to include all features of this kind would +swell this booklet to such dimensions that its effectiveness +and usefulness would be impaired. We have +therefore confined our attention to danger-points of +wide and almost universal occurrence.</p> + +<p>There are few machines in foundries in comparison +with the number in industrial plants of many other +kinds. The machines that are used, however, must be +provided with guards at all points where accidents +might occur, and the necessary special guards have +been described in more or less detail in the following +pages. The construction and arrangement of the various +forms of guards for belts and pulleys are not fully +explained, but it should be understood that these are +to comply with the standards approved by the Industrial +Compensation Rating Bureau. The Engineering +and Inspection Division of <span class="smcap">The Travelers Insurance +Company</span> will furnish upon request, copies of an +illustrated pamphlet entitled “<cite>Industrial Standards</cite>,” +which clearly explains the requirements of the Bureau.</p> + +<p>In the main, the present booklet deals with iron +foundries; but we have also included certain special +hazards that are encountered chiefly in foundries where +other metals are cast.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">The Travelers Insurance Company</span>,</p> +<p>Hartford, Connecticut.</p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_viii">[Pg viii]</span></p> + +<h2 class="nobreak" id="CONTENTS">CONTENTS</h2> +</div> +</div> + +<table class="autotable"> +<tbody><tr> +<td class="tdl"> </td> +<td class="tdr">PAGE</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl"><a href="#Introductory">Introductory</a></td> +<td class="tdr">1</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl"><a href="#Clothing">Clothing</a></td> +<td class="tdr">1</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl"><a href="#Shoes_and_Leggings">Shoes and leggings</a></td> +<td class="tdr">2</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl"><a href="#Eye-protectors">Eye-protectors</a></td> +<td class="tdr">3</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl"><a href="#Gloves">Gloves</a></td> +<td class="tdr">4</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl"><a href="#Aprons_and_Rubber_Boots">Aprons and rubber boots</a></td> +<td class="tdr">5</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl"><a href="#Ladles">Ladles</a></td> +<td class="tdr">5</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl"><a href="#Flasks_and_Molds">Flasks and molds</a></td> +<td class="tdr">16</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl"><a href="#Crucibles">Crucibles</a></td> +<td class="tdr">19</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl"><a href="#Cupolas">Cupolas</a></td> +<td class="tdr">30</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl"><a href="#Traveling_Cranes">Traveling cranes</a></td> +<td class="tdr">35</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl"><a href="#Chains_and_Hooks">Chains and hooks</a></td> +<td class="tdr">44</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl"><a href="#Wire-Rope_Slings">Wire-rope slings</a></td> +<td class="tdr">45</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl"><a href="#Slings_in_General">Slings in general</a></td> +<td class="tdr">46</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl"><a href="#Hoisting_Apparatus_in_General">Hoisting apparatus in general</a></td> +<td class="tdr">47</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl"><a href="#Tumbling_Barrels">Tumbling barrels</a></td> +<td class="tdr">47</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl"><a href="#Sand_Mixers_and_Sifters">Sand mixers and sifters</a></td> +<td class="tdr">49</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl"><a href="#Automatic_Molding_Machines">Automatic molding machines</a></td> +<td class="tdr">50</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl"><a href="#Chipping_Department">Chipping department</a></td> +<td class="tdr">50</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl"><a href="#Grinding_Wheels">Grinding wheels</a></td> +<td class="tdr">52</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl"><a href="#Compressed_Air">Compressed air</a></td> +<td class="tdr">52</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl"><a href="#Sand-blasting">Sand-blasting</a></td> +<td class="tdr">53</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl"><a href="#Illumination">Illumination</a></td> +<td class="tdr">56</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl"><a href="#The_Foundry_Yard">The foundry yard</a></td> +<td class="tdr">58</td> +</tr> + +</tbody></table> + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1">[Pg 1]</span> + + + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> +<h2 class="nobreak" id="SAFE_FOUNDRY_PRACTICE">SAFE FOUNDRY PRACTICE</h2> +</div> + + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + + +<p id="Introductory"></p><h3>Introductory.</h3> +<p>According to the best statistics +available, it appears that about eighty per cent. of the +injuries received in foundries are in the nature of burns +of greater or lesser severity; the remaining twenty per +cent. being caused by defective hooks, chains, slings, +flasks, mold-boards, bottom-boards, and other equipment, +and by unguarded machinery, by falls and falling +objects, and, indirectly, by inadequate illumination, +poor ventilation, and other similar general conditions. +Suitable clothing and shoes will materially reduce the +severity of foundry burns, and will entirely eliminate +many of them. Approved protection of this kind is +described in the following pages, together with safeguards +for various machines, and advice is also given +with regard to precautions to be taken for the prevention +of accidents in handling the various tools and +appliances that are used in foundries.</p> + + +<p id="Clothing"></p><h3>Clothing.</h3> +<p>Suitable clothing is an important factor +in protecting foundry workers from burns. Ordinary +cotton shirts and overalls afford but little protection, +because molten metal burns through them almost instantly; +and although the legs and feet are the parts +of the body most often burned in the foundry, it is +advisable for the men to wear shirts (as well as trousers) +made of a thick, stout, hard-finished material, such +as khaki (twilled cotton), which will shed the molten +metal to some extent. The bottoms of the trouser-legs<span class="pagenum" id="Page_2">[Pg 2]</span> +should never be rolled or folded up, and there should +be no other folds, nor any creases or pockets in the +clothing, in which molten metal or highly-heated +particles of any kind may lodge. Torn garments and +those having holes in them are unsafe, and should +not be worn. Woolen undershirts furnish the best +protection against “shot” or molten metal, but on +account of the intense heat to which foundrymen +are exposed it is hard to get the men to wear them, +particularly during the summer months.</p> + +<p id="Shoes_and_Leggings"></p><h3>Shoes and Leggings.</h3> +<p>The number of burns received +by foundry workers on the feet and legs may be +greatly reduced or almost entirely eliminated by the +use of proper shoes and leggings. These should be +worn by every foundry worker who has to handle +molten metal, or who is exposed to it, and no one should +be permitted to work without them, where the danger +of such burns exists. Strong, substantial, well-made +shoes of the “congress” type are the most suitable for +general wear in foundries, because when they are in +good condition they contain no holes through which +molten metal may enter, while in laced and buttoned +shoes there are many such openings. Moreover, congress +shoes may be quickly and easily removed when +hot metal is spilled upon them. Low-cut or Oxford +shoes should never be worn by foundry workers.</p> + +<p>Suitable leggings are almost as necessary as good, +serviceable shoes. Under some conditions safety requires +that the leggings be of asbestos or leather, but +for general foundry work canvas or twilled cotton of +good quality may be used. These materials will meet +with all but the most severe requirements. The leggings, +like the shoes previously described, should be<span class="pagenum" id="Page_3">[Pg 3]</span> +fastened in such a way that they may be quickly and +easily removed, and ordinary buckles are therefore unsuitable. +Laces and buttons are likewise unsatisfactory, +and any type of fastening that forms projections +upon which molten metal may lodge does not afford +the best sort of protection. Flat spring clasps, properly +inclosed, at the top and bottom of the leggings, are the +most satisfactory type of fastening devised up to the +present time. The leggings should completely incase +the legs from the knees down, and should fit snugly, +especially at the top, to prevent the entrance of molten +metal at this point.</p> + + +<p id="Eye-protectors"></p><h3>Eye-protectors.</h3> +<p>It is extremely important to protect +the eyes of foundrymen against the intense light +and heat from molten metal and from welding flames, +and also against dust and grit, flying chips, and molten +metal that may be splashed about. Eye-protectors +(also called “safety glasses” and “goggles”) of various +types are now available for all the different hazardous +operations in foundries. To insure comfort, eye-protectors +should fit well, and should be light in weight +and easily adjustable for size. They should be provided +with side protectors composed of metal screens or +of perforated leather, to stop flying particles and small +objects that might otherwise enter the eyes from the +sides. The lenses should not be made of ordinary +window glass, but in order to prevent serious eye strains +they should be made of clear glass without flaws, and +polished on both sides. They should also be strongly +framed, so that pieces will not enter the eyes in case the +lenses are broken. The lenses of eye-protectors that are +to be used by furnacemen, welders, and others whose +eyes are exposed to unusually brilliant light-sources<span class="pagenum" id="Page_4">[Pg 4]</span> +should be suitably colored, to temper the intensity +of the rays and to exclude those that are specially +harmful to the eyes.</p> + +<p>Experience has shown that where eye-protectors +have been provided and worn faithfully, there has been +a marked decrease in the number of eye injuries.</p> + + +<p id="Gloves"></p><h3>Gloves.</h3> +<p>Cupola men and others working where +the heat is intense must provide protection for their +hands and arms. Gloves and sleeves of calfskin, buckskin, +canvas, and asbestos are used,—the choice of +material depending upon conditions. When gloves +with gauntlets are used, the sleeves of the shirt, coat, or +jumper (whichever is worn) should be pulled down over +the gauntlets. The sleeves should then be arranged +with as few folds or creases as possible, and be secured +about the wrists by means of buttons or clasps or in +some other suitable manner. (By leaving the gauntlets +<em>outside</em> of the sleeves lodging places for molten +metal are provided, and serious burns are likely to +result.) There should be no slits or openings in the +lower ends of the sleeves (at the wrists) as in ordinary +shirts, because molten metal would be likely to find +entrance through them.</p> + +<p>Hand-leathers and gloves of various kinds must be +worn by men handling scrap, pig iron, and hot castings; +and rubber gloves are important to afford protection +against acids employed in pickling processes. Thick, +clumsy gloves, which interfere with the safe handling of +tools and implements, should not be used. Care should +be taken to see that no workman wears ragged gloves, +or gloves with frayed fingers, which are specially likely +to be caught by moving parts of machines or on the +sharp edges of objects being handled.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_5">[Pg 5]</span></p> + + +<p id="Aprons_and_Rubber_Boots"></p><h3>Aprons and Rubber Boots.</h3> +<p>In connection with +pickling processes, rubber boots and rubber aprons are +often necessary to prevent acid burns and damage to +clothing. Aprons are of value in other departments of +foundries also, particularly when flasks and rough, hot +castings and other objects are being carried about, and +when it is necessary for grinders to support castings in +position at the grinding wheels. For work of this kind, +and for foundrymen engaged in pouring metals, leather +aprons are recommended. In view of the high cost of +good leather, however, aprons of other suitable material +may be used where the leather is not absolutely +required.</p> + + +<p id="Ladles"></p><h3>Ladles.</h3> +<p>Several types of ladles are used in foundries, +including reservoir, crane, sulky or buggy, trolley, +bull, and single-hand ladles. Many burns are caused +by defects in ladles, and by lack of care in handling and +transporting them. All ladles should be frequently, +regularly, and critically examined, and when defects are +observed the ladles in which they are found should be +immediately set aside for repairs, or should be discarded +if the defects are of a serious nature.</p> + +<p>Reservoir ladles and all other ladles operated by +gearing should receive special attention. The motors +of motor-operated ladles should be completely inclosed, +not only to protect the workmen against electric shocks +and burns, but also to prevent accidents which might be +caused by metal being spilled upon the motors, resulting +in short circuits or other kinds of trouble. All +the gears on geared ladles should be completely inclosed, +the covers or guards being constructed in such a +way that they may be readily removed for oiling, cleaning, +and inspecting the various parts. If guards are<span class="pagenum" id="Page_6">[Pg 6]</span> +not provided the gears will soon become clogged with +dirt and with metal that has hardened or set after having +been spilled upon them while in a molten state; +and clogged gears are likely to be broken or stripped, +and to cause serious accidents.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_7">[Pg 7]</span></p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="fig_01" style="max-width: 98.875em;"> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><img class="w100" src="images/fig_01.jpg" alt=""></span><br> +<figcaption class="caption"> +<span class="smcap">Fig. 1. A Crane Ladle.</span><br> +(The gears should be completely inclosed, to prevent them from becoming clogged with dirt and +spattered metal.) +</figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>Many ladles are equipped with direct-acting spur +gears. This arrangement permits rapid operation of +the ladles, but it often imposes severe strains upon the +operators, making it difficult for them to hold the ladles +steady while pouring. This often results in spilling the +metal and causing it to be spattered about when it +strikes the sand on the tops of the flasks. A tilting arrangement +composed of a train of spur gears, or a combination +of worm gearing and spur or bevel gears, is +to be preferred. The gears should be so designed and +arranged that at least two teeth of each wheel will be +in mesh at all times. Unless this point receives due +attention a serious accident is likely to occur if the +teeth become badly worn, or if one of them should +break, thus permitting the ladle to tilt suddenly when +pouring. The small pinions and worms of geared +ladles often deteriorate quite rapidly, and they should +therefore be inspected frequently and with special care, +so that they may be renewed before they become a +source of danger. Every geared ladle should be provided +with a safety locking device to hold it in an upright +position while it is being carried.</p> + +<p>The bail of each crane ladle should be examined +frequently, and particularly at the point where the +crane hook engages it, because that is where the wear +is greatest. The lower parts of these ladles should +also be watched carefully for evidences of injury +caused by carelessness on the part of cranemen when +transporting or depositing them.