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| author | pgww <pgww@lists.pglaf.org> | 2025-09-15 11:22:05 -0700 |
|---|---|---|
| committer | pgww <pgww@lists.pglaf.org> | 2025-09-15 11:22:05 -0700 |
| commit | ccb749461638331bfb5908eeb0c25c4a5faef382 (patch) | |
| tree | 371d7350ccb10c314d08be1f05a108c7706571d7 /76876-h | |
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diff --git a/76876-h/76876-h.htm b/76876-h/76876-h.htm new file mode 100644 index 0000000..ae8b1fa --- /dev/null +++ b/76876-h/76876-h.htm @@ -0,0 +1,13185 @@ +<!DOCTYPE html> +<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" xml:lang="en" lang="en"> + <head> + <meta charset="UTF-8"> + <title>Webster’s Practical Forestry | Project Gutenberg</title> + <link rel="icon" href="images/cover.jpg" type="image/x-cover"> + <style> + +body { margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%; } + +h1,h2,h3 { text-align: center; clear: both; } +.h_subtitle{font-weight: normal; font-size: smaller;} + +p { margin-top: .51em; text-align: justify; text-indent: 1.5em; margin-bottom: .49em; } +p.author { margin-top: 1em; margin-right: 5%; text-align: right;} +p.f110 { font-size: 110%; text-align: center; text-indent: 0em; } +p.f120 { font-size: 120%; text-align: center; text-indent: 0em; } +p.f150 { font-size: 150%; text-align: center; text-indent: 0em; } + +.fs_80 { font-size: 80%; } +.fs_90 { font-size: 90%; } +.fs_110 { font-size: 110%; } +.fs_120 { font-size: 120%; } + +.spa1 { margin-top: 1em; } +.spa2 { margin-top: 2em; } +.spb1 { margin-bottom: 1em; } + +hr.chap {width: 65%; margin-left: 17.5%; margin-right: 17.5%; margin-top: 2em; margin-bottom: 2em;} + @media print { hr.chap {display: none; visibility: hidden;} } +hr.r10 {width: 10%; margin-top: 0.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 45%; margin-right: 45%;} + +div.chapter {page-break-before: always;} +h2.nobreak {page-break-before: avoid;} + +ul.index { list-style-type: none; white-space: nowrap; } +li.ifrst { margin-top: 1em; } +li.isub2 {text-indent: 2em;} +li.isub3 {text-indent: 3em;} +li.isub10 {text-indent: 10em;} + +table { margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; white-space: nowrap; + border-spacing: 0px; border-collapse: collapse; } + +th, td { padding-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; + padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; } + +.tdl {text-align: left;} +.tdr {text-align: right;} +.tdc {text-align: center;} +.tdc_wsp {text-align: center; vertical-align: middle; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em;} +.tdl_ws1 {text-align: left; vertical-align: middle; padding-left: 1em;} +.tdl_ws2 {text-align: left; vertical-align: middle; padding-left: 2em;} +.tdl_wsp {text-align: left; vertical-align: middle; padding-left: 0.5em;} +.tdr_ws1 {text-align: right; vertical-align: middle; padding-right: 1em;} +.tdr_wsp {text-align: right; vertical-align: middle; padding-right: 0.5em;} + +.pagenum { position: absolute; + left: 92%; + font-size: smaller; + text-align: right; + font-style: normal; + font-weight: normal; + font-variant: normal; +} + +.blockquot { margin-left: 12%; margin-right: 12%; } + +.bb {border-bottom: solid thin;} +.bbox {border: solid medium;} + +.center {text-align: center; text-indent: 0em;} +.smcap {font-variant: small-caps;} +.allsmcap {font-variant: small-caps; text-transform: lowercase;} +.over {text-decoration: overline;} + +img { max-width: 100%; height: auto; } + +.figcenter { margin: auto; text-align: center; + page-break-inside: avoid; max-width: 100%; } + +.transnote {background-color: #E6E6FA; + color: black; + font-size:smaller; + padding:0.5em; + margin-bottom:5em; + font-family:sans-serif, serif; } + +.ws2 {display: inline; margin-left: 0em; padding-left: 2em;} +.ws5 {display: inline; margin-left: 0em; padding-left: 5em;} +.ws6 {display: inline; margin-left: 0em; padding-left: 6em;} +.ws7 {display: inline; margin-left: 0em; padding-left: 7em;} + + </style> + </head> +<body> +<div style='text-align:center'>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 76876 ***</div> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<h1>WEBSTER’S<br> PRACTICAL FORESTRY</h1> + +<p class="f120">A POPULAR HANDBOOK ON<br>THE REARING AND GROWTH OF TREES<br> +FOR PROFIT OR ORNAMENT</p> + +<p class="f120 spa2"><span class="smcap">By</span> A. D. WEBSTER</p> + +<p class="center"><i>Author of<br> +“Hardy Ornamental Flowering Trees and Shrubs” (3 Editions),<br> +“Foresters’ Diary” (15 Editions), “Hardy Coniferous Trees”<br> +(2 Editions), “Town Planting,” “Tree Wounds and Diseases,”<br> +“British Timber and Timber-Producing Trees,”<br>etc., etc.</i></p> + +<p class="f110 spa2">FIFTH EDITION<br>ENLARGED AND REVISED</p> +<hr class="r10"> +<p class="center">LONDON<br>WILLIAM RIDER & SON, LIMITED<br> +CATHEDRAL HOUSE, PATERNOSTER ROW, E.C. 4<br>1917</p> + +<hr class="r10"> +<p class="center">TO MY WIFE<br>THE FIFTH EDITION OF “PRACTICAL FORESTRY”<br> +IS DEDICATED</p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_vii"></a>[Pg vii]</span></p> +<p class="f120"><b>PREFACE TO FIFTH EDITION</b></p> +</div> + +<p>To the Author at least, it is gratifying to know that four editions +of <i>Practical Forestry</i> have been sold out, and that a fifth is +urgently called for; no other work on British Forestry having achieved +a like popularity.</p> + +<p>The whole has now been completely revised and several important +chapters added, particularly with reference to Timber and the War, +British Timber and Timber Trees, Afforesting Waste Lands, and The +Education of Foresters, on both of which latter questions the Author +had the honour of giving evidence before the Departmental Committee on +Forestry of the Board of Agriculture.</p> + +<p class="author">A. D. WEBSTER.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Regent’s Park</span>,<br> +<span class="ws2"><i>June, 1917</i>.</span></p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_viii"></a>[Pg viii]</span></p> +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_ix"></a>[Pg ix]</span></p> +<p class="f120"><b>INTRODUCTION TO FIFTH EDITION</b></p> +</div> + +<p>In my long experience of British Forestry, which, in a practical way, +has extended over a period of forty years, I have become more and more +convinced that in order to place it on a systematic and sound economic +footing, State aid and the afforesting of large areas of comparatively +waste lands are first necessities.</p> + +<p>For the past thirty years I have not failed to urge upon the State, +as well as private owners of suitable land, the pressing necessity of +afforestation; and though in this matter a start has been made, yet +this can only be looked upon as a faint, half-hearted attempt quite +unworthy of our country and the vast interests at stake. As early as +1883, I drew attention to this matter in <i>Woods and Forests</i>, and +at later periods in most of the leading journals and papers of the day; +while in my evidence given before the Select Committee on Forestry, and +in a paper contributed by special request to the Board of Agriculture, +I went fully into the question, and pointed out what a boon to the +unemployed, and how great a saving to the country would be effected by +a well-organized scheme of tree planting.</p> + +<p>Years ago I urged the Government to take up the question of the Larch +disease, the ravages of which I then described as being little short +of a national calamity. To the Highland and Agricultural Society +of Scotland, and the Royal Scottish Arboricultural Society, I have +contributed twenty-three papers on different topics connected with +forestry, for which special medals have been awarded, while my +<i>Practical Forestry</i> has now passed into a fifth edition.</p> + +<p>In connection with the afforesting of waste lands, I have travelled over +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_x"></a>[Pg x]</span> +the greater part of the United Kingdom and have examined much of the +ground that could be set aside for this purpose, including the peat +bogs of Ireland; while at altitudes up to 1,100 ft. I have formed +plantations on the bare and wind-swept hillsides of Wales and Scotland, +which to-day are proving not only a boon to the farmers in the way of +the shelter they afford, but also a considerable source of profit to +the owners.</p> + +<p>The above investigations, combined with the examination of and reports +on several of the largest woodland properties in this country, made +at the request of the owners, have given me a wide insight into the +forestry problem generally, but particularly with reference to our +requirements in the near future, in view of the fact that the United +Kingdom is by far the largest timber-importing country in the world.</p> + +<p class="author">A. D. W.</p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_xi"></a>[Pg xi]</span></p> +<p class="f150"><b>CONTENTS</b></p> +</div> + +<table class="spb1"> + <tbody><tr> + <td class="tdl"> </td> + <td class="tdr fs_80 smcap">PAGE</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdc fs_110" colspan="2"><b>CHAPTER I</b></td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl smcap">Forestry and the War</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_1"> 1</a></td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdc fs_110" colspan="2"> <br><b>CHAPTER II</b></td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl smcap">Collecting and Storing Tree Seeds</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_8"> 8</a></td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdc fs_110" colspan="2"> <br><b>CHAPTER III</b></td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl smcap">Propagating Trees and Shrubs</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_15">15</a></td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdc fs_110" colspan="2"> <br><b>CHAPTER IV</b></td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl smcap">The Home Nursery: its Formation and Management</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_24">24</a></td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdc fs_110" colspan="2"> <br><b>CHAPTER V</b></td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl smcap">Formation of Plantations</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_32">32</a></td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdc fs_110" colspan="2"> <br><b>CHAPTER VI</b></td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl smcap">Trees for Economic Planting</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_47">47</a></td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdc fs_110" colspan="2"> <br><b>CHAPTER VII</b></td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl smcap">Planting Exposed Ground</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_68">68</a></td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdc fs_110" colspan="2"> <br><b>CHAPTER VIII</b></td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl smcap">Seaside Planting + <span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_xii"></a>[Pg xii]</span></td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_73">73</a></td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdc fs_110" colspan="2"> <br><b>CHAPTER IX</b></td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl smcap">Town Planting, and the Trees and Shrubs that</td> + <td class="tdr"> </td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl_ws2 smcap">are Best Adapted for Withstanding Smoke</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_87">87</a></td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdc fs_110" colspan="2"> <br><b>CHAPTER X</b></td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl smcap">Trees Suitable for Hedgerow and Field Planting</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_110">110</a></td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdc fs_110" colspan="2"> <br><b>CHAPTER XI</b></td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl smcap">Ornamental Planting</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_116">116</a></td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdc fs_110" colspan="2"> <br><b>CHAPTER XII</b></td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl smcap">Trees best Adapted for Various Soils</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_128">128</a></td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdc fs_110" colspan="2"> <br><b>CHAPTER XIII</b></td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl smcap">Transplanting Large Trees</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_139">139</a></td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdc fs_110" colspan="2"> <br><b>CHAPTER XIV</b></td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl smcap">Thinning Plantations</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_141">141</a></td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdc fs_110" colspan="2"> <br><b>CHAPTER XV</b></td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl smcap">Tree-Pruning in Economic Forestry</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_151">151</a></td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdc fs_110" colspan="2"> <br><b>CHAPTER XVI</b></td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl smcap">Bracing and Repairing Trees</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_159">159</a></td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdc fs_110" colspan="2"> <br><b>CHAPTER XVII</b></td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl smcap">Coppice and Underwood</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_170">170</a></td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdc fs_110" colspan="2"> <br><b>CHAPTER XVIII</b></td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl smcap">Game Coverts: their Formation and Management</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_174">174</a></td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdc fs_110" colspan="2"> <br><b>CHAPTER XIX</b></td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl smcap">Hedges: their Formation and Management + <span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_xiii"></a>[Pg xiii]</span></td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_184">184</a></td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdc fs_110" colspan="2"> <br><b>CHAPTER XX</b></td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl smcap">Shrubs for Shady Situations</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_191">191</a></td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdc fs_110" colspan="2"> <br><b>CHAPTER XXI</b></td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl smcap">Insect Enemies of Trees</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_193">193</a></td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdc fs_110" colspan="2"> <br><b>CHAPTER XXII</b></td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl smcap">Fungus Growth on Trees</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_212">212</a></td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdc fs_110" colspan="2"> <br><b>CHAPTER XXIII</b></td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl smcap">Barking Oak</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_220">220</a></td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdc fs_110" colspan="2"> <br><b>CHAPTER XXIV</b></td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl smcap">The Manufacture of Charcoal</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_226">226</a></td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdc fs_110" colspan="2"> <br><b>CHAPTER XXV</b></td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl smcap">Prices of Home-grown Timber</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_237">237</a></td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdc fs_110" colspan="2"> <br><b>CHAPTER XXVI</b></td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl smcap">British-Grown Timber and some of its Uses</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_240">240</a></td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdc fs_110" colspan="2"> <br><b>CHAPTER XXVII</b></td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl smcap">Willows for Basket-Making</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_243">243</a></td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdc fs_110" colspan="2"> <br><b>CHAPTER XXVIII</b></td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl smcap">Utilizing Waste Forest Produce</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_250">250</a></td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdc fs_110" colspan="2"> <br><b>CHAPTER XXIX</b></td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl smcap">Fencing Plantations</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_257">257</a></td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdc fs_110" colspan="2"> <br><b>CHAPTER XXX</b></td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl smcap">Timber Measuring + <span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_xiv"></a>[Pg xiv]</span></td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_268">268</a></td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdc fs_110" colspan="2"> <br><b>CHAPTER XXXI</b></td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl smcap">Blasting and Burning Tree Roots</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_273">273</a></td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdc fs_110" colspan="2"> <br><b>CHAPTER XXXII</b></td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl smcap">Prices of Contract or Piecework</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_277">277</a></td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdc fs_110" colspan="2"> <br><b>CHAPTER XXXIII</b></td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl smcap">Forest Area of the World</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_280">280</a></td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdc fs_110" colspan="2"> <br><b>CHAPTER XXXIV</b></td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl smcap">Afforesting Waste Lands and the Financial</td> + <td class="tdr"> </td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl_ws2 smcap">Returns Therefrom</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_282">282</a></td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl smcap">Index</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_295">295</a></td> + </tr> + </tbody> +</table> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_xv"></a>[Pg xv]</span></p> +<p class="f150"><b>LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS</b></p> +</div> + +<table class="spb1"> + <tbody><tr> + <td class="tdl"> </td> + <td class="tdr fs_80 smcap">PAGE</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl">Arrangement of Plantations</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href ="#I_033">33</a></td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl">Band and Connecting-Rod</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href ="#I_166">166</a></td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl">Barking Tools</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href ="#I_222">222</a></td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl">Beam Tree in London</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href ="#I_103">103</a></td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl">Beech Tree</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href ="#I_050">50</a></td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl">Blasting and Burning Tree Roots</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href ="#I_273">273</a></td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl">Bracing a Tree</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href ="#I_165">165</a></td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl">Cricket Bat Willow</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href ="#I_055">55</a></td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl">Elm Tree Destroyer</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href ="#I_199">199</a></td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl">Faulkner’s Transplanting Machine</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href ="#I_140">140</a></td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl">Felling Tools</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href ="#I_143">143</a></td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl">Goat Moth</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href ="#I_201">201</a></td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl">Hedging Tools</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href ="#I_185">185</a></td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl">Larch Canker</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href ="#I_213">213</a></td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl">Measuring the Height of Trees</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href ="#I_271">271</a></td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl">Method of Levelling</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href ="#FIG_1">39</a></td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl">Oak Fences</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href ="#I_262">262</a></td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl">Plan of Nursery</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href ="#I_027">27</a></td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl">Plane Tree in Regent’s Park</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href ="#I_099">99</a></td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl"><i>Polyporus Sulphureus</i></td> + <td class="tdr"><a href ="#I_219">219</a></td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl"><i>Polyporus Squamosus</i></td> + <td class="tdr"><a href ="#I_216">216</a></td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl">Pruning Tools</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href ="#I_153">153</a> + <span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_xvi"></a>[Pg xvi]</span></td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl">Pruning, Bad effects of</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href ="#I_155">155</a></td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl">Rustic Wooden Fence, Strong Mortised Fence,</td> + <td class="tdr"> </td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl_ws2">Strong Paling Fence</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href ="#I_262">262</a></td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl">Sawn Wooden Fence</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href ="#I_261">261</a></td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl">Section of Charcoal Pit</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href ="#I_229">229</a></td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl">Savin Juniper as a Town Shrub</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href ="#I_108">108</a></td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl">Slate Fences</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href ="#I_259">259</a></td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl">Spirit-Level</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href ="#FIG_1">39</a></td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl">Stone and Wire Fence</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href ="#I_257">257</a></td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl">Tools used in Planting</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href ="#I_043">43</a></td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl">Tools used in Draining</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href ="#I_037">37</a></td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl">Tools required in Nursery</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href ="#I_029">29</a></td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl">Tools for Fencing</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href ="#I_264">264</a></td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl">Tree Guards</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href ="#I_266">266</a></td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl">Weymouth Pine at Gwydyr Castle</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href ="#I_061">61</a></td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl">Wire Fence with Wooden Posts</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href ="#I_263">263</a></td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl">Willow Beetle</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href ="#I_197">197</a></td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl">Wood Leopard Moth</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href ="#I_203">203</a></td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl">Witch’s Broom on Willow</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href ="#I_209">209</a>, <a href ="#I_210">210</a></td> + </tr> + </tbody> +</table> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_1"></a>[Pg 1]</span></p> + +<p class="f150"><b>WEBSTER’S PRACTICAL FORESTRY</b></p> +</div> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> +<h2 class="nobreak">CHAPTER I<br> +<span class="h_subtitle">FORESTRY AND THE WAR</span></h2> +</div> + +<p>During the war, and for long afterwards, there is bound to be a dearth +of foreign timber, with the result that our home supplies will be taxed +to the utmost. This, indeed, is already the case, and never before in +the history of our country has the demand for British-grown timber been +greater or prices higher than at the present time.</p> + +<p>Plantations in England and Scotland are being cut down wholesale by +the Government, while felling on private estates is going on with such +rapidity that in a couple of years at most there is bound to be a +dearth of all home-grown timber, and of pitwood in particular.</p> + +<p>In the aggregate, our supplies are by no means great, the total area at +present under woodlands being only a little over three million acres, +to which, however, must be added the amount of field and hedgerow +timber—a by no means inconsiderable quantity. Of Plantation timber +much is, however, of very inferior quality and only suitable for rough +fencing and mining purposes, and this applies generally to that grown +throughout England, Wales and Ireland. In Scotland, however, there are +large areas of coniferous woods that were planted for purely economic +purposes which will yield a certain amount of valuable timber for +pit-props and other immediate requirements. The felling of Scotch, +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_2"></a>[Pg 2]</span> +Spruce, and coniferous trees will, however, be a blessing in disguise, +for of late years both demand and price for this particular class +of timber have been by no means great and have hardly warranted the +owners of vacant land in undertaking the much-needed extension of our +woodlands. Larch, on the other hand, is scarce and always in demand at +a highly remunerative price, as also are Ash, Oak and Beech of large +size and good quality.</p> + +<p>It is useless to go into the question of how long our home supplies +of timber will last, this depending largely on the volume of foreign +importations and the duration of the war, but, judging from present +demands, three years will find our plantations in a more or less +depleted condition. The main question we have to consider and decide, +without delay, is how our cut-over plantations are to be replaced by +the replanting of exhausted woodlands and afforesting some of the waste +lands of our country.</p> + +<p>Continental experience has demonstrated that, from a commercial point +of view at least, State-owned forests are preferable to such as are +owned either by public bodies or by private individuals. The resources +and continuity of a nation will always make the State the best +custodian of forest property; indeed, only the State can acquire the +necessary land on the most favourable terms, and in sufficient quantity +for the purposes of extensive afforestation. Private individuals—or, +indeed, public bodies—labour under many disadvantages in this respect, +not the least being the long period required—in most cases from fifty +to sixty years—before the money expended in planting can be even +partially recovered.</p> + +<p>Contrary to the conditions obtaining in the raising of agricultural +crops, long periods have to elapse before the forestry harvest can be +reaped. It will be obvious, therefore, that extensive tree planting +is quite beyond the power of the private individual unassisted. It +is a State business, in which systematic methods of cultivation, and +large wooded areas are first necessities; and, unfortunately, in this +country commercial forestry is but little understood—in fact, it may +be described as an unknown industry. +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_3"></a>[Pg 3]</span></p> + +<p>Extensive plantations of from a thousand to several thousand acres +each, in compact blocks, are required, for it is only in dealing with +such areas that the planting, tending, thinning, and conversion of the +timber can be most economically and profitably carried out. From the +purely economic point of view, the many small plantations dotted over +the face of our country are worse than useless, though exceptions might +be noted, especially in Scotland, where a few woods are planted and +managed on a commercial basis.</p> + +<p>With compact blocks of forest 2,000 to 4,000 acres in extent, and +with timber crops of mainly the same species in each, a continuity of +supplies could be guaranteed, which under existing circumstances is +quite out of the question. In many outlying districts all over the +country that are far removed from road and rail it is difficult—in +some cases impossible—to dispose of the usually small amount of timber +that is periodically cut down; but were large quantities of the same +kind and a continuity of supply ensured, merchants would be tempted +to make special transit and other arrangements, as well as to offer a +remunerative price for the timber, while railway companies would no +doubt provide cheaper facilities for its transport.</p> + +<p>More than once I have been asked by owners of woodlands to recommend +buyers of good Larch, Ash, and other timber, the demand for which far +exceeds the supply; but after negotiating have invariably been told +by the merchants that the quantity offered was too small to allow of +special facilities for delivery being provided, the timber being far +removed from road and rail, but that if a specified number of trees +could be guaranteed annually for a number of years they were quite +prepared to buy. Such cases occurred in the South and West of Ireland, +and in remote parts of Wales and Scotland. These, then, are cases in +which a continuity of supply—such as would be quite possible if an +extensive scheme of afforesting was carried out—would ensure speedy +sales at fair rates in places where at present it is difficult, if +not impossible, to dispose of the small quantities of timber, even at +ruinously low prices. +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_4"></a>[Pg 4]</span></p> + +<p>The question, then, before the nation is: How, and by whom, is +afforestation to be carried out on a scale commensurate with our +necessities as by far the largest timber-importing country in the +world?—larger, indeed, than all the countries of Europe put together. +In answer, and without the slightest hesitation, I would say that the +State should acquire and plant suitable lands at the rate of 40,000 +acres annually for a period of twenty-five years, or 1,000,000 in all.</p> + +<p>When we consider that the total area of woodlands in this country is +only a little in excess of 3,071,000 acres, that fully 17,000,000 acres +of waste lands exist, and that we annually import over 10,000,000 +tons of timber at a cost of about £25,000,000, the necessity for an +increased area of woodlands, so that a portion at least of this vast +sum may be kept at home, will be apparent to all, the more so as a +dearth of timber is imminent and outside supplies are being rigidly +conserved, while our home demands are ever on the increase.</p> + +<p>In order to carry out my proposed scheme of planting a million acres +during the next five years, at the rate of 200,000 acres annually, +profitable and healthy employment would at once be found for several +thousand workmen. The question of transporting, housing and otherwise +dealing with these workmen has been brought forward as the most serious +drawback to the scheme, but, personally, having had to deal with such +cases I can see no insuperable difficulty in the undertaking. Surely, +if our railway and water companies, as also private landowners, can +deal with hundreds of men in remote mountain districts that are far +removed from road and rail, the Government could make the necessary +arrangements for the various bodies of workmen that would be employed +for afforesting purposes. Nor must tree planting be considered as a +new departure for unemployed labour, as in the formation of a large +plantation on a dreary exposed hillside in Wales, the whole of the +work, including clearing the ground of rough surface growth, draining, +pitting and planting, was most successfully carried out by detachments +of the unemployed. +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_5"></a>[Pg 5]</span></p> + +<p>The general physique of Army and Navy men and the discipline and hard +work to which they have been subjected during the war will render them +peculiarly suitable for carrying out the various operations connected +with the formation of plantations. Convalescent soldiers and sailors +could also find healthy employment in the various lighter tasks which +go hand in hand with afforestation, such as clearing the ground of +rough growing vegetation and lifting and distributing the young trees.</p> + +<p>Several suggestions have been made for providing employment for our +returned soldiers and sailors, but much of this proposed work is, so to +speak, invented for the purpose, and would probably never be seriously +considered except for the exigencies of the case. Now I am quite of +opinion that afforesting waste lands offers a sensible system of +employment, for it is now generally admitted that a largely increased +area of our woodlands is an imperative and pressing necessity, and what +is of equal importance, the undertaking, if wisely entered upon, would +not only increase the value of such lands fourfold but form the nucleus +of an ever-increasing revenue of the State.</p> + +<p>But this is not all, for apart altogether from the question of +immediate labour, what an industry would be opened up in years to come +by the planting of waste grounds! In the first instance there would +arise the necessity for clearing, fencing, draining, and planting the +ground, subsequently the tending of the plantations in various ways +would give employment. Thinning would commence about the tenth year, +after which the erection of sawmills and the conversion of the timber +would open a vast and ever-increasing industry, providing highly +remunerative work to thousands of the unemployed.</p> + +<p>There are other ways in connection with forestry in which the +unemployed could be usefully and profitably set to work, such as in +preparing osier beds, planting dogwood for gunpowder charcoal, and in +the formation and stocking of tree nurseries, the produce of which +could with advantage be used in the formation of plantations. Osiers +for basket-making, charcoal for gunpowder and heating purposes, and +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_6"></a>[Pg 6]</span> +seedling plants for afforestation will all be greatly in demand after +the war when foreign supplies will not be forthcoming.</p> + +<p>Regarding the most desirable centres at which to commence planting +operations, I would suggest those counties where the greatest areas of +waste lands exist, and where, in addition, advantages are offered in +the matter of cheap land purchase, as well as in a demand for and easy +removal of the produce. Thus we have:—</p> + +<table class="spb1"> + <tbody><tr> + <td class="tdl">England</td> + <td class="tdl_ws1">Yorkshire and Northumberland with 1,010,924 acres.</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl">Scotland</td> + <td class="tdl_ws1">Inverness and Argyleshire with 3,087,312 acres.</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl">Wales</td> + <td class="tdl_ws1">Breconshire and Merionethshire with 461,320 acres.</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl">Ireland</td> + <td class="tdl_ws1">Donegal and Kerry with 657,337 acres</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl"> </td> + <td class="tdl_ws2">(exclusive of 172,436 acres of bogland).</td> + </tr> + </tbody> +</table> + +<p>From these figures it will be seen that in case of necessity we could +get all the ground required for this afforesting scheme in two of the +counties of England and Scotland, or in three of Wales and Ireland.</p> + +<p>The cost of procuring suitable land for afforesting purposes need +not be considered as any obstacle to the scheme. From extensive +inquiries made the price on an average would not be greater than £2 +per acre. Through the kindness of the agent on the Gwydyr Estate, in +Carnarvonshire, I have been allowed to look over the sale contracts on +several of the properties, and from these I find that 7,412 acres were +disposed of at an average price of £2 2<i>s.</i> 3<i>d.</i> per acre. +The ground was excellent for the production of timber, as the Larch on +adjoining lands clearly evidenced. Again, the Crown recently purchased +12,500 acres in Scotland at the modest rental of £2 per acre. Many +other instances could be quoted, but the above suffice to show that +land in every way suitable for the production of high-grade timber can +be bought at probably less than £2 per acre. +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_7"></a>[Pg 7]</span></p> + +<p>The cost of forming plantations has been very carefully considered, and +for all practical purposes may be put down at £5 per acre, taking the +British Isles as a whole.</p> + +<p>Regarding financial returns from tree planting, there is overwhelming +proof that land worth only from 1<i>s.</i> to 3<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i> per +acre has been made to realise as much as 20<i>s.</i> per acre for fifty +or sixty years, with a final crop worth from £50 to £75 per acre.</p> + +<p>Taking all the above points into consideration—the price of land, +the cost of planting and the financial returns—it will amply repay +the State to plant up uncultivated and waste lands. There should +be no loss of time in setting about this work if we are to provide +suitable employment for our returned soldiers and sailors and avoid the +threatened timber famine which, according to well-informed quarters, is +fast approaching.</p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_8"></a>[Pg 8]</span></p> +<h2 class="nobreak">CHAPTER II<br> +<span class="h_subtitle">COLLECTING AND STORING TREE SEEDS</span></h2> +</div> + +<p>Owing to the war there is little doubt that for several years to come +adequate supplies of seeds and young forest trees will not be available +from their usual sources on the Continent. Vast quantities of both are +annually sent to this country from Germany alone, while from other +parts of the Continent coniferous seeds in particular are largely +imported—in fact, we are almost wholly dependent for both seeds and +seedlings on foreign supplies.</p> + +<p>Under these circumstances, it behoves the owners of woodlands in every +part of the country to collect seeds, particularly of such trees +as our plantations are mainly composed of. After these have been +properly harvested, they should be stored away in suitable places till +seed-sowing time in the spring. To some extent this will be a new +forest industry, though for long, the seeds both of Scotch Pine and +various hard-wooded trees, particularly the Oak, Ash and Elm, have been +annually collected on various estates throughout the country, and the +young plants raised from such stock have given every satisfaction when +planted out permanently.</p> + +<p>For several reasons, however, we cannot compete with foreigners either +in the production of seeds or in raising young forest stock. For some +years to come, owing to the uncertainty of supplies from abroad, both +seeds and seedlings are bound to be scarce and expensive.</p> + +<p>In the past, far too little attention has been bestowed on the +collecting and harvesting of the seeds of trees and shrubs, the result, +in not a few cases, being weak and unhealthy plants and an uneven and +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_9"></a>[Pg 9]</span> +irregular crop. The best seeds, it should be remembered, are those +collected from healthy trees in the prime of life, and grown under +conditions favourable to their perfect development. An unhealthy tree +will often bear a heavy crop of seed, but although the inducements to +collect such are great, they should be discarded, those from the most +robust specimens in the prime of life being chosen in preference.</p> + +<p>Regarding the best way of collecting tree seeds little need be said, +the exigencies of the case determining the best method to be adopted. +The seeds of not a few trees may be collected as they fall, and this +is especially the case with those of the Oak, Beech, Elm, etc., all of +which may be swept into heaps and gathered in quantity from beneath +desirable trees.</p> + +<p>In the case of the various Coniferæ this method of seed collecting +will not answer—indeed, in the majority of instances, the seed +should be gathered, or rather picked, from the trees just before they +became fully ripe, as in falling they get loose from the cone-scales +and are lost. When collecting the cones of coniferous trees, a long, +light hooked staff with which to draw the branches towards one can +conveniently be used to procure an abundant supply. A bag or satchel +should also be in possession of the seed collector, into which may be +put such kinds of cones as fall readily apart, as the seeds from these +are easily lost. Sometimes, as in the case of rare seeds, and when only +a few cones are borne near the top of the tree, the seed collector +must have recourse to climbing; but, in such cases, in order to avoid +injury to the bark, he should be provided with a pair of elastic shoes +or slippers. Great care is required in the collection of such seeds as +those of <i>Abies nobilis</i> and <i>A. nordmanniana</i>, the cones, +when fully ripe, falling to pieces on the slightest touch. This, +however, applies equally to almost every species of Abies, whereas, +with the Pines and Spruces, the cones remain intact for an almost +indefinite period of time, even though the seeds may have fallen out on +becoming ripe.</p> + +<p>The proper harvesting of tree seeds rarely, except in the case of +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_10"></a>[Pg 10]</span> +experienced nurserymen, receives sufficient attention, although this +operation should be as carefully attended to as in the case of the +seeds of any other form of crop. After being collected, the seeds +of all trees, unless such as are mixed with sand for the purpose of +rotting, should be thinly and evenly spread out in a sunny spot, until +thoroughly dry. They may then be deposited in a cool, airy place, +and in thin layers, until wanted for sowing. An occasional turning +is all-important and should never be neglected. The smaller and less +common seeds may, for convenience sake, be hung up in calico bags, but +they, too, should be occasionally examined to prevent dampness and +heating.</p> + +<p>The number of plants of various kinds that may be expected from +a bushel of seed of average quality varies very much, and may be +approximately given as follows: Horse Chestnut, 2,500; Oak, 6,000 to +8,000; Spanish Chestnut, about 3,000; Walnut, 5,000; Norway Maple, +12,000; Sycamore, about 12,000; Ash, 14,000; Beech, 10,000; Elm, 1,000; +Birch, fully 16,000; Holly, 17,000; Scotch Fir, 9,000. To 1 lb. of +seed: Spruce Fir, about 9,000; Larch, 3,000; and the Cluster Pine, +Silver Fir, and some others, from about 500 upwards.</p> + +<p>For convenience in regulating orders for sowing, the following table +will show at a glance the approximate and relative number of seeds +of the various commonly cultivated forest trees contained in 1 lb. +weight:—</p> + +<table class="spb1"> + <tbody><tr> + <td class="tdl">Abies nobilis</td> + <td class="tdc_wsp">about</td> + <td class="tdr">19,400</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl">Abies nordmanniana </td> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + <td class="tdr">10,000</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl">Ash</td> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + <td class="tdr">6,800</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl">Beech</td> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + <td class="tdr">2,700</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl">Douglas Fir</td> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + <td class="tdr">95,200</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl">Horse Chestnut</td> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + <td class="tdr">36</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl">Hornbeam</td> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + <td class="tdr">9,968</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl">Larch</td> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + <td class="tdr">65,000</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl">Lawson’s Cypress</td> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + <td class="tdr">131,400</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl">Lebanon Cedar</td> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + <td class="tdr">10,800</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl">Norway Maple</td> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + <td class="tdr">4,600</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl">Oak</td> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + <td class="tdr">100</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl">Pinus Austriaca</td> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + <td class="tdr">35,000</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl">Pinus Laricio</td> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + <td class="tdr">43,000 + <span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_11"></a>[Pg 11]</span></td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl">Pinus Pinaster</td> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + <td class="tdr">12,000</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl">Pinus Sylvestris</td> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + <td class="tdr">75,000</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl">Spruce</td> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + <td class="tdr">64,500</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl">Silver Fir</td> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + <td class="tdr">14,960</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl">Sycamore</td> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + <td class="tdr">4,624</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl">Walnut</td> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + <td class="tdr">36</td> + </tr> + </tbody> +</table> + +<p>These figures must only be taken as approximate, the seed of various +trees of the same species seeming to vary in the number to the pound +in a marked degree. The results of careful analysis of one or two +kinds may be cited as examples. In one case the number of seeds in 1 +lb. weight of Scotch Fir was 69,600, while in another it had increased +to 90,600; and in the Larch the numbers were 33,900 and 68,000. These +differences are, however, mainly due to the individual seeds being +weightier in one case than in another, probably owing to the age and +health of the tree from which they were collected, the situation and +exposure to which it was subjected, etc. However, for all nursery +purposes the above figures may be accepted as a fair standard.</p> + +<p>The time of collecting and the after-management of the different +forest seeds vary so much that a brief description of those kinds most +commonly planted will be found useful:—</p> + +<p><b>Alder</b> seed should be gathered from the trees in October and sown +in spring, say May.</p> + +<p><b>Ash</b> seeds are ripe in October, when they should be collected and +kept in moist sand during the winter, and sown in March.</p> + +<p><b>Austrian</b>, <b>Corsican</b> and <b>Weymouth Pine</b> seeds are +treated in every respect like those of Scotch Fir, varying the kiln +heat according to the looseness of the cone-bracts.</p> + +<p><a href ="#I_050"><b>Beech</b></a> seeds are collected in October and November, +placed in sand, and sown in April. The young plants are readily affected by +frost, and the seed should, therefore, not be sown earlier than the +time mentioned.</p> + +<p><b>Birch</b> seed must be collected from the trees just before it +becomes ripe in August, otherwise it is scattered broadcast and lost +for cultivation. March is the time for sowing. +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_12"></a>[Pg 12]</span></p> + +<p><b>Cupressus Lawsoniana</b> seed is usually ready for collecting in +October, but should not be sown before the first week in April.</p> + +<p><b>Douglas Fir</b> seed is, in most cases, readily removed from +well-ripened cones by threshing or by pulling the cone to pieces, +but, in some instances, particularly where the quantity is large, +kiln-drying is resorted to. The seeds are ripe in December and should +be gently watered and sown in May.</p> + +<p><b>Elm</b> seeds are ripe in June, when they may either be sown at +once, or dried and kept in stock for planting in March and April.</p> + +<p><b>Hawthorn</b> seed, or berries, may be sown when collected, or the +outer coating rotted off by keeping them during the winter in moist +sand.</p> + +<p><b>Hazel</b> nuts may be collected in autumn and sown at once, or kept +till spring.</p> + +<p><b>Holly</b> berries require to be placed in sand for about eighteen +months so as to rot off the fleshy outer coating, and may be sown in +March. The mixture of sand and berries, which should be about in equal +proportions, must be turned frequently. They are usually sown with the +sand in which they have been lying.</p> + +<p><b>Horse</b> and <b>Spanish Chestnut</b> seeds may be taken together, +the method of collecting and sowing being very similar in both cases. +They are ripe by the middle of October, and may either be sown at once +or kept till spring. One seed to 4 square in. will be close enough.</p> + +<p><b>Larch</b> cones, when ripe, are of a rather bright brown colour and +require to be collected from the trees. This should not, however, be +done till spring, though occasionally they are gathered in December. +They part with the seeds far more readily than those of the Scotch Fir, +and consequently require less heat when in the kiln.</p> + +<p><b>Maple</b> seeds are ready for collecting about October, and should +not be sown till the beginning of April.</p> + +<p><b>Mountain Ash</b>, indeed, all the Pyrus family and others of a like +kind, require the berries to be placed in sand, and when the outer fleshy +coating has rotted away they may be sown either in autumn or spring. +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_13"></a>[Pg 13]</span></p> + +<p><b>Oak.</b>—The acorns may be gathered or swept from the ground in +November, and either sown at once or stored away in a cool, dry place +till Spring. One acorn to every 4 square in. will be ample in the +seed-bed. Sow in spring or autumn.</p> + +<p><b>Scotch Fir</b> cones are better not collected till early in January, +and the time may even be extended till March. When quite ripe they have +changed from bluish-green to a light, grey colour. As the cones part +tardily with the seeds, artificial means have to be resorted to, the +cones being placed thinly over a kiln heated to a temperature of from +75° to 112°. They should be turned every third hour, and after about +thirty hours the kiln should be cooled down and the cones extracted +as quickly as possible. By beating with a flail the seeds are readily +removed from the cones, but it is best to do this before the cones have +cooled down or immediately they are removed from the kiln. The seeds +are then swept together and collected, and stored away until wanted +for sowing. When not required for sowing at once, the seeds should +be thinly spread out on the floor and slightly moistened with water +from a fine rose watering-can. They should then be turned about until +perfectly dry before being stored away.</p> + +<p><b>Silver Fir</b> seed does not require much, if any, artificial +heat to cause it to part from the cone. By placing the cones in the +sunshine, and heating and turning freely, the seeds come out without +much trouble. In all cases, however, wherever possible, it is wise +policy to dispense with artificial heat or kiln-drying as, unless this +is carried out most carefully, the vitality of the seeds is greatly +impaired thereby.</p> + +<p><b>Sycamore</b> seeds are ready for gathering in October, but should +not be sown till the end of March or beginning of April.</p> + +<p><b>Walnuts</b> are collected, when ripe, in autumn, and sown in late +spring.</p> + +<p><b>Yew</b> seeds are usually washed of the pulpy matter before being sown. +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_14"></a>[Pg 14]</span></p> + +<p>In the case of large seeds, such as those of <b>Araucaria +imbricata</b>, <b>Pinus sabiniana</b>, and <b>P. macrocarpa</b>, the +best way is to cut the cones to pieces and carefully remove the seeds. +This operation should be performed with great care, so that the hard +seed coating may not be injured.</p> + +<p>With conifers in general I have invariably found it the best plan to +allow the seed to remain in the cones until wanted for sowing. By +keeping the cones in a cool, dry place, and occasionally turning them +over, there need be little fear but that the seeds will turn out well.</p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_15"></a>[Pg 15]</span></p> +<h2 class="nobreak">CHAPTER III<br> +<span class="h_subtitle">PROPAGATING TREES AND SHRUBS</span></h2> +</div> + +<p>There are several methods of propagating trees and shrubs: such as by +seed-sowing, from cuttings or layers, and by budding and grafting.</p> + +<p><b>From Seed.</b>—This natural process of reproduction is that most +commonly adopted where large numbers of trees are required—indeed, +certain species, particularly of the Coniferæ, cannot successfully be +raised in any other way. The preparation of the seed-beds is a point +that deserves far more attention than it usually receives, and that +not only on economic grounds, but in view of the general appearance of +the nursery borders as well. To tumble the seeds indiscriminately into +the ground as if they had fallen in showers from the trees is highly +objectionable; and just as censurable is the too-oft-repeated practice +of sowing these in rough, cloddy, and ill-prepared ground.</p> + +<p>Systematic arrangement in the laying out of the beds, as to the number +and requirements of the future seedlings, should also be attended to.</p> + +<p>The ground intended for seed-beds should be trenched or deeply dug up; +but this operation would, for the mellowing and cleaning of the soil, +be better performed the autumn before than at the time of sowing down.</p> + +<p>In any case, just before sowing, the ground should be carefully turned +over, all hard clods being broken down, and large stones raked off, +the surface soil to the depth of 3 in. or 4 in. being made as fine as +possible. Dry weather must be chosen for the formation of seed-beds, as +also, indeed, for the sowing of the seeds. The beds are marked off and +prepared as follows:—A light, strong line is stretched along the ground +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_16"></a>[Pg 16]</span> +at, say, 3 ft. from the boundary fence or path, and, after being fixed +at each end, the first alley, or path, is marked out by treading the +soil alongside of the line. The length of the bed thus marked off on +one side is quite immaterial, but the width is of great importance, and +should never exceed 4 ft.; 3 ft. 6 in. is nearer the mark.</p> + +<p>Adjoining this first line, a bed the above width is marked off with +a peg or stake at each end, the line reset and a second alley marked +off. The alley, or path, between each couple of beds need not exceed +15 in. in width, this being for the sake of convenience in sowing, +weeding, watering, shading, and otherwise attending to the bed, and +its occupants. Outside this follows a second bed, and so on, until +the desired number has been formed. Some persons raise the seed-beds +a little above the level of the paths, but, except in very retentive +or damp soils, this is not to be recommended. The beds should in +no instance, however, be below the level of the paths. There are +two methods employed in opening up and preparing the beds for the +reception of the seeds either of which, if carefully gone about, is +well suited for the exigencies of the case. My own way has always +been to level and smooth the surface of the bed with a small-toothed +rake, and after sowing the seeds to cover lightly with fine soil and +ashes carefully sifted over the bed by means of a small-meshed riddle. +This plan has many advantages, not the least important being the +covering of the seeds to an equal depth, and the employing of only the +finest class of soil. The other method is by using what is termed a +“cuffing-board”—that is, a board about 8 in. wide, placed on a handle, +which is inserted in the centre, towards the back, the handle being +fully 5 ft. long. A skilled person is required to use this tool, who +stands in the alley, first on one side of the bed, and then on the +other, pushing or drawing towards him from the surface of the bed a +thin coating of soil along its full length and from about two-thirds of +its surface.</p> + +<p>As to the amount or depth of soil taken off, this is regulated by the +particular kind of seed to be sown, as well as the nature of the soil. +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_17"></a>[Pg 17]</span></p> + +<p>The next matter, the depth at which the seed should be sown, is one +of great importance. Usually seeds are sown unnecessarily deep. In +the majority of cases a safe guide is to place the seed, of whatever +kind it may be, about three diameters below the surface of the soil. +The conditions most favourable to germination are moderate dampness, +abundance of air, and a temperature of about 45°. In order to ensure +these conditions, the depth at which the seeds are placed will be +seen to be of the greatest moment. Generally speaking, the less seeds +are covered, consistently with their receiving a sufficient supply of +moisture, the better, and but for their destruction by birds, many +of the smaller seeds would vegetate just as well if cast upon the +ground-surface, and pressed in, as by being covered with soil. The +following interesting experiments with Scotch fir seeds have been made:—</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>“Those buried one-fifth of an inch came up first, but were +subsequently less vigorous—they soon, however, acquired vigour;</p> + +<p>“Those covered from one-third to one-half of an inch came up more +slowly, but evenly and strong;</p> + +<p>“Those buried from two-thirds of an inch to one inch came up in +deficient numbers; and</p> + +<p>“Those buried from one to two inches never showed any signs of +germination.”</p> +</div> + +<p>These statements are equally applicable to the sowing of seeds in +general but especially if their relative size and the hardness of their +covering are taken into account.</p> + +<p>Immediately after the bed is prepared the seed should be sown, the +amount used varying according to quality, which latter may readily be +tested by examining the embryos of a dozen seeds picked up at random +from the heap. To ascertain whether seeds are good, the simplest way +is to cut the sheath open with a sharp penknife, when the kernel ought +to completely fill the entire coating or shell. Small seeds might be +crushed by the nail, and if good, will leave traces of moisture or +emit an odour of turpentine. Another method is to place, one after the +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_18"></a>[Pg 18]</span> +other, say a dozen seeds taken at haphazard from the heap, on a red-hot +iron. If good they will turn about with a cracking report; but if +otherwise, combustion is slow and smoke is given off.</p> + +<p>Seed may, however, be considered good if the germinating test gives, +say, 70 per cent.</p> + +<p>The quantity of seed to be sown on a given area will depend mainly on +the quality and particular species.</p> + +<p>When sown broadcast, about a pound weight of larch, and full half a +pound of Scotch, is allowed per 100 square ft. of seed-bed.</p> + +<p>Generally, however, drill sowing is resorted to, and in this case the +following may be considered as about an average of the quantity used +per 100 square ft.:</p> + +<table class="spb1"> + <tbody><tr> + <td class="tdl">Alder</td> + <td class="tdr">7¾</td> + <td class="tdc_wsp">ozs.</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl">Ash</td> + <td class="tdr">5  </td> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl">Austrian Pine  </td> + <td class="tdr">4¼</td> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl">Birch</td> + <td class="tdr">6½</td> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl">Elm</td> + <td class="tdr">3½</td> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl">Hornbeam</td> + <td class="tdr">2¾</td> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl">Larch</td> + <td class="tdr">7½</td> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl">Maple</td> + <td class="tdr">5  </td> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl">Scotch fir</td> + <td class="tdr">2¾</td> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl">Silver ”</td> + <td class="tdr">13  </td> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl">Spruce ”</td> + <td class="tdr">3½</td> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + </tr> + </tbody> +</table> + +<p>Sometimes a small quantity of guano or other manure is sprinkled over +the seeds, after which they are gently pressed down with a light +roller, and the soil, which was temporarily deposited along the margin +of the bed, replaced by the “cuffing-board” or riddle. When seeds are +sown early, and with care, on well-prepared ground, watering is seldom +necessary; but still, with small seeds and in very dry ground, an +occasional sprinkling the last thing at night is highly beneficial. +Great care is, however, necessary to ensure the soil being thoroughly +moistened. Protection from mice and birds must be afforded in some such +manner as by coating the seeds with red lead; and an occasional shading +of the bed in very warm weather might be advocated. There are not a few +kinds of seeds, such as those with a hard covering, that it is almost +imperative to steep in water before sowing. Larch seed, in particular, +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_19"></a>[Pg 19]</span> +can be soaked for a week without fear or harm, and many leguminous +seeds for two or three days with great advantage. Some seeds do not +come up until the second year, such as the ash, pyrus, thorn, etc., and +in these cases it is but a waste of ground to sow them as collected. +They should be mixed with sand, as before directed, and stored away for +a year before being sown.</p> + +<p>It should also be remembered that, as a rule, the sooner seeds are sown +after being collected, the stronger will be the young plants.</p> + +<p>Soon after germination, hand weeding must be commenced, and this may +most successfully be performed after a shower of rain, as the young +plants then suffer less from loosening of the soil, consequent on +pulling out the weeds, than would be the case in dry and warm weather.</p> + +<p>The above method of raising plants from seeds will be found suitable in +most cases, but in respect of choice or half-hardy trees the shelter +afforded by a frame is usually provided. In this case the seeds are +sown in pots or shallow boxes, according to quantity, and placed in an +unheated frame.</p> + +<p>The best time for seed-sowing is from the first to the fifteenth of +April.</p> + +<p>Transplanting the young seedlings may be taken in hand usually after +the first year, but no hard and fast line can be laid down, so much +depending on the season and rate of growth of the young plants. The +experienced eye can always tell when seedlings should be lined out. The +best time for this operation is after the spring frosts are at an end, +for, if planted out in the autumn, the frost is apt to lift the tiny +seedlings wholesale from the ground.</p> + +<p>After this they should be transplanted at least every second year until +planted out permanently.</p> + +<p><b>By Cuttings.</b>—Propagating trees and shrubs from cuttings is +at once a simple and inexpensive way of getting up a stock of such +kinds as may be increased in that way. The best months are August and +September, at which time the temperature of the earth and air are +equal, and roots are most readily emitted. +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_20"></a>[Pg 20]</span></p> + +<p>Choose a sheltered and partially shady border for the insertion of the +cuttings, and be sure that the soil is not stiff and water-logged, but +fine, rather inclined to sandy, and moderately dry. It should be well +forked over and cleaned of weeds, large stones being also removed.</p> + +<p>The cuttings may be made of the present year’s growth, with a small +portion—“heel” it is generally termed—of the old wood, and cut clean +across beneath where a bud or shoot has protruded. Until a sufficient +quantity has been made, they should be stuck loosely in a heap of sand +or soil, and in the shade. Cuttings should be taken from the sunny side +of a tree or shrub.</p> + +<p>In planting the cuttings, stretch a garden line along the previously +prepared ground, and, having removed a trench about 6 in. deep, by +cutting in a perpendicular manner with a spade along the front of the +line, proceed to place the cuttings not too closely together, and +leaning somewhat backwards in the trench cut out. This being done, it +is always well, so as to hasten the formation of roots, to sprinkle a +small quantity of sand or grit along at the base of the cuttings, at +the same time regulating these as to their distances apart and upward +inclination, the remaining portion of the trench being filled up with +the soil formerly removed. Firm tramping is one of the chief points to +be observed, as cuttings will not take at all quickly in loose soil. +The line should then be moved forwards about 12 in. and the same method +of procedure followed until the whole of the cuttings are inserted. For +such shrubs as the common and Portugal laurel, privet, box, euonymus, +laurestinus, aucuba, etc., the above method will be found the quickest +and best for raising young plants from cuttings. It should be stated +that cuttings taken from the sunny side of a tree or shrub always root +more freely, and turn out a greater number of plants, than such as have +been cut from the shady side—indeed, this point should be carefully +borne in mind and acted upon. Conifers, such as the various species of +Cupressus, Juniperus, the Wellingtonia, etc., are also readily raised +from cuttings inserted in the ground out of doors. It is, however, well +to put such cuttings in boxes, so that they have the advantage of being +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_21"></a>[Pg 21]</span> +placed in an unheated frame, this greatly enhancing the speedy +formation of roots. Two or three large frames are always useful in +the nursery for the reception of choice cuttings, seeds, etc., and +if boxes, say, 24 in. by 14 in. by 5 in., are made just to suit the +dimensions of the frames, a great number of young plants, cuttings, and +seeds of the less common kinds will find a beneficial protection. The +boxes should be made of stout wood, and have six holes bored in the +bottom of each, so that the excess water may readily pass away. Before +planting these, fill each with a mixture of half sand, half soil, +broken finely down, the cuttings being inserted in small holes made by +a sharp-pointed stick. A thin coating of sand placed on the surface +will greatly facilitate the process of rooting. Cuttings of coniferous +trees should have 2 in. of ripened wood attached to them, and be +inserted 4 in. deep in the ground; while, for most others, the cuttings +may be 8 in. long, 3 in. being inserted in the soil.</p> + +<p><b>From Layers.</b>—For increasing game coverts, shrubberies, or some +of those trees and shrubs that cannot well and speedily be raised from +cuttings or seed, layering will be found a convenient and cheap method. +There are several other advantages too, as no protection of any kind +is necessary, and the risk of loss is reduced to a minimum. It is, +however, generally resorted to as a means of increasing such plants as +cannot readily be raised from cuttings, and applies with greatest force +to the rhododendrons and azaleas, the magnolias, coniferæ of various +kinds, and several species of our hardy deciduous trees.</p> + +<p>The operation of layering is very simple, and consists merely in +bending down the outer branch of a tree or shrub and bringing it in +contact with the soil, it being there held in position by means of +a hooked peg. Before fastening the layer with the peg, it is well, +however, to remove a portion of the bark from that part of the layer +that is to be brought in contact with the ground, this arresting the +flow of sap and hastening the formation of roots. The soil beneath the +tree or shrub should be first loosened, and, if found hard and stiff, a +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_22"></a>[Pg 22]</span> +small quantity of sand and leaf soil might with advantage be added. +The same principle is carried out in all kinds of layering, but the +position of the plant will alter the method of bending over and +bringing in contact with the soil. In the case of layering coniferæ it +is not only necessary to bend over and peg down the branch, but, so as +to form a leader and assist in gaining an upright position, it should +also be tied or staked in a vertical position. Generally speaking, +trees and shrubs require two years before the branches that are layered +are sufficiently well rooted to be removed from the parent, but a few +kinds require nearly double that time before they can be severed with +safety. A good plan is, after the second or third year, to cut through +the layered branch behind the point that is brought in contact with the +ground, and to let it remain in position for another year. It may then, +except in a very few cases, be lifted and lined out with others in the +nursery border, the object being to get it into a good habit of growth +before being finally planted out.</p> + +<p>Most varieties of trees and shrubs can readily be increased by layering +the side branches in the way above described, and it is a good plan to +cover over with a spadeful of earth that part of the branch brought in +contact with the ground.</p> + +<p><b>By Grafting.</b>—This may best be described as a makeshift method +of increasing trees and shrubs. It has only a few advantages, and many +disadvantages, as is well known to every one on a large estate who goes +in for collections of the less common kinds of trees and shrubs.</p> + +<p>If a plant cannot be increased conveniently by any of the above methods +grafting may be resorted to, but the work should only be entrusted +to those who have great practical knowledge of the art, and who have +paid particular attention to the evils attending injudicious grafting. +Some of the errors in grafting may be cited as follows: Working on too +tall stocks whereby an unnatural appearance and continual source of +danger in windy weather are brought about; grafting small scions on +large stocks, and grafting evergreen on deciduous species—all of which +have tended, in a marked degree, to lower the art in the opinion of +horticulturists generally. +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_23"></a>[Pg 23]</span></p> + +<p>The grafting of conifers may be performed at one of two seasons: either +early in spring or about the month of August. Two-year-old stock are +mostly to be preferred, so that the stock and scion may be of as near +a size as possible. Several methods of grafting are adopted, but that +generally practised is what is known as “side grafting.” This consists +in making a clean cut in the stem, downwards, for about an inch in +length. A transverse cut is made at the termination of this first cut, +whereby a piece of the bark wood is removed from the side of the stock. +The scion is next prepared by being cut off square at the end, and one +side of the wood shaved off for about an equal length to the cut on the +stock. Place the scion in the notch made on the stock, and be careful +that the barks, on one side at least, come neatly together, for on this +hangs the whole fate of successful grafting. The scion should, indeed, +be made to fit as nearly as possible and replace the wedge cut from the +stock. Tie firmly and carefully with bast matting, and cover over with +prepared clay or grafting wax. Another method consists in making an +incision obliquely in the stock, the scion being so prepared that one +side of it forms a sharp edge, in order that it may be readily inserted +therein, the bark of the scion and stock coming neatly together. Tie +with matting as before directed, and cover over with clay or grafting +wax. Inarching, or grafting by approach, consists in bringing the scion +into union with the stock without detaching it from its own stem, and +the separation is not made until the new connection has been formed.</p> + +<p><b>Budding.</b>—This is usually performed in July, and in the case of +certain shrubs has been found useful. The bud should, in addition to +its strip of bark, have a portion of the cambium attached, as unless +this be present to unite with the cambium of the stock the operation +will fail.</p> + +<p>The bark of the stock is cut into a <span class="fs_120"><b>T</b></span> shape, opened with the +end of the budding knife, and the bud slipped neatly in. Bast matting +will serve for tying, until a junction takes place, which is usually +effected in five or six weeks.</p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_24"></a>[Pg 24]</span></p> +<h2 class="nobreak">CHAPTER IV<br> +<span class="h_subtitle">THE HOME NURSERY:<br> ITS FORMATION AND MANAGEMENT</span></h2> +</div> + +<p>In the course of my experience on large estates where planting has +been extensively engaged in, few things have been more particularly +impressed upon me than the importance of having a well-managed and +well-stocked home nursery, where the propagating and raising of +trees and shrubs required for forest and ornamental planting may be +taken in hand. The numerous advantages of a home nursery, especially +where planting is extensively carried out, are now so well known and +appreciated by every proprietor of large estates that comment on this +subject seems almost unnecessary.</p> + +<p>Where ornamental planting, the formation of woods and plantations, game +coverts, or hedging is performed on an extensive scale, the convenience +of a home nursery cannot be over-valued, the plants being at hand when +wanted, of the size and in the quantity required, and known to be well +rooted, sturdy, and free from disease.</p> + +<p>The advantages in these cases are too well known to require comment, +and plants, more especially those of a large size, sent from even a +short distance by either road or rail, cannot be expected to succeed +equally with those raised and planted on the same day. The extra soil, +or ball, with which large plants can be removed for a short distance is +also much in their favour, but it is next to impossible to retain this +where packing and transit have to be resorted to.</p> + +<p>It is well known that too sudden a change from rich, well-sheltered +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_25"></a>[Pg 25]</span> +nursery borders to bare, exposed hillsides often proves fatal to +young plants; and, when we consider that few public nurseries are at +a greater elevation than about 500 ft., the necessity of proprietors +rearing their own stock, whose plantations are, perhaps, upwards of +1,000 ft. above sea-level, will the more readily be seen. There are +certain difficulties to contend with in planting high-lying ground, +more especially if the soil is poor and thin, and the situation +exposed, and in these cases the advantage of using hardy plants that +have frequently been transplanted in a well-chosen home nursery at +a fair altitude is very noticeable, especially when contrasted with +others that have been grown under more favourable circumstances and +in a sheltered position. Some plants seem better adapted than others +for this removal, but in the majority of cases the shock sustained by +transferring from low-lying ground to that at a great elevation is only +too apparent, and one from which the plants seldom recover. The same +holds good in the case of seaside and town planting.</p> + +<p>Of late years in particular, a good deal of comment has taken place +as to the necessity of rearing trees from seed sown on the site of +the future plantation, and although the suggestion has many points in +its favour, still artificial planting is better adapted to the wants +of our country, and is not at all likely to be superseded by natural +reproduction, which is more fitted for countries differently situated +from our own.</p> + +<p>The nursery treatment of plants is, therefore, sure to remain a +prominent feature of British forestry, and this being the case, the +soil and situation, as well as the most successful treatment of these, +with a view to producing plants suitable for the positions they are +intended to occupy, will require due consideration. This will vary much +according to the situation of the estate and ground to be planted. In +choosing the site of a home nursery, a great deal will depend on the +general elevation and exposure of the estate. The situation should +neither be too much exposed nor yet too sheltered, and should have a +southern or western aspect; for, although too sudden a change from +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_26"></a>[Pg 26]</span> +sheltered to exposed ground often proves fatal to young trees, this +should not altogether form a criterion for rearing them in situations +unfavourable to the development of strong, healthy plants. The soil +should be good, friable loam, on an open, porous subsoil; but the +quality of ground required for different seedlings is so diversified +that it is next to impossible to suit all within the small bounds +required for a home nursery.</p> + +<p>As water is indispensable where seedlings are raised, as well as for +numerous other purposes in the nursery, it is well to have provision +made for a continuous supply, either by a stream running through the +ground, or in close contiguity to it, or by having a pipe laid on from +the main water-supply.</p> + +<p>From six acres to ten or even fifteen acres will be found sufficient +nursery ground for most estates, but it is always advisable to add +a little more than is really required, so that the brakes may not +be all under forest trees at the same time, but undergo, when found +necessary, a course of green crops, which will not only enrich, but +clean, the ground and leave it in good condition for replanting with +seedling forest plants, bearing in mind that farmyard manure should +always be applied first to the green crop, and never directly to the +plants themselves. When a plot has become impoverished by repeated +croppings of forest trees, a heavy coating of well-decomposed farmyard +manure should be applied, and the ground planted with potatoes, or sown +down with turnips. This has an almost magical effect in improving, +regenerating, and cleaning the ground, and leaving it in the best +possible condition for receiving a crop of forest plants. Land intended +for nursery ground should be thoroughly trenched to the full depth of +the soil, taking care, at the same time, that the best soil is kept +within a reasonable distance of the surface, and, where necessary, +heavily manured or enriched by the addition of lime, vegetable soil, or +loam as the case may be.</p> + +<p>In laying out the ground into brakes it will be found convenient to +have these either square or rectangular in shape and, if possible, +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_27"></a>[Pg 27]</span> +parallel with each other. The brakes should be of different sizes, and +divided from each other by walks or hedges, but the fewer of the latter +the better. It is well for convenience sake to have a border, say from +12-15 ft. wide, running around the nursery, which may be stocked with +such trees and shrubs as are only limited in demand. A narrow border +like this is of great value, too, for planting out seedling stock of +the less common kinds, for the insertion of cuttings of the rarer +shrubs, as well as for any odds and ends that may be collected.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> + <img id="I_027" src="images/i_027.jpg" alt="" width="500" height="611" > + <p class="f110">PLAN OF NURSERY.</p> + <p class="center">Roadway, 9 ft. wide; Paths, 4 ft. wide; Border, 12 ft. wide.</p> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_28"></a>[Pg 28]</span> +The site chosen for the seed-beds should be naturally sheltered, or +failing this, such artificial shelter as is found necessary should be +provided, as exposure of the young plants to cold, cutting winds causes +them to become stunted and bark-bound. There should be a few cold +frames for raising choice seeds and cuttings, but, as a rule, the less +glass the better. In stocking the home nursery, it is always preferable +to buy young plants of the kinds most needed, as also a few older +specimens of such kinds as it may be deemed advisable to propagate +from layers or by cuttings. Seedlings of many trees and shrubs can be +procured from plantations on the estate, and when such are grown on, +and carefully transplanted for two, three, or four years in the nursery +borders, they soon form stout, bushy, and well-rooted specimens of the +greatest value for forest-planting. This is a good and comparatively +inexpensive way of getting up a stock of many trees and shrubs, but +particularly such as are reproduced plentifully in a wild state. In the +management of a home nursery the amount of care and attention required +is certainly great; but any trouble, as well as expense, connected with +starting and keeping it in good condition afterwards will be amply +repaid by the increased value and superiority of the stock obtained.</p> + +<p>In the working of the home nursery no hard and fast lines can be laid +down, the nature of the season having much to do with the time at which +the various operations may be taken in hand. A wet spring retards +seed-sowing, a damp summer the killing-out of weeds and cleaning of the +ground, and early autumn frosts transplanting.</p> + +<p>For the various seasons the nursery-work might, however, be sketched as +follows:—</p> + +<p><b>Spring.</b>—By February, all trenching, digging, manuring, +top-dressing, and such-like work should be completed. Larch and +thorn should be planted at once, as they start early into growth, +following up with the various kinds of hardwoods and pines. Layers +should be planted out and trees for grafting and budding made ready. +Collect larch and pine cones, and when quite dry store away in a cool, +airy place, until wanted for sowing. During March and April general +grafting may be taken in hand. Ornamental coniferæ may be pruned and +transplanted, and towards the middle of April plants from the seed-beds +may safely be lined out in a sheltered part of the nursery. Tree seeds +of all kinds should be collected as opportunity offers. In February +sow yew, holly and thorn; in March, birch, beech and alder; in April, +larch, silver fir, Scotch, Austrian and Corsican pines; and seeds of +the less hardy coniferæ may be sown in pans or boxes and placed in a cool +frame. General nursery-work should be finished up by the end of April. +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_29"></a>[Pg 29]</span></p> + +<div class="figcenter"> + <img id="I_029" src="images/i_029.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="396" > + <p class="f110">TOOLS REQUIRED IN NURSERY.</p> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_30"></a>[Pg 30]</span> +<b>Summer.</b>—The keeping down of weeds, watering and shading +seed-beds, and turning over and mixing of compost-heaps will be the +principal work for the months of May, June and July. Hollies should be +planted out in May, and seedlings of the same kind lined out in the +nursery borders.</p> + +<p>Elm seeds may be collected as they ripen, and some of these sown in +well-pulverized beds in June.</p> + +<p><b>Autumn.</b>—Weeds will still require attention, particularly in +seed-beds, and amongst young trees that have been recently planted out. +General transplanting of shrubs, particularly evergreens, may now go +on, and seedlings be lined out. Cuttings should be inserted in light +sandy soil by the middle of August, or when the temperature of the +earth and air is most nearly equal.</p> + +<p>Trim nursery fences, cut grass, clean walks and roads, and attend +generally to neatness and order. Look over the brakes of pines, and +remove and burn such as are attacked by any of the various insect and +fungus pests to which they are liable. The seeds of ash, hornbeam, yew +and thorn should be collected and placed in barrels with about an equal +bulk of sand, to hasten the decomposition of the outer coating.</p> + +<p><b>Winter.</b>—The early winter months will be a busy time in the +nursery, the lifting and dispatching of trees for forest-planting being +one of the principal operations—at least, so long as the weather +remains mild and open. As time permits, two and three year old plants +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_31"></a>[Pg 31]</span> +should be lined out, well-rooted cuttings lifted and transplanted, and +layers from old stools carefully cut away and placed in the borders for +a year or two before being finally planted out. Turn manure-heaps, and +add a small quantity of fresh lime to hasten general decomposition, to +sweeten the soil, and deprive the seeds of weeds of their germinative +properties.</p> + +<p>Sloe, holly, and similar berries may be collected as they ripen, and +stored in the usual way.</p> + +<p>In November and December, horse chestnut, oak and hazel may be sown in +well-pulverized beds of good, rich soil. Ash and hornbeam are sometimes +sown in January.</p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_32"></a>[Pg 32]</span></p> +<h2 class="nobreak">CHAPTER V<br> +<span class="h_subtitle">FORMATION OF PLANTATIONS</span></h2> +</div> + +<p><b>Laying out the Boundary.</b>—Before commencing actual planting +operations several preliminaries must be attended to. These will +include (1) laying out the boundary, (2) clearing the ground of +rough-growing vegetation, (3) drainage where necessary, (4) fencing, +and (5) laying out such roads as may be necessary for the efficient +working of the plantation. For the benefit of the trees, for shelter +purposes, and for the general appearance of the landscape, it would +be well were more attention paid to the laying out of the sites for +new plantations. In many cases, however, there is no choice in the +matter, the proprietor saying, Here is a field that is of no great +value for agricultural purposes, plant it up. But in the case of +hillside or moorland planting the matter is usually different, the +choice of ground, size of plantation, and method of planting being left +entirely in the hands of the forester. Many considerations will tend to +determine the position of boundaries—bounds of property, proximity to +roads, public paths, and the existence or future probabilities of modes +of transit, all being more or less significant factors.