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+*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 76876 ***
+
+
+
+
+
+Transcriber’s Notes:
+
+  Underscores “_” before and after a word or phrase indicate _italics_
+    in the original text.
+  Equal signs “=” before and after a word or phrase indicate =bold=
+    in the original text.
+  Small capitals have been converted to SOLID capitals.
+  Illustrations have been moved so they do not break up paragraphs.
+  Deprecated spellings have been preserved.
+  Typographical and punctuation errors have been silently corrected.
+
+
+
+
+                   WEBSTER’S PRACTICAL FORESTRY
+
+                       A POPULAR HANDBOOK ON
+                  THE REARING AND GROWTH OF TREES
+                      FOR PROFIT OR ORNAMENT
+
+                         BY A. D. WEBSTER
+
+                            _Author of
+    “Hardy Ornamental Flowering Trees and Shrubs” (3 Editions),
+    “Foresters’ Diary” (15 Editions), “Hardy Coniferous Trees”
+    (2 Editions), “Town Planting,” “Tree Wounds and Diseases,”
+           “British Timber and Timber-Producing Trees,”
+                            etc., etc._
+
+                           FIFTH EDITION
+                       ENLARGED AND REVISED
+
+                              LONDON
+                   WILLIAM RIDER & SON, LIMITED
+             CATHEDRAL HOUSE, PATERNOSTER ROW, E.C. 4
+                               1917
+
+                            TO MY WIFE
+             THE FIFTH EDITION OF “PRACTICAL FORESTRY”
+                           IS DEDICATED
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE TO FIFTH EDITION
+
+
+To the Author at least, it is gratifying to know that four editions of
+_Practical Forestry_ have been sold out, and that a fifth is urgently
+called for; no other work on British Forestry having achieved a like
+popularity.
+
+The whole has now been completely revised and several important
+chapters added, particularly with reference to Timber and the War,
+British Timber and Timber Trees, Afforesting Waste Lands, and The
+Education of Foresters, on both of which latter questions the Author
+had the honour of giving evidence before the Departmental Committee on
+Forestry of the Board of Agriculture.
+
+                                                      A. D. WEBSTER.
+
+    REGENT’S PARK,
+        _June, 1917_.
+
+
+
+
+INTRODUCTION TO FIFTH EDITION
+
+
+In my long experience of British Forestry, which, in a practical way,
+has extended over a period of forty years, I have become more and more
+convinced that in order to place it on a systematic and sound economic
+footing, State aid and the afforesting of large areas of comparatively
+waste lands are first necessities.
+
+For the past thirty years I have not failed to urge upon the State,
+as well as private owners of suitable land, the pressing necessity of
+afforestation; and though in this matter a start has been made, yet
+this can only be looked upon as a faint, half-hearted attempt quite
+unworthy of our country and the vast interests at stake. As early as
+1883, I drew attention to this matter in _Woods and Forests_, and at
+later periods in most of the leading journals and papers of the day;
+while in my evidence given before the Select Committee on Forestry, and
+in a paper contributed by special request to the Board of Agriculture,
+I went fully into the question, and pointed out what a boon to the
+unemployed, and how great a saving to the country would be effected by
+a well-organized scheme of tree planting.
+
+Years ago I urged the Government to take up the question of the Larch
+disease, the ravages of which I then described as being little short
+of a national calamity. To the Highland and Agricultural Society
+of Scotland, and the Royal Scottish Arboricultural Society, I have
+contributed twenty-three papers on different topics connected with
+forestry, for which special medals have been awarded, while my
+_Practical Forestry_ has now passed into a fifth edition.
+
+In connection with the afforesting of waste lands, I have travelled
+over the greater part of the United Kingdom and have examined much
+of the ground that could be set aside for this purpose, including the
+peat bogs of Ireland; while at altitudes up to 1,100 ft. I have formed
+plantations on the bare and wind-swept hillsides of Wales and Scotland,
+which to-day are proving not only a boon to the farmers in the way of
+the shelter they afford, but also a considerable source of profit to
+the owners.
+
+The above investigations, combined with the examination of and reports
+on several of the largest woodland properties in this country, made
+at the request of the owners, have given me a wide insight into the
+forestry problem generally, but particularly with reference to our
+requirements in the near future, in view of the fact that the United
+Kingdom is by far the largest timber-importing country in the world.
+
+    A. D. W.