</p> + +<p>Sulky and buggy ladles are used only to a limited +extent, but they cause many accidents. In some +foundries steel plates are laid to serve as runways for +buggy ladles, and plates are often placed between the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_8">[Pg 8]</span> +rails of narrow-gage industrial railway tracks also. +Molten metal is sure to splash when spilled on clean, +smooth plates of this kind, and it also forms into “shot” +which roll under the feet and cause the men to fall or +to spill more metal. The danger from splashing might +be minimized by sprinkling sand on the floor, but the +sand would hinder the free movement of the wheels, +and greater effort would be required to move the +buggies. This would tend to make spills more frequent, +even though in any individual case the sand might +reduce the likelihood of injury from splashing, after the +metal had been spilled. Floors of concrete and brick +have been tried in other foundries, with the result that<span class="pagenum" id="Page_9">[Pg 9]</span> +the number of burns from spills has been materially +reduced. An excellent floor may also be constructed +of metal plates with <em>checkered surfaces</em>,—the elevations +on these plates providing a surface that is sufficiently +smooth for the wheels, while the depressions (which +are filled with sand) tend to check the splashing. +Overhead trolley systems are used in some foundries +for transporting ladles, and in this way the spills and +splashes that are due to poor floor conditions are +eliminated.</p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="fig_02" style="max-width: 98.875em;"> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><img class="w100" src="images/fig_02.jpg" alt=""></span><br> +<figcaption class="caption"> +<span class="smcap">Fig. 2. A Buggy or Sulky Ladle.</span><br> +(Observe the inclosure for the gears, and the shield to prevent the molten metal from splashing +on the operator when pouring and when pushing the ladle along the track.) +</figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>It is necessary to maintain a clear path for buggies +that are being moved about, because metal is likely to +be spilled from them if even a very small obstruction is +encountered. Moreover, the buggies or trucks should +be inspected frequently, paying particular attention to +the wheels and bearings to make sure that they are in +good condition so that the buggies will run easily and +smoothly. Each buggy should be equipped with prong +guards to hold it rigidly while pouring, and the ladle +should be properly counterbalanced so that it will automatically +return to an upright position when empty.</p> + +<p>Bull ladles are much safer to handle than ordinary +single-hand ladles, and should be used whenever possible. +Several styles of shank-handles are used with +bull ladles, one of them consisting of a rigid fork handle +on one side and a rigid single handle on the other side. +In another style (which is preferable) both handles are +forked; and in still another form a swivel is provided +at one end, which permits the ladle to be tilted more +easily and emptied with less danger of spilling. The +bowls of bull ladles should be held securely in position +in their shanks by means of clamps made of round or +flat iron. The shanks must be amply strong for the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_10">[Pg 10]</span> +weight to be carried, and the joints should be carefully +inspected for poor welding, flaws, and other weaknesses. +Defective ladle shanks should be removed +from the pouring floor as soon as discovered, so that +there will be no possibility of using them again, either +intentionally or otherwise. Ladle shanks should not +be left exposed to the weather, because such exposure +causes them to corrode and become weakened.</p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="fig_03" style="max-width: 99em;"> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><img class="w100" src="images/fig_03.jpg" alt=""></span><br> +<figcaption class="caption"> +<span class="smcap">Fig. 3. A Bull Ladle in Use.</span><br> +(The handle is provided with a swivel, and one man tilts the ladle while the other man simply +sustains a part of the weight.) +</figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>When single-hand ladles are used the shanks should +be securely attached to the bowls, because otherwise +the bowls are likely to slip out when pouring, and to +cause accidents. A sheet-metal guard or shield, 6 or 8 +inches high, should be firmly secured to the top of the +bowl of every hand ladle on the side next to the shank, +to protect the workman’s hand while carrying the ladle.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_11">[Pg 11]</span></p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="fig_04" style="max-width: 98.875em;"> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><img class="w100" src="images/fig_04.jpg" alt=""></span><br> +<figcaption class="caption"> +<span class="smcap">Fig. 4. Pouring from a Hand Ladle.</span><br> +(This illustration shows the correct attitude for a man to assume when pouring. Observe also +the shield on the ladle, to protect the hand from burns caused by spattering metal. The leggings +are of a good type but, unfortunately, are not clearly shown. On general principles we disapprove +of the unbuttoned vest, although the upper part of the body is unlikely to be burned +so long as the man is engaged solely in work of the kind here shown.) +</figcaption> +</figure> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_12">[Pg 12]</span></p> + +<p>When several workmen are carrying ladles from +the cupola to the molds it is better for them to pass on +the side on which the bowls are carried. This not only +tends to avoid confusion and disorder, but it is also +safer, because there is less danger of burns when two +bowls are struck together by passing workmen, than +there is when two shank-handles collide.</p> + +<p>“Horse play” and purposeless activities of other +kinds should not be permitted among the men who are +waiting their turns at the cupola, because the work is +hard and dangerous, and the men must take it seriously +at all times and give their undivided attention to it, +if burns are to be avoided. The ladles should never be +completely filled, because if they are, the hot metal will +surely spill while being carried. “Cutting in” from +the <em>back</em> of a continuous stream of molten metal at the +cupola spout causes unnecessary spattering; always cut +in from the front.</p> + +<p>New employees in foundries, and particularly the +unskilled help, should be carefully instructed with +regard to the proper method of carrying the ladles and +the correct position to assume when pouring into the +molds, and they should be watched and supervised for +a considerable time after being assigned to such work, +in order to make sure that they understand how to do +it properly. The men should stand at a safe distance +from the molds, so that their feet will not be burned if +the metal spills or runs out between the cope and the +drag or nowel.</p> + +<p>Ladles of all kinds, except hand ladles, are likely +to cause accidents by tilting unexpectedly, unless the +bowls are properly balanced on their shanks or trunnions, +or are arranged to be locked in an upright +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_14">[Pg 14]</span>position. It is specially important to see that the bowls +are not top-heavy, even when full of metal. On the +other hand, if the bowls are weighted too heavily at the +bottom it is difficult to tilt them, and an unnecessary +strain is imposed upon the operator and also upon the +gearing and other mechanism; furthermore, it is not +easy to pour a smooth, continuous stream from a ladle +which requires considerable exertion to hold it in the +pouring position. In particular, all ladles that are provided +with bails for hoisting and transporting by cranes +should be so constructed that, when full of metal, +the center of gravity will be well below the bail, unless +they are arranged with geared devices for tilting. In +addition, they should be provided with clips or clamps +to prevent unexpected or accidental overturning.</p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="fig_05" style="max-width: 97.375em;"> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><img class="w100" src="images/fig_05.jpg" alt=""></span><br> +<figcaption class="caption"> +<span class="smcap">Fig. 5. A Trolley Ladle in Position at the Cupola.</span> +</figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>When buying new ladles it is important to see that +the lips are of the correct shape to insure a smooth, +narrow, undivided stream at pouring, and to prevent +the molten metal from backing up and running over the +sides at other points. Both safety and efficiency are +promoted by the use of ladles with proper lips.</p> + +<p>“Leave-overs” (excess metal left in ladles after the +molds have been poured) are sometimes poured on the +foundry floor. In this way puddles of molten metal are +left, which soon become covered over with a thin coating +of sand or dust so that they are not readily observed. +The consequence is that men are often severely burned +by stepping into or upon these puddles while the metal +is still hot. Pouring leave-overs on the floor should be +prohibited, and suitable receptacles should be provided +at convenient points to receive the excess metal.</p> + +<p>Many serious accidents have been caused by pouring +molten metal into damp ladles, the result usually +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_16">[Pg 16]</span>being an explosion, and the scattering of the metal in +all directions. In every foundry, therefore, special +care should be taken in drying the ladles. In some +plants the core ovens or crucible furnaces may be +utilized for the purpose, while in other cases it may be +necessary to provide special ovens or heaters. Ladles +should not be dried in the molding rooms by means +of wood fires, unless adequate exhaust ventilation is +provided.</p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="fig_06" style="max-width: 96.6875em;"> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><img class="w100" src="images/fig_06.jpg" alt=""></span><br> +<figcaption class="caption"> +<span class="smcap">Fig. 6. A Convenient Labor-saving Pouring Device.</span><br> +(By installing a monorail system a device of this kind can be used for main-aisle and side-floor +work. It can be operated by one man, with safety. The ladle can be hoisted and lowered, +thus making it possible to pour molds at various heights. The metal shield protects +the eyes of the operator against heat and glare, and also prevents +burns from spattering metal.) +</figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>All ladles that are not in use should be stored in a +dry place, and preferably on elevated racks, or on supports +of some other kind that will permit the air to +circulate freely about the ladles.</p> + +<p>Foundry ladles must be relined from time to time +(bull and hand ladles are relined each day), and it is +advisable to have all of this work done by men selected +for reliability and experience, who are interested in +making the ladles safe and willing to give them the +necessary time and attention.</p> + +<p>All of the ladles that are in use should be examined +carefully every day, preferably by an experienced and +conscientious man who has been specially selected for +this work. The bowls should be inspected for cracks +and thin, weak spots, and the shanks should be +examined to discover defective welds and erosion. +Inspectors should also look out for loose rivets and +bolts, and should see that all necessary guards are +in good condition and properly secured in place, and +that all ladles are properly balanced.</p> + + +<p id="Flasks_and_Molds"></p><h3>Flasks and Molds.</h3> +<p>Wooden, steel, and iron +flasks are used in foundries, but those of iron and +steel are so much superior that preference should be +given to them under all possible circumstances. Iron<span class="pagenum" id="Page_17">[Pg 17]</span> +flasks may be cast in the foundry, and the subsequent +maintenance and depreciation charges are quite small +as compared with what must be expended upon wooden +flasks. Moreover, after a wooden flask has been used +for some time the faces of the cope and the nowel become +burned or broken off, with the result that instead +of fitting closely together they may be separated by +a space of an inch or more. Although this space is +filled with sand, the hot metal is likely to break through +and run down the sides of the flask. “Run-outs”, +as leakages of this kind are called, often cause severe +burns on the feet and legs of the workmen. If iron +or steel flasks are used, and the cope and nowel faces +are planed to insure a close fit, there will be little +likelihood of the occurrence of run-outs.</p> + +<p>Iron and steel flasks, as well as wooden ones, require +frequent and careful inspection to see that none +of the lugs, handles, or other parts are broken. If a +flask is found with a broken or cracked lug or handle +it should be immediately removed from the shop for +repairs; otherwise, it might be used again by some +person unaware of its dangerous condition, and a +serious accident might result when it was picked up +by the crane.</p> + +<p>Congestion on the molding floor is noticeable in +many foundries, particularly in those where the work +is greatly diversified; and numerous burns are the +direct result of such a condition. Sufficient space +should be left between flasks so that the molders and +their helpers will not be crowded while pouring, and +so that they will be able to get out of danger quickly +and easily in case of a “run-out”. There should always +be a clear space of at least 18 inches between the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_18">[Pg 18]</span> +rows of flasks when pouring “side floor” by hand, and +for crane work in general; and passages 24 inches or +wider are much to be preferred. Portable horses +may sometimes be used to advantage for supporting +bull ladles when pouring work of certain kinds.</p> + +<p>Flasks, when in storage, should be piled in an +orderly and systematic manner, and the maximum +height for stacking them should be such that the +workmen can handle them easily and conveniently +while standing with both feet on the floor. Unevenly +piled flasks sometimes fall over and cause serious injuries; +and even though they are piled well enough +to be stable if undisturbed, they may fall in consequence +of jarring due to the motion of neighboring +cranes, and sometimes they are pulled over by chains +dangling from the cranes.</p> + +<p>Workmen often collide one with another, and are +severely burned or otherwise injured, in consequence +of their view being obstructed by foundry equipment. +Obstructions likely to cause accidents of this kind +should be moved to the sides of the room. It is +highly essential, also, to keep all the aisles clear of +flasks, tools, implements, and other obstructions, particularly +in plants where the illumination is not of +the best, and where, on account of insufficient ventilation, +large quantities of smoke obscure the vision.</p> + +<p>Orderliness and adequate light and ventilation not +only increase efficiency, but also materially reduce the +number of accidents; and any reasonable expense that is +involved in securing good conditions in these respects +will pay for itself by lessening the time that is lost in +consequence of the temporary demoralization to which +the working force is subject whenever an accident occurs.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_19">[Pg 19]</span></p> + + +<p id="Crucibles"></p><h3>Crucibles.</h3> +<p>Crucibles are extensively employed +in founding, especially in connection with non-ferrous +metals; and the importance of exercising special +care in handling them, not only to avoid accidents +but also to insure greater length of service from +the crucibles themselves, has been greatly underestimated +in the past. In our larger plants, however, +foundrymen are now giving considerable attention to +the systematic instruction of their furnacemen, melters, +and helpers, with a view to keeping the number of accidents +as low as possible, and obtaining as great a +number of heats as practicable from each crucible.</p> + +<p>The clay crucibles of former days have been extensively +supplanted by better ones made largely of +graphite, which is capable of resisting exceedingly +high temperatures. In fact, crucibles composed wholly +of clay have practically gone out of use for the melting +of steel and brass, because they can often be employed +for only one or two heats, and they are far more likely +to break or crack unexpectedly, thereby causing +workmen to be seriously burned. Moreover, the +temperatures that occur in metal-working plants at +the present time are higher than those that prevailed +when the all-clay crucible was the standard type. +The crucible that is now in general use consists +mainly of the substance that is variously known as +graphite, plumbago, or black lead, and which is a +practically incombustible form of carbon. This is +combined with a small amount of a special variety +of clay as a binding material, and perhaps a little +fire sand to give the mixture an open grain, so that it +can better withstand sudden changes of temperature. +Some makers use, in addition, a certain quantity<span class="pagenum" id="Page_20">[Pg 20]</span> +of material obtained by grinding up old, worn-out +crucibles; but this practice cannot be recommended.