</p> + +<p>First, however, it is advisable to take into consideration when +planting hillside or moorland, the shelter to be afforded to cultivated +land in the neighbourhood, but a combination of this with the +aforementioned considerations will be all-important.</p> + +<p>The form of the outline must also be laid out with due regard to the +prevailing wind, and should always present a convex side towards it, as +it is obvious that on striking such a curve the force of the wind would +be divided and expend itself in two opposite directions, thereby losing +much of its destructive power. Blending one curve with another should +be strictly observed, and continuous straight lines should be avoided, +not only for appearance sake, but as it is well known that the most +destructive force of the wind concentrates on such outlines. +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_33"></a>[Pg 33]</span></p> + +<div class="figcenter"> + <img id="I_033" src="images/i_033a.jpg" alt="" width="500" height="375" > + <p class="f110">HILLSIDE WITH PLANTING ARTISTICALLY ARRANGED</p> + <img src="images/i_033b.jpg" alt="" width="500" height="338" > + <p class="f110">SAME HILLSIDE WITH STIFFLY ARRANGED PLANTATION</p> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_34"></a>[Pg 34]</span> +<b>Woodland Roads.</b>—These are necessary for access to the wood +when thinning, the removal of timber and firewood, and for sporting +purposes. They should either be pegged out or formed before planting +operations have been commenced, and need neither be of an elaborate +character nor attended with great expense in construction. According +to the area of the plantation, so should the roads be arranged, and a +considerable saving is effected by laying out the roads and leaving +them unplanted. Usually they are made 30 ft. wide, and only require to +have the surface equalised and any stagnant moisture removed by drainage.</p> + +<p>It is a good plan, so as at all times to keep the drives in a passable, +dry condition, to cut a ditch along each side of the ride, parallel to +it, and, say, 18 in. wide by 15 in. deep. The soil so removed will come +in for filling up inequalities on the road surface. Steep roads should +be avoided by following, in quickly sloping woodlands, the curve of +the ground., For sowing down woodland drives, bridle-paths, etc., the +following mixture of grass seeds is to be recommended:—</p> + +<table class="spb1"> + <tbody><tr> + <td class="tdl"> </td> + <td class="tdr"><b>lbs.</b></td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl">Timothy grass, hard fescue, tall fescue, and</td> + <td class="tdr"> </td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl_ws2">meadow foxtail, 2 lbs. each</td> + <td class="tdr">8</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl">Smooth stalked meadow and rough cocksfoot,</td> + <td class="tdr"> </td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl_ws2">4 lbs. each</td> + <td class="tdr">8</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl">Rough stalked meadow and sweet-scented vernal,</td> + <td class="tdr"> </td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl_ws2">4 lbs. each</td> + <td class="tdr">8</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl">Wood meadow grass</td> + <td class="tdr bb">8</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdr_ws1">Total</td> + <td class="tdr">32</td> + </tr> + </tbody> +</table> + +<p>In sowing down gravelly or sandy rides, I have found the Lyme or +sand grass—<i>Elymus arenarius</i>—and the Sea Matweed—<i>Psamma +arenaria</i>—to answer well, the seeds of each being sown in equal +proportions. +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_35"></a>[Pg 35]</span></p> + +<p>Before sowing down woodland rides the soil should be well consolidated, +and all surface inequalities levelled.</p> + +<p><b>Fencing.</b>—Local circumstances will often determine the mode +of fencing new plantations. Where stones are abundant these may be +utilized in the formation of walls, while in districts where slate +abounds excellent fences of this kind may be erected at a cheap cost.</p> + +<p>Turf walls and ditches are sometimes formed as plantation boundaries, +but unless carefully looked after they are rarely very successful.</p> + +<p>Stone and turf walls are now, however, almost entirely superseded by +iron fencing, it being not only readily conveyed to any desired point, +but quickly erected and moderately cheap.</p> + +<p>To recommend any particular system of wire fencing would, for various +reasons, be out of place, for amongst the numerous kinds now offered +almost any desired pattern can be obtained.</p> + +<p>In any case the fence need not exceed 3 ft. 6 in. in height, with +seven-strand wires, two No. 6 and five No. 7; and, as this is placed +in position at so much per mile by the makers, it is always well, so +as to avoid bad erection and keep down expense, to have it so put up. +Where an abundance of larch timber is growing on the estate, it would, +perhaps, be unwise to employ iron, but in the majority of cases it will +be found cheapest in the end to have the fences erected wholly of iron +and wire.</p> + +<p>The straining-posts should be of sound, well-seasoned larch or oak, and +7 ft. long by 6 in. square, or if round 7 in. in diameter.</p> + +<p>The intermediate posts are usually of larch, 5½ ft. long by 3½ in., by +3 in., or if round, not less than 3½ in. diameter at small end.</p> + +<p>The straining-posts are placed in the ground at 150 yards apart, with +an additional strong post at every angle or curve that occurs in the +line of fence. The intermediate posts are pointed and driven into the +ground along the line of fence at 6 ft. apart. +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_36"></a>[Pg 36]</span></p> + +<p>In order to make a fence proof against the inroads of sheep and cattle +not less than six wires should be erected, and galvanized strand wire +is preferable. The total height of the fence need not exceed 3 ft. 6 in., +and the top wires should be placed farther apart than those lower down.</p> + +<p>In tightening the wires a straining machine is usually employed, but +brackets for the same purpose are preferable, these being attached to +the straining-posts.</p> + +<p>They are of particular value, as the wire can be tightened or slackened +at will.</p> + +<p>The posts should be rounded on the top or sawn with a slant, so that +the rain may run off.</p> + +<p><b>Draining the Ground.</b>—Efficient drainage must be considered as +one of the most important operations in the formation of a plantation. +Every portion of the ground may not, probably, require to be drained, +but where it is at all surcharged with moisture the removal of such +will be a step in the right direction if the future welfare of the +trees is a point of first importance. In commencing draining the +position of the main outlet must first be determined, and in doing so +every fall of the ground should be taken advantage of. It is quite +impossible to lay down rules as to the number, sizes, and distances +apart of the various drains, these being points that can only be +satisfactorily settled on the spot, and when the nature of the soil, +lie of the ground, and amount of rainfall to be carried off are +determined. In most cases, however, the main drains should be from 2 +ft. 6 in. to fully 3 ft. wide at the top or surface, from 10 in. to 12 +in. wide at the bottom, and about 3 ft. deep. The minor drains may be +less in proportion to the mains, and are usually 2 ft. deep, 2½ ft. +wide at top, and the width of the draining spade at bottom.</p> + +<p>According to the nature of the ground so will the distances at which +the drains should be cut vary, but in most cases from 15 ft. to 30 ft., +sometimes even less, and sometimes considerably more. The minor drains +should never run at right angles to the main, but at about 45°, which +will prevent the mouths becoming choked up when there is a rush of +water in the main. The soil removed from the drains should be evenly +spread out over the ground-surface. +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_37"></a>[Pg 37]</span></p> + +<div class="figcenter"> + <img id="I_037" src="images/i_037.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="383" > + <p class="f110">TOOLS USED IN DRAINING</p> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_38"></a>[Pg 38]</span> +<b>Levelling.</b>—In the carrying out of drainage operations in +connexion with the formation of new plantations, but particularly where +the land is nearly level, one of the most necessary implements is the +spirit-level or theodolite. There are many other operations, as well +as in connexion with draining, where the level and the knowledge of +its working are all-important for the forester. Thus in the formation +of roads and paths, levelling of ground inequalities, lake and pond +forming, etc., the level will be found an almost indispensable +instrument—in fact, it cannot well be done without.</p> + +<p>Of levelling instruments there are various descriptions, but the +simplest of any is the ordinary spirit-level, it being cheap, easily +carried about in the pocket, and when erected on a temporary staff +will fall in with most requirements in connexion with general forest +work. The illustration (<a href="#FIG_1">Fig. 1</a>) will give a good +idea of the simple instrument. When in use the spirit-level is fixed +in a frame of brass, the whole being screwed into a staff or support, +<i>e</i>. The brass screw, <i>d</i>, serves to adjust the level as required.</p> + +<p>There are two eyesights, <i>a</i> and <i>b</i>, the latter being a +square opening, with a fine hair wire crossing it in the middle.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> + <img id="FIG_1" src="images/i_039a.jpg" alt="" width="500" height="548" > + <p class="f110">FIG. 1. SPIRIT-LEVEL.</p> + <img id="FIG_2" src="images/i_039b.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="119" > + <p class="f110">FIG. 2. METHOD OF LEVELLING.</p> +</div> + +<p>The relative heights of a series of points are obtained by means of +their vertical distances from others which, on the supposition of +the earth being a sphere, are equally distant from its centre, and +these, which are called level-points, must be found by an instrument +constructed for the purpose—spirit-level, theodolite, etc. Generally +choice is made of any convenient stations, <i>a, b, c, d</i>, on the +line of operation (<a href="#FIG_2">see Fig. 2</a>), and the distances between +them are determined by actual ad-measurement. The instrument is then set up and +adjusted at, or near, the middle of the interval between every two such +points in succession. When the level thus placed, as at <i>f</i>, has +been rendered horizontal by means of the adjusting screw, an assistant +at each of the stations <i>a</i> and <i>b</i>, holding what is called a +station-staff in a vertical position, moves an index along the staff, +up or down, as dictated by the observer of the level, till it coincides +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_39"></a>[Pg 39]</span> +with the intersecting wire as seen in the eyesight or telescope. The +points thus determined on the stave are represented by <i>e</i> and +<i>g</i>, and these are termed level-points, or points equally distant +from the centre of the earth. Therefore the heights <i>a, e</i>, and +<i>b, g</i>, being read on the graduated staves, the difference between +them will give the relative heights of the ground at <i>a</i> and +<i>b</i>. Similar processes are repeated with respect to the points +<i>b</i> and <i>c</i>, and <i>c</i> and <i>d</i>, the instrument being +placed at <i>i</i> and <i>m</i>, midway between them. Usually the +heights <i>b g, c l</i> and <i>d n</i> are inserted in a column headed +“Foresights,” and the heights <i>a e, b h</i>, <i>c k</i> and <i>d n</i> +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_40"></a>[Pg 40]</span> +in a collateral column headed “Backsights.” The difference +between the sums of the numbers in these two columns will be equal to +the height of one extremity (<i>a</i>) of the line, above the other +(<i>d</i>). When a number of levels have to be taken in succession, +it will be found a saving of time to use the surveyor’s level or +theodolite instead of the ordinary spirit-level illustrated.</p> + +<p>With regard to the use of the instrument as shown in <a href="#FIG_1">Fig. 1</a>, +it may be necessary to state that the height of the eyesight <i>b</i> from the +ground must be deducted from the point observed. As an example: if the +object-pole or staff be marked in feet or inches, and the hair wire in +taking a sight strike the same at, say, 8 ft., then, if the eyesight be +4 ft. from the ground, the difference of level between the two stations +(instrument and station) will be 4 ft., that is, there will be 4 ft. +of a fall from the spirit-level station to that of the station where +the staff was placed. On the other hand, should the hair wire strike +the object-pole at, say, 2 ft. from the ground, these 2 ft. must be +deducted from the height of the eyesight, which, as we have said, was 4 +ft., then the ground at the station-pole must be 2 ft. higher than that +at the spirit-level.</p> + +<p><b>Clearing the Ground.</b>—Coarse-growing herbage, which often +includes heath, gorse, and rough grasses, that would interfere with +planting operations, should be removed, but not indiscriminately, as it +may prove of inestimable value under certain conditions. On exposed and +high-lying ground, the heath and grasses will prove of great advantage +to the young trees, and usually they are not too luxuriant or apt to +cause damage at high altitudes. Where, however, the growth of such +shrubs or grasses would be detrimental to the young trees, by all means +have them removed. The best way is either to cut them over or grub +out by the root, and burn on the ground. During a continuance of dry +weather it may be possible to burn without either cutting or uprooting, +but, generally speaking, removal of the roots is to be encouraged.</p> + +<p><b>Pitting.</b>—The advantages of pitting over any method of planting +cannot be questioned, and this is particularly the case with ground +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_41"></a>[Pg 41]</span> +that has hitherto been uncultivated. Compared with notch planting, +this system is, no doubt, more expensive, but that the future benefits +to the plants are greatly enhanced is admitted by all practical +arboriculturists.</p> + +<p>It is not, however, to be inferred that, though pitting is preferable, +notching is to be abandoned, for there are many precipitous, rocky +places where it would be the only practice feasible, and plants so +inserted have often succeeded admirably.</p> + +<p>The pits should in all cases be opened for some time before +planting—indeed, in unfavourable soils and situations, it is a good +practice to have such work performed in autumn and the plants inserted +the following spring. By so doing, the earth that has been removed from +the pits will lie fully exposed to the mellowing influences of frost +and sunshine, so that when the time for replacing it comes round, it +will be in the best possible condition for applying to the roots of the +young trees.</p> + +<p>The pits in uncultivated lands should be made circular, about 18 in. in +diameter and fully 12 in. deep, and the sides and bottom well loosened +up with a pick. In loose or recently cultivated soil the pits may be +much smaller. Take off the surface turf in halves, placing these on one +side of the pit, and the soil on the other, for ease and convenience in +planting. When the ground slopes quickly the soil removed from the pits +should, so as to facilitate quick replacing, be deposited on the higher side.</p> + +<p><b>Planting.</b>—This may be successfully carried out during all open +weather from about the end of September to the beginning of April, but, +generally speaking, autumn planting is to be recommended. There are +several exceptions however: such as when we have to deal with peat bog, +water-logged soil, exposed hillsides, or land by the sea-coast. Where +the newly-inserted plants have to cope with prolonged storms, such as +we get on hillsides or by the sea, or contend with very uncongenial +soils, it is always a wise policy to defer planting until spring, or +just when the trees are about to make a start to growth, as they, with +their freshness and vigour undiminished by the change from the nursery +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_42"></a>[Pg 42]</span> +border to the more trying surroundings just referred to, are more +likely to take hold at once and succeed.</p> + +<p>The battering and swaying that autumn planted trees receive when +exposed to the hurricanes of our hillsides or seaside sites so enfeeble +them that, in spring, when growth should commence, the majority will be +found to be in a very unsatisfactory state, whereas, by inserting in +spring, when growth will soon be at its full activity, the chances of +succeeding are greatly enhanced. In peat bog the antiseptic properties +of the soil act dangerously on the roots of young trees if allowed +to remain therein for some time before active growth has commenced. +However, with the exceptions cited, tree planting throughout the +British Isles generally should be taken in hand as soon as the leaves +of the hardwood species have fallen, which usually takes place about +the second or third week of October, much depending on the particular +season. Lift the plants very carefully from the nursery brakes, and +do not, on any account, tolerate the too-often-enacted practice of +tearing the trees from the ground, and before they have been properly +loosened on both sides of the lines with a fork. To lift nursery stock +properly—and the extra expense incurred in so doing is money well +spent—a trench should be thrown out along each side of the line and +the soil undermined from beneath the roots, so that the plants can be +lifted without tearing or straining the tender rootlets. It is not +important, if the plants are inserted soon after being lifted, that +soil should accompany each, the roots being plentiful and unmutilated +making up for the want of this. Where, however, the plants have not +to be conveyed far from the home nursery to the plantation there is +no need to remove much of the soil, for if left intact the young tree +is far more likely to start away freely into growth than if this was +shaken clean off. +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_43"></a>[Pg 43]</span></p> + +<div class="figcenter"> + <img id="I_043" src="images/i_043.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="396" > + <p class="f110">TOOLS USED IN PLANTING</p> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_44"></a>[Pg 44]</span> +Immediate planting after being lifted is to be strongly recommended, +the evil of allowing plants to lie about exposed to wind and weather +being well known. Should it, however, not be convenient to plant at +once, the nursery-stock should be stood closely together, and some damp +straw, leaves, or soil heaped around the roots of the outer or exposed +specimens in the lot. In any case, the roots must never be allowed to +become dry and parched, or be subjected to frosty winds, as these act +most perniciously, and soon destroy the tender fibres and render them +almost useless for the purpose intended.</p> + +<p>In planting, spread the roots to their full extent in the pits, +avoiding all cramping and bending, placing the largest to the most +exposed side, and cover with earth, the finest soil being placed next +the roots, and the rougher and grassy on the top. Placing the turf in +the bottom of the pit, cutting it well up with the spade, putting a +little earth on the top of this, and then planting the trees, has its +advantages, the rotting turf acting as manure by the time the roots +have got down to it.</p> + +<p><b>Slit or Notch Planting.</b>—This is done by simply cutting the +sod or surface by two strokes of the spade, and to the depth of about +5 in.: thus <span class="fs_120"><b>L</b></span> or <span class="fs_120"><b>T</b></span>. +With the first stroke the spade is inserted in the ground in an almost +perpendicular manner; it is then withdrawn and inserted at right angles +to the first notch and at the end of it, and by pressing down the +handle of the spade the turf is opened up, the plant being inserted +from the blade of the spade towards the further end; the spade is then +carefully withdrawn and the turf trampled so as to cause the notches +to close completely. This latter should be strictly attended to, as +should the notch be left partially open, the plant will suffer from +the admission of an undue quantity of air. The operation requires two +persons—a man to open the notch, and a boy to insert the plant. It is +chiefly employed in bare and hilly ground, and large tracts of ground +in Scotland have been very successfully operated upon in this way. With +the notch system there are advantages and disadvantages. In the first +instance, we have reduced cost, expedition, and firm insertion; whilst +in the second small plants only can be used, the soil remains unbroken, +and the root system presents an unnatural position.</p> + +<p>The plants used with the notch system should not exceed 9 in. in height. +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_45"></a>[Pg 45]</span></p> + +<p><b>The Planting-iron</b> has been found of great value for inserting +small forest trees in rocky ground, where it would be almost impossible +to do so in any other way. It is 17 in. long, weighs 3 lbs., and can be +conveniently used with one hand.</p> + +<p>Holding the “iron” slackly, the planter strikes it into the ground with +a force sufficient to drive the sharp, heart-pointed blade in about 3 +in. or 4 in. By pressing it down and towards the planter, with a slight +twist to the right, the left corner of the turf is opened up, the plant +being carefully inserted with all the roots beneath the ground. The +iron is then withdrawn, and the loosened turf made firm by tramping.</p> + +<p>Only a small plant should be inserted with the planting-iron, and great +care taken to insure the soil and turf being firmly pressed around the +stem of the young tree.</p> + +<p><b>Planting Trees too deep.</b>—Fully 50 per cent. of the deaths +amongst newly-planted trees may be directly attributed to the +pernicious practice of too deep planting. Cases come before us +frequently where, owing to burying the roots of the trees and shrubs at +too great a depth in the soil, they have either died out or gradually +become unhealthy owing to strangulation and want of air. It is a +mistaken idea that by placing the roots at an excessive depth in the +soil the young tree will be better enabled to withstand wind, and so +remain in an erect position. Most workmen quite ignore the original +mark on the tree stem as to the depth it stood whilst in the nursery, +and go to an opposite extreme by covering up both root and stem to an +unnecessary depth. Large trees suffer quite as much from being planted +too deep as those of smaller growth. Quite recently we were asked to +look at a large number of lime trees about 16 ft. in height that had +been planted for several years without a sign of upward growth. The +reason for this was not hard to discover, for on unearthing one of +the trees it was found that the roots were covered with fully 2 ft. +in depth of soil. The trees in question had never budged an inch, and +were from year to year gradually on the decline owing to the ruinous +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_46"></a>[Pg 46]</span> +practice of too deep planting. No better guide as to the depth at which +a tree should be planted can be had than the distinct mark on the stem +showing the depth at which it stood whilst under nursery management. In +order to keep newly-planted trees from being damaged by rocking with +the wind, and to preserve them in an upright position, firm trampling +is all that is required. In very exposed situations it may sometimes +be found necessary to place a small piece of turf against the stem on +the opposite side from which it is leaning, and to make this firm by +means of the foot. Staking, at least in the case of small transplants, +is never necessary, though in the case of larger trees and where the +situation is exposed, light poles thrust into the ground to which +the stems are made fast may be found necessary. Of course, it is a +mistake to allow trees to rock about in the wind to such an extent +that the roots become strained and barked, and holes worked around the +stems, but this can readily be prevented by periodical examinations of +the newly-planted trees. Stones should never be placed in the holes +referred to, as they damage the roots, a piece of stiff turf or heavy +soil being far preferable. With a large experience of tree planting I +find that the general tendency is to plant too deep—an evil that it +is hoped these notes will be the means of remedying, in some cases at least.</p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_47"></a>[Pg 47]</span></p> +<h2 class="nobreak">CHAPTER VI<br> +<span class="h_subtitle">TREES FOR ECONOMIC PLANTING</span></h2> +</div> + +<p>From a commercial point of view the best trees to plant are such as +will produce the largest volume of the most valuable timber in the +shortest space of time.</p> + +<p>Amongst the several hundred species of trees that are cultivated in +this country it is a remarkable fact that less than twenty can be +recommended for profitable planting. Of course many others are valuable +as shade and shelter producers, but from a strictly economic point of +view, that is to say where the value of the timber is a point of first +consideration, only about ten hard-wooded and eight coniferous species +can be included in the list.</p> + +<p>Amongst hardwoods we have the oak, ash, beech, sycamore, elm, Spanish +chestnut, willow, poplar, alder and birch; while coniferous trees would +include the larch, Scotch and Corsican pines, common and Sitka spruce, +silver and Douglas firs, and possibly the giant Arborvitæ and +<a href ="#I_061">Weymouth pine</a>.</p> + +<p>The <b>Oak</b>.—Than the timber of the oak none other produced in +this country is more lasting or valuable—indeed, in few other trees +are the qualities of strength and durability, hardness and elasticity +combined to such an extent. As might be expected, however, the value of +oak timber is greatly influenced by soil, that produced on deep, heavy +loam or clay lands being of superior quality. The colour of the wood +also varies greatly with age from a dark grey to a deep rich brown and +even green. Brown oak, which is almost confined to the Midland counties +of England, is considered to be wood in the first stage of decay, and +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_48"></a>[Pg 48]</span> +attacked by a fungus, and is generally associated with trees that are +long past their prime and whose larger limbs have become hollowed and +unhealthy. The finest examples I have seen of brown oak were produced +at Ampthill in Bedfordshire, and on the Welbeck Estate in Notts. The +beautiful vivid green colour assumed by oak timber under certain +conditions is due to the action of the fungus <i>Peziza æruginosa</i>. +As this colouring matter in the timber is quite permanent and cannot be +destroyed, wood so affected is eagerly bought up by the makers of fancy +furniture. Unhealthy or dead trees in damp shady positions are most +often attacked by the fungus, and we have known timber of the oak when +left lying about in the woodlands to assume this colour. Owing to the +scarcity and value of green oak timber experiments have been undertaken +to produce the colouring by artificial means, but as far as we are +aware the results were not satisfactory. The best examples of green oak +timber that we have seen were produced in Kent, and in the North of +Ireland.</p> + +<p>The <b>Ash</b>.—When viewed in a purely economic sense the ash must, +next to the oak, be considered as our most valuable forest tree. The +massive, deeply fluted, or cylindrical trunk, the weighty swelling +branches, and the usually pendant masses of the freshest pea-green +foliage, all combine to render this tree one of the most majestic for +ornamental planting, but particularly so when associated with others +that are of a darker shade of green. The ash is indigenous to Europe, +Northern Africa, and North America, while throughout the British Isles +it is widely dispersed.</p> + +<p>It thrives tolerably well in most soils and situations, but the finest +timber is produced in fairly sheltered sites, and where the soil is +rich and open or freely interspersed with loose rock or stones. In +order to produce clean, springy timber, such as is in request for the +making of tool-handles, aeroplanes and agricultural implements, the ash +should be planted thickly in order to induce straight stems that are +for the greater part destitute of branches. For black, peaty soils, +or that of a dampish, loamy character the sapling ash is peculiarly +suited, in which, after being cut over, it will reproduce itself +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_49"></a>[Pg 49]</span> +freely. At from thirty to forty years’ growth the ash is most valuable +for handle wood and for agricultural implements.</p> + +<p>The timber is hard, heavy, and flexible, and though rapidly grown it is +tough and elastic above that of any other tree grown in this country, +hence its universal employment for machinery and other special purposes +where great strength, combined with yielding powers, are points of +first consideration. Few timbers become useful at such an early age +as does the ash. At from four to six years’ growth it is fit for +walking sticks, for spade handles at ten years, while after that age +the uses to which it is applied are very numerous and diverse. For the +cartwright, the agricultural implement maker, carpenter, cooper and +turner, it is of special value. No timber has been found to equal it +for the making of oars, pulleys, blocks, ladders, hoops, and crates. +Owing to its sawing without splintering it is used for milkpails, +kitchen tables, staircases, and similar purposes, while when of large +size it is greatly in demand for furniture making.</p> + +<p>For smoking herrings ash wood has a certain local demand. Potash is +procured from the ashes of the branches, and the bark has a special +value in the tanning of nets.</p> + +<p>The <a href ="#I_050"><b>Beech</b></a>.—For profitable planting the beech is one +of our most valuable trees, while it has the extra recommendations that it grows +rapidly, succeeds well in the shade, and reproduces itself freely.</p> + +<p>The finest beech timber is produced on chalky or deep sandy soils, +the former being preferable as may be instanced by the comparatively +high price obtained for that grown on the Chiltern Hills and chalky +formations of parts of Kent and Herts. The growth of the beech is rapid +and it attains its prime at from sixty to seventy years, after which +age the timber often becomes black at the heart and accompanied by +rottenness and shakes which render it almost useless for constructive +purposes. It is better suited for indoor than outdoor use and is +extensively used in the making of Windsor chairs, for millwright and +engineering purposes, for the handles of carpenters’ tools, for bobbins and, +when clean and of large size, for the calendar machines of cloth manufactures. +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_50"></a>[Pg 50]</span></p> + +<div class="figcenter"> + <img id="I_050" src="images/i_050.jpg" alt="" width="400" height="520" > + <p class="f110">STANDARD BEECH TREE</p> +</div> + +<p>Growing on comparatively poor soils where other species will not +produce profitable timber the beech is particularly valuable on account +of its reproducing itself freely from seed and withstanding a greater +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_51"></a>[Pg 51]</span> +amount of shade than perhaps any other species. It associates well with +the oak under cultivation.</p> + +<p>The <b>Sycamore</b> for profitable planting can be recommended owing to +the high price which can be obtained for timber of large size, though +even when of thirty years’ growth it finds a ready market for bobbin +making and other turnery purposes.</p> + +<p>The most suitable soil for the sycamore is a dry sandy loam or even +deep sand. The tree is peculiarly suitable for planting in exposed or +seaside situations and also for standing alone as a field or hedgerow +tree. The timber is white, smooth and free from grain. It is used for +curtain rings, churns, butter prints, backs of violins, founders’ +patterns, cutting boards, and in the making of wooden vessels and +furniture. For calendar machines it is especially valuable.</p> + +<p>The <b>Sweet</b> or <b>Spanish Chestnut</b> is largely cultivated for +the value of the timber it produces. It thrives best on deep gravelly +soil or on granite or sandstone with a dry subsoil, and with a southern +or western exposure. The timber is of excellent quality and lasts well +either in water or above or below ground. It is often substituted for +that of the oak, and is extensively employed for mill timber, bridges, +fencing of all kinds, posts, stakes, casks, and for hop poles.</p> + +<p>The Spanish Chestnut is a tree of rapid growth and when the timber is +of fair size it finds a ready market, though at a lower figure than +that of the oak.</p> + +<p>Unfortunately the timber produced on certain soils and situations is +much reduced in value owing to cup shake.</p> + +<p><b>Elm</b>, both English and Scotch, are extensively planted for the +value of timber produced.</p> + +<p>The timber of the English elm is of a rich brown colour, hard, tough +and usually twisted in the grain. Owing to the strength of its +lateral fibre the timber is much in request for making blocks for +ship’s riggings, while it furnishes naves for wheels, coffin boards, +furniture, pumps, piles, and is employed largely by the wheelwright. +For using under water it is the best wood cultivated in this country. +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_52"></a>[Pg 52]</span></p> + +<p>The wood of the Scotch or Wych elm is considered to be more valuable +than that of the English species, and is used for similar purposes and +also as a substitute for ash. It is very liable to become rotten at the +core.</p> + +<p><b>The Alder and its Uses.</b>—Whether viewed from a strictly +commercial standpoint, for its justly recognized capacity for thriving +luxuriantly where few other trees could exist, or for its ornamental +qualities, the common alder will be found to rank high among British +forest trees. It usually attains to a height of from 50 ft. to 60 ft., +with a stout, well branched trunk that is more or less gnarled and +fluted. The branches have an upward inclination, and are well clothed +with roundly wedge-shaped leaves that are of a deep, dark green colour. +With age the bark usually assumes a dark brown, or almost black, +colour. The alder is found in all parts of Europe, North Africa, and +from Asia to Japan. For planting in wet, even swampy, situations, +where only a very limited number of trees could eke out an existence, +the alder is of particular value, and it is in such situations that +it attains to the largest size and produces the greatest quantity +of timber. Even in situations where the poplar and willow find a +difficulty in battling with the excessive and stagnant moisture the +alder thrives luxuriantly and reproduces itself freely from seed. As an +ornamental tree the alder is not much in request, although the stately +habit and ample deep-green foliage render it of value in that respect. +The fine old specimens by the river and stream sides at Esher Place +in Surrey, have a beauty that is quite their own, and it is in such +tranquil situations that the tree is seen to perfection—the beauty of +form and picturesque appearance causing it to be unrivalled in river +and lake scenery. The tree is readily propagated and comparatively +cheap in consequence, grows rapidly after becoming established, and is +not subject to disease or premature decay.</p> + +<p>Though soft, the timber of the alder is in much request, and in +consequence numerous wants are supplied by it. It is very durable +under water, and for this reason is largely employed for piles, bridge +foundations, water pipes, and for lining the banks of rapid running +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_53"></a>[Pg 53]</span> +streams and rivers. The celebrated bridge of the Rialto, at Venice, +was, according to Evelyn, built on piles of alder wood, while the city +of Ravenna was stated to have likewise been built on piles of the same +wood. For herring barrel staves the wood is also in request, as it +is for mill bobbins and turnery work. In cabinet work and for cheap +furniture alder wood is largely used, while as it does not readily +split, boards for the bottoms of carts and wheelbarrows are frequently +made of the same wood.</p> + +<p>The beautiful pale pink colour which the timber permanently retains +causes knotty planks to be in great demand for veneering purposes.</p> + +<p>In Wales, and throughout the Midland counties, large quantities of +alder timber are consumed in the making of clog soles, which, after +being roughly formed in the woodlands where the trees have been felled, +are sent by rail to several of the Lancashire towns to be finished off. +Throughout Ireland—chiefly the north—large numbers of clog soles, +made of alder, are annually employed in the manufacture of cheap boots; +indeed, in many parts the making of clogs is quite an industry.</p> + +<p>The bark of the alder is used in tanning leather, though in much +smaller quantities at present than was the case half a century ago, +when oak bark fetched as much as £10 a ton, and when none of the +chemicals that are now so commonly employed were offered in the market. +Excellent gunpowder is made of the wood, said to be second only in +quality to that prepared from the dogwood. The young shoots, according +to the peculiar way in which they are prepared, are employed in dyeing +red, brown, yellow, and black.</p> + +<p>Alder is generally in good demand at all stages of its growth, and +is seldom grown to very large dimensions. For the clogger, turner, +or charcoal burner it is of greatest value up to about thirty years’ +growth, while by cutting it over at that age a second crop springs +rapidly from the stools.</p> + +<p>The <b>Birch</b>.—It is hardly necessary to speak of the hardiness of +the birch, for no other native tree, not even the Scotch pine, ascends +to such elevations in Britain. The higher the tree ascends the more +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_54"></a>[Pg 54]</span> +shrub-like it becomes, until on very exposed rocky sites at great +altitudes it hardly exceeds a yard in height.</p> + +<p>As regards soil, the birch is by no means particular, for we find it +succeeding well even on that of a poor rocky or gravelly character. +The largest individual specimens always, however, occur at not too +high an altitude, and on soil of a light, loamy nature, an abundance +of moisture being still further favourable to quick development. +For planting on exposed ground for shelter-giving purposes, but +particularly where the soil is thin and poor, the birch is a most +valuable tree. Its growth is fairly rapid, and it does not suffer to +any appreciable extent either from insect or fungoid attacks. As a +coppice tree it is also valuable.</p> + +<p>The timber of the birch, though of little value for general estate +purposes, is largely employed in the arts and manufactures. It is +much used for thread bobbins, turnery work, shoe pegs, hoops, and +fish barrels, while it makes excellent firewood, and yields superior +charcoal for smelting purposes. In Wales large quantities of birch wood +are cut into clog soles, while the sabots used by the French peasantry +are also made of that wood. When of large size and good figure, +furniture and veneers are made of the wood, and on the Continent +felloes for carriage wheels. Brooms and switches are made of the +smaller branches or sprays, while the bark is used for tanning, and an +oil expressed from it is employed in the preparation of the well-known +and fragrant Russian leather.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> + <img id="I_055" src="images/i_055.jpg" alt="" width="400" height="486" > + <p class="f110">STEM OF THE TRUE “CRICKET BAT” WILLOW<br> + (<i>Salix cærulea</i>)</p> +</div> + +<p>The <b>White</b> or <b>Huntingdon Willow</b> (<i>Salix +alba</i>).—Whether for ornament or utility the White or Huntingdon +Willow must be considered as one of our most valuable trees. The +timber sells readily at all prices up to 10<i>s</i>. per cubic foot, and +when it is considered that the tree will succeed in dampish ground where +most other species decline to grow, and that it is of rapid growth, +attaining maturity in less than forty years, its value in economic +planting will be recognized. At the outset it may be well to point out +that the wood of the particular willow from which the best class of +cricket bats are manufactured sells at a higher rate than any other +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_55"></a>[Pg 55]</span> +timber that is cultivated in this country. There are many kinds of +willows found growing throughout the British Isles, but one alone +produces the particular class of wood from which first-class bats are +turned out. Until quite lately the timber of the White or Huntingdon +Willow (<i>Salix alba</i>) was largely used in the making of cricket +bats, but it has been found that a cross between that species and +the crack willow (<i>S. fragilis</i>), and named <i>S. cærulea</i>, +produces by far the best wood for the manufacture of high-grade cricket +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_56"></a>[Pg 56]</span> +bats. In the trade the “Cricket Bat Willow,” as it is now known +throughout England, is popularly designated as the close-barked willow +in order to readily distinguish it from the open-barked or crack +willow. Confusion generally exists in determining the various forms of +willow, but in <i>S. cærulea</i> the branches incline upwards; indeed, +the tree has a semi-fastigiate form of growth, and the branches also +have an upward tendency. The bark is a dark grey, with long, straight, +narrow fissures closely arranged and from which the term “close-barked” +is derived. The leaves are of a bluish tint or covered with bluish-grey +hairs beneath and long and narrow in shape, while an unerring point +of difference between the hybrid and other willows is that the tree +produces only female flowers. It may be well to mention in connexion +with the crack willow that the bark fissures are far more rugged and +placed farther apart than is the case with the true cricket bat willow, +<i>S. cærulea</i>. The great importance of recognizing and growing for +purely economic purposes the true variety will be apparent when it is +mentioned that makers of cricket bats will have nothing to do with any +but the true “close-barked” tree, and the English bat-maker is keen to +recognize the characteristics of the timber he requires, and will not +stick at paying exorbitant prices for trees of the right kind.</p> + +<p>As showing the value in England of the timber of the true bat-making +willow, it might be mentioned that in many instances that have come +under my notice as much as 16<i>s.</i> per cubit ft., or six times +the price of the best oak, has been paid for trees of the true <i>S. +cærulea</i>. A single tree growing in London lately sold at £10, +and in Hertfordshire eleven trees fetched the handsome sum of £81, +while £20 was refused for four trees growing in a wood in Essex. Such +prices are, however, exceptional, though on a visit to two of the +largest bat-making establishments in the metropolis I was told that +for several years past the average price paid for willow worked out at +6<i>s.</i> per cubit foot. A well-known grower tells us that if planted +in suitable soil a “set” or cutting, which usually costs 1<i>s.</i> +6<i>d.</i>, will in fifteen years be worth about £6. +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_57"></a>[Pg 57]</span></p> + +<p>The home of the true bat-making willow is in the Eastern English +counties, and it is there that the manufacturer goes when wishing +to purchase the most valuable timber for his special work. The +propagation of the bat-making willow is simple, either by rooted +cuttings or “sets,” the latter being the best and cheapest method. +“Sets” are usually from 12 to 20 ft. long, with a basal diameter of, +say, 3 ins., the best being got from pollarded trees, and straight, +clean, branchless shoots are preferable. They should be stripped of +all side branches for about three-fourths of their length and only +cut in spring. By placing these sets together in a ditch or pond for +about a month rootlets will be emitted, when they may be planted in +previously prepared holes, which are formed by driving an iron rod or +stake in the ground for a distance of, say, 2½ ft.</p> + +<p>The <b>Poplar</b>.—Several species of poplar are valuable for the +timber they produce, as also for their rapidity of growth and +succeeding in low-lying, damp ground. When clean grown and of large +size the timber sells readily at prices which vary from 1<i>s</i>. to +1<i>s</i>. 6<i>d</i>. per ft.</p> + +<p>Probably the most valuable species is the white poplar (<i>Populus +alba</i>), though the black Italian (<i>P. monilifera</i>) produces +excellent timber for which there is generally a demand.</p> + +<p>From a purely commercial point of view the above hard-wooded trees are +the only kinds that can be recommended for planting in this country. +The timber of the lime, hornbeam, walnut and one or two others at times +sells at a fair price, but the small quantity offered shows that they +have not been considered worthy of attention where the economic value +of the plantations was being considered.</p> + +<h3><span class="smcap">Coniferous Trees</span></h3> + +<p>Amongst the many conifers that have been introduced to this country +during the last century very few can be recommended as suitable for +profitable planting. The following, so far as is known, are the only +species to be recommended:—</p> + +<p>The <b>Larch</b> (<i>Larix europæa</i>).—Both for and against the +larch much has been written and said, particularly of late years; but, +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_58"></a>[Pg 58]</span> +however much has been said in commendation of it, there can be no doubt +that to overstate its value as a timber tree in the economy of British +forestry would be a task of some difficulty. When we combine its great, +almost peculiar, aptitude to suit itself to nearly all conditions of +soils, altitudes, and diversities of climate, its long-established +value as a timber tree, rapidity of growth and ease of culture, it +is clear that no other tree cultivated in this country can be ranked +on a par with the larch. Unfortunately, however, of late years the +larch has suffered much from disease, the predisposing causes of which +may mainly be attributed to the variableness of our spring weather, +and the rapidly degenerating state of the tree—the latter chiefly +brought about by an injudicious selection of seed. By far too little +attention has been paid to this important matter, the result being +that weakness and tenderness have got into the constitution of the +tree, and it is thus unable to withstand even a few degrees of frost. +So weakened, blight, fungus, and ulceration find a footing, and thus +the fell disease is generated about which so much has been said and +written of late years. In my own opinion, strengthened by careful +investigation and research, induced tenderness in the constitution of +the larch is the primary cause of disease, cold winds and frost being +the destructive agents, and ulceration the direct consequence.</p> + +<p>Injury to the roots of the larch in transplanting is attended with most +injurious results. In corroboration of this, it may be stated that +natural or self-sown trees are, in this country, almost exempt from +disease.</p> + +<p>The variableness of our spring weather is, no doubt, one of the +predisposing causes of disease, for although no degree of cold +experienced in this country can injure the tree when leafless, yet few +are more sensitive when in young foliage.</p> + +<p>The durability of the wood of the larch is well known, and this +peculiarity is even noticeable when of only a few years’ growth. As +compared with Scotch and spruce firs, the wood of the larch is about +twice as durable—a fence of the latter cut at from twenty to thirty +years’ growth lasted from seventeen to twenty years, while that of the +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_59"></a>[Pg 59]</span> +spruce lasts about eleven years, and the Scotch seven years. This +refers especially to rails, not to posts, which decay in about half +that time. For mining and railway purposes the durability of larch wood +makes it much sought after, this being further enhanced by its extreme +lightness, the weight of a cubic foot when seasoned being only 34 lbs. +It takes a beautiful polish, works with great freedom, and, when fully +seasoned, is not at all liable to twist or warp.</p> + +<p>Substitutes for the larch have often been recommended, but, in the true +sense of the word, there are practically none, although, doubtless, +some of those whose claims have been set forth might to a certain +extent reflect one or more of its valuable qualities.</p> + +<p><b>Sitka or Silver Spruce</b> (<i>Picea Sitchensis</i>).—From a purely +commercial point of view the Sitka or Silver Spruce is probably the +most valuable of any of the family to which it belongs. It is a tree +of noble growth in this country, several specimens being well over 100 +ft. in height and with boles that girth fully 10 ft. at a yard from the +ground, these dimensions being attained in seventy-five years. When +used as a standard, the tree is one of great beauty, the stiff and +rather irregularly disposed branches being thickly beset with vivid +bluish-green foliage that is silvery on the under side. It delights in +a cool, moist loam and not too exposed situation, but when grown on +gravel or any warm soil the foliage is distinctly meagre and affected +by red spider. The timber, which is remarkably light for its bulk, +strong and flexible, is of great value in the making of aeroplanes, and +special logs find a ready market at highly remunerative prices in the +London market.</p> + +<p>The <b>Corsican Pine</b> (<i>Pinus laricio</i>).—This is, undoubtedly, +one of the best all-round conifers that has found its way into the +British Isles. It is of very rapid growth, and well suited for +planting, even in the most exposed and wind-swept situations; a +non-fastidious subject as to soil, and a valuable timber-producer.</p> + +<p>As to its adaptability for withstanding long-continued cold blasts at +high altitudes, ample evidence can be adduced on many an English and +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_60"></a>[Pg 60]</span> +Scotch estate where the pine has been introduced into the woodlands in +such quantity as in certain places to form the ultimate or standing +crop. In North Wales, on one of the Snowdon range of hills, I have +planted the Corsican pine in great quantity. The plantation was, for +the greater part, fully exposed to the dreaded south-westerly wind, +which at times blows hard and long, and sweeps the hillsides with +terrific fury; yet, under such conditions, the Corsican pine has done +remarkably well—in fact, proved itself to be well suited for planting +at high altitudes on our English hillsides. Even at the highest point +of the woodlands in question, this pine has thriven in a manner that +is quite surprising, and thrown its stoutest branches out into the +very teeth of the blast, and that where hardly a hardwood tree could +survive, and even the Scotch fir shrank from the cold and almost +unceasing storms. Other notable instances of how well the Corsican does +on exposed ground and high altitudes might be pointed out—such as at +Blair Athol, in Perthshire, at 700 ft., where it is thriving amazingly; +and again in Yorkshire, one of the most barren and wind-swept of +English counties, where in parts, it grows with a luxuriance that is +almost unparalleled in any other part of Britain. The timber produced +by the Corsican pine in this country is strong, tough, elastic, very +resinous, and easily worked; this is speaking of trees of fully fifty +years’ growth. It thrives well on gravelly soil, some of the largest +specimens of the tree in this country growing along the margin of a +disused gravel-pit.</p> + +<p>It may be said that the Corsican pine is perfectly hardy, peculiarly +well suited for planting in exposed situations, a rapid and valuable +timber-producer, a tree that is cheaply and easily raised from seed, +and one of the most non-exacting conifers as regards choice of +soil that could be named—all qualities of the highest value in a +timber-producing tree and a combination that is rarely found in any +other species.</p> + +<p>In France extensive plantations of the Corsican have been formed, while +it has also been introduced extensively into the State forests by the +Prussian Government. +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_61"></a>[Pg 61]</span></p> + +<div class="figcenter"> + <img id="I_061" src="images/i_061.jpg" alt="" width="300" height="519" > + <p class="f110">THE WEYMOUTH PINE<br> AT GWYDYR CASTLE</p> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_62"></a>[Pg 62]</span> +The <a href ="#I_061"><b>Weymouth Pine</b></a> (<i>P. Strobus</i>), whether viewed +in an ornamental or economic aspect, must be considered as another of the +most valuable pines that have been introduced into this country. Admit, +we must, that in certain situations the cultivation of this handsome +tree has been attended with no very promising results; but then it +should be remembered that, like most other trees, the Weymouth pine +has its likes and dislikes of soil, as well, indeed, as of aspect +and altitude. That it has succeeded well, and produced an unusually +large quantity of clean and firm wood in various parts of the country +cannot be denied; but then in such places its peculiar wants have +been attended to. At Gwydyr Castle, in North Wales, the tree succeeds +admirably, specimens fully 90 ft. in height, straight as arrows, +branchless for three-fourths their length, and fully 8 ft. in girth +at breast-high, being not uncommon. The soil is rocky debris, largely +intermixed with vegetable refuse, fairly moist at all times, but +without stagnant moisture.</p> + +<p>On the western borders of Ross-shire, at Strathkyle, where the +altitudes vary from 100 ft. to 1,200 ft., the Weymouth pine is making +rapid progress. We do not wish it to be inferred that the Weymouth +pine alone is suitable for planting at high altitudes and on exposed +situations; but that it will grow rapidly and produce useful timber +in partially-sheltered districts has been proved by those who have +paid particular attention to the value of the more recently introduced +conifers as profitable timber-producers in this country.</p> + +<p>A comparison of the wood produced by the Weymouth pine in this country +with that sent to the late Colonial and Indian Exhibition showed but +slight differences, and nothing more than could naturally be expected +between a mature and an only partially-developed tree.</p> + +<p>The <b>Scotch Pine</b> (<i>P. sylvestris</i>) must on no account +be omitted from our list; as, especially for planting in exposed +situations where few other trees could succeed, it is one of the best. +Probably the principal reason why this tree has not been more generally +cultivated, is on account of the low-priced timber it produces, for, +of late years, it has been difficult, except in certain favoured +districts, to get rid of it at a remunerative price. With the war, +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_63"></a>[Pg 63]</span> +matters are quite different. The finest quality of Scotch pine timber, +such as that produced in some of the northern Scottish counties, no +doubt, is even now fairly remunerative; but, generally speaking, that +grown throughout Southern Scotland, England as a whole, and also +Ireland, is of so inferior a quality as hardly to fetch a remunerative +price. No doubt, however, this pine will continue to be largely planted +wherever shelter and ornament are of first importance: and rightly so, +for few others are so well able to withstand cold, cutting blasts at +high altitudes.</p> + +<p>The <b>Douglas Fir</b> (<i>Pseudotsuga Douglasii</i>) is, in certain +situations, a valuable timber-producing tree—indeed, as regards the +actual production of timber in a given time, it is, perhaps, ahead +of any other tree grown in this country. From measurements we have +taken, the actual production of timber during fifty years was 240 ft., +or nearly 5 ft. per year for half a century. In a plantation of the +Douglas fir in Wales, planted twenty-two years, we found the average +dimensions to be as follows: Height, 76 ft.; girth of stem at 24 ft., 4 +ft.; cubic contents, fully 50 ft. The timber produced in this country +is of excellent quality, being light but strong, works very readily, +has a pleasant yellowish tinge, and takes on a good polish. That the +Douglas fir is a tree that is eminently adapted for cultivation in +this country is already well known; but to grow it in anything like a +satisfactory way it must be planted in sheltered hollows, for extensive +experience has long ago proved to us that it is ill-adapted for braving +the storm, even at a few feet above the sea-level. Long ago we strongly +advocated the forming of plantations of <i>P. Douglasii</i> alone, or +with some other tree of about equally rapid growth, for, when mixed up +with the general run of our forest trees, the leader, on overtopping +those of its neighbours, soon gets broken over, or otherwise presents +an almost branchless, whip-handle-like appearance. We do not wish to +say one word against this our favourite fir: but the truth must be +told, and our own experience, gained principally on a low-lying seaside +estate, where the tree was annually planted by the thousand, is that +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_64"></a>[Pg 64]</span> +<i>P. Douglasii</i> must occupy a sheltered situation if either +ornament or utility be considered as points of first importance.</p> + +<p>The <b>Giant Arborvitæ</b> (<i>Thuja gigantea</i>) is fast coming to +the front as a British timber tree, and has already, at the hands of +far-seeing planters, received a fair amount of attention. After a fair +and impartial trial on our part, we have found it to be perfectly +hardy, even at high altitudes, a fast grower and rapid timber-producer, +a non-fastidious subject as regards the quality of soil in which it is +planted, and one of the most easily managed and most accommodating of +trees. The quality of timber produced in this country is such as to +warrant us in speaking highly of it, it being of a desirable yellow +colour, fine-grained, easily worked, remarkably durable, and light in +proportion to its bulk. From the measurements of fully twenty-four +specimens scattered over an English park, we have found that the +average annual rate of growth is 22 in., but even this is exceeded by +young trees.</p> + +<p>The <b>Norway Spruce</b> (<i>Picea excelsa</i>).—Whether as a hardy, +shelter-giving tree, or for the quantity of fairly good timber it +produces, the common or Norway spruce must ever rank high in the list +of useful trees that have been found suitable for culture in the +British Isles. That it is a tree in every sense of the word admirably +suited for extensive planting is acknowledged by all, as it luxuriates +at high altitudes, and where fully exposed to our worst winds, and at +the same time produces a great quantity of timber that has been found +of excellent quality, well suited for general constructive purposes. +As a shelter tree few others can equal the spruce, and when planted +along the outskirts of exposed plantations the amount of warmth and +protection it affords is quite surprising.</p> + +<p>The <b>Silver Fir</b> (<i>Abies pectinata</i>) is another of those +trees that have of late years fallen into disrepute, mainly owing to +the increased importation of foreign timber. That it is an excellent +and highly remunerative tree is unquestionable, and the very fact of +its thriving luxuriantly on soils where the larch declines to grow should +make it, in this country at least, of great value as a forest tree. +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_65"></a>[Pg 65]</span></p> + +<p>With the most satisfactory results has the timber been used for railway +sleepers—in fact four sleepers laid experimentally have stood the wear +and tear quite as well as those of Baltic timber, alongside of which +they were placed. For roofing purposes the wood has likewise attained +great fame, as it is found to stand vicissitudes of dry and damp +alternately better than almost any other home-grown timber.</p> + +<p>The coniferous trees just treated of are about the only kinds that can +be recommended for profitable planting in this country.</p> + +<p>The Atlantic Cedar and Japanese Larch might be added to the list, +but present experience will not justify us in bringing any of these +prominently to notice.</p> + +<p>Twenty-five years ago, at the instigation of the then Earl of Derby, +the writer formed several plantations on the Holwood Estate in Kent. +At the outset it may be well to state that these plantations were not +formed with the object of producing valuable timber, but rather for the +ornamentation and privacy of the newly-acquired property. The trees +used were the Scotch, Corsican, Austrian and <a href ="#I_061">Weymouth pines</a>, +Douglas fir, the larch, and several species of hardwoods. As all have succeeded +well under exactly similar conditions, the following notes as to the +rate of growth and production of timber, both of which are unusually +great, during a period of twenty-five years may be instructive.</p> + +<p>Previously to being planted the land, which may best be described as a +hungry loam on a gravelly subsoil and sheltered, was let out for rough +grazing and the cultivation of strawberries and other fruit.</p> + +<p>The cost per acre of forming these plantations was:—</p> + +<table class="spb1"> + <tbody><tr class="fs_120"> + <td class="tdl"> </td> + <td class="tdc_wsp"><b>£</b></td> + <td class="tdc_wsp"><b><i>s.</i></b></td> + <td class="tdc_wsp"><b><i>d.</i></b></td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl">Pitting, 2,722 at 1<i>s.</i> per 100  </td> + <td class="tdc">1</td> + <td class="tdc">7</td> + <td class="tdc">2</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl">Planting</td> + <td class="tdc">1</td> + <td class="tdc">1</td> + <td class="tdc">0</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl">Trees, at 40<i>s.</i> per 1,000</td> + <td class="tdc bb">5</td> + <td class="tdc bb">8</td> + <td class="tdc bb">0</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl"></td> + <td class="tdc">£7 </td> + <td class="tdc">16</td> + <td class="tdc">2</td> + </tr> + </tbody> +</table> + +<p>This price may appear both high and low, but in connexion with the +former it should be explained that the coniferous trees when planted +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_66"></a>[Pg 66]</span> +were about 16 in. high, the others about 3 ft., all being placed 4 +ft. apart. Owing to the land having recently been under cultivation +and labour at that time being cheap in the district, the opening of +pits was carried out by contract at quite a nominal rate, the size of +each being 12 in. square and 9 in. deep. After being planted the trees +required little attention for the first six years, at which period they +averaged 8 ft. in height, and the shade occasioned by the branch spread +had killed out most of the grassy undergrowth.</p> + +<p>As the plantations were primarily intended for ornament and shelter, +the retention of the lower branches of the trees, at least along the +margin, was imperative, and in order to ensure this, early thinning was +engaged in and carried out at regular intervals up to the present time, +always bearing in mind to allow the boundary trees plenty of room for +branch development, those inwards, in order to induce clean growth, +being left much closer on the ground. Though in the latter case the +volume of timber produced is comparatively less than along the margins, +yet it is of greater value owing to the trees being straight and +clean-stemmed, the only exception being the Corsican pine which, even +when isolated, has little inclination to form stout side branches.</p> + +<p>The soil being light and resting on gravel was peculiarly suited for +the growth of the pines, none of which suffered from disease or insect +attack, though the Weymouth had occasional patches of the aphis with +which it is usually attacked around London. The larch was practically +free from canker.</p> + +<p>During recent thinning operations a good opportunity was afforded of +taking the actual measurements when felled of the various species of +trees, these being as follows:—</p> + +<table class="spb1"> + <tbody><tr> + <td class="tdl">Austrian</td> + <td class="tdl_wsp">pine,</td> + <td class="tdl_wsp">average</td> + <td class="tdl_wsp">height,</td> + <td class="tdr"> 46 ft.;</td> + <td class="tdl_wsp">cubic</td> + <td class="tdl_wsp">contents,</td> + <td class="tdr">9 ft.</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl">Corsican</td> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + <td class="tdr">51 ft.;</td> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + <td class="tdr"> 11 ft.</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl">Scotch</td> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + <td class="tdr">45 ft.;</td> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + <td class="tdr">8 ft.</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl">Weymouth</td> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + <td class="tdr">42 ft.;</td> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + <td class="tdr">6 ft.</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl">Larch</td> + <td class="tdc"> </td> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + <td class="tdr">47 ft.;</td> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + <td class="tdr">8 ft.</td> + </tr> + </tbody> +</table> + +<p>It will thus be seen that the Corsican pine has surpassed all the +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_67"></a>[Pg 67]</span> +others both in height and in the quantity of timber produced; and in +viewing the plantations from a distance the leaders of the Corsican +pines soar quite 6 ft. above those of their neighbours. The Austrian +comes next in the quantity of timber produced, but not in height; and +the larch and Scotch are of about equal size, the Weymouth being equal +to the latter in height but not in bulk of stem. But the larch beats +all in value of timber, for, while that of the various species of pine +was difficult to sell at a remunerative figure, the larch wood was +readily disposed of at a fair valuation.</p> + +<p>My experience is that timber merchants fight shy of purchasing any of +the pine family excepting the Scotch. This may be owing to prejudice or +want of knowledge as to the value of timber produced by the Corsican +and Weymouth; but whatever the cause, the fact remains that the timber +of both these species is difficult to dispose of at any but firewood +rates. That of the Scotch being better known finds a ready market +at about half the price of larch, which latter, after all, is the +most useful and profitable of any coniferous tree cultivated in this +country, and one for which the demand always exceeds the supply.</p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_68"></a>[Pg 68]</span></p> +<h2 class="nobreak">CHAPTER VII<br> +<span class="h_subtitle">PLANTING EXPOSED GROUND</span></h2> +</div> + +<p>As the majority of plantations for purely economic purposes are formed +on the wind-swept moor or hillside, the successful management of these +is a matter of considerable importance.</p> + +<p>There are many difficulties to encounter in planting high-lying and +exposed ground that one would never have to think about in low-lying +and sheltered situations. Planting, for instance, should not be +commenced until February or March, as, by deferring it till that time, +the newly-inserted plants will be fresh and vigorous, and ready for an +immediate start in growth, which would not be the case if they had been +put out in autumn and subjected during winter to the inevitable wind +shaking that is always to be reckoned with on exposed ground.</p> + +<p>The choice of trees, too, for planting on wind-swept ground is a matter +of far more moment than is generally supposed, for that there are +certain species of trees peculiarly suitable for withstanding prolonged +storms is well known to those who have had to do with the forming of +woods and plantations at high altitudes. The size of trees planted has +also much to do with the after success of the woods, and it may be +well at the outset to say that these should not exceed about 12 in. in +height on the most favoured sites to about from 6 in. to 9 in. on the +more exposed grounds. They should also be properly prepared by frequent +careful transplanting for the situations they are intended to occupy, +as it can hardly be expected that a young and immature tree can, after +being brought from a probably sheltered lowland nursery—as nine-tenths +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_69"></a>[Pg 69]</span> +of those in this country are—to a high piece of ground, where at +times the wind blows with terrific fury, and where one can scarcely +stand upright, have sufficient stamina to stand against such odds and +difference as must and do exist between the two points at present under +consideration.</p> + +<p>Sometimes it is well to trench over a piece of ground on +partially-exposed land, and insert therein for a couple of years before +the proposed plantation is to be formed, the young trees intended for +planting out. This has a wonderful effect in hardening and inuring +them to severe cold and a wind-swept situation. By forming a nursery +of young trees by the sea-coast, I have known great success attend the +formation of woods and plantations in maritime situations, and like +results are sure to attend the planting out of trees in any uncongenial +and unfavourable situation.</p> + +<p>About the trees to be planted, being such as are sufficiently hardy +to withstand prolonged storms, we will now say a few words. In the +outer line—or, rather lines—the Scotch, Austrian, and Corsican Pines +(<i>Pinus sylvestris</i>, <i>P. austriaca</i>, and <i>P. laricio</i>) +are of first value, since they are able to stand against the storms +of the hillside and produce a great amount of shelter to other less +hardy kinds. It is often only necessary to make a wind-barrier, as it +were—that is, to plant well-tried evergreen kinds, from which shelter +can be obtained next the most windy position, then to follow up with +other kinds that are second hardy in nature, and so on inwards; while, +in the very centre of the plantation, almost any kind of tree can be +used.</p> + +<p>The <b>Austrian Pine</b> has been successfully planted at high +altitudes, and in the most exposed situations, and on the Continent +it has proved itself of great value for breezy sites and maritime +situations.</p> + +<p>The State forests are composed of not a few Austrian pines, and they +are greatly valued for the shelter and warmth they afford to other less +hardy kinds of trees. The best results are to be obtained if planted +when young, for when removed at a greater age, with roots large and +rampant of growth, it is with great difficulty that they can be got to +keep upright. Unfortunately the timber is of no special value. +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_70"></a>[Pg 70]</span></p> + +<p>The <b>Corsican Pine</b> is equally as good as the latter for using +where winds are of common occurrence, proving stout and strong, rooting +well, and presenting a broad surface of hardy evergreen foliage to the +blast. It is a good timber-producer, and, being well fitted for growing +in patches close together, will yet be largely used for forest work in +this country.</p> + +<p>About the <b>Scotch Pine</b> it is, perhaps, needless to speak, for +every one who has travelled in Scotland, particularly in the more +exposed northern parts, must have made himself acquainted with the +capabilities of this valuable native tree. It can grow and flourish +almost anywhere—on pure gravel, on the rocky mountain-slope, or by the +rushing brookside, and in all these positions it seems to feel quite +happy and contented, as the beautiful silvery glaucous foliage, the +upright, rampant growth, and the cheery cinnamon or terra-cotta bark +clearly indicate.</p> + +<p>With these three excellent storm-resisting trees for an outer barrier +almost any kind of planting can be engaged in, for the shelter they +afford is amply sufficient to start away into rapid growth even our +only second-class hardy kinds of trees. The <b>Sycamore</b> is a good +tree for planting where the storms blow loud and long, being able to +withstand in a very commendable way the first brunt of the hillside +winds. It is also a good timber-producer, the wood at all times being +easily disposed of, and at a very remunerative price.</p> + +<p>The <b>Elder</b> and <b>Mountain Ash</b> are other valuable +small-growing trees for planting on exposed ground, both flourishing +apace even in very high and exposed woodlands.</p> + +<p>In the <b>Scotch</b> or <b>Mountain Elm</b> (<i>Ulmus montana</i>) +we have a first-class tree for planting as shelter, while the +<b>Alder</b>, <b>Willows</b> of various kinds, and the <b>Hornbeam</b> +should all receive attention in the formation of woodlands on exposed +and storm-swept sites.</p> + +<p>The <b>American Winged Elm</b> (<i>Ulmus alata</i>) has few equals for +withstanding long-continued storms at high altitudes, for it sends out +its cork-covered branches without fear of harm into the very teeth of +the blast. I have noticed how well suited this elm is for planting on +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_71"></a>[Pg 71]</span> +exposed, high-lying ground by the few examples that occur at +considerable elevations in some of the screen-belts that have been +formed on the flanks of the Snowdon range of hills, where the tree looks +quite as healthy and happy as at lower elevations in a sheltered park.</p> + +<p>The <b>Larch</b>, be it remembered, is a good tree for planting on +exposed ground, for, though it gets twisted about and untidy of +appearance, it has a wonderful recuperative nature, and will succeed +well even when planted on the margins of exposed woodlands. By taking +advantage of natural tree or shrub growth when forming plantations at +high altitudes much good may be brought about. A young tree planted +to the leeward of a clump of gorse, broom, juniper, or birch has a +much better chance of succeeding than another planted where it has no +shelter from the worst winds of the particular district. These wild +clumps of natural shrubs should be encouraged in every way, for they +will not only give a great amount of shelter, but help to thicken up +the plantations as well. In exposed woodlands it is a good plan to +plant up the margins with such hardy wild shrubs as the gorse, broom, +thorn, juniper, blackthorn, etc., all of which will afford a great +amount of shelter to the young plants when newly inserted, and help +them to start away freely.</p> + +<p>The <a href ="#I_050"><b>Common Beech</b></a> is a good all-round tree for +planting in exposed sites, but especially where the soil is poor, or, in other +words, composed principally of chalk or gravel. Some of the highest +grounds in several of the English counties are occupied by thriving +beech plantations, these acting as landmarks for many miles around, as +notably at Knockholt and on the Chiltern Hills.</p> + +<p>The <b>Oak</b> and <b>Ash</b> should both find places in high-lying and +exposed woodlands, for, although they cannot be planted successfully +along the margins, yet they thrive well where a little shelter is +afforded, and where the soil is fairly deep and rich.</p> + +<p>The <b>Birch</b> cannot be passed by in any list of trees for planting +in exposed places; it thrives well at high altitudes, and where only a +small quantity of soil overlies the rock.</p> + +<p>The <b>Wild</b> and <b>Bird Cherries</b> (<i>Cerasus vulgaris</i> and +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_72"></a>[Pg 72]</span> +<i>C. Padus</i>) are excellent ornamental trees for exposed grounds, +where they grow to a large size and flower freely. They can both +subsist where but a small depth of soil is present.</p> + +<p><b>Preparation of the Ground and Planting.</b>—As regards the pits for +planting, these should be well prepared—that is, the soil loosened +up and made free for the roots to run in, which will greatly help +the trees to become quickly established—a point of great importance +on exposed ground. The top turf may be chopped up and placed in the +bottom of the pit, this serving, when decomposed, as manure to the +roots, and assisting to promote vigorous growth. In planting, place the +best-rooted sides of the trees to the windward or most exposed site, +and do not cover with the soil to a greater depth than that in which +the plant stood whilst in the nursery border. On very exposed sites, +and where the soil is thin, notch planting and inserting with the +planting iron are to be recommended.</p> + +<p>It will be well, at stated intervals, to examine young plantations +formed on high-lying and exposed ground, to see that the plants do not +get shaken about with the wind and holes formed around the stems. This +latter is highly injurious to the welfare of the plants, as the air +passing down the stem side causes the roots to get dry to an inordinate +degree.</p> + +<p>Wind-swaying, where these holes have been formed around the stem, is +also hurtful, as the tender roots get strained and barked, and ill +fitted for maintaining a healthy condition of the young trees. The +holes formed by swaying of the stems should be filled up with fine +soil—not stones, as is sometimes the case—and a small piece of stiff, +grassy turf tramped firmly against the stem on the side opposite that +from which the worst winds may be expected.</p> + +<p>Should rank vegetation, which, is, however, rarely met with at high +altitudes and on exposed ground, interfere with the growth of the young +trees, it would be well to have such cut over and either burned or +spread evenly over the ground.</p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_73"></a>[Pg 73]</span></p> +<h2 class="nobreak">CHAPTER VIII<br> +<span class="h_subtitle">SEASIDE PLANTING</span></h2> +</div> + +<p>Few persons other than those who have actually been engaged in the +work have the remotest idea of the difficulties to be encountered +in the formation of belts and plantations on exposed and wind-swept +seaside ground. To plant young trees around many parts of the coast of +the British Isles, particularly where wide stretches of open seaboard +are to be dealt with, without first erecting a shelter-screen of +some kind or other, is useless work, and only productive of the most +unsatisfactory results.</p> + +<p>That there are not a few districts, however, where such a preliminary +would be needless is well known, all that is required in certain +instances being, first of all, to prepare the ground, and secondly, to +suit the trees to the soil and situation, seeing that some varieties +succeed better than others in certain soils and sites.</p> + +<p>From experience I have found out how useless it is to plant in a +haphazard way, at least, on the more exposed seaboards along the west +coast, whereas, by careful manipulation, I have been successful in +getting up shelter where before it was deemed almost an impossibility. +The chief consideration in seaside planting is unquestionably shelter, +be it only of a temporary kind, for it may be noticed anywhere along +our coast that, wherever the direct force of the hurricane is broken, +there trees and shrubs are growing best. Another evil—a great one, +too—with which the planter has to contend is the injurious effect +on trees, but more particularly on evergreen shrubs, of the saline +particles which are driven and deposited with such force on the leaves +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_74"></a>[Pg 74]</span> +and branches as in many instances to give them the appearance of having +been scorched or cut over when in full vigour by an untimely frost. +Wind-shaking, although a minor evil, must also be carefully guarded +against, so that at the outset it is well to have the trees, except +such as are of dwarf size, securely staked and tied, so as to obviate +the dire results occasioned to the roots of newly-planted trees when +the stems are allowed to rock to and fro with the wind.</p> + +<p>Before commencing planting operations on the sandy and exposed +sea-coast, the preliminary step is to erect a barrier of some kind, +which will intercept the violence of the wind, and act as a screen +or shelter to the young plants. For this purpose various kinds of +erections are equally suitable, but that usually adopted, especially +where loose sand alone is present, is a strong paling fence thatched +with brushwood. The posts should if possible be 6 ft. above ground and +about 12 ft. apart, the paling-rails, two in number, being securely +nailed to these at 2 ft. and 5 ft. from the ground; against this are +placed spruce or gorse trimmings, these being 6 ft. long if possible, +in an upright manner, and firmly tied to the crossbars by means of +binding wire or strong tarred rope. This may best be described as a +dead fence, but it is, nevertheless, quite as valuable for the purpose +required as a perfectly developed living hedge. By means of this a +great advantage is gained and a favourable start for the newly-planted +trees is secured. Then, compared with a stone wall, or, in fact, a +wall of any kind, this screen-fence is greatly superior, the wind +being broken up in passing through it, and, what is of as much value, +also relieved of its saline particles, at least to a very considerable +extent.</p> + +<p>Where the shore is almost destitute of sand, and where certain kinds of +vegetation subsist, I find it to be a capital plan to substitute for +the dead fence just described that composed of turf and earth.</p> + +<p>The raised mound should be not less than 5 ft. in height, and of +sufficient width at top to allow of the planting of a double line of +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_75"></a>[Pg 75]</span> +such plants as have been found most suitable for the wind-swept +maritime situation in which they are to be used. For this purpose +few plants equal, and certainly none surpass, the Sea Buckthorn +(<i>Hippophæ rhamnoides</i>), Tamarisk (<i>Tamarix gallica</i>), +the common elder, hazel, whitethorn, and at least three species of +willow—<i>Salix Caprea</i>, <i>S. helix</i>, and <i>S. alba</i>. +Immediately behind this screen, pits of not less than 2 ft. in diameter +and about 18 in. in depth may be formed, and it will be all the better +if some time is allowed to elapse before they are planted. The bottom +and side of each pit should, where found necessary, be loosed with a +pick, and if the soil is found to be of very inferior quality, it will +be well, more especially where such can be readily obtained, to add a +spadeful or two from some adjoining field.</p> + +<p>Planting should not be commenced before March or April, an early start +at growth being much in favour of young trees that have recently been +transferred to the sea-coast. The plants to be used should not exceed, +say, 12 to 15 in. in height, but of strong growth in proportion to +their size, and supplied with an abundance of fibrous roots. Lanky, +ill-grown, and coddled plants have but a poor chance of succeeding +under such adverse circumstances.</p> + +<p>In planting, keep the strongest roots seaward, and do not place the +trees at a greater depth in the soil than that at which they stood +whilst in the nursery border. The failure to use this precaution is +a mistake, and is productive of anything but favourable results. +Immediately behind this raised mound of turf, or the dead fence of +branches above described, the best trees for withstanding the first +brunt of the sea-breeze are the sycamore, elm, elder, and willow +amongst hardwoods, and the Austrian and cluster pines (<i>Pinus +austriaca</i> and <i>P. Pinaster</i>), to which might be added <i>P. +laricio</i>, <i>P. sylvestris</i>, and <i>P. montana</i>, amongst +conifers. These are all well-tried subjects, and may be relied upon as +peculiarly suited for doing battle with hard-blowing and long-continued +storms on the sea-coast.</p> + +<p>Regarding the merits of the cluster pine for seaside planting, it would +be almost superfluous for me to speak; while the elm and sycamore send +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_76"></a>[Pg 76]</span> +out their stout branches into the very teeth of the blast, and are +known as peculiarly well suited for such situations.</p> + +<p>The following list includes such trees and shrubs as have, from long +experience, been found well suited for planting on cold and wind-swept +shores, and the trees are arranged according to their value in this respect.</p> + +<h3><span class="smcap">Hardwoods</span></h3> + +<p>The <b>Sycamore</b> (<i>Acer Pseudo-platanus</i>) is, without doubt, +the most valuable hard-wooded tree of timber size that I have come +across for planting in exposed seaside situations. It succeeds well, +even at highwater mark, the stout, twiggy branches being thrown out +into the very face of the blast. Even during winter, and in a leafless +state, the amount of shelter afforded by this tree is quite surprising. +Taking everything into consideration—its great hardihood, and +suitability to various soils and situations, I consider the sycamore +the most valuable of any deciduous tree that I have yet tried for +seaside planting.</p> + +<p>The <b>Elder</b> (<i>Sambucus nigra</i>) is, amongst small-growing +trees, the best for planting in exposed seaside districts. Its powers +of endurance are even greater than those of the sycamore, although +the amount of shelter it affords is by no means so great. Where its +branches are constantly exposed to the saline-laden breeze, and its +roots amongst almost pure sand, it grows and thrives in a manner that +is quite surprising. With the greatest advantages have I used the elder +as a wind-break on some of the most exposed and desolate coasts of +the British Isles. Even where grown as a single specimen, it seems to +disregard the angry blast and saline particles with which it is almost +constantly pelted—a fact that may be verified, in not one, but several +stations along the coast. Then, what tree is of readier culture than +the elder, succeeds better in poor, sandy soils, or spreads about to an +equal extent?</p> + +<p>The <b>Norway Maple</b> (<i>Acer platanoides</i>) stands the first +brunt of the sea-breeze in a most commendable way—indeed, it may be +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_77"></a>[Pg 77]</span> +recommended as one of the most hardy and valuable trees for the purpose +under consideration that could be named. On the western coast of +England, and in a very exposed and wind-swept district, I have used it +with the greatest success in the formation of plantations, as it is +of rapid growth and soon forms an excellent shelter to the other less +hardy kinds of trees. It is by no means particular as to soil, but +succeeds all the better if this is fairly rich.