</p> + +<p>The graphite crucible is doubtless the most efficient +yet devised, when cost and all other elements +are considered, but it is nevertheless somewhat fragile, +in view of the fact that it is expected to withstand +a heat sufficient to melt the refractory metals, and to +support, at the same time, very considerable pressures +due to the weight of its heavy fluid contents. It is +exceedingly important, therefore, to see that all employees +fully understand how to handle crucibles in +order to reduce the danger of breakage to a minimum; +and a great deal can be accomplished in this +direction, because graphite crucibles, when properly +made and carefully used, can be kept in a fairly safe +condition.</p> + +<p>The number of accidents from breakage is greater +in small plants than in large ones, in proportion to the +number of crucibles in use. This is due partly to +the greater care that the crucibles receive in the large +plants, and partly to the fact that large foundries +buy supplies of crucibles considerably in excess of their +immediate requirements, storing the surplus ones and +allowing them to age or “season”. It is an old saying +that crucibles improve as they grow older, and as +experience shows that this belief has some actual +basis in fact, the date of manufacture should be stamped +upon every crucible, to assist the annealing men in +selecting the oldest and best seasoned of them, when +additional ones are required for use.</p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="fig_07" style="max-width: 112.125em;"> +<img class="w100" src="images/fig_07.jpg" alt=""><br> +<figcaption class="caption"> +<span class="smcap">Fig. 7. A Crucible which Broke after being Run +Only Two Heats.</span> +</figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>Good crucibles are expensive, and every foundryman +therefore desires to obtain the maximum service +from them. The foundryman who attempts to<span class="pagenum" id="Page_21">[Pg 21]</span> +increase the useful life of his crucibles by careful +handling, and by the adoption of approved methods of +every other kind, is at the same time promoting safety +by preventing accidents from premature breakage. +Foundrymen, melters, pourers, and helpers, usually +expect a crucible to run a certain definite number of +heats, and they are likely to be somewhat careless +when a new crucible is put in service. For this reason +it is wise to assign a number to each crucible, for recording +the number of heats taken. The record may +conveniently be kept upon a black-board, opposite +the appropriate crucible number and in plain view. +Everybody then knows just how many heats each crucible +has run, and this knowledge often arouses a +spirit of competition, which tends to make the men<span class="pagenum" id="Page_22">[Pg 22]</span> +more careful in handling the crucibles, and to increase +the service that can safely be had from them. (The +dating and numbering here recommended are now +being done, quite generally.)</p> + +<p>When crucibles are first received, it is important +that they be critically examined for cracks and flaws, +not only by the eye but also by tapping them with a +light hammer; and all imperfect ones should be rejected. +If there is evidence that any of the crucibles +in a given shipment have become wet while in transit +to the foundry, they should be stored for at least +four or five weeks, before being used, in a place where +they will dry out thoroughly—even though they may +be apparently dry at the time they are received.</p> + +<p>When a new supply of crucibles has been carefully +inspected and found to be free from defects, the +entire lot should be stored for a considerable time in +a warm, dry place, and provision should be made to +protect them as thoroughly as possible from contact +with moisture or with moist air. The roof of a continuously-operating +core oven is an excellent place +for the storage chamber.</p> + +<p>The proper annealing of crucibles is of far more +importance than is generally realized. It is said that +crucibles, when they come from the manufacturer’s +kilns, contain less than one-quarter of one per cent. +of moisture; but after they have cooled off they +absorb moisture again from the air. To anneal a +crucible properly, it should first be slowly heated to +a temperature somewhat above 250° <abbr title="Fahrenheit">Fahr.</abbr>, and it +should be maintained (or “soaked”) at this temperature +for a sufficient time to entirely remove the moisture. +It may then be put into service, if it has been<span class="pagenum" id="Page_23">[Pg 23]</span> +thoroughly annealed by the makers. If there is any +doubt on this point, however, the crucible should next +be heated for some hours to a dull red heat, after +which it should be allowed to cool again, very slowly, +to about 250°. In any case the crucible should still +be at a temperature of 250° or over, when it goes into +the furnace, or the drying-out process will not be +wholly successful.</p> + +<p>Large crucibles, with thick shells, require a higher +temperature than small-sized ones in the preliminary +heat-treatment, and a correspondingly longer “soaking” +period, in order to reduce the absorbed moisture +to the allowable limit. In drying out a No. 200 crucible, +for example, ten hours or more should be allowed +for bringing it up to a temperature of 250° <abbr title="Fahrenheit">Fahr.</abbr>, and +fully ten hours more should be allowed for “soaking”,—that +is, for reducing the percentage of moisture +which may have been absorbed. If a crucible that +has a considerable amount of moisture in its walls +is quickly subjected to a high temperature, the moisture +will be changed into steam, and this, because it is +confined within the walls of the crucible, may expand +so as to cause a rupture or crack. The same result +may also follow from the natural contraction of the +drying crucible, if the moisture is driven out rapidly +or unevenly. The small “pinholes” and “skelping” +that may often be seen on crucibles are caused in +this way. These pinholes and fissures form one of +the chief sources of trouble against which users of +crucibles have to guard; for although a crucible having +defects of this nature may endure for a considerable +number of heats, it is nevertheless likely to fail +at a critical time (for example, during pouring or<span class="pagenum" id="Page_24">[Pg 24]</span> +while being pulled from the furnace), spilling the +molten metal and causing severe hand and foot burns.</p> + +<p>After receiving heat-treatment for the removal +of moisture, crucibles are often placed on a layer of +damp sand, or on the comparatively cold furnace +floor, and left there for an indefinite length of time +before charging. This should not be permitted, because +when the temperature of the crucible falls to a +point materially below 250°, it will again absorb +moisture.</p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp69" id="fig_08" style="max-width: 73.6875em;"> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><img class="w100" src="images/fig_08.jpg" alt=""></span><br> +<figcaption class="caption"> +<span class="smcap">Fig. 8. The Crack in this Crucible Developed +After Five Heats.</span> +</figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>Fine cracks (called “alligator cracks”) often cover +the entire surface of a crucible. These may be caused +in a number of ways. Sometimes they are due to +heating the crucible with fuel containing too high a<span class="pagenum" id="Page_25">[Pg 25]</span> +percentage of sulphur; or, in oil furnaces, they may +be caused by using too little oil or too much steam. +It is specially important for the operators to thoroughly +understand their work when using an oil +furnace, because an excess of air or steam, or an +insufficient supply of oil, may give rise to an oxidizing +action, whereby a portion of the carbon (or graphite) +is burned out of the crucible wall, leaving the binding +clay in a somewhat porous condition; and this action, +when it occurs, greatly facilitates the formation of +cracks.</p> + +<p>When crucibles are stored on the top of a furnace, +the melters or furnacemen should make sure that the +covers over the furnace openings fit properly. If the +furnaceman is careless in this respect the moist gases +that are given off when fresh fuel is placed on the +fire will escape through the openings to some extent, +and they are likely to come in contact with the crucibles, +causing alligator cracks to form.</p> + +<p>Cracks and fissures are also likely to form if the +metal to be melted is not carefully placed in the crucibles. +The men usually work rapidly when introducing +the ingots, so that the furnaces will not be left open any +longer than necessary; and the ingots are often thrown +in with a force sufficient to indent the bottoms of the +crucibles, or otherwise damage them. An indentation +in a crucible, whether caused in this way or in any other +way, is quite likely to develop, shortly, into a crack or +fracture. The ingots should be introduced carefully +and loosely, sufficient time being taken to insure that +this is properly done. When a crucible is first filled it +is desirable to place as many ingots in it, for the first +melting, as practicable; but it is exceedingly important<span class="pagenum" id="Page_26">[Pg 26]</span> +to see that they are not wedged or jammed, because +when they are heated they will expand more than the +crucible itself, and the walls of the crucible are likely +to be cracked in consequence.</p> + +<p>When a new crucible is put in service for melting, +it should be heated quite slowly for a few runs, and this +is <em>specially important the first time it is used</em>. After +one or two runs it will become vitrified, and the danger +from too sudden a heating is then materially reduced. +It is a good plan to keep on hand a few extra crucibles +that have been used before, to avoid loss of time in +case an extra crucible is needed on short notice.</p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="fig_09" style="max-width: 107.0625em;"> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><img class="w100" src="images/fig_09.jpg" alt=""></span><br> +<figcaption class="caption"> +<span class="smcap">Fig. 9. A Carrying Pot, with Shank.</span> +</figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>A great deal of harm is done by carelessness in +handling the tongs and shanks, and the life of a crucible +may be seriously shortened in this way. When a +tilting furnace is used, as many as fifty heats can often +be obtained from a crucible; but if the heating is in +furnaces from which the crucibles must be removed by +means of tongs, they can be used for only about fifteen +heats, on an average.</p> + +<p>A crucible is soft and plastic at a white heat, and +may easily be squeezed out of shape by the pressure +exerted upon it when the handles of the tongs are +forced together. The walls of the crucible gradually<span class="pagenum" id="Page_27">[Pg 27]</span> +become weakened by treatment of this kind, and +eventually, if the crucible is not discarded, a complete +rupture will probably occur, with its attendant toll of +injuries and burns.</p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp54" id="fig_10" style="max-width: 61.4375em;"> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><img class="w100" src="images/fig_10.jpg" alt=""></span><br> +<figcaption class="caption"> +<span class="smcap">Fig. 10. Tongs Properly Applied to a Crucible, for +Removing it from a Stationary Furnace.</span> +</figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>Three styles of tongs are in general use in foundries—one-pronged, +two-pronged, and spade tongs. The +different styles are designed for various special purposes +and operations, but they are sometimes improperly +used interchangeably. It is essential to see that the +tongs that are used are of the proper shape, and that +they fit perfectly from the widest part of the crucible +(usually called the “bilge” or “belly”), down to within +a few inches of the bottom. They should not<span class="pagenum" id="Page_28">[Pg 28]</span> +extend to the <em>extreme</em> bottom, however, because this +would make it hard to place the crucible in the shank. +On the other hand, if they do not extend down far +enough the crucible will be badly squeezed. The +proper use of the tongs consists in taking hold of the +crucible below the bilge and lifting it in such a way +that the least possible pressure is exerted against the +crucible walls.</p> + +<p>One-pronged tongs should be used only for lifting +the smaller-sized crucibles,—say up to size No. 40. +For larger sizes two-pronged tongs should be used. It +is not uncommon to see large crucibles, ranging from +No. 200 to No. 300, lifted by one-pronged tongs. This +practice should be condemned, because when one-pronged +tongs are used for lifting a crucible, pressure is +exerted against only a single point of contact,—namely, +at the bottom,—and the crucible, when hot and soft, +is likely to be cut or ruptured, if it is large and heavy, +because the pressure at the point of support is severe. +Serious burns, from the spilling of the molten metal, +often result when the lower prong of a two-pronged +pair of tongs is cut off, on account of a lack of space between +the crucible and the furnace wall; because the +crucible is then lifted from above the bilge, and tilted. +Melters should be cautioned against the practice of +driving down the ring of the tongs with a skimmer or +other implement, because this is almost sure to cause +cracks and fissures in the crucibles.</p> + +<p>Molten metal is often spilled from crucibles in consequence +of using tongs that have become bent or otherwise +misshapen. It is important to see that the tongs +fit the crucibles properly, and that they are also in +good condition in every other way. For restoring<span class="pagenum" id="Page_29">[Pg 29]</span> +bent tongs to their proper shape, it is advisable to +procure a set of cast-iron forms similar in size and +general shape to the crucibles that are used in the +plant, but slightly larger from the bilge upward. To +restore the tongs to their original form it is only necessary +to put them in the furnace, raise them to a red +heat, clamp them to the proper iron form, and bring +them back into shape by means of a heavy hammer. +Tongs may be fitted easily and cheaply in this way, and +a great saving of time results. If cast-iron forms are +not provided, the blacksmith cannot be expected to +restore the tongs to their correct shape with accuracy; +but if iron crucible-forms of the proper sizes and shapes +are used, and the tongs are fitted to them as here recommended, +the likelihood of squeezing and distorting +the crucibles will be reduced to a minimum.</p> + +<p>Two pairs of tongs, at least, should be provided for +each size of crucible, so that if one pair becomes badly +bent or worn, the other pair may be placed in service +without loss of time.</p> + +<p>Furnacemen should make sure that no clinkers or +pieces of unburned coal or coke are stuck to the walls +of the crucibles when about to grasp them with the +tongs, because if the tongs are applied over a clinker +the clinker will probably be forced into the crucible +and a rupture may then occur at any moment. It is +also important to see that the bottom of the crucible +(on the outer surface) is free from clinkers or other adherent +substances, so that when the crucible is in the +furnace its weight will be evenly distributed, and not +concentrated at a few projecting spots or regions. It +is best to support the crucible by means of a foundation +or pedestal, of graphite, fire-brick, or other infusible<span class="pagenum" id="Page_30">[Pg 30]</span> +substance, though the fire-bed may be made to give a +fairly satisfactory support if it is carefully prepared +and smoothed.</p> + +<p>When a heat has been poured it is important to +see that no metal is left in the bottom of the crucible, +because when a residual mass (or “button”) of such +metal cools, it contracts at a different rate from the +crucible, and serious strains and cracks are likely to +result.</p> + +<p>Ramming the fuel bed is bad practice, in general, +because it is likely to damage the crucibles seriously. +If ramming appears to be necessary at special times, +the utmost care should be exercised in doing it.</p> + +<p>(We are indebted to the General Electric Company +for the photographs that are used in this section.)</p> + + +<p id="Cupolas"></p><h3>Cupolas.</h3> +<p>Tapping-out is the most hazardous +part of cupola work. This is specially true if the +melter is inexperienced or careless, for it is almost +entirely within his power to prevent excessive spattering +of the hot metal if he properly controls the flow +from the cupola. If dangerous spattering of the +molten metal, with its attendant burns, is to be eliminated, +it is important that the melter be taught the +correct and only safe method of stopping up the tap +hole. Under no circumstances should the stopping +bot be thrust directly into the stream of flowing +metal in order to “bot-up” the hole. Instead of this, +it should be brought immediately <em>over</em> the stream, +and, when near the hole, should be carried down +obliquely so that it will make a sharp angle with the +stream, and thus effectively and instantly close up +the hole without any undue spattering. In drawing +molten metal from the cupola into buggy or trolley<span class="pagenum" id="Page_31">[Pg 31]</span> +ladles, it is necessary to stop the flow of metal when a +ladle has been filled and while another is being moved +into position. This is done by the melter, who inserts +the stopping bot into the hole and holds it there +temporarily. After doing this several times the fire +clay on the end of the stopping bot becomes burned +off, and consequently the hole may not be closed properly. +One or more extra stopping bots, already prepared +with fire clay, should be conveniently at hand, which +may be substituted for the burned-off one when +necessary. The melter and all other workmen engaged +about the cupola should wear well-designed goggles +having side shields, because statistics show that a high +percentage of eye injuries occur about the cupola.</p> + +<p>Accidents occur about cupolas not only when +drawing off the metal, but also during charging time, +and when repair work is being done. As a general +thing workmen engaged in charging a cupola must +bring the coke and the iron (both scrap and pig) from +the storage bins or yard, up to the charging platform. +These workmen should be instructed to pile the iron +evenly on the barrows, and to exercise great care in +taking the scrap from the pile, in case the latter is +in such a condition that it is likely to collapse or slide. +Many workmen have been severely injured, while +filling their barrows, by the sudden collapse of piles +of scrap iron.</p> + +<p>In many foundries elevators are used for conveying +the charges to the charging floors. In every such +case it is essential that a gong or other signal be +sounded before the elevator is taken from the charging +floor by a workman below; and the elevator +should not be moved, after the signal has been given,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_32">[Pg 32]</span> +until sufficient time has elapsed for any person who +may be in danger to respond and to move into a place +of safety. Many serious accidents have been caused +by elevators suddenly descending while the workmen +were loading or unloading them. To further guard +against such accidents there should be a door or gate +at each entrance to the hoistway, provided with an +interlocking device so arranged that the elevator cannot +be started until the door or gate has been closed. +The unused sides of the car platform should be completely +inclosed to a height of 6½ feet (or to the top +of the crosshead), and a substantial iron grating +should be placed on the top of the car, to stop falling +tools and other objects. +<a id="FNanchor_1" href="#Footnote_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a> +</p> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_1" href="#FNanchor_1" class="label">[1]</a> Further information with regard to the care and operation of elevators in general +is given in a booklet published by the Engineering and Inspection Division of <span class="smcap">The Travelers +Insurance Company</span>. Copies of this booklet may be procured by applying to the Home +Office at Hartford, Connecticut.</p> + +</div> + +<p>The charging opening in a cupola should be fitted +with a door or gate, which should always be closed +except when charging is going on, and workmen engaged +in charging should be specially careful to avoid +tripping or losing their balance when in the vicinity +of the opening, and especially when throwing heavy +pieces of scrap or pig metal into the cupola.</p> + +<p>When the interior of a cupola is being relined it is +recommended that a watchman be stationed near the +opening, or that a conspicuous warning sign be posted +beside it, stating that men are working inside. We +have known of cases where metal thrown into the +cupola has struck and seriously injured workmen who +were engaged in making repairs to the shell or lining. +An effective guard against accidents of this kind consists +in a circular screen of a diameter slightly smaller +than the inside of the cupola, and made of heavy wire<span class="pagenum" id="Page_33">[Pg 33]</span> +netting or of stout expanded metal, substantially +framed. The screen should be divided in the center, +and the two sections hinged together. In using this +device it is suspended above the point where the men +are at work, from a piece of scantling laid diametrically +across the cupola so that it rests upon the walls where +they are offset for the single brick lining, or upon the +ledge formed by the charging doors,—the screen being +supported by chains at several points around its circumference, +and having its hinges on the under sides. +When arranged in this way it tends to remain open +and flat, although it can easily be folded by raising it +at the middle. A screen of this kind will intercept +falling pieces of slag and brick, and other objects, +and will thus protect the workmen below.</p> + +<p>When furnaces are to be entirely relined, only +trustworthy and experienced men should be allowed to +perform the work. Moreover, the fire-bricks that are +used should be of the best quality obtainable, in order +to insure long life of the cupola. Between the bricks +and the shell a space of about ¾ of an inch should be +left, which should be filled with dry sand to act as a +cushion, so that severe stresses will not be thrown +on the shell when the bricks expand. The rivets +and the shells of all cupolas should be inspected periodically, +to see if any of the rivets have sheared off or +worked loose, or if the shell has become weakened in +any way. After making repairs of any kind, care +should be taken to see that the cupola is thoroughly +dried out, and that all tools, and all materials used +for scaffolding or other purposes, are removed.</p> + +<p>Explosions occur in cupolas from time to time, and +if the shell of a cupola is weak, a serious catastrophe<span class="pagenum" id="Page_34">[Pg 34]</span> +is likely to result. Carbon monoxide, when combined +with air in certain proportions, forms a highly inflammable +and explosive mixture, and the explosions are +mainly due to this gas, which collects in the wind box +and blast pipe during interruptions in operation. In +an incredibly short time enough carbon monoxide gas +may collect in this way to cause a violent explosion +when the blast is turned on again. If the iron comes +too fast a temporary shut-down may be unavoidable; +but interruptions from other causes,—such, for example, +as the slipping of the blower belt,—should be prevented, +so far as possible, by frequent inspections of the equipment +and by making all necessary adjustments and +repairs when the cupola is not in operation.</p> + +<p>A gate or damper should be placed in the blast +pipe, close to the cupola, to prevent the explosive gas +from entering the pipe. This gate should be closed +<em>immediately</em>, whenever the blast is shut off, and it +should be opened cautiously and slowly when starting +up again. At the time that the blower is shut down +one of the tuyeres should be opened also, to maintain +a slight draft of air.</p> + +<p>Explosion doors provide another means for preventing +damage from gas explosions. Some authorities +recommend that these doors be placed in front of the +tuyeres, so that when the blast is turned off the doors +may be opened to admit the outside air. When this +arrangement is adopted the doors should not be closed +until the blast has entered the wind box, so that any +gas remaining therein may escape through the doors.</p> + +<p>With a positive-pressure blower, which is probably +the best type for cupola work, a safety-valve should be +provided for the protection of the blast pipe or blower.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_35">[Pg 35]</span> +This will prevent the bursting of the blast pipe in case +the blast gate is closed suddenly, or if the cupola becomes +clogged with slag in such a manner as to obstruct +the passage of the air to a dangerous extent. The +weights on the safety-valve should be sufficient to prevent +blowing-off unless the obstruction is quite serious, +because a constant blast-volume is required in modern +cupola operation, and if the volume is decreased an undesirable +lowering of the temperature occurs.</p> + +<p>Charging and lighting-up should be done carefully +and by experienced workmen, and the charges should be +laid as nearly level as possible. When the charging has +been completed, and after lighting-up, sufficient time +should be allowed for the cupola to become thoroughly +warmed up before starting the blower.</p> + + +<p id="Traveling_Cranes"></p><h3>Traveling Cranes.</h3> +<p>Cranes of various types are +used in the foundry, but most of the heavy work is +done by electrically-operated traveling cranes. The +suggestions that follow therefore relate mainly to that +type, although many of them are applicable to all +cranes, and to hoisting devices of other kinds.</p> + +<p>A substantial stairway or ladder should be installed +at one end of the crane runway, to provide access +to the crane cab or cage; and when two cranes are +operated on the same runway, stairways or ladders +should be installed at both ends of the runway. Cranemen +should always use this means of entering and +leaving the cages. Every crane cab should be inclosed +to a height of at least 42 inches on all sides, except where +entrance is actually effected. The inclosure should preferably +be of sheet metal or expanded metal, or of +heavy, woven-wire mesh. If railings are used there +should be an intermediate rail midway between the top<span class="pagenum" id="Page_36">[Pg 36]</span> +rail and the floor of the cab, and a six-inch toe-board +should also be installed. A stairway or a ladder should +always be provided for passing from the cab to the top +of the crane bridge. This should be substantially built, +and properly protected so that the crane operator or repairman +will be in no danger of falling when he uses it.</p> + +<p>A foot-walk should be constructed along the bridge +of the crane, or on both sides where the width of the +bridge demands. This will give easy and safe access to +the trolley in any position, and to any part of the +bridge. The construction should be substantial, and +the width must be sufficient to provide ample room for +passage. Double railguards 42 inches high should be +erected along each foot-walk, and six-inch toe-boards +should also be provided.</p> + +<p>Whenever possible, a substantial walk should be +installed beside the crane runway, and this should +be protected by strong railings and toe-boards along its +entire length. All traveling cranes should be equipped +with spring bumpers or oil bumpers, and suitable stops +should be installed at each end of each rail of the +runway.</p> + +<p>All gears on the trolley and other parts of the crane +should be completely incased, and no one should be +allowed on top of the crane while it is in motion. A +stout sheet-metal pan, or a substantial floor, should be +provided under the trolley, to catch any parts that may +work loose, and to prevent them from falling upon +employees below. This pan or floor should be solid +except for the cable openings. Guards, fenders, or +brushes should be attached in front of the bridge and +trolley wheels, to remove any obstructions that may +be upon the tracks, and to prevent injury to persons<span class="pagenum" id="Page_37">[Pg 37]</span> +who may be working in such positions that their hands +or feet might be crushed by the wheels.</p> + +<p><b><i>Courtesy of The Alliance Machine Company.</i></b></p> +<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="fig_11" style="max-width: 98.8125em;"> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><img class="w100" src="images/fig_11.jpg" alt=""></span><br> +<figcaption class="caption"> +<span class="smcap">Fig. 11. Safeguards on a Large Ladle Crane.</span><br> +(This crane is larger than is used in the average foundry but it has some safety features that +should be universally adopted. At A is the landing platform leading to the foot-walk on +the crane bridge; B is a stairway which extends from the safety platform, C, just +outside the operator’s cage, to the landing platform. The railing and +toe-board on the crane bridge and on the trolley are also essential +for safety.) +</figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>All electrical wiring should be installed in conduits; +and it is particularly important that hoist-limit stops +be provided, in all cases, both for the main and for the +auxiliary hoists. In the best crane practice the hoist-limit +stops employ dynamic braking to check overtravel +and to assist in lowering loads. To prevent the +crane from being operated by unauthorized persons, or +while repairs are being made, there should be a safety +switch in the main line, mounted above the cab where +it can be conveniently reached from the foot-walk. +This switch should be fitted with a lock so that it can<span class="pagenum" id="Page_38">[Pg 38]</span> +be secured in the open position, and the key should be +only in the possession of the crane operator or the head +repairman.</p> + +<p>Woodwork should not be used about a crane, because +it is likely to become oil-soaked, and it is then +exceedingly combustible. If it should take fire and the +craneman, in order to make his escape, should run the +crane to a stairway, the time required for this purpose +might increase his danger quite materially, and the +motion of the crane would also tend to increase the fire. +If, on the other hand, he tries to leave the crane in +any other way than by the regular stairway, he will +be exposed to hazards of other kinds, and these will be +accentuated by his haste.</p> + +<p><b><i>Courtesy of the Shepard Electric Crane & Hoist Company.</i></b></p> +<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="fig_12" style="max-width: 99.375em;"> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><img class="w100" src="images/fig_12.jpg" alt=""></span><br> +<figcaption class="caption"> +<span class="smcap">Fig. 12. Some Safety Features of a Traveling Crane.</span><br> +(This illustration shows a part of a crane on the erecting floor of the manufacturer. There are no +exposed revolving parts throughout the entire length of the crane bridge. Some of the +safety features are as follows: A—inclosed gearing; B—inclosed drive-shaft coupling; +C—pipe inclosure for drive shaft; D—device for sanding rails when +crane is used out-of-doors. See also Fig. 13.) +</figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>Keep all tools, oil-cans, and waste in a closed metal +box securely fastened to the crane or to the runway at +some convenient point.</p> + +<p>Careful, watchful, intelligent, and trustworthy +crane operators, floormen, and repairmen, can do a +great deal toward preventing accidents, and only such +men should be employed about cranes. The following<span class="pagenum" id="Page_39">[Pg 39]</span> +suggestions relate to the work of these men, and if +faithfully followed will be the means of promoting +safety in a marked degree.</p> + +<p><b><i>Courtesy of the Shepard Electric Crane & Hoist Company.</i></b></p> +<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="fig_13" style="max-width: 97.875em;"> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><img class="w100" src="images/fig_13.jpg" alt=""></span><br> +<figcaption class="caption"> +<span class="smcap">Fig. 13. Some Safety Features of a Traveling Crane.