</p> + +<p>The <b>Winged Elm</b> (<i>Ulmus alata</i>).—From a long experience +of this, at present, little-known tree, I have every confidence in +recommending it as one of the most valuable trees for planting in +cold, wind-tortured, and maritime districts that have yet found their +way into this country. Where many of our hardiest trees are bent and +shrinking from the blast, this elm stands nobly out, and seems to defy +both winds and storm.</p> + +<p>The <b>Huntingdon Willow</b> (<i>Salix alba</i>) and <b>Bedford +Willow</b> (<i>S. Russelliana</i>), but particularly the former, are +excellent trees for windy shores. In many places along the coast +the Huntingdon willow may be seen in a most flourishing and happy +condition, and that, too, where the surroundings are the reverse of +favourable. It is a tree of quick growth, and will succeed well in any +class of soil if it be not too damp. In one instance that came under +my notice, the trees were planted on a promontory overhanging the sea +and in such a situation that they were almost constantly subjected to +rough-blowing winds coming in from the Irish Sea, and yet they have +grown with the greatest freedom, and to-day look as healthy and happy +as if planted in some sheltered inland situation.</p> + +<p>The <a href ="#I_103"><b>Beam Tree</b></a> (<i>Pyrus Aria</i>) is another +excellent small-growing tree for planting in sites where, from cold saline +blasts, few others could eke out even a miserable existence.</p> + +<p>On the limestone cliffs of the Great Orme’s Head this handsome and +hardy tree grows in a most surprising way—indeed, with the exception +of one or two species of willow, I question very much whether any other +tree could exist under the trying circumstances. The hard and leathery +leaves seem as if specially constructed for bearing storms, and, being +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_78"></a>[Pg 78]</span> +plentifully produced, render a great amount of shelter to other trees.</p> + +<p>The <b>Goat Willow</b> (<i>Salix Caprea</i>), for planting in almost +pure sand on the sea-coast, is a most valuable small-growing tree, and +it is so hardy that, without the least risk of harm, it may be planted +at great altitudes, and in very exposed situations. In several of the +maritime plantations that I have formed, this willow was used with +remarkable success in the outer line or screen.</p> + +<p>The <b>Aspen</b> (<i>Populus tremula</i>) is an excellent shore-tree, +one that can withstand a great amount of rough usage, and as hardy +and fast-growing a subject as could well be desired. In the formation +of several exposed seaside woods on the west coast of England I +planted the aspen largely, and, I may add, the results have been most +satisfactory.</p> + +<p><b>P. canadensis</b>, <b>P. alba</b>, and <b>P. nigra</b> are likewise +worthy of extended culture, for they succeed well by the seaside. They +all stand the breeze from the sea, are perfectly hardy, and afford a +great amount of shelter.</p> + +<p>The <b>Mountain Ash</b> (<i>Pyrus Aucuparia</i>).—Although valueless, +or nearly so, for the quantity of timber it produces, yet, as a hardy, +free-growing tree, the mountain ash, or rowan tree, merits attention +from planters of exposed seaside land. All along the coast of Great +Britain this pretty tree may be found growing luxuriantly, and in such +situations affording a great amount of shelter to other less hardy +kinds of trees and shrubs. It may be planted without fear of harm, +down even to highwater mark, and where the soil is of the poorest +description. It is thus one of the most useful of trees for planting as +shelter along the roughest and most wind-tortured parts of the coast.</p> + +<p>The <b>Hoary Alder</b> (<i>Alnus incana</i>) and the <b>Common +Alder</b> (<i>A. glutinosa</i>) can hardly be excelled for planting +in wet portions of cold, wind-swept ground, and in the vicinity of +the sea. Both trees grow with the greatest freedom, and are perfectly +hardy, standing the first brunt of the saline blasts in a most +commendable and praiseworthy manner. +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_79"></a>[Pg 79]</span></p> + +<p>I have found it to be a good plan where shelter is wanted on bare +coast-tracts, if the quality of soil be at all suitable, to plant the +alders pretty closely, and when they have attained to 15 ft. or 20 ft. +in height, to cut every alternate one over at ground level. By so doing +a number of stout shoots are thrown out early in the following spring, +which, as they grow with great rapidity, soon fill up the blanks +occasioned by cutting over the young trees.</p> + +<p>After these have had several years’ growth the remaining half of the +original crop should be cut over, and when all have started from the +stools a first-class shelter is obtained. Of course, damp portions of +the ground should be selected on which to plant the alder.</p> + +<p>The <b>English Maple</b> (<i>Acer campestre</i>) can well hold its own +as a tree for planting on exposed seaside grounds. It is one of the +hardiest trees with which I am acquainted, growing on exposed hillsides +and at considerable elevations in a way that seems to attract the +attention of every one.</p> + +<p>Hedges or fringe fences of the native maple have succeeded amazingly +in several maritime woods in which it was planted, and in places, too, +where the wind blew loud and long.</p> + +<p>The <b>Scotch Elm</b> (<i>Ulmus montana</i>) comes next on the list of +such trees as I would recommend for the purpose under consideration. +It affords plenty of shelter, as it grows freely from the root-stock, +sending up numerous suckers, and is so hardy and proof against damage +from storms that it may safely be planted in wind-swept districts by +the seaside.</p> + +<p><b>Birch</b> (<i>Betula alba</i>) and <b>Ash</b> (<i>Fraxinus +excelsior</i>) are other trees that repeated experiments have proved to +be well suited for withstanding the ocean’s blast and for planting in +poor, rocky soils.</p> + +<p>The <b>Turkey Oak</b> (<i>Quercus Cerris</i>), with just a small amount +of shelter, will be found a most valuable tree for planting within the +influence of the sea. It thrives well in very poor soils, and when in +full leaf is capable of affording a great amount of shelter.</p> + +<p>The <b>Evergreen Oak</b> (<i>Q. Ilex</i>) has proved itself to be +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_80"></a>[Pg 80]</span> +peculiarly fitted for planting as shelter in exposed and maritime +districts. In the formation of seaside plantations, but particularly +where, from the frequency and force of the storms, few trees can +succeed, I have planted the evergreen oak with the greatest success.</p> + +<p>The trees just treated of have no equals, among such as have yet been +introduced, for withstanding cold seaside winds, a trial of many other +varieties only resulting in proving their unfitness for planting in +such situations. Two or three others, such as the <b>English Oak</b>, +<b>Hornbeam</b>, <b>Beech</b> and <b>English Elm</b>, might be added to +the list, but they can only be recommended for planting where at least +partial shelter is afforded.</p> + +<h3><span class="smcap">Coniferæ</span></h3> + +<p>Foremost amongst these I must, from long personal experience and a fair +trial of several kinds under exactly similar conditions in every way, +place the <b>Austrian Pine</b> (<i>Pinus austriaca</i>). It grows with +unusual freedom, and affords a greater amount of shelter than any other +tree with which I am at present acquainted.</p> + +<p>That it will succeed equally well with the <i>P. Pinaster</i> when +subjected to the sea-breeze, I am now fully convinced, while the amount +of shelter it affords, and rapidity of growth, place it far ahead of +that species for the purpose we are now considering. It may not succeed +so well as the Pinaster when planted in pure sand, on the sea-coast, +and this is the only point that can be adduced in favour of the latter +species over <i>P. austriaca</i>.</p> + +<p>In forming many large woods along the coast of Northern England I used +the Austrian pine in preference to several others, and happily, too, +for it has succeeded in a surprising manner, trees of ten years’ growth +being fully 13 ft. in height, and nearly as much in diameter of branch +spread. With such a screen as that afforded by the hardy Austrian, many +half-tender trees can be planted farther inland; and this is the method +of procedure that I have found to be most successful in getting up +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_81"></a>[Pg 81]</span> +shelter along bare and fully exposed parts of the shores of Western +England and Scotland.</p> + +<p>The <b>Cluster Pine</b> (<i>P. Pinaster</i>) and its smaller-growing +variety <i>P. maritima</i> have a world-wide reputation for their +suitability for planting on exposed seaside tracts of ground. That +they are of great value for planting on sandy wastes is a fact that +cannot be gainsaid—indeed, few other trees could succeed or eke out +an existence in pure sand and where the roots come in contact with the +salt water. A great drawback to this pine is its long tap-root and +want of fibrous roots; it transplants with difficulty, but this, as +in various other species of pine, may be greatly obviated by careful +nursery management.</p> + +<p>In my own opinion the typical tree is hardly equal to the variety +<i>maritima</i> either for shelter or withstanding the sea-breeze. The +variety, too, is, if anything, the most valuable for shelter-giving, it +having a much greater inclination to retain the lower branches intact.</p> + +<p>The <b>Corsican Pine</b> (<i>P. laricio</i>) quite equals the Austrian +in its powers of withstanding long-continued and cold winds. That it +does not succeed so well on the sea-coast is a fact of which, from +repeated experiments, I am fully aware. The Corsican pine, too, is a +valuable timber-producer—a fact that is well worthy of consideration +in extensive planting.</p> + +<p>In the <b>Giant Arborvitæ</b> (<i>Thuja gigantea</i>) we have another +excellent addition to the list of trees that have been found suitable +for planting on exposed maritime grounds. It grows with great rapidity, +and I have never found even a solitary example of this tree having been +uprooted or injured during the most severe storms. On the sea-coast of +Wales I have used the giant arborvitæ largely in the formation of woods +and plantations, and with great success. It transplants well, even when +of large size, and is readily propagated.</p> + +<p><b>Pinus montana</b> may also be recommended for afforesting tracts +of ground by the sea-coast. It is a tree of undoubted hardihood, +withstanding cold and cutting winds in a worthy manner. +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_82"></a>[Pg 82]</span></p> + +<p>The <b>Scotch Pine</b> (<i>P. sylvestris</i>), though by no means equal +to the above for planting by the seaside, must on no account be omitted +from our list, for it is a hardy, fast-growing specimen, and one that +can do battle with very severe and long-lasting storms. It should not +be planted where it will meet the first brunt of the storm, but given +a little shelter, such as that afforded by the above-named kinds. The +varieties of pine just named may all be relied upon as peculiarly well +fitted for the purpose under consideration.</p> + +<p>The <b>Large-fruited Cypress</b> (<i>Cupressus macrocarpa</i>) +and <b>Pinus insignis</b> might be added to the list, both being +well suited for maritime planting—inland, however, they cannot be +relied upon. <i>Pinus insignis</i> grows with unabated vigour on the +wind-swept coast of the Isle of Anglesey, and stands the breeze in a +most surprising and praiseworthy manner.</p> + +<p>The <b>Atlantic Cedar</b> (<i>Cedrus atlantica</i>) and <b>Swiss Stone +Pine</b> (<i>Pinus Cembra</i>) do fairly well as seaside trees.</p> + +<h3><span class="smcap">Shrubs</span></h3> + +<p>The <b>Sea Buckthorn</b> (<i>Hippophea rhamnoides</i>) is +unquestionably the best all-round shrub for planting as a shelter +by the sea-coast with which we are acquainted. To see it in several +districts of Scotland, growing amongst almost pure sand, and where +constantly exposed to fierce blasts, shows how valuable a shrub it is +for exposed maritime situations. For affording shelter it is one of the +best shrubs that I know of, the unusually twiggy branches sifting and +dividing up the wind in a most remarkable manner.</p> + +<p><b>Tamarix gallica</b> and <b>T. germanica</b> are two excellent +seaside shrubs, and such as are well suited for planting on exposed +places. They grow with great freedom, transplant well, and are readily +propagated. Even in pure sand they seem quite at home, growing freely, +and producing a rich abundance of their showy flowers. In very exposed +parts of the coast, and when fully open to direct sea-blasts, we have +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_83"></a>[Pg 83]</span> +frequently seen the tamarisk fully a dozen feet in height, and nearly +as much in branch-spread. Though little known <i>T. germanica</i> is a +most valuable seaside shrub, about 6 ft. in height, with small leaves, +and spikes of conspicuous red flowers.</p> + +<p>The <b>Box Thorn</b> (<i>Lycium europæum</i>) may be introduced without +fear of harm to the seaside woods, for it is not only perfectly hardy +in such situations, but it bears constant exposure to wind as well as +any shrub I know of. Hedges of this plant have been formed in many +maritime parts of England and Wales, the only support being a few +stakes driven in here and there along the line of fence. It will grow +in pure sand, and when lashed by the waves.</p> + +<p>The <b>Snowberry</b> (<i>Symphoricarpus racemosus</i>) comes next +on the list of shrubs that have been found suitable for the purpose +under consideration. It is a plant of extraordinary hardihood, one that +increases rapidly from the root-stock and affords a fair amount of shelter.</p> + +<p>The <b>Tree Mallow</b> (<i>Lavatera arborea</i>) can hardly be +surpassed for shore planting, where it frequently attains to a height +of 10 ft. It has been found of great utility in some of the islands +along the coast of Scotland.</p> + +<p><b>Spirea Adiantifolia</b> is a fitting companion for the latter, +growing and flowering very freely in wind-swept gardens along the +Scottish coast.</p> + +<p><b>Griselinia littoralis</b> has stood a severe test as to its +capability for withstanding cold winds blowing in from the sea.</p> + +<p>The <b>Dogwood</b> (<i>Cornus sanguinea</i>) and <b>Flowering +Currant</b> (<i>Ribes sanguineum</i>) are, likewise, excellent seaside +shrubs, of perfect hardihood and readily propagated.</p> + +<p>The <b>Tree Purslane</b> (<i>Atriplex halimus</i>) is also a really +valuable shrub that is totally indifferent to the salt spray, and from +its dwarf, evergreen nature, and silvery-scaly leaves, is also more or +less ornamental. It does not seem to mind either wind blowing direct +from the sea, or whether the soil in which it is planted is of only +moderate quality.</p> + +<p>The <b>Laurustinus</b> (<i>Viburnum tinus</i>).—Where the situation is +not too exposed, this is a most valuable and ornamental shrub. +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_84"></a>[Pg 84]</span></p> + +<p><b>Lilac</b> of various species are well adapted for planting by the +seaside, the two kinds most to be recommended being the <b>Common</b> +and <b>Persian</b> (<i>Syringa vulgaris</i> and <i>S. Persica</i>).</p> + +<p>The <b>Spanish Broom</b> (<i>Spartium junceum</i>) has been used with +the greatest success all along the coast, being perfectly hardy, and an +excellent subject for cold, draughty positions.</p> + +<p>The <b>Tree Groundsel</b> (<i>Baccharis halimifolia</i>) is not only +a shrub of great beauty, but one that is perfectly hardy, and well +adapted for planting by the seaside. It will thrive in almost pure +sand, but it is all the better for a poor gravelly loam, and seems to +delight in the ozone of the seaside atmosphere.</p> + +<p>Both the <b>Portugal Laurel</b> (<i>Prunus lusitanica</i>) and +<b>Sweet-Bay</b> (<i>Laurus nobilis</i>) are valuable evergreen shrubs +for seaside planting. From their large size and compact habit, they +afford a great amount of shelter.</p> + +<p>The <b>Common Holly</b> (<i>Ilex aquifolium</i>) and its golden +form both do well at the seaside, and this may also be said of the +<b>Common</b> and <b>Scotch Laburnums</b>. They may be used with best +advantage where the direct force of the blast is broken up.</p> + +<p>The <b>Common Gorse</b> (<i>Ulex europæus</i>) and the <b>Broom</b> +(<i>Cytisus scoparius</i>) should on no account be omitted from our +list of shrubs that are valuable for maritime wastes where the wind +exerts its full power.</p> + +<p>The above shrubs include the principal of such as can be recommended +for planting along the sea-coast, but where good shelter is afforded by +the trees named in this chapter, a few others might be recommended for +trial. These include the <b>Strawberry Tree</b> (<i>Arbutus unedo</i>), +<b>Euonymus japonicus</b>, <b>Berberis Darwinii</b>, <b>Ligustrum +Ovalifolium</b>, <b>Daphne Mezereon</b>, and <b>D. laureola</b>, +<b>Ruscus aculeatus</b>, <b>Hypericum calycinum</b>, <b>Vinca major</b> +and <b>V. minor</b>, and several kinds of thorn.</p> + +<p>The <b>Maram</b>, or <b>Sea Matweed</b> (<i>Psamma arenaria</i>) is +one of the most useful grasses with which I am acquainted for binding +shifting sands on the sea-coast. Not only so, but by using it as a +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_85"></a>[Pg 85]</span> +pioneer, the amount of shelter it affords renders other more difficult +subjects by no means hard to cultivate. It usually attains to a height +of from 2 ft. to 2½ ft., much depending on the situation, whether +partially sheltered or fully exposed. The root-stock creeps widely, +some specimens that have been followed up in the sand being of the +amazing length of 35 yards. Amongst loose and drifting sand the running +roots find what is most suitable for the welfare of the plant, and +it is astonishing with what persistency they bind in an unusually +short space of time these shifting hills of almost dust-dry sand. In +planting, place the plants in parallel lines, about 16 in. apart, and +at a distance of 12 in. from each other. Large plants may be subdivided +to almost any extent. A garden line is stretched along the ground, a +notch 10 in. deep taken out, the grass inserted therein and filled with +sand, and afterwards firmly trodden. That the sea matweed is a most +useful plant for fast gaining a footing on sandy tracts of sea-coast, +and thus allowing of following up with the shelter-giving trees, cannot +be disputed.</p> + +<p>The <b>Lymegrass</b> (<i>Elymus arenarius</i>) is also valuable for +growing in almost pure sand on the sea-coast.</p> + +<p>It is of tall, elegant growth, and is readily increased from root +divisions.</p> + +<p>The following trees and shrubs, alphabetically arranged, are +recommended for seaside planting:—</p> + +<p class="center spa1"><b><span class="smcap">Trees for the Sea-coast.</span></b></p> + +<table class="spb1"> + <tbody><tr> + <td class="tdl">Acer campestre</td> + <td class="tdl_ws2">Pinus Pinaster maritima</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl"> —— creticum</td> + <td class="tdl_ws2">Populus canadensis</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl"> —— Pseudo-platanus</td> + <td class="tdl_ws2"> —— nigra</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl">Alnus glutinosa</td> + <td class="tdl_ws2">—— nigra</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl"> —— incana</td> + <td class="tdl_ws2">Pyrus Aucuparia</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl">Betula alba</td> + <td class="tdl_ws2"> —— Aria</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl">Carpinus betulus</td> + <td class="tdl_ws2">Quercus Ilex</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl">Cedrus atlantica</td> + <td class="tdl_ws2"> —— Robur</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl">Cupressus macrocarpa</td> + <td class="tdl_ws2">Salix alba</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl">Fagus sylvatica</td> + <td class="tdl_ws2"> —— Caprea</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl">Fraxinus excelsior</td> + <td class="tdl_ws2"> —— Forsteriana</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl">Pinus austriaca</td> + <td class="tdl_ws2"> —— Russelliana</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl"> —— laricio</td> + <td class="tdl_ws2">Thuja gigantea</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl"> —— montana</td> + <td class="tdl_ws2">Ulmus alata</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl"> —— Pinaster</td> + <td class="tdl_ws2"> —— campestris</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl"> </td> + <td class="tdl_ws2"> —— montana</td> + </tr> + </tbody> +</table> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_86"></a>[Pg 86]</span></p> + +<p class="center spa1"><b><span class="smcap">Shrubs for the Sea-coast.</span></b></p> + +<table class="spb1"> + <tbody><tr> + <td class="tdl">Atriplex halimus</td> + <td class="tdl_ws2">Lavatera arborea</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl">Aucuba japonica</td> + <td class="tdl_ws2">Lycium europæum</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl">Cerasus lusitanica</td> + <td class="tdl_ws2">Rhamnus frangula</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl"> —— Padus</td> + <td class="tdl_ws2">Ribes sanguineum</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl">Cytisus Laburnum</td> + <td class="tdl_ws2">Rosa spinosissima</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl"> —— scoparius</td> + <td class="tdl_ws2">Shepherdia argentea</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl">Euonymus japonicus</td> + <td class="tdl_ws2">Spirea adiantifolia</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl"> —— europæus</td> + <td class="tdl_ws2">Syringa persica</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl">Fabiana imbricata</td> + <td class="tdl_ws2"> —— vulgaris</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl">Griselinia littoralis</td> + <td class="tdl_ws2">Symphoricarpus racemosus</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl">Hippophæ rhamnoides</td> + <td class="tdl_ws2">Tamarix gallica</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl">Ilex Aquifolium</td> + <td class="tdl_ws2"> —— germanica</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl"> —— Aquifolium aurea</td> + <td class="tdl_ws2">Ulex Europæus</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl">Laurus nobilis</td> + <td class="tdl_ws2">Viburnum tinus</td> + </tr> + </tbody> +</table> + +<p class="center spa1"><b><span class="smcap">Grasses.</span></b></p> + +<p class="center spa1">Elymus arenarius<br>Psamma arenaria</p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_87"></a>[Pg 87]</span></p> +<h2 class="nobreak">CHAPTER IX<br> +<span class="h_subtitle">TOWN PLANTING,<br> <span class="fs_80">AND THE TREES AND SHRUBS THAT<br> + ARE BEST ADAPTED FOR SMOKY LOCALITIES</span></span></h2> +</div> + +<p>Probably no work connected with horticulture requires more judgment +and good management than the planting of trees and shrubs in urban +districts. The materials and soil of which streets and town gardens +are usually formed are ill-fitted for maintaining a healthy condition +in trees and shrubs for any length of time. This fact, coupled with +the impurities of the atmosphere in densely populated centres, has to +be constantly borne in mind. In more favourable districts all that is +necessary is to open a pit of sufficient size to contain the roots of +the tree or shrub to be planted; but in towns the soil, often as hard +as iron and composed mainly of refuse building materials, contains +but little plant food. For many years past careful observations have +been made, not only in London, but in Glasgow, Liverpool, Manchester, +Warrington and Dublin, as to which trees and shrubs succeed best in the +smoky localities of each town, and it is mainly by tabulating these +different experiences that satisfactory information on the subject +has been obtained. Coal smoke from the chimneys in the larger and +more crowded centres of industry is no doubt bad enough, but, when we +have to contend with an atmosphere that is largely impregnated with +the outcome from chemical, gas, or iron works, the difficulties to be +encountered are correspondingly increased.</p> + +<p>The injurious effects of smoke have become much more pronounced during +the past century, and Sir William Richmond, R.A., told the annual +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_88"></a>[Pg 88]</span> +meeting of the Coal Smoke Abatement Society that Westminster Abbey +had suffered from more rapid decay in the last hundred years than in +all the previous centuries of its existence. The chief cause of the +destruction of the stonework has been shown to be the presence in the +air of sulphur acids: the stone is converted into sulphate of lime; in +the process of its formation this disintegrates the stone by expansion. +The connexion between smoke and stone decay appears to lie in the +action of invisible gases emitted from the smoke particles.</p> + +<p>If stonework suffers so at the hands of smoke and sulphuric and other +acids, what, it may be asked, must the effect be on the foliage +of trees and shrubs—particularly such as are planted in the most +smoke-infested parts of our great towns and cities? When compared with +Continental cities—Paris, Brussels or Berlin—where tree-culture is +carried out most successfully, the atmosphere of British towns is +impregnated to a far greater extent with noxious fumes. Dry low-lying +and confined areas, particularly where excessive heat and atmospheric +impurities are present, are decidedly the worst, while open and +high-lying districts, though in the centre of a town, offer fewer +difficulties.</p> + +<p>That certain trees and shrubs succeed best in particular towns is +a well known fact, and the smoke-proof <a href ="#I_099">London Plane</a> is +by no means the best tree for some of the colliery districts; in Sheffield, +for instance, its place is largely taken by the Canadian Poplar. +In Manchester, the Lime would appear to thrive best, after which +the Elder, Thorn and <a href ="#I_099">Plane</a> succeed in the order named. +The variegated-leaved Sycamore and the horse chestnut are favourites where +the smoke from collieries is most offensive. But many such cases +could be pointed out, and even in the case of bedding plants certain +species succeed best in particular localities. In the gardens about +the Royal Mint, where they are exposed to the deleterious fumes from +gold-refining works, Fuchsias do remarkably well; indeed, the dwarf +edging variety, Golden Treasure, thrives so well that advantage has +been taken of the fact to propagate some of the stock that is annually +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_89"></a>[Pg 89]</span> +required for one of the London parks from cuttings taken at the Mint. +In the East End of London the Creeping Jenny (<i>Lysimachia</i>) +thrives well as a window plant, while in the chemically impure +atmosphere of Lambeth one of the Veronicas is the favourite plant +for indoor culture. The St. John’s Worts (<i>Hypericum</i>) do not +as a rule thrive well in London; yet around the Tate Gallery, which +is only divided by the river from the Lambeth pottery district—the +worst in the metropolis for atmospheric impurities—one species at +least flourishes amazingly, and has produced flowers in abundance +for many years past; while at St. Paul’s Churchyard, the lesser +Periwinkle (<i>Vinca minor</i>) has become quite established and runs +about freely. In Chancery Lane, at the Record Office, the common Ivy, +Bladder Senna, and Yucca do best. In other parts of London, too, +well known varieties of Campanula are largely grown as pot plants. +It is a somewhat strange fact, too, that some varieties of trees and +shrubs succeed better than the type species in smoky localities, as +witness the <a href ="#I_099">London Plane</a> (a variety of <i>Platanus orientalis</i>), +variegated-leaved Sycamore, fastigiate Poplar, two varieties of +Pyrus, Weeping Elm, Weeping Ash, and several varieties of Acacia, +notably <i>Robinia pseudo-acacia inermis</i> and <i>R. pseudo-acacia +Bessoniana</i>.</p> + +<p>Similarly, amongst shrubs, we have the dwarf Holly, golden variegated +Euonymus, golden Privet, Ribes, double-flowered Gorse, <i>Euonymus +radicans variegata</i>, and others. With Grasses, too, some curious +experiences might be related. At the British Museum the Yarrow +completely ousted the Grasses from the plots in front of that building, +and in the moat of the Tower of London several Grasses that succeed +in less smoky parts of the metropolis quickly die out. Near the main +entrance to the Tower of London, and close to Billingsgate Fish Market, +considerable difficulty was experienced in getting the <a href ="#I_099">Plane trees</a> +established; though in the matter of soil, and choice of strong sturdy +specimens, every possible care was taken. At last it was found that +the drip from the fish carts was the cause of the evil, and a remedy +was quickly found. In another garden, where dust, smoke, and soot are +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_90"></a>[Pg 90]</span> +plentiful, the Bladder Campion (<i>Silene inflata</i>), <i>Saponaria +officinalis</i>, the common Marigold, and Rye Grass seem positively +to revel. In situations almost constantly subjected to the sulphurous +fumes of the railway engines near Camden Town, and in the poorest +of soils, <i>Poa annua</i> would appear to be quite at home. The +chemical fumes from the pottery works at Lambeth are well known to act +injuriously on vegetation generally, but the Mulberry, Fig, Sycamore, +Turkey and Evergreen Oaks thrive as well there as they do in any +part of the metropolis. The fumes given off from many of our city +manufactories act most perniciously on vegetation generally—a fact +that was brought to my notice by the behaviour of some of our most +valuable smoke-resisting trees and shrubs planted in the graveyard +at St. Giles-in-the-Fields. Meeting the gardener there I remarked on +the wretched condition of the trees and shrubs generally, his quick +reply being, “Well! with Crosse & Blackwell’s on the one side, and +Nixey’s Black Lead Works on the other, it’s a wonder there’s a living +plant left!” Here the common Fig and Black Poplar seemed better able +to withstand the atmospheric conditions than either the <a href ="#I_099">London Plane</a> +or Acacia. With the largely increased use of coal gas for cooking +purposes, improved grates, and the better combustion of fuel, the +atmosphere of certain districts of London, has, however, become much +less smoky than was the case a few years ago, and in consequence +vegetation generally succeeds better. This is especially the case +in some of the low-lying districts adjoining the Thames where the +“slot” system of providing gas for cooking purposes has caused a great +decrease in the consumption of coke and coal, with a corresponding +reduction of the attending evils of smoke and soot. In one of the +poorest parishes many of the inhabitants have taken advantage of the +facilities offered by the Gas Company in the matter of cooking by +means of gas provided by the “slot” system, which, in comparison with +coal, has been found not only cheaper, but cleaner and handier to +use. According to a competent authority the smoke nuisance has, in +consequence, greatly abated, and with the purer air, the cultivation of +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_91"></a>[Pg 91]</span> +window and other plants, as well as of trees and shrubs, has been to +some extent simplified. The electrification of the Underground Railway +has also had a beneficial effect on vegetation. Although we cannot +prevent fog, which is an atmospheric condition, yet much can be done to +prevent it being a dirty fog, and during the past five years much has +been done in that direction. Better roads with less dust also assist +largely in keeping the atmosphere of London in a pure condition.</p> + +<p>With the rage for coniferous trees which was at its height about half a +century ago, it is not surprising that several species of Cypress and +Cedar, the stately Pines and Arbor vitæs, as also the Araucaria and +Junipers, found their way into our town gardens and squares. Hosts of +evergreens, too, from almost every part of the world were introduced +into London, but few have been able to survive the smoky and otherwise +impure atmosphere of the great metropolis.</p> + +<p>Deciduous trees and shrubs, both flowering and ornamental-leaved, +should certainly be regarded as the <i>sine qua non</i> of the London +planter. Amongst evergreen trees few are suitable for town planting, +and, though a limited number of evergreen shrubs may succeed for a +time, yet the list of deciduous species is far more extensive. We have +only to take notice of such evergreens as the Holly, Rhododendron, +Laurel and all the conifers, with probably one exception, to find +how useless it is to plant them in expectation that they will give +satisfaction. This is not hard to account for, as in winter, when the +fires are all alight and smoke and soot the order of the day, the +leaves of evergreens are fully developed and in the best possible +condition for reaping the attending disadvantages. With deciduous +species the case is quite different, for these are, so to speak, asleep +when the deadly smoke and vapours are most abundant in our towns and +cities. I am quite aware that one occasionally sees evergreen shrubs +and trees in a fairly thriving condition; but it should be remembered +that in the majority of such cases they were planted when conditions +were much more favourable than at present. +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_92"></a>[Pg 92]</span></p> + +<p>It is, perhaps, to be regretted that evergreen shrubs do not succeed +better in smoky localities, being planted principally for their +refreshing colour in winter; but if our atmospheric conditions utterly +preclude the use of such, then it is folly to throw away money on +useless planting, and the winter aspect of deciduous trees and shrubs +is infinitely preferable to that of unhealthy evergreens. The bursting +into leaf of the deciduous tree or shrub is not shared to a like extent +by evergreens, which lack that delightful changeableness and the +interest that is attached to spring growth.</p> + +<p>It is difficult to define accurately the boundaries of a town or +the worst smoke-infested areas, as far as tree and shrub growth is +concerned. In London, for instance, certain trees and shrubs which +positively refuse to live in the heart of the city do fairly well +in the suburbs, while still further out, where the atmosphere is +comparatively pure, they may thrive in quite a satisfactory way. These +thriving and non-thriving areas are sometimes very sharply defined, +and this has given rise to a false idea regarding certain trees and +shrubs that will rarely succeed in the more smoky parts when compared +with the same species which are found to do well in the outer suburbs. +High-lying and fairly open parts of a town are also far more conducive +to plant growth generally than those that are close and confined. In +town planting there is, however, no necessity for the almost monotonous +repetition of such trees as the <a href ="#I_099">Plane</a> and Lime, or amongst +shrubs, of the Privet and Lilac, for there are many others that will do almost +equally well, and that are quite as ornamental. Probably the fact that +such are not well known would form an excuse for their absence, and +it is to be hoped that at least one object to be accomplished by the +writing of this book will be a greater interest in, and wider knowledge +of, the various species of trees, shrubs, and plants generally that from +long experience have been found suitable for planting in the town garden.</p> + +<p><b>Preparation of the Ground.</b>—Generally speaking, the materials +with which roadways are made are not only unsuitable for tree +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_93"></a>[Pg 93]</span> +cultivation, but positively destructive to vegetation of almost every +description. This also applies to our squares, terraces, and open +grounds around houses, the soil of which is little other than refuse +building materials, and mainly composed of broken bricks and stones, +gravel, old mortar, iron, wood and shavings. In such a medium it is +perfectly useless to look for that healthy and vigorous growth which +is so essential in street trees, that are still further handicapped +by having to do battle above ground with the impurities of a town +atmosphere.</p> + +<p>Having for a number of years had to plant trees and shrubs in +many parts of London, it was found that in nearly every instance +substituting good soil for that found naturally was a first necessity. +Many failures in street planting from this neglect of providing +suitable soil could be pointed out, the result being that a section +of the public has become tired of the subject in consequence of the +initial expense and subsequent failures. Too often, also, the important +operations of preparing the ground and planting the trees are left in +the hands of the surveyor or builder, who has little or no knowledge +to fit him for the work, the operation being carried out by labourers +who are also entirely ignorant of what is required or the conditions +necessary for successful tree and shrub culture. The consequence is +that failure is almost certain, and the trees which were strong and +healthy when planted gradually become unhealthy and ultimately succumb +to a combination of circumstances which were brought about by the +ignorance of the operators.</p> + +<p>Another source of failure in street planting is the generally pent-up +condition of the roots, for in several cases that have come under our +notice lately the planter seemed to think that it was quite enough to +cut a small hole in the pavement or street of sufficient size to hold +the roots of the tree to be inserted. Were the soil free, as we find +in a field, this system might answer; but where the roadway is hard as +iron and composed mainly of clinkers and gravel, the case is totally +different. Another fruitful source of failure in street planting is +placing the pavement in too close proximity to the stem of the tree, +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_94"></a>[Pg 94]</span> +and numerous instances could be pointed out where even old and +established specimens have suffered irreparable damage in consequence +of having the paving brought up too close to the stems.</p> + +<p>The roots should always be allowed plenty of breathing room, and +to affect this a good-sized space should be railed off around each +tree and no pavement laid within it. Gratings may be placed on the +surface of the ground around the tree, should circumstances compel +such a course. By adopting either plan, a double benefit to the trees +is brought about by allowing free access of water to the roots and +preventing an accumulation of noxious gases in the soil, as would ensue +if the flagstone or pavements were used.</p> + +<p>Where street trees are to be planted, the ground-surface should +in every instance be thoroughly broken up for a space of not less +than 8 ft. square, and to a depth of, say, 4 ft., the inferior soil +removed and replaced by that of good quality, preferably of a loamy +description, or loam and leaf soil in about equal proportions. Before +placing the fresh soil in position, the sides and bottom of each pit +should be thoroughly loosened with a pick or fork. By undermining the +sides of each pit, a much larger and freer root run will be provided, +and this will not necessitate so much of the street or pavement being +torn up as if the pits were of equal width at the top and bottom. We +have found, in London at least, that the addition of a small quantity +of leaf soil to the loam is highly beneficial to the growth of trees +by retaining dampness and encouraging root spread. The newly added +soil should be firmly trampled in the pit before planting is engaged +in. Sometimes, where the original soil is not of too inferior quality, +a small proportion has been mixed with the loam and leaf soil, but, +speaking generally, this course cannot be adopted.</p> + +<p>In squares and gardens where shrub planting is to be engaged in, a +general renovation of the soil is also imperative, and this can best +be done by thoroughly trenching the soil to a depth of, say, 4 ft. and +adding a large proportion of fresh loam or other soil. Deep trenching +and thoroughly breaking up and loosening the soil is a most important +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_95"></a>[Pg 95]</span> +factor in town planting, and should never be neglected. Manure is +sometimes added to the soil, but it is objectionable from several +points of view, and, if used at all, should be thoroughly decomposed +and incorporated in small quantity. Good loam and leaf soil is +infinitely preferable, and, where necessary, sandy soil makes a good +addition. A little fresh lime added to the soil has been found most +beneficial in town planting, and in old and exhausted borders, where +the soil has become tainted with chemical impurities, the value of +lime or chalk as a cleansing agent is not sufficiently appreciated. Of +course, where so-called American shrubs are to be planted—which is, +however, rarely attempted in London—neither chalk nor lime should be +added to the soil. This question of soil is so important that no one +planting street trees or shrubs can afford to ignore it, and while the +extra cost in providing it is but little, the advantages gained are great.</p> + +<p><b>Preparing the Trees and Planting.</b>—Trees intended for planting +in towns, and especially alongside streets and footpaths, should be +specially prepared in the matter of transplanting and pruning. As tree +guards are a necessity in protecting trees by the sides of streets, +the trees must have their stems free of branches; therefore the buds +and branches on the stems need to be removed for a distance of 6 or +7 ft., whilst surplus leading shoots and ungainly branches should at +the same time receive attention in pruning. The tree also needs to be +frequently transplanted in order that an abundance of fibrous roots +may be produced, and every effort made to produce healthy, vigorous +specimens suitable for the uncongenial surroundings of their permanent +quarters. In street planting it is advisable to use trees that are from +12 to 14 ft. in height; and if these, for some years previously to +their final shift, have been specially prepared in the way of frequent +transplanting and careful pruning, little fear for their future +welfare need be entertained. Autumn or early spring planting is to be +recommended, the former time being in most cases preferable. As little +time as possible should be allowed to elapse between the lifting of the +tree in the nursery and its being transplanted in the new position. +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_96"></a>[Pg 96]</span> +Spread the roots out to their full extent around the stem and avoid +planting too deeply; the nursery mark on the stem serves as the best +guide as to the depth at which to plant. Planting too deeply under +the mistaken idea that doing so will secure the tree in the ground is +a fruitful source of decay and ultimate death of many street trees +planted in the metropolis, and it is not uncommon to see whole avenues +of trees that have made little or no progress for many years owing to +this cause. After a tree has been placed in an upright position on +the prepared site and the roots properly disposed, the soil should be +filled in and trampled firmly both amongst and over the roots. It may +be well to warn planters against the pernicious practice of allowing +leaves, packing materials, or grassy turf to come in contact with the +roots of newly-planted trees. In dry situations a saucer-shaped hollow +may be left around the stem of the newly-planted tree, while mulching +applied during dry and warm summers is to be recommended. The planting +of shrubs should be carried out with as much care as is used in the +case of trees. It is preferable to trench land in which shrubs are to +be planted rather than to make a separate pit for each shrub.</p> + +<p>Street trees should be carefully matched—that is, those of similar +height and shape used in the same street. Too often this principle +is not observed, as in a new street near the Strand, where some +of the specimens are about 10 ft. high, others, 15 ft. and 20 ft. +high—forming a very irregular, badly matched row. Many newly-planted +town trees are destitute of leading shoots and have ungainly side +branches—faults that should never be permitted when choosing specimens +for such an important purpose. In choosing trees for street planting, +the following rules should be observed:—</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>1. Stout, healthy, well-rooted and recently transplanted trees should +alone be chosen.</p> + +<p>2. They should, for the same street, be of nearly equal height and +branch spread.</p> + +<p>3. Straight-stemmed trees, with stout leading shoots, are to be +preferred.</p> + +<p>4. The height should range from, say, 12 ft. to 14 ft. or over, and the +strength of stem should be proportionate to the height.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_97"></a>[Pg 97]</span></p> + +<p>5. Trees with wand-like, crooked, or cankered stems should be avoided +in street planting.</p> + +<p>6. They should be beautiful, shade-giving, and easy of culture.</p> +</div> + +<p><b>Fencing and Staking.</b>—In order to prevent damage, newly-planted +trees should be fenced and staked at once. Of fences or guards +there are many kinds: they are made of wood, wire or iron. The iron +tree guard has many advantages over those of wood or expanded metal, +and, being made in two sections, it can be readily placed in position +after the tree has been planted. For trees from 12 to 14 ft. high the +guards need not exceed, say, 7 ft. in height, and preference should be +given to those in which the uprights are bent outwards at the top; for +this not only lessens the risk of interference with the branches, but +is pleasing in appearance. Sometimes it may not be considered necessary +to protect town trees, particularly such as are growing in side +streets, or in squares, but in every case firm staking is necessary in +order to prevent damage from wind.</p> + +<p>Wooden tree guards consist of about half a dozen poles or uprights, +about 7 ft. long, joined together around the tree trunk by means of +wire. When compared with those of iron, they have, however, several +disadvantages; for they may be climbed with ease and they do not last +long. Where it is found sufficient to stake the trees without having +recourse to guards, ash poles, from 2 in. to 3 in. in diameter, and 10 +ft. high, should be driven firmly into the ground as close to the stem +as possible. The tree should be tied with specially prepared tar rope, +which should be crossed between the stem and stake to prevent damage +by chafing. From time to time it will be necessary to see that the +band of string does not become too tight. On rare occasions only is it +necessary to stake shrubs, but this is sometimes advisable in exposed +positions or in the case of shrubs of unusually large size. +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_98"></a>[Pg 98]</span></p> + +<p><b>Watering and After-Management.</b>—For a few years after being +planted, trees and shrubs will require a certain amount of attention +in the matter of watering and mulching during the prolonged heat +and drought, and also in preventing the evils attending excessive +wind-swaying owing to the stakes and moorings becoming defective.</p> + +<p>The goat and wood leopard moth, as also numerous kinds of caterpillars, +attack newly-planted town trees, particularly the various species of +Pyrus, Thorn, Willow and Poplar. The former tunnel into the main stem +and render it so weak at the point attacked that it readily breaks +across during windy weather, while the caterpillars feed on the +foliage and greatly impair the health of the trees attacked. Spraying, +hand-picking and shaking are to be recommended in the case of the +caterpillars, while, to combat the goat and leopard moth, a small +quantity of cyanide of potassium can be inserted in the mouth of the +tunnel in order to dislodge or kill the insect.</p> + +<p>Watering should preferably be performed in the evening, the ground +around the roots being thoroughly soaked, while mulching with +freshly-mown grass or old straw will prevent the too rapid evaporation +of the moisture. In extreme cases binding the stem with a hay rope is +to be recommended. In order to prevent straining of the roots and bark +chafing, the moorings of trees should receive a periodical examination.</p> + +<p>The following trees and shrubs are to be recommended for town planting:—</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> + <img id="I_099" src="images/i_099.jpg" alt="" width="400" height="555" > + <p class="f110">PLANE TREE IN REGENT’S PARK</p> +</div> + +<h3><span class="smcap">Trees</span></h3> + +<p>The <b>Oriental</b> or <a href ="#I_099"><b>Common London Plane</b></a> +(<i>Platanus orientalis acerifolia</i>).—This variety of the oriental plane +stands first in the category of select town trees. Not only does it grow +vigorously in towns, but it is peculiarly well adapted for withstanding +smoke and other impurities of the atmosphere. Repeated experiments have +clearly proved that in London this tree flourishes better than any +other, and a visit to the Thames Embankment and several of the urban +districts will substantiate the statement; while the fine old tree +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_99"></a>[Pg 99]</span> +which still exists in Cheapside, and the equally beautiful specimen +which has hardly room for perfect development in the Court of +Stationers’ Hall, Ludgate Hill, afford other examples of how well +suited this handsome tree is for doing battle with the adverse +conditions peculiar to the great metropolis. As a diversity of opinion +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_100"></a>[Pg 100]</span> +has existed about which variety of plane it is that grows with such +vigour in and around London, it may be stated that, on a careful +examination of a large number of specimens, the variety <i>P.O. +acerifolia</i> was found not only more commonly distributed, but, +likewise, better suited for town planting than the typical <i>P. +orientalis</i>. This valuable variety is readily distinguished from the +normal plant by the less deeply divided leaves, and from the American +plane (<i>P. occidentalis</i>), with which it is sometimes confounded, +by the many fruit “balls” which are attached to each peduncle, the +fertile catkins of <i>P. occidentalis</i> being, for the greater part, +produced singly.</p> + +<p>But not only for its value as a town tree is the oriental plane much +sought after, but the giant proportions to which it attains, coupled +with the handsome, finely-cut leaves and easy habit of growth, render +it one of our most desirable ornamental trees. Further, it is of the +easiest culture, succeeding extremely well in soils of very opposite +qualities. Taking everything into consideration, we question whether +any other of our forest trees is equal in value to the plane for +purposes of town planting.</p> + +<p>The <b>Maidenhair Tree</b> (<i>Ginkgo biloba</i>).—The maidenhair or +ginkgo tree is one of the most valuable that can be planted in the +impure atmosphere of a town garden. Few trees can compare with the +one in question for withstanding the deleterious effects produced on +vegetation generally by coming in too close contact with the impurities +of our great centres of industry. The ample delicate-green foliage +betrays—even late in the season, and when about to be cast off—little +evidence of the fierce struggle that must almost constantly go on +between vegetation and the smoke and filth of our towns and cities. +That the thick, leathery leaves and strong constitution of the tree +play an important part in keeping it free from disease is clearly +evident, while the annual renewal of the leaves enables it to cast off +the sooty nodules which work such havoc on the tender foliage of most +evergreen trees.</p> + +<p>At several places in and around the great metropolis—and in places, +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_101"></a>[Pg 101]</span> +too, where one is almost stifled with the fumes from chimneys—this +tree may be seen in almost as fresh a condition as those in the open +country.</p> + +<p>The <b>Ailanthus</b> or <b>Tree of Heaven</b> (<i>Ailanthus +glandulosa</i>) may be seen in a very flourishing condition in many +of the largest centres of industry in Southern England. It has been +largely planted in many Continental cities, and has proved itself one +of the few trees that is capable of withstanding the impurities of a +town atmosphere.</p> + +<p>The <b>Black Italian Poplar</b> (<i>Populus monilifera</i>).—Next to +the plane amongst forest trees I consider the black Italian Poplar +to be the most valuable for planting in smoky towns. As a proof of +this there are to be seen numerous fine specimens of this tree in a +flourishing condition, and clothed with the most healthy foliage, +in some of our large cities—to wit, London, Glasgow, Liverpool and +Manchester.</p> + +<p>The <b>Canadian Poplar</b> (<i>P. canadensis</i>), and its variety, +<i>P.C. nova</i>, are excellent trees for planting in smoky localities. +The former succeeds admirably in the very centre of Sheffield, in +the old parish churchyard, where for hundreds of yards around not a +particle of living vegetation is to be seen. The variety <i>nova</i> is +a very superior tree for street planting, it being far more ornamental, +and of more rapid growth than the black Italian poplar, and equally +noticeable for retaining a healthy and flourishing condition under the +adverse circumstances connected with a town atmosphere.</p> + +<p>The <b>Abele Poplar</b> (<i>P. alba</i>) grows with great freedom when +subjected to smoke and foul air. In the very heart of our largest towns +it may be seen flourishing in a manner that is almost incredible.</p> + +<p>The <b>Lombardy Poplar</b> (<i>P. fastigiata</i>) is another tree that +has been planted with some success in and around many of our largest +cities, but it cannot equal any of the foregoing for withstanding the +baneful effects of a tainted atmosphere. In the outskirts of towns, +where air is purer than amid chimneys pouring forth their volumes of +smoke, the Lombardy poplar succeeds fairly well, and imparts an air of +grandeur that could hardly otherwise be obtained.</p> + +<p>The <b>Cucumber Tree</b> (<i>Magnolia acuminata</i>).—Few planters are +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_102"></a>[Pg 102]</span> +aware of how valuable this tree is for withstanding the germs and soot +of large towns. Experiments have, however, resulted in this highly +ornamental tree being added to the list.</p> + +<p>The <b>Tulip Tree</b> (<i>Liriodendron tulipifera</i>).—Excellent +examples are not wanting of how valuable a tree this is for towns +and streets. It seems to have a wonderful recuperative power, for, +scorched, blackened, and encrusted as may appear the falling foliage, +yet in the following spring it again puts forth a garb of the freshest +and richest greenery. The remarkable four-lobed, truncate leaves render +the tree almost without an equal for ornamental planting, while its +undoubted smoke-resisting qualities place it high in the rank among +town trees.</p> + +<p>The <b>Indian Bean</b> (<i>Catalpa bignonioides</i>).—For various +reasons this fast-growing tree is to be recommended for planting in +smoky localities. It grows with great vigour in many smoky centres +of industry, is a tree of handsome proportions, and, when fully +established, flowers freely.</p> + +<p>A valuable trait in the character of the Indian bean is that should +accident befall it, and the stem get injured, numerous strong suckers +are produced, which, as they grow with great rapidity, soon take the +place of the original.</p> + +<p>The <b>Common Mulberry</b> (<i>Morus nigra</i>) and the +<b>white-fruited Mulberry</b> (<i>M. alba</i>) may be seen growing +satisfactorily in several of the old gardens and nurseries of the +metropolis, where they are now buried alive, as might be said, in +stones and mortar. That they are excellent town trees will be admitted +by every one who sees the fine specimens in Liverpool and Manchester.</p> + +<p>The <b>Honey Locust</b> (<i>Gleditschia triacanthos</i>) is a very +suitable subject for planting in smoky localities. In many of the worst +smoke-infested parts of London and Manchester are seen goodly specimens +of this handsome tree—not poor, miserable trees, but, from their great +size, wealth of foliage, and general appearance, betokening perfect +health amid their rather adverse surroundings.</p> + +<p>The <b>False Acacia</b> (<i>Robinia Pseudo-acacia</i>).—Almost by the +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_103"></a>[Pg 103]</span> +hundred can the false acacia be seen in London and many other English +towns, thus proving that it is one of the most valuable trees that we +possess for withstanding the injurious effects of an impure atmosphere.</p> + +<p>What renders this acacia of greatest value as a town tree is that +it retains its rich verdure till well on in autumn. The varieties +known as <b>Decaisneana</b>, <b>inermis</b>, <b>microphylla</b>, +<b>macrophylla</b>, <b>sophoræfolia</b>, and the upright-habited are +most to be desired.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> + <img id="I_103" src="images/i_103.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="433" > + <p class="f110">THE BEAM TREE IN LONDON</p> +</div> + +<p>The <b>White Beam Tree</b> (<i>Pyrus Aria</i>).—In many of the +confined spaces in Glasgow the white beam tree grows luxuriously, and +produces annually great quantities of its brightly-tinted berries.</p> + +<p>The <b>Lime</b> (<i>Tilia europæa</i>).—Where the situation is not too +confined, and where soot and smoke do not abound, the lime may, and +does, succeed; but in the worst parts of the metropolis it soon shows +signs of distress, the tops of the branches dying off, and the whole +tree sooner or later showing the fierce struggle it has to endure with +smoke and fumes. As an avenue tree in the more airy and pure parts of a +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_104"></a>[Pg 104]</span> +town, the lime has certainly few equals, its general contour and the +pleasing shade it affords being points of special recommendation.</p> + +<p>The <b>Sycamore</b> (<i>Acer pseudo-platanus</i>).—This tree may be +classed as amongst the most useful for planting in smoky towns.</p> + +<p>In Warrington, where the noxious emanations from alkali and other +chemical works are most disastrous in their effects on vegetation, the +sycamore is one of the few trees that grow satisfactorily. Being a +rapid and strong grower, it is thus seen to be, for a certain time at +least, unaffected by its inimical surroundings. The variegated variety +would seem from recent experiments to be preferable, and better adapted +for smoky localities than the normal form.</p> + +<p>The <b>Weeping Ash</b> (<i>Fraxinus excelsior pendula</i>) would seem +to be superior to the common ash for planting in towns. It thrives +satisfactorily in many of our largest centres of industry—to wit, +London, Liverpool, Glasgow and Manchester.</p> + +<p>The <b>Horse Chestnut</b> (<i>Æsculus hippocastanum</i>) may be seen +in a fairly satisfactory way in many town parks, but only where it is +not exposed to smoke and soot to any great extent. In confined spaces +both it and the <b>English Elm</b> (<i>Ulmus campestris</i>) soon +show signs of distress, the points of the branches gradually becoming +unhealthy, and the trees dying off prematurely. Taking everything into +consideration, neither of these trees can be recommended for planting +in smoky districts. The <b>Birch</b>, <b>Walnut</b>, <b>Hornbeam</b>, +and one or two kinds of <b>Willow</b> will succeed in the less smoky +parts of a town; but they are not to be recommended for planting where +the air is constantly impregnated with soot and dust.</p> + +<p>The <b>Mountain Ash</b>, or <b>Rowan Tree</b> (<i>Pyrus aucuparia</i>) +and <b>Bird Cherry</b> (<i>Cerasus Padus</i>) are both good town trees, +and excellent examples of both may be seen in the back streets and +slums of London.</p> + +<p><b>Sophora japonica</b> is well worthy of recommendation as a tree that +is admirably suited for planting in towns. It is of large and rapid +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_105"></a>[Pg 105]</span> +growth, with elegant dark green pinnate leaves. Being a native of China +and Japan, it may not be perfectly hardy in the northern portions +of the British Isles, but it succeeds well in Southern England, and +thrives admirably in the most smoke-infested parts of London.</p> + +<p><b>Thorns</b> of various kinds succeed well in towns, but they must not +be recommended for the most smoky and confined localities.</p> + +<p>The <b>Tansy-leaved Thorn</b> (<i>Cratægus tanacetifolia</i>) is an +excellent member of the family for town planting.</p> + +<h3><span class="smcap">Shrubs</span></h3> + +<p>Of these there is rather a long list of kinds that are suitable for +planting in smoky localities.</p> + +<p>Evidently deciduous species possess an advantage over evergreen kinds +in the total annual renewal of their leaves, and hence it follows that, +as with trees, deciduous shrubs should have the preference.</p> + +<p>The following list includes only such kinds as have been proved +suitable for town planting:—</p> + +<p><b>Osmanthus ilicifolius</b> is one of the handsomest of evergreen +shrubs, and also one of the few that succeed, in a satisfactory way, +when subjected to the impurities of a town atmosphere. In the smokiest +districts of both London and Liverpool it is unquestionably the best +all-round shrub.</p> + +<p><b>Ligustrum coriaceum</b> is a fitting companion to the last, so +far, at least, as its powers of withstanding the effects of an impure +atmosphere are concerned. Being an evergreen, it is peculiarly well +suited for planting in the town garden, where it grows with great +freedom.</p> + +<p><b>Olearia Hastii</b> and <b>O. macrodonta</b> are excellent shrubs for +the London garden.</p> + +<p><b>Aucuba japonica.</b>—This well-known evergreen shrub is of great +value for planting in urban districts, it being able to do battle with +a more than ordinary amount of atmospheric impurities. For this reason +it has been largely planted in town squares and gardens, in the most +crowded and densely populated parts. +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_106"></a>[Pg 106]</span></p> + +<p><b>Griselinia littoralis.</b>—Although a little-known evergreen, this +is well suited for town planting, experiments having proved it to be +a most valuable addition to the limited number of shrubs suitable for +such a place.</p> + +<p><b>Hibiscus Syriacus</b> is one of the few shrubs that can successfully +battle with an impure atmosphere. It is a shrub which town residents +should plant freely if they have a bit of ground that they want to look +pretty.</p> + +<p>The <b>Warfaring Tree</b> (<i>Viburnum lantana</i>) does not receive +that amount of attention to which on its merits it is entitled. It +succeeds well in some of the most filthy and smoky districts of our +largest cities.</p> + +<p>The <b>Venetian Sumach</b> (<i>Rhus cotinus</i>) is a much-neglected +shrub, but for general usefulness it can hardly be surpassed. It is +peculiarly suitable for planting in cities.</p> + +<p>The <b>Stag’s Horn Sumach</b> (<i>Rhus typhina</i>) must, on no +account, be omitted, as it is a shrub of curious appearance and one +that thrives well in soot and dirt.</p> + +<p><b>Leycesteria formosa</b> is a capital town plant; this may also be +said of the <b>Flowering Currant</b> (<i>Ribes sanguineum</i>)—indeed, +too much praise can hardly be bestowed on these shrubs for planting in +the town garden and shrubbery.</p> + +<p><b>Skimmia japonica</b> and the <b>Snowy Mespilus</b> (<i>Amelanchier +Botryapium</i>), too, succeed well in smoke-infested districts; and the +various kinds of Lilac—particularly the Common and Persian—have few +equals as town shrubs.</p> + +<p>In the <b>Kentucky Coffee-Tree</b> (<i>Gymnocladus canadensis</i>) and +<b>Bladder Senna</b> (<i>Colutea arborescens</i>) will be found two +most useful shrubs for the town garden.</p> + +<p><b>Phillyrea Vilmoriniana</b>, <b>Forsythia viridissima</b>, and the +<b>Strawberry Tree</b> (<i>Arbutus unedo</i>) are all more or less +suitable for town planting where the atmospheric conditions are not too +seriously affected by smoke and dust.</p> + +<p>The <b>Double Furse</b> (<i>Ulex europæus florepleno</i>) is one of our +handsomest flowering-shrubs, and a good addition to the list of such as +are suitable for planting in town gardens and squares.</p> + +<p>The <b>Spurge Laurel</b> (<i>Daphne laureola</i>) grows freely in many +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_107"></a>[Pg 107]</span> +a town garden—indeed, it is no uncommon thing to see large and +well-balanced specimens where smoke and filth are the order of the day.</p> + +<p><b>Cotoneasters</b> of various kinds succeed well as town plants. Those +to be particularly noted are <i>C. frigida</i>, <i>C. Simonsii</i>, and +<i>C. vulgaris</i>.</p> + +<p><b>Euonymus japonicus</b> is another excellent shrub, being almost +smoke-defying.</p> + +<p>The double-flowered forms of <b>Prunus sinensis</b> and the equally +ornamental <b>P. triloba</b> all succeed well as town plants; while the +<b>Almonds</b> are quite as good.</p> + +<p><b>Koelreuteria paniculata</b>, the <b>Laurustinus</b> (<i>Viburnum +tinus</i>), <b>Weigelia rosea</b>, <b>W. amabilis</b>, <b>Deutzia +scabra</b>, the common <b>Green Box</b>, <b>Gum Cistus</b> (<i>C. +ladaniferus</i>), <b>Mahonia aquifolia</b>, <b>M. Bealii</b>, and <b>M. +japonica</b> are all more or less suitable for town gardens, but not +for those in the most smoke-infested parts. The <b>Japan Quince</b> +(<i>Cydonia japonica</i>), <b>Hypericum Nepalense</b>, and <b>Euonymus +radicans</b> all do well when subjected to the town atmosphere.</p> + +<h3><span class="smcap">Climbers</span></h3> + +<p>Of shrubs suitable for covering walls, trellises, and arbours, and +able to resist the dire influences of smoke and soot, there are a few +valuable and well-tried kinds.</p> + +<p>The <b>Virginian Creeper</b> (<i>Ampelopsis hederacea</i>) has few +equals as a town plant, thriving successfully in the midst of our +busiest centres of industry. Many instances could be pointed out in +which this handsome climber grows with the greatest freedom in the most +impure and smoke-laden atmosphere.</p> + +<p>The <b>Common Ivy</b> (<i>Hedera helix</i>) is, perhaps, the most +valuable of all climbing plants for using in smoke-infested localities. +In some of the courts near Ludgate Hill, a district of London that is +by no means free from smoke and dust, the ivy climbs houses to a height +of 60 ft., and surprises one by its fresh appearance in such localities.</p> + +<p>The <b>Evergreen</b>, or <b>Trumpet</b>, <b>Honeysuckle</b> +(<i>Lonicera sempervirens</i>) is another shrub of great merit for town +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_108"></a>[Pg 108]</span> +planting, as it thrives well in confined spaces, and where the +atmosphere is very impure.</p> + +<p><b>Cratægus Pyracantha</b> is a most valuable wall shrub for the town +garden. It is of free growth, stands smoke well, and is one of the +handsomest berry-bearing plants in cultivation.</p> + +<p><b>Jasminum nudiflorum</b> needs little description, as it is one of +our handsomest wall-plants. For smoky districts it is invaluable, +blooming freely when flowers are scarce, and seeming to heed but little +the impurities of a town atmosphere.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> + <img id="I_108" src="images/i_108.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="430" > + <p class="f110">THE SAVIN, OR JUNIPER,<br> AS A TOWN SHRUB</p> +</div> + +<p>The <b>Vine</b> (<i>Vitis vinifera</i>) must not be omitted from our +list, it being an excellent plant for withstanding soot, smoke, dust +and heat.</p> + +<h3><span class="smcap">Coniferous Trees</span></h3> + +<p>Few of these, if any, succeed in a satisfactory way, when constantly +subjected to the impurities of a town atmosphere. +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_109"></a>[Pg 109]</span></p> + +<p>Where the conditions are at all favourable the <b>Austrian Pine</b> +(<i>Pinus austriaca</i>), <b>Thyiopsis Dolabrata</b>, <b>Toxodium +distichum</b>, and <b>Cupressus Lawsoniana</b> do fairly well, but they +are not to be recommended for general town planting.</p> + +<p><b>Retinospora plumosa aurea</b> has stood for many years in one of +the most smoky districts of Glasgow, and at present looks almost as +well as it did when brought from the country, while the <b>Savin</b> +(<i>Juniperus Sabina</i>) may generally be relied upon.</p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_110"></a>[Pg 110]</span></p> +<h2 class="nobreak">CHAPTER X<br> +<span class="h_subtitle">TREES SUITABLE FOR HEDGEROW<br> AND FIELD PLANTING</span></h2> +</div> + +<p>The well-founded complaint that hedgerow and field trees harbour +birds to the serious destruction of the grain crops is largely +counterbalanced by their ornamental appearance and the shelter they +afford both to man and beast.</p> + +<p>In proceeding to consider the trees that are most suitable for hedgerow +and field planting four important points must be kept in view. (1) That +the spread of branches is, comparatively speaking, small in proportion +to the tree’s height; (2) that the roots have a downward tendency, or +do not ramify to too great an extent; (3) that the tree is well adapted +for exposed situations and standing singly; and (4) that the timber +value is such as to compensate in some degree for the cost of planting +and after-management in the matter of pruning and fencing. Although we +rarely find all these qualities concentrated in one tree, still, with +careful choice and good after-management, much may be done to produce +the desired effect, even in trees of a partially opposite character.</p> + +<p>That the wrong class of timber is often planted in our hedgerows and +fields is painfully apparent to every one who has paid attention to +the subject—trees of wide-spreading habit both in root and branch +occupying positions and doing irreparable damage, where others of less +obtrusive nature could with advantage have been selected to take their +place. Timely and judicious pruning is of the utmost importance in +the production of hedgerow timber: but to be productive of the best +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_111"></a>[Pg 111]</span> +results, the work must be attended to early, and prosecuted at +intervals, as by skilfully shortening the branches from time to time, +the spread of root is also checked, thereby securing a double benefit +to the farmer and the land.</p> + +<p>The <b>Cornish Elm</b> (<i>Ulmus cornubiense</i>), unfortunately, is +far too seldom seen either as a standard or in our woodlands, for +which the propagator is greatly to blame, there not being offered +anything like a sufficient quantity to meet the demand. As a park or +hedgerow tree this distinct and well-marked variety of the elm has +much to recommend it—such as a narrow branch-spread in proportion to +the height, suitability for exposed situations, and the very decided +ornamental character it imparts to the landscape when properly placed.</p> + +<p>The principal advantages of this tree for hedgerow or field planting +are that no pruning is required to keep the branches in bounds, that +the spread of branches is very small in proportion to the tree’s +height, and that the roots do not approach too near the surface, or +ramify to any great extent, so as to become injurious to crops in their +immediate vicinity.</p> + +<p>The <b>English Elm</b> (<i>Ulmus campestris</i>) is another tree of +value for hedgerow planting, and is, perhaps, more commonly used for +that purpose than any other. Like the Cornish variety, though in very +much less degree, it has an upward inclination, the ramification of +its branches being narrow in proportion to its height, while as an +ornamental tree and valuable timber-producer it is held in high esteem.</p> + +<p>As a shelter tree it is of great value, and as the branches, +particularly the lower, seldom spread to a great extent, the injury +caused to the adjoining crop is usually not very serious.</p> + +<p>The <b>British Oak</b> (<i>Quercus Robur</i>) is of about equal value +with the elm for hedgerow planting—indeed by careful manipulation it +is even superior to that tree, being, perhaps, less injurious to the +herbage beneath it, and the roots having a greater downward tendency. +As an ornamental tree and valuable timber-producer the oak requires no +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_112"></a>[Pg 112]</span> +praise from us, these qualities having been recognised from the +earliest date.</p> + +<p>It bears pruning with impunity, so that all ungainly or far-spreading +branches can be cut back or foreshortened at pleasure; while those near +the ground, which in any way interfere with the fence or crop, can, by +judicious management, be altogether removed. Several of the fastigiate +forms of the oak are equally, if not better, suited for hedgerow +planting.</p> + +<p>The <b>Lombardy Poplar</b> (<i>Populus fastigiata</i>).—Although of +but little value as a timber-producer, yet, as an ornamental tree of +singular habit and appearance, the Lombardy poplar is almost unique +amongst our hardy deciduous trees.</p> + +<p>When planted in judiciously-arranged clumps in the corners of +fields, or hedgerows, this poplar produces a most pleasing effect +in the landscape: and, being of close, fastigiate growth, it is not +in the least injurious to crops in its immediate vicinity. No tree +is, however, more readily misplaced than the one in question; and +in planting it is well to avoid the prevalent mistake of placing in +lines, squares, round or oval forms, or even in single specimens, these +methods being highly objectionable and devoid of good taste—that is, +if we desire to preserve in the landscape a natural appearance.</p> + +<p>The <b>Sycamore</b> (<i>Acer pseudo-platanus</i>), as a standard tree, +either in field or fence, is worthy of attention, not only for its +well-known ornamental character, but also on account of the great value +of the wood produced, as it is in this latter respect, perhaps, second +to none. As a farmer’s tree it is, also, not one of the worst; for, +although the branches incline to spread, still, by careful manipulation +in the way of pruning, this may be corrected without doing injury +to too great an extent to the ornamental qualities of the tree. For +imparting both shade and shelter to farm stock the sycamore may be used +with the best advantage. Few trees produce such valuable timber when +grown singly or in clumps in the corners of fields and paddocks as the +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_113"></a>[Pg 113]</span> +sycamore, and no other repays so fully the damage it occasions to +fences and the surrounding ground.</p> + +<p>The <b>Hornbeam</b> (<i>Carpinus betulus</i>), for exposed situations +and poor soils, has few, if any, equals. The roots do not run near +the surface, but, like those of the oak, derive sustenance at a +considerable distance from it, and this quality, combined with its +somewhat upright inclination of growth and hardy nature, renders it +well adapted for hedgerow or field planting, where shelter combined +with effect is required.</p> + +<p>The <b>Lime</b> (<i>Tilia Europæa</i>), although one of our most +ornamental trees, can hardly be recommended as suitable for situations +in which the underlying herbage is at stake. For this latter reason +alone, however, can it be omitted from our list, and, as it bears +pruning well, does not to any great extent impoverish the adjoining +ground. It is at all times a pleasing object in the landscape, and it +will therefore be seen that the evil done by shade is in a great degree +compensated for.</p> + +<p>Amongst coniferous trees, if we except the <b>Larch</b> and <b>Scotch +Fir</b>, few are at all suitable for the end in question. The larch is +a much-neglected fence and park tree, this being attributable to an +erroneous impression that it is of too stiff and cold an appearance, +either for standing singly or giving effect to the landscape. +Nothing can, however, be farther from the facts, as when placed so +that its fine form is seen to advantage, few deciduous trees are +more picturesque than the larch, or offer a better contrast to the +ordinary run of our forest trees. It also occasions less damage to +the undergrowing herbage than most trees, while, at the same time, +it enriches the soil to a great extent by the annual shedding of its +leaves.</p> + +<p>The <b>Scotch Fir</b>, especially for shelter-giving purposes, has much +to recommend it for being extensively planted as stock-shelter in the +corners of exposed fields.</p> + +<p>As it usually rises to a great height without branches, it cannot be +considered as extremely injurious to its surroundings, although the +shallow-running roots can hardly be spoken of as non-injurious to the greensward. +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_114"></a>[Pg 114]</span></p> + +<p><b>Planting and Fencing.</b>—Whether for planting in the hedgerow or +singly in the fields, good, strong, well-rooted specimens should always +be used—indeed, it is well when a home nursery is on the estate to +have these specially prepared, by frequent transplantings for a few +years previous to their final planting out. The nursery management will +require both care and experience, so that trees with strong, fibrous +roots equally distributed around the stem may be produced; lanky, +ill-grown, and ill-rooted plants having but a poor chance of succeeding +under the circumstances. From 10 ft. to 14 ft. will be found the most +suitable size for the purpose under consideration. The pits for their +reception should be opened of sufficient size to admit the roots +without cramping or bending, the bottom and sides being made loose +and free with a pick—it will be all the better if the pits have been +opened for some time previously to planting, the winter frosts having a +beneficial effect in clearing and pulverizing the soil.</p> + +<p>This is, however, seldom convenient, as, if in the field, they become +filled in, and trampled on by cattle, while gaps in the fences +occasioned by these cannot well remain open for any length of time.</p> + +<p>The better plan—at least, we have found it so—is to open the pits, +plant the trees, and have these fenced in on the same day, as by +this method no part of the work has ever to be done a second time, +everything being finished up as the work proceeds. In planting, be +careful to spread the roots out in an even manner around the stem, as, +by so doing, the tree is not only more firmly fixed in the ground, but +is enabled to collect food from all quarters.</p> + +<p>Fencing should follow up at once the work of planting, as, if the young +trees are allowed to remain unprotected for any length of time, they +get injured by the farm stock. The fences may be of any desired kind, +but, as they are only required for a few years, a simple erection made +of small larch poles about 8 ft. long, driven firmly into the ground in +a circle around the tree, say, 18 in. from the stem, and made fast to +hoops of wood at top, and half-way up, will be found sufficient. Wooden +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_115"></a>[Pg 115]</span> +erections are, perhaps, preferable to those made of iron for fencing +hedgerow trees, as they seldom require renewing, for by the time the +fence has decayed the trees will, in most cases, be out of harm’s way.</p> + +<p>For shelter and shade clumps in fields probably the best trees to use +are the oak and sycamore, the value of timber produced being also a +valuable asset.</p> + +<p><b>Pruning and After-Management.</b>—For at least the first ten years +after planting, careful and regular pruning of hedgerow and field +timber should in all cases be attended to, bearing in mind that timely +attention in this way will alone obviate the necessity for heavy +prunings at any future stage of the tree’s growth.</p> + +<p>Early and judicious pruning is necessary to the trees in question; +for it is well known that if branches are allowed to ramify at will, +greater injury to the underlying herbage must be committed than where +timely pruning and shortening of all straggling branches has been +attended to.</p> + +<p>Early summer pruning, say, in the month of June, is to be recommended, +as at that time, owing to the active circulation of the sap, the wounds +heal up much more quickly than when the operation is performed at any +other season of the year. The pruning should be performed by a person +who is thoroughly conversant with the work, haphazard cutting and +hewing, by an inexperienced hand, and at any season, being injurious. +If the young trees have been well attended to in the matter of pruning +whilst in the nursery border, little or no attention will afterwards be +required—at least for a number of years.</p> + +<p>The main object in pruning both hedgerow and field trees is to develop +a valuable main stem which is only to diverge into branches at a given +height from the ground, and to prevent the overgrowth of straggling +branches farther up, so as to maintain a symmetrical and rather +fastigiate head.</p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_116"></a>[Pg 116]</span></p> +<h2 class="nobreak">CHAPTER XI<br> +<span class="h_subtitle">ORNAMENTAL PLANTING</span></h2> +</div> + +<p>As the beauty and picturesqueness of an estate are so dependent on the +disposition of its single trees, groups and plantations, the forester +should never lose sight of the fact, even when dealing with plantations +that are mainly intended for the value of the timber produced.</p> + +<p>In ornamental planting one of the principal things to bear in mind +is to allow sufficient space for each of the permanent standards +to develop its true and natural character. Instead, therefore, of +planting indiscriminately and in a sort of haphazard way, have a fixed +idea, and only plant on a regular and well-matured plan. Should the +individual standards be considered stiff or unsightly for the first +few years, a good plan is to fill up the spaces between them with +small-growing trees and shrubs, these being removed subsequently as +necessity demands, but always before damage to the permanent specimens +has been brought about by too close contact. The habit of the tree or +shrub, and the size to which it will ultimately attain are points that +should never be lost sight of in ornamental planting. Far too often +the mistake is made of planting specimen trees too near roads and +buildings, or, quite as bad, too close to each other. This is a most +unfortunate mistake, as it sooner or later necessitates the sacrifice +of specimens when their full beauty is probably developed, or when they +can least be spared.</p> + +<p>In the case of both hard-wooded and coniferous, the latter in +particular, the trees are planted when young and small, and ample room +is supposed to be given to them; but, as they grow up and near perfect +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_117"></a>[Pg 117]</span> +development, the spread of branches soon points out that a great +mistake has been made in the space of ground allotted, and that the +ultimate size to which the particular specimen would attain had never, +at the time of planting, been duly considered. There is little left +then to be done but either to put up with crowded and ill-formed +specimens, or to attempt their removal to more suitable quarters. The +latter, in the case of trees that have been left undisturbed for many +years, and when tap and side roots have been sent down to a great +depth for safe anchorage, is quite out of the question, the only +remaining way out of the evil being to sacrifice the specimen by having +it stubbed out and removed. In any case, in the event of one tree +encroaching too closely on another, no time should be lost in deciding +which is to be removed, for, if they crowd into and interfere with each +other, the branches on that side will get thin and die off, and the +tree will thus lose the uniformity of appearance on which its whole +beauty depends. Should crowding of specimen trees be permitted for even +a few years, partial disfiguration of the trees will have been brought +about, and it will take years of careful management to restore them to +their original beauty.</p> + +<p>In order to plant with any degree of certainty as to future results, +it is absolutely necessary to become first of all well acquainted with +the nature and habit of every tree planted, as also the properties and +peculiarities of the various soils, and aspect and position of the +ground to be planted.</p> + +<p>Probably no other branch of forestry requires sound judgment and +correct ideas to such an extent as the laying out of parks and grounds, +or, in other words, landscape and ornamental planting—and this +knowledge can only be attained by perseverance, investigation, and +study.</p> + +<p>In selecting sites for the various trees, it will be well to bear in +mind that certain species are better suited than others for planting +in exposed places, for using in particular soils, and for inserting in +either dry or damp ground.</p> + +<p>By the lake or pond side the <b>Deciduous Cypress</b> (<i>Taxodium +distichum</i>), the <b>Bhoton Pine</b> (<i>Pinus excelsa</i>), the +beautiful cut-leaved <b>Imperial Alder</b> (<i>Alnus glutinosa +imperialis</i>), the <b>Golden</b> and <b>Purple Willows</b> may all be +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_118"></a>[Pg 118]</span> +planted with the best chances of success; whereas none of these would +thrive well on dry or sandy soils. Should chalk or calcareous soil crop +up, we have good subjects in the <b>Fern-leaved Beech</b> (<i>Fagus +sylvatica asplenifolia</i>), the <b>Cephalonian</b> and <b>Spanish +Silver Firs</b> (<i>Abies cephalonica</i> and <i>A. Pinsapo</i>) and +many of the <b>Pyrus</b> family; while, where only a small quantity of +loam overlies the gravel, the <b>Scotch</b> and <b>Cluster Pines</b> +(<i>Pinus sylvestris</i> and <i>P. Pinaster</i>), the pretty and +far from common <b>Manna Ash</b> (<i>Fraxinus Ornus</i>), and many +others may be successfully planted. In good, rich soil, and where the +position is fairly sheltered, there are no end of ornamental trees, +both hard-wooded and coniferous, that may be planted. Some of the +<b>Magnolias</b>, but particularly <i>Magnolia stellata</i>, <i>M. +acuminata</i>, and <i>M. Umbrella</i> should find a place, while the +<b>Juneberry</b> (<i>Amelanchier canadensis</i>), the <b>Cornelian +Cherry</b> (<i>Cornus Mas</i>), and various <b>Thorns</b> should not be +neglected. In exposed places plant clumps of the <b>Corsican</b> and +<b>Austrian Pines</b> (<i>Pinus laricio</i> and <i>P. austriaca</i>), +following up with the hardy <b>Spruces</b> and <b>Cypresses</b>. +Such dainty conifers as the <b>Japanese Cryptomeria</b> (<i>C. +japonica</i>), the <b>Elegant Cryptomeria</b> (<i>C. elegans</i>), +<b>Fitzroya patagonica</b>, <b>Prince Albert’s Fir</b> (<i>Tsuga +Mertensiana</i>,) and <b>Umbrella Pine</b> (<i>Sciadopitys +verticillata</i>) must have cosy corners and good soil to show their +beauty to perfection.</p> + +<p><b>Pitting and Planting.