</span><br> +(This is a nearer view of some of the safeguards shown in Fig. 12. A is the track sander which +is operated by a rope or cable attached to the lever and extended to the craneman’s cage; +B shows more clearly the drive-shaft coupling. The shaft inclosure also appears +more plainly.) +</figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>During the ordinary operation of an electric crane +the craneman should never leave his cage without +making sure that all the controllers are in the off +position, and that the main switch is open. Before he +leaves the crane the safety switch should also be locked +open. If the electric current should be shut off at any +time, the same precautions should be observed; and +before closing the main switch, when about to resume +work after an interruption due to any cause whatsoever, +the craneman should again make certain that all +the controllers are in the off position.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_40">[Pg 40]</span></p> + +<p>When about to lift a load, the motor should be run +at low speed until the slack in the chain or cable has +been taken up, after which the controller handle may +be advanced slowly from point to point to increase the +speed. Before a motor is reversed it should be brought +to a full stop, except when an accident can be averted +only by disregarding this advice.</p> + +<p>When handling a heavy load the craneman should +hoist it a few inches above the floor, and then, before +proceeding further, he should assure himself that it is +properly balanced and that the slings are secure, and +should also test the brakes to make sure that they will +hold the load safely. If there is any doubt whatsoever +about the safety of the operation, the load should be +lowered and the slings or brakes adjusted, or other +necessary measures taken to avoid danger. It is also +desirable, at the beginning of each shift, to test the +foot brakes and limit switches thoroughly.</p> + +<p>It is extremely important, at all times, and particularly +when handling molten metal, to “spot” the +trolley directly above the load to be hoisted. Failure +to do this will cause the load to swing sidewise as +soon as it is clear of the floor, and usually the metal +will be spilled, or men or objects near by may be +struck by the load.</p> + +<p>Loads should be raised high enough to give proper +clearance above men and objects on the floor, but they +should not be carried for any considerable distance at an +unnecessary elevation. So far as possible, the craneman +should avoid transporting loads directly over workmen. +Special care should be exercised to keep loads under +control when lowering them, and the speed should +always be restricted to a reasonable and safe limit.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_41">[Pg 41]</span></p> + +<p>Some definite person must be held responsible +for the selection of the chains and slings that are +used for hoisting, and for making suitable hitches +about the loads. If the foundry is large enough to +employ a special floorman, these matters may well be +left to him, because he is necessarily familiar with the +constantly-changing conditions, and he should therefore +be able to select the proper sling quickly and +intelligently. Moreover, experience will have taught +him the best method for attaching the sling, or for +hooking on to the load. If no special floorman is +employed, this part of the work should be supervised +by a specially assigned foreman, or by a skilled hooker-on. +When applying the hook to the load, and when +holding the hook in place while the slack is being +taken up, the hooker-on should be careful to avoid +having his hands caught and crushed between the +sling and the load. Hooks with safety handles may +be had, and these add greatly to the safety of the +men when hooking up. If safety handles are not +provided, pieces of wood notched at the end may be +used with advantage for holding the hooks in place,—the +notch being pressed against the hook to prevent +it from moving before the tension comes on it.</p> + +<p>When the hooks or slings are in place and the +slack has been taken up, the workmen should immediately +move back several feet from the load. When +a load is being deposited, all persons should keep at a +safe distance while the slings are being withdrawn from +under it, because the slings may snap out suddenly, +or may catch on the load and tip it over. When +slackening-off the hoisting cables the hooker-on should +avoid pulling down on the <em>inrunning</em> side of the block,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_42">[Pg 42]</span> +because his fingers may be caught between the sheave +and the cable and be cut off or badly crushed. It is +far safer to grasp the outrunning side, and pull up and +away from the sheave. Greater safety in this work +is insured by inclosing the block to which the hook is +secured. Blocks guarded in this manner are available +and should be generally adopted.</p> + +<p>The crane operator should never allow chains, +slings, cables, or hooks to drag along the floor, and +he should never start the crane carriage or trolley +until all such appendages are entirely clear. Even in +the short distance that the crane might travel before +they leave the floor, the slings or hooks might become +caught on some obstruction and cause an accident.</p> + +<p>No one should be permitted to ride on a load or +on the crane hook; and if the craneman observes a +violation of this rule he should stop the crane and +refuse to move it until the person who is riding is in +a safe place on the floor.</p> + +<p>In a busy foundry the craneman must be specially +alert, and his attention must be given, unremittingly, +to following the various operations on the floor, taking +the signals from the floorman, and controlling the +movements of the crane.</p> + +<p>Before an inexperienced man is permitted to take +charge of a crane, he should be thoroughly trained in +the work by a careful, well-qualified craneman, who +should see that he becomes familiar with the operating +mechanism, and skilled in the manipulation of the +various levers and controls.</p> + +<p>A signal gong, operated by hand or foot, or +electrically, should be part of the equipment of every +crane, and should be rung when the crane is started,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_43">[Pg 43]</span> +and as frequently thereafter as may be necessary. Occasionally +the gong is actuated by the mechanism that +moves the crane, so that the warning signal is sounded +automatically and continuously so long as the crane is +moving. The objection to this method is that the +sound of the gong is likely to become so familiar +that its value as a warning of <a id="Change1"></a>danger will be lost +and the men will give little heed to it. Furthermore, +the gong should always be treated as an <em>extra safeguard</em>, +and no other safety precaution should be omitted or allowed +to fall into disuse merely because the gong is +used, nor should vigilance and caution be relaxed in +any respect whatever.</p> + +<p>Some person should be specially designated to +transmit to the craneman the signals for moving the +loads, and the craneman should disregard signals given +by other men. The signalman should stand in plain +view of the craneman and should take care to give all +his signals clearly. A definite and unmistakable code +of signals, consisting of motions of the hands and +arms, should be arranged. Signals given orally are +unsatisfactory and unsafe, not only because it is +often difficult to distinguish them with certainty unless +the foundry is quiet, but also because the sound +of loud voices will always distract the attention of +other men from their work. When a load is being +transported some person designated for this purpose +should always walk in front of it to warn workmen +who are in danger of being struck, and he should +also see that the load is carried high enough to clear +all obstacles in its path, because the craneman, on +account of his location, sometimes finds it hard to +judge the height of the load correctly.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_44">[Pg 44]</span></p> + +<p>A crane that is to be repaired should be moved to +one end of the runway or to some other point where it +will cause the least interference with the movements of +other cranes. The controllers and the main and emergency +switches should be placed in the off position before +starting any repair work on cranes, and the safety +switches should be locked, or the fuses removed, to +prevent any movement of the crane, and to avoid +accidental short circuits that might result in injury to +the repairmen.</p> + +<p>Suitable warning signs should be placed on cranes +that are undergoing repairs, and buffers or rail stops +should be clamped to the crane rails a few yards in +front of the disabled crane when others are operated on +the same runway. If practicable, a suitable floor area +directly underneath the disabled crane should be roped +off or inclosed in some other way, to prevent accidents +that might be caused by tools or other objects falling +from the crane. Similar precautions should be taken +when men are at work on the runways, and red flags +or other warning devices should be placed at both ends +of the section undergoing repairs.</p> + + +<p id="Chains_and_Hooks"></p><h3>Chains and Hooks.</h3> +<p>Chains and hooks should be +carefully inspected at regular intervals, and they should +also be annealed from time to time by competent +workmen who thoroughly understand the art of annealing, +and who know how to secure the results that +are desired. Particular care should be taken with +hooks in this respect, because a hook, when properly +annealed, should gradually yield or straighten if subjected +to a serious overload, and thus give warning of +danger; whereas if it is not properly annealed, and +therefore hard, it is likely to snap off suddenly, without<span class="pagenum" id="Page_45">[Pg 45]</span> +warning. Chains and hooks should be inspected with +care immediately after annealing, because they are +then cleaner than at other times, and hence any existing +defects or flaws in them may be detected with greater +certainty. All chains and hooks should be numbered, +and a careful record should be kept of the inspections +and annealings. Hoisting chains are particularly liable +to failure through fatigue or over-strain, on account +of the severe treatment to which they are frequently +subjected; and they should therefore be examined +minutely, and link by link, to detect insecure welds +and slight cracks or other defects. Chain slings +should never be crossed or twisted when placed around +loads, and every chain that is to be used as a sling +should be made of the highest quality of wrought +iron. All chains should be oiled frequently, to prevent +rusting.</p> + +<p>Forged hooks, or laminated hooks made of steel +plates securely riveted together, should be used in +preference to those made of cast steel. Hooks are +sometimes subjected to severe abuse by workmen +who try to force them into position by striking them +with heavy iron bars or other implements. This is a +dangerous practice, and should be strictly prohibited.</p> + + +<p id="Wire-Rope_Slings"></p><h3>Wire-Rope Slings.</h3> +<p>Well-made wire-rope slings +give better service than chain slings, because they are +stronger, weight for weight, and also because deterioration +is usually indicated by broken strands that are +readily discoverable by an experienced and qualified +inspector. Wire-rope slings are pliable, and may be +adapted to almost every use. They should be kept +in good condition, and to prevent rusting and unnecessary +wear from friction they should be treated with<span class="pagenum" id="Page_46">[Pg 46]</span> +oil or with a good cable lubricant prepared specially +for the purpose. Wire-rope for slings used in handling +molten metal or hot castings should have a soft +iron-wire core, because a hemp core is quite likely to +be destroyed by the heat.</p> + + +<p id="Slings_in_General"></p><h3>Slings in General.</h3> +<p>A sling should never be allowed +to rest directly against the sharp corners of a heavy +flask, casting, or other similar object, but should be +protected by wooden corner-pieces, or by pads of burlap +or other soft material.</p> + +<p>Every sling, whether composed of a chain or a +rope, should be long enough not only to surround the +load it has to support, but also to leave a considerable +space between the sling and the upper surface of the +load. The oblique parts of the sling, which lie above +the load and join it to the hook (or to the point where +the suspension first becomes vertical) should never be +so flat as to make an angle of less than 45 degrees +with the ground. This precaution is highly important, +but it is often overlooked or neglected, because +the men do not realize that the stress on the ends of +a sling is greater, the flatter (or more nearly horizontal) +they lie. When the ends are inclined at an angle +of 45 degrees, the stress upon each of them is about +41 per cent. greater than it would be if the ends were +vertical; and if the sling is so short that it barely +goes around the load and has but little slack, the +stress upon it may be very great indeed.</p> + +<p>We strongly advise that all slings, when not in +actual use, be kept under lock and key and placed +in charge of some responsible person who knows their +condition and is competent to select safe and appropriate +slings for every occasion. They may be stored<span class="pagenum" id="Page_47">[Pg 47]</span> +in the tool room or supply room, for example, and be +in charge of a qualified foreman.</p> + + +<p id="Hoisting_Apparatus_in_General"></p><h3>Hoisting Apparatus in General.</h3> +<p>Hoisting apparatus +of every kind should be inspected frequently and +thoroughly, and all parts that are defective in any way +should be promptly repaired or replaced. The man +charged with the operation of the apparatus should +not attempt to make repairs or adjustments, however, +unless the foundry is a small one, where this constitutes +a part of his recognized duty. Under all other circumstances +he should immediately report to the foreman +or repairman, in order that the job may receive attention +in the proper way. If the defect is serious enough +to constitute a possible source of danger, the apparatus +should not be operated until the necessary repairs or +adjustments have been made.</p> + + +<p id="Tumbling_Barrels"></p><h3>Tumbling Barrels.</h3> +<p>Tumbling barrels (or “rattlers”) +for cleaning rough castings are of two general +types, respectively known as wet and dry. There are +numerous mechanical hazards in connection with both +types, and with dry tumbling barrels considerable +danger to health may be caused by the dust created by +them unless suitable preventive measures are adopted.</p> + +<p>There are two methods that are commonly employed +for removing the dust from dry tumbling +barrels. One of these consists in attaching an exhaust +system directly to the machine, and the other consists +in inclosing the barrel in a dust-proof compartment +from which the dust may be exhausted. The first +method, as a rule, is practicable only in connection with +tumbling barrels that are of special design, and are +provided with the necessary attachments for connecting +with exhaust fans. In nearly all other cases<span class="pagenum" id="Page_48">[Pg 48]</span> +dust-proof inclosures must be built, and it is practicable +to secure satisfactory results in this way when the system +is properly arranged. The compartments should be +made as tight as possible, and should be constructed of +sheet metal or well-seasoned lumber. The doors may +be arranged to fold, or to slide upward or sidewise; or +they may be hinged to open in any way that is most convenient. +In some cases rolling steel shutters are used. +Doors that rise vertically should be suitably counterweighted +so that they will not drop upon the workmen, +and the counterweights should be inclosed. In addition +to the counterweights we recommend the use of +catches or fastenings for holding up the doors.