</b>—The pits for the reception of ornamental +trees should be well formed: that is to say, should be made of +sufficiently large size for the specimens to be planted—indeed, it is +always preferable to dig out pits of a greater size than are required, +thus allowing of a quantity of broken-up soil being placed beneath and +around the roots. In any case, have the bottom and side of each pit +thoroughly broken up, and should the soil be found to be of inferior +quality, it is best to substitute that of a more desirable kind such as +is known to be suitable for the wants of the particular specimen. In +removing large specimen trees great care should be exercised—first, +that the roots are uninjured, or if at all, in a very small degree; +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_119"></a>[Pg 119]</span> +second, that a good ball of earth is attached; and, third, that +replanting is delayed as short a time as possible. Have the pit, for +the reception of the tree, dug out and prepared before the specimen is +lifted. Lift carefully by undermining the roots, and digging out a deep +trench at a reasonable distance from the stems, the distance from the +stem to be regulated by the root spread, size of the specimen, etc. In +order to avoid falling apart, the ball of earth should be bound with a +strong mat or tarpaulin, the ends being made fast around the stem.</p> + +<p>A stout low-wheeled truck has been found a most convenient appliance +for removing the specimen; but in the case of large and heavy trees the +common timber wheels, or janker, may be found of great service. The +truck to which we refer should be specially made, and should be of the +following dimensions: length, 5 ft.; width, 3 ft.; on wheels 1 ft. 3 +in. in diameter, these being placed so as to be below the level of the +body, thus avoiding contact with the load when that is either longer +or broader than the specified dimensions. The framework should be of +stout oak, and the bottom 3 in. thick boarding. The timber wheels, or +janker, being an adjunct of forest appliances, is always at hand, and +does away with the necessity of procuring any of the elaborate and +costly carriages usually recommended for transplanting large trees and +shrubs. The tree being placed in the pit opened for its reception, the +roots should be spread out and the soil replaced and trampled firmly, +and afterwards well watered.</p> + +<p><b>Staking the Trees.</b>—Next to careful planting and watering a +matter of the most vital importance—but one that, unfortunately, is +too often lost sight of—is the efficient staking or otherwise securing +of large transplanted trees. The great strain and consequent damage to +the roots of large transplants when allowed to rock about with every +gust of wind is not only highly injurious, but, viewing the matter from +a point of neatness, few things in forestry have a more unsightly or +neglected appearance than trees almost blown over by the wind. Various +are the methods usually adopted in staking and tying newly-transplanted +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_120"></a>[Pg 120]</span> +trees. As no hard and fast lines can be laid down, as a rule, the +size of the trees and the exposure of the positions in which they are +planted must determine the method of procedure to be adopted. It may +be that when growing in a low-lying, sheltered valley, trees of even +8 or 10 ft. in height may be perfectly safe without stake or tie of +any kind, whereas others of similar or even smaller size, growing in +an open position and exposed to the prevailing winds of the district, +will require a mooring of the most secure description, and adjusted in +the most efficient manner. For trees and shrubs up to 6 ft. in height, +a strong, sharp-pointed stake should be driven firmly into the ground, +within about 9 in. of the main stem, and on the most exposed side. The +stake should be fully 7 ft. long, and driven, not perpendicularly, but +with the head slightly inclined from the tree, and in the direction +from which the prevailing winds usually blow. A strong ligature of some +kind, such as tarred rope or thick matting, is then placed round the +stem of the tree requiring support, at about 4 ft. from the ground, and +made fast to the stake at a similar height.</p> + +<p>By crossing the tie between the tree and stake, a more efficient job +results, as there is then less room for the tree to work in when +rocking with the wind. It will thus be seen that the nearer to the +stem of the tree the stake is placed, the greater will be the power of +resistance.</p> + +<p>When the trees and shrubs are from 8 ft. in height and upwards, but +especially in the case of evergreen species, stronger moorings than +those just described will have to be employed, and the following plan +we have found suitable for almost any emergency. A strong band of +leather, or several strands of tarred rope, are placed loosely around +the stem of the tree to be staked, and at, say, three-quarters of its +height. Three wires—ordinary fencing wire does well—are then joined +to this collar, two on the most exposed side and one on the other, and +made fast to stout stakes driven firmly into the ground, at a distance +from the main stem proportionate to the tree’s height. In the case of +very large trees, or those that have been reinstated from a fallen +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_121"></a>[Pg 121]</span> +position, double wires are used in a manner similar to that just +described, the collar, however, being unusually strong. The advantages +of double wires are extra strength, and the fact that they admit of +being twisted at any time to the tightness required.</p> + +<p>The above may be considered the two principal ways of staking large +transplants, but occasionally cases will crop up in which it may be +necessary to resort to other methods, but such are peculiar cases, and +must be dealt with in a peculiar manner.</p> + +<h3><span class="smcap">Cut-Leaved, Weeping and<br> Fastigiate Trees</span></h3> + +<p>These have their own place in landscape gardening, and when placed +in the hands of a skilful planter are capable of producing the most +beautiful and pleasing effects. The majority are graceful in outline, +distinct and impressive in appearance; in fact, possess all those +qualities which render them specially valuable for the embellishment +of park or garden. Great care is, however, necessary in planting these +trees, for if not used with the greatest discretion, the good effects +they are so capable of producing in the hands of a trained planter are +destroyed.</p> + +<p><b>Weeping Trees.</b>—Both picturesque and beautiful is a +well-developed specimen of the Weeping Beech, and particularly so when +associated with trees of a light and airy appearance, for the general +character of the tree is somewhat massive and lumpy. Being of large +growth, the Weeping Beech wants plenty of room for development. There +is also a desirable weeping form of the purple Beech.</p> + +<p>The Kilmarnock Weeping Willow (<i>Salix caprea pendula</i>) is one of +the most popular and widely cultivated of weeping trees. It originated +near Ayr, in Scotland, and was so named to distinguish it from two +other well-known varieties, the common Weeping Willow and the American +Weeping Willow—two desirable forms for waterside planting. In the +American Fountain Willow we have another excellent weeping tree, +while the ringed-leaved Willow (<i>S. Babylonica annularis</i> or +<i>crispa</i>) is one of the most curious and picturesque of the whole group. +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_122"></a>[Pg 122]</span></p> + +<p>Amongst the Birches are at least two desirable weeping forms in the +cut-leaved (<i>Betula pendula Youngi</i>), Young’s weeping Birch, and +the weeping white Birch (<i>B. alba pendula</i>), both of which are +admirably adapted for lawns, even where space is restricted. The Birch +will thrive on poor, light soil, and is, therefore, peculiarly suitable +for planting in gravelly or rocky formations.</p> + +<p>The distinct habit of the Weeping Mountain Ash, or Rowan tree, has made +it a favourite in the embellishment of small grounds, and the wealth +of conspicuous fruit produces a telling effect, especially if the tree +is backed up by darker foliaged trees or shrubs. There are other forms +of Pyrus well worthy of attention, such as the pendulous Siberian Crab +(<i>P. prunifolia pendula</i>) and <i>Salicifolia pendula</i>, the +latter in particular being a distinct and graceful small-growing tree. +The Weeping Mulberry (<i>Morus alba pendula</i>) is occasionally seen +in good form when it is a desirable acquisition, so is the Weeping +Laburnum (<i>L. vulgare pendulum</i>) and the curious and scarce +<i>Gleditschia triacanthos excelsa pendula</i>. In the silver-leaved +Weeping Holly we have one of the best of evergreens for confined +situations; and <i>Cornus florida pendula</i> is a strikingly beautiful +tree in which the weeping habit is decidedly pronounced.</p> + +<p>Among Weeping Elms some varieties are most pronounced, but there are +several others all equally worthy of culture. Of the English Elm, +probably the best is <i>Ulmus campestris Petersii pendula</i>, while +of the Mountain or Scotch, that known as <i>U. montana pendula</i> is +the most desirable. Weeping thorns are by no means common, but they are +probably the most natural and graceful of all drooping trees of modern +growth. In the flower garden at Regent’s Park is growing a beautiful +specimen of this tree.</p> + +<p>Perhaps the most common of weeping trees is the Weeping Ash +(<i>Fraxinus excelsior pendula</i>), and its strong, vigorous growth +causes it to be employed where others would not succeed. Even in smoky +localities it is quite at home, as many fine old trees throughout +London clearly prove that the deleterious effects of an impure +atmosphere have but little effect on its hardy constitution. It is one +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_123"></a>[Pg 123]</span> +of the best of weeping trees for forming an arbour, and as a distinctly +ornamental specimen for the park or large lawn it has few equals.</p> + +<p>Amongst coniferous trees we have several distinct and beautiful +pendulous trees or shrubs, such as <i>Abies excelsa inverta</i> and the +well-known and much appreciated <i>A. Smithian</i> or <i>morinda</i>. +The pendulous Hemlock spruce (<i>A. Canadensis pendula</i>) is one of +the prettiest and most natural in appearance of all weeping trees.</p> + +<p>There are several distinct and beautiful forms of the Cypress, +particularly <i>C. Lawsoniana gracilis pendula</i> and <i>C. Lawsoniana +alba pendula</i>. The Weeping Chinese Juniper (<i>Juniperus Chinensis +pendula</i>) and <i>Virginiana pendula</i> are well worthy of attention +where this particular class of trees or shrubs is in request. Than the +weeping form of the common Larch, perhaps no tree is more beautiful, +the feathery pea-green foliage being distinct from that of every other +tree.</p> + +<p><b>Cut-leaved Trees.</b>—Of the Maples we have several cut-leaved +forms, such as the beautiful <i>Acer palmatum laciniatum</i> and +<i>dissectum</i>, while of the Norway Maple, the variety known as +<i>Platanoides dissectum</i> is particularly valuable on account of the +freely divided and beautifully coloured leaves.</p> + +<p>In the cut-leaved Birch (<i>Betula alba laciniatum pendula</i>), we +have at once one of the most graceful and distinct of hardy trees. +Not only are the leaves cut up and divided, but the weeping sprays of +foliage, owing to the fine, whipcord-like branchlets, produce a most +beautiful and graceful effect. In addition, this Birch is a tree of +neat, clean growth, and will succeed in a satisfactory way even on poor +gravelly soils and upland situations.</p> + +<p>Amongst the Beam trees (<i>Pyrus</i>) we find several good cut-leaved +forms, such as <i>pinnatifida</i> and <i>salicifolia</i>, both highly +desirable medium-sized trees and valuable for woodland margins or +steep, undulating grounds. Numerous forms of the Oak have appeared with +incised leaves, such as <i>Quercus dentata</i> and the fern-leaved +variety of the Turkey Oak (<i>Quercus Cerris asplenifolia</i>), +a decidedly beautiful and worthy form. Of the English Oak (<i>Q. Robur</i>) +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_124"></a>[Pg 124]</span> +we have at least two good cut-leaved forms in <i>Pedunculata +asplenifolia</i> and <i>pectinata</i>. There are other varieties of the +Oak in which the foliage differs considerably from that of the species +in being much more freely divided.</p> + +<p><i>Rhus glabra laciniata</i> has become widely known of late years on +account of its neatly divided foliage and as being a good town shrub. +The leaves are of a delicate pea-green and the flowers inconspicuous +and succeeded by feathery lawns.</p> + +<p>The common Alder has at least two forms that are much sought +after for dampish ground by the pond or lake side, in <i>Alnus +glutinosa laciniata</i> and its well-marked and distinct variety +<i>imperialis</i>. Both attain to a goodly size, and when suitably +placed where the abundant, rich green, deeply divided leaves can be +readily seen, are distinctly valuable for contrast and waterside effect.</p> + +<p>The incised or cut-leaved Hornbeam (<i>Carpinus Betulus incisa</i>) +is rarely seen, but it is of so distinct a type that its inclusion +in this list is considered desirable. In this case the almost entire +beech-like leaf is finely divided and the whole tree presents a +comparatively light and airy appearance. Of the common Hawthorn there +is a specially elegant cut-leaved form in that named <i>laciniata</i>, +but its distinctive characteristics are best revealed when planted in +conjunction with the species.</p> + +<p>Several of the Vine family are rendered highly ornamental for covering +walls and pergolas by reason of their beautifully coloured and divided +leaves. <i>Vitis heterophylla dissecta</i> is one of the best in +this way, but others of the less-incised forms are well worthy of +attention. <i>V. vinifera purpurea</i> has much to recommend it as +an ornamental-leaved variety, and is specially suitable for covering +mounds of earth, stones or tree stumps.</p> + +<p>We must not omit to include the cut or fern-leaved variety of the Lime +(<i>Tilia platyphillos laciniata</i>), which for neat habit of growth +and distinct character from the species merits special attention. The +cut-leaved Japan Maples are exceedingly beautiful, but their slow +growth and difficult propagation will always be against extensive +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_125"></a>[Pg 125]</span> +planting, and render them rare and expensive. Other interesting +cut-leaved trees are the willow-leaved Ash, laurel-leaved Willow, +scarlet Oak, Maidenhair tree, and that most beautiful of all, the +fern-leaved form of the golden Elder.</p> + +<p>Though somewhat stiff of outline the cut-leaved Horse Chestnut +(<i>Æsculus</i>), in the form known as laciniatum, is not to be +despised, and affords a striking contrast to the species.</p> + +<p>The fern-leaved Beech (<i>Fagus sylvatica asplenifolia</i>) is probably +the most commonly distributed of cut-leaved trees, and rightly so, +for it is certainly one of the most beautiful and distinct of the +type. <i>F. sylvatica quercifolia</i>, the Oak-leaved, is also worthy +of attention, but cannot compare with the former in point of beauty. +Even of the common Walnut (<i>Juglans Regia</i>) there is a cut-leaved +variety, which is distinct and worthy of culture as an ornamental tree. +It is named <i>laciniata</i> and is fairly common.</p> + +<p>Of the numerous varieties of the Sweet or Spanish Chestnut, the most +desirable is that which bears the rather cumbrous name of <i>Castanea +vesca heterophylla dissecta</i>. It is one of the most beautiful of +hardy trees, in which the long, narrow leaves of the upper parts of the +branches droop in a graceful manner and render it so much sought after +in ornamental gardening.</p> + +<p><b>Fastigiate Trees.</b>—The Lombardy Poplar (<i>Populus +fastigiata</i>) is at once one of the most conspicuous and picturesque +of tapering trees. Though it can hardly be described as a beautiful +tree, yet for landscape effect the tall, spiry, column-like appearance +renders the Lombardy Poplar of particular value for certain well-chosen +positions in our parks and grounds. In the neighbourhood of a town or +country village it produces an effect almost akin to architectural +embellishment, while in flat or low-lying districts, and particularly +near water, it is most at home and probably looks best. It also +associates kindly with old ruins and has a pleasing effect when rising +out of pointed-headed Cypresses or Yews, but in all cases it is a tree +that should be used sparingly and with extreme caution. Forming avenues +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_126"></a>[Pg 126]</span> +or lines of the tree is not good taste, while planting single specimens +in open situations should be avoided.</p> + +<p>Of the Poplars there are several upright-growing varieties in addition +to the Lombardy, such as the beautiful <i>P. alba Bolleana</i>, a +desirable fast-growing tree with a character of its own.</p> + +<p>The Oak, too, has its decidedly upright form in <i>Quercus pedunculata +fastigiata</i>, which in old parks is a fairly common tree. A decidedly +beautiful small-growing tree is the upright form of the dwarf Acacia +(<i>Robinia Pseudo-acacia inermis fastigiata</i>) which for confined +spaces and wealth of delightful pea-green foliage is a valuable +small-growing variety.</p> + +<p>The Elms are not wanting in upright-growing forms, both the English and +Scotch being represented, the former in <i>Dampieri aurea</i>, and the +latter in <i>Montana fastigiata</i>. A beautiful and distinct tree of +upright habit will be found in the fastigiate variety of the Tulip tree +(<i>Liriodendron tulipifera fastigiata</i>).</p> + +<p><i>Cupressus sempervirens</i>, in many parts of England, but +particularly by the coast, forms a beautiful tapering evergreen tree +with the darkest-green foliage. For clump planting it is particularly +desirable, but it is not quite hardy in some parts of the country. +Another coniferous tree of naturally erect growth is the red or +Virginian Cedar (<i>Juniperus Virginiana</i>), which in sheltered sites +is a most desirable member of the family. Two other Junipers are of +decidedly strict growth, <i>J. drupacea</i> and <i>J. thurifera</i>.</p> + +<p>The Irish Juniper (<i>Juniperus hibernica</i>) originated in Ireland, +most probably as a chance seedling. It is a most desirable shrub, and +on account of its singular habit of growing in a compact, slender +and graceful column, has proved itself a most valuable evergreen for +almost any position, but particularly where geometrical gardening is +carried out. The silvery glaucous hue of the thickly produced foliage +is extremely beautiful. The nearly allied but much smaller growing +<i>J. hibernica compressa</i> forms a compact slender pyramid of +bright-tinted foliage and is an excellent plant for rockwork or small gardens. +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_127"></a>[Pg 127]</span></p> + +<p>Amongst the Cypresses are several upright-growing forms, probably the +best, and certainly the most widely distributed, being Lawson’s erect +Cypress (<i>Cupressus Lawsoniana erecta viridis</i>), of dense, erect +habit and with vivid green foliage. <i>Cupressus macrocorpa lutea</i>, +raised by Messrs. Dicksons, of Chester, has a decidedly neat and +upright habit of growth, while the distinct golden tint of the foliage +renders it a desirable acquisition for ornamental planting.</p> + +<p>Than the Irish Yew (<i>Taxus baccata fastigiata</i>) with its dark +sombre foliage and neat columnar outline, few evergreens are more +conspicuous and effective. This favourite and far-distributed variety +originated at Florence Court, in Ireland, a century and a quarter ago.</p> + +<p><i>Cupressus macrocarpa fastigiata</i> is a well-marked variety in +which the branches closely press to the main stem. The foliage is +of the brightest green, and the long whip-cord-like shoots with +the conspicuous reddish back, impart a peculiar grace to healthy +specimens. <i>C. torulosa</i>, for planting where space is confined, +is a decided acquisition, the easy though columnar habit of growth, +slender branchlets and bright glaucous foliage being all points of +recommendation.</p> + +<p>The upright form of the Birch (<i>Betula alba fastigiata</i>) has a +peculiarity of habit that, associated with the slender weeping shoots, +is highly ornamental; while <i>Cornus stricta</i> and the upright +variety of our common Hawthorn have both points of recommendation.</p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_128"></a>[Pg 128]</span></p> + +<h2 class="nobreak">CHAPTER XII<br> +<span class="h_subtitle">TREES BEST ADAPTED FOR VARIOUS SOILS</span></h2> +</div> + +<p>There is, perhaps, no soil so bad and barren that it may not be +rendered either profitable or ornamental by judicious planting; but, +as might be expected, there is often a great want of knowledge as to +the proper kind of trees to be chosen to suit a particular soil. In +looking over a large extent of woodland one will often be struck with +the great disproportion in size of the individual trees of a species; +but it will generally be noticed that where the largest and healthiest +occur the tree is usually growing upon its own soil, and is found to be +flourishing at the expense of all around it. Thus the finest oaks will +be found where the soil is deep and loamy, resting on clay; beech, and +the Austrian pine (<i>Pinus austriaca</i>) upon a calcareous gravel, +resting on a bed of chalk; ash and elm on a dampish, loamy gravel; +birch in a light, black loam, with a gravelly substratum; Spanish +chestnut, in a good loamy or gravelly soil, not too damp; the Scotch +and Corsican pines (<i>P. sylvestris</i> and <i>P. laricio</i>) at +fairly high altitudes, and in gravelly, well-drained soils; and the +Cluster and Aleppo pines (<i>P. Pinaster</i> and <i>P. halepensis</i>), +in almost pure sand on the sea-coast. Some trees grow rapidly for a +few years in almost any soil, but where the soil is unsuitable they +generally show signs of distress after a time, make little or no +progress, and ultimately become stunted and ill-grown. Should the +soil be very unfavourable, they die outright. Instances of this are, +unfortunately, far too common wherever one travels over the country, +owing to trees of a kind that are utterly unfitted for the particular +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_129"></a>[Pg 129]</span> +class of soil being planted in a haphazard kind of way, without any +consideration of their individual requirements. For all practical +purposes with reference to tree-culture, soils, generally speaking, may +be divided into six distinct classes—peaty, chalky or limey, gravelly, +clayey, loamy, and such as contain ironstone, coal, etc.</p> + +<p>(1) <b>Peat.</b>—Few trees will succeed well on an unreclaimed peat +bog, but, where draining and soiling have been attended to at the +outset, the number that grow and produce a fair amount of valuable +timber is almost without limit among our generally cultivated species. +Among conifers that have proved themselves suitable for bog planting +are the larch, Scotch pine, and common and black spruces (<i>Picea +excelsa</i> and <i>P. nigra</i>). The larch grows rapidly, and is +less subject to disease on peaty than any other soil—indeed, up to +a few years ago, I cannot remember having seen a trace of any of the +diseases which have rendered the life of the tree so precarious of late +years in this country. In thinning a larch plantation of fully sixty +years’ growth I found the trees felled to be perfectly healthy, and +of exceptional quality, with, on an average, 72 ft. of wood in each. +The subsoil in this case was clay, and the bog, previous to being +planted, had been cut over for fuel. The Scotch pine grows almost as +freely as the larch—the average in over fifty trees measured being +about an eighth less—under similar conditions. Natural reproduction +of the Scotch pine goes on so rapidly that it must be considered one +of the very best trees for planting on peat bog. The spruces are +excellent trees for planting on reclaimed peat bog, where they produce +a fair amount of timber and afford excellent shelter to other trees. +Of hardwoods, the beech is one of the best for bog planting, as it +grows rapidly and produces a large amount of clean timber. The alder +grows luxuriously on peaty soils, and shows no traces of disease or +canker. Another excellent bog tree is the Gean or Wild Cherry, and this +may likewise be said of the holly. Ash and oak are not generally of +large size, nor are they always healthy on peat bog, even when it has +received a great amount of attention in the way of reclaiming. Birch, +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_130"></a>[Pg 130]</span> +lime and poplar of various kinds are all suited for planting on +well-drained bog.</p> + +<p>Among coniferous trees, a large number are well suited for planting in +reclaimed peat bog. By way of experiment I have planted specimens of +various kinds in newly-formed plantations, and in nearly every case +the trees have grown well, particularly when partially sheltered. +<i>Cupressus macrocarpa</i> is one of the best, and not one whit behind +it are <i>C. Lawsoniana</i> and <i>C. goveniana</i>. <i>Wellingtonia +gigantea</i> and <i>Sequoia sempervirens</i> have done well, while +<i>Pinus laricio</i> and <i>P. austriaca</i> grow freely. I find that +the majority of the recently introduced conifers do well on prepared +peat bog—that is, where a quantity of loam has been incorporated with +the bog and all superfluous moisture drained away.</p> + +<p>(2) <b>Chalky Soils.</b>—The beech is peculiarly well suited for +planting in chalk districts, for it will grow and produce a large +quantity of excellent timber where but a few inches of loam overlie the +chalk. It is a fact that, in Southern England particularly, in order to +find where the chalk beds lie, one has only to be guided by the line +traced out by the largest and most luxuriant beeches.</p> + +<p>The beech will grow freely enough on almost pure chalk, but it +certainly flourishes best where loam, say, from 1 ft. to 3 ft. in +depth, overlies the chalk, or is incorporated with it, as on the +Chiltern Hills.</p> + +<p>The Norway maple (<i>Acer platanoides</i>) revels in a chalky soil, and +so does <i>A. colchicum rubrum</i>. These are both handsome, hardy, +large-growing trees, and well suited for extensive forest-planting +under certain conditions of soil. White poplar (<i>Populus alba</i>) +is an excellent tree for planting in chalky districts—indeed, it is +surprising to see to what an immense size it attains on almost pure chalk.</p> + +<p>Other poplars that do almost equally well on the chalk formation +are <i>P. monilifera</i> and <i>P. canadensis</i>, both excellent, +free-growing trees. Elms, particularly the Huntingdon and the American, +grow rapidly, and attain to a large size, where but a small quantity +of loam is present in the chalk. The wych elm grows freely in chalky +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_131"></a>[Pg 131]</span> +districts, and this may also be said of the common and silver-leaved +lime. False acacia (<i>Robinia Pseud-acacia</i>) is an excellent tree +for chalky soils, and there attains to a greater size than in even the +richest of loams. The alder and birch also thrive with vigour on chalky +soils. Indeed, most trees which in a state of nature grow in damp or +marshy soils, are well suited for planting where chalk is the component +of the main soil, and this is explained as follows:—Chalk, although +sufficiently porous to allow water to percolate through it, has, like +all other calcareous matter, a strong attraction for water, and acts +like a sponge in holding it in considerable quantity for a very long +time. Among the conifers that are suitable for chalky soils the Spanish +fir (<i>Abies Pinsapo</i>) is one of the best. In the chalky districts +of Southern England it thrives with unusual luxuriance. The Mount Enos +fir (<i>Abies cephalonica</i>) is, likewise, well adapted for growing +in chalky districts. Of evergreen trees that succeed well on chalk the +number is well known to be limited, and it is important that two such +beautiful conifers as the Spanish and Mount Enos firs should there find +their most congenial home.</p> + +<p>Both the Scotch and <a href ="#I_061">Weymouth</a> pines (<i>Pinus sylvestris</i> +and <i>P. Strobus</i>) are well suited for planting on chalk, and many fine +examples of both may be seen on the chalky reefs of Kent and Surrey.</p> + +<p>The common Yew grows freely where hardly a particle of soil overlies +the chalk formation.</p> + +<p>The Giant Arborvitæ (<i>Thuja gigantea</i>) is peculiarly suitable for +planting in chalky soils: and the Lebanon Cedar (<i>Cedrus Libani</i>) +is never found in greater perfection than when growing in the chalk +with a fair depth of loam atop.</p> + +<p><i>Wellingtonia gigantea</i> also does well.</p> + +<p>(3) <b>Gravelly and Sandy Soils.</b>—The Corsican pine is an excellent +tree for planting on gravelly soils, and some of the largest and finest +specimens in this country are growing in a disused gravel-pit, and this +may also be said of the Douglas fir (<i>Pseudothuga Douglasii</i>).</p> + +<p>The Scotch pine is well known to be one of the best conifers for +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_132"></a>[Pg 132]</span> +planting in gravelly soils, where it reproduces itself in great +numbers, when the conditions of growth are at all favourable.</p> + +<p><i>Pinus Pinaster</i>, the cluster pine, is, perhaps, one of the most +valuable conifers for planting either in gravelly or sandy soils. The +great value of the tree in reclaiming sandy tracts, both at home and +abroad, has been so often described that further reference here is +not required. The Aleppo pine is a good companion to the Pinaster, +and grows with great freedom in a sandy or gravelly soil, within the +influence of the sea. Gravelly soil also suits the <a href ="#I_061">Weymouth pine</a>, +on which it produces a fair quantity of very resinous timber. Both the +beech and oak produce a large volume of timber on poor gravelly and +sandy soils.</p> + +<p>(4) <b>Clay Soils.</b>—The soil here referred to is genuine clay, +devoid of stones, and without a particle of sand or loam in it.</p> + +<p>It occurred on the slopes, and for some considerable distance along the +sides of one of the park roads on an estate in England.</p> + +<p>This is recorded simply to show what species of trees are best able +to succeed when planted in pure clay. The pits, in this case, it may +be well to mention, were dug and the soil thrown loosely up for a +month previous to planting, but no soil was added to the stiff clay. +Nearly one hundred kinds of trees and shrubs were used, but out of all +these not more than eight are doing well, the others having gradually +died out, or become so rusty and miserable looking that their removal +was compulsory. First among the trees that have succeeded is the +giant arborvitæ (<i>Thuja gigantea</i>), which seems to revel in what +is generally considered the most unkindly of soils. <i>Cryptomeria +japonica</i> has also done well, but the trees of this kind, though +bushy and well-furnished, have grown at a comparatively slow rate.</p> + +<p><i>Cupressus macrocarpa</i> also has done fairly well: the growth +certainly has not been rapid, but for all that the general appearance +of the trees is the reverse of what one might expect from the +unfavourable nature of the soil. The Indian Cedar (<i>Cedrus +Deodara</i>) we have found to be peculiarly well suited for planting in +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_133"></a>[Pg 133]</span> +clayey soils, the bright silvery tint that is so characteristic of this +cedar when well grown being discernible in the clay-grown specimens. +<i>Pinus austriaca</i> has, in a few instances, done well, the foliage +being ample and of the usual dark yew-green. Amongst shrubs the +double-flowered gorse (<i>Ulex Europæus</i>, fl. pl.) has done best +of any—indeed, it has grown and increased freely, and would seem to +be quite as much at home as in its natural element—a dry, gravelly +bank. These may be considered as the trees that have succeeded best in +stiff, clayey soil. Few of the pine tribe did well, and this may also +be said of the spruces, cypresses, yews, junipers, arbutus, dogwood, +cotoneaster, hollies, and others planted.</p> + +<p>It is, of course, far from advisable to plant trees or shrubs in such +unkindly soil without first adding other of better quality; but it is +of great value to know that there are a few trees and shrubs that will +thrive almost in defiance of the stubborn and unkindly nature of a +stiff clay soil.</p> + +<p>(5) <b>Ironstone Soils.</b>—The particular class of soil to which I +refer, and which in several districts occurs in plenty, is on the coal +and ironstone formation, where the top soil is usually shallow, and the +subsoil consists of a loose, yellowish rag that is largely impregnated +with iron. In most places but a very small quantity of soil exists, and +that is of the poorest description, varying in depth according to the +lie of the measure. The Spanish Chestnut is one of the very best trees +for this soil, growing with freedom, and producing a fair amount of +good timber, while its appearance indicates perfect health.</p> + +<p>Birch and beech do well, although neither of them attains to a large +size. The latter reproduces itself freely from seeds, and soon spreads +wherever a footing can be got. Sycamore grows freely, particularly +where the pan is broken up, and produces a small quantity of good +timber. Another tree that seems perfectly at home on the coal and +ironstone is the wild cherry, for there it grows to a fair size, +flowers freely, and produces excellent timber. Larch cannot be +recommended for this soil, but in places where a small quantity of +loam overlies the coal and ironstone it grows with great freedom for a +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_134"></a>[Pg 134]</span> +number of years, and the timber, if cut early, is of good quality. The +common spruce soon dies out, although it may grow freely enough for a +number of years after being planted, and wear a healthy appearance. +Oak and ash do fairly well, but they rarely attain to a large size or +produce first-class timber. Rhododendrons almost revel in this soil, +and some of the largest and healthiest are growing with their roots in +close contact with the coal and ironstone.</p> + +<p><b>Shrubs for Hot and Dry Soils.</b>—The Bladder Senna (<i>Colutea +arborescens</i>) is one of the most useful of shrubs for planting +in poor, hot, dry soils, and not only will it succeed and flower +well in these, but it is equally valuable for using where the air is +chemically impure, and for that reason has few equals for the town +or city shrubbery. <i>C. cruenta</i> is also valuable in a similar +way. The Sea Purslane (<i>Atriplex halimus</i>) is another valuable +shrub for planting in hot and dry situations as is <i>Caragana +arborescens</i>, the native Barberry (<i>Berberis vulgaris</i>), many +forms of Genista and Cytisus, <i>Spartium junceum</i>, and the double +flowering Gorse. Another excellent shrub is the Box Thorn or Tea Tree +(<i>Lycium Europæum</i>) which is useful for covering an arid hot bank, +several species of Cotoneaster, particularly <i>C. horizontalis</i> +and <i>C. microphylla</i>, and the neat and curious <i>Muchlenbeckia +complexa</i>. Helianthemums also do well, so does the Venetian +Sumach (<i>Rhus cotinus</i>), and several varieties of bramble, but +especially the double pink flowering form. The Rest Harrow (<i>Ononis +arvensis</i>), a native shrubby plant of great floral beauty, also does +well; while the little known <i>Celastris articulatus</i> should not +be neglected in hot and dry situations. Other good shrubs for hot dry +banks are <i>Potentilla fruticosa</i>, the Tamarisk and <i>Juniperus +tamariscifolia</i>.</p> + +<p><b>Concluding Remarks.</b>—In conclusion, it may be pointed out that +it is only by a careful selection of soil that we may expect tree +planting to be successful, and I have no hesitation in saying that many +failures can be clearly traced to errors of judgment in the selection +of trees for planting on particular soils. The subject is a wide and +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_135"></a>[Pg 135]</span> +complicated one, and it must be admitted that very perplexing +diversities occur with the same kinds of trees on what, to all +appearance, is the same class of soil. There are, of course, other +considerations beyond the soil itself which must be taken into account, +such as aspect, elevation, and whether the ground is inland or on the +coast.</p> + +<p>With reference to some of the newer conifers it must be admitted that +soil and situation have a wonderful influence on their successful +culture, and this applies in particular to such kinds as are not +perfectly hardy and liable to injury by unseasonable frost. The too +common practice of selecting warm and sheltered spots for such is, in +the main, to be condemned.</p> + +<p>It may be said that <i>Abies cephalonica</i> and <i>A. Pinsapo</i> are +not worth growing, and in many places they are not, but when planted on +limestone or chalk they are highly ornamental.</p> + +<p>The same holds good in the case of <i>Tsuga Mertensiana</i>, <i>Picea +Sitchensis</i>, and <i>P. excelsa</i>, which are rarely seen in good +form except on soil of a peaty description.</p> + +<p>Every one at all interested in trees and shrubs knows that there are +certain kinds which in a state of Nature are only found growing in a +peaty soil, mixed it may be more or less with sand, and any attempt +to cultivate them in other soils is productive of very unsatisfactory +results.</p> + +<p>Who would ever think of planting the so-called American or peat plants, +Cape Heaths, etc., amongst gravel or chalk, or Rhododendrons where lime +is present in the soil? And these facts show us that there is something +in the composition of certain soils only suitable for the requirements +of a certain class of plants.</p> + +<p>Another curious fact is this, that when growing on certain soils the +timber of one species of tree is found to be far more durable than in +others.</p> + +<p>Deep loamy soil and soft peat produce timber that is usually of a +second-rate description, being deficient in firmness.</p> + +<p>By studying the geological strata of a district much useful information +may be learnt regarding the trees best suited for planting. +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_136"></a>[Pg 136]</span></p> + +<p>The following alphabetical table will serve to show at a +glance the trees that have been found best suited for planting +in the class of soil under which they are enumerated:—</p> + +<p class="f110 spa1"><b><span class="smcap">Reclaimed Peat Bog.</span></b></p> + +<p class="f110"><i>Hardwoods.</i></p> + +<table class="spb1"> + <tbody><tr> + <td class="tdl">Alnus glutinosa</td> + <td class="tdl_ws2">Populus alba</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl"> —— —— imperialis</td> + <td class="tdl_ws2"> —— balsamifera</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl"> —— —— laciniata</td> + <td class="tdl_ws2"> —— canadensis</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl">Betula alba</td> + <td class="tdl_ws2">Quercus Robur, and vars.</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl">Cerasus Padus</td> + <td class="tdl_ws2">Salix fragilis</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl"> —— vulgaris</td> + <td class="tdl_ws2">Tilia europeæ</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl">Fagus sylvatica</td> + <td class="tdl_ws2">Ulmus alata</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl"> —— —— purpurea</td> + <td class="tdl_ws2"> —— montana</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdc fs_110" colspan="2"> <br><i>Conifers.</i></td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl">Abies concolor</td> + <td class="tdl_ws2">Larix Kæmpferi</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl"> —— bracteata</td> + <td class="tdl_ws2">Pinus austriaca</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl"> —— nobilis</td> + <td class="tdl_ws2"> —— excelsa</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl"> —— Nordmanniana</td> + <td class="tdl_ws2"> —— laricio</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl">Cedrus Deodara</td> + <td class="tdl_ws2"> —— sylvestris</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl">Cryptomeria japonica</td> + <td class="tdl_ws2">Retinospora ericoides</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl">Cupressus Goveniana</td> + <td class="tdl_ws2"> —— plumosa</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl"> —— Lawsoniana</td> + <td class="tdl_ws2"> —— —— aurea</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl"> —— macrocarpa</td> + <td class="tdl_ws2">Taxus baccata</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl">Juniperus chinensis</td> + <td class="tdl_ws2">Thuja gigantea</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl"> —— recurva</td> + <td class="tdl_ws2"> —— occidentalis</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl"> —— Sabina</td> + <td class="tdl_ws2">Thujopsis borealis</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl">Larix europeæ</td> + <td class="tdl_ws2">Wellingtonia gigantea</td> + </tr> + </tbody> +</table> + +<p class="f110 spa2"><b><span class="smcap">Chalky or Calcareous.</span></b></p> + +<p class="f110"><i>Hardwoods.</i></p> + +<table class="spb1"> + <tbody><tr> + <td class="tdl">Acer colchicum rubrum</td> + <td class="tdl_ws2">Cerasus Padus</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl"> —— dasycarpum</td> + <td class="tdl_ws2">Cratægus (nearly all)</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl"> —— Negundo</td> + <td class="tdl_ws2">Cytisus Laburnum</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl"> —— platanoides</td> + <td class="tdl_ws2">Fagus sylvatica</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl"> —— Pseudo-platanus</td> + <td class="tdl_ws2"> —— —— purpurea</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl">Æsculus Hippocastanum</td> + <td class="tdl_ws2">Fraxinus excelsior</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl"> —— rubicunda</td> + <td class="tdl_ws2"> —— Ornus</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl">Alnus glutinosa, and vars.</td> + <td class="tdl_ws2">Gleditschia sinensis</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl">Amelanchier Botryapium</td> + <td class="tdl_ws2"> —— triacanthos</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl">Amygdalus communis</td> + <td class="tdl_ws2">Koelreuteria paniculata</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl">Betula alba</td> + <td class="tdl_ws2">Populus alba</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl">Castanea vesca</td> + <td class="tdl_ws2"> —— balsamifera</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl">Catalpa bignonioides</td> + <td class="tdl_ws2"> —— canadensis + <span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_137"></a>[Pg 137]</span></td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl">Populus monilifera</td> + <td class="tdl_ws2">Quercus Turneri</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl"> —— tremula</td> + <td class="tdl_ws2">Robinia Pseud-acacia, and vars.</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl">Pyrus Aria</td> + <td class="tdl_ws2">Salix alba</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl"> —— Aucuparia</td> + <td class="tdl_ws2">Tilia argentea</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl"> —— Malus floribunda</td> + <td class="tdl_ws2"> —— europeæ</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl"> —— spectabilis</td> + <td class="tdl_ws2">Ulmus alata</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl">Quercus Ilex</td> + <td class="tdl_ws2"> —— glabra</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl"> —— Mirebecki</td> + <td class="tdl_ws2"> —— montana</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl"> —— rubra</td> + <td class="tdl_ws2">Virgilia lutea</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdc fs_110" colspan="2"> <br><i>Conifers.</i></td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl">Abies Amabilis</td> + <td class="tdl_ws2">Pinus austriaca</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl"> —— magnifica</td> + <td class="tdl_ws2"> —— Cembra</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl"> —— nobilis</td> + <td class="tdl_ws2"> —— excelsa</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl"> —— Nordmanniana</td> + <td class="tdl_ws2"> —— laricio</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl"> —— Pinsapo</td> + <td class="tdl_ws2"> —— Pinaster</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl"> —— Webbiana</td> + <td class="tdl_ws2"> —— Strobus</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl">Cedrus atlantica</td> + <td class="tdl_ws2"> —— sylvestris</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl"> —— Deodara</td> + <td class="tdl_ws2"> —— tuberculata</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl"> —— Libani</td> + <td class="tdl_ws2">Retinospora ericoides</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl">Cupressus Lawsoniana</td> + <td class="tdl_ws2"> —— filicoides</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl"> —— macrocarpa</td> + <td class="tdl_ws2"> —— plumosa</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl">Juniperus chinensis</td> + <td class="tdl_ws2"> —— —— aurea</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl"> —— communis</td> + <td class="tdl_ws2">Salisburia adiantifolia</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl"> —— Sabina</td> + <td class="tdl_ws2">Taxus baccata, and vars.</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl"> —— —— tamariscifolia</td> + <td class="tdl_ws2">Thuja gigantea</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl">Larix europeæ</td> + <td class="tdl_ws2"> —— Lobbii</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl"> —— Kæmpferi</td> + <td class="tdl_ws2"> —— occidentalis</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl"> —— leptolepis</td> + <td class="tdl_ws2"> —— Warreana</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl">Picea excelsa</td> + <td class="tdl_ws2">Thujopsis borealis</td> + </tr> + </tbody> +</table> + +<p class="f110 spa2"><b><span class="smcap">Gravelly and Sandy.</span></b></p> + +<p class="f110"><i>Hardwoods.</i></p> + +<table class="spb1"> + <tbody><tr> + <td class="tdl">Alianthus glandulosa</td> + <td class="tdl_ws2">Morus nigra</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl">Alnus cordata</td> + <td class="tdl_ws2">Platanus occidentalis</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl">Betula alba</td> + <td class="tdl_ws2">Populus Bolleana</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl">Carpinus betulus</td> + <td class="tdl_ws2">Quercus Robur, and vars.</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl">Fagus sylvatica</td> + <td class="tdl_ws2"> —— suber</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl"> —— —— purpurea</td> + <td class="tdl_ws2">Robinia Pseud-acacia</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl">Fraxinus Ornus</td> + <td class="tdl_ws2">Sambucus nigra</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl">Gleditschia horrida</td> + <td class="tdl_ws2">Tilia europeæ</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl">Ilex, many vars.</td> + <td class="tdl_ws2">Ulmus alata</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl">Juglans cinerea</td> + <td class="tdl_ws2"> —— campestris</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl"> —— nigra</td> + <td class="tdl_ws2"> —— montana</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl">Magnolia acuminata</td> + <td class="tdl_ws2">Virgilia lutea + <span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_138"></a>[Pg 138]</span></td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdc fs_110" colspan="2"> <br><i>Conifers.</i></td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl">Juniperus communis</td> + <td class="tdl_ws2">Pinus Pinaster</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl"> —— Sabina</td> + <td class="tdl_ws2"> —— pumilio</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl">Pinus austriaca</td> + <td class="tdl_ws2"> —— sylvestris</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl"> —— halepensis</td> + <td class="tdl_ws2">Taxus baccata</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl"> —— laricio</td> + <td class="tdl_ws2">Thuja gigantea</td> + </tr> + </tbody> +</table> + +<p class="f110 spa2"><b><span class="smcap">Clay.</span></b></p> + +<table class="spb1"> + <tbody><tr> + <td class="tdl">Carpinus betulus</td> + <td class="tdl_ws2">Quercus Ilex</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl">Castanea vesca</td> + <td class="tdl_ws2"> —— pannonica</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl">Cryptomeria elegans</td> + <td class="tdl_ws2"> —— Robur</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl"> —— japonica</td> + <td class="tdl_ws2">Thuja gigantea</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl">Gleditschia triacanthos</td> + <td class="tdl_ws2"> —— Lobbii</td> + </tr> + </tbody> +</table> + +<p class="f110 spa2"><b><span class="smcap">Ironstone and Coal.</span></b></p> + +<table class="spb1"> + <tbody><tr> + <td class="tdl">Acer Pseudo-platanus</td> + <td class="tdl_ws2">Larix europeæ</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl">Betula alba</td> + <td class="tdl_ws2"> —— —— pendula</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl">Castanea vesca</td> + <td class="tdl_ws2">Pinus Cembra</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl">Cerasus Padus</td> + <td class="tdl_ws2"> —— Montana</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl">Cupressus Lawsoniana</td> + <td class="tdl_ws2">Quercus Robur</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl">Fraxinus excelsior</td> + <td class="tdl_ws2">Thuja gigantea</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl">Juniperus communis</td> + <td class="tdl_ws2">Ulmus montana</td> + </tr> + </tbody> +</table> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_139"></a>[Pg 139]</span></p> +<h2 class="nobreak">CHAPTER XIII<br> +<span class="h_subtitle">TRANSPLANTING LARGE TREES</span></h2> +</div> + +<p>Where immediate effect is required, the transplanting of large trees +and shrubs will be an operation of considerable importance, and though +it is fraught with both trouble and expense, the results obtained have +led to an increased adoption of the system during recent years.</p> + +<p>There is hardly a limit to the size or weight of the tree to be removed +when the operator is provided with suitable appliances, and success has +crowned the effort of several recent operations of this nature in our +Royal and other parks. Of late years several appliances for removing +large and weighty trees and shrubs have been placed on the market; +amongst these one of the best is certainly that made and patented by +Messrs. Faulkners Ltd. Its principal recommendations are simplicity +of structure, the ease with which it may be worked, and lightness, +combined with such strength that even the weightiest tree can be +removed. But not only is this tree-lifter valuable where transplanting +is being engaged in, for in removing large tree roots, logs of timber, +blocks of stone, and heavy materials generally, it has been found most +useful.</p> + +<p>The <a href="#I_140">apparatus</a> is made somewhat in the form of a four-wheeled +lorry, having a steel frame only. The frame at the back is made movable to +admit of the apparatus being placed so that the tree to be moved stands +in the centre of the machine. Two stout planks with guide rails are +laid across the trench, and the machine is backed on to these. The +machine is constructed with four iron rollers, lying along over the +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_140"></a>[Pg 140]</span> +side frame and parallel with the frame. Around the rollers a chain is +wound, the loose end being fastened to the planking which has been +placed under the ball of earth containing the roots of the tree. +The rollers are worked with a specially made screw-gear, which is +self-sustaining, and can be moved to draw up or lower at will.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> + <img id="I_140" src="images/i_140.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="506" > + <p class="f110">FAULKNER’S TRANSPLANTING MACHINE.</p> +</div> + +<p>The illustration given clearly shows the apparatus with the tree being +lifted for transportation. Barron’s transplanting machine is also well +known, and with this much valuable work in the removal of large and +heavy trees and shrubs has been accomplished.</p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_141"></a>[Pg 141]</span></p> +<h2 class="nobreak">CHAPTER XIV<br> +<span class="h_subtitle">THINNING PLANTATIONS</span></h2> +</div> + +<p>In the successful rearing of timber trees for profit there is, perhaps, +no other branch of more importance than a good knowledge of the art of +thinning, and, at the same time, one on which so great a diversity of +opinion exists.</p> + +<p>Thinning plantations, be they old or young, must always be subject to +great modification, according to the nature of the trees and soil, or +ultimate design of the plantation being operated upon, and is a matter +requiring great tact, forethought, and discrimination, and this can +only be acquired by long experience and by those having a good insight +into the peculiarities and properties of our forest trees.</p> + +<p>The same rule as regards thinning will not apply to, say, fir, +hardwood, and mixed plantations; and far less will it hold good in the +case of an ornamental and a profitable wood. No universal rule can, +however, be laid down for thinning, but general principles can be given +that will be sufficient for the guidance of those who have to undertake +such work.</p> + +<p>In thinning any plantation two important points are to be borne in +mind—first, cut away all diseased, dead and dying trees; second, +study the relationship of trees and soil, and act accordingly. To be +more explicit, we might say that in the first case, the removal of +all dead and dying trees is a necessity, and that being done, one can +proceed with the disposal of the standards to be left. In the second +case, by suiting the trees to the soil, at least as far as possible, +great benefit results, and an instance of this that came under our own +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_142"></a>[Pg 142]</span> +observation lately will be given as an example. A plantation 130 acres +in extent was composed of oak, larch and Spanish chestnut, placed +at regular distances apart throughout the whole extent of the wood. +Now, the soil was gravelly for a considerable distance down, and, +consequently, fairly well suited for the chestnut, but just the reverse +for the larch, which, on such a soil, generally becomes “pumped,” or +rotten at the core. In thinning this particular plantation, it would +have been very unwise to cut away the chestnut and the oak and leave +the larch, and this had happened to some extent before the proper +system of management and adaptability of soil to tree was thought +of. Larch may look healthy enough, and show but small indications of +disease, even when growing on gravel up to twenty or thirty years of +age, so that it is with difficulty that the inexperienced become aware +of the pending doom that usually awaits this tree when planted on +such a soil. This example is merely given to point out how carefully +thinning should be gone about, and that in all cases it is a wise +policy to study soil in relation to the future crop of timber before an +axe is laid to the tree.</p> + +<p>At the outset of these remarks on thinning plantations it should be +distinctly borne in mind that there are two chief objects for which +trees may be grown, each requiring a special mode of management, in +order that the best results may be obtained.</p> + +<p>The first is their management in a purely economical sense or with a +view to profit; the second, their management with a view to ornament. +There is also a third object that is well worthy of consideration, +and that is the growing of timber in one and the same wood, both for +ornament and utility combined, and this is very frequently the case +with home woodlands that are visible from roads and drives, with strips +bounding parks or pleasure-grounds, and on small properties.</p> + +<p>To produce ornamental trees of natural appearance is by no means +difficult, as by allowing the individual specimens ample room for +branch development, the desired effect is gradually brought about. Far +greater difficulty, however, attends the production of the greatest +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_143"></a>[Pg 143]</span> +quantity of the most valuable trees on a given space of ground. Here +many questions of the greatest moment, on which difference of opinion +exists, crop up: such as at what age thinning should be commenced, to +what extent should it be engaged in, what time should elapse between +each thinning, and which trees should be removed.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> + <img id="I_143" src="images/i_143.jpg" alt="" width="400" height="575" > + <p class="f110">FELLING TOOLS.</p> +</div> + +<p>Any one at all interested in the management of our woods and plantations +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_144"></a>[Pg 144]</span> +must have noticed that trees having an abundance of room and light +on all sides make comparatively short and thick trunks that are +well furnished with branches; whereas such as are grown up in a +circumscribed space and amongst others are tall and straight, with +clean, well-formed stems destitute of branches for the greater part +of their height. All species, or nearly all, are governed by the same +laws, that is to say, those that have the least room laterally within +certain prescribed limits, which will be described hereafter, produce +the tallest, cleanest and straightest trunks, and vice versa.</p> + +<p>The influence of light has not, in this country at least, been +sufficiently taken into account in the rearing of timber, but it has +everything to do in directing the growth of trees, and should be +reckoned as a most important factor by the forester. Thus, if it be +allowed in excess, as when the trees stand far apart, the growth of +lateral shoots and large branches will be greatly induced, the result +being short and thick boles, that are rough and knotty, and ill-adapted +for constructive purposes. On the other hand, by keeping the trees +thick on the ground, light is, to a greater or less extent, excluded, +and the trees grow tall, straight and branchless for the greater part +of their height, and are of the greatest economic value. But here +another and very important question crops up. To what extent in a wood, +managed solely for the value of the timber it produces, will it be +profitable to thin? In dealing with this, two distinct bearings should +be kept in mind—the first, that too small a quantity of branches and +consequently of leaves, must, to a greater or less extent, check the +growth of the trees, and so diminish the production of timber; and, +second, that by having too large a quantity, the value of the timber +is greatly reduced in consequence, and the number of trees to the acre +much diminished as well.</p> + +<p>There is, therefore, a medium between these two, by adopting which, +the greatest quantity of the most valuable timber will be produced; +although, at the same time, it is astonishing, when looked at from +a physiological point of view, what a small quantity of foliage is +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_145"></a>[Pg 145]</span> +required to keep a plantation tree in a healthy, growing condition, +and to produce a trunk of useful dimensions. This may, however, be +explained by the fact that the almost entire absence of large limbs and +branches, which in some cases would amount to one-fifth the total bulk +of the tree, renders the amount of sap, and consequently of leaves, +required proportionately less, the nutriment being mainly elaborated in +the building of the trunk.</p> + +<p>Independent altogether of the forests of northern Europe, Canada, +etc., which have grown up naturally, examples might be given in our +own country—the native Fir forests in the Highlands of Scotland, the +valuable Beech woods on the Chiltern Hills, and a few Larch plantations +in Yorkshire and Bedfordshire—where trees averaging 70 ft. in height, +growing at from 4 to 6 yards apart, and with only a tuft of foliage +atop, may be seen. It is only, however, by long and careful study and +attention to different trees at different stages of their growth that +any idea can be formed of the amount of branches and foliage required +for preparing the sap that will be necessary for the profitable yearly +increase of the trunk until maturity is arrived at.</p> + +<p>The questions now to be dealt with in growing timber for purely +economical purposes are: (1) At what age should thinning be commenced? +(2) To what extent should it be engaged in? (3) What time should elapse +between each thinning? And (4) Which trees should be removed?</p> + +<p>At the outset, it may be well to mention, that in so far as any of +the above questions are concerned, no hard and fast line can be laid +down as to the universal management of plantations, each tract of +wood, and even different parts of the same wood, according to the +particular species of tree, quality of soil, altitude, and exposure, +being dealt with on its own peculiar footing. Many serious mistakes +have been committed, and irreparable damage done, by treating every +plantation alike and according to the rule-of-thumb method. Upon the +manner in which thinning is performed, much of the ultimate success +of a plantation will depend, and it is a matter requiring great tact, +forethought, and discrimination, which can only be acquired by long +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_146"></a>[Pg 146]</span> +experience, and an intimate knowledge of trees and their surroundings.</p> + +<p>The quality as well as quantity of timber produced should be carefully +considered in the management of every plantation. In dealing with the +following questions regarding thinning, it may be well to state that +the average plantation will alone form the basis of remarks.</p> + +<p><b>1. At what age should thinning be commenced?</b>—The necessity of +thinning, few practical arboriculturists will care to deny, and that +whether the plantation be composed of coniferous or hard-wooded trees. +It is the abuse of the practice that, in this country at least, is so +to be condemned, and I entirely dissent from those who consider that +a coniferous plantation should be left to Nature, or, in other words, +should thin itself. The argument that the natural forests of America, +the source from which we derive the finest and best quality of timber, +thinned themselves, is often quoted; but it should also be remembered +that the conditions of such forests are widely different from those +of our own, and that the waste of timber is immense, great quantities +being destroyed in procuring what is required. Although, however, +we cannot adopt all the details of Nature’s practice, we can and we +should admit the correctness of the principle on which she acts, and by +studying this we learn much, and it is by acquiring a knowledge of her +economy, and where and when to apply assistance, that the point of the +whole argument rests. Natural regeneration, unless it be in a limited +number of cases, and particularly with our least valuable classes of +timber, is never, in this country, likely to supersede artificial +planting, and it has been conclusively proved in the Forest of Dean, +that with our most valuable timber-producing tree, the Oak, the latter +system is most to be encouraged.</p> + +<p>No thinning of young trees should take place until a complete ground +shade has been established; and it is most important for the welfare of +the plantation, that a complete overhead foliage covering be brought +about at as early a date as possible after planting. At what age this +may take place will depend mainly on the size of the plants used and the +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_147"></a>[Pg 147]</span> +distance apart at which they were inserted in the ground, and to a +lesser extent on the quality of soil and other considerations. At a +short period after a complete leaf canopy has been established, the +individual trees begin to press against each other, and later on a +struggle for existence commences, the stronger specimens gaining +the supremacy over the weaker. Here it must be borne in mind that +hard-wooded trees require proportionately more room for their healthy +development than coniferous kinds, while length and clearness of +stem, produced by a due proportion of shade, is an object of prime +importance. It might, as some suppose, do little harm, to let the +struggle for existence go on unchecked, but there can be no question +that for several reasons it is wise policy to allow the stronger trees +every chance of succeeding, and to cut away the weaker. The object +should be to provide for the trees left standing that amount of room or +growing space best suited for bringing about the particular conditions +aimed at, and in thinning, it must be the aim of the forester to arrive +at the happy mean—neither over nor underdoing the work, the former in +particular. But while overcrowding is not to be tolerated, the danger +of suddenly exposing the trees to currents of air, to which they have +hitherto been unaccustomed, must be carefully guarded against, and it +should be distinctly borne in mind that to thin trees in an abrupt +manner is one of the greatest mistakes that it is possible to make.</p> + +<p>Statistics compiled from a healthy Larch plantation, growing on fair +soil, and in a moderately sheltered position in southern England, will +now be given, from which a good idea can be formed as to the age and +size when thinning should be commenced. The trees when planted were 2 +ft. high, and pitted at 3 ft. apart. In four years the outer branches +began to touch each other, and in six years from time of planting the +average height of trees was 7 ft. 10 in. and the shade occasioned had +killed out most of the grassy undergrowth. At this period of growth, +the disproportion in the size of the trees was, as is usually the case, +considerable, and left no doubt about which to remove when the first +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_148"></a>[Pg 148]</span> +thinning took place. Two years afterwards, or in eight years from time +of planting, thinning was first engaged in, the taller trees at that +time averaging nearly 11 ft. in height, but many of the suppressed and +weakly were little more than half that size. Another thinning took +place during the twelfth year, and in 1911 the trees average 40 ft. in +height and were standing at a distance of 9 ft. apart. The plantation +referred to is on the Earl of Derby’s property of Holwood, in Kent.</p> + +<p><b>2. To what extent should thinning be engaged in?</b>—In following +up the latter case, the tallest and healthiest trees were reserved; all +distorted, sickly, and stunted specimens being removed; but in the case +of two or more proportionately small trees growing in close proximity, +the most promising was left, and the others cut away, thus avoiding +gaps in the plantation. At the first thinning it will be found quite +impossible to leave the trees anything like regular over the ground, +although this should be studied as much as possible, and bare spaces +are to be carefully guarded against. With the vigorous growth of the +trees, and the interlacing of branches previous to the first thinning, +no great openings will require to be made, and nothing more than will +be canopied over during the next two years.</p> + +<p><b>3. What time should elapse between each thinning?</b>—This can +only be correctly decided after a careful inspection of the particular +wood. Generally speaking, after the first thinning, when the trees were +eight years old, the lower branches gradually began to give way, and +as the trees increased in height, this became more and more apparent, +and formed a good guide as to the time which should elapse before the +second thinning might profitably be engaged in. The intervals between +the various thinnings should for the first thirty years in the case +of Larch—and, indeed, most other trees—be comparatively short, +but become longer with advance of age; but heavy thinnings must be +carefully avoided, especially if the best class of coniferous timber is +to be produced. +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_149"></a>[Pg 149]</span></p> + +<p>A well-managed Larch plantation of twenty years’ growth should have +the trees branchless for about one-half of their height, which is, of +course, brought about by crowding, and at forty years three-fourths of +the trunk should be clear of branches.</p> + +<p>I have purposely abstained from giving the number of feet apart at +which trees ought to stand at various stages of their growth, and the +number of thinnings they require, as being likely to prove misleading.</p> + +<p><b>4. The question as to which trees should be removed</b> need cause +little or no anxiety, as the dead, dying, diseased, and badly-formed +will naturally receive first attention.</p> + +<p>In thinning, the following short rules should be observed:—</p> + +<p>1. Thin not at all until the undergrowing vegetation has been +completely killed out by the overhead foliage, the golden rule of +sylviculture being to keep the sunshine off the ground until near the +end of the tree’s career.</p> + +<p>2. Thinning should be performed in such a manner as not to reduce the +value of the crop, but so as to tend to the production of the greatest +quantity of the most valuable timber in the shortest possible space of +time.</p> + +<p>3. By thinning allow of sufficient light and air to prevent the trees +becoming drawn up and lanky, but avoid too much space, which induces +the growth of side branches and detracts from the value of the timber.</p> + +<p>4. Keep up the number of trees to the highest possible pitch until they +are tall, straight and clean, and thin gradually.</p> + +<p>5. The danger of suddenly exposing the trees to currents of cold air to +which they have hitherto been unaccustomed must be carefully guarded +against and it is a serious mistake to thin in an abrupt or unequal +manner.</p> + +<p>6. In thinning remove all dead and dying trees first, then the +distorted and stunted, the best grown and healthiest being preserved +for the permanent crop.</p> + +<p>7. Hard-wooded trees require proportionately more space for development +than conifers, and the annual rings in the timber of the latter should +be narrow in proportion to those of the former, good quality of +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_150"></a>[Pg 150]</span> +hard-wooded timber being indicated by broad annual rings, but with +coniferous wood the reverse is the case.</p> + +<p>8. Thinning should be commenced at the central or most sheltered point +of a plantation, or section of same, so that the outer intact boundary +may continue to form a barrier to cold winds, which might prove +injurious to trees that had hitherto stood in close order.</p> + +<p>9. In economic forestry, timber trees should be cut down when they have +arrived at maturity or have ceased to grow. With coniferous trees this +generally occurs at from seventy to ninety years; but with hardwoods, +excepting the ash and chestnut, which are of most value, say, up to +fifty years’ growth, the period may be greatly extended.</p> + +<p>10. Thinning is usually performed in autumn and early winter, but +it may be well to remember that at the latter period the lowest +percentage of moisture (about 47 per cent.) is present, and the timber +consequently of the greatest value for constructive purposes.</p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_151"></a>[Pg 151]</span></p> +<h2 class="nobreak">CHAPTER XV<br> +<span class="h_subtitle">TREE-PRUNING IN ECONOMIC FORESTRY</span></h2> +</div> + +<p>Where trees are grown for profit, they will, if properly managed, prune +themselves, and where for ornament the natural outline is far better +than any of the contortions and symmetrical shapes that have been +recommended by various writers on the subject.</p> + +<p>A broken or dead branch may be removed, a rival leading shoot cut away, +or an ungainly or dangerous limb amputated, but here all pruning should +cease, the practice being wholly wrong and unreasonable, and without +one recommendation to be adduced in its favour. In an economic way the +finest plantations of either coniferous or hard-wooded trees in this +country are those where the individual specimens are growing so thickly +together that the branches are killed outright for fully one-half +of their height. Here the stems will be straight and clean, and the +timber when converted free from the knots and warping that are so +characteristic either of standard specimens or such as have been grown +too thinly on the ground.</p> + +<p>Every one knows that an Oak growing alone or along the margins of +a wood is in nine cases out of ten branched almost to the ground, +and the bole in consequence rough and ill-fitted for any particular +constructive purpose, and the same may be said of every other tree, +be it hard-wooded or coniferous. Larch and Scotch Fir trees growing +along the margins of plantations are rough and knotty, and sell at a +considerably lower figure compared with those further in, where the +branches have been killed back gradually as the trees increased in size. +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_152"></a>[Pg 152]</span></p> + +<p>The same thing is markedly the case in young woods of ash, oak and +chestnut, where they have been grown sufficiently thick on the ground +to kill off the lower branches, and also to cause the trees to rise +straight, clean and tapering. It is a well-known fact, too, that the +timber of trees so grown is far more elastic and realizes a much higher +price than that of the same age grown under conditions where pruning +might have been a necessity. A case of this kind came under my own +notice only a short time ago in which one-half of a plantation of +hard-wooded trees realized fully one-fourth more than the remaining +half. It came about in this way. Both ends and a large patch in the +centre of the wood had been thinned out severely for the purpose +of planting game covert. The trees, standing thinly on the ground, +branched out and soon covered the open spaces where underwood had been +planted. In thinning the whole plantation the trees on these particular +parts were very rough and knotty, and bore no comparison to those where +they had been left moderately thick on the ground, in consequence +of which the boles were straight, clean and tapering. This case is +specially noteworthy, inasmuch as the trees over the whole area were +growing under exactly similar conditions as to soil, shelter, etc., and +were of the same age and species.</p> + +<p>Great and irreparable damage has been done to woods and plantations in +this country by too heavy thinnings, by commencing the thinnings at too +early a period, and by adopting the book method of leaving the trees +at measured distances apart and a stated number to the acre according +to the age of the plantation. Such rules can never be expected to work +satisfactorily, the size of trees depending so much on the character +of the soil, exposure of the woodland, and other peculiarities of the +particular district in which they are planted. +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_153"></a>[Pg 153]</span></p> + +<div class="figcenter"> + <img id="I_153" src="images/i_153.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="396" > + <p class="f110">PRUNING TOOLS</p> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_154"></a>[Pg 154]</span> +Timely and judicious thinning should never be neglected, but it is the +over-thinning, whereby branches and knotty trunks are produced and +the supposed need for pruning follows, that I wish to deprecate and +entirely dissent from. Grow your timber trees so thickly on the ground +that the stems are induced to become straight, clean and branchless for +the greater part of their height, and on no account admit sufficient +light and air to cause the lower branches to be retained intact, or, in +other words, at all times retain an unbroken leaf canopy. The necessity +for pruning will then be entirely done away with, and a more valuable +class of timber produced. The losses sustained through injudicious +planting and the unnecessary and ruinous practice of pruning have taught +a lesson that is fraught with good for the tree planter of the future.</p> + +<p><b>When Pruning is Admissible.</b>—There are a few cases, however, +where pruning is quite justifiable, and where the abuse of a system +should furnish no argument against its legitimate use. Hedgerow and +field timber, for the sake of the live fences, the grass, or the grain +crop in the vicinity, may require attention in the way of judicious +pruning.</p> + +<p>Again, pruning is sometimes a necessity where standard trees are grown +in conjunction with coppice wood, as by shortening the lower branches +the undergrowth in consequence becomes much improved. In the case +of town trees, too, where it is necessary to restrict the spread of +branches, pruning is resorted to, as also with old and heavy-headed +elms and other trees in our parks and public gardens.</p> + +<p><b>Pruning Live Branches.</b>—In and around London, as well as many +other large centres of industry, the hacking and hewing—pruning we +cannot call it—to which trees are subjected is barbarous in the +extreme, and calls for the strongest denunciation. To annually prune +and elbow in such noble forest trees as the lime and plane, in order +that the restricted growth may render them suitable for the cramped +positions in which they have been unwisely planted, is little short +of vandalism. The lime and plane, perhaps, suffer most in this way, +for as soon as they have overgrown the allotted space an annual system +of pruning back the branches is resorted to, the result being great +mop-headed protuberances at the points where amputation took place, +which not only rob the tree of its graceful natural appearance, but +render it susceptible to disease and insect pests. There is no need to +specialize cases where this most objectionable system is carried out, +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_155"></a>[Pg 155]</span> +for a walk around our squares and gardens will unfortunately reveal +how prevalent is the maltreatment of trees in the way of pruning. +There might be some excuse for planting our noblest forest trees +in cramped and unsuitable positions were there no other species of +smaller growth that would take their place, but the Pyrus, Cratægus, +dwarf Acacia, Mulberry, Catalpa and Sumach surely give us sufficient +scope for choosing trees of restricted growth for confined positions +and so do away with the barbarous system of pruning which the use of +large-growing species necessitates.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> + <img id="I_155" src="images/i_155.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="498" > + <p class="f110">BAD EFFECTS OF PRUNING</p> +</div> + +<p>Even in the case of dwarf avenues and screens it is quite unnecessary +to use such large-growing trees as the lime and plane where pruning +must oft be resorted to, for an avenue or screen of thorn or mulberry, +the <a href ="#I_103">beam tree</a> or mountain ash would be more suitable, +and in the end far more natural and artistic in appearance.</p> + +<p>To sum up in a few words, my contention is that no tree should be +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_156"></a>[Pg 156]</span> +planted in a position where, in order to keep it within due bounds, a +systematic clipping and pruning has to be resorted to.</p> + +<p><b>Pruning Dead Wood.</b>—Opinions differ greatly as to whether or +not dead branches should be removed from park and woodland trees. It +is, however, mainly a matter of taste, and a point on which two of the +largest owners of woodlands in this country hold distinctly opposite +opinions, though at the same time it cannot be denied that the careful +removal of all dead and dying wood from a tree is highly beneficial. +Pruning should, however, only be extended to such trees as are in a +fairly healthy condition, with well-developed heads, and containing +only a moderate quantity of dead wood, there being many fine old +specimens that would be rendered unsightly in the extreme and receive +no benefit from removal of the dead and dying timber, but this has +direct reference to trees standing singly throughout the park, and not +to specimens in the woodland.</p> + +<p>In many of our parks and woodlands at the present time there exists +an undue quantity of dead and dying wood, which may be attributed +to natural decay, the quality of the soil, and in some instances to +long-standing neglect in the matter of non-attention to wounds which +have been caused by wind-broken limbs and branches. Such trees would +be greatly improved, both in health and appearance, by judicious +removal of the dead branches and attention to old wounds in order to +prevent the ingress of water, the decay of many branches being directly +attributable to this cause. That an undue quantity of dead wood will +induce injurious insect pests, such as the goat and wood leopard moths, +which attack healthy trees, is well known, and was exemplified in one +of our London parks recently where numerous young thorns and various +species of Pyrus were injured by the latter. In removing dead branches +cut them well back into the living wood in order to induce fresh growth +at the point where amputation takes place. The removal of large dead +limbs from old specimen trees is an operation that requires a great +amount of skill, and should only be entrusted to those who have had +practical experience of pruning in its various phases. As before stated, +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_157"></a>[Pg 157]</span> +the removal of dead wood is merely a matter of sentiment, though of its +practical utility there can be no doubt, and in all cases where the +stag-headed trees are conspicuous, the removal of the dead wood is to +be recommended.</p> + +<p><b>Pruning Shrubs.</b>—Generally speaking, shrubs are pruned with +little or no consideration as to whether they will be benefited by the +operation. While symmetry and regularity of outline are to be admired +in a shrub, these qualities should never be gained at the expense of +natural grace and production of flowers. The judicious pruner will, +therefore, aim at preserving the peculiar habit of each shrub as far as +possible, while interfering but little with the production of flowers. +The various species of Deutzia, Forsythia, Philadelphus and Weigela +flower on the wood of the previous year’s growth; therefore such shrubs +should be pruned immediately after the flowering season—say in June, +but never in spring or winter—at least, if the production of flowers +is to be taken into account. Again, the various species of Syringa, +Spiræa, Lonicera and Hibiscus may safely be pruned during winter, the +flowers being produced on the young wood; while <i>Hydrangea paniculata +grandiflora</i> must be severely pruned in early spring, for only by so +doing will the greatest wealth of flowers be produced. <i>Chimonanthus +fragrans</i> should be pruned in February; while the various species +of Ceanothus should not be touched till all danger of frost is past. +<i>Kerria japonica</i> should be pruned in autumn, when old wood may be +cut away.</p> + +<p>All pruning operations should be carefully carried out with a sharp +knife and not with the pruning shears, the point of amputation being +always close to an eye or bud. Too severe pruning should be avoided, +a judicious thinning out of the branches being far preferable to +indiscriminate shearing and cutting back.</p> + +<p><b>How and when to Prune.</b>—The latter part of May or beginning +of June is undoubtedly the best season for pruning the majority of +hard-wooded trees, as during that time the motion of the sap is most +vigorous, and in consequence the wounds caused by amputation heal most +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_158"></a>[Pg 158]</span> +quickly. There are a few exceptions—the birch, sycamore and +maple—where, on account of profuse bleeding, pruning had best be +postponed till after full foliage has been attained.</p> + +<p>Much mischief has been done by the pruning knife, and still more by the +handbill and saw when placed in the hands of inexperienced workmen—a +fact that is apparent to any interested person who visits various parts +of the country.</p> + +<p>When conducted with care, on sound principles, the effect of pruning +on the class of timber referred to is highly beneficial, whereas, when +done in a haphazard way and by an inexperienced hand, it is often +attended with great danger and grave results.</p> + +<p>In cutting or foreshortening small branches, a sharp pocket-knife will +be found most convenient, but when large limbs have to be removed the +pruning saw should be brought into request. The branch to be removed, +especially if of large size and weighty, should first be cut through at +any convenient distance from the main stem, thus preventing splitting +and tearing of the bark, after which the stump may be neatly sawn +through as close to the bole of the tree as possible. Undercutting by a +few draughts of the saw will here also go far in preventing tearing of +the wood and bark. So as to render the saw-cut smooth and prevent water +lodging on the surface, the face and edge should be neatly dressed with +an adze or sharp pruning knife, and then painted with tar. When cutting +over an upright-growing branch, such as in pollarding trees, etc., +never cut on the horizontal, but always in a sloping direction, so that +the rain may pass off quickly.</p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_159"></a>[Pg 159]</span></p> +<h2 class="nobreak">CHAPTER XVI<br> +<span class="h_subtitle">BRACING AND REPAIRING TREES</span></h2> +</div> + +<p>Though occasionally resorted to in olden times, particularly in the +case of orchard trees, it is only of late years that the systematic +treatment of tree wounds and diseases has been generally adopted. Even +at the present time, the filling of hollow trunks, bracing of heavy and +diseased branches and attention to insect and fungoid pests are rarely +engaged in and but imperfectly understood.</p> + +<p>When the value of old trees in an ornamental or utilitarian sense is +taken into account, it is remarkable what a small amount of attention +they receive when subjected to accident or disease. As a general rule, +cavities or hollows in a tree stem, if left to themselves, gradually +increase in size until the ascending sap is entirely cut off, when the +crumbling stem either falls to pieces or is broken over by the wind. A +branch requires to be braced or strengthened when from its weight and +shape it is likely to get wrenched from the main stem during stormy +weather and so injure the tree or man its natural beauty.</p> + +<p>Both insect and fungoid pests do a considerable amount of damage to +trees, both young and old, but as special chapters are devoted to their +depredations they need only receive a passing notice here.</p> + +<p><b>Hollow Trunks and their Treatment.</b>—However desirable it may +be to repair hollow trunks, yet a great deal of discrimination is +necessary in deciding which trees should be operated upon, especially +in the case of such as are reduced to mere shells and are not likely to +derive any benefit commensurate with the labour and cost of materials +involved in bracing and filling. +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_160"></a>[Pg 160]</span></p> + +<p>Young, healthy, vigorous growing trees, that have become damaged or +diseased, should in the majority of instances be attended to; but in +the case of old specimens on which a great amount of labour and money +would necessarily have to be expended, several important bearings must +be considered before works of repair are taken in hand. Historic and +valuable trees, those occupying prominent positions on a lawn or park, +town trees where vegetation is scarce, and such as are not too old and +fragile, may be dealt with within certain bounds, but to doctor all +diseased and hollow trees on the most approved principle in such places +as Epping Forest or Burnham Beeches would be highly imprudent, whether +in view of the little benefit which in many instances would accrue by +so doing or of the great expense involved in such an operation.</p> + +<p>The filling, too, must be adapted to circumstances, and to deal with +the entire trunk of a hollow tree is in most cases quite out of the +question, both from the point of utility and expense. Short-lived +trees, such as the Alder, Birch and Poplar, or such as are liable +to sudden attacks of insect and fungoid pests, and those that are +unfavourably situated in mining and chemical areas, should be scantily +dealt with, but the practical woodman will see at a glance which trees +are best worthy of his attention and treatment.</p> + +<p>Probably the simplest, and certainly the cheapest method of dealing +with diseased and hollow trunks is to clean out thoroughly all dead +and decaying matter, the interior being scraped and swept with a +rough brush, so that the loose rotting wood and bark is removed. When +quite dry, the interior of the trunk should be painted with one, or +preferably with two coats of creosote or carbolineum, and filled up +with a composition of one part of Portland cement to three of clean +gravel and sand, the surface coating at the orifice containing the +largest quantity of cement. A coat of coal tar on top of the dry +creosote goes far in making the concrete adhere firmly to the wood.</p> + +<p>When a fairly healthy tree is being operated upon, and when the bark is +likely to grow over the exposed surface, the concrete should only be +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_161"></a>[Pg 161]</span> +brought up on a level with the underside of the living bark; in other +words, the cambium should be left free for expansion. Sometimes, +brickbats, broken small, are used instead of gravel, but for various +reasons concrete is preferable. The concrete surface may be prevented +from cracking by applying annually a coat of paint, which, for +appearance sake, may be of a similar colour to that of the bark of the +tree.</p> + +<p>In the case of a large tree in which the trunk is quite hollow, usually +with a basal and top opening, the amount of cement required to fill the +cavity precludes the possibility of it being employed on the score of +economy, but where the hollow only extends for a comparatively short +distance upwards and inwards the composition is to be recommended. When +a large amount of material is required to fill a hollow stem, clean +bricks broken to about the size of a golf ball may be used, but they +must be packed firmly and the surface, wherever it comes in contact +with the weather, glazed over with cement in order to effectually shut +out dampness. Asphalt has of late years been employed in the filling of +hollow stems, and is to be recommended on account of its elasticity and +lasting properties.</p> + +<p>Sometimes, the interior of a large, hollow tree stem is strengthened +by crossbeams of timber, any holes which extend to the outside being +carefully covered with sheet lead or zinc so as to prevent the ingress +of water. A sheet of lead or zinc is, however, only a superficial +remedy and should be dispensed with where filling the cavity is at all +practicable. Lead, in some cases, is preferable to zinc for covering +wounds in trees, as it fits into position more readily and is easily fixed.</p> + +<p>The treatment of hollow stems without filling the cavity is in certain +instances quite permissible, and can be carried out at a comparatively +small cost. Broadly speaking, this method consists in cleaning out all +decayed and decaying matter, painting the interior with carbolineum or +tar, and, where possible, bracing the trunk from the interior by means +of stout crossbars of wood and covering surface holes with lead, zinc +or sheet copper. When a tree trunk is hollow from top to bottom this +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_162"></a>[Pg 162]</span> +method is to be recommended, and stout struts placed within the cavity +at various of the weaker points will go far towards preserving many +an aged specimen. When the cavity in a hollow stem is so large that +a person can enter it, the work of either filling with a suitable +composition or supporting with wooden struts is greatly simplified.</p> + +<p>Recent experiments have proved the value of a mixture of sawdust and +asphalt for filling cavities. It is particularly valuable in cases +where concrete is too rigid and unyielding, such as in dealing with +trunks and branches that are apt to be swayed about in stormy weather. +The materials are dry sawdust, that of Oak, Chestnut and Beech being +preferable, and solid asphalt derived from the refining of petroleum, +which is at present in use for filling the interstices of street +pavements in various parts of the metropolis.</p> + +<p>For filling cavities in heavy, swaying branches, one part of asphalt +to four of clean, dry sawdust will form a mixture that is non-rigid +and yields with the motion of the branch in which it is inserted. +In dealing with the trunk, which is more rigid and less affected in +stormy weather, a larger quantity of sawdust should be used. The +filling is made by stirring dry sawdust into boiling asphalt until +the desired consistency is reached, and before the composition has +cooled, it should be inserted in the previously prepared cavity. As in +cement filling, the preparation of cavities to be filled with sawdust +and asphalt should be carefully attended to, the decayed wood and +all soft and rotten material being removed, and the interior surface +rendered sterile by an application of carbolineum or kerosene. For +wound dressings, gas tar and liquid asphalt is to be recommended, this +combination forming a more continuous and elastic covering than is the +case when tar or paint alone is used.</p> + +<p>Where the cavity is small and, as is often the case, filled with water +and decayed and decaying vegetable matter, the following course is +recommended:—When only a few inches deep, the water can usually be got +rid of by mopping it out with a sponge attached to a convenient handle, +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_163"></a>[Pg 163]</span> +but when the hole is too deep for this method the water may be +extracted by tapping, that is by boring a hole with an auger through +the trunk to the bottom of the hole. A half-inch auger will suffice, +and the correct spot to bore can usually be ascertained by measuring +the depth of the hole. After the water has been removed the cavity +must be thoroughly cleared of all decaying tissue and accumulated +vegetable matter, and in order that this may be done effectually, it +may sometimes be necessary to enlarge the opening so that a suitable +tool can be inserted.</p> + +<p>When the cavity has become quite dry—a matter of considerable +importance—it should be treated with creosote or carbolineum and +afterwards filled with concrete in the proportion of one part of cement +to four of clean gravel. Ram the concrete firm so that the cavity is +perfectly filled, and finish off at the orifice with pure cement in +such a way that the cambium may be induced to form a growth over the +edge of the filling.</p> + +<p>A cheap but temporary method of dealing with small hollows and cavities +in fruit and other trees, is to fill these with a mixture of clay and +cow-dung in the proportion of two of the former to one of the latter. +Knead well and apply when in the consistency of putty, cleaning and +disinfecting the hollows before filling.</p> + +<p><b>Supporting Heavy and Diseased Branches.</b>—A limb requires to be +braced or strengthened when from its weight and shape it is likely to +get wrenched from the main stem during stormy weather, when the weight +of the minor branches and foliage is too great for the strength of the +limb, when the wood of the tree is unusually brittle, when trunk or +limb is decayed, and when, from accident, the tree has become one-sided +and lost its natural appearance.</p> + +<p>Forked trees often require staying, as also do such as have suddenly +become exposed to storms to which they have hitherto been unaccustomed. +But probably in the matter of bracing and strengthening, the most +important of all trees are those in our public parks and such as are +contiguous to or overshadow dwelling-houses. Park trees should receive +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_164"></a>[Pg 164]</span> +special attention in the way of making sure that limbs are secure and +not likely to cause injury to visitors; while in the case of heavy +branches hanging over dwelling-houses these should be carefully and +periodically examined and made secure whenever it is found necessary. +Should there be any doubt as to whether a limb is insecure and +dangerous, a decision should be made in favour of bracing or reducing +the weight by pruning.</p> + +<p>Unwieldy and heavy limbs are most commonly to be found on isolated +trees, or such as have had plenty of room for the perfect development +of stem and branch. As the loss of one or more of the larger branches +often mars the ornamental appearance of a specimen tree, every +reasonable means should be employed to prevent such a disfigurement. +By reducing the weight of a branch by pruning, or by giving support to +any that are heavy and diseased by means of wires, chains or light iron +bands and connecting-rods, the trouble may be averted. In all cases +the object should be to unite the branches in such a way that they +may offer the greatest amount of resistance to the storm, and at the +same time be neither conspicuous nor clumsy in appearance owing to the +operation.</p> + +<p>Chains, though often used, probably owing to their being readily +obtainable and cheap, are for various reasons to be avoided, the flat +iron band lined with leather or rubber being preferable, more readily +adjusted, and less likely to cut into the bark and wood. The bands, +which can be made by any blacksmith, are usually 2½ in. wide, and +of the shape of the branch to be encircled, each being in two parts to +facilitate fixing and to allow of slackening at any future time should +the necessity arise. The band is made of a larger size than the branch +to be encircled, so as to allow of the insertion of a leather or rubber +collar between it and the wood, the purpose of the packing being to +prevent undue friction and chafing of the bark owing to the movement of +the tree. The bands, whether placed around two opposite branches or the +main stem and a branch, are connected together by a light iron rod and, +according to the strain, may be from one-half to three-quarters of an +inch in diameter. This rod, like the bands, is divided into two parts, +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_165"></a>[Pg 165]</span> +which are connected by a swivel and screw for convenience in loosening +or tightening.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> + <img id="I_165" src="images/i_165.jpg" alt="" width="400" height="554" > + <p class="f110">BRACING A TREE</p> +</div> + +<p>Great care is necessary in choosing the point at which a band should be +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_166"></a>[Pg 166]</span> +placed, and in deciding which branches or branch and stem should be +joined together, so that the greatest resistance may be obtained and in +order that the one may act as a support to the other. The shape of the +tree and disposition of the stem and branches can alone be the guides +in this matter. In comparison with the use of a chain, the advantages +of this method of supporting heavy branches are principally ease of +fixing, greater rigidity, less friction, adaptability for loosening or +tightening as may be required, and better results.</p> + +<p>Accurate measurements as to the size and shape of the limb to be +operated upon must be taken and the girdling hoops made accordingly. +The best way to take these is to ascend the tree, and, after deciding +as to the points where bracing is to take place, encircle each branch +with a strip of hoop-iron, which will not only give the size but shape +of the particular limb, a most important point where neatness is +studied and after-chafing of the bark and wood is to be avoided.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> + <img id="I_166" src="images/i_166.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="388" > + <p class="f110">BAND AND CONNECTING-ROD</p> +</div> + +<p>In the case of old trees, or such as are not likely to greatly increase +in size, the bands need not be much larger than the actual size of the +branches to which they are to be affixed, but where the tree is young +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_167"></a>[Pg 167]</span> +and vigorous, room for expansion should be provided. Fixing the +bands and connecting-rods is readily accomplished either by the use +of ladders or by climbing the trunk and slinging the portions into +position by means of ropes. The exigencies of each case will point out +the best means of carrying out the work, as also the height at which +the supports can most effectively be placed. When damaged or diseased +branches are being dealt with, great care is necessary to ensure that +the bands are placed in such positions that the greatest leverage +against wind is afforded, and so as to minimize the risk of the branch +being broken across at the weakened point during stormy weather.</p> + +<p>Frequently, where the main trunk divides into two or more portions near +ground level, it will be found that a split or crack has been caused by +the swaying of the divided stems. In such cases the split between the +stems should be carefully cleaned out, treated with an antiseptic and +filled with asphalt. The limbs should then be braced together by means +of a band and connecting-rod, and, as the asphalt becomes set, the +brace may be tightened up as may be found necessary.</p> + +<p>Rarely is it found necessary to place a band around the stem of a +tree to prevent splitting. Where, however, appearances point to the +likelihood of this taking place, as in the case of forked trees, +especially when the stem divides abruptly into two or three heavy +limbs, it is a wise precaution to encircle the bole with a wide band +of iron. This band should be placed at such a height that the greatest +possible resistance to splitting of the stem is afforded. Such bands +are usually proportionate to the strain of the stem to which they are +to act as support. A band of leather or rubber between the iron and +bark of the tree to allow for expansion of the stem is necessary.</p> + +<p>Supporting tree branches by chains is not to be recommended, for the +simple reason that, however carefully they may be adjusted, friction +and chafing of the bark and wood is sooner or later bound to ensue. +Connecting the <a href ="#I_166">flat iron bands</a>, already referred to, by means +of chains or strand wire, is, however, not so open to objection nor attended with +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_168"></a>[Pg 168]</span> +such ill effects as is the case when the chain or wire is placed +in direct contact with the branch, for even with the most careful +adjusting and packing, the uneven surface of a chain, with its saw-like +action during stormy weather, soon renders the belting useless for the +purpose intended, and both bark and wood suffer in consequence.</p> + +<p>Occasionally we see holes bored through the live branch or trunk in +order to fix the binding rod or chain—a most reprehensible practice +that, fortunately, has few supporters amongst those who have even had a +cursory knowledge of trees and their growth.</p> + +<p>It is, however, generally admitted that there are several disadvantages +connected with bracing trees with iron rods that pass through holes +bored in the trunk or branch. However carefully this operation may be +performed, there are grave risks from insect and fungoid attacks in +holes that have been made in living wood, as the friction caused by the +movement of the tree renders healing of the wound quite problematical. +Further, the movement of an embedded iron rod is not only apt to cause +friction with the wood but the strain must often be in an opposite +direction to that which was intended, this increasing with the diameter +of the stem or branch.</p> + +<p>Another untidy, slipshod and most objectionable method of staying a +tree is by using wire as a band around the trunk. This certainly has +the virtue of cheapness, but in so far as efficiency is concerned, and +especially in the case of old trees, it is to be deprecated.</p> + +<p>In the repairing and strengthening of tree limbs it should consistently +be borne in mind that any girdle or band that either partially or +wholly constricts the growth of a branch defeats its own object +by preventing the uninterrupted flow of sap and impairing the +strength of the limb. With care in forming the band and a proper +method of adjusting it, there is no reason why the desired object +of strengthening a stem or branch may not be attained. On the other +hand, a badly formed, narrow band, too tightly applied and without the +requisite packing, may in a short space of time be productive of the +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_169"></a>[Pg 169]</span> +most unsatisfactory results, particularly in the case of young and +fast-growing trees. The main point is that the bands should be fixed +in such a way that friction to the bark is avoided and the flow of sap +uninterrupted. Unfortunately in the past this has not in all cases +been carefully provided against, with the result that the bands, +owing to their being too small, gradually became embedded in the wood +and, by injuring the cambium and preventing the flow of sap, defeated +the object for which they were intended. For fuller information on +doctoring trees, the reader is referred to my book on <i>Tree Wounds +and Diseases</i>.</p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_170"></a>[Pg 170]</span></p> +<h2 class="nobreak">CHAPTER XVII<br> +<span class="h_subtitle">COPPICE AND UNDERWOOD:<br> +<span class="fs_90">THE MANAGEMENT OF COPPICE WOOD</span></span></h2> +</div> + +<p>Although coppice wood has deteriorated considerably in value during +late years, yet in certain districts and on suitable soils its +cultivation is still to be recommended. Unfortunately, however, the +uses to which coppice wood are in the main applied are much localized, +and this, with the bulky nature of the commodity, will to a very +considerable extent restrict its sale to the localities in which it is +used. Thus in parts of Kent and Sussex hop poles find a ready market, +pea and bean stakes in the gardening districts around London, crate +wood in the neighbourhood of potteries, willow and ash in basket-making +localities, and faggot wood wherever kilns abound, or in the environs +of populous districts generally. It will, therefore, be seen that next +to the question of soil probably the most important is that of local +demand, so that in forming a coppice plantation only such underwood +should be used as there is a demand for in the particular district. +Foreign importations and preferential carriage rates have also dealt +hardly with the profitable cultivation of coppice wood. Coppice wood +may either be grown alone or in company with large standard trees, but +the latter must at all times be kept sufficiently thin, so as not to +overshadow and kill out the undergrowth. There are advantages, too, in +employing standards for the protection they afford to the young shoots +in spring, as also in the amount realized for the periodical thinnings +to which they may be subjected. For this purpose the oak is to be +recommended, but such wide-spreading trees as the ash, elm and beech, +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_171"></a>[Pg 171]</span> +which produce so dense a shade as to kill out or seriously injure +all vegetation that might spring up beneath them, are to be avoided. +Generally where the health and vigour of the coppice wood are points +of first consideration, it will not be advisable to allow the standard +trees to occupy altogether more than about one-fifth of the wooded +area; and even then the lower branches should be pruned off, so that +the effects of shade will be mitigated as much as possible. As to the +woods which coppice most freely, the ash, oak and hazel occupy the +first rank, at least in a profitable sense, the elm, willow, beech, +birch, hornbeam, alder and sycamore occupying a second, but, as before +stated, the nature of the soil, and less so the altitude and exposure, +have everything to do with the particular species that will succeed +best. Thus ash will do well where the soil is moist and loamy, the +Spanish chestnut in sandy or gravelly districts, for rich plains and +hollows the oak will be most remunerative, the alder and willow in +marshy ground, and where bare and exposed, the birch, hazel, beech and +hornbeam will succeed best.</p> + +<p>The preparation of the land and planting for coppice are similar in all +respects to that adopted for the growing of an ordinary timber crop. +Where the ground is too wet, draining should be judiciously engaged +in, while trenching, although expensive at first, is amply compensated +for in the increased growth and vigour of the underwood. The pits for +planting may be made from 3½ ft. to 4 ft. apart, and, if the ground +was previously trenched, of sufficient size to hold the roots without +undue cramping. It is always well to keep the stools tolerably close +together, as the shoots take a more erect habit and are straighter +and more valuable than when allowed too much space and side room. Two +years after being planted, or at the end of the second autumn, the +young trees, excepting such as it may be thought advisable to leave as +standards, should be cut over near ground level. This cutting is a most +important operation, and should only be performed by skilled workmen, +with tools of the best description well sharpened. The cut should be +clean and directed upwards, all splitting of the stems and tearing of +the bark being assiduously guarded against as conducive to decay and +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_172"></a>[Pg 172]</span> +early death to the stools. After four years’ growth the shoots should +be thinned out, leaving, say, four on each stool, and these preferably +the strongest, the work being carried out at any time from November to +the end of March, but not during frosty weather.</p> + +<p>Upon the kind of wood grown and uses for which it is designed will +depend very much the length of rotation pursued, for while osiers might +profitably be cut at the end of the second year, ash, oak and chestnut +would not usually, even on the best quality of soil, be felled sooner +than from ten to twelve years, and the poorer classes of coppice wood, +especially on light soil, at from twelve to sixteen years. It should +be remembered, however, that the duration of the stool is usually +proportionate to the length of the rotation adopted, and with good +management on fair soil the best class of coppice wood has a duration +of nearly a century. In felling the coppice wood it is always advisable +to cut as near the ground level as possible, the shoots sent up having +the advantage of rooting in the ground and so extending the area of +the stool. The system of allowing the stools, by careless cutting, to +rise in some instances several feet from the ground is contrary to the +methods adopted under the best management. A sharp billhook should be +used for all smaller shoots, a light well-ground axe for those from 3 +to, say, 6 inches in diameter, and the cross-cut saw for all over that +size.</p> + +<p>The coppice wood is usually sorted out after being cut down, the best +poles being laid aside for the use of the hop grower, the next size for +pit props, or fencing according to the demand of the moment, and so on +until every pole has been sorted according to the use for which it may +be intended, the lop and branches being bound into faggots for fire or +oven-lighting.</p> + +<p>The following are the various uses to which underwood is applied: +hoops, hurdles, crate rods, pea stakes, spars for thatching, withes for +faggot-tying, sheep cages, hop poles, brooms, broom handles, skewers +for butchers, chisel handles, plant stakes, whip handles, gunpowder +wood and faggots.</p> + +<p>Profits will vary from 15<i>s.</i> to 25<i>s.</i> per acre, exclusive of +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_173"></a>[Pg 173]</span> +the standards which are left, and the crop, according to age and +quality, will realize from £5 per acre downwards.</p> + +<p>Great care is necessary to avoid damage to the stools when removing +the fall, which is not usually done until just before the young buds +are shooting out, and consequently at the time when injury is most +easily brought about. The trampling of horses and passage of wheels +are most injurious, while the browsing of cattle should be carefully +guarded against. Good roads are always a great advantage in a coppice +plantation, and to these as much of the produce as possible should be +carried for loading, thus avoiding damage to the stools.</p> + +<p>Although the growth of coppice wood has its disadvantages, particularly +in park scenery, yet it is valuable in this way, that should the crop +from local circumstances not be found remunerative, the plantation can +at any time be converted into a standing wood by allowing the best and +strongest shoots from the stools to form the permanent crop.</p> + +<p>The approximate cost of forming a coppice wood per acre is as follows:—</p> + +<table class="spb1"> + <tbody><tr class="fs_120"> + <td class="tdl"> </td> + <td class="tdc_wsp"><b>£</b></td> + <td class="tdc_wsp"><b><i>s.</i></b></td> + <td class="tdc_wsp"><b><i>d.</i></b></td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl">Trenching at 2<i>s.</i> per rod</td> + <td class="tdc">16</td> + <td class="tdc">0</td> + <td class="tdc">0</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl">5,000 trees at 35<i>s.</i> per 1,000  </td> + <td class="tdr_wsp">8</td> + <td class="tdc">15</td> + <td class="tdc">0</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl">Pitting and planting</td> + <td class="tdr_wsp bb">2</td> + <td class="tdc bb">5</td> + <td class="tdc bb">0</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl"> </td> + <td class="tdc">£27</td> + <td class="tdc">0</td> + <td class="tdc">0</td> + </tr> + </tbody> +</table> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_174"></a>[Pg 174]</span></p> +<h2 class="nobreak">CHAPTER XVIII<br> +<span class="h_subtitle">THE FORMATION AND MANAGEMENT<br> OF GAME COVERTS</span></h2> +</div> + +<p>When we consider that on not a few estates in this country the value +of the plantations as game coverts is wellnigh of as much importance +as that of the timber produced, it will be readily seen that the +successful formation and management of these is a matter of no small +moment to those entrusted with the work. That game-rearing and economic +forestry can be advantageously carried on in the same woods is, +however, a contention we by no means feel inclined to uphold, and from +which, being apart from the subject matter of the chapter, we will for +the present stand aloof.</p> + +<p>Game coverts may be divided into two kinds, natural and +artificial—natural when the woods are kept sufficiently thin to admit +of the free growth of bramble, bracken or other native vegetation; +and artificial when the planting of such shrubs as are suitable for +underwood is resorted to.</p> + +<p>Natural game coverts, which, by most sportsmen, are considered superior +to those artificially formed, can only exist where the plantations are +kept well and regularly thinned, so as to admit abundance of both light +and air—the two principal requisites for the successful growth of +natural underwood. Generally speaking, the formation of natural coverts +has seldom to be helped, although occasionally it is found necessary +to assist Nature by the sowing of such seeds as those of gorse, broom, +etc., in the thinner and more open portions of the woodlands. This may, +however, be considered an exception to the rule, as where the woods are +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_175"></a>[Pg 175]</span> +kept sufficiently thin, spontaneous undergrowth is usually pretty +abundant, and requires neither care nor management, beyond preventing +its too free incursions along the margins of roads and shooting drives. +Where, however, bare patches do occur, the sowing of seed may be relied +upon as not only a speedy but most effectual method of increasing +the cover. Where seeds are intended to be sown, the soil should be +dug over, and all hard clods or lumps broken down, and the whole +made smooth and fine with a rake. The seeds may be sown in spring, +and afterwards covered over with hardwood branches as a preservative +against the depredations of small birds and game.</p> + +<p>The best natural game coverts are those composed of bramble, gorse, +heath, hazel, holly, blackthorn, elder, blackberry, bracken or the +stronger growing grasses, these being arranged according to merit, and +each possessing some peculiar feature, specially recommending it for +planting in certain soils, altitudes or situations.</p> + +<p>In the formation of artificial game coverts, when not only shelter and +protection for game are required, but ornamental effect as well, the +judicious grouping of the different shrubs should never be lost sight +of, more especially when the coverts are within the park or policy +grounds, and visible from drives and roads. Formality and stiffness are +so often the characteristics of the present style of shrub planting, +that in many cases our woodlands seem utterly destitute of that variety +of outline and contrast of light and shade so essential to picturesque +beauty. In planting evergreen shrubs for the two-fold purpose of covert +and ornament, the best method is to plant each variety in separate +groups or clumps. No hard and fast lines can be laid down as to the +distribution or number of plants to be used in the clumps, which, to a +great extent, must depend on the size and shape of the ground as well +as taste of the operator. The clumps should, however, be placed at +irregular distances apart, be irregular in size and outline, and with +from forty or fifty to one hundred plants in each—bearing in mind that +game of all kinds delight in small patches of shrubs with abundance of +open space around each, but detest in a most marked manner continuous +masses or jungles of underwood. +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_176"></a>[Pg 176]</span></p> + +<p>In selecting sites for the various groups, be careful to choose the +most open positions, avoiding as much as possible planting immediately +under the spread of trees; and, if practicable, so arrange that in +viewing the wood from any point, the eye may not pass along a straight +bare unplanted space, but become arrested by the various clumps in +passing to the farther side.</p> + +<p>Having arranged the positions of the various clumps, the pits should +be opened of a size, and at a distance apart suitable for the plants +intended to be used, taking care that they are sufficiently large to +avoid cramping or bending of the roots, which in all cases should be +spread out to their full extent. In making the pits, it is well to +thoroughly loosen the soil in the bottom and sides with a pick, so as +to give the tender rootlets a free course when starting into growth +in spring. Should the soil be found of inferior quality, a few loads +of leaf-mould, road-scrapings or loam from an adjoining field will be +found to work wonders in the way of giving the plants a start, and also +in producing a strong, healthy growth. Drainage should also have been +attended to previous to opening the pits, and all stagnant water or +superfluous moisture removed by the formation of open ditches.</p> + +<p>In giving a list of the best evergreen shrubs for covert purposes, I +would call attention particularly to the merits of laurel, box, privet, +laurustinus, rhododendron, holly and yew, as these have been very +extensively used for underwood, and with the best possible results. +As to which of the above shrubs should receive pre-eminence as an +ornamental covert plant I cannot decide, each having some peculiar +merit rendering it valuable in its own particular place. We will for +the present, however, consider all alike in this respect, and briefly +describe the value of each separately, beginning with the laurel.</p> + +<p>The <b>Common</b> and <b>Colchic</b> laurels are amongst our best +shrubs for underwood, and should be planted extensively; they are of +free growth, bear cutting and pruning well, and thrive under the shade +and drip of other trees. For covert planting the Colchic is perhaps +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_177"></a>[Pg 177]</span> +preferable to the normal form, as it is of a more dense and procumbent +habit, perfectly hardy, and less liable to injury from hares and +rabbits. The common laurel requires frequent and heavy pruning to keep +it in bounds, as, if allowed to ramble at will, it soon becomes bare +near the ground, and useless either as game covert or ornament. Some +years ago we layered a great number of this plant that had through +neglect become useless for the purpose intended, many being from 12 +ft. to over 20 ft. in height, with simply a tuft of foliage near the +top. In layering, the stems were sawn half through near the ground, to +assist in bending, and laid flat on their sides, a couple of stout pegs +being driven alongside, the crooked heads of which served to keep the +plants in their procumbent position. A spadeful of soil was then placed +on the top of each peg to assist the layer in rooting. The result at +the present time is everything that could be desired, each stem having +thrown up quantities of young shoots, and thus formed a jungle of +underwood, which year by year will increase in value.</p> + +<p>In planting the laurel for covert avoid overcrowding, as, being of +quick growth, the plants, even although placed at a considerable +distance apart, soon unite and form a continuous undergrowth. No rule +can be laid down as to the distance which should be allowed between +individual plants, this depending entirely on their size, as well +as on the quality of the soil in which they are to be planted. We +not unfrequently plant double thick, either for immediate effect, or +to produce covert at once, and when the plants begin to encroach on +each other every alternate one is removed, thus giving the remaining +plants ample room for developing side branches and thereby inducing a +dwarf-spreading habit. Having a tendency, especially when confined, +to increase more in height than width, the laurel, after a few years’ +growth, should have all the leading and straggling upper branches +cut over, by which not only will the under shoots be increased but +the plants will be prevented from running up into tall, branchless +specimens.</p> + +<p>The <b>Green Tree Box</b> (<i>Buxus sempervirens</i>) forms a very +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_178"></a>[Pg 178]</span> +pretty as well as desirable covert plant, and thrives well beneath +the shade of deciduous trees. It is also of slow, dense growth, and +well adapted for planting in various soils and situations, although +preferring a light loam and a shady position. Another recommendation is +its immunity from the attacks of game, hares and rabbits having such +an aversion to this plant that even during the most severe weather +I cannot remember having seen it badly injured. Few plants suffer +more from overcrowding than the box, and for this reason it should be +planted at wide distances apart, the plants soon getting top-heavy and +falling over of their own accord. Where the plants are not of large +size, and immediate effect or covert is required, they may be planted +pretty close, and in a few years, when encroaching on each other, every +alternate one may be removed. It is well adapted for transplanting, +the almost solid mass of matted roots holding the ball of earth firmly +together, thus rendering the plant one of our easiest as well as safest +to remove.</p> + +<p>The box would seem at one time to have been more abundant in our own +land than it now is; thus, Boxley in Kent, Boxwell in Gloucestershire, +and Boxhill in Surrey, were named from the quantity of this plant which +was formerly found in their neighbourhoods.</p> + +<p><b>Privet</b>, as a covert plant, has its advantages and disadvantages. +On the one hand it is cheap, easily grown, and not at all fastidious +about soil. When planted amongst trees, however, it generally assumes +a loose, straggling habit, and as the shade increases it usually dies +out altogether. Where the plantations are well thinned and regularly +kept so, privet, if a little care and trouble be expended on its +cultivation, will succeed and form capital underwood. In planting +privet the greatest care is necessary to prevent its being overdone. +Close planting is always productive of the most unsatisfactory results, +not only as regards the health of the plants, but management of the +woods as well. Instead of filling up the whole ground, as is not +unfrequently done, plant in small clumps, and these at wide distances +apart, as this will not only allow the privet to grow more healthy and +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_179"></a>[Pg 179]</span> +compact but also admit of space for pruning and layering—two +necessaries for the successful cultivation of privet as underwood.</p> + +<p>The layering of privet, which is a simple and inexpensive though +effectual method of increase, is performed as follows:—Cut off all the +branches, except those intended for layering, which are then laid flat +on the ground equidistant around the main stem or root and kept fast +by hooked pegs driven firmly down. A spadeful or two of soil should +then be placed on the top of each peg, which will partly exclude air +and hasten the formation of roots. The pegs may be made of any refuse +branches—hard wood, such as ash or oak, being preferable—about 10 +ins. in length, one end being hooked for holding the branches in +position, and the other sharply pointed for ease in driving. As several +forms of privet have crept into circulation of late, it is well to be +sure that none but the true evergreen are used in the formation of game +coverts. The oval-leaved privet, though a most desirable evergreen +plant and well suited for ornamental hedges, is from its too luxuriant +growth and upright form hardly to be commended for underwood; at least, +its merits in this respect are inferior to those of the common form.</p> + +<p><b>Aucuba Japonica</b> and the <b>Laurustinus</b> are two of our +handsomest evergreen shrubs, but, unlike those already described, they +will not succeed in the densest shade. In open places or along woodland +drives they thrive well, and are excellent for variety and contrast. +The laurustinus cannot, however, be considered as perfectly hardy in +this country, for even in maritime situations where the air is to +some extent ameliorated, it suffers severely from frost, and during +severe winters it is even killed completely to the ground. It, however, +springs very freely from the root, and in a few years quite regains its +original size and luxuriance. From their bushy, well-furnished habit +of growth both the above plants are excellent as game covert, more +especially around the outskirts of woods and plantations. They should +be allowed plenty of room for development of both root and branch, +though they may, when necessary, be pruned with the greatest advantage. +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_180"></a>[Pg 180]</span></p> + +<p><b>Mahonia aquifolia</b>, <b>Berberis Darwinii</b> and <b>B. +Stenophylla</b> are frequently recommended as covert plants and for +using in similar situations to those favoured by the laurel and box. +Along the margins of plantations or in very open places they may and +do succeed, but from practical experience of these plants we find them +next to useless as underwood in shady positions. Where many thousands +of covert plants are used annually, we have entirely discarded them +from use except in the most open situations. These plants are highly +ornamental, both in foliage and flower; produce berries which are much +sought after by game, are quite hardy, and not at all fastidious about +soil—qualities which specially recommend them for extensive use in +positions at all suited for their growth.</p> + +<p>The barberry, more especially when planted out in rich soil, and +when at all confined, is apt to lose the compact, branchy nature so +recognizable a feature of the plant when allowed ample room in the +nursery border, and to assume a more upright habit of growth, which is +anything but desirable in underwood generally. To check this and keep +the plant in bounds, frequent light prunings will have to be resorted +to, and this had best be effected during dull, damp weather, as the +barberry is not a good subject for the pruning shears. Neither the +barberry nor mahonia are adapted for planting in very high or exposed +situations—at least where such has been tried the results have been +anything but satisfactory, the plants soon presenting a miserable, +half-starved appearance.</p> + +<p>Both plants are readily propagated—the mahonia, when planted in +loose soil and an open situation, soon covering a considerable space +of ground, the running roots being especially active under such +circumstances.</p> + +<p><b>Rhododendron ponticum</b>, although useful in an ornamental point +of view, cannot be considered a first-class plant for game shelter. It +has, however, several good qualities which recommend it for underwood, +such as ease of culture, dwarf-spreading habit, and immunity from the +attacks of game—indeed, in this latter respect, it is not equalled by +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_181"></a>[Pg 181]</span> +any other plant, if we except one or two species of Daphne. It is +seldom resorted to by pheasants, the bottom being not only damp, but +such a tangled mass of branches that it forms anything but pleasant +quarters for game. For ornamental effect along the outskirts of +plantations, the rhododendron is invaluable, and is by no means so +fastidious about soil as is generally supposed, peat being not at all +essential to its growth and successful cultivation. Few plants can be +made to increase in like proportion with the rhododendron, and for +this reason it should be planted in small patches; and when it is +desirable to increase the cover, the outer branches may be pegged down +or layered. This plant also bears pruning with impunity, so that old +plants that have, through neglect, become lank and straggling, may +without fear or risk be layered or pruned in with advantage.</p> + +<p>The <b>Common Yew</b> and <b>Holly</b> cannot be too extensively used +in the formation of game coverts, both being unrivalled for beauty and +hardiness. They thrive in a great variety of soils, and beneath the +densest shade of our woodland trees. In planting the yew it is well, +however, to bear in mind that its branches are highly deleterious to +farm stock that may browse upon them, and for this reason it should +never be planted along the outskirts of a wood, or in any position to +which such have access.</p> + +<p>The <b>St. John’s Wort</b>, as a low-spreading shrub, is unsurpassed, +and thrives best in a light sandy or peaty soil. It is readily +propagated by division of the roots; and when planted out in small +patches a foot or two apart, the creeping stems soon cover a +considerable surface of ground, and form a dense evergreen mass, +covered in summer with bright golden flowers.</p> + +<p><b>Gaultheria Shallon</b>, another plant of creeping habit, is, +notwithstanding its many good qualities, seldom planted to any extent +in our woodlands; but this may, to some extent at least, be accounted +for by the high price of the plants, and the small size of those +purchaseable from our nurserymen. Like most other North American +plants, the Gaultheria prefers a rather damp, peaty soil, and is one of +the few shrubs found to thrive in pine plantations. The berries, which +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_182"></a>[Pg 182]</span> +are borne in great abundance, are greedily devoured by pheasants, and +in their native country are not unfrequently used as food.</p> + +<p>The <b>Butcher’s Broom</b> is a fine glaucous green shrub densely +covered with sharp, prickly, leaves and invaluable for planting in +shady places—indeed, in such positions it seems to be quite at home. +There it flowers and fruits freely beneath half-standard rhododendrons +where few other plants could exist, far less succeed. The twigs of this +shrub were formerly used by butchers for sweeping their blocks; hence +the English name.</p> + +<p>Some of the above plants, notably the <b>St. John’s Wort</b> and +<b>Gaultheria</b>, may be considered as carpet plants, which, in +contradistinction to general underwood, may be classed as evergreens, +which, from their low, procumbent mode of growth, are scarcely in the +true sense of the word suited for game coverts. To clearly define +the difference would, however, be no easy matter, and, even were it +possible to do so, would in the end be productive of but little good, +as the habits of different plants vary so much that what is used in +one place for carpeting purposes might in another and more favourable +situation be equally valuable for game covert. A good example of +this will be found in the St. John’s Wort, which, when planted out +and allowed to ramble at will amongst bramble, privet, etc., forms a +capital covert; whereas, when used in open, airy situations—such as +alongside shrubbery walks—it soon forms a dense evergreen carpet, of +so compact a growth as to be almost impenetrable even to ground game.</p> + +<p>In addition to the above-named plants, the following are well +adapted for giving shelter to game:—Dogwood, Hazel, Elder, Arbutus, +Cotoneaster of sorts, Juniper of sorts, <i>Pernettya mucronata</i>, +<i>Rubus nutkanus</i>, <i>Taxus adpressa</i>, <i>Photinia +serrulata</i>, <i>Kalmia latifolia</i>, <i>Garrya elliptica</i>, etc. +These should be planted out in small groups—the more valuable kinds +in the most conspicuous position, such as alongside or within view of +woodland drives and shooting-roads.</p> + +<p><b>Protection from Rabbits</b>, etc.—It may seem somewhat absurd +to speak of planting coverts, and then to protect them from the +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_183"></a>[Pg 183]</span> +depredations of game; but that this is highly necessary for the first +two years, at least, is well known to all planters. Few of the shrubs +treated of in this paper are exempt from the attacks of hares and +rabbits, more especially when in a young state and newly transferred +from the nursery; and for this reason it is always found necessary to +protect them in some way or other until fairly started into growth +and beyond the reach of game. For this purpose wire netting is the +cheapest and most effectual preservative with which I am acquainted. +The netting should be about 4 ft. in height, not more than 1½ in. mesh, +and inserted in the ground 4 in., to prevent rabbits from working +underneath. It may be fixed to posts driven firmly into the ground at +a distance of 5 ft. apart along the line of fence. This precaution +against the depredations of game may not be necessary for all the clumps, +but it is especially so for those of laurustinus, barberry, and laurel.</p> + +<p>For the first two or three years after planting, the shrubs should be +kept free of grass and weeds, as this will encourage the plants to +start into growth more quickly and thrive much better than they can do +if the ground is impoverished and light and air excluded by weeds.</p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_184"></a>[Pg 184]</span></p> +<h2 class="nobreak">CHAPTER XIX<br> +<span class="h_subtitle">HEDGES:<br> +<span class="fs_90">THEIR FORMATION AND MANAGEMENT</span></span></h2> +</div> + +<p>Strictly speaking, hedges are divided into two kinds—useful and +ornamental—the former being employed for keeping farm stock in bounds, +and the latter in the subdivision of private gardens and for lawn and +park purposes generally. Where the fences are intended purely for +protective purposes the thorn, beech, hornbeam or holly are the plants +usually employed, while for ornamental garden subdivisions almost any +shrub may be used, the choice of which will lie with the operator.</p> + +<p>Amongst all the trees and shrubs that have been found suitable for +the climate of Britain, none equals the common whitethorn, or Quick, +for hedge-formation, where strength and shelter are points of first +consideration. The beech and hornbeam certainly can thrive better on +exposed and high-lying ground and where the soil is poor and thin, but +neither forms so durable a protection against farm stock as the thorn.</p> + +<p>When properly treated the thorn is a fast grower, and as a fence plant +it is ornamental, smooth, stubborn, and long lived. It is also not at +all subject to disease, and is very readily propagated. Few soils come +amiss to the thorn—that is, if they are not overcharged with moisture, +but it delights in a rich hazelly loam.</p> + +<p>(1) <b>Plantation Hedges—Preparation of the Ground and +Planting.</b>—Thorough preparation of the ground where live fences are +formed should take precedence of all other operations—indeed, nothing +can repay the planter more satisfactorily than the previous suiting of +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_185"></a>[Pg 185]</span> +the land, in the way of draining and trenching, to the plants intended +to be inserted.</p> + +<p>In all cases we have found it well to have the ground along the line +of fence trenched to a depth of 2 ft., and about 3 ft. in width, and +a quantity of manure incorporated at the same time. If this can be +done some months before planting the thorns or other fence plants, so +much the better, as it gives time for the loosely upturned soil to get +mellowed and sweetened, as also for the manure to get well decomposed. +In all cases it may not be necessary to apply manure, but, where the +soil is at all poor, the addition of a quantity of well-rotted manure +has a wonderful effect in stimulating the quick into active and strong +growth. The vigorous and rapid growth of a hedge, when the soil has +been well worked and manured, is remarkable, and in all cases the +labour and outlay expended on the fence is amply repaid.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> + <img id="I_185" src="images/i_185.jpg" alt="" width="500" height="439" > + <p class="f110">HEDGING TOOLS</p> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_186"></a>[Pg 186]</span> +It is well to plant rather above than below the general ground level, +so that in trenching the soil a slight mound should be raised along +the intended line of fence, which will not only materially assist in +keeping the plants from excessive moisture, but aid in the cleaning and +general management of the hedge. Where superfluous moisture is present +in the soil the hedge-and-ditch system is to be recommended, which +consists in digging out a ditch parallel with the line on which it is +intended to place the fence. It should be 3 ft. deep, 5 ft. wide at +top, and 1 ft. at bottom, and the soil removed in so doing is thrown +upon that side where the hedge is to be planted, thus forming a mound, +or rather ridge, on which the plants are to be placed.</p> + +<p>In wet soils such a ditch is indispensable, but, under ordinary +circumstances, it is to be condemned, and for the simple reasons that +it is expensive and rather against than in favour of the free growth of +the fence.</p> + +<p><b>Thorn or Quick.</b>—The best time to plant the whitethorn is just +after the fall of the leaf in autumn; but the operation is usually +extended from that time until early spring, though in the latter case +perhaps with less satisfactory results.</p> + +<p>In selecting the plants a great amount of care is necessary, as also in +the lifting and after-planting. Four-year-old plants are best suited +for hedge-formation, and they should be stout of growth and well +rooted. The size of the plants is of more importance than the age, and +those with stems as thick as one’s finger are to be preferred to others +of greater height, but lank and small of stem. Frequent transplanting +while in the nursery border should have been paid attention to, as +then the roots are bushy and fibrous and well suited for planting out +permanently.</p> + +<p>Great damage is frequently done to thorn plants by careless lifting, +and, worse still, by bundling the plants in lots ready for the planter. +This should never be tolerated, as it is quite evident that when tied +up in bundles and covered over with soil, the plants in the centre of +each bundle get dust-dry and fall a prey to the searching winds of spring. +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_187"></a>[Pg 187]</span></p> + +<p>Plants should in all cases, where it is possible, be lifted and +replanted within the week, but, much better still—and this is readily +effected where a home nursery is on the estate—on the same or the +following day.</p> + +<p>In planting, stretch a line along the centre of the prepared ground, +and close to the line take out a perpendicular trench with the spade of +sufficient size to allow of the roots of the plants being spread out +to their full extent. From 6 in. to 8 in. will be found a convenient +distance apart to place the thorns, and they should not be planted +deeper than they stood whilst in the nursery border, which will readily +be seen by the mark on the stems. A small quantity of fine soil should +now be placed next the roots, and this firmly trodden, the remainder +of the soil being added afterwards. Dibbling the plants is sometimes +recommended, but, in our own opinion, it is a dangerous practice and to +be avoided, the roots necessarily being thus confined to small space +and placed in an unnatural position. Planting in single line is in most +cases preferable to inserting in double line, as it is by the former +method that the strongest and most durable fences have been formed. +Some planters cut back the young thorns to within 2 in. of the ground, +and the practice, although not readily reconciled with physiological +principles, is to be recommended. It is unquestionable that headed-back +thorns shoot out with greater vigour, and become thicker, than such +as have been left untouched, but the fact that they are then greedily +devoured by ground game has somewhat caused the practice to fall into +disuse, at least where game is abundant and the cost of fencing cannot +be entertained.</p> + +<p>The <b>Beech</b>, as a hedge-plant, must not be despised, being a +rapid grower on most soils, and soon forming a very valuable fence. In +rich soils it retains a great proportion of its leaves during winter, +and is, therefore, an excellent shelter-plant. It, however, lacks the +rigidity of the thorn, and for that reason is not very suitable for +planting where farm stock have access. It may be planted in a manner +similar to that recommended for the thorn, only the individual plants +should stand farther apart. +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_188"></a>[Pg 188]</span></p> + +<p>The <b>Hornbeam</b> makes a good live fence, and will grow readily in +any fairly good soil and not too exposed ground. It may be treated +similarly to the beech.</p> + +<p><b>Privet</b>—both the common and oval-leaved—have been largely +used, either alone or with other plants, in the formation of hedges, +for which they are peculiarly suitable. They, however, want stiffness, +so as to be able to cope with farm stock, and for this reason are +principally used in ornamental garden subdivisions.</p> + +<p><b>Gorse or Furze.</b>—Strikingly beautiful as well as useful hedges +may be formed of gorse. It is well adapted for planting on light dry or +sandy soils, or on the top of a dyke or sunk fence.</p> + +<p>Seed sowing is to be recommended in the formation of gorse fences, +and after preparing and well working the soil, 1 lb. of seed to every +100 lineal yards will be found sufficient for sowing down. It should +be remembered that in order to keep the fence full and bushy, pruning +should take place immediately after flowering and before seeds are produced.</p> + +<p>Cutting over the hedge at ground level every third year will be very +beneficial to this fence.</p> + +<p>(2) <b>Ornamental Hedges—Holly.</b>—This makes an excellent +ornamental fence, and it is occasionally though rarely used for +plantation purposes. The ground should be thoroughly prepared, and, +if necessary, enriched by a dressing of strong loam, and the plants +inserted in May. The holly can be planted when of almost any height, if +previous transplanting was attended to.</p> + +<p><b>Yew.</b>—For purposes similar to the latter, the yew is generally +in use. It may be planted at any time, but should be kept well watered +until it has become established.</p> + +<p><b>Laurustinus.</b>—As a flowering hedge for garden or lawn purposes +few shrubs are of greater value than the laurustinus, particularly in +maritime districts. In severe winters it suffers considerably, though +generally fresh growths are sent up from the root-stock. Pruning should +be carefully done, so that the flowering shoots are not cut away.</p> + +<p><b>Box.</b>—Very neat and serviceable garden fences are made of this +shrub. It grows freely and stands pruning well.</p> + +<p><b>Rosa rugosa</b> and <b>R. rubiginosa</b> (Sweet Briar).—Both these +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_189"></a>[Pg 189]</span> +species of rose have come greatly into favour for garden subdivisions, +for which they are peculiarly suitable. They make charming hedges, are +of easy growth, and stand pruning with impunity. Of course, where they +are wanted to flower great care in pruning is necessary.</p> + +<p><b>Laurel.</b>—Both the common and Colchic laurels make fairly good +hedges, but they are apt to get gappy by portions dying out. This can, +however, easily be remedied by filling up with others instead. They +bear trimming well.</p> + +<p><b>Aucuba japonica</b> forms a useful and ornamental hedge, stands +pruning well, and lasts for a long time.</p> + +<p><b>Berberis Darwinii</b> and <b>B. stenophylla</b> are both highly +ornamental hedge shrubs, and when not pruned too severely flower with +great freedom. Shortening the long shoots with a pocket-knife is best.</p> + +<p><b>Cleaning and Pruning.</b>—An annual cleaning of the ground +alongside hedges must never be neglected, as weeds rob the soil of its +nourishment, choke the young plants, and to a great extent prevent the +free access of rain to the roots of the hedge plants. The common hoe +is, for this purpose, to be recommended, and any weeds that cannot +be got at around the stems must be removed by the hand. Ivy, elder +and honeysuckle should all be treated as weeds, for they are highly +injurious to hedges, be these young or old.</p> + +<p>Very little, if any, pruning or switching should be done till the third +year after the fence has been formed, and then only the longer twigs +cut back, so as to get by degrees a general uniformity of shape. The +switching-knife is alone to be recommended for pruning fences, shears +never making a clean cut, and pressing and loosening the bark at the +point where amputation took place. A well-sharpened switching-knife in +the hands of a dexterous hedger turns out beautiful and commendable work.</p> + +<p>Unless it be an annual cleaning and trimming, a well-formed hedge +should require but little attention for many years. Should it, +however, when old, begin to show signs of distress and become gappy, +a top-dressing of rich farmyard manure will go a great way towards +throwing fresh energy into the plants. This should be applied in winter, +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_190"></a>[Pg 190]</span> +and lightly forked in the following spring, and before growth has +commenced. Should gaps occur by reason of deaths in the old plants +these should be removed, and others of young growth substituted, the +soil at the same time being dug out and other fresh from a field or +roadside used instead. Great care should be exercised that the roots of +living plants are not injured whilst removing the dead and substituting +the live specimens. Specially-prepared plants and such as are unusually +stout and bushy should alone be used in hedge-repairing.</p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_191"></a>[Pg 191]</span></p> +<h2 class="nobreak">CHAPTER XX<br> +<span class="h_subtitle">SHRUBS FOR SHADY SITUATIONS</span></h2> +</div> + +<p>The list of procumbent or carpeting shrubs that have been found to +succeed when planted beneath the shade and drip of forest trees is by +no means a long one, and as the clothing of such bare places is often +a point of the greatest importance, particularly in park or ornamental +grounds, the following notes may prove useful. By careful manipulation +much may be done to carpet such places with suitable shrubs, but the +task in some instances is by no means an easy one, and must be set +about in a common-sense and practical way. Evidently deciduous trees +have an advantage over evergreen kinds in that with the extra light and +greater amount of surface dampness undergrowth succeeds better beneath +their shade.</p> + +<p>The <b>common Ivy</b> is probably the best evergreen carpet for shade +planting with which we are acquainted. It runs about and roots freely, +soon covering a large space of ground with its neat, deep-green +foliage. Propagation is brought about either by means of cuttings or +suckers, and is simple and inexpensive.</p> + +<p>The <b>Periwinkles</b> (<i>Vinca major</i> and <i>V. minor</i>) are +well adapted for planting beneath our larger trees, where, unless +the shade is very dense, they succeed admirably, soon forming large +breadths of evergreen carpet and producing their deep blue flowers in +abundance. They are readily increased by layering or subdivision, and +when once established soon spread about unheeded.</p> + +<p>The <b>St. John’s Wort</b> (<i>Hypericum calycinum</i>) can confidently +be recommended for planting as a ground covering beneath our larger +trees. It increases readily, and if occasionally cut over, shoots out +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_192"></a>[Pg 192]</span> +all the more freely and thickly. For the showy yellow flowers it is +also a desirable shrubby plant.</p> + +<p>The <b>Mezereon</b> and <b>Spurge Laurel</b> (<i>Daphne Mezereum</i> +and <i>D. Laureola</i>) are excellent, medium-sized shrubs for planting +in shady positions, where they not only succeed well, but flower +freely. They are both increased by layering.</p> + +<p><b>Euonymus Radicans Variegata</b> is a useful, procumbent shrub for +planting in the shade, and succeeds well in smoky localities.</p> + +<p>The <b>Butcher’s Broom</b> (<i>Ruscus aculeatus</i>) grows with great +freedom beneath the densest shade of our forest trees, and being an +evergreen is to be recommended for such situations.</p> + +<p><b>Gaultheria Shallon</b> and <b>G. Procumbens</b> may also be +recommended for planting where the shade is not too dense; they both +flower and fruit freely, and are of neat procumbent growth.</p> + +<p>Amongst taller growing subjects for planting in the shade, mention +may be made of the holly and yew, both of which thrive beneath +the shade and drip of forest trees and where they often assume a +dwarf, procumbent habit of growth. Two at least of the recent shrubs +introduced from China have just claims to be included in the list of +suitable species for planting in the shade. These are <i>Sarcoccos +humile</i> and <i>S. ruscifolia</i>. They are of particularly neat +growth, with persistent leaves and bear yellowish-white flowers.</p> + +<p>The <b>Common Ling</b> or <b>Heather</b>, <b>Blackberry</b>, and +<b>Andromeda Catesbœi</b> all succeed well in the shade of trees, +particularly if the soil be inclined to peat.</p> + +<p>It frequently happens that the soil beneath large trees is thoroughly +exhausted, and that the small, fibrous rootlets are so abundant as +to render planting almost impossible. Under such conditions it is +advisable to first gently loosen the soil, without disturbing the +larger roots, and add a top-dressing of, say, three or four inches of +good friable loam. This, thoroughly incorporated with the existing +soil, will give the young plants a start and allow of their becoming +strong and established before the encroaching roots rob the ground of +its nourishment.</p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_193"></a>[Pg 193]</span></p> +<h2 class="nobreak">CHAPTER XXI<br> +<span class="h_subtitle">INSECT ENEMIES OF TREES</span></h2> +</div> + +<p>Whether viewed from a commercial or sylvicultural point of view, the +widespread damage caused to timber from insect attacks can scarcely +be overrated. The depredations in various parts of our own country, +particularly in young plantations, are bad enough, but when compared +with those of Europe and America they appear insignificant. In France +and Germany whole woods have been wiped out by insect pests, while the +Government of Bavaria were mulcted in something like £100,000 by the +destruction of its spruce forests. The United States fares no better, +for we find that over a period of ten years the amount of timber killed +and reduced in value was calculated at fully £10,000,000. The coffee +plantations of Ceylon suffered much from the attacks of a fungus, and +we could go on multiplying cases. In our own country the ravages of the +pine beetle and of the larch disease have caused incalculable damage; +indeed, in the latter case there is hardly a plantation of larch where +the presence of the fell disease cannot be distinctly traced, while the +pine beetle has ruined whole plantations both in England and Scotland. +Though the adult bark and wood-boring beetles do a great amount of +damage, yet that inflicted by the caterpillar or grub from the egg +is greater still, and in the case of fungi we have a typical example of +their destructive properties in the case of the well-known larch disease.</p> + +<p>The <b>Pine Beetle</b> (<i>Myelophilus {Hylurgus</i>} <i>piniperda</i>) +is a dreaded enemy to not a few species of Pinus, but particularly +<i>P. sylvestris</i>, <i>P. laricio</i>, <i>P. austriaca</i> and <i>P. +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_194"></a>[Pg 194]</span> +Strobus</i>. The injury done by this beetle consists in its destruction +of the leading shoots of the tree it attacks. It enters by boring a +hole into the side of the shoot until it reaches the pith, after which +its course is directed upwards, and an exit made at the terminal bud. +This tunnelling of the shoot so weakens it that frequently during +stormy weather it is broken across at the point where the beetle +entered. Not only are unhealthy trees attacked by the pine beetle, +but young and robust-growing specimens frequently fall a prey to its +insidious depredations.</p> + +<p>June, July and August are the months when it is most commonly found.</p> + +<p>The only remedy is to collect and burn the affected shoots—work that +requires to be done with the utmost care to prevent the escape of the +wary insect. Burning all brushwood in plantations is a great preventive.</p> + +<p>The <b>Pine Weevil</b> (<i>Curculio</i> {<i>Hylobius</i>} +<i>Abietis</i>) is another destructive insect, which differs from +the former in waging its attacks against the buds of the leaders and +branches, as also by eating patches of the bark here and there on the +stems and branches. The various species of Abies suffer most, but the +pines are occasionally attacked as well. It is always most destructive +in young plantations growing on the margins of old woods, and equally +bad amongst trees that have been planted on the site of a former pine +plantation.</p> + +<p>The beetle is about half an inch long, and nearly black. One remedy, +probably the best, is to place fresh pieces of pine bark on the ground, +beneath the infested trees. By shaking the trees and examining the +traps the following morning, many may be destroyed.</p> + +<p><b>Bostrichus typographus</b> is another pest of our woodlands, and +may frequently be seen, like fine white wool, spreading over the stem +and branches of the silver and other firs. It spreads with terrible +rapidity, first appearing in small patches here and there on the bole, +and particularly on the under sides of the branches. The tree infested +soon becomes unhealthy, and frequently dies off prematurely. Trees +growing in low-lying, heavy ground would seem to fall a first prey to +this insect.</p> + +<p><b>Bostrichus laricis</b> is nearly allied to the former, but its +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_195"></a>[Pg 195]</span> +devastations, which are, however, not very deadly, are principally +confined to the larch. It is usually known as the “larch blight.”</p> + +<p>The <b>Pine Shoot Moths</b> (<i>Retinia buoliana</i> and <i>R. +turionella</i>) would seem to be more numerous in this country than +is generally supposed. Quite lately I visited a large plantation of +young Scotch fir, the terminal buds of which were greatly injured by +the caterpillars of this elaborately-coloured moth. The moth lays its +eggs at the base of the buds, and into these the caterpillars enter by +hollowing out the centre, thus destroying their vitality and causing +them to take on a withered appearance and to feel soft and empty to +the touch. Trees infested by this insect resemble greatly in their +stunted shoots and exudation of resin such as have become a prey to +the Pine beetle (<i>Myelophilus piniperda</i>), only in the latter +case it is the fresh young shoot and not the bud that is attacked. +The <i>Retinia</i> would seem, from all my notes and observations, to +be most abundant in what might be termed neglected fir plantations, +that is, where the trees have suffered from overcrowding, or from +unfavourable conditions as to soil, etc., and particularly when the +wood is composed entirely of one species. There is no method of dealing +with large infested areas, for the attacked trees have repeatedly been +cut over and removed without any seeming diminution in the numbers +of the insect. One experiment with a small infested corner has been +rewarded with good results, viz. the lighting of a fire to windward, +and causing the smoke of coal tar to pass over the infected area. This +might be worth trying in the case of fruit trees infested by particular +insects.</p> + +<p>The <b>Larch Miner</b> (<i>Coleophora laricella</i>).—Few, other than +those specially interested in tree diseases, have the remotest idea +that the yellow, withered appearance of many of our English larch +plantations is due to the larvæ of the above tiny moth. It usually +attacks young trees, say, from five to twenty years old, and although +it may not kill them out, yet the repeated onslaughts year after year +tend to keep the trees in an unhealthy condition, and so render them +liable to other and more deadly diseases. +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_196"></a>[Pg 196]</span></p> + +<p>Unfortunately the attacks of the larch miner are by no means confined, +as is usually supposed, to trees growing under unfavourable conditions, +for I have this season noticed in an unusually healthy, fast-growing +plantation in Sussex that almost every tree was more or less affected. +Certainly in another large extent of larch in Gloucestershire which I +examined lately, where nine-tenths of the trees were being ruined by +the <i>Peziza</i>, the larch miner was very abundant; but, I think, +that young trees, whatever may be their state of health, suffer alike, +although where hard-wooded trees form a portion of the crop the larch +certainly suffers less than when grown in pure woods. The moth lays its +eggs at the end of June on the needles of the larch; the caterpillar +mining into and feeding upon the interior of the needle causes it to +turn faded and yellow. It lives in the tube thus formed during the +winter, changing to a pupa, and ultimately to a moth. It is a most +difficult matter in the case of this insect, as, indeed, of all others +that are fairly abundant, to suggest a remedy, and I have looked +over and examined larch plantations that are differently situated in +many respects to find out under what condition the attacks are most +persistent, but with little or no success—healthy and unhealthy, +native or Tyrolese, faring alike when grown as a pure crop.</p> + +<p>Where the larches are intermixed with hard-wooded trees—sycamore, oak +and beech—the attacks are certainly less frequent, as I have noticed +in a number of cases. Trees growing at high altitudes do not seem to +suffer less than those only a few feet above sea-level, and this point +I have paid particular attention to.</p> + +<p>Whether the wounds caused by this insect will serve as a nidus for +the spores of <i>Peziza Willkommii</i> has yet to be determined, but +special importance should be attached to all larch-feeding insects, and +their depredations minimized to as great an extent as possible.</p> + +<p>The <b>Pine Sawfly</b> (<i>Lophyrus Pini</i>).—Fortunately, this +insect is not abundant in the British Isles, though on the Continent +the damage it does in the pine forests is by no means inconsiderable. +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_197"></a>[Pg 197]</span> +The insect may readily be recognized by its wide, flattish body, and +usually dark appearance. Having attained to full size in the trees, +they form cocoons among the foliage or on the stems, and remain in +this condition until the following spring, when, in April or May, +the perfect insects make their appearance. The male is considerably +smaller than the female, while the full-grown caterpillar, which is of +a greenish-yellow colour, with a row of black spots on either side, +is about an inch long. The remedial measures are not at all easy, +especially when a large number of trees are attacked, but single +specimens may be entirely cleared by shaking the caterpillars into a +sheet placed beneath the tree.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> + <img id="I_197" src="images/i_197.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="338" > + <p class="f110">(<i>a</i>) <span class="allsmcap">WILLOW BEETLE</span><br> + (<i>Phyllodecta vulgatissima</i>),<br> <span class="allsmcap">AND</span> + (<i>b</i>) <span class="allsmcap">ITS LARVA</span>.</p> +</div> + +<p>The <b>Larch Aphis</b> (<i>Adelgis laricis</i>) and <b>Giant Sirex</b> +(<i>Sirex gigas</i>) are both, more or less, harmful to the larch. The +latter is a formidable and splendid insect, which is, however, not very +abundant in this country.</p> + +<p>Generally felled trees, or such as are somewhat sickly, are chosen by +the female in which to lay her eggs. These are deposited beneath the +bark by means of the powerful ovipositor, and in course of time the +whitish cylindrical maggots make an appearance, and with their strong +jaws form large borings in the affected tree.</p> + +<p>Cutting down and burning infested trees is the only practical remedy.</p> + +<p>The <a href ="#I_197"><b>Willow Beetle</b></a> (<i>Phyllodecta vulgatissima</i>) +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_198"></a>[Pg 198]</span> +causes considerable damage to osier plantations, and would appear to be +greatly on the increase of late years. Much damage has been done to +osier holts in various parts of the country, and in northern Ireland +the ravages of this beetle were particularly noticeable during the past +five years. The insect, which is metallic green or blue in colour, +passes the winter in the adult state, at which time it may be found +amongst refuse of the osier beds, such as the heaps of bark, and also +at the base of old stools and beneath stones or other shelter. The +larvæ have a tough yellowish cuticle with conspicuous brown bristles, +the head and prothorax being black and hard. The eggs are laid on the +undersides of the leaves in spring, and when the larvæ are hatched they +feed on the leaves, eating holes quite through to the upper surface. +Burning all rubbish in the osier beds is to be recommended, and +spraying with Paris green or lead arsenate has been found useful.</p> + +<p>The <b>Larch Sawfly</b> (<i>Nematus Erichsonii</i>).—This is a species +of sawfly the larvæ of which bear considerable resemblance to those +of the caterpillar of the pine sawfly, and also to that of the better +known gooseberry caterpillar. The larvæ are about three-quarters of +an inch long, and possess twenty feet. From July to August they feed +on the leaves of the larch, and a plantation that has been attacked +presents a partially leafless condition with quantities of the brown +cylindrical cocoon cases lying amongst the grass beneath the trees. +There have been several notable instances in which larch plantations +have suffered severely from the attacks of this insect, and in northern +England, particularly Cumberland, whole areas of plantation have been +attacked. Burning all brushwood and grass beneath the trees in infected +plantations is probably the best means of lessening the numbers of this +dread insect in our larch plantations.</p> + +<p>The <b>Spruce Gall Aphis</b> (<i>Chermes abietis</i>).—This is a +common insect, and one that renders many fine young spruce trees very +unsightly by reason of the cone-like excrescences that are formed by +the action of the insect on the shoots of the infested specimen. The +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_199"></a>[Pg 199]</span> +formation of this excrescence is brought about by the female aphis +piercing with her beak, or sucker, one of the buds, and drawing off the +sap, the consequence being an unusual growth at that part.</p> + +<p>When the young larvæ appear, they also, by piercing the gall, extract +the juices, and the gall enlarging soon causes the larvæ to become +embedded at the bases of the leaves, which, by this time, have become +curiously malformed. The insects are scarcely one-tenth of an inch long.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> + <img id="I_199" src="images/i_199.jpg" alt="" width="500" height="523" > + <p class="f110">ELM TREE DESTROYER</p> +</div> + +<ul class="index"> +<li class="isub3">A. Entrance of Parent Tube.</li> +<li class="isub3">B. Insect in Tube.</li> +<li class="isub3">C. An imperfect Tube arrested from want of nourishment.</li> +<li class="isub3">D. Scolytus Destructor. Natural size.</li> +<li class="isub3">E. Lateral Tubes with Larvæ, some changing to the Pupa state.</li> +</ul> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_200"></a>[Pg 200]</span> +The only remedy is to collect the cone-like excrescences and have them +destroyed, except in the case of badly infested trees, which should be +cut down and burned.</p> + +<p>The <a href ="#I_199"><b>Elm Tree Destroyer</b></a> (<i>Scolytus destructor</i>) +is about one-fifth of an inch long, stout and cylindrical, and usually confines +its depredations to the elm.</p> + +<p>In the beginning of June this beetle bores into the inner bark, where +it forms galleries, along the margins of which are laid the eggs. +Cutting down and burning badly-attacked trees is the best remedy, +but promoting exuberant health of the infested specimens by means of +enriching the soil has been attended with promising results.</p> + +<p>The <a href ="#I_201"><b>Goat Moth</b></a> (<i>Cossus ligniperda</i>) is most +frequently found on the willow, oak, lime and other trees. Being not only one of +our largest native moths, but also one of the most destructive, its +ravages are much dreaded, the holes or tunnels made by the moth being +of large size—large enough to admit the little finger. Filling up the +tunnels with a mixture of soot, lime and cow manure is an excellent +remedy.</p> + +<p>The <b>Lackey Moth</b> (<i>Clisiocampa neustria</i>), so called from +the gay colours of the caterpillar, is another destructive woodland +pest, eating wholesale the leaves of the oak, elm, beech, poplar and +most fruit trees.</p> + +<p>In April and May the caterpillars are hatched, when the leaves are +just unfolding. They form a nest or web of silken hairs, generally +amongst the smaller branches, in which they live during the day, +sallying forth in the evening to feed on the tender foliage. Being very +plentiful, they are usually difficult to deal with, but hand-picking +and destroying the cocoons are the only practicable methods of meeting +the evil.</p> + +<p>The <b>Winter Moth</b> (<i>Cheimatobia brumata</i>) and the <b>Lime +Looper Moth</b> (<i>Hybernia defolaria</i>).—The caterpillars of both +these moths are very destructive to the leaves of elms, limes and +willows, but particularly to the buds of the apple tree.</p> + +<p>When full grown they descend to the ground, where they cover themselves +and become chrysalides, from which the moths appear from October to December. +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_201"></a>[Pg 201]</span></p> + +<p>Being almost wingless, it is by no means difficult to prevent their +ascending the trees by painting a band of any sticky substance around +the stems of the trees that it is expected they might attempt to crawl up.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> + <img id="I_201" src="images/i_201a.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="186" > + <p class="f110">A. Larva of the Cossus Ligniperda, three years old,<br> + ready to change into the Chrysalis state.</p> + <img src="images/i_201b.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="414" > +</div> + + <ul class="index"> + <li class="isub3">A. Cossus Moth.</li> + <li class="isub3">B. Chrysalis from which the perfect Insect has escaped.</li> + <li class="isub3">C. Cluster of Eggs.</li> + <li class="isub3">D. Magnified Ovum.</li> +</ul> +<p class="f110">THE GOAT MOTH</p> + +<p>The <b>Red Spider</b> (<i>Tetranychus</i>).—In hot and dry summers +trees suffer much from this member of the mite family. Limes and +poplars, as also many other trees, are greatly injured, the foliage +turning to a russety brown colour, and falling off long before the +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_202"></a>[Pg 202]</span> +usual time. There are several remedies, such as fumigating and spraying +with a solution of soft soap, but none of these are applicable to a +plantation of trees, or even a single specimen of large size.</p> + +<p>The <b>Thorn Fly</b> (<i>Aphis Cratægi</i>) attacks whole hedges or +brakes of Quick, especially those in the nursery border; as a rule, the +younger and more healthy plants first fall a prey to its depredations.</p> + +<p>Sponging with tobacco water, or almost any of the prescribed solutions +will rapidly exterminate the fly; but such work is laborious when a +large brake or long hedge of the thorn has to be gone over.</p> + +<p>The <b>Cockchafer</b> (<i>Melolontha vulgaris</i>) is usually pretty +abundant, and does most damage by eating the leaves of the sycamore, +beech, oak, cherry and many other trees. It will also eat the roots of +most young trees, but those of pine in particular.</p> + +<p>The insect is about 1¼ in. long, and of a chestnut-brown colour on the +upper part of the body, while the head and some other parts of the body +are of a bronzy green, and thickly covered with yellowish-white hairs.</p> + +<p>In April and May the eggs are laid in a hole in the ground about 5 in. +deep, and the grubs are hatched in July. They are of a dirty-white +colour and much wrinkled. In this state, however, they do but little +harm; but, after having changed their skins and remained in a torpid +state during winter, come to the surface in spring and eat the roots +of almost any plant that comes in their way. They again burrow deeper +at the approach of winter, coming to the surface again in spring, +and, when full grown, are about 1½ in. long, and almost ½ in. in +diameter. The perfect insects do not live more than about twelve days, +and are easily known by their heavy, awkward flight towards the evening.</p> + +<p>The <b>Laburnum Moth</b> (<i>Cemiostoma laburnella</i>) is fairly +abundant—in England, at least; and, in some instances, every leaf of +a tree has been eaten almost wholesale by the caterpillars of this +pretty moth. The insect is about one-eighth of an inch in length, and +three-tenths of an inch across the fully expanded wing. It is of a +silvery-white colour.</p> + +<p>The greenish-grey caterpillars are about ¼ in. long. +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_203"></a>[Pg 203]</span></p> + +<p>By burning the attacked leaves great numbers of the caterpillars may +be destroyed, while, by shaking the trees in May and August, the moths +will fly out, and may be caught in a butterfly net.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> + <img id="I_203" src="images/i_203.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="555" > + <p class="f110">WOOD LEOPARD MOTH<br>(<i>Zeuzera æsculi</i>)</p> + <p class="center">(Very destructive to trees, particularly around London)</p> +</div> + +<p><a href ="#I_203"><b>Wood Leopard Moth</b></a> (<i>Zeuzera æsculi</i>).—The +caterpillar of this beautiful moth is very destructive to the beech, ash, +birch, elm, walnut, privet, etc., which it bores into, eating and living on +the wood. Usually young trees or the branches of old specimens are +attacked, and the tunnelling is confined in the former either to the +pithy centre or the soft wood near the bark. The moths appear about +mid-July, and the female, by piercing the bark with her powerful +ovipositors, deposits her eggs, one in each hole. Three years are +required for the caterpillar to arrive at maturity when it is nearly +2 in. long. Both in form and colour the leopard moth is particularly +elegant, the head and thorax being covered with a thick white pile, the +body with a black down, fringed with white at each joint. The wings are +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_204"></a>[Pg 204]</span> +white with yellowish-brown veins, a row of rounded bluish spots running +between every two.</p> + +<p>By stuffing a piece of tow in gas tar, or placing cyanide of potassium +in the hole and closing the aperture, the caterpillar may be +overpowered and destroyed.</p> + +<p>A bent wire has often been successfully used in dislodging the +caterpillar.</p> + +<p>The <b>Holly Fly</b> (<i>Phytomyza aquifolia</i>).—The foliage of +the holly is frequently very much disfigured by the grubs of the +holly fly, which burrow beneath the upper skin of the leaves, feeding +on the internal substance. This imparts a blistered and discoloured +appearance, which, in the case of ornamental varieties, is anything but +desirable. Probably no great damage to the infested trees is brought +about, but the wholesale destruction of the leaves, as is often the +case, cannot but weaken the plant.</p> + +<p>In May and June the flies make their appearance, and lay their eggs +beneath the upper skin of the leaf, from which the grubs, about +one-fifth of an inch long, are hatched. These work their way beneath +the skin of the leaves, forming small tracks of a more or less circular +shape, thus causing the large and unsightly blisters. They quit the +leaves about March, by making small holes in the skin of the leaf, and +afterwards become chrysalides. The fly is small and inconspicuous.</p> + +<p>Picking off and destroying affected leaves, or crushing the grub by +pinching the blisters are the only ways of lessening the attacks.</p> + +<p>The <b>Oak Leaf Roller Moth</b> (<i>Tortrix viridana</i>).