</p> + +<p>When tumbling barrels (either wet or dry) are not +located in compartments, substantial double railings, +at least 42 inches high, should be placed about them, +with a clearance of not less than 15 inches nor more than +20 inches. (When railings are placed more than 20 +inches away, workmen are likely to crawl inside of +them to do any necessary work, and they are then in +greater danger than they would be in if no railings were +present; whereas if railings are omitted altogether, the +workmen are likely to be struck or to have their clothing +caught by small objects that may work through +perforated or loosely-fitting covers, or by the projecting +cover-fastenings.) The railings should be provided +with gates so arranged that opening the gates will +automatically throw the driving belts or clutches into +the off position, and will prevent the machines from +being started until the gates are closed. Driving belts +should be guarded to a height of at least 6 feet above the +floor, and all exposed gears should be completely inclosed. +Chain hoists should be provided for lifting<span class="pagenum" id="Page_49">[Pg 49]</span> +heavy covers, and suitable brakes or locking devices +should be installed to prevent any movement of the +machines while they are being loaded or unloaded. Securing +the barrels in position by means of bars or props +is a mere makeshift method, and is manifestly unsafe.</p> + + +<p id="Sand_Mixers_and_Sifters"></p><h3>Sand Mixers and Sifters.</h3> +<p>Sand mixers are of two +general types, one of which simply mixes the materials, +while the other not only mixes but also grinds them. +The mixer consists of a horizontal semi-cylindrical +vessel in which the sand is placed and the mixing is +done by revolving blades. The top of the cylinder +should be covered by a substantial grating composed +of ⅜-inch round stock suitably reinforced to insure +rigidity, and provided with free-swinging discharging +doors. All gears should be inclosed by substantial +guards, and the driving belt should be protected to a +height of at least 6 feet above the floor. A well-designed +belt-shifter should be provided, and should be +so arranged that it may be locked to prevent creeping +of the belt.</p> + +<p>The combination mixer and grinder is similar to +the revolving dry-pan used in the manufacture of +bricks, and it may be driven either from underneath or +from overhead. In either case the driving gears and +all other exposed gears should be suitably inclosed, and +the driving belt should be protected and be fitted with +a belt-shifter, as described above in connection with +the sand mixer. The revolving pan should be completely +surrounded by a substantial guard of heavy, +reinforced wire netting extending to a height well above +the hubs of the grinding wheels. An opening should be +left in one side of the guard, and at this point a sheet-metal +feeding hopper should be securely riveted on.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_50">[Pg 50]</span> +A drag or other suitable mechanical device should be +provided to force the sand out through the discharging +door, and the use of hand shovels for removing the sand +from the pan while it is in motion should be prohibited.</p> + +<p>Pipe or angle-iron railings 42 inches high should be +installed at the sides of rotating sand sifters, at a distance +of at least 15 inches, and not more than 20 inches, +from them. Belt-shifters should be provided, and the +belts should be guarded to a height of at least 6 feet +above the floor.</p> + +<p>When sand mixers and sifters are driven by electric +motors every precaution should be taken to prevent +electric shocks and burns. See that all live wires and +other parts are thoroughly insulated, and guard all +dangerous rotating parts. Inclosed switches should be +used, and they should be located in convenient and +easily accessible positions; fuses of the inclosed type +should also be used.</p> + + +<p id="Automatic_Molding_Machines"></p> +<h3>Automatic Molding Machines.</h3> +<p>The gears on +both sides of these machines should be entirely inclosed +by substantial guards of sheet metal, expanded +metal, or close-mesh woven wire. The connecting +rods should be similarly guarded, the inclosures in the +latter case to extend as high as possible without interfering +with the adjustment. Whether the machines +are driven by belts or by electric motors, such precautions +should be taken with regard to belt-shifters, +belt-guards, and electrical safeguards as have been recommended +above in connection with sand mixers.</p> + +<p id="Chipping_Department"></p> +<h3>Chipping Department.</h3> +<p>Many serious eye injuries +occur in the chipping department, and practically all +of these may be prevented by requiring the general +use of suitably-designed eye-protectors or goggles.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_51">[Pg 51]</span> +Eye-protectors for cupola men and others engaged in +handling molten metal have been described in a previous +paragraph, and those to be used by chippers +should be similar. Cheap, flimsy eye-protectors should +not be used. It is economy to buy substantial goggles +at a higher price, not only because they afford better +protection, but also because they are more durable.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_52">[Pg 52]</span></p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="fig_14" style="max-width: 98.125em;"> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><img class="w100" src="images/fig_14.jpg" alt=""></span><br> +<figcaption class="caption"> +<span class="smcap">Fig. 14. Molding Machine Operated by Compressed Air.</span> +</figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>In addition to the eye-protectors, shields of +canvas or other suitable material, mounted on substantial +frames, should be provided, wherever needed, +to protect near-by workmen from flying chips.</p> + +<p>Chippers should not be permitted to work with +battered or otherwise defective tools. Broken hammers +and sledges should be discarded, and cold-chisels +and other implements should be dressed when they +become burred or mushroomed.</p> + + +<p id="Grinding_Wheels"></p><h3>Grinding Wheels.</h3> +<p>Emery wheels and wheels of +other abrasive materials are used in grinding castings, +and these sometimes burst and cause serious injuries +to the operators. All grinding wheels should be fitted +with safety collars or flanges, and, where practicable, +should be inclosed by substantial metal hoods connected +to exhaust fans for removing the dust. Stationary +grinding machines should be mounted on solid +foundations to prevent vibration, and their bearings +should be ample in size and be kept well lubricated +and properly adjusted. It is important that grinders +wear goggles, to protect their eyes from flying dust +and sparks.</p> + +<p>Further details with regard to the design, care, +and operation of grinding wheels will be found in a +booklet, entitled “<cite>Grinding Wheels</cite>”, published by +the Engineering and Inspection Division of <span class="smcap">The +Travelers Insurance Company</span>.</p> + + +<p id="Compressed_Air"></p><h3>Compressed Air.</h3> +<p>Compressed air is commonly +used in foundries for operating air hoists, blow guns, +spraying devices, pneumatic hammers and chisels, +sand-blasts, molding machines, and sand-blast tumbling +barrels. Serious accidents are often the result +of the improper use of compressed air, and workmen<span class="pagenum" id="Page_53">[Pg 53]</span> +should never be allowed to play pranks with it, but +should use it only for the purposes for which it is +provided. In particular, a sand-blast should never +be turned upon a person, because it might easily +destroy his eyesight or cause other serious injuries.</p> + +<p>The introduction of compressed air into the human +body causes great distention of the intestines, +accompanied by agonizing pain; and the victim usually +dies after a short period of intense suffering. Every +man about the foundry should therefore make it his +special business to see that no attempt is made to use +the air lines for perpetrating so-called “practical jokes”.</p> + + +<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="fig_15" style="max-width: 95.4375em;"> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><img class="w100" src="images/fig_15.jpg" alt=""></span><br> +<figcaption class="caption"> +<span class="smcap">Fig. 15. A Special Chamber for Sand-blasting.</span><br> + +(Strong air suction, through the exhaust hoods shown in the upper part of the picture, will +remove a large quantity of the dust that is created, but it would be better if the ducts +were placed in the floor, with gratings over them, or in the side walls. The helmet +which the operator is wearing is of a type commonly used in work of this kind. As +explained in the text, no entirely satisfactory helmet has yet been devised.) +</figcaption> +</figure> + + +<p id="Sand-blasting"></p><h3>Sand-blasting.</h3> +<p>Sand-blasting may be done in +the open air if eye-protectors and respirators are worn +and other suitable precautions are taken, but it is far +better to provide a dust-proof chamber for this work. +The operator of the sand-blast should then wear an +appropriate helmet, to effectively protect his lungs and +eyes from the dust. The form of apparatus used +should be adapted to the work to be done, and to the +conditions that must be met. Considered from the +point of view of the dust hazard alone, the ideal arrangement +appears to consist in a helmet well ventilated +by means of a hose supplying an adequate flow of dust-free +air. The hose may be run from the compressed-air +tank to the upper part of the helmet, and it should be +provided with a regulating valve located where it may +be easily controlled by the man who is to be supplied. +The air current should be so adjusted that it +will not only afford sufficient oxygen to serve for respiration, +but also prevent dust from rising into the +helmet through openings in the lower part of it. In +practice, however, it is frequently found that the plan<span class="pagenum" id="Page_55">[Pg 55]</span> +here outlined is highly objectionable to the men, and +in fact they often refuse to wear apparatus of this +type, claiming that the cool air passing down the neck +soon causes them to catch cold. Baffles and various +other distributing devices to regulate the flow of the +air within the helmet have been tried, but no ideal +and wholly satisfactory solution of the difficulty has +yet been worked out, so far as we are aware. In the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_56">[Pg 56]</span> +opinion of certain foundry experts, an ordinary helmet +with a respirator attached, or used in conjunction with +a separate respirator, constitutes the best device for +the protection of the sand-blaster, when all phases of +the problem are considered.</p> + +<p>Each compartment used for sand-blasting should +be provided with an exhaust system capable of removing +the dust in a satisfactory manner.</p> + +<p><b><i>Courtesy of the Western Electric News.</i></b></p> +<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="fig_16" style="max-width: 98.6875em;"> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><img class="w100" src="images/fig_16.jpg" alt=""></span><br> +<figcaption class="caption"> +<span class="smcap">Fig. 16. Cabinets for Sand-blasting Small Castings.</span><br> +(The castings are placed in the cabinets and are held and turned about by the operators, who +watch the progress of the work through glass panels. The dust is carried off through +the exhaust ducts.) +</figcaption> +</figure> + + +<p id="Illumination"></p><h3>Illumination.</h3> +<p>The average foundry is poorly +lighted, and many accidents may be attributed directly +to this condition. There are many problems to be +considered in providing proper and adequate light +for foundries, and as the conditions that have to be +met vary a great deal, it is impossible to make any +general recommendations that will be applicable in +all cases.</p> + +<p>The floors, walls, supporting columns, ceilings, +and materials in foundries are usually covered with +grime and dust which absorb from 95 to 98 per cent. +of the light that strikes them, and which give them +all the same general tone or color. With no contrasting +background it becomes exceedingly difficult, at +times, to distinguish objects lying upon the floor, and +care should therefore be taken to see that the floor is +kept free from tools, materials, and obstacles of every +other kind, over which the workmen might stumble. +Moreover, if the ventilating system is inadequate to +keep the air reasonably clear, the dust, smoke, and gases +will not only reduce the intensity of the illumination +and thereby invite accidents, but may also affect the +health of the working force.</p> + +<p>During certain stages of the work,—notably at +pouring time,—the men are exposed to a dazzling,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_57">[Pg 57]</span> +blinding radiation from the white-hot, molten metal. +Very often, too, lighting units of intense intrinsic +brilliance and high candle-power are placed where +they shine directly into the eyes of the men. Conditions +such as these impair the vision of the worker, +thereby reducing his efficiency as a producer, and +multiplying the opportunities for accidents.</p> + +<p>One of the best artificial lighting sources for +foundry work is the Mazda C lamp (500 to 1,000 watt +sizes). To determine the proper location of the lamps, +and their spacing, suspension heights, and other features +(such as the types of reflectors that should be +used) it is necessary to understand, as fully as possible, +the exact conditions that must be met. Where +incandescent lighting units are to be used, wall brackets, +fitted with angle reflectors, provide the best means +of securing satisfactory illumination at the floor level. +Good results may be obtained by installing the brackets +on the supporting columns, under the crane runway +and below the smoky zone.</p> + +<p>Although we have spoken only of artificial light +for foundries, it is important to admit the greatest +possible amount of natural light. As a usual thing, +skylights are of little value on account of the clouds +of smoke that often fill the upper part of the building, +and therefore practically all the natural light that +can be really serviceable must pass through windows +in the side walls. For the same reason the effective +window area must be considered as only that below +a height of approximately twelve feet. It is essential +that the windows occupy as much of the wall +space as possible, and, where the width of the room +is great, prism glass should be used. Prism glass,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_58">[Pg 58]</span> +when properly set, will reflect the light into the room +in a nearly horizontal direction. Satisfactory natural +illumination can hardly be had without keeping the +windows clean; and we also strongly advise whitewashing +the walls, ceilings, and supporting columns, applying +fresh coats whenever they are needed.</p> + +<p><b><i>Courtesy of American Blower Company.</i></b></p> +<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="fig_17" style="max-width: 98.3125em;"> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><img class="w100" src="images/fig_17.jpg" alt=""></span><br> +<figcaption class="caption"> +<span class="smcap">Fig. 17. Good Daylight Conditions in a Foundry.</span><br> +(Observe also the ventilating duct, near the roof, and the downwardly-projecting Y-shaped +nozzles connected to it through which the smoke and dust are drawn out of the building.) +</figcaption> +</figure> + + +<p id="The_Foundry_Yard"></p><h3>The Foundry Yard.</h3> +<p>The fact that orderliness +and system promote safety is probably nowhere better +exemplified than in a large foundry yard. The +maintenance and cost of a foundry yard is small as +compared with that of the foundry itself, and it is +good economy, therefore, to use the yard as much +as practicable for the storing of scrap, sand, flasks,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_59">[Pg 59]</span> +finished product, raw materials, and miscellaneous +supplies; but the maximum efficiency and economy +cannot be realized unless the yard is kept in a neat +and orderly condition. If a yard is just large enough +to meet the needs of a foundry, and is not used to its +full capacity, it usually follows that the <a id="Change2"></a>foundry floor +space is littered with material that could be stored in +the yard more advantageously; and the crowding of +the foundry floor increases the number of accidents, +many of which might be eliminated if the yard were +utilized to better advantage. This is specially true +of a foundry where every available foot of floor space +is required for production. In this class belongs the +“jobbing foundry,” in which work of a miscellaneous +nature is done, as distinguished from the “repetition +foundry,” in which the work consists mainly in +the continuous reproduction of certain standard stock +patterns.</p> + +<p>The jobbing foundry owes its existence to the +fact that many manufacturers who use castings have +no room for a foundry, or have too limited a need for +castings to warrant the expense of maintaining a +foundry of their own. A foundryman who depends +largely or wholly upon job contracts to keep his plant +in operation usually has to turn out an exceedingly +varied assortment of castings, and speed is often an +essential factor in the contract. This means that +as soon as one job is finished, the flasks and patterns +must be removed and a different set substituted. If +the yard is not well kept there is little likelihood that +there will be ample space in it for the flasks and sand, +and if there is not, it may be necessary to use the +foundry floor for storage until the new flasks are<span class="pagenum" id="Page_60">[Pg 60]</span> +brought in. The floor is then in a disorderly, crowded +state, just when clear space is needed. It is evident +that the probability of accident is greatly increased +when such conditions prevail.</p> + +<p>It is important for the foundry yard to be level +and fairly smooth, and it will pay the owner well to +put forth every reasonable effort to secure a yard of +this kind. Material can be handled and stored with +much greater safety and facility, in a level yard, than +in one that is sloping or uneven. Foot paths, and +passageways for wheelbarrows and trucks, can also +be kept in good condition more easily.</p> + +<p>A considerable part of the space in a yard, particularly +when it belongs to a jobbing foundry, is +devoted to the storage of flasks. The flasks should be +carefully piled, so that they will not fall over, and +they should also be arranged in an orderly manner, +according to size, type, or combinations. Attention +to these details will no doubt consume more time +than would be required to store the flasks promiscuously; +but the extra time is well worth taking, on +account of the ease with which the flasks can be located, +and the safety with which they can be withdrawn +when they are again needed in the foundry,—to +say nothing of the greater safety that proper storing +insures, during the intervening period. If the flasks +are heaped up in disorderly piles, or stored in other +indiscriminate ways, accidents are likely to happen +when the workmen are endeavoring to extricate one +that is more or less buried or hidden. If the particular +flask required cannot be located readily, a less +desirable one is used, or a makeshift is hastily constructed. +In the foundry these misfit flasks often cause<span class="pagenum" id="Page_61">[Pg 61]</span> +burns, many of which could be avoided if more system +were used in storing the flasks in the yard, so that +the right one could be found without delay.</p> + +<p><b><i>Courtesy of the General Electric Company.</i></b></p> +<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="fig_18" style="max-width: 98.1875em;"> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><img class="w100" src="images/fig_18.jpg" alt=""></span><br> +<figcaption class="caption"> +<span class="smcap">Fig. 18. Dangerous Loading of a Car Used for +Transporting Foundry Material.</span> +</figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>When materials or equipment are stored or piled +by the side of car tracks, a clear space of not less than +six feet should be maintained between the tracks and +the piles. Workmen engaged in the movement of +cars, or other employees who are obliged to use the +car tracks in the performance of their work, are likely +to be caught and killed, or severely injured, unless +ample clearance is provided.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_62">[Pg 62]</span></p> + +<p>At all places where railroad tracks cross roadways, +runways, or footways, planks should be nailed down between +the rails and at both sides of them, or other +equivalent measures should be taken, to provide a +smooth passageway over the rails for wagons, trucks, +or barrows, as well as for foot passers. This greatly +facilitates the crossing of the tracks, and it also +reduces, in large measure, the shocks to which loads +would otherwise be subjected, and the consequent +danger of material falling off and injuring the men. +The planks (or their equivalent) should be <em>flush</em> with +the rails, however, and they should come snugly up +to the rails on the outside, and as close to them, +on the inside, as the flanges of the car wheels will +permit. Warning signs should be posted at all crossings, +and the men engaged in car movements should +always blow a whistle or sound a gong or bell as the +cars approach a crossing.</p> + +<p>Whenever tracks or roadways are depressed, they +should be guarded by substantial railings. Furnace +pits and excavations of all kinds should also have effective +protection of the same nature.</p> + +<p>All manholes should be kept covered with wooden +tops, or with covers made safe by the use of non-slip +material or by being checkered with a raised pattern; +and the covers should be set as nearly flush with the +surrounding surfaces as possible. Many serious injuries +have resulted from workmen slipping on smooth, wet +manhole covers of iron or steel, and from tripping over +covers projecting above the level of the floor or the +ground. When it is necessary to remove a cover, a +guard rail should be placed about the hole immediately, +and a danger signal secured to the guard rail.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_63">[Pg 63]</span></p> + +<p>Sand bins and coke bins, particularly those constructed +of wood, often get badly out of repair. The +boards become warped and bulge out under the weight +of their contents, and they often split or crack in such a +way as to present dagger-like points, or slivers, that are +likely to catch the unwary workman, especially at night +or during late afternoons in winter months, when the +light is poor.</p> + +<p>Good, serviceable walks should be provided +throughout the yard. If the walks are conveniently +located and are kept in good order, the workmen will +use them; but if these conditions are not fulfilled, the +men will climb over scrap piles or under cars, in order +to “make a short cut.” Cinder paths are no doubt the +most serviceable for foundry yards. Loosely-laid +boards are continually getting out of place, and they +are also likely to become warped so that they will not +lie flat. Boards often warp enough to split, even +when they are nailed down; and in such cases they +may constitute a more or less dangerous tripping hazard +to the workmen.</p> + +<p>The safest way to store pig iron is to stow it in +bins, or pile it up in neat stacks. This is more costly, +however, than throwing it down promiscuously in +piles, and hence the safer methods are often neglected. +Electromagnetic cranes are coming into wide use for +handling pig iron, and although they are very convenient, +they have serious drawbacks when regarded +from the safety standpoint, and their hazards should be +clearly understood and carefully avoided. When the +electromagnet is used no one should be permitted +to stand, walk, or work near the path followed by +the magnet, because any interruption of the electric<span class="pagenum" id="Page_64">[Pg 64]</span> +service, from the opening of a switch, the blowing of a +fuse, the short-circuiting of the magnet coil, or any other +cause, will instantly let the whole load drop. Sometimes, +too, a pig is barely held by the magnet, so that +the least jar will break its contact and allow it to fall.</p> + +<p>Safety, neatness, and convenience may be secured +by constructing stout bins and dividing them into compartments, +preferably of one-car capacity each, in +which the pig iron can be deposited by the magnet +crane,—always provided the dangers incident to the +use of the magnet are borne in mind and avoided. +When the iron is piled high in loose, irregular heaps, +there is danger of one or more of the pigs becoming +free and tumbling down upon workmen. This hazard +is avoided when substantial bins are employed.</p> + +<p>In many foundry yards boxes and barrels are used +to store worn-out tools, small scrap material, discarded +lumber, and other rubbish. It will materially assist in +keeping the yard in a neat, safe condition, if the barrels +or boxes used for this purpose are kept in convenient +places, because the men are then more likely to make +use of them. It is important, too, to keep all such +receptacles in good order. It is not uncommon to see +the ragged edge of a worn-out shovel blade, or some +other discarded tool, sticking out menacingly over the +edge of a box or barrel. Heaping up the scrap so that +it stands high above the receptacles, or allowing it to +project over the edges of them as just described, should +be prohibited, because careless habits of this kind increase +the dangers about the yard and invite injury, +especially at night.</p> + +<p>Barrel hoops are frequently left lying about, and +when a workman steps on such a hoop it is likely to<span class="pagenum" id="Page_65">[Pg 65]</span> +swing up and strike him smartly, often causing acute +pain, or perhaps producing an actual abrasion or lesion, +if it contains a sharp nail. This particular hazard may +be taken as representative of a large class of others that +are seemingly trivial in nature, but which are well +worthy of attention in the aggregate. These minor +accidents are often attended by grave consequences, +not only because they may be followed by septic poisoning, +but also because they frequently occur when the +workman is engaged at some important task involving +the safety of himself or others. Coming at such a +time they take him by surprise, and they are likely to +make his attention lapse momentarily from the work +in hand,—perhaps with disastrous results. A book +might be written about the big consequences of little +things.</p> + +<p>When old castings and other metal objects are broken +up the work should preferably be done in the yard. +A “skull-cracker” or “yard-drop” is usually employed +for breaking these objects, and this consists of a derrick +or hoist which lifts a heavy metal ball and drops it +on the castings. Pieces of the objects are likely to fly +in all directions when the weight falls on and breaks +them, and all persons in the immediate vicinity are endangered +by these pieces. Every skull-cracker should +therefore be entirely surrounded by a substantially constructed +fence, barricade, or inclosure, of sufficient +height to protect persons working in the vicinity, and +all passers-by, from injury from flying fragments of +metal. In addition, a suitable shelter-house should be +provided for the operator of the skull-cracker and his +helpers, and all these persons should go into the shelter-house +<em>before the ball is raised</em>. A safety drop-hook<span class="pagenum" id="Page_66">[Pg 66]</span> +should be used to prevent premature or accidental +dropping of the ball, if the weight is held by mechanical +means; and if an <a id="Change4"></a>electromagnet is employed to +raise and hold the weight, the utmost care should be +taken to keep the electrical circuits and devices in perfect +condition. All gears, sprockets, and other dangerous +moving parts of the skull-cracker should be covered or +otherwise rendered harmless by the installation of standard +guards.</p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_67">[Pg 67]</span></p> + +<h2 class="nobreak" id="INDEX">INDEX</h2> +</div> + + +<ul class="index"> +<li class="ifrst">Accident in foundries, the causes of, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>.</li> + +<li id="iAcid-burns" class="indx">Acid burns, protection against, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Air, compressed, as employed in foundries, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>.</li> +<li class="isub1">accidents caused by misusing, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Annealing chains and hooks, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Aprons, rubber and leather, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>.</li> + + +<li id="iBarrels-tumbling" class="ifrst">Barrels, tumbling, wet and dry, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>.</li> +<li class="isub1">guards for, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Bins, sand and coke, dangers of, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Boots, rubber, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Bot, the proper use of the, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Brakes, crane, testing, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Braking, dynamic, for cranes, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Buggy ladles.—See <i><a href="#iLadles">Ladles</a></i>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Bull ladles.—See <i><a href="#iLadles">Ladles</a></i>; + <i><a href="#iShanks">Shanks</a></i>; + <i><a href="#iClamps">Clamps</a></i>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Bumpers for cranes, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Burns the most common injuries in foundries, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>.</li> +<li class="isub1">—See also <i><a href="#iAcid-burns">Acid burns</a></i>.</li> + + +<li id="iCarbon-monoxide" class="ifrst">Carbon monoxide in cupolas, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Castings, old, method of breaking up, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Chains, responsibility for selection of, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>.</li> +<li id="iChains-and-hooks" class="isub1">and hooks, inspecting and annealing, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Chipping department, accidents in the, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>.</li> + +<li id="iClamps" class="indx">Clamps for bowls of bull ladles, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Clearance beside car tracks, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Clinkers, crucibles damaged by, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>.</li> + +<li id="iClothing" class="indx">Clothing, suitable, for foundry workers, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Crane operators, duties of, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>.</li> +<li class="isub1">under repairs, precautions for, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>.</li> +<li class="isub1">ladles.—See <i><a href="#iLadles">Ladles</a></i>.</li> + +<li id="iCranes-traveling" class="indx">Cranes, traveling, safeguards for, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>.</li> +<li class="isub1"><span class="pagenum" id="Page_68">[Pg 68]</span>electromagnetic, dangers of, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Crucibles, the safe handling of, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>.</li> +<li class="isub1">material for, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>.</li> +<li class="isub1">improve with age, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>.</li> +<li class="isub1">records of heats taken from, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>.</li> +<li class="isub1">inspection, storage, and annealing of, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>.</li> +<li class="isub1">“soaking”, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>.</li> +<li class="isub1">“alligator cracks” in, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>.</li> +<li class="isub1">care in filling, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>.</li> +<li class="isub1">injured by tongs and shanks, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>.</li> +<li class="isub1">the number of heats taken from, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>.</li> +<li class="isub1">danger of leaving metal in bottom of, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx"><a id="Change3"></a>Cupola, gate for charging, opening of, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>.</li> + +<li id="iCupolas" class="indx">Cupolas, proper method of tapping-out, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>.</li> +<li class="isub1">precautions to be taken when relining, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>.</li> +<li class="isub1">explosions in, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>.</li> +<li class="isub1">charging, lighting-up, and warming-up, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>.