—The +widespread destruction caused to oak-woods in almost every part of the +country by the caterpillars of this little moth would seem to be on the +increase from year to year. But it is not the oak alone that suffers, +for numbers of the hornbeam and beech are in an equally pitiable +condition. Having closely watched this insect for several years, mainly +with the view of striving to keep it in check or devise some means of +destruction, I have come to the conclusion that a few individual trees +may, at considerable expense, be rid of the pest, but in the case of +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_205"></a>[Pg 205]</span> +whole woodlands artificial treatment is quite out of the question. +Many observers are under the impression that the caterpillar is +most abundant where the trees grow closest together, and when we +consider that both wind and rain destroy numbers of these, the fact of +isolated trees, which, consequently, are most exposed to storms, being +comparatively free from attack is not to be wondered at. So far as we +know at present, the only way to diminish in any appreciable degree +the numbers of this insect is by encouraging as much as possible its +enemies.</p> + +<p>The rook, jackdaw, starling, thrush and sparrow help immensely in +destroying the caterpillars, and the occupants of a rookery will +frequently in a few hours clear the pest from the trees over a +considerable area of woodland. The same has been noted with regard to +the starling, and I have frequently seen the trees over an infested +area almost black with this particular bird when in the act of feeding +on the caterpillars.</p> + +<p>In support of this recommendation it may be stated that insects are far +less numerous in the forests of St. Germain, Senart and Fontainebleau +than in the Bois de Boulogne, where, of course, small birds are scarcer.</p> + +<p>Sometimes with the oak leaf roller moth its excessive number proves +the means of its extinction, the foliage being devoured before the +caterpillars are fully fed; while, as is usual at the season of attack, +parasitic flies and ichneumons destroy them wholesale, and a box of +caterpillars sent to me the other day revealed the fact that each one +had succumbed to the attacks of one of these enemies.</p> + +<p>The life history of this moth is full of interest, and the curious +manner in which it rolls up the leaves is well worthy of study.</p> + +<p>The <b>Felted Beech Coccus</b> (<i>Cryptococcus Fagi</i>).—Judging +from the numerous specimens of the beech coccus that are being +forwarded to me for identification, and the inquiries as to how this +insect pest may be dealt with, its presence in almost every part of the +country is indicated. It was only in 1862 that Dr. Balfour reported +the presence of this coccus in Scotland, and I remember well how the +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_206"></a>[Pg 206]</span> +beautiful beech hedges on the Penicuik Estate, Mid-Lothian, were +ravaged by the insect in 1875. In Germany, however, the beech coccus +was noticed as early as 1849. It is probable that the beech coccus also +extends to the Weymouth pine, as at Keston, Lord Derby’s estate in +Kent, several of these trees were badly affected with an insect that +appeared to me identical with this pest, and other instances of the +Weymouth pine being similarly attacked have been recorded. Since the +appearance of the insect in Scotland it has spread southwards rapidly, +but it is only of late years that its ravages have been felt severely, +and that owners of woodlands have been driven to do everything in their +power to combat its injurious effects. I think I have nowhere seen +the insect so abundant as on the Burnham beeches, which I visited in +company with several members of the Royal Horticultural Society at the +request of the Lord Mayor and the Corporation of the City of London. +Here, speaking broadly, all the trees are affected in a greater or less +degree, independent altogether of the age or health of the trees.</p> + +<p>Amongst the beautiful beech woods of Hertfordshire, where the timber +produced commands a higher price than that from any other station +in Britain excepting the Chiltern Hills, the trees are suffering +severely. After a careful inspection of many beech woods, I am at a +loss to account for the spread of this insect. Usually, in the case +of injurious forest insects, the presence of dead and dying wood and +the general health of the plantations have much to do with the attack, +but this would not appear to be the cause in the case of the beech +coccus. Even old and diseased trees do not appear to suffer more than +the young and healthy specimens, and at Burnham some of the youngest +and fastest growing specimens were by far the worst affected, appearing +in parts as if coated with drifted snow. Neither would soil appear to +have anything to do with the spread of the insect, as on chalky, sandy +and loamy soils, as well as on shale rock, the trees are all more or +less affected. I cannot say that unhealthy trees are more liable to be +attacked than vigorous ones, for I have observed diseased trees to be +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_207"></a>[Pg 207]</span> +sometimes quite free from the coccus, whilst healthy specimens in the +immediate neighbourhood were badly infested. This was particularly +noticeable on some park trees on two estates that I visited lately; in +each instance the majestic boles rose to a height of fully 90 ft. and +contained about 100 cubic ft. of wood. At one time I had an idea that +beech trees when grown too thickly were most liable to be attacked, +but more extensive observations have disproved the hypothesis. By some +it has been suggested that the drainage of ground on which the beech +is growing will facilitate the spread of the insect by bringing about +an unhealthy state of the trees. To some extent this has been noticed +at Burnham, and particularly in Gloucestershire, where a lake had been +formed contiguous to a beech plantation. In another instance that came +under my notice the burrowing of rabbits to an unusual extent was +blamed for the appearance of the insect and the gradual death of the +trees, the soil in this case being sand and gravel. It is a strange +fact, too, that a badly infested tree may be standing amongst others +that are perfectly free from the attack. Under a magnifying glass the +insect appears of a yellowish colour, irregularly globular in shape, +and almost transparent. It is thickly covered over by a secretion +from the body, which looks like fine waxen-white threads or cotton +wool, which effectually screens the insect from observation. With its +proboscis it sucks up the juices, which are readily reached through +the thin, smooth bark. When badly attacked, the foliage becomes meagre +and has a burnt appearance, then the tips of the branches, and finally +whole branches die off. Afterwards the bark becomes dry and cracks, +usually longitudinally, falling off in flakes with the death of the +tree. The timber of trees that have been killed by the coccus is +dry, short-grained, and by no means comparable with that of healthy +specimens. From whatever cause, the presence of the insect in our +plantations is much to be deplored, and already many fine old trees +in different parts of the country have succumbed to the attack. It is +a curious fact that certain trees fall victims to the attack of this +insect very rapidly, often in the short space of two years, while +others of equal age and vigour, and, as far as can be seen, similarly +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_208"></a>[Pg 208]</span> +situated, live for many years. Fully grown trees are, in my opinion, +more liable to be killed quickly than younger specimens.</p> + +<p>As regards remedies, these can only conveniently be applied to +single specimens and are scarcely practicable on a large scale. That +success has, however, attended the application of certain remedies I +am quite convinced, for several valuable ornamental trees on a lawn +in Buckinghamshire that were badly affected by the pest are now, +twelve months after being treated, quite free from the insect, and do +not appear to have suffered in consequence. In this case the remedy +was simple, and consisted merely in scrubbing the tree stems where +affected with a stiff brush dipped in an emulsion of soft soap, this +being rubbed well into all crevices of the bark. Only one application +was given, but as the trees were nearly 100 ft. high with many large +limbs, which also showed the presence of the coccus, the work took a +considerable time. However, the results well repaid the expense of +labour. Another excellent remedy is to mix together equal portions of +paraffin and soft soap, and when required for use add twenty times +their bulk of hot water, stirring all well together. This may be +applied either with a scrubbing brush or syringed on to the affected +parts. Other measures of a more drastic nature have been found to +be beneficial, but those given are probably the simplest and best. +Three or four handfuls of lime to a bucket of water is an excellent +application, the only drawback being the unpleasant colour imparted to +the trees. This is a simple remedy, and may be applied with a painter’s +or scrubbing brush. It has saved many trees on an estate near London.</p> + +<p><b>Wireworms.</b>—These occasionally do a great deal of damage in +beds of seedling trees, particularly conifers, and in some instances +they attack and destroy the seeds before germination. In the case of +young conifers they are gnawed completely through just above or at the +ground level, the beds in many instances being strewn with the cut-over +plants. <i>Abies nobilis</i> and <i>A. Nordmanniana</i> suffer to a +great extent, and I have frequently been at my wit’s end to put a stop +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_209"></a>[Pg 209]</span> +to the repeated depredations. In the case of a newly-formed nursery or +freshly-made-up seed-beds the attack of the wireworm is always most +pronounced. In the case of fresh nursery ground, paring off and burning +a couple of inches of the top soil in the autumn has been attended with +excellent results, as has also dressing the ground with gas lime. When +seedlings are attacked, hand-picking, with the use of sliced carrots, +mangold or potatoes, varied with pieces of oilcake as a bait, are to be +recommended. Dressing the seeds with red lead is very advantageous to +prevent birds and mice from attacking freshly-sown quantities. Injury +from wireworm is not likely to cause any serious consequences after the +first year’s growth of the plants, especially if the ground has been +kept clean and free from weeds during the egg-laying season in June.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> + <img id="I_209" src="images/i_209.jpg" alt="" width="500" height="461" > + <p class="f110">WITCH’S BROOM ON THE WILLOW<br> (SUMMER APPEARANCE)</p> +</div> + +<p>The above are only a few of the many insects that injure our forest +trees; but those treated of are the most familiar to the forester, and +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_210"></a>[Pg 210]</span> +those whose attacks he has most frequently to wage war against. Willow +trees all over London are suffering severely from attacks of a mite +insect. It is known as the “<a href ="#I_209">Witch’s Broom</a>” on the +Willow (<i>Eriophyes triradiatus</i>).</p> + +<p>Remedial measures are frequently of little avail, more particularly +when a whole wood or plantation is attacked; but with single specimens +the numbers may readily be lessened by the methods suggested.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> + <img id="I_210" src="images/i_210.jpg" alt="" width="400" height="603" > + <p class="f110">WITCH’S BROOM ON THE WILLOW<br> (WINTER ASPECT)</p> +</div> + +<p>Keeping the woodlands free of dead and dying trees and branches is a +preventive of insect attacks that should never be neglected. +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_211"></a>[Pg 211]</span></p> + +<p>As showing the injury that can be inflicted on our forest trees by some +of these insect pests, the following cases may be mentioned:—</p> + +<p>During fifteen years (between 1853-68) the spruce in East Prussia, +Poland and Russia was killed over an area of 7,000 square German miles; +while in the Bavarian forests, the loss to the Revenue in one year was +£40,000.</p> + +<p>In both cases the destructive insect <i>Liparis monacha</i> was the +cause of injury.</p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_212"></a>[Pg 212]</span></p> +<h2 class="nobreak">CHAPTER XXII<br> +<span class="h_subtitle">FUNGUS GROWTH ON TREES</span></h2> +</div> + +<p>Some fungi attack living wood, some dead, and some both; and, while the +majority are found growing on the stem, others attack the twigs, leaves +or root. They are of all sizes, from the almost microscopical to the +beefsteak fungus, which often exceeds a couple of feet in diameter. +Some are jelly-like in consistency, others leathery or almost woody +in texture; and while certain kinds spring up and disappear in a few +days, others remain intact on the tree stem for several years. In +shape, too, they vary considerably, from the curious Jew’s ear fungus, +which greatly resembles the human organ, to the giant puff-ball, that +sometimes measures four feet in circumference. Then the cup-shaped +and parasol fungi are appropriately named, while the flat, shelf-like +arrangement of a species that frequents the oak and elm has interested +many a casual observer. Excepting perhaps green, they are found of +almost all colours from dull brown to the brightest crimson, while +beautifully spotted and mottled kinds are not uncommon.</p> + +<p>Healthy trees growing under normal conditions are little affected by +fungi, whereas such as are predisposed to infection, by unsuitable +soil, excessive drought or dampness, injury by accident or +otherwise—in fact, those in a weakened condition however brought +about—are, of course, far more liable to attacks. Though certain +species of fungi only attack dead and decomposing wood, and are, +therefore, the consequence and not the cause of disease, there are +others, fortunately fewer in number, that attack healthy living trees +and are the direct cause of disease and death. The prevention and +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_213"></a>[Pg 213]</span> +extermination of fungus pests is by no means an easy matter, but by +keeping the woods free from dead and dying trees and branches, and by +giving immediate attention to outbreaks of the malady, much harm may be +averted.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> + <img id="I_213" src="images/i_213.jpg" alt="" width="400" height="536" > + <p class="f110">LARCH CANKER</p> +</div> + +<p>In the following notes, only the most serious cases are dealt with, or, +in other words, such fungi referred to as are commonly met with and +cause most damage to our woodland trees.</p> + +<p><b>Larch Disease.</b>—In all probability the larch disease or +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_214"></a>[Pg 214]</span> +<a href ="#I_213">larch canker</a> owes its origin to the minute spores formed +in the fructification of the now well-known fungus—<i>Peziza Willkommii</i>. +It has been pretty conclusively proved that these spores can only find +a footing where the rind of the bark has become in some way injured, +such as might be occasioned by the puncture of an insect, by wind, +frost or from many other causes. The spores send down their germ tubes +into the cambium, between the bark and the wood, where the moisture +and nourishment afforded causes rapid development of the fungus. This +soon spreads to the cells of the wood, and the annual layers either +entirely cease to grow, or become disorganized and crippled in growth, +causing a hollow appearance of the stem at the point of attack. The +surrounding bark, by its attempts to heal over the wound, causes a +thickened or burly appearance of the trunk, thus imparting to affected +trees the cankered, swollen and distorted look that is so distinguished +a characteristic.</p> + +<p>The disease appears in this country on the larch, both common and +Tyrolese, at all stages of growth up to thirty years, but rarely after +that age. I have examined a plantation of only four years’ growth sadly +infested by the <i>Peziza</i> whereas, in other cases, the trees may be +fully twenty years old before being attacked.</p> + +<p><b>Cause.</b>—Under what conditions of growth the larch is most +susceptible to the <i>Peziza</i> is still a matter of vague +uncertainty, but there can be little doubt that an enfeebled +constitution, as fully explained in the article on the larch “Trees for +Economic Planting”, aided by our peculiarly erratic climate, has much +to answer for. The variableness of our spring weather is, no doubt, one +of the predisposing causes of disease, for, although no degree of frost +experienced in this country can injure the tree when leafless, yet few +are more sensitive when in young foliage.</p> + +<p>Bearing on the subject of the larch disease, I have communications +from almost every part of the country, and have personally visited +and examined many of the worst infested plantations, particularly in +England and Wales. Soil, if we exclude peaty, would seem to have little +or nothing to do with encouraging the disease, as I have found it +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_215"></a>[Pg 215]</span> +equally virulent on dry, sandy and heavy damp soils, but worse on +chalk. Curiously enough, the disease is hardly known in the peat bogs +of Ireland, and there the rainfall is excessive. It is equally strange +that it first made its appearance in the Eastern and drier parts of +England, and gradually proceeded to the more humid West. I have, +however, noticed it in certain low-lying still, and damp portions of +some woodlands, and where frosts would be most prevalent, but such +cases are not general.</p> + +<p><b>Remedy.</b>—Several remedies have been more or less successfully +tried with a view to getting rid of the disease on trees, such as by +cutting and scraping out the injured portions, and applying a suitable +dressing; but such remedies, although suited for single specimens, +cannot be applied to a whole area of infested trees.</p> + +<p>Under exceptionally favourable conditions, I have found the larch to +outgrow the disease, though the cankered, swollen stems are never +afterwards of great value for constructive purposes. Prevention in the +present case is undoubtedly the best measure, for when once it has made +headway, the larch disease is most difficult to cope with. By planting +only sound, healthy trees, with uninjured roots in the most suitable +soils and situations, and retaining these in as healthy a condition as +possible, can we guard against attacks of the disease. Hardwoods mixed +with the larch are to be recommended.</p> + +<p><a href ="#I_216"><i>Polyporus squamosus</i></a> attacks the elm and +other hard-wooded trees and rapidly brings about decay. It is one of +our commonest species on diseased trees.</p> + +<p>The <b>Sycamore Fungus</b> (<i>Rhytisma acerinum</i>).—Every one +interested in trees must be familiar with the conspicuous black, +pitch-like spots which so mar the appearance of sycamore leaves. These +are due to the above-named fungus which, appearing as small yellowish +spots on the undersides of the leaves towards the end of June, +gradually increase in size and intensity of colour until they attain +to fully half an inch in diameter and are inky black, with a margin of +dirty yellow. The attacked portion of the leaf becomes wrinkled and +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_216"></a>[Pg 216]</span> +much thickened in texture, while all the affected foliage drops +off prematurely. After lying on the ground during the winter, the +thread-like spores are produced in large quantities at the time when +the foliage of the sycamore is appearing in May and June. The sycamore +is not the only tree affected by this fungus, for the Norway Maple and +our native <i>Acer campestre</i> are equally liable to attack, and have +in some instances suffered very severely from this cause. The fungus +is becoming more plentiful, and it disfigures the maple and sycamore +leaves to a wide extent.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> + <img id="I_216" src="images/i_216.jpg" alt="" width="500" height="499" > + <p class="f110">POLYPORUS SQUAMOSUS<br> (ON ELM TREE)</p> +</div> + +<p><i>Rhytisma punctata</i> may at once be distinguished from the above +species by the many small black spots studded thickly together, which +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_217"></a>[Pg 217]</span> +combine to form the large conspicuous blotches for which affected trees +are remarkable. Both species are sometimes found on the same leaf. As +the attacks of this fungus continue from year to year, and cause almost +every leaf to drop off prematurely, the health of the trees is greatly +impaired, and they become an easy prey to the still more destructive +coral spot fungus, <i>Nectria cinnabarina</i>. By burning the leaves +affected with <i>Rhytisma</i> before the spores are liberated in +spring, the spread of the fungus is prevented in a simple and effective +manner. The sycamore fungus is very plentiful on trees around London.</p> + +<p>The canker of hard-wooded trees is brought about by one of the Nectria +(<i>N. ditissima</i>), and is very common in every part of the country, +affecting the oak, beech, ash, sycamore and fruit trees generally. The +ash perhaps suffers most, the timber turning black and being quite +unfitted for structural purposes. It is strictly parasitical, growing +on wounded portions of the stem and branch, and spreads with great +rapidity, attacking trees of all ages. We have known the trees in a +plantation of ash to be quite destroyed by this canker, which attacks +most freely those growing on wet, sour land. This should be a warning +to planters to avoid such soil.</p> + +<p>The <b>Red-rot Fungus</b> (<i>Fomes annosus</i> or <i>Trametes +radiciperda</i>) attacks the roots of several species of pine, +particularly the Scotch, Corsican and Weymouth, as also the Spruce +and Silver Fir. It is probably the most destructive of the family, +attacking living roots and spreading rapidly from tree to tree. The +trees, when affected, quickly turn sickly and die, the wood becoming +spongy and of a brownish colour, with distinct black spots. The only +remedy is to take out affected trees and burn them root and branch, +replanting the ground with beech or elm. Though one of the most +destructive fungi in coniferous woodlands, its attacks are by no means +confined to these alone, since it is found on the roots of several +hard-wooded species, such as the filbert, hazel, birch and beech. Quite +recently a nut plantation in Kent suffered severely from the attacks of +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_218"></a>[Pg 218]</span> +this fungus, whole lines of trees being killed outright before the +cause was detected. It spreads quickly underground from tree to tree, +and unless eradicated, as it may easily be by uprooting affected trees +and carefully destroying the mycelium, much damage may result.</p> + +<p>The <b>White-rot Fungus</b> (<i>Fomes igniarius</i>) is usually found +on hard-wooded trees, and takes possession of wounds that may have been +occasioned by the accidental breaking of a branch or stem injury. Oak +trees suffer most from the attacks of this fungus, which is often as +large as a foot across, and of a brownish colour. It is named igniarius +on account of the inner surface being used as tinder, when prepared +with saltpetre, especially in the old days of flint and steel. By +removing the fungus and attending to the wound by cleaning away all +dead and dying matter, and coating with tar, much benefit will ensue.</p> + +<p>The <b>Leaf-shedding Fungus</b> or <b>Pine-leaf Scurf</b> +(<i>Lophodermium pinastre</i>) is a well-known and widely distributed +species, and is usually found on the Scotch and Austrian Pines. The +leaves, when attacked, wither suddenly and fall off, the fungus +being most prevalent after unusually dry weather, or in early spring +succeeded by a frosty winter. It occurs both as a saprophyte on dead +pine leaves and a parasite on the living foliage. We have been most +successful in combating the attacks and preventing the spread of the +pest by spraying the affected parts with “Bordeaux mixture.” Young +trees under ten years of age are most commonly attacked, and when this +occurs in the nursery borders, the plants should be rooted out and +burned. On several Scottish and English estates, thousands of Scotch +Pines have been killed out by the attacks of the leaf-shedding fungus.</p> + +<p>One of the commonest fungi on old stumps is <b>Agaricus melleus</b>. It +has no particular host, being found alike on coniferous and hard-wooded +trees, and on both root and stem. Known as the honey fungus, and +edible, this toadstool is about three inches in diameter, and of a +yellowish-brown or rusty colour. It spreads with great rapidity both in +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_219"></a>[Pg 219]</span> +the soil and between the bark and wood of the affected tree. The only +remedy is digging out and destroying the fungus, and, in the case of +healthy young trees, collecting and burning the mycelium.</p> + +<p>Next to the larch canker, one of the most destructive diseases of +forest trees is caused by attacks of the <b>Bladder-rust</b> or +<b>Cluster-cup</b> (<i>Peridermium piniacicola</i>). It is a wound +fungus and attacks almost every species of pine, the Scotch in +particular, especially when the trees are growing on light, poor +soils. Young trees up to, say, twenty years old are most commonly +attacked by this fungus, which appears like blisters, emitting bright +reddish-coloured spores. Rooting up and burning all affected trees is +the best remedy.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> + <img id="I_219" src="images/i_219.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="478" > + <p class="f110">POLYPORUS SULPHUREUS<br> (ON WHITE POPLAR)</p> +</div> + +<p><a href ="#I_219"><i>Polyporus sulphureus</i></a> attacks many species +of trees—yew, poplar, etc.</p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_220"></a>[Pg 220]</span></p> +<h2 class="nobreak">CHAPTER XXIII<br> +<span class="h_subtitle">BARKING OAK</span></h2> +</div> + +<p>Previous to the war the price of oak bark—about £2 10<i>s.</i> per +ton—rendered it questionable whether from a purely financial point of +view the operations of stripping and harvesting should be undertaken. +Now, however, with bark at fully three times that figure, the operation +is to be recommended.</p> + +<p>The period of bark-stripping and harvesting is one of the most anxious +seasons of the year with the forester, as the quality of the bark is +so largely dependent upon the weather during the time that intervenes +between the stripping and stacking, or delivery, and not less so +upon the carrying out of the work at the proper time, to secure easy +and expeditious peeling. In most cases the time when the bud is just +expanding into leaf is that which gives the greatest weight of bark of +the best quality, with the smallest amount of labour. By deferring the +work, even for a few days, there is often a loss in weight amounting to +as much as 10 per cent., and a great deterioration in quality.</p> + +<p>Even in the most favoured situations it is seldom that the season +for stripping extends beyond twenty-eight days. The advantages of +early stripping are so well known that any comment on the subject is +unnecessary; suffice it to say that, immediately the bark commences to +“run” freely, no time should be lost in making a start, and the work +should be prosecuted with vigour and dispatch until completed.</p> + +<p>The proper time to commence barking cannot, however, be fixed with any +amount of certainty, much depending on the season, whether early or +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_221"></a>[Pg 221]</span> +late, as well as on the district of the country in which the operation +is to be performed. During ordinary seasons, and in most parts of +England, bark-stripping commences during the third week in April and +continues for about a month, or until such time as the trees are +in full leafage, whereas in some parts of Scotland, especially the +north, the operation is frequently nearly a month later. No mistake +can, however, arise as to the right time to start barking in any +locality, as in all cases the period when the bud is first bursting +into leaf will be found the proper time for felling to insure easy +stripping and the best quality of bark. As the season of bark-stripping +is, therefore, of short duration, every preparation should be made +beforehand—trees marked and numbered, tools in readiness, and squads +arranged—so that an early start may be made, as, by deferring the work +beyond the time stated above, there is not only a perceptible loss in +weight, but considerable deterioration in the quality of bark as well.</p> + +<p>Elaborate directions regarding the arrangements of squads and tools +to be used are unnecessary, as almost every district has its own +peculiarities in this way. The tools generally in use are heavy axes +and the cross-cut saw for felling, hand-bills and saws for pruning, +peeling-irons or chisels for removing the bark, scrapers for removing +moss, and light wooden mallets for beating refractory bark or such as +cannot be removed by the peeling-irons alone.</p> + +<p>Previously to felling the trees a man or stout lad is sent before, +who removes the bark from the root upwards for a distance of 2 ft. or +3 ft.; this not only prevents its being injured when laying in and +felling the tree, but is convenient for after-stripping as well. When +the stools are intended for reproduction great care is necessary to +avoid tearing or loosening the bark from the roots. After being thus +prepared the trees are felled in the usual manner, those under 6 in. in +diameter being cut with the axe; above that size it is found an economy +of time and timber to fell with the cross-cut saw. Following in the +rear of the cutters should be a squad of men, to clear the trunk and +larger limbs of all branches down to 1 in. in diameter, leaving the +limbs to be peeled as part of the tree. +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_222"></a>[Pg 222]</span></p> + +<p>Heavy timber and large branches are usually peeled where they fall, +but it will be found convenient to have the smaller trees and branches +carried out to some open space adjoining the stacking ground, and +peeled while one end is supported by means of two forked sticks placed +against each other. When the bark of small branches cannot readily be +removed by the peeling-iron, a smooth and flat stone is brought into +use, beside which the peeler sits, and with one hand holds the branch +on the stone, moving it along from one end to the other, at the same +time applying the mallet with the other hand until the bark becomes +loosened from the wood. Here it may be well to issue a caution against +a too frequent use of the mallet, which should never be brought into +request when the bark can be otherwise removed from the wood, as all +hammering and beating not only diminishes the quality of tannin, but +has a tendency to blacken the fleshy part of the bark and cause rapid +decay in a bad season. The body, or trunk bark, is removed in lengths +of from 30 in. to 36 in., and in as large pieces as possible.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> + <img id="I_222" src="images/i_222.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="443" > + <p class="f110">BARKING TOOLS</p> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_223"></a>[Pg 223]</span> +A dry, open and airy situation, convenient to the work, but without +the wood, should be selected on which to harvest the bark, and rather +than this should be done in a sheltered, humid spot, the bark should be +carted to some distance off. The drying racks, or ranges, may be fully +2 ft. high, drooping somewhat to one side, and formed of forked sticks +driven firmly in the ground, while stout rods are placed transversely +upon these. It should also be so arranged as that not only may the +rain be thrown off, but so that the ends of the bark may be facing the +prevailing wind, thereby insuring a current of air through and beneath +the mass. After being carted or carried to the drying-ground, the +small bark is spread out loosely on the stage to a depth of about 6 +in., and thatched or covered over with the larger pieces as a means of +protection against rain. Each day’s bark should be cleared up, and put +on the range the same evening, and oftener, if found necessary, during +damp showery weather, keeping the white or fleshy part downwards and +using the larger pieces as covers to run off the rain.</p> + +<p>During favourable weather the bark will be ready for stacking in about +a fortnight from the time it was placed on the stage, but should +close damp weather intervene, it may be found necessary to turn the +bark occasionally, thus adding to the length of time required for +harvesting. It should, however, be remembered that the less turning +the bark receives after being placed on the stage the better will the +quality be. Well-seasoned bark has the fleshy side of a creamy colour, +whereas such as has been exposed to the sun or rain is of a dull brown, +and is wanting in tannin matter, and consequently of inferior value.</p> + +<p>As soon as the bark is thoroughly dry and ready for stacking, which +may readily be ascertained by its breaking freely across rather than +bending or yielding to pressure, it should be secured in a shed, +ricked, or delivered to the tanner.</p> + +<p>In stacking bark the rick should not be made too wide—say about 9 +ft.—but well hearted, so that the side pieces may have a good fall or +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_224"></a>[Pg 224]</span> +declivity outwards to throw off the rain. The rick may be of any +length, according to the quantity of bark on hand, and of a height +proportionate to the width. The largest pieces of bark should be +reserved for thatching the rick, the whole being covered over by a +tarpaulin or waterproof cloth of some kind. In most cases the bark is +chipped previously to being sold, but as this necessitates having a +large shed at command, the system is not generally adopted. There are, +however, several advantages accruing from this method, not the least +of which is that the bark may be chopped up as it is removed from +the drying-stands, thus saving the expense of stacking. Chopping the +bark can also be done by the workmen during wet weather, and when not +otherwise engaged.</p> + +<p>In computing the quantity of bark before stripping, we have found the +following data fairly reliable:—</p> + +<p>1. A well-balanced tree with a good head will yield about 6 cwt. of +bark for every ton of measurable timber, if branches down to an inch in +diameter are peeled.</p> + +<p>2. Hedgerow trees usually yield about a ton of bark to every three tons +of timber.</p> + +<p>3. Trees growing in close woodland are usually thin barked, the yield +being about a ton of bark to every 4½ tons of timber.</p> + +<p>4. Oak poles will average five tons of timber to a ton of bark.</p> + +<p>Tall, clean stems, as are produced when the poles are grown thickly +together, with small heads, give the smallest yield in proportion +to the quantity of timber, and short stems with spreading heads the +largest.</p> + +<p>The cost of production is as follows:—</p> + +<table class="spb1"> + <tbody><tr class="fs_120"> + <td class="tdl"> </td> + <td class="tdc_wsp"><b>£</b></td> + <td class="tdc_wsp"><b><i>s.</i></b></td> + <td class="tdc_wsp"><b><i>d.</i></b></td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl">Labour, peeling and harvesting</td> + <td class="tdc">1</td> + <td class="tdc">10</td> + <td class="tdc">0</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl">Cartage to railway station, including loading</td> + <td class="tdc"> </td> + <td class="tdc"> </td> + <td class="tdc"> </td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl_ws2">(this is the average from six districts)</td> + <td class="tdc">0</td> + <td class="tdc">7</td> + <td class="tdc">6</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl">Loss on four months’ delay in selling the timber,</td> + <td class="tdc"> </td> + <td class="tdc"> </td> + <td class="tdc"> </td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl_ws2">which, but for the bark, would have been</td> + <td class="tdc"> </td> + <td class="tdc"> </td> + <td class="tdc"> </td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl_ws2">felled in winter at 5 per cent.</td> + <td class="tdc">0</td> + <td class="tdc">5</td> + <td class="tdc">0</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl">Customary terms of payment, less 2½ per cent.</td> + <td class="tdc">0</td> + <td class="tdc">2</td> + <td class="tdc">0</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl">Superintendence, etc.</td> + <td class="tdc bb">0</td> + <td class="tdc bb">1</td> + <td class="tdc bb">6</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl"> </td> + <td class="tdc">£2 </td> + <td class="tdc">6</td> + <td class="tdc">0</td> + </tr> + </tbody> +</table> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_225"></a>[Pg 225]</span> +It has been carefully estimated that there is a loss of fully 12 per +cent. of wood, caused by felling the oak during the barking season. In +other words, the proportion of sap wood to the whole tree is about 14 +per cent., which, for the majority of purposes to which oak timber is +applied, is rendered by the peeling of little or no value.</p> + +<p>We may say, however, that 2 per cent. can be profitably utilized, which +still leaves us with a considerable loss on the whole tree.</p> + +<p>The average price of the best oak is 2<i>s.</i> per ft., 12 per cent. +of which is as nearly as possible 3<i>d.</i> per ft., or £1 17<i>s.</i> +6<i>d.</i> per ton of bark to 150 ft. of wood.</p> + +<p>This, with the £2 6<i>s.</i> per ton cost of production, brings the +total to £4 3<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i>, leaving a considerable balance on +the wrong side at pre-war prices.</p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_226"></a>[Pg 226]</span></p> +<h2 class="nobreak">CHAPTER XXIV<br> +<span class="h_subtitle">THE MANUFACTURE OF CHARCOAL</span></h2> +</div> + +<p>Amongst dead or dying industries of our woodlands that have been +revived by the war, none is at present receiving a greater share of +attention than the manufacture of charcoal.</p> + +<p>There was a time, and not so long ago, when the merry voice and ring of +the charcoal burner’s axe were familiar sounds in some of the Kentish +and other forests of Southern England; but keen foreign competition, +aided by preferential carriage rates, have caused this time-honoured +industry to slip from our hands; indeed, it was almost forgotten +till again called into existence for the battlefields of France and +Flanders. The trenches must be warmed without apprising the enemy of +the existence of our men, and in order to do this and prevent soaring +signals of smoke, the tent brazier is filled with glowing charcoal.</p> + +<p>Except, perhaps, in Kent and Surrey and the English Lake district, +where small quantities of charcoal are annually produced for the hop +kilns and iron smelting, charcoal burning is a thing of the past. +The expert charcoal burner is now a difficult man to find, and an +independent, highly-paid workman when you have found him. Successive +members of the same family in Kent have been known to follow the +occupation of charcoal burning for fully a century and a half, and it +is distinctly a skilled industry, and confined to few.</p> + +<p>Usually the men work in threes, and, having selected a piece of ground +sheltered from the prevailing winds and in a position to which easy +access with wood can be obtained, a rough hut is erected for the +accommodation of these nocturnal workmen. Water, sand or sawdust and +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_227"></a>[Pg 227]</span> +turf are other requisites that must be provided as the work proceeds. A +couple of large tarpaulins and half a dozen straw-covered hurdles are +other necessities.</p> + +<p>From the point of economy in carting the wood to the kilns it may seem +that shifting the position of burning from one part of the woodland to +another is to be recommended. Such is, however, not the case, as the +hard, dry, ash-covered site, where charring has already been carried +out, has its advantages, and the cost of transferring the workmen’s hut +and tools from one position to another must also be considered.</p> + +<p>Several methods, largely dependent on the quantity and quality of +charcoal to be obtained, are adopted, but in order to procure that of +the best description the following system, which has been successfully +carried out on a large estate for the past hundred years at least, is +recommended. The timber carted to the charcoal yard consists of all +kinds of hardwoods, preferably not under two inches in diameter.</p> + +<p>Firewood and rough, unsaleable timber, as also inferior grades of heavy +coppice wood, are mainly utilized for the production of charcoal. +The wood is sawn into pieces about 2 ft. long, this being the most +convenient size for building the kiln, and these again split if +required to some 4 in. to the side, and when a sufficient quantity for +two pits has been cut up, the building of these is proceeded with. It +has been found economical to burn two pits at the same time, as both +can be attended to as conveniently as one, and it is unnecessary for +the men to sit up at night to watch each separately. The charcoal pits, +one of which is shown in the accompanying sketch, are made of a broadly +conical shape, 21 ft. in diameter and about 9 ft. high, and the mode of +construction is as follows:—</p> + +<p>A strong stake is driven firmly into the ground and left protruding +about a foot. Around this are placed small pieces of dry ash of equal +length, and standing as close to the upright stake as possible; around +this another layer is placed in the same manner, and this is continued +until a circle 5 ft. in diameter is obtained. A circle 1 ft. in +diameter, and having the top of the stake previously driven into the +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_228"></a>[Pg 228]</span> +ground as centre, is next made by placing the wood horizontally on the +upright pieces and side by side, the ends of each piece being placed at +the circumference of the circle already made, and directed towards its +centre. Layer upon layer is built in this manner until the pit is of +the required height, the wood used here being dry pieces of ash 2 ft. +in length, but split rather smaller than the ordinary pieces. A sort +of chimney is thus formed, by means of which the pit is fired. Outside +the core the wood is placed on end and reclining inwards, this being +continued until the pits are of the required size. When the building +is completed the pits are covered with newly cut turf, the grassy side +placed innermost, beginning at the base and working towards the top, +each line of turf overlapping the previous one by a few inches. The +circular hole or chimney is left open for firing. Before turfing the +top half of each pit it is carefully examined, and any crevices between +the wood packed full of small pieces of turf and sawdust to exclude +the air. The turfs are cut about 1 ft. in width, and of any convenient +length. The quantity required for two pits of the dimensions stated is +seven loads.</p> + +<p>When the pit is satisfactorily covered it is fired by dropping a +couple of shovelfuls of burning wood and some dry pieces of pine or +ash into the opening left at the top; the top turf is then put on, +which effectually shuts up the chimney, and the process of charring +commences. The smoke is first seen issuing from the lower half of each +pit, where the chinks were not packed with sawdust, and ultimately it +escapes from the whole surface.</p> + +<p>Constant attention is required day and night during the period of +burning, especially should the weather be stormy, as the wind, by +striking on a particular part of the pit, causes that side to burn more +rapidly, and fall in. When this occurs the hole must at once be filled +in with rough logs, which had been set aside for the purpose when +splitting the wood, and re-covered with turf.</p> + +<p>When the weather is mild the pits burn uniformly, require but little +attention, and produce the finest charcoal. The time required for +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_229"></a>[Pg 229]</span> +burning will vary with the size of the pit, quality of wood, method +of covering, and meteorological conditions. From six to seven days +are usually required for pits of the above dimensions, but smaller +kilns only covered with grass, fern and a little soil may be ready for +uncovering in from two to four days. Long experience has, however, +proved that by the slower process of charring the best charcoal is +produced, but the cost is higher. By covering the pits with grass and +fern, as is often done, a considerable saving is no doubt effected, +but where turf is available there can be no question as to its value +over the former, and on the boundaries of most woodlands it is readily +procurable at the cost of cutting. As the charring proceeds the turf +gradually disappears until only a slight covering of burnt earth +remains. When the pits have burned out and become cool, it is found +that they are reduced to rather less than half their original size.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> + <img id="I_229" src="images/i_229.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="354" > + <p class="f110">SECTION OF CHARCOAL PIT</p> +</div> + +<p>The charcoal is extracted by means of a specially constructed rake +resembling a light drag, but having much finer teeth, which, after it +has become quite cold, is stored in a shed until required for use.</p> + +<p>The very finest charcoal, superior to what is generally sold, is +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_230"></a>[Pg 230]</span> +produced by this method. The expenses connected with making it are, +however, a little heavier than usual, owing to the slower system of +charring, the use of larger wood, and the extra cost of covering with +turf. As to the cost of producing charcoal by the above method, this +will vary greatly, much depending on the distance the wood has to be +carted and on the cost of labour in the particular district.</p> + +<p>The price paid to the charcoal burners is 7<i>d.</i> per bushel, or +about four guineas per ton, which may seem high, but when we consider +that it is specialized work that is confined to few and attended +with grave risks and discomfort, the amount earned is not excessive. +It should also be remembered that, previous to lighting the kilns, +sufficient rough, not corded, wood has to be sawn and split and +the pits carefully built and covered, not to speak of the constant +attention required, both day and night, wet or dry, for from three +to seven days, during charring process. The usual price for burning +charcoal when the wood is corded is 35<i>s.</i> per ton.</p> + +<p>Fresh-felled wood is rarely converted into charcoal, the greater +portion of that used being thinnings of the previous season. The +proportion of wood to charcoal varies greatly, much depending on the +size, quality, and maturity of timber. Having had occasion to purchase +charcoal lately, I found the price, retail, to be 2<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i> +per bushel, or in quantities of not less than a ton, £14, for that of +fair quality.</p> + +<p>From about the twelfth century onwards Scotland, where wood was +abundant, produced annually a large quantity of charcoal iron; and in +1660 the Navy Commissioners nominated John Evelyn to investigate the +then denudation of forests owing to the manufacture of charcoal for +iron smelting, and the following quaint extract from his report will +be interesting:—“Nature has thought fit to produce this wasting ore +more plentifully in woodlands than any other point, and to enrich our +forests to their own destruction—a deep execration of iron mills and +ironmasters also.” The Lorn Works, in Argyllshire, were started in +1753, and annually consumed upwards of 3,000 tons of lump charcoal.</p> + +<p>The Sussex and Kentish forests at one time supported many of the +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_231"></a>[Pg 231]</span> +familiar charcoal burners, and right brawny and thrifty were these +denizens of the woodland with their rustic wooden huts and piles of +rifted firewood, but the industry was almost a thing of the past till +again called into active existence by the exigencies of the war.</p> + +<p><b>Kiln burning.</b>—The kiln is made of brick, one course being +sufficient, if bands of iron be added to strengthen the brickwork. It +is usually conical in shape, 24 ft. in diameter, with an equal height, +and holds about forty cords of wood. The wall of the kiln is carried +up nearly straight for about 6 ft., when it is gradually drawn in and +made a blunt cone shape. A plate of iron is fastened on the top in the +manner of a stone to an arch. Three-inch hoop-iron bands, about an +eighth of an inch thick, are placed around the kiln and drawn together +by means of screw-bolts and nuts. At the base, and near the top, are +double sheet-iron doors, by which it is filled with wood or emptied +of charcoal. The time required to fill, burn and empty is about three +weeks. Pit-burning, for estate purposes, is, however, most commonly +pursued, and has this advantage—that the charcoal can be made at any +place where timber is being felled, without extra expense, save that of +the cartage of the charcoal, whereas in using the kiln or retort the +wood must, in most cases, be conveyed to the place where it is erected.</p> + +<p><b>Comparative Value of Woods for Charcoal making.</b>—Amongst +home-grown timber, oak, ash, and beech are generally preferred for +charcoal making, but the following table will show pretty correctly the +proportionate relative values of the various descriptions of wood for +gunpowder charcoal:—</p> + +<table class="spb1"> + <tbody><tr> + <td class="tdl"> </td> + <td class="tdc_wsp">Per Cent.</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl">Rhamnus frangula contains</td> + <td class="tdr_wsp">27</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl">Laburnum</td> + <td class="tdr_wsp">25</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl">Boxwood</td> + <td class="tdr_wsp">24</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl">Sweet Chestnut</td> + <td class="tdr_wsp">23</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl">Oak</td> + <td class="tdr_wsp">22</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl">Holly</td> + <td class="tdr_wsp">20</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl">Walnut</td> + <td class="tdr_wsp">20</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl">Beech</td> + <td class="tdr_wsp">19</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl">Sycamore</td> + <td class="tdr_wsp">19</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl">Elm</td> + <td class="tdr_wsp">19 + <span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_232"></a>[Pg 232]</span></td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl">Willow</td> + <td class="tdr_wsp">18</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl">Poplar</td> + <td class="tdr_wsp">18</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl">Birch</td> + <td class="tdr_wsp">17</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl">Alder</td> + <td class="tdr_wsp">17</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl">Ash</td> + <td class="tdr_wsp">17</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl">Hazel</td> + <td class="tdr_wsp">17</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl">Mountain Ash</td> + <td class="tdr_wsp">17</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl">Scotch fir</td> + <td class="tdr_wsp">16</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl">Larch</td> + <td class="tdr_wsp">16</td> + </tr> + </tbody> +</table> + +<p><b>Uses of Charcoal.</b>—The uses of charcoal for estate purposes are +very numerous, for horticultural, agricultural and other departments. +From remote antiquity charcoal has been used as a fuel, and for many +purposes it is still unsurpassed. It is by far the cleanest solid fuel +known; it burns steadily, gives out a great amount of heat, and lasts +well. On account of its smokelessness it is invaluable for cookery, and +it is also admirably suited for use in green-house and other stoves. +It is not adopted for heating apartments on account of the poisonous +gas (carbonic oxide) produced in its combustion, and the danger, +most apparent when the charcoal is burnt in an open chauffer, is not +obviated by using it in a stove, as carbonic oxide has the power of +diffusing through red-hot iron.</p> + +<p>In gardening, charcoal is largely used for potting purposes, for vine +borders, and for flower beds; and in the form of dust it is the best +material for packing bulbs for transmission to a distance.</p> + +<p>Perhaps the most important of the uses to which charcoal can be put +about a house or estate is that depending on its extraordinary power +of absorbing gases. It is a perfect deodorant, a preservative of food +and all animal substances and a valuable disinfectant. The gases most +readily absorbed by charcoal are those which are most prejudicial to +health and most frequently produced by putrefactive changes.</p> + +<p>In the pores of the charcoal they are destroyed by union with the +oxygen condensed from the air. The fact of its being absolutely +non-poisonous and perfectly odourless puts it before all other +disinfectants. +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_233"></a>[Pg 233]</span></p> + +<p><b>“Dogwood” for Gunpowder Charcoal.</b>—The alder buckthorn, +berry-bearing or black alder (<i>Rhamnus frangula</i>) is a native +shrub that is fairly plentiful in Southern England, though rare in +Scotland and Ireland. Confusion sometimes arises from the same popular +name being applied to widely different species of plants, and this, +unfortunately, is the case with the shrub in question. What is known +among gunpowder manufacturers as dogwood is in reality the present +shrub (<i>Rhamnus</i>), which, however, is quite distinct from the +true dogwood (<i>Cornus</i>) and belongs to an entirely different +family. To those who contemplate growing charcoal wood for the making +of explosives, this distinction is of the utmost importance, as I have +seen <i>Cornus sanguinea</i> cultivated for the making of gunpowder.</p> + +<p>The alder buckthorn is perfectly hardy, growing freely even in the +North of Scotland, where it ripens its seeds. It is usually found as an +erect-growing bush from 8 ft. to 10 ft. in height, though in suitable +situations in Southern England specimens fully 20 ft. high, with stems +6 in. in diameter, are to be met with. The bright green leaves are +oval in shape and vary, according to conditions of growth, from 2 in. +to 3 in. in length, while the flowers are of a dull yellowish green +and are succeeded by dark purple berries each about the size of a pea. +From a very early date the alder buckthorn has been cultivated, though +not extensively, in this country for charcoal making, and the price, +upwards of £15 per ton, that is paid for the wood, shows that the +growing of this shrub is a profitable undertaking. At one time large +quantities of the wood were produced in Sussex and other counties, the +selling price being £14 per ton when peeled and tied in bundles.</p> + +<p>The cultivation of the alder buckthorn is nearly similar to that of the +osier for basket-making, and the produce is dealt with and disposed of +in like manner. For soil any good loam inclined to be dampish will suit +it well, and an open, but not wind-swept, situation should be chosen +for its cultivation. The land intended for growing the alder buckthorn +should be trenched the winter before planting, and a top-dressing of +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_234"></a>[Pg 234]</span> +leaf soil or thoroughly decomposed manure, the former preferably, will +greatly assist the growth of the young plants and prevent too speedy +evaporation of moisture from the soil. Young plants are not offered +in quantity in our nursery catalogues, and in order to obtain a stock +sufficient to form a plantation, seed-sowing or layering old plants +must be resorted to. Fortunately, by either method the plant is readily +obtained in quantity, and as the seeds are produced in fair abundance +and ripen freely this method of getting up a stock is to be recommended.</p> + +<p>The berries, after being collected in the early winter, are treated +much as we treat those of the yew and holly. They are mixed with sand +in order to separate the seed and fleshy covering, and the whole +is sown during early spring in previously prepared beds. The seed +beds may be prepared in any shady situation out of doors, the soil +being largely composed of light sandy loam mixed with finely riddled +leaf-mould. Sometimes the seeds are sown in boxes and placed in a cool +frame, but we have found cultivation out of doors more satisfactory. +When two years old, the seedlings should be transplanted into lines +18 in. apart and 9 in. from plant to plant. Here they may remain for +another two years, after which they should be planted out permanently +and headed back the following season. Rather thick final planting is +to be recommended, as the shrub being of upright growth, requires +comparatively small room for development, and the best wands are +produced by a close order of growth, say 5 ft. from plant to plant.</p> + +<p>Layering does not produce such upright-habited shrubs as those grown +from seed, and the yield of wood per acre under exactly similar +conditions of growth is greatly in favour of seedlings.</p> + +<p>After planting, the ground should be kept free from rough-growing seeds +for the first two years, the crop being cut at from six to seven years’ +growth, when the wands are from 1½ in. to 2 in. diameter at butt end. +Cutting and bundling is usually done by contract, but, as with the +osier, it is imperative that the crop be cut over near ground level and +short “stumps” without “spurs” encouraged. +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_235"></a>[Pg 235]</span></p> + +<p>As in the case of ordinary coppice wood, the buckthorn for charcoal +making may be cut every sixth or seventh year, the straightest shoots +when sorted in about 5 ft. lengths being tied in bundles which are +about a yard in girth. The buckthorn being a gross feeder, manuring the +land after the removal of a crop has been found advantageous.</p> + +<p>Although largely imported from Holland, and other parts of the +Continent, home-grown wood is preferred, as it produces a much +superior charcoal for the manufacture of explosives. Unfortunately, +however, home supplies are so limited that foreign wood is imported +in considerable quantity, and as there was a scarcity before the war, +the probabilities are that, with our greatly increased consumption of +charcoal explosives, a dearth of suitable wood is now being felt.</p> + +<p>With the present small remuneration attaching to the cultivation of +coppice or underwood, which under ordinary circumstances does not +exceed £4 per acre, the cultivation of the alder buckthorn is to be +recommended, particularly as the price is at least quadrupled. The +cultivation of this is quite simple, while the quality of soil required +need not be better than that which produces a crop of chestnut or +hazel. In cultivating the alder buckthorn for charcoal purposes the +following rules should be observed:—</p> + +<p>1. It will not succeed satisfactorily in sandy, poor or water-logged +soils; rich, well-manured loam being preferred.</p> + +<p>2. The ground should either be trenched or ploughed and cleared of all +rough-growing weeds the winter before planting.</p> + +<p>3. Plant seedlings or layers in the spring in lines about 5 ft. apart +and the same distance from plant to plant.</p> + +<p>4. An annual clearance of weeds and loosening of the soil between the +rows of plants is recommended where a heavy crop is expected.</p> + +<p>5. Induce the growth of stout clean shoots by liberal feeding and clean +cultivation.</p> + +<p>6. Cut the shoots close to the ground so as to prevent the formation of +long spurs and minimize the number of off-shoots. Clean cutting with a +sharp tool is imperative. +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_236"></a>[Pg 236]</span></p> + +<p>7. After the removal of a crop, stirring and enriching the soil is to +be recommended.</p> + +<p>8. Though found mixed with undershrubs and in the shade of trees when +in a wild state, yet the greatest quantity of the most valuable wood +for charcoal making is produced in open situations.</p> +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_237"></a>[Pg 237]</span></p> +<h2 class="nobreak">CHAPTER XXV<br> +<span class="h_subtitle">PRICES OF HOME-GROWN TIMBER</span></h2> +</div> + +<p>These vary so much in different parts of the country that it is +almost impossible to give a list that would apply generally to the +British Isles. Local demand and the situation of the plantations where +the timber is to be sold have to be considered, while the quantity +available and quality of the particular timber are also important +factors in determining the price.</p> + +<p>In many instances woods and plantations are far removed from road and +rail, consequently the cost of delivering to the consuming centre +is proportionately high, while in the vicinity of coal mines or +manufacturing towns almost every class of timber will find a ready and +profitable market. Then the quality of the timber (its reputation, we +might almost say) is a powerful factor in assessing its value, as will +be seen in the case of oak produced in Surrey and Sussex, or beech from +the chalky districts of Kent and Hertfordshire. No timber merchant +thinks twice as to whether he should, on account of quality, purchase +oaks at Rockingham, Ashridge, Welbeck or other well-known centres, and +so it is with the beech timber on the Chiltern Hills, at the Chenies, +in Hertfordshire, or with Scotch pine from the famous Aberdeenshire +plantations.</p> + +<p>But there is another factor that frequently affects the price of good +timber, and that is, that in inaccessible positions the quantity +offered is too small. This has been the case with excellent larch +timber in Ireland, where the quantity offered was not sufficient to +induce the timber merchant to lay down plant and arrange for delivery +to the nearest railway or port. There are other causes of a minor nature +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_238"></a>[Pg 238]</span> +that greatly affect the price of home-grown timber, and it is a curious +fact that in adjoining counties, sometimes even in the same county, the +prices of various timbers vary several pence per cubic foot. With all +woodland products the same is the case, and locality and local demand +determine the price of faggots, firewood and other commodities.</p> + +<p>Previous to the war, the following were the average prices of +home-grown timber, felled and lying in the wood; also of other woodland +produce. The prices at present are generally much higher.</p> + +<table class="spb1"> + <tbody><tr class="fs_120"> + <td class="tdc_wsp"> </td> + <td class="tdc_wsp"> </td> + <td class="tdc_wsp"><b><i>s.</i></b></td> + <td class="tdc_wsp"><b><i>d.</i></b></td> + <td class="tdc_wsp"> </td> + <td class="tdc_wsp"><b><i>s.</i></b></td> + <td class="tdc_wsp"><b><i>d.</i></b></td> + <td class="tdc_wsp"> </td> + <td class="tdc_wsp"> </td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl">Ash</td> + <td class="tdc_wsp">from</td> + <td class="tdc">1</td> + <td class="tdc">6</td> + <td class="tdc">to</td> + <td class="tdc">2</td> + <td class="tdc">6</td> + <td class="tdc_wsp">per</td> + <td class="tdc">cubic foot.</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl">Alder</td> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + <td class="tdc">0</td> + <td class="tdc">7</td> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + <td class="tdc">0</td> + <td class="tdc">10</td> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl">Beech</td> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + <td class="tdc">0</td> + <td class="tdc">10</td> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + <td class="tdc">1</td> + <td class="tdc">4</td> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl">Birch</td> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + <td class="tdc">0</td> + <td class="tdc">7</td> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + <td class="tdc">0</td> + <td class="tdc">10</td> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl">Chestnut (Spanish)</td> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + <td class="tdc">1</td> + <td class="tdc">3</td> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + <td class="tdc">1</td> + <td class="tdc">6</td> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl_ws2">”  (Horse)</td> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + <td class="tdc">0</td> + <td class="tdc">8</td> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + <td class="tdc" colspan="2">——</td> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl">Cherry</td> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + <td class="tdc">0</td> + <td class="tdc">9</td> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + <td class="tdc">1</td> + <td class="tdc">2</td> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl">Elm</td> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + <td class="tdc">0</td> + <td class="tdc">7</td> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + <td class="tdc">1</td> + <td class="tdc">6</td> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl">Larch</td> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + <td class="tdc">0</td> + <td class="tdc">10</td> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + <td class="tdc">1</td> + <td class="tdc">4</td> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl">Lime</td> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + <td class="tdc">0</td> + <td class="tdc">10</td> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + <td class="tdc">1</td> + <td class="tdc">6</td> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl">Oak</td> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + <td class="tdc">1</td> + <td class="tdc">3</td> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + <td class="tdc">2</td> + <td class="tdc">6</td> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl">Oak, brown</td> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + <td class="tdc">3</td> + <td class="tdc">6</td> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + <td class="tdc">10</td> + <td class="tdc">6</td> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl_ws2" colspan="9">(but these trees are usually sold at so much for each)</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl">Poplar</td> + <td class="tdc">from</td> + <td class="tdc">0</td> + <td class="tdc">9</td> + <td class="tdc">to</td> + <td class="tdc">1</td> + <td class="tdc">6</td> + <td class="tdc">per</td> + <td class="tdc">cubic foot.</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl">Scotch Pine</td> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + <td class="tdc">0</td> + <td class="tdc">5</td> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + <td class="tdc">0</td> + <td class="tdc">10</td> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl">Spruce Fir</td> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + <td class="tdc">0</td> + <td class="tdc">5</td> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + <td class="tdc">0</td> + <td class="tdc">9</td> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl">Willow</td> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + <td class="tdc">1</td> + <td class="tdc">6</td> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + <td class="tdc">10</td> + <td class="tdc">6</td> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl">Walnut</td> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + <td class="tdc">1</td> + <td class="tdc">0</td> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + <td class="tdc">2</td> + <td class="tdc">6</td> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl">Sycamore</td> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + <td class="tdc">1</td> + <td class="tdc">3</td> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + <td class="tdc">2</td> + <td class="tdc">6</td> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl">Firewood</td> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + <td class="tdc">5</td> + <td class="tdc">0</td> + <td class="tdl_wsp" colspan="5">per cart load.</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl_ws2">”</td> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + <td class="tdc">12</td> + <td class="tdc">0</td> + <td class="tdc">to</td> + <td class="tdc">16</td> + <td class="tdc">0</td> + <td class="tdc">per</td> + <td class="tdl">cord.</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl">Faggots (large)</td> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + <td class="tdc">14</td> + <td class="tdc">0</td> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + <td class="tdc">21</td> + <td class="tdc">0</td> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + <td class="tdl">100</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl_ws2">” (small)</td> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + <td class="tdc">2</td> + <td class="tdc">6</td> + <td class="tdl" colspan="5">per 100.</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl">Oak bark</td> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + <td class="tdc">52</td> + <td class="tdc">0</td> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + <td class="tdl" colspan="4">ton.</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl">Charcoal</td> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + <td class="tdc">1</td> + <td class="tdc">0</td> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + <td class="tdl" colspan="4">bushel.</td> + </tr> + </tbody> +</table> + +<p>Since the war commenced several kinds of timber have increased greatly +in value, notably ash, poplar, Scotch pine and spruce fir. For the +latter as much as 1<i>s.</i> 4<i>d.</i> per cubic foot was obtained in +Bucks, while in several cases first-class ash timber realized upwards +of 4<i>s.</i> per cubic foot.</p> + +<p>Pitwood, also, has increased in price. +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_239"></a>[Pg 239]</span></p> + +<h3><span class="smcap">Prices of Timber Per Ton Weight</span></h3> + +<p>In several parts of the country, particularly Ireland, timber is +regularly sold by weight and the following prices were realized +previous to the war:—</p> + +<table class="spb1"> + <tbody><tr class="fs_120"> + <td class="tdc_wsp"> </td> + <td class="tdc_wsp"><b><i>s.</i></b></td> + <td class="tdc_wsp"><b><i>d.</i></b></td> + <td class="tdc_wsp"> </td> + <td class="tdc_wsp"><b><i>s.</i></b></td> + <td class="tdc_wsp"><b><i>d.</i></b></td> + <td class="tdc_wsp"> </td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl">Ash and sycamore</td> + <td class="tdc" colspan="2">——</td> + <td class="tdc"> </td> + <td class="tdc">18</td> + <td class="tdc">0</td> + <td class="tdl">per ton.</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl">Beech</td> + <td class="tdc">5</td> + <td class="tdc">0</td> + <td class="tdc">to</td> + <td class="tdc">10</td> + <td class="tdc">0</td> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl">Larch</td> + <td class="tdc">12</td> + <td class="tdc">0</td> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + <td class="tdc">20</td> + <td class="tdc">0</td> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl">Scotch pine, spruce and silver fir</td> + <td class="tdc" colspan="2">——</td> + <td class="tdc"> </td> + <td class="tdc"> 8</td> + <td class="tdc">0</td> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl">Spruce</td> + <td class="tdc"> 8</td> + <td class="tdc">0</td> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + <td class="tdc">10</td> + <td class="tdc">0</td> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl">Oak</td> + <td class="tdc" colspan="2">——</td> + <td class="tdc"> </td> + <td class="tdc">15</td> + <td class="tdc">0</td> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl">Elm and beech</td> + <td class="tdc" colspan="2">——</td> + <td class="tdc"> </td> + <td class="tdc">10</td> + <td class="tdc">0</td> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl">Hardwoods of pitwood size</td> + <td class="tdc" colspan="2">——</td> + <td class="tdc"> </td> + <td class="tdc"> 6</td> + <td class="tdc">0</td> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl">Larch poles and pitwood (Wales)</td> + <td class="tdc"> 9</td> + <td class="tdc">0</td> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + <td class="tdc">10</td> + <td class="tdc">0</td> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + </tr> + </tbody> +</table> + +<p>That the heavy importation of foreign woods has had a prejudicial +influence on the value of home-grown timbers is realized by all those +who are engaged in the trade. The depreciation in price has, however, +been so gradual that it is difficult to realize this unless by +comparing the prices of to-day with those of, say, a hundred years ago. +Several of these comparisons clearly indicate that oak, at least, has +become much reduced in value, less so ash and elm, and the following +list of prices obtained in 1807 for timber on two estates in Hants will +serve to show that for trees of equal size the price to-day is far +behind that of a century ago.</p> + +<table class="spb1"> + <tbody><tr class="fs_120"> + <td class="tdc" colspan="4"> </td> + <td class="tdc_wsp"><b><i>s.</i></b></td> + <td class="tdc_wsp"><b><i>d.</i></b></td> + <td class="tdc_wsp"> </td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl">Oak</td> + <td class="tdl">averaging</td> + <td class="tdc"> 9</td> + <td class="tdl_wsp">cubic feet</td> + <td class="tdc">4</td> + <td class="tdc">0</td> + <td class="tdl_wsp">per foot.</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl">Ash</td> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + <td class="tdc"> 7</td> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + <td class="tdc">2</td> + <td class="tdc">3</td> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl">Elm</td> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + <td class="tdc_wsp">22</td> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + <td class="tdc">1</td> + <td class="tdc">9</td> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl">Beech</td> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + <td class="tdc">14</td> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + <td class="tdc">1</td> + <td class="tdc">6</td> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl">Sycamore</td> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + <td class="tdc">19</td> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + <td class="tdc">1</td> + <td class="tdc">3</td> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl">Fir</td> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + <td class="tdc">11</td> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + <td class="tdc">1</td> + <td class="tdc">3</td> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + </tr> + </tbody> +</table> + +<p>On another estate trees of about the same size brought: oak, +4<i>s.</i>; ash, 1<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i>; elm, etc., 1<i>s.</i>; beech, +1<i>s.</i>; and firs, 1<i>s.</i> per cubic foot. When the small size +of the individual trees is taken into account, and even admitting +that only the best portion of each trunk was measured, the prices, as +compared with those of to-day, are exceedingly high, particularly for +oak, ash and fir.</p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_240"></a>[Pg 240]</span></p> +<h2 class="nobreak">CHAPTER XXVI<br> +<span class="h_subtitle">BRITISH TIMBER AND<br> SOME OF ITS USES</span></h2> +</div> + +<p>The following are a few of the many uses to which home-grown timber is +applied:—</p> + +<p><b>Alder</b> is used extensively for clog soles, barrel staves, mill +bobbins, and occasionally in furniture making. It makes excellent +charcoal for cooking and heating, as well as that used in the +manufacture of gunpowder.</p> + +<p>The wood of the <b>Apple</b>, <b>Cherry</b> and <b>Pear tree</b>, when +of large size, is used for cabinet purposes, and stained in imitation +of other woods. For veneers, golf clubs, bowls, etc., these woods are +of value, as also for weaving shuttles.</p> + +<p><b>Ash</b> timber is largely used by agricultural implement makers on +account of its possessing great elasticity and bearing considerable +cross-strain. It is the best wood for shafts of all kinds, for tool +handles and wooden rakes, and is largely used by furniture makers.</p> + +<p><b>Beech</b> wood is the chief constituent of cane-bottomed chairs, +and is largely employed for the handles of joiners’, carpenters’ and +other wood-workers’ tools. For gunstocks, saddle-trees for heavy +harness, wheel-felloes and bobbins it is also largely employed. When +of large size and clean growth, it is used for calendar machines, and +for engineering purposes in spinning and bleaching districts. It makes +excellent charcoal.</p> + +<p><b>Birch</b> wood is largely used for turnery work, thread bobbins, +clog soles, shoe pegs, furniture, hatters’ blocks; it is also used in +the manufacture of brushes and in toy making.</p> + +<p><b>Chestnut</b> (Spanish) timber more nearly approaches that of oak +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_241"></a>[Pg 241]</span> +than any other species, and when stained is not only substituted for +it, but for the walnut as well. For piano sides it is largely used, as +also for rafters in open-roof churches, for furniture and cabinet work, +ship fittings, sign-boards, and post and rail fencing.</p> + +<p><b>Elm</b> wood is extensively used for the boarding and flooring of +carts and wagons, in coffin making, for the framework and foundations +of bridges, for naves for wheels, and for the keels of boats and ships. +It makes strong furniture, and is often substituted for ash in making +agricultural implements.</p> + +<p><b>Holly</b> is used by mathematical instrument makers, for fancy +turnery and inlaid work. It is often sold as ebony when “ebonized.”</p> + +<p><b>Hornbeam</b> timber for cogs in mill gearing is well known, also in +“bushing” for sawmill rollers, and for skittle pins.</p> + +<p><b>Horse Chestnut.</b>—The timber is largely used for packing boxes, +moulding patterns for castings, cutting boards, manufacture of brushes, +and occasionally for covering temporary buildings.</p> + +<p><b>Larch.</b>—The wood of this tree is largely used for fencing, boat +building, permanent staging, and pitwood.</p> + +<p><b>Lime.</b>—The wood is white and very fine of grain, and used for +carved work, sounding boards for musical instruments, wagon brakes, +packing boxes, toys, domestic utensils, and for shoemakers’ and +saddlers’ cutting boards. Charcoal for gunpowder is made from this wood.</p> + +<p><b>Maple</b> is employed in the turning of bowls, for toys, and +“bird’s-eye” maple for furniture.</p> + +<p><b>Oak</b> has long been associated with our national defence as the +chief element in shipbuilding, but although iron and steel have to +a great extent taken its place, yet for barges and small boats the +timber is still largely used. Wagons for railway mineral traffic are +largely made of oak, while the builder finds in it his best material +for the strong frames of domes, spires and roofs of public buildings. +It is also used for the bottoms of carts and wagons, cartwheel spokes, +fencing, furniture making, railway “spraggs,” charcoal, etc.</p> + +<p><b>Poplar</b> wood is woolly and tenacious, and for this reason is used +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_242"></a>[Pg 242]</span> +for the bottoms of stone carts and barrows. It is well adapted for +making packing cases, railway brakes, weather boarding, and for +purposes where lightness is of greater importance than durability. The +Abele, or white Poplar, produces perhaps the most valuable timber of +any of the numerous species.</p> + +<p><b>Scotch Spruce</b> and <b>Silver Fir</b> may all be classed under +the same heading, being of about equal value and applicable to +similar purposes, viz., for sleepers and pitwood, boarding under +slates, headings for barrels, soap boxes, temporary fencing, also for +conversion into planking for lead works, and for all erections of a +temporary kind.</p> + +<p><b>Sycamore</b> timber is peculiarly white and smooth and free from +grain, which makes it very valuable. It is used for curtain rings, +churns, butter prints, for the backs of violins, for founders’ patterns +and cutting boards, and in the making of wooden vessels and furniture. +For calendar machines and in cotton and jute factories it is much employed.</p> + +<p><b>Walnut</b> timber is much in demand for gun and rifle stocks, for +the best class of furniture, and for veneering purposes.</p> + +<p><b>Willow</b> is famous for the production of the best class of cricket +bats and for artificial limbs and crutches. It also makes good charcoal.</p> + +<p><b>Yew</b> wood is valuable when employed for veneering.</p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_243"></a>[Pg 243]</span></p> +<h2 class="nobreak">CHAPTER XXVII<br> +<span class="h_subtitle">WILLOWS FOR BASKET-MAKING</span></h2> +</div> + +<p>Previous to the war, preferential railway and boat rates, aided by keen +foreign competition, wellnigh rendered the time-honoured industry of +basket-making a thing of the past in this country. The best classes +of osiers, cleaned and ready for manipulation, were delivered to our +principal markets from Continental sources at so low a price that +competition on our part was almost out of the question. There are +still, however, a few stations, such as those in Bedfordshire, the fen +districts of Lincoln and Cambridge, and along certain reaches of the +Thames, where willow culture is engaged in, though not in the same +energetic way as was the case some half a century ago.</p> + +<p>About 7,000 acres, producing roughly 20,000 tons of osiers, are +cultivated in this country at the present time, many small plantations +having been grubbed out and the land laid down in other crops during +the past five and twenty years.</p> + +<p>This falling off is much to be regretted, as the sorting and harvesting +of osiers and basket-making gave light and remunerative employment +to a large number of residents, both young and old, of the districts +in which the willow-beds were situated. Land that was damp and could +not well be brought under other cultivation without the expense of +drainage, gave a good return under a crop of osiers. Taking everything +into consideration, and judging from talks that I have had recently +with those who are interested in the osier industry, the formation +of willow-beds, under the plea that considerable profits attend the +undertaking, is not to be recommended. No doubt in some favoured +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_244"></a>[Pg 244]</span> +districts where carriage is reduced to a minimum and local demand +is considerable, osier cultivation gives a fair return for capital +invested; but until we can get back the once lucrative trade in +baskets for fruit and other similar commodities from the hands of our +Continental rivals, profits of any magnitude are quite precluded.</p> + +<p>There is little doubt that on soil which is unsuited for farming +purposes willow culture can be made fairly profitable, but it is a +mistake to suppose that any marshy piece of stiff ground will grow +osiers, or that the planting and tending are matters of small import. +Quite the reverse is the case. The willow will not thrive for long +in water-logged soils, though periodical inundations, particularly +during winter and early spring, are highly beneficial. In addition, +the soil must be well worked, the cutting of rods carefully and +systematically carried out, and the clearing of the ground must receive +strict attention, else deterioration of the crop will quickly ensue. +Previously to planting the cuttings or sets, the ground should be +ploughed, harrowed and consolidated, all objectionable weeds being +destroyed.</p> + +<p>For some considerable time to come there is bound to be a dearth of +willows for basket-making, as our main supplies have come from Germany +and the Netherlands. Here, then, is a chance for the owners of suitable +land in this country to set to work at once and revive a time-honoured +industry by planting up suitable grounds with the most approved kinds +of willow for basket-making. That the undertaking, if wisely carried +out, would be a remunerative one is beyond question, and the excellent +results attained at such places as Leicester and Bedford clearly prove +that willow culture is a most profitable way of utilizing naturally +dampish land in any but the most exposed situations.</p> + +<p>For the past few years the demand in this country for high-grade +willows has been greatly in excess of the supply, in fact, hardly +one-fifth of our requirements are produced at home. Germany, previous +to the war, exported willows and rods to the value of about £42,000, +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_245"></a>[Pg 245]</span> +this being an increase in five years of fully one-half; while of +the manufactured articles in the way of baskets and basket ware her +total value exceeded £42,000. But as giving some idea of our wants in +this direction it may be stated that the total value of willow rods +annually sent to this country from the Continent is in round figures +about £100,000, and of baskets and basket ware fully £170,000. What a +contrast with the period in our history when an important export trade +in willows was done by this country!</p> + +<p>The willow working industry is a rapidly expanding one. Owing to the +increasing demand, the value of peeled willows is gradually on the +increase, and present prices range from £24 to £38 per ton for those +of best size and quality. These are in the main exported and used for +high-class work in the basket trade, rougher unpeeled willows that are +largely in use for cheap packing hampers and farm purposes bringing +in a much lower price. Fruit baskets in immense numbers are annually +imported from the Continent, one firm alone having sent over £150,000; +while at Leith basket works, which mainly caters for the agricultural +and fishing industries, thousands of herring baskets alone are sent out +every month, while the packing hamper department is of great interest +and a special feature of this enterprising firm.</p> + +<p>Previous to the war willow or osier culture was mainly in the hands of +the French for rods of good quality, the Belgians and Germans supplying +a cheaper kind probably owing to the quality of soil and inferior +varieties that are cultivated.</p> + +<p>There are not a few persons who consider that in order to cultivate +willows successfully, any neglected, damp piece of ground, which is +unsuited for other crops, may be utilized, and the cuttings simply +stuck in without ground preparation of any kind. This is, however, a +great mistake, as experience has long ago demonstrated that in order to +make osier cultivation at all profitable, a low level, and a naturally +rather moist situation must be chosen, and further, that the soil +should be deep, well drained and thoroughly prepared.</p> + +<p>Thoroughly drain the ground first, then steam-plough or trench the soil +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_246"></a>[Pg 246]</span> +to a depth of about 18 in., removing carefully all weeds, particularly +such troublesome kinds as the bindweed, couch grass and dock. It is +always preferable to take a crop of potatoes first from the land +intended to be laid down for osier culture, as it not only sweetens +and enriches the soil, but allows of the eradication of all obnoxious +weeds. Where, however, it is not practicable to crop the land first +with potatoes, the soil should be well and roughly broken up and left +so for a year, or for a winter, at least, before being planted with +the osiers. The best time to plant is from October to the middle of +March. The sets, or cuttings, should be about 15 in. long, and formed +of well-ripened rods, of one year’s growth, and the straightest and +cleanest portion of the rod only used. Three or four buds should, +if possible, be on the top end of each set. In planting, insert the +cuttings from 9 to 12 in. into the ground, leaving 3 in. above soil, +which forms the stool that bears the future crops.</p> + +<p>It is well to exercise great caution while inserting the cuttings, +as, if the work has been delayed till the sap is rising, the bark +readily strips away from the wood, and this is very objectionable, as +the plants in such a state usually die. The sets may be placed about +15 in. apart, and the rows, which, for convenience, should be lined +off straight, about 30 in. from each other. Of course, as regards +distances, these will depend to a great extent on the quality of the +soil and the particular kind of willow being planted, but the above are +good average distances.</p> + +<p>For basket-making, etc., the best kinds of osiers to use are <i>Salix +triandra</i> and <i>S. viminalis</i>, but there are others. A good +basket-willow, be it of whatever kind, should, when green, twist from +end to end without breaking. It is well to bear in mind that, in order +to obtain the greatest profits from willow culture, only the very +best kinds should be planted—indeed, next to preparing the ground, a +judicious selection should be one of the main considerations. For the +first year, at least, after being formed, osier beds must be carefully +attended to in the way of cleaning and weeding. Hoeing will be found +the most convenient method of getting rid of weeds, but, in the case of +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_247"></a>[Pg 247]</span> +bindweed, hand-picking around and amongst the sets will be found +necessary.</p> + +<p>Cutting the osiers must be done while the crop is dormant, or not later +than the middle of February, but not during frost, which will injure +and kill off parts of the stool. The cutting is done by means of a +rod-hook, which resembles a miniature sickle; this should always be +kept sharp, so that the cuts may be made clean. Tie the rods together +when dry, in bundles of three or four sizes, and either house or stack +them. It should be borne in mind that rods are easily spoiled by being +tied up or stacked whilst in a wet state, as they very soon become +heated, which makes them brittle and utterly valueless for the purpose +intended. What is known in England as “bolting” is simply taking a +number of osiers, as nearly of a size as possible, and laying them on +a twisted wand, at the same time keeping the butts all one way, and +level, then drawing them tightly together—not, however, to such an +extent as to injure the bark—with a rope and two levers, and finishing +off by tying the wand. The wand should be at 14 in. from the butts. A +bolt of rods should measure 40 in. round the band.</p> + +<p>In forming a willow bed, the following short rules should be observed:—</p> + +<p>1. Willows will not succeed well in peaty, sandy, or water-logged +soils; rich, well-drained loam, that can be flooded at will is the most +suitable.</p> + +<p>2. Trench or plough, and thoroughly clean or pulverize the ground +before planting.</p> + +<p>3. Plant only the best kinds, studying soil and market, and avoid a +mixed crop.</p> + +<p>4. From November to March insert the cuttings about nine inches deep, +avoiding such as are bark-chafed, and tramp firmly.</p> + +<p>5. Keep the beds clean and free from weeds.</p> + +<p>6. Cut the crop close to the ground; pollard willows soon decay and in +that state harbour injurious insects.</p> + +<p>The following estimate of the approximate cost per acre of osier culture, +and the returns therefrom for the first three years will be of interest:— +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_248"></a>[Pg 248]</span></p> + +<table class="spb1"> + <tbody><tr> + <td class="tdc fs_120" colspan="4"><b><span class="smcap">First Year.</span></b></td> + </tr><tr class="fs_120"> + <td class="tdl"> </td> + <td class="tdc_wsp"><b>£</b></td> + <td class="tdc_wsp"><b><i>s.</i></b></td> + <td class="tdc_wsp"><b><i>d.</i></b></td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl">Ploughing the ground and planting</td> + <td class="tdr_wsp">4</td> + <td class="tdr_wsp">10</td> + <td class="tdr_wsp">0</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl">Hoeing and other attention</td> + <td class="tdr_wsp">1</td> + <td class="tdr_wsp">5</td> + <td class="tdr_wsp">0</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl">15,700 willow cuttings (<i>Salix viminalis</i>)</td> + <td class="tdr_wsp">10</td> + <td class="tdr_wsp">0</td> + <td class="tdr_wsp">0</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl">Rent, rates, and 5 per cent. interest on capital</td> + <td class="tdr_wsp">2</td> + <td class="tdr_wsp">12</td> + <td class="tdr_wsp">0</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl">Harvesting</td> + <td class="tdr_wsp bb">0</td> + <td class="tdr_wsp bb">18</td> + <td class="tdr_wsp bb">0</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl"> </td> + <td class="tdr_wsp">£19</td> + <td class="tdr_wsp">5</td> + <td class="tdr_wsp">0</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl">Yield first year 3 tons, value</td> + <td class="tdr_wsp bb">9</td> + <td class="tdr_wsp bb">0</td> + <td class="tdr_wsp bb">0</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl_ws1">Loss</td> + <td class="tdr_wsp">£10</td> + <td class="tdr_wsp">5</td> + <td class="tdr_wsp">0</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdc fs_120" colspan="4"><b><span class="smcap"> <br>Second Year.</span></b></td> + </tr><tr class="fs_120"> + <td class="tdl"> </td> + <td class="tdc_wsp"><b>£</b></td> + <td class="tdc_wsp"><b><i>s.</i></b></td> + <td class="tdc_wsp"><b><i>d.</i></b></td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl">Rent, rates and incidentals</td> + <td class="tdr_wsp">2</td> + <td class="tdr_wsp">10</td> + <td class="tdr_wsp">0</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl">Hoeing and cleaning</td> + <td class="tdr_wsp">1</td> + <td class="tdr_wsp">8</td> + <td class="tdr_wsp">0</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl">Harvesting</td> + <td class="tdr_wsp bb">1</td> + <td class="tdr_wsp bb">10</td> + <td class="tdr_wsp bb">0</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl"> </td> + <td class="tdr_wsp">£5</td> + <td class="tdr_wsp">8</td> + <td class="tdr_wsp">0</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl">Yield about 5 tons.</td> + <td class="tdr_wsp bb">20</td> + <td class="tdr_wsp bb">0</td> + <td class="tdr_wsp bb">0</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl">Profit</td> + <td class="tdr_wsp">£15</td> + <td class="tdr_wsp">8</td> + <td class="tdr_wsp">0</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdc fs_120" colspan="4"><b><span class="smcap"> <br>Third and Subsequent Years.</span></b></td> + + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl" colspan="2">Expenditure £6.<span class="ws6">Yield £24.</span></td> + <td class="tdr_wsp" colspan="2">Profit £18.</td> + </tr> + </tbody> +</table> + +<p>If the ground is properly cultivated and losses made good, the +plantation should give a yield similar to the third year for fully a +quarter of a century.</p> + +<p>In the low-lying district between Taunton, Bridgwater and Langport, in +Somerset, willow or osier culture is largely engaged in.</p> + +<p>The system generally adopted is that the owner or tenant of the land +planted to willows keeps the land free from weeds to prevent the +withies being choked. This entails an outlay of about 25<i>s.</i> per +acre per annum if properly done. The crops are measured and marked +out in half-acre lots and sold in October or November. The purchasers +cut and remove them, and in some cases convert them into baskets, +basket-chairs, and such like. In other cases the purchasers select and +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_249"></a>[Pg 249]</span> +bundle the crop in the regulation sizes and sell them to dealers.</p> + +<p>The results of some recent sales are as follows: One field of 11½ acres +realized £132 and the first two half-acres, being remarkably good +withies, made £19 10<i>s.</i> Three other fields, containing 16 acres +in all, made £161 10<i>s.</i>; and three others, containing 22½ acres, +£222 2<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i> The agricultural annual rental value of this +land when pasture, before it was planted to willows, was under £2 per +acre.</p> + +<p>From the above it will be seen that if prudently entered upon and +economically carried out the cultivation of willows for basket-making +is a paying industry, and as for some years to come foreign supplies +will be barred to our markets, the enterprise should prove highly +remunerative.</p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_250"></a>[Pg 250]</span></p> +<h2 class="nobreak">CHAPTER XXVIII<br> +<span class="h_subtitle">UTILIZING WASTE FOREST PRODUCE</span></h2> +</div> + +<p>That the production of timber, in common with other trades, has of +late years been rendered far less remunerative than formerly, owing +principally to keen foreign competition, is a fact that is now well +known, even to the most casual observer. In face of this it behoves +us to ask ourselves the question: Do we utilize to the fullest extent +the by-products of the forest and woodland, and so diminish waste, +and, at the same time, add to the general revenue of the forest +department? By waste produce, or by-products, is meant anything other +than wood in the condition in which it is generally used, and includes +bark, charcoal, firewood, house and kiln faggots, tar, wood-spirit, +turpentine, sawdust, wood-ashes, leaf soil, etc. That much may be done, +both in economy of production and in utilization of waste produce, is +well known to those in charge of woods and forests in every part of the +country. Where the by-products cannot well be utilized in any of the +above-named ways, it would be better, perhaps, to reduce them to ashes; +for, by so doing, insect and fungus life are lessened, and a valuable +manure is obtained, particularly rich in potash, whether for grassland +or certain farm or garden crops.</p> + +<p>The forest by-products of Great Britain and Ireland are, in the main, +applied in the four following ways:—</p> + +<ul class="index"> +<li class="isub3">(1) Firewood.</li> +<li class="isub3">(2) Charcoal, for heating purposes, etc.</li> +<li class="isub3">(3) Bark for tanning.</li> +<li class="isub3">(4) Faggots, for house and kiln purposes.</li> +</ul> + +<p>Although the British forester has usually little or nothing to do with +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_251"></a>[Pg 251]</span> +what we might term the volatile products of the forest—tar, pitch, +turpentine, rosin, wood-spirit, acetic acid, etc.—nor, indeed, with +paper-pulp, it may not be out of place to point out briefly the minor +uses to which waste timber and by-products generally may be applied.</p> + +<p>Tar, which at present is largely imported from the Baltic ports +and Southern United States, is obtainable principally from three +species of Pinus: <i>P. palustris</i>, <i>P. Pinaster</i>, and <i>P. +sylvestris</i>.</p> + +<p>Pitch is simply tar deprived of the volatile oils, which is brought +about by boiling.</p> + +<p>Turpentine comes from incisions made in the stems of some of the pines, +principally <i>Pinus palustris</i>, <i>P. sylvestris</i>, and <i>P. tæda</i>.</p> + +<p>The common silver fir (<i>Abies pectinata</i>) produces the famous +Strasburg turpentine, while the larch is the source of the Venice +turpentine of commerce.</p> + +<p>In New England the whole of the younger sapling pines—stem, branches, +bark and leaves—are made into pasteboard, while in other countries the +lime and poplar are converted into paper-pulp of great value. That the +great and ever-increasing demand for paper of all qualities will cause +a corresponding demand for the material used in its production cannot +be doubted, and attention has already been directed to this matter in +some parts of this country. From the sap of the larch and Scotch firs +“coniferin” is obtained, while “rubber,” a valuable product for mixing +with gutta-percha, which is very durable, is got from the bark of the +common birch by distillation. The value of gorse as a food for horses +and sheep is well known even in this country, while in Italy poplar +leaves have long been used as cattle-food, and ground fir-needles in +Styria for the same purpose.</p> + +<p>Dried leaves make excellent litter, and they are valuable as manure. +Sawdust, though without manurial value, absorbs liquid manure, and is +thus used as an excellent top-dressing. Leaf-mould is well known for +its many uses in the garden, as for top-dressing and mixing with other +poorer soils in the making of composts for planting. These are some +of the many uses to which the minor by-products of the forest can be +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_252"></a>[Pg 252]</span> +applied, but, as these hardly come within the scope of the forester, +special attention will be devoted to the major by-products—firewood, +charcoal, bark and faggots—with which the British forester is most +intimately associated.</p> + +<p><b>(1) Firewood.</b>—Never, perhaps, was the subject of English +firewood more worthy of consideration than at the present time, +when the price of other fuels is excessively high. Many persons +will maintain that in districts where coal is abundant, it is very +questionable whether there is any advantage to be obtained from burning +wood. We have satisfied ourselves that even if wood could be procured +at less than its present price—firewood price—it is nearly as +expensive as coal, as sold previous to the war, in most of our large +towns. No doubt, on many large estates where there is a superfluity +of unsaleable wood, it would be utter folly not to have it converted +into firewood, more particularly as such work gives employment to the +woodmen when the inclemency of the weather puts a stop to general +outdoor work. But this in itself is no proof that the firewood when +prepared and ready for the grate is not as expensive as coal; for, when +the rent of ground on which the wood was grown, and the cost of felling +and converting it into firewood is taken into account, it will be found +nearly as costly as household coal of ordinary quality.</p> + +<p>What will it cost to prepare a ton of firewood? This is a question +that is not readily answered, the cost of labour in various parts of +the country varying so widely. In England, generally speaking, the +cutting up and stacking of a cord of fairly clean firewood—that is to +say when large knotty pieces, which require the mallet and wedge for +their manipulation, are excluded—costs from 5<i>s.</i> to 6<i>s.</i> +Again, how many cords of wood will make a ton of firewood? This is +another question that is more readily asked than answered, for the +difference in weight between equal-sized logs of, say, oak and birch is +considerable. For all practical purposes, however, we may state that +about one and a half cords of wood go to the ton of firewood, thus +making the cost of preparing and housing the latter about 10<i>s.</i> +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_253"></a>[Pg 253]</span> +The lowest price at which we have sold a ton weight fresh cut was +8<i>s.</i>, but 10<i>s.</i> is nearer the usual price, or about +one-half of what is generally obtained for firewood. The cartage of +this ton of wood cannot be less than 3<i>s.</i> Much depends upon the +distance it must be carted, no doubt, but it is usually delivered +within a radius of two miles for the price quoted.</p> + +<p>The whole matter, therefore, stands something like this: Lowest cost +of a ton of wood, 8<i>s.</i>, cutting same into firewood and stacking, +8<i>s.</i>; cost of delivery, 3<i>s.</i>—total 19<i>s.</i></p> + +<p>It will thus be seen that the difference in price between a ton of +firewood and one of coal is inconsiderable, and every one knows which of +the two as fuel lasts the longer and imparts the greater amount of heat.</p> + +<p>Of course, where the firewood is cut up during wet weather by the +estate workmen and consumed on the estate, the matter will stand +somewhat differently, the two principal items, the cost of preparing +and cutting being considerably diminished. In districts where the +firewood cannot readily be sold, and would only rot in the woods, it +is a wise policy to have it cut into firewood, not only for the saving +effected in the coal bill, but also for preservation of the health of +the plantations.</p> + +<p>In mining districts, or on the outskirts of large towns, there is +usually little difficulty in getting rid of all surplus wood for firing +and other purposes, but in thinly-populated, outlying parts of the +country, where the cost of transit is excessive, the actual difference +between the price of a ton of coal and one of firewood has to be +considered.</p> + +<p><b>(2) Charcoal.</b>—The following are the chief uses to which +charcoal is put in this country: the manufacture of gun and blasting +powders, the heating of hall-stoves, cooking, boiling preserves, +and the smelting of iron. It is also employed as a filtering and +deodorizing agent. Further, it occupies an important place in the +making of black paint, ink, ivory- and lamp-black, and is valuable +as a horticultural requisite in the packing of bulbs and for potting +purposes. In the manufacture of gunpowder, for which a highly +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_254"></a>[Pg 254]</span> +inflammable quality is required, the three principal woods used are +the so-called dogwood (<i>Rhamnus frangula</i>), the white willow +(<i>Salix alba</i>), and the common alder (<i>Alnus glutinosa</i>), +though not infrequently the hazel, chestnut and our native <i>Rhamnus +catharticus</i> are substituted.</p> + +<p>Charcoal produced from the dogwood is, however, preferred to any other, +as this forms a very explosive powder, used for military small-arms and +for sporting purposes. For this purpose the dogwood is cut when an inch +in diameter, and, if possible, when not more than of ten years’ growth.</p> + +<p>Although iron cylinders or retorts are more economical in the making of +charcoal, yet for various reasons the primitive method of pit-burning +is to be recommended for general estate purposes. The manufacture of +charcoal in this way having received due attention elsewhere in this +book, it need not be repeated here. It should be remembered that small +wood is more profitable for charcoal making than that of a larger +size, not only because the former requires little or no cutting and +splitting, but for the main reason that it can be procured at less +cost, and produces more charcoal, weight for weight. Even at the +present low price of charcoal—about 1<i>s.</i> per bushel—there is +a fair profit attached to the making of it, as will be seen from the +following figures, which may be taken as fairly representative. A cord +of ordinary mixed wood, which should measure, after being stacked, +12 ft. long, 3 ft. wide, and 3 ft. high, will usually, when properly +burned, yield 35 bushels of charcoal, and this, at the low price of +10<i>d.</i> will realize 29<i>s.</i> 2<i>d.</i> The cost of cutting +this cord of wood, which is generally performed by contract, will be at +the least 5<i>s.</i>, and that of burning 7<i>s.</i>; thus leaving a +clear profit of 17<i>s.</i> 2<i>d.</i> per cord for the wood.</p> + +<p>Even roots are made into charcoal, and we have seen whole woods grubbed +up free of expense, the roots being given in return for the labour; but +such work is usually performed during the winter, when labour is at a +discount. Pinewood is not nearly so valuable for charcoal making as +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_255"></a>[Pg 255]</span> +hardwood, but the former is not infrequently made to realize a profit +of from 8<i>s.</i> to 10<i>s.</i> per cord of wood.</p> + +<p><b>(3) Bark.</b>—In the past, the annual home supply of bark was +estimated at about 300,000 tons, but, in addition to this some 30,000 +tons were imported from the Continent; but of late years, owing to the +employment of chemical substitutes, the amount used is much smaller. +For tanning purposes, oak, and occasionally larch, bark is principally +in use in this country, though both willow and alder are largely +used for the same purpose in various countries, more especially in +Russia. Although not at present a valuable product, a small margin of +profit, even at the present low price, will accrue through careful +and judicious management of the bark crop. Of this we are fully +convinced. It is, perhaps, not so well known as it should be that of +our two varieties of oak, <i>Quercus Robur pedunculata</i> and <i>Q. +R. sessiliflora</i>—the former contains 15 and the latter only 13 +per cent. of tannin. The branches, too, down to an inch in diameter, +contain a relatively higher proportion of tannin than the bark of the stem.</p> + +<p>The stripping and harvesting of oak bark having received notice in a +separate paper, nothing further need be said of these here.</p> + +<p><b>(4) Faggots.</b>—These are made of the smaller branches or spray, +the remains of charcoal wood, etc., and tied into bundles similar in +size to a sheaf of wheat. They are either left lying on the ground +or standing upright in threes or fours together for a few days after +being made, previous to being stacked, as they always are for about +six months before being used. In thinning a woodland the faggots are +usually bound up by contract at 4<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i> per hundred, +except when the wood is exceptionally rough and crooked, when another +shilling is added. When stacked and dry they realize about 16<i>s.</i> +per hundred in the wood, thus giving a clear profit of 11<i>s.</i> +6<i>d.</i>, if we deduct 4<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i>, for binding, per hundred.</p> + +<p>In England the demand for these faggots is considerable, they being +used either for kiln purposes, or, when chopped up into smaller +bundles, for fire-lighting. These latter are about 9 in. long, and half +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_256"></a>[Pg 256]</span> +that in diameter, and are bound tightly round the centre with tarred +rope. Previous to the war they were sold at 3<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i> per hundred.</p> + +<p>This is a good and profitable way of getting rid of all superfluous +spray and branches. Brush or kiln faggots, which are largely used for +brick-burning, consist of all refuse woodland scrub, and when tied up +and dry can be sold at from 5<i>s.</i> to 6<i>s.</i> per hundred for +the brick-kilns. They are made by contract at 2<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i> per +hundred. By the utilizing of this otherwise waste-product, every twig +and branch is carefully gathered together, and the woodlands are thus +kept in a neat and healthy condition.</p> + +<p><b>Minor Products.</b>—In addition to firewood, charcoal, faggots, +etc., which may be considered as the main by-products of the forest and +woodland, there are other minor products, such as are to be met with +largely where coppice wood is grown to any extent, which will repay +the cost of singling out from amongst the above. These may include +flower-stakes, tool-handles, walking-sticks, barrel-hoops, chisel-rods, +etc., all of which sell readily in various parts of the country and +from which considerable profits are realized.</p> + +<p>In cutting the coppice wood, the longest and straightest poles are +selected for hop-stakes, the next size for bean stakes, pea-boughs, +etc., and so on until every part of the wood is utilized.</p> + +<p>Leaf soil, too, sells readily at 5<i>s.</i> per cart load—indeed, near +large towns the demand for this and peat often exceeds the supply. In +all cases, however, it may not be a wise policy to remove this valuable +soil from the woodlands, even at the high price offered.</p> + +<p>Half-decayed leaves, too, are much sought after where market gardening +is largely carried on, being used to form forcing-beds, and to preserve +plants and roots from severe frost.</p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_257"></a>[Pg 257]</span></p> +<h2 class="nobreak">CHAPTER XXIX<br> +<span class="h_subtitle">FENCING PLANTATIONS</span></h2> +</div> + +<p>Many different methods of fencing are adopted throughout the country, +each one, no doubt, possessing peculiar advantages according to the +circumstances in which it may happen to be required.</p> + +<p>In hilly districts very efficient fences of stones may be made where +these are abundant. Turf dykes may be constructed on high-lying grounds +where stones cannot be readily procured, and iron or wood used wherever +fancy dictates.</p> + +<p>The term “dead fence” may be applied to these in contradistinction to +“live fence” or hedge, to which a special chapter is devoted.</p> + +<p>To describe even a few of the various wood or iron fences erected +nowadays would be by no means an easy task, but typical examples of +several kinds will be explained.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> + <img id="I_257" src="images/i_257.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="154" > +</div> + +<p><b>Stone Walls.</b>—These make capital plantation fences, but they are +at first rather expensive, and unless well built require a good deal +of attention in the way of repairing breaches. They possess a great +advantage over most other fences in the amount of shelter afforded to +the young trees. Two methods of building are usually adopted: firstly, +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_258"></a>[Pg 258]</span> +where stones are abundant, the entire wall may be of these; and, +secondly, where only a limited quantity are available, the wall is +built to a certain height and wires placed atop.</p> + +<p>The dry stone wall as this is usually termed, is built without mortar, +with the exception of the cope-stone, which in all cases should be +bedded in and pointed with lime.</p> + +<p>From 4 ft. to 5 ft. is the usual height, the foundations being from 22 +in. to 24 in. wide, and the wall 14 in. across beneath the cope-stone, +the latter being about 10 in. high and placed on edge. Great care is +necessary in building to see that the “throughs” or binding-stones are +placed in position, as on this depends mainly the efficiency of the +fence. Where wires are used atop, the wall need only be 3 ft. high, +22 in. wide at base, and 12 in. under the cope-stone. The latter are +bedded in mortar, and an extra large stone is placed every 6 ft. for +receiving the iron standard, to which the wires are attached. Slate +slabs, where these are readily procured, may be used for the same +purpose as the iron standards, but they should be built firmly into the +wall, and reach from the base of the foundation. Two, and sometimes +three, wires are used atop of the wall.</p> + +<p><b>Slate Fences.</b>—These are commonly in use throughout Wales; +in fact, wherever slate quarries are worked. When well erected and +of fairly regular sized slates, this fence is certainly not to be +despised, and it may be considered as practically indestructible. The +expenses incurred for keeping these fences in repair are also very +little, as they seldom become damaged, and when an upright chances to +get broken, another whole one can easily be substituted, and without +interfering with any other portion of the fence. The size of slate +pale, or slab, as usually termed, is 5 ft. long, 4 in. to 6 in. wide, +and about 1 in. in thickness. In erecting the fence a trench is cut +about 12 in. wide and 8 in. deep, care being taken that the trench is +cut perpendicular, so as to ensure the pales standing in a similar +position. These are placed upright in the trench, about 3 in. apart, +with their flat side close to the perpendicular cut and the soil +replaced in the trench and made firm with a rammer. +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_259"></a>[Pg 259]</span></p> + +<p>A double wire is then tightly interlaced about 3 in. from the top of +the pales, and given a double twist between each, thereby ensuring +great stability by uniting the fence and keeping the pales at equal +distance apart. The straining-posts are also of slate, 6 ft. long, 6 +in. wide, and 3 in. thick.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> + <img id="I_259" src="images/i_259.jpg" alt="" width="400" height="555" > + <p class="f110">SLATE FENCES</p> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_260"></a>[Pg 260]</span> +<b>Turf Dykes.</b>—These were formerly much used in moorland and +outlying districts, where stones are not abundant, and where, from +the nature of the soil and situation, hedges would not succeed. They +are, at best, troublesome fences to keep in repair, and require some +adjunct either in the way of wires atop, or, failing this, they must be +planted with gorse or other suitable shrubs. One advantage is the great +amount of shelter they afford to the young plants, while they are, +comparatively speaking, cheap of erection. There are several methods of +building turf dykes, the best being to cut or pare the turf 3 in. in +thickness in one or more lengths to suit the width of the dyke, and of +a convenient breadth: these are laid cross-wise one above the other. +Both sides of the dyke should be built at once, giving the necessary +batter as the work proceeds, and the grassy surface of the turf placed +to the outside. The dyke is usually made 3 ft. in height, 3 ft. wide, +and drawn gradually in to 12 in. at top. A two-rail fence surmounts the +dyke, bringing the total height to 4½ ft. or 5 ft. Sometimes a ditch is +cut alongside the dyke 3 ft. wide, about 2½ ft. deep, and 9 in. wide at +bottom, so as to prevent the farm stock getting at and damaging it, the +soil removed being used in forming the fence. By sowing gorse and broom +seeds on top of the dyke an excellent shelter fence is obtained.</p> + +<p><b>Wood Fences.</b>—These are common on almost every estate throughout +the country, especially such as are well wooded, and, owing to the low +prices obtainable for home-grown timber, it is well that such should be +employed as widely as possible. Wooden fences are also much preferred +by many owners of property to those erected either of stone or iron on +account of their rustic appearance.</p> + +<p>Wooden fences are, therefore, sure to be largely employed when the +appearance of the property and not too-exacting financial results are +points of importance.</p> + +<p>There are many forms of wooden fences adopted, these varying chiefly +according to the particular use to which they are applied. The +following descriptions are of such kinds as are generally in use for +woods and plantations.</p> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_261"></a>[Pg 261]</span></p> +<p>Here it might be well to mention in passing that only matured and +seasoned timber should be used in fencing, the cost of erection, +whether the timber be good or inferior, being the same, and every one +knows which will last the longer.</p> + +<p>A good strong fence is erected as follows:—Posts, 5 ft. 9 in. long, 4 +in. broad, and 2½ in. thick; bars or rails, 9 ft. long, by 3½ in. by +1½ in. Four holes are mortised into the posts for the reception of the +bars, the ends of which are so formed as to overlap each other tightly. +The fence is usually 4 ft. high, and so as to strengthen the horizontal +bars a stake is driven into the ground midway between the larger posts, +and to this the rails are securely nailed. In some cases the posts are +not to be mortised, so that the bars require to be attached by nails.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> + <img id="I_261" src="images/i_261.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="364" > + <p class="f110">SAWN WOOD FENCE</p> +</div> + +<p>For park clumps, particularly where a substantial and neat fence to +keep back horses, cattle or deer is required, the following, though +rather expensive at first, is largely employed. The entire fence is +made of oak or Spanish chestnut, and is shown on following page. +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_262"></a>[Pg 262]</span></p> + +<div class="figcenter"> + <img id="I_262" src="images/i_262a.jpg" alt="" width="500" height="354" > + <img src="images/i_262b.jpg" alt="" width="500" height="254" > + <img src="images/i_262c.jpg" alt="" width="500" height="334" > + <p class="f110">OAK FENCES</p> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_263"></a>[Pg 263]</span> +Posts 7 ft. long, 6 in. by 4 in., and run out with the circular saw. +Rails triangular, about 3½ in. to the side. The uprights are rent from +oak or chestnut trees of straight grain, and are usually about ³/₁₆ of +an inch thick, and 5 ft. high. The posts are erected 6 ft. apart, the +rails being mortised into these, and the rent uprights fastened about +2 in. apart by patent rose nails to the horizontal rails. A fence of +this kind, when properly erected, will last for upwards of forty years, +especially if the butts of the posts are charred before being inserted +in the ground.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> + <img id="I_263" src="images/i_263.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="392" > + <p class="f110">WIRE FENCE WITH WOODEN POSTS</p> +</div> + +<p>Rustic fences for small tree clumps may be of almost any design, but +the following is cheap and easily erected. It is formed of larch posts +6 ft. long, and about 4½ in. diameter, driven into the ground at 6 +ft. apart. Two flat or rounded rails about 3 in. by 1¼ in. are nailed +horizontally to these, the lower at 9 in. from the ground and the other +flush with the tops of the posts, which when driven in are 4 ft. from +ground level. The uprights are also of larch, split up the centre and +nailed on the horizontal bars at 2 in. apart. They extend above the top +rail for 7 in., and are sharply pointed so that they cannot be climbed over. +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_264"></a>[Pg 264]</span></p> + +<div class="figcenter"> + <img id="I_264" src="images/i_264.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="471" > + <p class="f110">TOOLS FOR FENCING</p> +</div> + +<p><b>Wire Fences.</b>—These may be erected either with iron or wooden +standards and straining-posts. The form most commonly in use for +enclosing woods is that with wooden posts and strainers, these being +made of mature and thoroughly seasoned larch or oak. The strainers are +7 ft. long and 6 in. square, or, if round, about 7 in. in diameter, +while the intermediate posts are 5½ ft. long, and 3½ in. by 3 in., or, +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_265"></a>[Pg 265]</span> +if round, 3½ in. diameter at smallest end. The strainers should be +fitted into the ground at 150 yards apart, and the posts driven firmly +at 6 ft. from each other. At every sharp curve along the line of fence +a stout post, say 5 in. in diameter, should be used. In order to make a +stout fence proof against cattle and sheep, six wires should be used, +the two top No. 6, and the others No. 7 gauge, the distances between +each pair, beginning at the top, being 8, 7, 6, 5½ and 5 in., the lower +being 5 in. from the ground. Brackets for straining the wires should +be attached to each of the strainers, these having this advantage over +the older system of using the straining machine, that the wires can +be loosened or tightened at will, when repairs are found necessary. +The tops of the posts should be rounded off or sawn on angle so as to +prevent the lodgment of water. Iron and wire fences combined are now +commonly in use, and there are so many excellent systems that it would +be invidious to recommend one kind more than another.</p> + +<p>Iron box fencing, which consists of standards with double pronged +feet for fixing in the ground and round or flat horizontal bars run +through them, has been largely used and looks neat, being also, if +properly erected, very efficient. Wrought-iron hurdles are sometimes +used for fencing park clumps, and they possess at least this advantage, +that they can be lifted at any time and re-erected should it be found +necessary to remove them from one place to another.</p> + +<p>Unclimbable iron fencing, usually in hurdles 7 ft. long, are now much +in use for park fencing, but for general plantation purposes this class +of fencing is too expensive.</p> + +<p><b>Tree Guards.</b>—These may either be erected of wood or iron; the +former is, however, preferred on most large estates where timber is +plentiful, and will receive first attention. For large trees whose +branches sweep the greensward an elaborate structure is required, +which may take the form of almost any of those described under wooden +fencing. That entirely formed of oak is to be recommended, or split +larch for uprights, with oak posts and rails may be considered more +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_266"></a>[Pg 266]</span> +rustic in appearance. In any case the guard should be sufficiently +high and wide to prevent cattle and horses reaching over to damage the +branches.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> + <img id="I_266" src="images/i_266.jpg" alt="" width="400" height="740" > + <p class="f110">TREE GUARDS</p> +</div> + +<p>When the trees are destitute of branches for a considerable distance up +the stem, say 8 ft. or 10 ft., a very neat and efficient guard is made +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_267"></a>[Pg 267]</span> +as follows:—Procure a number of larch, oak or Spanish chestnut poles, +7 ft. high, and about 2½ in. diameter at small end. Thread these on +wires by boring holes in the poles at 2 ft. and 5 ft. from the butt +end, keeping each couple separate by 3 in-long pieces of the same size +of pole, also threaded on the wires. These can be formed on the level, +and when sufficient to embrace the tree have been got together, the +whole may be lifted up and placed in position closely around the trunk. +Another method is to bind the poles together with fencing wire, giving +a double twist between each to keep them at a suitable distance apart.</p> + +<p>When a more elaborate fence or guard is required, four posts 7 ft. +long, 4 in. square, and sawn from crooked oak branches are used. The +posts are quite straight for 5 ft. in length, the upper 2 ft. being +inclined outwards, which not only gives the guard a neat appearance, +but is a great preventive against the encroachments of farm stock. The +posts are inserted nearly 2 ft. in the ground, and so as to form a +square around the stem of 4½ ft. to the side, four bars, each 3 in. by +1 in., are nailed horizontally on the straight portions of the posts, +and at equal distances apart from where the angle occurs downwards; +upwards from that three hoop-iron rails are nailed in a similar manner, +the top one being one inch below the level of the crown of the posts. +Iron has a light and neat appearance when used for the top bars, but +wood is often substituted. Another cheap and neat tree guard for using +with the rarer trees, to which horses and cattle have not access, is +made as follows:—Pales 3 ft. long, 2 in. wide, by ⅜ in. thick, are +sawn out and pointed. They are driven into the ground round the tree to +be protected, the tops sloping outwards and 1½ in. apart. Stout tying +wire is then interlaced at two heights from the ground.</p> + +<p>Oak or chestnut bark placed loosely around clean-stemmed young trees +will prevent damage by ground game, and is cheap and looks unobtrusive.</p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_268"></a>[Pg 268]</span></p> +<h2 class="nobreak">CHAPTER XXX<br> +<span class="h_subtitle">TIMBER MEASURING</span></h2> +</div> + +<p>To those who are not practically acquainted with the measuring of +home-grown timber the following brief remarks in elucidation of the +subject will be useful. It may, however, be well to mention that timber +measuring is rather a vexed question, some following what is known as +Hoppus’s system, and others advocating that of Horton. The former being +that generally in use amongst timber merchants in this country, and +consequently of greatest value to the forester, the following details +of this system may prove serviceable.</p> + +<p>Regarding the timber-measurer’s equipment it may first be necessary to +say a few words. This consists of a 66 ft. Chesterman’s tape-line, or +instead of this a 5 ft. wooden rod, standard girt-strap, or fine cord, +scribing knife, and bent piece of iron, with eye at end for drawing the +girt-strap beneath such trees as the arm cannot readily pass under.</p> + +<p>For girthing timber a piece of thin whipcord or string is frequently +used, but as the elasticity of this varies greatly, and has in many +instances led to dispute, a much fairer plan and one that is liable +to no abuse is to use the 12 ft. girt-strap, upon which every inch in +length is reckoned ¼. As the proper quarter-girth can be seen at a +glance on this strap, its adoption will at once remove any chance of +trickery, which may be possible in the use of the string and rule. +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_269"></a>[Pg 269]</span></p> + +<p>For entering measurements the most convenient book is that 9 in. by +4 in., with stiff pasteboard covers, ruled with horizontal lines, +and divided into four vertical columns. To measure proceed as +follows:—Mark a number with the scribe on the butt end of the tree, +and enter a similar number in the first column of the book; this will +not only serve to identify the particular log, but prevent any risk of +measuring twice. Should the taper throughout the whole length of the +tree be tolerably gradual, set down the length in the second column +of the book, opposite the number already entered. At exactly one-half +of the length of the portion measured, take the girth by passing the +girt-strap tightly around the stem. Put this down in the third column +on the same horizontal line as the number and length. Should, however, +the trunk taper not be fairly uniform throughout the entire length, as +frequently happens, several measurements may require to be taken.</p> + +<p>For example, a tree may be 36 ft. in length, running with regular taper +for perhaps 12 ft., after which it branches out, reducing the size of +the remaining part very considerably for, say another 12 ft., where it +again branches and leaves the last 12 ft. of a relatively small size. +With such a tree it would be quite impossible to obtain anything like a +correct measurement by taking only one length and girth. The difficulty +is, however, readily got over by first measuring the lower 12 ft., then +the second, and then the third, marking the respective lengths and +girths in the vertical columns as already described.</p> + +<p>The measurement of these trees, so far as the field work is concerned, +is now completed, the contents of each tree being found by referring +to “Hoppus’s Measurer”—a book with which every forester should be +supplied. By squaring the quarter-girth in inches, multiplying by the +length in feet, and dividing by 144, the same result will be obtained. +This is, however, a tedious method, especially where large numbers of +trees have to be dealt with, and should only be adopted when Hoppus is +not at hand.</p> + +<p>By committing to memory the following short table of quarter-girths +much time in calculating and consulting authorities will be saved. +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_270"></a>[Pg 270]</span></p> + +<table class="spb1"> + <tbody><tr> + <td class="tdc" colspan="5">6-inch quarter-girth will give contents equal to ¼</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl"> </td> + <td class="tdc">the entire</td> + <td class="tdc">length</td> + <td class="tdc">in feet.</td> + <td class="tdr"> </td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl"> 7</td> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + <td class="tdr">⅓</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl"> 8½</td> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + <td class="tdr">½</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl">10</td> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + <td class="tdr">⅔</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl">12</td> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + <td class="tdr_wsp">1 </td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl">13</td> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + <td class="tdr">1¼</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl">14¾</td> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + <td class="tdr">1½</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl">16</td> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + <td class="tdr">1¾</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl">17</td> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + <td class="tdr_wsp">2 </td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl">19</td> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + <td class="tdr">2½</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl">21</td> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + <td class="tdr_wsp">3 </td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl">22½</td> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + <td class="tdr">3½</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl">24</td> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + <td class="tdr_wsp">4 </td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl">27</td> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + <td class="tdr_wsp">5 </td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl">29½</td> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + <td class="tdr_wsp">6 </td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl">31¾</td> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + <td class="tdr_wsp">7 </td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl">34</td> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + <td class="tdr_wsp">8 </td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl">36</td> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + <td class="tdr_wsp">9 </td> + </tr> + </tbody> +</table> + +<p>The sliding rule is also useful for determining contents.</p> + +<p>The proper allowance to be made for bark is half an inch for every +foot of quarter-girth for oak and elm under 12 in. quarter-girth, and +an inch for all beyond, but it is quite impossible to fix upon any +one uniform scale that will meet even the majority of circumstances. +Trees growing in exposed situations will frequently have bark almost +double the thickness of those of a similar size in the woodland. My +plan has been always to allow for the bark of each tree at the time of +measurement.</p> + +<p><b>Measuring Standing Timber.</b>—For this a pliable pole 18 ft. +long, marked in feet, and the girt-strap already referred to are the +necessary equipment. In estimating the number of feet of timber upon a +large area, it is not always necessary to measure each tree separately, +particularly when the whole situation is composed of one species, and +the individual trees are about the same age and size, as by multiplying +the total number of trees by the average content of those selected and +measured a very just calculation will be arrived at. Great care in +their selection, and considerable judgment in taking the average will, +however, be required. +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_271"></a>[Pg 271]</span></p> + +<div class="figcenter"> + <img id="I_271" src="images/i_271.jpg" alt="" width="400" height="679" > + <p class="f110">MEASURING HEIGHT OF TREES</p> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_272"></a>[Pg 272]</span> +When each tree is to be measured separately two assistants will +be required, one to carry the 18-ft. pole, and the other the +girting-strap. Sometimes, when the timber is of great height, jointed +bamboos are used, and a light ladder brought into requisition.</p> + +<p>In carrying out the work in this way, the man with the pole declares +the height of the tree, and the one with the tape the quarter-girth.</p> + +<p><b>Measuring the Height of Trees.</b>—There are several methods of +ascertaining the heights of trees, but the two following are, perhaps, +the most simple, and the appliances necessary quite inexpensive:—</p> + +<p>No 1.—Take three laths, such as bricklayers use for tiling, and nail +them in the shape of the frame shown; <i>a a</i> must be of equal +length; <i>a</i> and <i>b</i> being placed on the ground, the eye +must follow up the larger lath <i>d d</i> until it is in a line with +<i>e</i>, the top of the tree or object you wish to measure.</p> + +<p>The frame must be placed as level with the bottom of the tree as +possible. Should the ground be very uneven you must give and take +accordingly.</p> + +<p>It will be seen that <i>b</i> to <i>c</i> is the same length as +<i>c</i> to <i>e</i>, and this gives the height of the tree.</p> + +<p>No 2.—Suspend the triangle between the thumb and forefinger of the +left hand, knuckles down, upon the point <i>a a</i>, allowing it to +swing freely. The edge <i>b c</i> will then fall perpendicularly, and +<i>c d</i> will be horizontal. The remaining edge <i>d b</i> will then +lie at an angle of 45 to the horizon. On this edge are two sights, +<i>e</i> and <i>f</i>. Look through <i>e</i> until <i>f</i> is aligned +with the tree-top, advancing or retiring till the sights point exactly +to it.</p> + +<p>Then, if the observer’s feet are level with the tree root, the height +of the tree is the distance from his feet to the root, plus the height +of the eye from the ground.</p> + +<p>The dendrometer is perhaps the most useful instrument for taking the +height of a tree and can be procured from some of our nurserymen.</p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_273"></a>[Pg 273]</span></p> +<h2 class="nobreak">CHAPTER XXXI<br> +<span class="h_subtitle">BLASTING AND BURNING TREE ROOTS</span></h2> +</div> + +<div class="figcenter"> + <img id="I_273" src="images/i_273.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="210" > + <p class="f110">BLASTING AND BURNING TREE ROOTS</p> +</div> + +<p>Blasting by gunpowder or dynamite is not only the most expeditious +but also the cheapest method of clearing away tree stumps and large +logs. In preparing to blast a stump, great care must be exercised to +bore the hole in the right place and not to use too much explosive. +For blasting powder the hole should be 1½ in. in diameter, and should +penetrate to the centre of the stump. It must not be too low down, lest +the bottom should blow out and the force be expended in shattering the +ground instead of the stump or log. In selecting the spot to bore for +the powder, choose the hardest part of the root and ensure an equal +thickness of wood all round, and even splitting of the log will be the +result. The following is a good way of putting in the powder:—For +large stumps of from 2 ft. to 4 ft. in diameter about 3½ in. depth of +coarse blasting powder should be inserted in a hole 1½ in. in diameter. +The end of the fuse should be put into the centre of the powder, and +left protruding for 15 in. outside the hole, which is filled with dry +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_274"></a>[Pg 274]</span> +sand, consolidated, or packed around the fuse by means of a coarse iron +wire. The outside end of the fuse should be teased out and lighted with +a match, and as it will require over a minute for the fire to reach the +powder, time is given for the operator to find a place of safety.</p> + +<p><b>Burning Tree Stumps.</b>—With a 2-in. auger bore a vertical hole +in the centre of the stump from the top towards the bottom. In the +side of the stump, near ground level, bore a horizontal hole towards +the centre, so as to open into the vertical hole, drop some fire down +the vertical hole, and if the wood is at all dry the draught of air +entering by the horizontal hole will, like the draught of a chimney, +maintain the combustion of the fire in the centre, until this slowly +spreads and ultimately burns away the stump.</p> + +<p>Another and equally simple method of destroying stumps of trees is as +follows:—In autumn bore a hole 2 in. in diameter and 18 in. deep, put +in 1½ oz. of saltpetre, fill with water, and plug up close. In the +following spring put in the same hole half a gill of kerosene oil and +then light. The stump will smoulder away without blazing, down to every +part of the roots.</p> + +<p><b>American Method of Blasting.</b>—At Studley Horticultural College, +Warwickshire, the American method of blasting was successfully carried +out and reported upon by Mr. A. P. Long as follows:—</p> + +<p>A hole is bored with a long auger or crowbar in a sloping direction +from one side of the stump to its base, generally from 2½ ft. to 3½ ft. +deep. The bore-hole is cleaned out, and a number of dynamite cartridges +inserted, each being firmly pressed home by a wooden rod. A primer +cartridge containing a detonator is then placed on the top of these, +and the bore-hole is filled with clay and tightly rammed. The primer +is either connected directly with a safety fuse, or to a high-tension +battery, by a cable, and is afterwards fired. As dynamite strikes +downwards as well as upwards, the effect of the explosion is that the +roots and stump are all either ejected or loosened, so that they can be +easily removed by hand.</p> + +<p>The American method is less costly and more speedy than the methods +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_275"></a>[Pg 275]</span> +hitherto used in England in removing stumps. If there is no man on the +estate qualified to handle explosives, an expert must be employed at +about £1 per day, besides travelling and hotel expenses. Three men—an +expert and two labourers—can bore holes and blast thirty sound stumps +per day easily. If the stumps are hollow in the centre, two or three +bore holes are necessary for each stump, and in that case twenty +only can be blasted during the day. Taking the pre-war wages of two +labourers at 2<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i> each per day, the cost of boring and +firing averages 2½<i>d.</i> per stump, exclusive of the expert’s fee. +The expert’s fee increases the cost by about 2<i>s.</i> per stump.</p> + +<p>The explosive used is Nobel’s dynamite, in the form of cartridges, +costing 9½<i>d.</i> per lb. The average quantity used for each stump is +between 2 lbs. and 3 lbs. (about twenty to thirty cartridges), so that +the cost of the explosive is not more than 2<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i> per +stump. The detonators and fuses required only cost a few pence. Summing +up, the cost per stump is:—</p> + +<table class="spb1"> + <tbody><tr class="fs_120"> + <td class="tdl"> </td> + <td class="tdc_wsp"><b><i>s.</i></b></td> + <td class="tdc_wsp"><b><i>d.</i></b></td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl">Expert’s fee</td> + <td class="tdc">2</td> + <td class="tdc">0  </td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl">Cost of boring</td> + <td class="tdc">0</td> + <td class="tdc">2½</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl">Cost of explosive</td> + <td class="tdc">2</td> + <td class="tdc">6  </td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl">Detonators and fuse  </td> + <td class="tdc bb">0</td> + <td class="tdc bb">9½</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl"> </td> + <td class="tdc">5</td> + <td class="tdc">6  </td> + </tr> + </tbody> +</table> + +<p>Misfires and partial removal of stump may require fresh borings and +further charges of explosive, thus increasing the cost. By employing a +skilled estate hand capable of using explosives instead of an expert, +the expense, however, is greatly diminished.</p> + +<p>By the old method of grubbing and jacking, stumps were removed at +Studley some time ago at the high cost of about £2 5<i>s.</i> each +butt, and even then success was only partial. In another case, on an +estate in Norfolk, where an old pasture was converted into a plantation +of mixed trees, trenching at the cost of £18 per acre had to be +resorted to on account of the presence of roots and stumps of old +trees. In this case it would have been much cheaper to have removed the +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_276"></a>[Pg 276]</span> +stumps by blasting. The demonstrations at Studley showed that both +sound and unsound stumps could be successfully blasted, and whole +trees—an Apple and an Oak—were also uprooted by the same method with +equal success, using only one bore-hole and about the same charge of +explosive. The timber of the trees so treated, however, is very much +split, so that blasting is only advisable when the timber is considered +of little value.</p> + +<p>The particular explosives used are unaffected by damp, and, in +consequence, the method is applicable in both wet and dry situations. +Firing the charges was done at the demonstrations mostly by ladies, and +a photographer was able to get sufficiently near to obtain photographs +of the effect of the explosion without danger. The principal +recommendations of this method, therefore, are cheapness, effectiveness +and safety.</p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_277"></a>[Pg 277]</span></p> +<h2 class="nobreak">CHAPTER XXXII<br> +<span class="h_subtitle">PRICES OF CONTRACT OR PIECEWORK</span></h2> +</div> + +<p>The following prices may be taken as approximating to those paid +generally throughout the country previous to the war.</p> + +<p>It may be well to remember, however, that in districts where unusually +high or low wages are paid, so in proportion will be the contract +prices for the various classes of work.</p> + +<table class="spb1"> + <tbody><tr> + <td class="tdl" colspan="3">BARKING OAK:</td> + <td class="tdc_wsp fs_120"><b><i>s.</i></b></td> + <td class="tdc_wsp fs_120"><b><i>d.</i></b></td> + <td class="tdc_wsp"> </td> + <td class="tdc_wsp fs_120"><b><i>s.</i></b></td> + <td class="tdc_wsp fs_120"><b><i>d.</i></b></td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl_ws1">Barking</td> + <td class="tdl">oak</td> + <td class="tdc_wsp">per ton</td> + <td class="tdc">21</td> + <td class="tdc">0</td> + <td class="tdc"> </td> + <td class="tdc"> </td> + <td class="tdc"> </td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl_ws1">Loading</td> + <td class="tdl">bark on wagons</td> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + <td class="tdl_wsp">3</td> + <td class="tdc">0</td> + <td class="tdc"> </td> + <td class="tdc"> </td> + <td class="tdc"> </td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl_ws1">Barking</td> + <td class="tdl">oak per ton of bark</td> + <td class="tdc"> </td> + <td class="tdl_wsp">30</td> + <td class="tdc">0</td> + <td class="tdc"> </td> + <td class="tdc"> </td> + <td class="tdc"> </td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl_ws1">Chopping</td> + <td class="tdl_wsp">bark</td> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + <td class="tdl_wsp"> 8</td> + <td class="tdc">0</td> + <td class="tdc">to</td> + <td class="tdc">10</td> + <td class="tdc">0</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl" colspan="8"> <br>COPPICEWOOD:</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl_ws1"> Cutting</td> + <td class="tdl">out hurdle rods</td> + <td class="tdc" colspan="4">per score</td> + <td class="tdc">0</td> + <td class="tdc">1</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + <td class="tdl">hurdle stakes</td> + <td class="tdc" colspan="4">per dozen</td> + <td class="tdc">0</td> + <td class="tdc">1</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + <td class="tdl">rake stems</td> + <td class="tdc" colspan="4">”</td> + <td class="tdc">0</td> + <td class="tdc">1</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + <td class="tdl">spade stems</td> + <td class="tdc" colspan="4">”</td> + <td class="tdc">0</td> + <td class="tdc">1</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + <td class="tdl">spick gads</td> + <td class="tdc" colspan="4">”</td> + <td class="tdc">0</td> + <td class="tdc">1</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + <td class="tdl">dahlia stakes</td> + <td class="tdc" colspan="4">”</td> + <td class="tdc">0</td> + <td class="tdc">1</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + <td class="tdl">rose stakes</td> + <td class="tdc" colspan="4">per two dozen</td> + <td class="tdc">0</td> + <td class="tdc">1</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + <td class="tdl">besom handles</td> + <td class="tdc" colspan="4">”</td> + <td class="tdc">0</td> + <td class="tdc">1</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + <td class="tdl">kidney-bean stakes</td> + <td class="tdc" colspan="4">50 in bundle</td> + <td class="tdc">0</td> + <td class="tdc">2</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + <td class="tdl">pea stakes</td> + <td class="tdc" colspan="4">per bundle</td> + <td class="tdc">0</td> + <td class="tdc">1</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + <td class="tdl">birchwood for besoms</td> + <td class="tdc" colspan="4">”</td> + <td class="tdc">0</td> + <td class="tdc">1</td> + </tr> + </tbody> +</table> + +<table class="spb1"> + <tbody><tr> + <td class="tdl" colspan="4">DRAINING:</td> + <td class="tdc_wsp fs_120"><b><i>s.</i></b></td> + <td class="tdc_wsp fs_120"><b><i>d.</i></b></td> + <td class="tdc_wsp"> </td> + <td class="tdc_wsp fs_120"><b><i>s.</i></b></td> + <td class="tdc_wsp fs_120"><b><i>d.</i></b></td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl_ws1">Pipe</td> + <td class="tdl_wsp">draining,</td> + <td class="tdl_wsp">mains, 4 ft. 3 in. deep,</td> + <td class="tdc" colspan="6"> </td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl_ws1"> </td> + <td class="tdl_wsp"> </td> + <td class="tdl_wsp">4 in. or 6 in. pipes</td> + <td class="tdc">per chain</td> + <td class="tdc">3</td> + <td class="tdc">0</td> + <td class="tdc">to</td> + <td class="tdc">3</td> + <td class="tdc">6</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + <td class="tdl_wsp">small, 4 ft. deep, 1½ in.</td> + <td class="tdc" colspan="6"> </td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdc"> </td> + <td class="tdc"> </td> + <td class="tdl_ws2">to 3 in. pipes</td> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + <td class="tdc">2</td> + <td class="tdc">0</td> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + <td class="tdc">2</td> + <td class="tdc">9</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + <td class="tdc_wsp">small, 4 ft. deep, 1½ in. pipes</td> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + <td class="tdc">1</td> + <td class="tdc">9</td> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + <td class="tdc">2</td> + <td class="tdc">6 + <span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_278"></a>[Pg 278]</span></td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl_ws1">Ditches,</td> + <td class="tdl_wsp">open,</td> + <td class="tdc_wsp">36 in. wide at top, 30 in. deep,</td> + <td class="tdc" colspan="6"> </td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl_ws1"> </td> + <td class="tdl_wsp"> </td> + <td class="tdc_wsp">and 9 in. wide at bottom</td> + <td class="tdc">per chain </td> + <td class="tdc">3</td> + <td class="tdc">0</td> + <td class="tdc">to</td> + <td class="tdc">4</td> + <td class="tdc">0</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl_ws1" colspan="3">Scouring out ditto</td> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + <td class="tdc">0</td> + <td class="tdc">9</td> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + <td class="tdc">1</td> + <td class="tdc">0</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl_ws1">Small open</td> + <td class="tdl_wsp">ditches,</td> + <td class="tdl">15 in. to 18 in.wide at top, </td> + <td class="tdc" colspan="6"> </td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl_ws1"> </td> + <td class="tdl_wsp"> </td> + <td class="tdl_wsp">12 in. to 15 in. deep, and 9 in.</td> + <td class="tdc" colspan="6"> </td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl_ws1"> </td> + <td class="tdl_wsp"> </td> + <td class="tdl_wsp">wide at bottom</td> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + <td class="tdc">1</td> + <td class="tdc">6</td> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + <td class="tdc">2</td> + <td class="tdc">6</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl_ws1" colspan="3">Scouring out ditto</td> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + <td class="tdc">0</td> + <td class="tdc">6</td> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + <td class="tdc">0</td> + <td class="tdc">9</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl_ws1"></td> + <td class="tdl_wsp"></td> + <td class="tdc_wsp"></td> + <td class="tdc"></td> + <td class="tdc"></td> + <td class="tdc"></td> + <td class="tdc"></td> + <td class="tdc"></td> + <td class="tdc"></td> + </tr> + </tbody> +</table> + +<table class="spb1"> + <tbody><tr> + <td class="tdl" colspan="3">FAGGOT-MAKING:</td> + <td class="tdc_wsp fs_120"><b><i>s.</i></b></td> + <td class="tdc_wsp fs_120"><b><i>d.</i></b></td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl_ws1">Making</td> + <td class="tdl_wsp">faggots</td> + <td class="tdc_wsp">per 100</td> + <td class="tdc">4</td> + <td class="tdc">6</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + <td class="tdl_wsp">oven faggots</td> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + <td class="tdc">3</td> + <td class="tdc">0</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + <td class="tdl_wsp">faggots for fire-lighting</td> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + <td class="tdc">1</td> + <td class="tdc">3</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl_ws1">Cutting</td> + <td class="tdl_wsp">bands for tying faggots<span class="ws5"> </span></td> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + <td class="tdc">0</td> + <td class="tdc">4</td> + </tr> + </tbody> +</table> + +<table class="spb1"> + <tbody><tr> + <td class="tdl" colspan="4">FELLING AND STUBBING TIMBER:</td> + <td class="tdc_wsp fs_120"><b><i>s.</i></b></td> + <td class="tdc_wsp fs_120"><b><i>d.</i></b></td> + <td class="tdc_wsp"> </td> + <td class="tdc_wsp fs_120"><b><i>s.</i></b></td> + <td class="tdc_wsp fs_120"><b><i>d.</i></b></td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl_ws1">Felling</td> + <td class="tdl">oak timber</td> + <td class="tdc_wsp">per ton</td> + <td class="tdc">of 40 ft.</td> + <td class="tdc">3</td> + <td class="tdc">0</td> + <td class="tdc" colspan="3"> </td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + <td class="tdl">other hardwoods</td> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + <td class="tdc">2</td> + <td class="tdc">6</td> + <td class="tdc" colspan="3"> </td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + <td class="tdl">pinewood</td> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + <td class="tdc">1</td> + <td class="tdc">6</td> + <td class="tdc">to</td> + <td class="tdc">1</td> + <td class="tdc">9</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl_ws1">Stubbing</td> + <td class="tdl_wsp">out timber</td> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + <td class="tdc">3</td> + <td class="tdc">6</td> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + <td class="tdc">4</td> + <td class="tdc">0</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl_ws1">Cutting</td> + <td class="tdl">underwood from 12 to 15 years’ growth</td> + <td class="tdc_wsp" colspan="2">per acre</td> + <td class="tdc">9</td> + <td class="tdc">6</td> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + <td class="tdc">12</td> + <td class="tdc">0</td> + </tr> + </tbody> +</table> + +<table class="spb1"> + <tbody><tr> + <td class="tdl" colspan="6">FENCING:</td> + <td class="tdc_wsp fs_120"><b><i>s.</i></b></td> + <td class="tdc_wsp fs_120"><b><i>d.</i></b></td> + <td class="tdc_wsp"> </td> + <td class="tdc_wsp fs_120"><b><i>s.</i></b></td> + <td class="tdc_wsp fs_120"><b><i>d.</i></b></td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl_ws1">Setting</td> + <td class="tdl_wsp">out and</td> + <td class="tdl_wsp">mortising</td> + <td class="tdl_wsp">4-holed</td> + <td class="tdl_wsp">posts</td> + <td class="tdl_wsp"> per score</td> + <td class="tdc">4</td> + <td class="tdc">0</td> + <td class="tdc" colspan="3"> </td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + <td class="tdl_wsp">3-holed</td> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + <td class="tdc">3</td> + <td class="tdc">0</td> + <td class="tdc" colspan="3"> </td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + <td class="tdl_wsp">2-holed</td> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + <td class="tdc">2</td> + <td class="tdc">6</td> + <td class="tdc" colspan="3"> </td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + <td class="tdl_wsp">1-holed</td> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + <td class="tdc">2</td> + <td class="tdc">0</td> + <td class="tdc" colspan="3"> </td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + <td class="tdl" colspan="2">and cleaving rails</td> + <td class="tdc_wsp"> </td> + <td class="tdc"> </td> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + <td class="tdc">0</td> + <td class="tdc">10</td> + <td class="tdc" colspan="3"> </td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + <td class="tdl_wsp">stakes</td> + <td class="tdc"> </td> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + <td class="tdc">0</td> + <td class="tdc">6</td> + <td class="tdc" colspan="3"> </td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + <td class="tdl_wsp">long poles</td> + <td class="tdc"> </td> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + <td class="tdc">0</td> + <td class="tdc">6</td> + <td class="tdc" colspan="3"> </td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + <td class="tdl_wsp">short poles</td> + <td class="tdc"> </td> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + <td class="tdc">0</td> + <td class="tdc">4</td> + <td class="tdc" colspan="3"> </td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl_ws1" colspan="5">Hanging field-gates</td> + <td class="tdc">each</td> + <td class="tdc">4</td> + <td class="tdc">0</td> + <td class="tdc">to</td> + <td class="tdc">5</td> + <td class="tdc">0</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl_ws1" colspan="5">Fixing stile</td> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + <td class="tdc">2</td> + <td class="tdc">0</td> + <td class="tdc" colspan="3"> </td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl_ws1" colspan="5">Preparing posts, rails and pails for tree guards</td> + <td class="tdc">per set</td> + <td class="tdc">0</td> + <td class="tdc">9</td> + <td class="tdc" colspan="3"> </td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl_ws1" colspan="5">Fixing ditto</td> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + <td class="tdc">2</td> + <td class="tdc">0</td> + <td class="tdc" colspan="3"> </td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl_ws1" colspan="5">Six-wire fence larch posts and creosoted</td> + <td class="tdc">per chain</td> + <td class="tdc">35</td> + <td class="tdc">0</td> + <td class="tdc">to</td> + <td class="tdc">40</td> + <td class="tdc">0</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl_ws1" colspan="5">Fixing same</td> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + <td class="tdc">4</td> + <td class="tdc">6</td> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + <td class="tdc">5</td> + <td class="tdc">0 + <span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_279"></a>[Pg 279]</span></td> + </tr> + </tbody> +</table> + +<table class="spb1"> + <tbody><tr> + <td class="tdl" colspan="4">FIREWOOD:</td> + <td class="tdc" rowspan="6">   </td> + <td class="tdc_wsp fs_120"><b><i>s.</i></b></td> + <td class="tdc_wsp fs_120"><b><i>d.</i></b></td> + <td class="tdc_wsp"> </td> + <td class="tdc_wsp fs_120"><b><i>s.</i></b></td> + <td class="tdc_wsp fs_120"><b><i>d.</i></b></td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl_ws1">Splitting</td> + <td class="tdl_wsp">firewood</td> + <td class="tdl_wsp"> </td> + <td class="tdc_wsp">per cord</td> + <td class="tdc">4</td> + <td class="tdc">0</td> + <td class="tdc">to</td> + <td class="tdc">6</td> + <td class="tdc">0</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + <td class="tdl_wsp">for charcoal</td> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + <td class="tdc">2</td> + <td class="tdc">6</td> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + <td class="tdc">3</td> + <td class="tdc">0</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl_ws1" colspan="2">Cutting and stacking</td> + <td class="tdl_wsp">cordwood</td> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + <td class="tdc">2</td> + <td class="tdc">0</td> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + <td class="tdc">3</td> + <td class="tdc">0</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl_ws1">Burning</td> + <td class="tdl_wsp">charcoal</td> + <td class="tdr_wsp">per bushel</td> + <td class="tdl">of 20 lbs.</td> + <td class="tdc"> </td> + <td class="tdc"> </td> + <td class="tdc"> </td> + <td class="tdc">0</td> + <td class="tdc">2</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl_ws1" colspan="3">Loading and spreading soil</td> + <td class="tdl_wsp">per load</td> + <td class="tdc">0</td> + <td class="tdc">5</td> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + <td class="tdc">0</td> + <td class="tdc">6</td> + </tr> + </tbody> +</table> + +<table class="spb1"> + <tbody><tr> + <td class="tdl" colspan="3">GATE-MAKING:</td> + <td class="tdc_wsp fs_120"><b><i>s.</i></b></td> + <td class="tdc_wsp fs_120"><b><i>d.</i></b></td> + <td class="tdc_wsp"> </td> + <td class="tdc_wsp fs_120"><b><i>s.</i></b></td> + <td class="tdc_wsp fs_120"><b><i>d.</i></b></td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl_ws1" colspan="2">Field gate, oak</td> + <td class="tdr_wsp">5-bar</td> + <td class="tdc" colspan="3"> </td> + <td class="tdc">17</td> + <td class="tdc">0</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl_ws1" colspan="2">Posts</td> + <td class="tdr_wsp">per pair</td> + <td class="tdc" colspan="3"> </td> + <td class="tdc">23</td> + <td class="tdc">0</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl_ws1" colspan="2">Iron fastening and ironwork complete</td> + <td class="tdr_wsp"> </td> + <td class="tdc" colspan="3"> </td> + <td class="tdc">5</td> + <td class="tdc">9</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl_ws2" colspan="2">” Fixing</td> + <td class="tdr_wsp"> </td> + <td class="tdc" colspan="3"> </td> + <td class="tdc">4</td> + <td class="tdc">6</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl_ws1" colspan="2">Making 5-bar oak gate</td> + <td class="tdc" colspan="4"> </td> + <td class="tdc">2</td> + <td class="tdc">6</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl_ws2" colspan="2">” half gate</td> + <td class="tdc" colspan="4"> </td> + <td class="tdc">1</td> + <td class="tdc">9</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl_ws2" colspan="2">” rough wickets</td> + <td class="tdc" colspan="4"> </td> + <td class="tdc">2</td> + <td class="tdc">0</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl_ws2" colspan="2">” wrought wickets</td> + <td class="tdc" colspan="4"> </td> + <td class="tdc">3</td> + <td class="tdc">0</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl_ws1" colspan="2">Sawing hardwood</td> + <td class="tdr_wsp">per 100 ft.</td> + <td class="tdc">3</td> + <td class="tdc">6</td> + <td class="tdc">to</td> + <td class="tdc">4</td> + <td class="tdc">0</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl_ws2">”</td> + <td class="tdl_wsp">softwood</td> + <td class="tdc">” ”</td> + <td class="tdc">2</td> + <td class="tdc">6</td> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + <td class="tdc">3</td> + <td class="tdc">0</td> + </tr> + </tbody> +</table> + +<table class="spb1"> + <tbody><tr> + <td class="tdl" colspan="3">HEDGING:</td> + <td class="tdc_wsp fs_120"><b><i>s.</i></b></td> + <td class="tdc_wsp fs_120"><b><i>d.</i></b></td> + <td class="tdc_wsp"> </td> + <td class="tdc_wsp fs_120"><b><i>s.</i></b></td> + <td class="tdc_wsp fs_120"><b><i>d.</i></b></td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl_ws1" colspan="2">Trimming hedges, ordinary size</td> + <td class="tdl_wsp">per chain</td> + <td class="tdc">0</td> + <td class="tdc">9</td> + <td class="tdc">to</td> + <td class="tdc">1</td> + <td class="tdc">6</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl_ws1" colspan="8">Making bank for quick hedge,</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl_ws2" colspan="2"><span class="ws2">digging ditch and planting quick</span></td> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + <td class="tdc">7</td> + <td class="tdc">6</td> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + <td class="tdc">10</td> + <td class="tdc">6</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl_ws2">”</td> + <td class="tdl_ws1"> hedge, without bank or ditch, trenching</td> + <td class="tdl_ws1" colspan="6"> </td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdc"> </td> + <td class="tdl_ws1"> ground, preparing bed and planting</td> + <td class="tdl_wsp">”</td> + <td class="tdc">3</td> + <td class="tdc">0</td> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + <td class="tdc">4</td> + <td class="tdc">0</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl_ws1" colspan="2">Cleaning young hedges</td> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + <td class="tdc">0</td> + <td class="tdc">8</td> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + <td class="tdc">0</td> + <td class="tdc">9</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl_ws1" colspan="2">Laying hedge and scouring out ditch</td> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + <td class="tdc">2</td> + <td class="tdc">0</td> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + <td class="tdc">3</td> + <td class="tdc">0</td> + </tr> + </tbody> +</table> + +<table class="spb1"> + <tbody><tr> + <td class="tdl" colspan="3">HURDLE-MAKING:</td> + <td class="tdc_wsp fs_120"><b><i>s.</i></b></td> + <td class="tdc_wsp fs_120"><b><i>d.</i></b></td> + <td class="tdc_wsp"> </td> + <td class="tdc_wsp fs_120"><b><i>s.</i></b></td> + <td class="tdc_wsp fs_120"><b><i>d.</i></b></td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl_ws1">Making</td> + <td class="tdl_wsp">hurdles</td> + <td class="tdl_wsp">per dozen</td> + <td class="tdc">3</td> + <td class="tdc">6</td> + <td class="tdc">to</td> + <td class="tdc">4</td> + <td class="tdc">0</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + <td class="tdl_wsp">cattle hurdles (wattle)</td> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + <td class="tdc">5</td> + <td class="tdc">0</td> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + <td class="tdc">6</td> + <td class="tdc">0</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + <td class="tdl_wsp">Welsh hurdles, for sheep</td> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + <td class="tdc">4</td> + <td class="tdc">0</td> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + <td class="tdc">5</td> + <td class="tdc">0</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl" colspan="8"> <br>PITTING:</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl_ws1">Digging</td> + <td class="tdl_wsp">out clay</td> + <td class="tdc">per yard</td> + <td class="tdc" colspan="3"> </td> + <td class="tdc">0</td> + <td class="tdc">6</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + <td class="tdl_wsp" colspan="7">holes for tree planting, 15 in.</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl_ws1"> </td> + <td class="tdl_ws1"> in diameter and 15 in. deep  </td> + <td class="tdc">per 100</td> + <td class="tdc">1</td> + <td class="tdc">6</td> + <td class="tdc">to</td> + <td class="tdc">2</td> + <td class="tdc">6</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl_ws1" colspan="2">Inserting plants</td> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + <td class="tdc">0</td> + <td class="tdc">6</td> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + <td class="tdc">1</td> + <td class="tdc">0</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl_ws1" colspan="2">Notch planting</td> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + <td class="tdc">2</td> + <td class="tdc">0</td> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + <td class="tdc">3</td> + <td class="tdc">0</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl" colspan="8"> <br>PREPARING ROAD MATERIAL:</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl_ws1" colspan="2">Quarrying stones</td> + <td class="tdc">per yard</td> + <td class="tdc">0</td> + <td class="tdc">10</td> + <td class="tdc">to</td> + <td class="tdc">1</td> + <td class="tdc">3</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl_ws1" colspan="2">Breaking stones for roads</td> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + <td class="tdc">0</td> + <td class="tdc">8</td> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + <td class="tdc">1</td> + <td class="tdc">0</td> + </tr> + </tbody> +</table> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_280"></a>[Pg 280]</span></p> +<h2 class="nobreak">CHAPTER XXXIII<br> +<span class="h_subtitle">FOREST AREA OF THE WORLD</span></h2> +</div> + +<p>Exclusive of the forests of China, Corea and parts of Africa and South +America, for which there are no available data, the forest area of the +world is approximately 3,800,000,000 acres.</p> + +<p>The forests of Europe total upwards of 750,000,000 or, roughly +speaking, about 31 per cent. of the total land area of the Continent; +whilst among non-European countries Canada comes first with 799,000,000 +acres, United States, 545,000,000, tropical South America 528,000,000, +Asiatic Russia 348,000,000, and Central Africa 224,000,000.</p> + +<p>Finland is, perhaps, the best wooded country in the world, Bosnia, +Herzegovina and Sweden coming next, whilst amongst the least wooded +areas are Great Britain and Portugal, the former including only about 4 +per cent. of the total area of the land.</p> + +<p>So far as is at present known the following are the approximate areas +of woodlands in the various countries of the world:—</p> + +<table class="spb1"> + <tbody><tr class="smcap fs_110"> + <td class="tdc"><b>Country.</b></td> + <td class="tdr"><b>Total Forest Area.</b></td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl"> </td> + <td class="tdr_ws1">(Acres.)</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl">Russia—</td> + <td class="tdr_ws1"> </td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl_ws1">European Russia</td> + <td class="tdr_ws1">461,611,000</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl_ws1">Finland</td> + <td class="tdr_ws1">52,500,000</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl">Austria-Hungary—</td> + <td class="tdr_ws1"> </td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl_ws1">Austria</td> + <td class="tdr_ws1">23,996,000</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl_ws1">Hungary</td> + <td class="tdr_ws1">18,692,000</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl">Croatia and Slavonia</td> + <td class="tdr_ws1">3,769,000</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl">Bosnia and Herzegovina</td> + <td class="tdr_ws1">6,380,000</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl">Sweden</td> + <td class="tdr_ws1">49,390,000</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl">Germany</td> + <td class="tdr_ws1">34,990,000</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl">France</td> + <td class="tdr_ws1">24,021,000 + <span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_281"></a>[Pg 281]</span></td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl">Norway</td> + <td class="tdr_ws1">16,848,000</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl">Spain</td> + <td class="tdr_ws1">16,065,000</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl">Italy</td> + <td class="tdr_ws1">10,115,000</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl">Bulgaria</td> + <td class="tdr_ws1">7,603,000</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl">Roumania</td> + <td class="tdr_ws1">6,367,000</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl">British Isles</td> + <td class="tdr_ws1">3,071,361</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl">Switzerland</td> + <td class="tdr_ws1">2,140,000</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl">Belgium</td> + <td class="tdr_ws1">1,304,000</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl">Servia</td> + <td class="tdr_ws1">3,865,000</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl">Other Countries</td> + <td class="tdr_ws1">4,427,000</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl"> </td> + <td class="tdr_ws1 over">747,154,361</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl" colspan="2"> </td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl">Asiatic Russia</td> + <td class="tdr_ws1">348,030,000</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl">India</td> + <td class="tdr_ws1">149,000,000</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl">Ceylon</td> + <td class="tdr_ws1">6,763,000</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl">Japan</td> + <td class="tdr_ws1">57,718,000</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl">Philippine Islands</td> + <td class="tdr_ws1">49,000,000</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl">British Australasia</td> + <td class="tdr_ws1">126,720,000</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl">Cape Colony, Natal, Swaziland and Transvaal</td> + <td class="tdr_ws1">641,000</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl">Madagascar</td> + <td class="tdr_ws1">25,000,000</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl">Barbary States</td> + <td class="tdr_ws1">9,527,000</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl">Central Africa</td> + <td class="tdr_ws1">224,000,000</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl">South America (tropical)</td> + <td class="tdr_ws1">528,000,000</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl">West Indies</td> + <td class="tdr_ws1">42,669,000</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl">Canada</td> + <td class="tdr_ws1">799,360,000</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl">Mexico</td> + <td class="tdr_ws1">25,000,000</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl">Alaska</td> + <td class="tdr_ws1">107,000,000</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl">United States of America</td> + <td class="tdr_ws1">545,000,000</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl">Other Countries including the Straits</td> + <td class="tdr_ws1"> </td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl">Settlement, Java, etc.</td> + <td class="tdr_ws1">6,870,000</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl"> </td> + <td class="tdr_ws1 over">3,050,298,000</td> + </tr> + </tbody> +</table> + +<p>The approximate area of woodlands in Great Britain and Ireland are:—</p> + +<table class="spb1"> + <tbody><tr> + <td class="tdl"> </td> + <td class="tdc">Acres.</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl">England</td> + <td class="tdr">1,715,473</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl">Scotland<span class="ws2"> </span></td> + <td class="tdr">868,409</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl">Wales</td> + <td class="tdr">184,361</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl">Ireland</td> + <td class="tdr bb">303,118</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl"> </td> + <td class="tdr">3,071,361</td> + </tr> + </tbody> +</table> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_282"></a>[Pg 282]</span></p> +<h2 class="nobreak">CHAPTER XXXIV<br> +<span class="h_subtitle">AFFORESTING WASTE LANDS AND<br> +THE FINANCIAL RETURNS THEREFROM</span></h2> +</div> + +<p>Now that the Government is being urged seriously to consider the +question of afforestation, it may be opportune on my part, as one +of the earliest writers on the subject, to briefly recall what has +already been done in this matter, and to offer some remarks on planting +waste lands, with special reference to cost and the financial returns +therefrom.