</li> + + +<li class="ifrst">Damper in blast pipe, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Doors, explosion, for cupolas, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Dust hazard in sand-blasting, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>.</li> +<li class="isub1">from tumbling barrels, methods for removing, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Drops.—See <i><a href="#iSkull-crackers">Skull-crackers</a></i>.</li> + + +<li class="ifrst">Electricity, guarding against shocks and burns from, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>.</li> + +<li id="iElevators" class="indx">Elevators in foundries, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Emery wheels.—See <i><a href="#iGrinding-wheels">Grinding wheels</a></i>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Employees, new, instruction of, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Explosion doors for cupolas, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Explosions in cupolas, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>.</li> + +<li id="iEye-protectors" class="indx">Eye-protectors for foundrymen, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>.</li> + + +<li class="ifrst">Fenders for cranes, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Flasks and molds, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>.</li> +<li class="isub1">iron and steel, superior to wooden, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>.</li> +<li class="isub1">storage of, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Floors, concrete and brick, prevent spills, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Foot-walks on crane bridges and runways, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Foundry, jobbing, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>.</li> +<li class="isub1">repetition, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>.</li> +<li class="isub1">yard, the, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Furnaces, oil, for heating crucibles, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>.</li> + + +<li class="ifrst">Garments.—See <i><a href="#iClothing">Clothing</a></i>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Gas.—See <i><a href="#iCarbon-monoxide">Carbon monoxide</a></i>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Gears on geared ladles to be completely inclosed, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx"><span class="pagenum" id="Page_69">[Pg 69]</span>Glass, prism, for use in foundries, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Glasses, safety.—See <i><a href="#iEye-protectors">Eye-protectors</a></i>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Gloves for use in foundries, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Goggles.—See <i><a href="#iEye-protectors">Eye-protectors</a></i>.</li> + +<li id="iGongs" class="indx">Gongs, signal, for cranes, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>.</li> + +<li id="iGrinding-wheels" class="indx">Grinding wheels, guards for, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>.</li> + + +<li class="ifrst">Hand-leathers, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>.</li> + +<li id="iHelmets" class="indx">Helmets for sand-blasters, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Hoisting apparatus, care of, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>.</li> +<li class="isub1">—See also <i><a href="#iCranes-traveling">Cranes, traveling</a></i>; + <i><a href="#iElevators">Elevators</a></i>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Hook, crane, method of applying, to load, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Hooks, crane, with safety handles, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>.</li> +<li class="isub1">and chains, inspecting and annealing, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>.</li> +<li class="isub1">safety, for skull-crackers, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Hoops, barrel, dangers of, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>.</li> + + +<li id="iIllumination" class="ifrst">Illumination in foundries, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Injuries in foundries, the causes of, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Iron, pig, storage of, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>.</li> +<li class="isub1">scrap and pig, safety in handling, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>.</li> + + +<li class="ifrst">Jokes, practical, with compressed air, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>.</li> + + +<li class="ifrst">Khaki.—See <i> <a href="#iClothing">Clothing</a></i>.</li> + + +<li id="iLadles" class="ifrst">Ladles, motor-operated, guards for, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>.</li> +<li class="isub1">foundry, types of, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>.</li> +<li class="isub1">geared, locking device for, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>.</li> +<li class="isub1">crane, precautions in connection with, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>.</li> +<li class="isub1">sulky and buggy, cause many accidents, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>.</li> +<li class="isub1">bull, styles of shank-handles for, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>.</li> +<li class="isub1">single-hand, guards for, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>.</li> +<li class="isub1">proper method of filling, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>.</li> +<li class="isub1">proper balancing of, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>.</li> +<li class="isub1">damp, explosions caused by, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>.</li> +<li class="isub1">relining, drying, and storing, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>.</li> +<li class="isub1">—See also <i><a href="#iProng-guards">Prong guards</a></i>; + <i><a href="#iTrolley-systems">Trolley systems</a></i>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Lamps, electric, suitable for foundries, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Leave-overs, proper disposition of, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Leggings, suitable, for foundry workers, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Lenses.—See <i><a href="#iEye-protectors">Eye-protectors</a></i>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Lighting.—See <i><a href="#iIllumination">Illumination</a></i>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Limit-stops, hoist, for cranes, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>.</li> + + +<li class="ifrst">Manholes, safe covers for, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx"><span class="pagenum" id="Page_70">[Pg 70]</span>Molding machines, automatic, guards for, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Molds and flasks, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>.</li> + + +<li class="ifrst">Orderliness in foundry yards, advantages of, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Overalls.—See <i><a href="#iClothing">Clothing</a></i>.</li> + + +<li class="ifrst">Passages, width of, between rows of flasks, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Pickling processes, rubber gloves required for, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>.</li> + +<li id="iProng-guards" class="indx">Prong guards for buggy ladles, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>.</li> + + +<li class="ifrst">Railroad tracks in foundry yards, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Rattlers.—See <i><a href="#iBarrels-tumbling">Barrels, tumbling</a></i>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Respirators.—See <i><a href="#iHelmets">Helmets</a></i>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Riding on crane loads prohibited, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Run-outs, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Runways for buggy ladles, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>.</li> + + +<li class="ifrst">Safety-valves for cupolas, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Sand-blasting, precautions in, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Sand mixers and sifters, guards for, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>.</li> +<li class="isub1">types of, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Screen guard for use when relining cupola, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>.</li> + +<li id="iShanks" class="indx">Shanks for bull ladles, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Shields for hand ladles, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>.</li> +<li class="isub1">to intercept flying chips, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Shirts.—See <i><a href="#iClothing">Clothing</a></i>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Shoes, congress, best for foundry workers, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Signals for elevators, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>.</li> +<li class="isub1">code of, for directing movements of crane, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>.</li> +<li class="isub1">—See also <i><a href="#iGongs">Gongs</a></i>.</li> + +<li id="iSkull-crackers" class="indx">Skull-crackers, guards for, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Sleeves should be worn outside of gauntlets, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Slings, responsibility for selection of, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>.</li> +<li class="isub1">the safe angle of, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>.</li> +<li class="isub1">to be locked up when not in use, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>.</li> +<li class="isub1">protecting, at sharp corners of heavy objects, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>.</li> +<li class="isub1">wire-rope, preferable to chain slings, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>.</li> +<li class="isub2">lubricating, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>.</li> +<li class="isub1">—See also <i><a href="#iChains-and-hooks">Chains and hooks</a></i>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Stops, hoist-limit, for cranes, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>.</li> +<li class="isub1">on crane runways, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Sulky ladles.—See <i><a href="#iLadles">Ladles</a></i>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Switches, safety, for cranes, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>.</li> + + +<li class="ifrst">Tapping-out.—See <i><a href="#iCupolas">Cupolas</a></i>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Tongs, types of, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>.</li> +<li class="isub1"><span class="pagenum" id="Page_71">[Pg 71]</span>suitable, importance of using, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Tongs, bent, method of re-shaping, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Tools, defective, should not be used, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>.</li> + +<li id="iTrolley-systems" class="indx">Trolley systems for transporting ladles, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Tumbling barrels.—See <i><a href="#iBarrels-tumbling">Barrels, tumbling</a></i>.</li> + + +<li class="ifrst">Walks in foundry yards, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Wiring for cranes to be installed in conduits, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Woodwork about cranes, fire hazard of, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>.</li> + + +<li class="ifrst">Yard, foundry, the 58.</li> + +<li class="indx">Yard-drops, guards for, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>.</li> +</ul> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_72">[Pg 72]</span></p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<p class="center"><span class="allsmcap">THE TRAVELERS</span> writes more </p> +<p class="center"><span class="allsmcap">GROUP INSURANCE</span> than any other company</p> +<p class="center">It is the recognized leader in this line</p> + +<h2>Group Insurance</h2> +<p class="center">LIFE · ACCIDENT · SICKNESS</p> +<p class="center"><i>A wonderful discovery of recent years adopted by great concerns</i></p> +<p class="center"><i>throughout the United States</i></p> + +<div class="text-center-narrow"> + +<p><span class="smcap">For</span> a small sum, you can provide +your shop family with comforting +wage-payments through all their +accidents and illnesses; and, if they +die, give the distracted wife and +children funds for the first hard pull.</p> + +<p>It dovetails with Workmen’s Compensation, +making the protection +complete.</p> + +<p>There is a fine feeling of satisfaction, +as of something well done, in giving +Group insurance to the workers who +make your business what it is.</p> +</div> + + +<p class="center"><i>Nine names taken at random from the long list of famous concerns +carrying Group insurance in THE TRAVELERS</i></p> + +<p class="text-center-narrower">THE AMERICAN WOOLEN COMPANY</p> +<p class="text-center-narrower">THE VICTOR TALKING MACHINE COMPANY</p> +<p class="text-center-narrower">THE WASHBURN-CROSBY COMPANY</p> +<p class="text-center-narrower">THE WESTINGHOUSE ELECTRIC & MFG. CO.</p> +<p class="text-center-narrower">THE BURROUGHS ADDING MACHINE COMPANY</p> +<p class="text-center-narrower">NATIONAL LAMP WORKS, AND</p> +<p class="text-center-narrower">EDISON LAMP WORKS OF THE</p> +<p class="text-center-narrower">GENERAL ELECTRIC COMPANY</p> +<p class="text-center-narrower">JOHN WANAMAKER, PHILADELPHIA</p> +<p class="text-center-narrower">CRANE COMPANY</p> + +<p class="center"> +<i>Write for further information</i></p> + +<p class="center"> +GROUP DEPARTMENT</p> + +<p class="text-center-larger"> +THE TRAVELERS</p> + +<p class="center"> +HARTFORD, CONNECTICUT +</p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_73">[Pg 73]</span></p> + +<h2 class="nobreak" id="The_TRAVELERS">The TRAVELERS</h2> +</div> + +<div class="left-right-box"> +<p class="text-center"> +<span class="text-left">unexcelled as a life company</span> +<span class="text-right">the greatest casualty company</span> +</p> +</div> + + +<p class="text-center-large"></p> +<p class="text-center-large">writes</p> +<p class="text-center-large">Life</p> +<p class="text-center-large">Health</p> +<p class="text-center-large">Accident</p> +<p class="text-center-large">Business</p> +<p class="text-center-large">and</p> +<p class="text-center-large">Group Insurance</p> +<p class="text-center-large">as well as</p> +<p class="text-center-large">Compensation</p> +<p class="text-center-large">Employers’ Liability</p> +<p class="text-center-large">Public Liability</p> +<p class="text-center-large">Automobile</p> +<p class="text-center-large">Elevator</p> +<p class="text-center-large">Steam Boiler</p> +<p class="text-center-large">Plate Glass</p> +<p class="text-center-large">Burglary</p> +<p class="text-center-large">Pay Roll Hold-up</p> +<p class="text-center-large">and Other Forms</p> + + +<hr> +<p class="center">MORAL: Insure in The TRAVELERS +</p> +<hr> + +<div class="transnote"> +<h2 class="nobreak" id="TRANSCRIBERS_NOTES">TRANSCRIBER’S NOTES</h2> + +<p>The only footnote has been renumbered and moved to the end of its paragraph. +</p> +<p>Itemized changes from the original text:</p> + <ul> + <li><a href="#Change1">On page 43</a>, changed “and and” to “and”, in “danger will be lost and the men”<br> + </li> + <li><a href="#Change2">On page 59</a>, changed “floor-space” to “floor space”, in “foundry floor space is littered with material”<br> + </li> + <li><a href="#Change3">On page 68</a>, changed “charging-opening” to “charging, opening”, in “Cupola, gate for charging, opening”<br> + </li> + <li><a href="#Change4">On page 77</a>, changed “electro-magnet” to “electromagnet”, in “if an electromagnet is employed”<br> + </li> + </ul> + +</div> + +<div style='text-align:center'>*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 77246 ***</div> +</body> +</html> diff --git a/77246-h/images/cover.jpg b/77246-h/images/cover.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..d1a0204 --- 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Anyone seeking to utilize +this eBook outside of the United States should confirm copyright +status under the laws that apply to them. diff --git a/README.md b/README.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000..17f969c --- /dev/null +++ b/README.md @@ -0,0 +1,2 @@ +Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for eBook #77246 +(https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/77246) |