</p> + +<p>For the past thirty years I have not failed to urge on the State and +private owners of woodlands the pressing necessity for planting up +some at least of the waste and unprofitable lands of our country, in +order to provide a sufficiency of timber for the future and leave us +less dependent on the supplies that are annually sent us from abroad. +As stated elsewhere, when we consider that the total area of woodlands +in this country is only a little over 3,029,000 acres, that fully +15,000,000 acres of waste lands exist, and that we annually import +over 10,000,000 tons of timber, at a cost of about £25,000,000, the +necessity for an increased area of woodlands, so that a portion at +least of this vast sum may be kept at home, will be apparent to all, +and the more so as a dearth of timber is imminent, and outside supplies +are being rigidly conserved, while our home demands are ever on the +increase. England being, so to speak, a residential country, the +retention of a certain amount of heath, mountain and common lands, for +the purpose of deer forests, grouse moors, game coverts and golfing +links is imperative, and will considerably reduce the acreage of land +available for afforesting purposes. But I think that I am well within +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_283"></a>[Pg 283]</span> +bounds in alloting out of the 15,000,000 acres of waste land 1,000,000 +to afforesting and 14,000,000 to game preserves, deer forests and rough +pasture.</p> + +<p>Having personally explored much of the mountain and heath lands in +England and Scotland, and some of the vast tracts of bog land in +Ireland (the latter extending to fully one million acres), I have +carefully computed that of land up to 1,200 feet altitude, where +timber would grow perfectly well, about 9,000,000 acres are available +for afforesting purposes. As far as I have been able to find out, the +average rental of the ground referred to is a fraction under 3<i>s</i>. +per acre, and I am quite confident that any land which does not bring in +at least three times that amount for grazing or agricultural purposes +would be more profitably employed in carrying a crop of timber.</p> + +<p>It is unfortunate that much of these waste lands are private property, +the owners of which, even could they afford it, have little inclination +to sink, for a period of say twenty years, the necessary capital +required to be expended on the formation of woods and plantations. +Equally unfortunate is it that owing to an injudicious system of +management many plantations in this country have been wrongly +formed—in so far as adaptation of soil and trees are concerned, the +results being that financially speaking the woods are a failure, and +proprietors in consequence fight shy of further planting operations. I +have examined and reported on several of such woods in various parts +of the country, one of the most noticeable being in Nottinghamshire, +where a large area of ground was planted with a crop of oak, for which +tree the soil was quite unsuitable, the result being that over the +whole ground the average production of timber per tree was under 10 +cubic feet in sixty years. When pressing home the question of woodland +extension I have frequently been confronted by the argument that past +experience does not warrant further expenditure in that way. That this +is true cannot be denied, but let us hope that it will be remedied in +the near future by the better education of our foresters and by greater +attention being given to the relation of trees and soil. +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_284"></a>[Pg 284]</span></p> + +<p>With the wholesale felling of timber for war purposes and the +disinclination of owners of land to engage in extensive planting +operations, the question naturally arises: What is the most feasible +way of overcoming the difficulty?</p> + +<p>In answer, and without the slightest hesitation, I would say that +the State should acquire and plant suitable waste lands at the rate +of 40,000 acres annually for a period of twenty-five years. Such +lands could, in England, Scotland and Wales, be gradually and cheaply +acquired by the State, while in Ireland there are vast tracts of peat +bog which their owners would willingly hand over to the Government +at the present time at a small cost per acre. Taking the British +Isles as a whole, the cost of procuring suitable lands would be at an +annual rental of about 3<i>s.</i> per acre, or 40<i>s.</i> per acre +for purchase. On the Gwydyr Estate, Carnarvonshire, 7,412 acres of +land, described as rough grazing and sheep walk, were lately sold by +public auction for £15,670, or at the rate of £2 2<i>s.</i> 3<i>d.</i> +per acre. I have little faith either in the State advancing money to +landed proprietors towards afforesting, or in municipalities coming +to the front as planters of woodlands. The State would be the best +custodian of forest property for the simple reason that the State +only can readily acquire the needed land in sufficient quantity and +on the best terms, and I am fully convinced that plantations formed +under Government supervision will, in an economic sense at least, +be far more successful than those planted either by private persons +or public bodies. Again, the continuity of ownership under such a +scheme, together with the ample resources guaranteed by State control, +would both largely contribute towards a successful issue in such an +undertaking.</p> + +<p>The difficulty of housing and providing for the workmen employed in +afforesting out-of-the-way lands has been brought to my notice, but +from personal experience of similar work in Scotland and Wales I +anticipate little difficulty in that way. In these cases, where a good +deal of the work was carried out by contract, the workmen gladly walked +to and from the adjoining villages each day, often a distance of three +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_285"></a>[Pg 285]</span> +or four miles, bringing their midday meal with them, which was heated +or cooked on the ground. Then, as the plantations increase in age +and size, and sawmills are required, the ever-increasing industry so +created will cause hamlets to spring up in the wooded regions, just as +we find is the case in mining and quarrying districts.</p> + +<p>After careful computation I have no hesitation in saying that the +area of plantations in the United Kingdom could at once be doubled +by the planting of waste lands which at present do not bring in over +2<i>s.</i> per acre per year of rental, with infinite benefit to the +country generally and a vast increase in the value of land both to the +owner and farmer who cultivates it. In the matter of afforesting, a +grain of practice is worth a ton of theory, and as I have personally +supervised every operation, from marking out the plantation boundary +on the exposed hillside, to draining, fencing, planting, thinning and +disposing of the produce, my opinions on the question are at least +worthy of consideration.</p> + +<p><b>The Approaching Scarcity of Timber.</b>—Than timber no article +is probably more indispensable to the welfare of a nation, entering +extensively as it does into almost every trade and industry. For +England, therefore, with an ever-increasing import, the possibility +of a dearth of timber must be regarded with the keenest anxiety, more +particularly as this would entail prohibitive prices and seriously +cripple the trade of the country. The following table, as reported to +the Washington Bureau of Manufactures, will show at a glance the annual +imports of timber of the principal countries of Europe:—</p> + +<table class="spb1"> + <tbody><tr> + <td class="tdl">England</td> + <td class="tdr">16,342,600</td> + <td class="tdc_wsp">cub. yds.</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl">Germany</td> + <td class="tdr">11,766,667</td> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl">France</td> + <td class="tdr">8,496,300</td> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl">Belgium</td> + <td class="tdr">1,897,777</td> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl">Italy</td> + <td class="tdr">915,148</td> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl">Denmark</td> + <td class="tdr">849,630</td> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl">Spain</td> + <td class="tdr">392,222</td> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl">Switzerland</td> + <td class="tdr">313,778</td> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + </tr> + </tbody> +</table> + +<p>In face of this it is only reasonable to suppose that the Government +will act promptly in the matter, remembering that no scheme of +afforesting, however extensive or well ordered, can bring the necessary +relief for at least forty years after its inception. For all this, and +in spite of numerous warnings as to the pressing necessity for tree +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_286"></a>[Pg 286]</span> +planting and the ominous signs of a timber famine, little or nothing +has been done, save the holding of meetings by the Board of Agriculture +and the purchase of a few hundred acres of waste land in Scotland.</p> + +<p>To sum up briefly, the situation is this:—England’s imports before the +war rapidly increased from a trifle under 3¼ million loads in 1864 to +fully 10 million loads in 1906, thus showing an increment of fully 7 +million loads in forty-two years.</p> + +<p>Most European countries have large internal supplies of timber, so +that, by a system of conserving and protective tariffs, the pinch of +want would not be felt severely for years to come. But not so England, +which is almost wholly dependent on supplies from abroad.</p> + +<p>According to the Secretary of the Agricultural Department of +Washington, the area of forests in the United States is 700 million +acres, but even now the States are more or less dependent on Canada, +and actually receive the entire surplus from that country. But +regarding the United States, ex-President Roosevelt said: “If the +present rate of forest destruction is allowed to continue with nothing +to offset it, a timber famine in the future is inevitable. Remember +that you can prevent such a famine occurring by wise action taken in +time; but once the famine occurs there is no possible way of hurrying +the growth of trees necessary to relieve it.” Again, the late Mr. Lewis +Miller, who had vast forests both in Sweden and Nova Scotia, told me +that in twenty-five years neither the United States nor Canada will +have much timber left, while Sweden and Finland are already played out. +“I am also of opinion,” he said, “that during the next twenty-five +years timber will be double its present price, and that it will not +only pay to plant land valued at 3<i>s.</i> per acre, but that worth +20<i>s.</i> per acre.” These are no idle words, but the records of +those who know well what they are talking about; neither are the +writers in any sense pessimists. With all these warnings from men whose +business it is to study the question and who are fully qualified to +advance an opinion, surely it is time that we took up seriously the +question of afforestation. +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_287"></a>[Pg 287]</span></p> + +<p>It may be said by some that the timber of our foreign possessions +will partly fill up the gap, but this is not the case. Indian timber, +principally teak, is not in request to any appreciable extent, while +the great African forests are hardwoods, and as a rule unsuited to our +wants. The forests of South America are on a par with those of India +and Africa, while China and Japan, as also Australia, require more +timber than they possess.</p> + +<p><b>Cost of suitable Land for Afforesting.</b>—When in the past the +question of afforesting has been brought forward, the usual outcry has +been that suitable land is too expensive to buy. But this argument +will no longer suffice, for, as I have before pointed out, excellent +land for the cultivation of high-class timber can be procured in +considerable quantity at about £2 per acre. Through the kindness of +Lord Ancaster’s estate agent, I have been allowed to look over the sale +contracts of several parts of the Gwydyr Estate, in Carnarvonshire, +and from these I find that 7,412 acres were disposed of, at an average +price of £2 2<i>s.</i> 3<i>d.</i> per acre. The ground was excellent +for the production of timber, as the larch on other adjoining lands +clearly evidenced. Again the Crown recently purchased 12,500 acres in +Scotland at the modest rental of about £2 per acre. Other instances +could be quoted, but the above suffice to show that land in every way +suited for profitable tree planting can be bought at probably less than +£2 per acre.</p> + +<p>It is perhaps unfortunate that many of these waste lands are private +property, the owners of which, even if they could afford it, have +little inclination to sink for a period of, say, twenty-five years +the necessary capital required to be expended on the formation of +plantations. But all this would be obviated by State ownership of the +woodlands. Private individuals, or, indeed, public bodies, labour +under many disadvantages in respect of afforestation, not the least, +as before stated, being the quarter of a century required before the +money expended in planting can be even partially recovered, while a +systematic method of cultivation and large wooded areas are first +necessities to successful timber culture. It is therefore preferable +in every way that the Government should take up the question of tree +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_288"></a>[Pg 288]</span> +planting on a large scale, the necessary land being available at a +moderate cost per acre.</p> + +<p><b>Cost of Forming Plantations.</b>—This will vary greatly with the +manner in which the work is carried out, the particular district of the +country, nature of soil and rate of wages paid, as also whether fencing +and draining have to be engaged in. The difference in cost between +“notch” and “pit” planting is very considerable, and the fact that +the former method is almost exclusively adopted on the rough grounds +throughout Scotland accounts mainly for the smaller first outlay on +Scottish plantations. Thus at Grantown, Strathspey, the Countess of +Seafield’s estate, Mr. Thomson, the very capable wood manager, has +planted during the past forty-seven years upwards of 20,000 acres +of woodlands, at a cost, including fencing, of rather under £2 per +acre. In England, however, where, for various reasons, pit planting +is adopted, and larger plants are used, the cost varies from £5 to £6 +per acre. For all practical purposes, however, the cost of forming +plantations may be put down at, say, £5 per acre, as an average taken +from the following figures will show:—</p> + +<table class="spb1"> + <tbody><tr> + <td class="tdc fs_120" colspan="8"><b><span class="smcap">England and Wales.</span></b></td> + </tr><tr class="fs_120"> + <td class="tdl" colspan="5"> </td> + <td class="tdc_wsp"><b>£</b></td> + <td class="tdc_wsp"><b><i>s.</i></b></td> + <td class="tdc_wsp"><b><i>d.</i></b></td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl" colspan="5">Yorkshire, at 600 ft. altitude, cost of planting</td> + <td class="tdc" colspan="3"> </td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl_ws1" colspan="3">and fencing</td> + <td class="tdl_wsp"></td> + <td class="tdc">per acre</td> + <td class="tdc">4</td> + <td class="tdc">18</td> + <td class="tdc">9</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl">Kent,</td> + <td class="tdl_wsp">fencing</td> + <td class="tdl_wsp">and</td> + <td class="tdl_wsp">planting</td> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + <td class="tdc">6</td> + <td class="tdc"> 3</td> + <td class="tdc">0</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl">Lincolnshire</td> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + <td class="tdc"> </td> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + <td class="tdc">8</td> + <td class="tdc"> 0</td> + <td class="tdc">0</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl">Gloucestershire</td> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + <td class="tdc"> </td> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + <td class="tdc">7</td> + <td class="tdc">10</td> + <td class="tdc">0</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl">Carnarvonshire</td> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + <td class="tdc"> </td> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + <td class="tdc">5</td> + <td class="tdc"> 2</td> + <td class="tdc">0</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdc fs_120" colspan="8"> <br><b><span class="smcap">Scotland.</span></b></td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl" colspan="5">Inverness-shire, Glengloy Estate, 800 ft. altitude,</td> + <td class="tdc" colspan="3"> </td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl_ws1" colspan="4">cost of fencing and planting</td> + <td class="tdc">per acre</td> + <td class="tdc">3</td> + <td class="tdc">10</td> + <td class="tdc">0</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl" colspan="5">Ross-shire, up to 1,200 ft. altitude,</td> + <td class="tdc" colspan="3"> </td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl_ws1" colspan="4">cost of fencing and planting</td> + <td class="tdc">per acre</td> + <td class="tdc">2</td> + <td class="tdc">10</td> + <td class="tdc">0</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl" colspan="4">Perthshire (planting only)</td> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + <td class="tdc">2</td> + <td class="tdc">10</td> + <td class="tdc">0</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl" colspan="4">Blair Athol, 3,665 acres, fencing and planting</td> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + <td class="tdc">2</td> + <td class="tdc">10</td> + <td class="tdc">0</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl" colspan="4">Grantown, Strathspey, fencing and planting</td> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + <td class="tdc">2</td> + <td class="tdc"> 0</td> + <td class="tdc">0 + <span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_289"></a>[Pg 289]</span></td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdc fs_120" colspan="8"> <br><b><span class="smcap">Ireland.</span></b></td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl" colspan="4">Wicklow, 700-900 ft. altitude, fencing and planting</td> + <td class="tdc_wsp">per acre</td> + <td class="tdc">4</td> + <td class="tdc">13</td> + <td class="tdc">11</td> + </tr><tr> + <td class="tdl" colspan="4">Armagh (bogland), fencing and planting</td> + <td class="tdc">”</td> + <td class="tdc">5</td> + <td class="tdc"> 2</td> + <td class="tdc"> 0</td> + </tr> + </tbody> +</table> + +<p>Another instance in Scotland may be recorded, in which 550 acres +were planted at a cost of £1,178, or at the rate of £2 2<i>s.</i> +10<i>d.</i> per acre. This included for fencing, £164 18<i>s.</i> +4<i>d.</i>; drainage, £123 15<i>s.</i>; plants, £520 10<i>s.</i>; +planting, £368 16<i>s.</i> 8<i>d.</i></p> + +<p>In connexion with these figures, it may be reassuring to state that +in each case a strict account of the expenditure involved had been +carefully noted, and the returns given are practically correct. The +average cost, therefore, taking Great Britain as a whole, would be +about £5 per acre for fencing and planting the ground. The above-named +plantations, too, were formed on the very class of ground of which we +have so much lying idle or bringing in only a few shillings rental +per acre, in various parts of the country. The Ross-shire plantation +referred to was a bleak and barren moorland which the crofters, who +used it as a common for their cattle and sheep, refused to rent at +1<i>s.</i> per acre per annum, while at Strathspey the 20,000 acres +of land were let out previous to planting at 8<i>d.</i> per acre per +annum. Vast tracts of the bare hillsides of Wales are only bringing +in a few shillings of rental per acre. It should be remembered +that all the above-named plantations were formed on bleak, exposed +moorlands—the very class of waste lands that I have so strongly +advocated as being suitable for the woodlands of the future, and of +which at the present time there are about 15,000,000 acres lying idle +in various parts of the kingdom. Therefore the cost of planting may +be considered as or about £5 per acre. This, with £2 5<i>s.</i> for +cost of purchase and 5<i>s.</i> for incidental expenses, would bring +the initial total expenditure to £7 10<i>s.</i> per acre. Elsewhere I +have suggested that 1,000,000 acres should be planted over a period of +twenty-five years, at the rate of 40,000 acres per year, which would +entail an outlay of £300,000 annually—a small sum when compared with +the £25,000,000 expended each year by this country on supplies brought +from abroad. +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_290"></a>[Pg 290]</span></p> + +<p>But there is another point that I should like to touch upon whilst +dealing with the formation of plantations, and that is that the work +should only be entrusted to the efficient and practical wood manager, +who is fully conversant with the whole routine of woodland work. It +is frequently urged that forestry does not pay, but where this holds +good, the cause is always traceable to injudicious planting and wrong +methods of management. No more can we expect the gardener, gamekeeper, +estate joiner, or even the land agent to undertake economical timber +culture than we could expect the forester to carry out successfully +the duties of any of these individuals. Wrongly formed plantations +are, unfortunately, far too common, in so far, at least, as adaptation +of soil and trees are concerned, the result being that, financially +speaking, the woods are a failure, and proprietors, in consequence, +fight shy of further planting operations. When pressing home the +question of the extension of plantations, I have more than once been +confronted by the statement that past experience does not warrant +further expenditure in that way. That this is true cannot be denied, in +many instances at least, but, then, as above stated, faulty methods of +management are alone responsible for the failure.</p> + +<p><b>Financial Returns from Tree Planting.</b>—Though it must be +admitted that, in the majority of cases at least, the financial returns +cannot be accepted as strictly correct (in most cases they are too +low), owing to the woods being treated for other than commercial +purposes, yet in not a few instances, where neither game-rearing nor +ornamental effect have to be considered, the yield of timber and gross +returns for a stated number of years are perfectly reliable. Of course, +where game coverts and underwood, or where the perfect development +of the trees, as in ornamental plantations, are matters of first +importance, and require that the individual specimens be scattered +thinly over the ground, the greatest yield of the best quality of +timber cannot be expected; but where, as on various Scottish and +English estates, the trees are grown thickly together and solely for +their economic value, the case is quite different, as the returns given +below will attest. +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_291"></a>[Pg 291]</span></p> + +<p>One hundred acres of common land were planted from 1852 to 1862. +Larch was the principal crop, with a few beech, Scotch pine, spruce +and silver fir. The plantation was thinned at intervals from 1871 to +1884, the thinnings being sold for close on £500, but many trees were +used for fencing and estate purposes generally. The whole plantation +was felled in 1907, and realized fully £4,500, or at the rate of £45 +per acre. The larch on the lower portion averaged 23¼ ft. per tree, +but on the exposed ground the trees were only about one-third of that +dimension. This plantation has a northern aspect, and is situated at +from 800 ft. to 1,300 ft. above sea-level. After allowing for the cost +of planting and interest on the money expended, the annual return per +acre comes to about 20<i>s.</i> The adjoining heath-covered lands let +for about 2<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i> per acre. Again, on the Countess of +Seafield’s estates, Scotland, on grazing land which formerly brought in +8<i>d.</i> per acre, Mr. Thomson, the woods manager, tells me that, at +the age of forty-seven years, Scotch fir realized £40 per acre; while +in another wood the individual trees brought 24<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i> +each.</p> + +<p>A larch plantation of 208 acres, on a steep hillside, was felled at the +age of fifty years. The actual returns during that period were: from +thinnings, £4,500; from final felling, £14,500; or fully £90 per acre. +The original cost of planting was under £5 per acre, and the value +of the land at thirty years’ purchase £7 10<i>s.</i> per acre, thus +leaving a balance of fully £78 per acre at the age of fifty years.</p> + +<p>The extensive hillside plantations formed by the late Lord Powerscourt +in Ireland, those at Glendalough in the same country, formed by the +Duke of Atholl between Dunkeld and Blair Atholl, those at Glengoy, in +Aberdeenshire, at Strathkyle in Ross-shire, and at Gwydyr and Penrhyn +Castle in the Principality of Wales—all of which were formed over +thirty-five years ago, account of the cost of formation and management +being strictly kept—these surely afford sufficient evidence not only +of the profitable returns to be obtained from woodlands, but of the +feasibility of afforesting mountain lands with vast benefit in the way +of shelter to the dreary, treeless, and bleak, exposed uplands where the +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_292"></a>[Pg 292]</span> +planting has been carried out. As far as actual profits are concerned, +it will be prudent to assume that for the first twenty years no +return whatever will be derived from hillside plantations, the sales +of thinnings up to that time barely covering the expense of cutting +and interest on first cost. From twenty-five to forty years an annual +return of fully 12<i>s.</i> per acre has in many instances been +forthcoming, while the value of the standing crop at the latter age +has been found to vary from £50 to £70 per acre. I do not think that +these figures would be, generally speaking, too high, as at Balfour, +in Scotland, the larch at forty-three years’ growth on a hillside were +valued at 20<i>s.</i> each, while a valuation of 21<i>s.</i> per tree +was made of larch on the slopes of the Snowdon range of hills, in +Wales, at the age of forty years. But many similar instances could be +recorded, and are constantly coming before those who have to do with +the valuing and felling of timber.</p> + +<p>The late Mr. Lewis Miller, who had probably a larger experience of home +woods than any other person, has given me some valuable and interesting +information regarding what he has paid per acre for larch in various +parts of Scotland. In twenty years, between 1870 and 1890, Mr. Miller +has cut down growing timber to the value of over £250,000. A great many +of the plantations were fifty years old, and yielded over £50 per acre +when finally cut down, apart from the value of the thinnings taken out +of them previously to the time they were cut down. To one proprietor +in Aberdeenshire he paid £60,000 for plantations about fifty years of +age, and the price worked out on an average at fully £50 per acre. +One particular plantation of larch in Aberdeenshire, about seventy +years old, yielded £150 per acre; another plantation, all larch, about +forty-four years of age gave over £100 per acre, and these plantations +were for the most part growing on what was formerly pasture or waste +land, and cost for planting and fencing from £2 to £2 10<i>s.</i> per +acre. It will be needless to multiply cases in which poor lands worth +only from 1<i>s.</i> to 3<i>s.</i> per acre have been made to realize +by judicious tree planting as much as 20<i>s.</i> per acre for fifty or +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_293"></a>[Pg 293]</span> +sixty years with a final crop worth from £50 to £75 per acre. All the +plantations above referred to are excellent object-lessons of the +possibilities of the British Isles for the production of high-class +timber if woods are properly planted and managed.</p> + +<p><b>Advantages of Tree Planting.</b>—Not only from a strictly financial +point of view but also from a hygienic sense standpoint, plantations +are of the utmost importance.</p> + +<p>For shelter for farm stock, for improving the agricultural value of +the lower lying lands, and for the part they play in clothing and +ornamenting our bare commons and hillsides, their value can hardly +be over-estimated. Twenty-five years ago I formed a plantation on +a spur of the Snowdon range of hills, in Wales, where the fierce, +long-continued and hard-hitting blasts were of almost constant +occurrence, and the amount of shelter and warmth it now affords to the +farm stock and lower lying lands would hardly be credited. Previous to +the formation of this particular plantation, at altitudes varying up to +600 ft., the adjoining lands were quite incapable of cultivation, but +now crops are gradually creeping up the hillsides, while the farm stock +find the much-needed shelter and warmth that they were formerly denied. +So great has been the benefit of this wood both to man and beast that +the farmer on whose land it was planted speaks of it as “a Godsend.” +Other similar cases in Wales might be mentioned, as for instance the +plantations on the Gwydyr and Penrhyn Estates, and also those near +Abergele, where the judicious planting up of rocky and almost worthless +land has converted dreary and inhospitable districts into the most +fashionable and expensive residential property. In many parts of +Scotland, particularly Perth, Inverness and Aberdeenshire, equally good +results have been obtained by judicious tree planting.</p> + +<p>Another notable advantage gained by the planting of trees lies in the +provision of profitable work for the unemployed. As a special chapter +is devoted to this important subject, it need only be mentioned here. +It should not be overlooked that excellent results have followed in the +wake of planting bog lands in Ireland. In 1862 my father formed several +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_294"></a>[Pg 294]</span> +plantations there, a full account of which will be found in the +<i>Transactions of the Highland and Agricultural Society of +Scotland</i> for 1873. I examined these woods and was agreeably +surprised at the height which the trees had attained, the cubic +contents of the timber, and the price realized. Incidentally, it +might be noticed that the ground previously to planting was a dreary, +heath-clad waste, only suitable for snipe-shooting and the production +of turf for fuel. Many other instances of the numerous advantages to +be derived from a well-organized system of tree planting could be +cited, not the least important being the greater facilities that would +be afforded for disposing of the timber. In many outlying districts +all over the country far removed from road and rail, it is difficult +to get rid of the small amount of timber that is periodically cut +down, but were larger quantities handled and a continuity of supply +forthcoming, I feel certain that timber merchants would be prompted to +make special transit arrangements. More than once I have been asked by +Irish landowners to recommend buyers of good larch and oak timber, but, +after negotiation, I have invariably been told by the merchant that the +quantity offered was far too small to allow of special facilities for +delivery being provided, since the timber was far away from road and +rail. They stated, however, that if a specified number of cubic feet +of good timber could be guaranteed annually for a number of years they +were quite prepared to buy. The same obstacles to the sale of timber +have been experienced in Scotland and remote parts of Wales. In these +cases a continuity of supply, such as would be forthcoming if my scheme +of afforesting was carried out, would ensure speedy sales at moderate +prices in places where at present it is difficult, if not impossible, +to dispose of small quantities except at ruinously low prices.</p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_295"></a>[Pg 295]</span></p> +<h2 class="nobreak">INDEX</h2> +</div> + +<ul class="index"> +<li class="isub10 ifrst">A<span class="ws7 fs_80">PAGE</span></li> +<li class="isub2">Abele Poplar for Town Planting, <a href="#Page_101">101</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Acacia, False, for Town Planting, <a href="#Page_102">102</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Advantages of Tree Planting, <a href="#Page_293">293</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Afforesting Waste Lands, <a href="#Page_282">282</a></li> +<li class="isub2"><i>Agaricus melleus</i>, <a href="#Page_218">218</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Ailanthus for Town Planting, <a href="#Page_101">101</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Alder as Timber, <a href="#Page_240">240</a></li> +<li class="isub2">—— Common, for Seaside Planting, <a href="#Page_78">78</a></li> +<li class="isub2">—— for Economic Planting, <a href="#Page_52">52</a></li> +<li class="isub2">—— —— Exposed Positions, <a href="#Page_52">52</a></li> +<li class="isub2">—— —— Ornamental Planting, <a href="#Page_117">117</a></li> +<li class="isub2">—— —— Seaside ” <a href="#Page_78">78</a></li> +<li class="isub2">—— Hoary, for Seaside Planting, <a href="#Page_78">78</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Almond for Town Planting, <a href="#Page_107">107</a></li> +<li class="isub2">American Winged Elm for Exposed Planting, <a href="#Page_70">70</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Andromeda for the Shade, <a href="#Page_192">192</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Apple as Timber, <a href="#Page_240">240</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Appliances used in Forestry, <a href="#Page_153">153</a></li> +<li class="isub2"><i>Araucaria Imbricata</i> Seed, <a href="#Page_14">14</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Area of Woodlands, <a href="#Page_280">280</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Arrangement of Plantations, <a href="#Page_33">33</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Ash as Timber, <a href="#Page_240">240</a></li> +<li class="isub2">—— for Economic Planting, <a href="#Page_48">48</a></li> +<li class="isub2">—— —— Exposed ” <a href="#Page_71">71</a></li> +<li class="isub2">—— —— Ornamental ” <a href="#Page_132">132</a></li> +<li class="isub2">—— —— Seaside ” <a href="#Page_79">79</a></li> +<li class="isub2">—— —— Town ” <a href="#Page_104">104</a></li> +<li class="isub2">—— Seed, <a href="#Page_11">11</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Aspect of Home Nursery, <a href="#Page_26">26</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Aspen for Seaside Planting, <a href="#Page_78">78</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Atlantic Cedar for Seaside Planting, <a href="#Page_82">82</a></li> +<li class="isub2">—— —— for Economic Planting, <a href="#Page_65">65</a></li> +<li class="isub2"><i>Aucuba Japonica</i> for Town Planting, <a href="#Page_105">105</a></li> +<li class="isub2">—— —— —— Game Coverts, <a href="#Page_179">179</a></li> +<li class="isub2">—— —— —— Hedges, <a href="#Page_189">189</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Austrian Pine for Economic Planting, <a href="#Page_65">65</a></li> +<li class="isub2">—— —— —— Exposed Planting, <a href="#Page_69">69</a></li> +<li class="isub2">—— —— —— Ornamental Planting, <a href="#Page_118">118</a></li> +<li class="isub2">—— —— —— Town Planting, <a href="#Page_108">108</a></li> +<li class="isub2">—— —— Seed, <a href="#Page_11">11</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Autumn-tinted Foliage Trees for Ornamental Planting, <a href="#Page_123">123</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Autumn Work in Home Nursery, <a href="#Page_30">30</a></li> + +<li class="isub10 ifrst">B</li> +<li class="isub2">Bark, <a href="#Page_255">255</a></li> +<li class="isub2">—— Stripping——Tools used, <a href="#Page_222">222</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Barking Oak, <a href="#Page_220">220-222</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Barron’s Transplanting Machine, <a href="#Page_140">140</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Beam Tree for Seaside Planting, <a href="#Page_77">77</a></li> +<li class="isub2">—— —— in London, <a href="#Page_103">103</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Bedford Willow for Seaside Planting, <a href="#Page_85">85</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Beech Coccus, <a href="#Page_205">205</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Beech as Timber, <a href="#Page_246">246</a></li> +<li class="isub2">—— for Economic Planting, <a href="#Page_49">49</a></li> +<li class="isub2">—— —— Exposed ” <a href="#Page_71">71</a></li> +<li class="isub2">—— —— Hedge ” <a href="#Page_187">187</a></li> +<li class="isub2">—— —— Ornamental ” <a href="#Page_188">188</a></li> +<li class="isub2">—— —— Seaside ” <a href="#Page_80">80</a></li> +<li class="isub2">—— Seed, <a href="#Page_11">11</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Beetle Pine, <a href="#Page_193">193</a></li> +<li class="isub2"><i>Berberis Darwinii</i> for Game Coverts, <a href="#Page_180">180</a></li> +<li class="isub2">—— —— —— Hedge Planting, <a href="#Page_189">189</a></li> +<li class="isub2">—— —— —— Seaside, <a href="#Page_84">84</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Bhotan Pine for Ornamental Planting, <a href="#Page_117">117</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Birch as Timber, <a href="#Page_240">240</a></li> +<li class="isub2">—— for Economic Planting, <a href="#Page_53">53</a></li> +<li class="isub2">—— —— Exposed ” <a href="#Page_71">71</a></li> +<li class="isub2">—— —— Ornamental ” <a href="#Page_122">122</a></li> +<li class="isub2">—— —— Seaside ” <a href="#Page_79">79</a></li> +<li class="isub2">—— —— Town ” <a href="#Page_104">104</a> + <span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_296"></a>[Pg 296]</span></li> +<li class="isub2">—— Seed, <a href="#Page_11">11</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Bird Cherry for Exposed Planting, <a href="#Page_71">71</a></li> +<li class="isub2">—— —— —— Town Planting, <a href="#Page_104">104</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Black Italian Poplar for Town Planting, <a href="#Page_101">101</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Blackberry for the Shade, <a href="#Page_192">192</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Bladder Senna for Town Planting, <a href="#Page_106">106</a></li> +<li class="isub2">—— Rust or Cluster-Cup, <a href="#Page_219">219</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Blasting Tree Roots, <a href="#Page_273">273</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Bog Soils, Trees for, <a href="#Page_136">136</a></li> +<li class="isub2"><i>Bostrichus Laricis</i>, <a href="#Page_194">194</a></li> +<li class="isub2">—— <i>Typographus</i>, <a href="#Page_194">194</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Box for Hedge Planting, <a href="#Page_188">188</a></li> +<li class="isub2">—— —— Game Covert, <a href="#Page_177">177</a></li> +<li class="isub2">—— Thorn for Seaside Planting, <a href="#Page_83">83</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Bracing a Tree, <a href="#Page_159">159</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Briar for Hedge Planting, <a href="#Page_188">188</a></li> +<li class="isub2">British Oak for Hedge Planting, <a href="#Page_111">111</a></li> +<li class="isub2">—— Timber and its Uses, <a href="#Page_240">240</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Broom for Seaside Planting, <a href="#Page_84">84</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Buckthorn, Sea, for Seaside Planting, <a href="#Page_82">82</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Burning Tree Stumps, <a href="#Page_274">274</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Butcher’s Broom for Game Coverts, <a href="#Page_182">182</a></li> +<li class="isub2">—— —— —— Carpeting in Shade, <a href="#Page_192">192</a></li> +<li class="isub2">By-products of the Forest, <a href="#Page_250">250</a></li> + +<li class="isub10 ifrst">C</li> +<li class="isub2">Canadian Poplar for Town Planting, <a href="#Page_101">101</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Cedar for Seaside Planting, <a href="#Page_82">82</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Cephalonian Fir for Ornamental Planting, <a href="#Page_118">118</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Chalky Soil for Tree Planting, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Charcoal, <a href="#Page_253">253</a></li> +<li class="isub2">—— Making, <a href="#Page_226">226</a></li> +<li class="isub2">—— Comparative Value of Wood, <a href="#Page_231">231</a></li> +<li class="isub2">—— Pit, <a href="#Page_231">231</a></li> +<li class="isub2">—— Kiln Burning, <a href="#Page_231">231</a></li> +<li class="isub2">—— Uses of, <a href="#Page_232">232</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Cherry as Timber, <a href="#Page_240">240</a></li> +<li class="isub2">—— for Exposed Planting, <a href="#Page_71">71</a></li> +<li class="isub2">—— —— Ornamental Planting, <a href="#Page_118">118</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Chestnut as Timber, <a href="#Page_240">240</a></li> +<li class="isub2">—— for Town Planting, <a href="#Page_104">104</a></li> +<li class="isub2">—— —— Economic Planting, <a href="#Page_51">51</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Clay Soil for Tree Plantations, <a href="#Page_138">138</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Cleaning and Pruning Hedges, <a href="#Page_189">189</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Climbers for Town Planting, <a href="#Page_107">107</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Cluster Pine for Planting, <a href="#Page_81">81</a></li> +<li class="isub2">—— —— —— Ornamental Planting, <a href="#Page_118">118</a></li> +<li class="isub2">—— —— —— Seaside Planting, <a href="#Page_81">81</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Cockchafer, <a href="#Page_202">202</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Colchic Laurel for Hedge Planting, <a href="#Page_189">189</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Collecting Tree Seeds, <a href="#Page_8">8</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Common Alder for Seaside Planting, <a href="#Page_78">78</a></li> +<li class="isub2">—— Gorse for Seaside Planting, <a href="#Page_84">84</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Common Holly for Seaside Planting, <a href="#Page_84">84</a></li> +<li class="isub2">—— Ivy for Carpeting in Shade, <a href="#Page_191">191</a></li> +<li class="isub2">—— —— —— Town Planting, <a href="#Page_107">107</a></li> +<li class="isub2">—— Laburnum for Seaside Planting, <a href="#Page_84">84</a></li> +<li class="isub2">—— Laurel for Hedge Planting, <a href="#Page_189">189</a></li> +<li class="isub2">—— London Plane for Town Planting, <a href="#Page_98">98</a></li> +<li class="isub2">—— Mulberry for Town Planting, <a href="#Page_102">102</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Comparative Value of Woods for Charcoal Making, <a href="#Page_231">231</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Conifers suitable for Chalky Soil, <a href="#Page_131">131</a></li> +<li class="isub2">—— —— —— Reclaimed Peat Bog, <a href="#Page_129">129</a></li> +<li class="isub2">—— for Economic Planting, <a href="#Page_57">57</a></li> +<li class="isub2">—— —— Town Planting, <a href="#Page_108">108</a></li> +<li class="isub2">—— Seeds, <a href="#Page_9">9</a></li> +<li class="isub2">—— Seaside, <a href="#Page_80">80</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Contract Work, Prices of, <a href="#Page_277">277</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Contents, xi</li> +<li class="isub2">Coppice Wood Management, <a href="#Page_170">170</a></li> +<li class="isub2">—— Cost of, <a href="#Page_173">173</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Cornelian Cherry for Ornamental Planting, <a href="#Page_118">118</a></li> +<li class="isub2">—— —— —— Hedgerow Planting, <a href="#Page_111">111</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Corsican Pine for Economic Planting, <a href="#Page_59">59</a></li> +<li class="isub2">—— —— —— Exposed Planting, <a href="#Page_70">70</a></li> +<li class="isub2">—— —— —— Ornamental Planting, <a href="#Page_118">118</a></li> +<li class="isub2">—— —— —— Seaside Planting, <a href="#Page_81">81</a></li> +<li class="isub2">—— —— Seeds, <a href="#Page_11">11</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Cost of Forming Plantations, <a href="#Page_287">287-288</a></li> +<li class="isub2"><i>Cratægus Pyracantha</i> for Town Planting, <a href="#Page_108">108</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Cricket Bat Willow, <a href="#Page_54">54</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Cryptomeria for Ornamental Planting, <a href="#Page_118">118</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Cucumber Tree for Town Planting, <a href="#Page_101">101</a></li> +<li class="isub2"><i>Cupressus Lawsoniana</i>, Seed of, <a href="#Page_11">11</a> + <span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_297"></a>[Pg 297]</span></li> +<li class="isub2">—— —— for Town Planting, <a href="#Page_109">109</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Currant, Flowering, for Town Planting, <a href="#Page_106">106</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Cut-leaved Trees, <a href="#Page_121">121</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Cutting Osiers, <a href="#Page_247">247</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Cypress for Ornamental Planting, <a href="#Page_118">118</a></li> +<li class="isub2">—— —— Seaside Planting, <a href="#Page_82">82</a></li> + +<li class="isub10 ifrst">D</li> +<li class="isub2"><i>Daphne Laureola</i> for Seaside Planting, <a href="#Page_84">84</a></li> +<li class="isub2">—— <i>Mezereon</i> for Seaside Planting, <a href="#Page_84">84</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Darwin’s Barberry for Seaside Planting, <a href="#Page_84">84</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Deciduous Cypress for Ornamental Planting, <a href="#Page_117">117</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Dedication, v</li> +<li class="isub2">Dogwood for Seaside Planting, <a href="#Page_83">83</a></li> +<li class="isub2">—— —— Charcoal, <a href="#Page_232">232</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Double Furze for Town Planting, <a href="#Page_106">106</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Douglas Fir for Economic Planting, <a href="#Page_63">63</a></li> +<li class="isub2">—— —— Seed, <a href="#Page_12">12</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Draining——Tools used, <a href="#Page_37">37</a></li> +<li class="isub2">—— and Clearing Ground for Plantations, <a href="#Page_36">36</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Dried Leaves as Litter, <a href="#Page_251">251</a></li> + +<li class="isub10 ifrst">E</li> +<li class="isub2">Economic Planting, <a href="#Page_47">47</a></li> +<li class="isub2">—— —— Trees for, <a href="#Page_48">48</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Elder for Exposed Planting, <a href="#Page_70">70</a></li> +<li class="isub2">—— —— Seaside Planting, <a href="#Page_76">76</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Elegant Cryptomeria for Ornamental Planting, <a href="#Page_118">118</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Elm, as Timber, <a href="#Page_240">240</a></li> +<li class="isub2">—— English for Hedge Planting, <a href="#Page_111">111</a></li> +<li class="isub2">—— for Economic Planting, <a href="#Page_51">51</a></li> +<li class="isub2">—— —— Exposed Planting, <a href="#Page_70">70</a></li> +<li class="isub2">—— —— Seaside Planting, <a href="#Page_79">79</a></li> +<li class="isub2">—— —— Town Planting, <a href="#Page_104">104</a></li> +<li class="isub2">—— Scotch, for Seaside Planting, <a href="#Page_85">85</a></li> +<li class="isub2">—— Seed, <a href="#Page_12">12</a></li> +<li class="isub2">—— Tree Destroyer, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>, <a href="#Page_200">200</a></li> +<li class="isub2">English Elm for Hedge Planting, <a href="#Page_111">111</a></li> +<li class="isub2">—— Maple for Seaside Planting, <a href="#Page_79">79</a></li> +<li class="isub2"><i>Euonymus Japonicus</i> for Seaside Planting, <a href="#Page_84">84</a></li> +<li class="isub2">—— <i>Radicans Variegata</i> for Carpeting in Shade, <a href="#Page_192">192</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Evergreen Honeysuckle for Town Planting, <a href="#Page_107">107</a></li> +<li class="isub2">—— Oak for Seaside Planting, <a href="#Page_79">79</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Exposed Ground, Planting, <a href="#Page_72">72</a></li> + +<li class="isub10 ifrst">F</li> +<li class="isub2">Faggots, <a href="#Page_255">255</a></li> +<li class="isub2">False Acacia for Town Planting, <a href="#Page_102">102</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Felling——Tools used, <a href="#Page_43">43</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Felted Beech Coccus, <a href="#Page_205">205</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Fencing, <a href="#Page_97">97</a></li> +<li class="isub2">—— Plantations, <a href="#Page_257">257</a></li> +<li class="isub2">—— Tools used, <a href="#Page_264">264</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Fern-leaved Beech for Ornamental Planting, <a href="#Page_118">118</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Financial Returns of Planting, <a href="#Page_290">290</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Firewood, <a href="#Page_252">252</a></li> +<li class="isub2"><i>Fitzroya Patagonica</i> for Ornamental Planting, <a href="#Page_118">118</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Flowering Currant for Town Planting, <a href="#Page_106">106</a></li> +<li class="isub2">—— Trees for Ornamental Planting, <a href="#Page_116">116</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Forest Area of the World, <a href="#Page_280">280</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Forest By-Products, <a href="#Page_250">250</a></li> +<li class="isub2">—— Produce, Utilizing, <a href="#Page_250">250</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Forestry and the War, <a href="#Page_1">1</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Formation of Game Coverts, <a href="#Page_174">174</a></li> +<li class="isub2">—— —— Plantations, <a href="#Page_32">32</a></li> +<li class="isub2"><i>Forsythia Viridissima</i> for Town Planting, <a href="#Page_106">106</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Fountain Willow, <a href="#Page_121">121</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Fruit Trees for Ornamental Planting, <a href="#Page_116">116</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Fungi on Trees, <a href="#Page_212">212</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Furze for Hedge Planting, <a href="#Page_188">188</a></li> +<li class="isub2">—— —— Town Planting, <a href="#Page_106">106</a></li> + +<li class="isub10 ifrst">G</li> +<li class="isub2">Game Coverts, Formation and Management, <a href="#Page_184">184</a></li> +<li class="isub2"><i>Gaultheria Procumbens</i> for Carpeting in Shade, <a href="#Page_192">192</a></li> +<li class="isub2">—— <i>Shallon</i> for Carpeting in Shade, <a href="#Page_192">192</a></li> +<li class="isub2">—— —— —— Game Coverts, <a href="#Page_181">181</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Giant Arborvitæ for Economic Planting, <a href="#Page_64">64</a></li> +<li class="isub2">—— —— —— Seaside Planting, <a href="#Page_81">81</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Goat Moth, <a href="#Page_200">200</a></li> +<li class="isub2">—— Willow for Seaside Planting, <a href="#Page_78">78</a> + <span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_298"></a>[Pg 298]</span></li> +<li class="isub2">Golden Willow for Ornamental Planting, <a href="#Page_117">117</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Gorse for Hedge Planting, <a href="#Page_188">188</a></li> +<li class="isub2">—— —— Seaside Planting, <a href="#Page_84">84</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Grasses for the Sea-Coast, <a href="#Page_86">86</a></li> +<li class="isub2">—— —— Woodland Drives, <a href="#Page_34">34</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Gravelly Soil for Tree Plantation, 131-<a href="#Page_137">137</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Green Tree Box for Game Coverts, <a href="#Page_177">177</a></li> +<li class="isub2"><i>Griselinia Littoralis</i> for Seaside Planting, <a href="#Page_83">83</a></li> +<li class="isub2">—— —— —— Town Planting, <a href="#Page_105">105</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Groundsel Tree for Seaside Planting, <a href="#Page_84">84</a></li> + +<li class="isub10 ifrst">H</li> +<li class="isub2">Hard-wooded Trees for Economic Planting, <a href="#Page_47">47</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Hardwoods for Chalky Soil, <a href="#Page_130">130</a></li> +<li class="isub2">—— —— Clay Soils, <a href="#Page_132">132</a></li> +<li class="isub2">—— —— Gravelly Soil, <a href="#Page_131">131</a></li> +<li class="isub2">—— —— Ironstone Soils, <a href="#Page_133">133</a></li> +<li class="isub2">—— —— Reclaimed Peat Bog, <a href="#Page_129">129</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Hawthorn Seed, <a href="#Page_12">12</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Hazel Nuts, <a href="#Page_12">12</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Heather for the Shade, <a href="#Page_192">192</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Heaven, Tree of, for Town Planting, <a href="#Page_101">101</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Hedges as Fences, <a href="#Page_185">185</a></li> +<li class="isub2">—— Formation of, <a href="#Page_184">184</a></li> +<li class="isub2">—— Management, <a href="#Page_184">184</a></li> +<li class="isub2">—— Ornamental, <a href="#Page_188">188</a></li> +<li class="isub2">—— Planting, <a href="#Page_186">186</a></li> +<li class="isub2">—— Pruning, <a href="#Page_189">189</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Hedgerow and Field Planting, <a href="#Page_110">110</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Hedging Tools used, <a href="#Page_185">185</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Height of Trees, Measuring, <a href="#Page_271">271</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Hoary Alder for Seaside Planting, <a href="#Page_78">78</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Holly as Timber, <a href="#Page_240">240</a></li> +<li class="isub2">—— Berries, <a href="#Page_12">12</a></li> +<li class="isub2">—— Fly, <a href="#Page_204">204</a></li> +<li class="isub2">—— for Game Coverts, <a href="#Page_181">181</a></li> +<li class="isub2">—— —— Hedge Planting, <a href="#Page_188">188</a></li> +<li class="isub2">—— —— Seaside Planting, <a href="#Page_84">84</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Home Nursery, <a href="#Page_24">24</a></li> +<li class="isub2">—— —— Spring Work, <a href="#Page_28">28</a></li> +<li class="isub2">—— —— Summer Work, <a href="#Page_30">30</a></li> +<li class="isub2">—— —— Autumn Work, <a href="#Page_30">30</a></li> +<li class="isub2">—— —— Winter Work, <a href="#Page_30">30</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Honeysuckle for Town Planting, <a href="#Page_107">107</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Hornbeam as Timber, <a href="#Page_241">241</a></li> +<li class="isub2">—— for Exposed Planting, <a href="#Page_70">70</a></li> +<li class="isub2">—— —— Hedge Planting, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, <a href="#Page_167">167</a></li> +<li class="isub2">—— —— Seaside Planting, <a href="#Page_80">80</a></li> +<li class="isub2">—— —— Town Planting, <a href="#Page_104">104</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Horse Chestnut as Timber, <a href="#Page_241">241</a></li> +<li class="isub2">—— —— for Town Planting, <a href="#Page_104">104</a></li> +<li class="isub2">—— —— Seeds, <a href="#Page_12">12</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Hot and Dry Soils, Shrubs for, <a href="#Page_134">134</a></li> +<li class="isub2">How to Prune, <a href="#Page_157">157</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Huntingdon Willow for Seaside Planting, <a href="#Page_77">77</a></li> +<li class="isub2"><i>Hypericum Calycinum</i> for Seaside Planting, <a href="#Page_84">84</a></li> + +<li class="isub10 ifrst">I</li> +<li class="isub2">Imperial Alder for Ornamental Planting, <a href="#Page_117">117</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Index, <a href="#Page_295">295</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Indian Bean for Town Planting, <a href="#Page_102">102</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Insects and Diseases Injurious to Forest Trees, <a href="#Page_193">193</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Introduction, ix</li> +<li class="isub2">Ironstone Soil for Plantations, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Italian Poplar for Town Planting, <a href="#Page_101">101</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Ivy for Carpeting in Shade, <a href="#Page_191">191</a></li> +<li class="isub2">—— —— Town Planting, <a href="#Page_107">107</a></li> + +<li class="isub10 ifrst">J</li> +<li class="isub2">Japanese Cryptomeria for Ornamental Planting, <a href="#Page_118">118</a></li> +<li class="isub2"><i>Jasminum Nudiflorum</i> for Town Planting, <a href="#Page_108">108</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Juneberry for Ornamental Planting, <a href="#Page_118">118</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Juniper, Savin for towns, <a href="#Page_109">109</a></li> + +<li class="isub10 ifrst">K</li> +<li class="isub2">Kentucky Coffee-Tree for Town Planting, <a href="#Page_106">106</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Kilmarnock Willow, <a href="#Page_121">121</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Kiln Burning Charcoal, <a href="#Page_231">231</a></li> + +<li class="isub10 ifrst">L</li> +<li class="isub2">Laburnum, Common, for Seaside Planting, <a href="#Page_84">84</a></li> +<li class="isub2">—— Moth, <a href="#Page_202">202</a></li> +<li class="isub2">—— Scotch, for Seaside Planting, <a href="#Page_84">84</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Lackey Moth, <a href="#Page_200">200</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Land Sale on the Gwydyr Estate, <a href="#Page_287">287</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Larch Aphis, <a href="#Page_197">197</a></li> +<li class="isub2">—— Canker, <a href="#Page_213">213</a></li> +<li class="isub2">—— Cones, <a href="#Page_12">12</a></li> +<li class="isub2">—— Disease, Cause and Remedy, <a href="#Page_213">213</a></li> +<li class="isub2">—— for Economic Planting, <a href="#Page_57">57</a> + <span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_299"></a>[Pg 299]</span></li> +<li class="isub2">—— —— Exposed Planting, <a href="#Page_71">71</a></li> +<li class="isub2">—— —— Hedge Planting, <a href="#Page_114">114</a></li> +<li class="isub2">—— Miner, <a href="#Page_195">195</a></li> +<li class="isub2">—— Sawfly, <a href="#Page_198">198</a></li> +<li class="isub2">—— Timber, <a href="#Page_241">241</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Large-Fruited Cypress for Seaside Planting, <a href="#Page_82">82</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Laurel Spurge for Carpeting in Shade, <a href="#Page_192">192</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Laurustinus for Game Coverts, <a href="#Page_179">179</a></li> +<li class="isub2">—— —— Hedge Planting, <a href="#Page_188">188</a></li> +<li class="isub2">—— —— Seaside Planting, <a href="#Page_83">83</a></li> +<li class="isub2">—— —— Town Planting, <a href="#Page_107">107</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Leaf-Shedding Fungus, <a href="#Page_218">218</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Levelling, <a href="#Page_38">38</a></li> +<li class="isub2"><i>Leycesteria Formosa</i> for Town Planting, <a href="#Page_106">106</a></li> +<li class="isub2"><i>Ligustrum Coriaceum</i> for Town Planting, <a href="#Page_105">105</a></li> +<li class="isub2">—— <i>Ovalifolium</i> for Seaside Planting, <a href="#Page_84">84</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Lilacs for Seaside Planting, <a href="#Page_84">84</a></li> +<li class="isub2">—— —— Town Planting, <a href="#Page_84">84</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Lime as Timber, <a href="#Page_241">241</a></li> +<li class="isub2">—— for Hedge Planting, <a href="#Page_113">113</a></li> +<li class="isub2">—— —— Town Planting, <a href="#Page_103">103</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Litter of Dried Leaves, <a href="#Page_251">251</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Lombardy Poplar for Hedge Planting, <a href="#Page_112">112</a></li> +<li class="isub2">—— —— —— Town Planting, <a href="#Page_101">101</a></li> +<li class="isub2">London Plane for Town Planting, <a href="#Page_98">98</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Lymegrass for Seaside Planting, <a href="#Page_84">84</a></li> + +<li class="isub10 ifrst">M</li> +<li class="isub2">Magnolias for Ornamental Planting, <a href="#Page_118">118</a></li> +<li class="isub2">—— for Town Planting, <a href="#Page_101">101</a></li> +<li class="isub2"><i>Mahonia Aquifolia</i> for Game Coverts, <a href="#Page_180">180</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Maidenhair Tree for Town Planting, <a href="#Page_100">100</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Manna Ash for Ornamental Planting, <a href="#Page_118">118</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Manufacture of Charcoal, <a href="#Page_226">226</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Manure for Home Nursery, <a href="#Page_26">26</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Maple as Timber, <a href="#Page_241">241</a></li> +<li class="isub2">—— for Seaside Planting, <a href="#Page_79">79</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Maram for Seaside Planting, <a href="#Page_84">84</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Measuring Height of Trees, <a href="#Page_272">272</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Measuring Standing Timber, <a href="#Page_270">270</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Mezereon Laurel for Carpeting in Shade, <a href="#Page_192">192</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Minor Products of Forest Waste, <a href="#Page_256">256</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Mountain Ash for Exposed Planting, <a href="#Page_70">70</a></li> +<li class="isub2">—— —— —— Seaside Planting, <a href="#Page_78">78</a></li> +<li class="isub2">—— —— —— Town Planting, <a href="#Page_104">104</a></li> +<li class="isub2">—— —— Seed, <a href="#Page_12">12</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Mulberry for Town Planting, <a href="#Page_102">102</a></li> + +<li class="isub10 ifrst">N</li> +<li class="isub2">Norway Maple for Seaside Planting, <a href="#Page_76">76</a></li> +<li class="isub2">—— Spruce for Economic Planting, <a href="#Page_64">64</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Notch Planting, <a href="#Page_44">44</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Nursery, Formation and Management, <a href="#Page_24">24</a></li> +<li class="isub2">—— Home, its Formation and Management, <a href="#Page_24">24</a></li> +<li class="isub2">—— Plan of, <a href="#Page_27">27</a></li> +<li class="isub2">—— Tools used in, <a href="#Page_29">29</a></li> +<li class="isub2">—— Work for the Seasons, <a href="#Page_28">28</a></li> + +<li class="isub10 ifrst">O</li> +<li class="isub2">Oak as Timber, <a href="#Page_241">241</a></li> +<li class="isub2">—— Evergreen for Seaside Planting, <a href="#Page_79">79</a></li> +<li class="isub2">—— for Economic Planting, <a href="#Page_47">47</a></li> +<li class="isub2">—— —— Exposed Planting, <a href="#Page_71">71</a></li> +<li class="isub2">—— —— Seaside Planting, <a href="#Page_79">79</a></li> +<li class="isub2">—— —— Roller Moth, <a href="#Page_204">204</a></li> +<li class="isub2">—— Seed, <a href="#Page_13">13</a></li> +<li class="isub2"><i>Olearia Hastii</i>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a></li> +<li class="isub2"><i>—— Macrodonta</i>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Oriental Plane for Town Planting, <a href="#Page_98">98</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Ornamental Planting, <a href="#Page_116">116</a></li> +<li class="isub2">—— Weeping Trees, <a href="#Page_121">121</a></li> +<li class="isub2"><i>Osmanthus Ilicifolius</i> for Town Planting, <a href="#Page_105">105</a></li> + +<li class="isub10 ifrst">P</li> +<li class="isub2">Paper=Pulp, <a href="#Page_251">251</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Peat Soil, <a href="#Page_129">129</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Periwinkles for Carpeting in Shade, <a href="#Page_191">191</a></li> +<li class="isub2"><i>Phillyrea Vilmoriniana</i> for Town Planting, <a href="#Page_106">106</a></li> +<li class="isub2"><i>Picia Sitchensis</i>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Pine Beetle, <a href="#Page_193">193</a></li> +<li class="isub2">—— for Economic Planting, <a href="#Page_59">59</a></li> +<li class="isub2">—— —— Exposed Planting, <a href="#Page_70">70</a></li> +<li class="isub2">—— —— Ornamental Planting, <a href="#Page_121">121</a> + <span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_300"></a>[Pg 300]</span></li> +<li class="isub2">—— —— Seaside Planting, <a href="#Page_81">81</a></li> +<li class="isub2">—— Sawfly, <a href="#Page_196">196</a></li> +<li class="isub2">—— Shoot Moth, <a href="#Page_195">195</a></li> +<li class="isub2">—— Weevil, <a href="#Page_194">194</a></li> +<li class="isub2"><i>Pinus Insignis</i>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a></li> +<li class="isub2"><i>—— Montana</i> for Seaside Planting, <a href="#Page_81">81-85</a></li> +<li class="isub2"><i>—— Macrocarpa</i> Seed, <a href="#Page_14">14</a></li> +<li class="isub2"><i>—— Sabiniana</i> Seed, <a href="#Page_14">14</a></li> +<li class="isub2"><i>—— Stropus</i>, <a href="#Page_11">11</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Pitch, <a href="#Page_251">251</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Pitting, <a href="#Page_40">40</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Plane for Town Planting, <a href="#Page_99">99</a></li> +<li class="isub2">—— Tree in Regent’s Park, <a href="#Page_99">99</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Plantations, Formation and Cost, <a href="#Page_32">32</a></li> +<li class="isub2">—— Hedges, <a href="#Page_184">184</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Planting, <a href="#Page_41">41</a></li> +<li class="isub2">—— Advantages of Tree, <a href="#Page_293">293</a></li> +<li class="isub2">—— Exposed Ground, <a href="#Page_68">68</a></li> +<li class="isub2">—— Financial Returns of, <a href="#Page_290">290</a></li> +<li class="isub2">—— Hedges, <a href="#Page_184">184</a></li> +<li class="isub2">—— Iron, <a href="#Page_45">45</a></li> +<li class="isub2">—— Ironstone Soils, <a href="#Page_133">133</a></li> +<li class="isub2">—— Notch, <a href="#Page_44">44</a></li> +<li class="isub2">—— Ornamental, <a href="#Page_121">121</a></li> +<li class="isub2">—— Osiers, <a href="#Page_243">243</a></li> +<li class="isub2">—— Tools used for, <a href="#Page_43">43</a></li> +<li class="isub2"><i>Polyporus Sulphureus</i>, <a href="#Page_219">219</a></li> +<li class="isub2"><i>—— Squamosus</i>, <a href="#Page_216">216</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Poplar as Timber, <a href="#Page_241">241</a></li> +<li class="isub2">—— for Economic Planting, <a href="#Page_57">57</a></li> +<li class="isub2">—— Town Planting, <a href="#Page_101">101</a></li> +<li class="isub2"><i>Populus Canadensis</i> for Seaside Planting, <a href="#Page_78">78</a></li> +<li class="isub2"><i>—— Alba</i> for Seaside Planting, <a href="#Page_78">78</a></li> +<li class="isub2"><i>—— Nigra</i> for Seaside Planting, <a href="#Page_78">78</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Portugal Laurel for Seaside Planting, <a href="#Page_84">84</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Preface, vii</li> +<li class="isub2">Preparation of Ground for Town Planting, <a href="#Page_92">92</a></li> +<li class="isub2">—— —— —— Hedges, <a href="#Page_184">184</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Prices of Contract Work, <a href="#Page_277">277</a></li> +<li class="isub2">—— of Timber per ton, <a href="#Page_239">239</a></li> +<li class="isub2">—— —— —— per cubic foot, <a href="#Page_238">238</a></li> +<li class="isub2">—— —— Forest Produce, <a href="#Page_237">237</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Prince Albert’s Fir for Ornamental Planting, <a href="#Page_118">118</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Privet for Game Coverts, <a href="#Page_178">178</a></li> +<li class="isub2">—— —— Hedge Planting, <a href="#Page_188">188</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Propagating Trees and Shrubs, <a href="#Page_15">15</a></li> +<li class="isub2">—— by Cuttings, <a href="#Page_19">19</a></li> +<li class="isub2">—— —— Grafting, <a href="#Page_22">22</a></li> +<li class="isub2">—— from Budding, <a href="#Page_23">23</a></li> +<li class="isub2">—— —— Layers, <a href="#Page_21">21</a></li> +<li class="isub2">—— —— Seed, <a href="#Page_15">15</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Prune, How and When to, <a href="#Page_157">157</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Pruning Bad Effects of, <a href="#Page_152">152</a></li> +<li class="isub2">—— Dead Wood, <a href="#Page_155">155</a></li> +<li class="isub2">—— Hedges, <a href="#Page_152">152</a></li> +<li class="isub2">—— Live Branches, <a href="#Page_154">154</a></li> +<li class="isub2">—— Shrubs, <a href="#Page_157">157</a></li> +<li class="isub2">—— Tools used in, <a href="#Page_153">153</a></li> +<li class="isub2">—— Trees, <a href="#Page_151">151</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Purple Willow for Ornamental Planting, <a href="#Page_117">117</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Pyrus for Ornamental Planting, <a href="#Page_118">118</a></li> + +<li class="isub10 ifrst">Q</li> +<li class="isub2">Quick Hedges, <a href="#Page_186">186</a></li> + +<li class="isub10 ifrst">R</li> +<li class="isub2">Red-Rot Fungus, <a href="#Page_217">217</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Red Spider, <a href="#Page_201">201</a></li> +<li class="isub2"><i>Retinospora</i> for Town Planting, <a href="#Page_109">109</a></li> +<li class="isub2"><i>Rhamnus Frangula</i> for Charcoal, <a href="#Page_233">233</a></li> +<li class="isub2"><i>Rhododendron Ponticum</i> for Game Coverts, <a href="#Page_180">180</a></li> +<li class="isub2"><i>Rhytisma Punctata</i>, <a href="#Page_216">216</a></li> +<li class="isub2"><i>Rosa Rugosa</i> for Hedge Planting, <a href="#Page_188">188</a></li> +<li class="isub2"><i>—— Rubiginosa</i> for Hedge Planting, <a href="#Page_188">188</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Rowan Tree for Town Planting, <a href="#Page_104">104</a></li> +<li class="isub2"><i>Ruscus Aculeatus</i> for Seaside Planting, <a href="#Page_84">84</a></li> + +<li class="isub10 ifrst">S</li> +<li class="isub2">St. John’s Wort for Carpeting in Shade, <a href="#Page_191">191</a></li> +<li class="isub2">—— —— —— —— Game Coverts, <a href="#Page_182">182</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Scotch Elm for Exposed Planting, <a href="#Page_70">70</a></li> +<li class="isub2">—— —— —— Seaside Planting, <a href="#Page_79">79</a></li> +<li class="isub2">—— Fir as Timber, <a href="#Page_242">242</a></li> +<li class="isub2">—— —— for Hedge Planting, <a href="#Page_113">113</a></li> +<li class="isub2">—— Laburnum for Seaside Planting, <a href="#Page_84">84</a></li> +<li class="isub2">—— Pine for Economic Planting, <a href="#Page_62">62</a></li> +<li class="isub2">—— —— —— Exposed Planting, <a href="#Page_70">70</a></li> +<li class="isub2">—— —— —— Ornamental Planting, <a href="#Page_118">118</a></li> +<li class="isub2">—— —— —— Seaside Planting, <a href="#Page_82">82</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Sea Buckthorn for Seaside Planting, <a href="#Page_82">82</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Seaside Planting, <a href="#Page_73">73</a></li> +<li class="isub2">—— —— Hardwoods for, <a href="#Page_76">76</a> + <span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_301"></a>[Pg 301]</span></li> +<li class="isub2">—— —— Shrubs for, <a href="#Page_82">82</a></li> +<li class="isub2">—— —— List of Trees for, <a href="#Page_85">85</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Seed, Best Depth for Germinating, <a href="#Page_17">17</a></li> +<li class="isub2">—— Collecting and Harvesting, <a href="#Page_8">8</a></li> +<li class="isub2">—— of Various Trees contained in a Bushel, <a href="#Page_10">10</a></li> +<li class="isub2">—— Required to plant 100 sq. ft., <a href="#Page_18">18</a></li> +<li class="isub2">—— Tree, number in a lb., <a href="#Page_10">10</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Selecting Tree Seeds, <a href="#Page_9">9</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Shade-loving Shrubs, <a href="#Page_191">191</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Shrubs for Carpeting in Shade, <a href="#Page_191">191</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Shrubs for Hot and Dry Soils, <a href="#Page_134">134</a></li> +<li class="isub2">—— —— the Sea-Coast, <a href="#Page_82">82-86</a></li> +<li class="isub2">—— —— Town Planting, <a href="#Page_105">105-107</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Silver Fir as Timber, <a href="#Page_242">242</a></li> +<li class="isub2">—— —— for Economic Planting, <a href="#Page_64">64</a></li> +<li class="isub2">—— —— Seed, <a href="#Page_13">13</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Sitka Spruce for Economic Planting, <a href="#Page_59">59</a></li> +<li class="isub2"><i>Skimmia Japonica</i> for Town Planting, <a href="#Page_106">106</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Slate Fences for Plantations, <a href="#Page_258">258</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Slit Planting, <a href="#Page_44">44</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Snowberry for Seaside Planting, <a href="#Page_83">83</a></li> +<li class="isub2"><i>Snowy Mespilus</i> for Town Planting, <a href="#Page_106">106</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Soil for Home Nursery, <a href="#Page_26">26</a></li> +<li class="isub2"><i>Sophora Japonica</i> for Town Planting, <a href="#Page_104">104</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Spanish Broom for Seaside Planting, <a href="#Page_84">84</a></li> +<li class="isub2">—— Chestnut as Timber, <a href="#Page_51">51</a></li> +<li class="isub2">—— —— for Economic Planting, <a href="#Page_51">51</a></li> +<li class="isub2">—— —— Seed, <a href="#Page_12">12</a></li> +<li class="isub2">—— Silver Fir for Ornamental Planting, <a href="#Page_118">118</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Spider, Red, <a href="#Page_201">201</a></li> +<li class="isub2"><i>Spirea Adiantifola</i> for Seaside Planting, <a href="#Page_83">83</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Spring Work in Home Nursery, <a href="#Page_28">28</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Spruce Fir as Timber, <a href="#Page_242">242</a></li> +<li class="isub2">—— for Economic Planting, <a href="#Page_59">59</a></li> +<li class="isub2">—— —— Ornamental Planting, <a href="#Page_118">118</a></li> +<li class="isub2">—— Gall Aphis, <a href="#Page_198">198</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Spurge Laurel for Carpeting in Shade, <a href="#Page_192">192</a></li> +<li class="isub2">—— —— —— Town Planting, <a href="#Page_106">106</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Stag’s Horn Sumach for Town Planting, <a href="#Page_106">106</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Staking Trees, <a href="#Page_119">119</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Standing Timber Measuring, <a href="#Page_270">270</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Stone Walls for Fencing Plantations, <a href="#Page_257">257</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Strawberry Trees for Town Planting, <a href="#Page_106">106</a></li> +<li class="isub2">—— —— for Seaside, <a href="#Page_84">84</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Summer Work in Home Nursery, <a href="#Page_30">30</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Sweet-Bay for Seaside Planting, <a href="#Page_84">84</a></li> +<li class="isub2">—— Briar for Hedge Planting, <a href="#Page_188">188</a></li> +<li class="isub2">—— Chestnut for Economic Planting, <a href="#Page_51">51</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Sycamore as Timber, <a href="#Page_242">242</a></li> +<li class="isub2">—— for Economic Planting, <a href="#Page_51">51</a></li> +<li class="isub2">—— —— Exposed Planting, <a href="#Page_70">70</a></li> +<li class="isub2">—— —— Hedge Planting, <a href="#Page_112">112</a></li> +<li class="isub2">—— —— Seaside Planting, <a href="#Page_76">76</a></li> +<li class="isub2">—— —— Town Planting, <a href="#Page_104">104</a></li> +<li class="isub2">—— Fungus, <a href="#Page_216">216</a></li> + +<li class="isub10 ifrst">T</li> +<li class="isub2">Tamarisk for Seaside Planting, <a href="#Page_76">76-82</a></li> +<li class="isub2"><i>Tamarix Gallica</i> for Seaside Planting, <a href="#Page_82">82</a></li> +<li class="isub2"><i>—— Germanica</i> for Seaside Planting, <a href="#Page_82">82</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Tansy-leaved Thorn for Town Planting, <a href="#Page_105">105</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Tar, <a href="#Page_251">251</a></li> +<li class="isub2"><i>Taxodium Distichum</i> for Town Planting, <a href="#Page_109">109</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Thinning Plantations, <a href="#Page_141">141</a></li> +<li class="isub2">—— —— Rules for, <a href="#Page_149">149</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Thorn Fly, <a href="#Page_202">202</a></li> +<li class="isub2">—— for Hedge Planting, <a href="#Page_186">186</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Thorns for Ornamental Planting, <a href="#Page_118">118</a></li> +<li class="isub2">—— —— Seaside Planting, <a href="#Page_83">83</a></li> +<li class="isub2">—— —— Town Planting, <a href="#Page_105">105</a></li> +<li class="isub2"><i>Thujopsis Dolabrata</i> for Town Planting, <a href="#Page_109">109</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Timber, British, and Some of Its Uses, <a href="#Page_240">240</a></li> +<li class="isub2">—— Measuring, <a href="#Page_288">288</a></li> +<li class="isub2">—— Prices, <a href="#Page_237">237</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Tools used in Forestry, <a href="#Page_43">43</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Town Planting, <a href="#Page_87">87-109</a></li> +<li class="isub2">—— —— Trees for, <a href="#Page_98">98</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Transplanting Seedlings, <a href="#Page_18">18</a></li> +<li class="isub2">—— Large Trees, <a href="#Page_139">139</a></li> +<li class="isub2">—— Machine, Faulkner’s, <a href="#Page_140">140</a></li> +<li class="isub2">—— Specimen Trees, <a href="#Page_118">118</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Tree Groundsel for Seaside Planting, <a href="#Page_84">84</a></li> +<li class="isub2">—— Guards, <a href="#Page_265">265</a> + <span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_302"></a>[Pg 302]</span></li> +<li class="isub2">—— Mallow for Seaside Planting, <a href="#Page_83">83</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Tree of Heaven for Town Planting, <a href="#Page_101">101</a></li> +<li class="isub2">—— Planting, Advantages of, <a href="#Page_293">293</a></li> +<li class="isub2">—— —— Financial Returns of, <a href="#Page_290">290</a></li> +<li class="isub2">—— Pruning in Economic Forestry, <a href="#Page_151">151</a></li> +<li class="isub2">—— Purslane for Seaside Planting, <a href="#Page_83">83</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Trees and Shrubs, Propagating, <a href="#Page_15">15</a></li> +<li class="isub2">—— best adapted for Various Soils, <a href="#Page_128">128</a></li> +<li class="isub2">—— for Chalky or Calcareous Soils, <a href="#Page_130">130</a></li> +<li class="isub2">—— —— Clay Soils, <a href="#Page_132">132</a></li> +<li class="isub2">—— —— Economic Planting, <a href="#Page_47">47</a></li> +<li class="isub2">—— —— Exposed Planting, <a href="#Page_68">68</a></li> +<li class="isub2">—— —— Gravelly and Sandy Soils, <a href="#Page_131">131</a></li> +<li class="isub2">—— —— Hedge Planting, <a href="#Page_110">110</a></li> +<li class="isub2">—— —— Hedgerow and Field, <a href="#Page_110">110</a></li> +<li class="isub2">—— —— Ironstone Soils, <a href="#Page_133">133</a></li> +<li class="isub2">—— —— —— and Coal Soils, <a href="#Page_133">133</a></li> +<li class="isub2">—— —— Ornamental Planting, <a href="#Page_121">121</a></li> +<li class="isub2">—— —— Peaty Soils <a href="#Page_129">129</a></li> +<li class="isub2">—— —— Seaside Planting, <a href="#Page_85">85</a></li> +<li class="isub2">—— —— Town Planting, <a href="#Page_98">98</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Trumpet Honeysuckle for Town Planting, <a href="#Page_107">107</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Tulip Tree for Town Plantations, <a href="#Page_102">102</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Turf Dykes for Plantations, <a href="#Page_269">269</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Turkey Oak for Seaside Planting, <a href="#Page_79">79</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Turpentine, <a href="#Page_250">250</a></li> + +<li class="isub10 ifrst">U</li> +<li class="isub2">Umbrella Pine for Ornamental Planting, <a href="#Page_118">118</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Underwood, <a href="#Page_170">170</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Uses of Charcoal, <a href="#Page_232">232</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Utilizing Waste Forest Produce, <a href="#Page_250">250</a></li> + +<li class="isub10 ifrst">V</li> +<li class="isub2">Value of Woods for Charcoal Making, <a href="#Page_231">231</a></li> +<li class="isub2">—— —— Reclaimed Peat Bog, <a href="#Page_129">129</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Venetian Sumach for Town Planting, <a href="#Page_106">106</a></li> +<li class="isub2"><i>Vinca Major</i> for Seaside Planting, <a href="#Page_84">84</a></li> +<li class="isub2">—— <i>Minor</i> for Seaside Planting, <a href="#Page_84">84</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Vine for Town Planting, <a href="#Page_108">108</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Virginia Creeper for Town Planting, <a href="#Page_107">107</a></li> + +<li class="isub10 ifrst">W</li> +<li class="isub2">Walnut as Timber, <a href="#Page_242">242</a></li> +<li class="isub2">—— for Town Planting, <a href="#Page_104">104</a></li> +<li class="isub2">—— Seed, <a href="#Page_13">13</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Waste Forest Produce, Utilizing, <a href="#Page_250">250</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Water for Home Nursery, <a href="#Page_26">26</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Watering Trees, <a href="#Page_97">97</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Wayfaring Tree for Town Planting, <a href="#Page_106">106</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Weeping Ash for Town Planting, <a href="#Page_104">104</a></li> +<li class="isub2">—— Trees for Ornamental Planting, <a href="#Page_121">121</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Weymouth Pine for Economic Planting, <a href="#Page_60">60</a></li> +<li class="isub2">—— Pine Seeds, <a href="#Page_11">11</a></li> +<li class="isub2">When to Prune, <a href="#Page_157">157</a></li> +<li class="isub2">White Beam Tree for Town Planting, <a href="#Page_102">102</a></li> +<li class="isub2">—— Fruited Mulberry for Town Planting, <a href="#Page_102">102</a></li> +<li class="isub2">—— Rot Fungus, <a href="#Page_218">218</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Wild Cherry for Exposed Planting, <a href="#Page_71">71</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Willow Beetle, <a href="#Page_197">197</a></li> +<li class="isub2">—— Culture, <a href="#Page_243">243</a></li> +<li class="isub2">—— for Economic Planting, <a href="#Page_54">54</a></li> +<li class="isub2">—— —— Ornamental Planting, <a href="#Page_117">117</a></li> +<li class="isub2">—— —— Seaside Planting, <a href="#Page_78">78</a></li> +<li class="isub2">—— —— Timber, <a href="#Page_242">242</a></li> +<li class="isub2">—— —— Town Planting, <a href="#Page_104">104</a></li> +<li class="isub2">—— Kilmarnock, <a href="#Page_121">121</a></li> +<li class="isub2">—— Ringlet, <a href="#Page_121">121</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Willows for Basket-Making, <a href="#Page_243">243</a></li> +<li class="isub2">—— Profits of Culture, <a href="#Page_248">248</a></li> +<li class="isub2">—— Rules for Culture, <a href="#Page_247">247</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Winged Elm for the Seaside, <a href="#Page_77">77</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Winter Moth, <a href="#Page_210">210</a></li> +<li class="isub2">—— Work in Home Nursery, <a href="#Page_30">30</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Wire Fences for Plantations, <a href="#Page_263">263</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Wireworms, <a href="#Page_208">208</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Witch’s Broom or Willow, <a href="#Page_210">210</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Wood Fences for Plantations, <a href="#Page_262">262</a></li> +<li class="isub2">—— Leopard Moth, <a href="#Page_203">203</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Woods for Charcoal Making, <a href="#Page_231">231</a></li> + +<li class="isub10 ifrst">Y</li> +<li class="isub2">Yew as Timber, <a href="#Page_242">242</a></li> +<li class="isub2">—— for Game Coverts, <a href="#Page_181">181</a></li> +<li class="isub2">—— —— Hedge Planting, <a href="#Page_188">188</a></li> +<li class="isub2">—— Seed, <a href="#Page_13">13</a></li> +</ul> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> +<p class="f120 spa1"><b>Butler & Tanner Frome and London</b></p> +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> +<div class="transnote bbox spa2"> +<p class="f120 spa1">Transcriber’s Notes:</p> +<hr class="r10"> +<p>The cover image was created by the transcriber, and is in the public domain.</p> +<p>New original cover art included with this eBook is granted to the public domain.</p> +<p>Deprecated spellings or ancient words were not corrected.</p> +<p>The illustrations have been moved so that they do not break up + paragraphs and so that they are next to the text they illustrate.</p> +<p>Typographical and punctuation errors have been silently corrected.</p> +</div></div> + +<div style='text-align:center'>*** END OF THE PROJECT 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