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS
+
+
+                              CHAPTER I                    PAGE
+    FORESTRY AND THE WAR                                 1
+
+                              CHAPTER II
+    COLLECTING AND STORING TREE SEEDS                    8
+
+                              CHAPTER III
+    PROPAGATING TREES AND SHRUBS                        15
+
+                              CHAPTER IV
+    THE HOME NURSERY: ITS FORMATION AND MANAGEMENT      24
+
+                               CHAPTER V
+    FORMATION OF PLANTATIONS                            32
+
+                              CHAPTER VI
+    TREES FOR ECONOMIC PLANTING                         47
+
+                              CHAPTER VII
+    PLANTING EXPOSED GROUND                             68
+
+                             CHAPTER VIII
+    SEASIDE PLANTING                                    73
+
+                              CHAPTER IX
+    TOWN PLANTING, AND THE TREES AND SHRUBS THAT ARE
+    BEST ADAPTED FOR WITHSTANDING SMOKE                 87
+
+                               CHAPTER X
+    TREES SUITABLE FOR HEDGEROW AND FIELD PLANTING     110
+
+                              CHAPTER XI
+    ORNAMENTAL PLANTING                                116
+
+                              CHAPTER XII
+    TREES BEST ADAPTED FOR VARIOUS SOILS               128
+
+                             CHAPTER XIII
+    TRANSPLANTING LARGE TREES                          139
+
+                              CHAPTER XIV
+    THINNING PLANTATIONS                               141
+
+                              CHAPTER XV
+    TREE-PRUNING IN ECONOMIC FORESTRY                  151
+
+                              CHAPTER XVI
+    BRACING AND REPAIRING TREES                        159
+
+                             CHAPTER XVII
+    COPPICE AND UNDERWOOD                              170
+
+                             CHAPTER XVIII
+    GAME COVERTS: THEIR FORMATION AND MANAGEMENT       174
+
+                              CHAPTER XIX
+    HEDGES: THEIR FORMATION AND MANAGEMENT             184
+
+                              CHAPTER XX
+    SHRUBS FOR SHADY SITUATIONS                        191
+
+                              CHAPTER XXI
+    INSECT ENEMIES OF TREES                            193
+
+                             CHAPTER XXII
+    FUNGUS GROWTH ON TREES                             212
+
+                             CHAPTER XXIII
+    BARKING OAK                                        220
+
+                             CHAPTER XXIV
+    THE MANUFACTURE OF CHARCOAL                        226
+
+                              CHAPTER XXV
+    PRICES OF HOME-GROWN TIMBER                        237
+
+                             CHAPTER XXVI
+    BRITISH-GROWN TIMBER AND SOME OF ITS USES          240
+
+                             CHAPTER XXVII
+    WILLOWS FOR BASKET-MAKING                          243
+
+                            CHAPTER XXVIII
+    UTILIZING WASTE FOREST PRODUCE                     250
+
+                             CHAPTER XXIX
+    FENCING PLANTATIONS                                257
+
+                              CHAPTER XXX
+    TIMBER MEASURING                                   268
+
+                             CHAPTER XXXI
+    BLASTING AND BURNING TREE ROOTS                    273
+
+                             CHAPTER XXXII
+    PRICES OF CONTRACT OR PIECEWORK                    277
+
+                            CHAPTER XXXIII
+    FOREST AREA OF THE WORLD                           280
+
+                             CHAPTER XXXIV
+    AFFORESTING WASTE LANDS AND THE FINANCIAL RETURNS
+      THEREFROM                                        282
+
+    INDEX                                              295
+
+
+
+
+LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
+
+
+                                                 PAGE
+    Arrangement of Plantations                     33
+    Band and Connecting-Rod                       166
+    Barking Tools                                 222
+    Beam Tree in London                           103
+    Beech Tree                                     50
+    Blasting and Burning Tree Roots               273
+    Bracing a Tree                                165
+    Cricket Bat Willow                             55
+    Elm Tree Destroyer                            199
+    Faulkner’s Transplanting Machine              140
+    Felling Tools                                 143
+    Goat Moth                                     201
+    Hedging Tools                                 185
+    Larch Canker                                  213
+    Measuring the Height of Trees                 271
+    Method of Levelling                            39
+    Oak Fences                                    262
+    Plan of Nursery                                27
+    Plane Tree in Regent’s Park                    99
+    _Polyporus Sulphureus_                        219
+    _Polyporus Squamosus_                         216
+    Pruning Tools                                 153
+    Pruning, Bad effects of                       155
+    Rustic Wooden Fence, Strong Mortised Fence,
+        Strong Paling Fence                       262
+    Sawn Wooden Fence                             261
+    Section of Charcoal Pit                       229
+    Savin Juniper as a Town Shrub                 108
+    Slate Fences                                  259
+    Spirit-Level                                   39
+    Stone and Wire Fence                          257
+    Tools used in Planting                         43
+    Tools used in Draining                         37
+    Tools required in Nursery                      29
+    Tools for Fencing                             264
+    Tree Guards                                   266
+    Weymouth Pine at Gwydyr Castle                 61
+    Wire Fence with Wooden Posts                  263
+    Willow Beetle                                 197
+    Wood Leopard Moth                             203
+    Witch’s Broom on Willow                  209, 210
+
+
+
+
+WEBSTER’S PRACTICAL FORESTRY
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I
+
+FORESTRY AND THE WAR
+
+
+During the war, and for long afterwards, there is bound to be a dearth
+of foreign timber, with the result that our home supplies will be taxed
+to the utmost. This, indeed, is already the case, and never before in
+the history of our country has the demand for British-grown timber been
+greater or prices higher than at the present time.
+
+Plantations in England and Scotland are being cut down wholesale by
+the Government, while felling on private estates is going on with such
+rapidity that in a couple of years at most there is bound to be a
+dearth of all home-grown timber, and of pitwood in particular.
+
+In the aggregate, our supplies are by no means great, the total area at
+present under woodlands being only a little over three million acres,
+to which, however, must be added the amount of field and hedgerow
+timber—a by no means inconsiderable quantity. Of Plantation timber
+much is, however, of very inferior quality and only suitable for rough
+fencing and mining purposes, and this applies generally to that grown
+throughout England, Wales and Ireland. In Scotland, however, there are
+large areas of coniferous woods that were planted for purely economic
+purposes which will yield a certain amount of valuable timber for
+pit-props and other immediate requirements. The felling of Scotch,
+Spruce, and coniferous trees will, however, be a blessing in disguise,
+for of late years both demand and price for this particular class
+of timber have been by no means great and have hardly warranted the
+owners of vacant land in undertaking the much-needed extension of our
+woodlands. Larch, on the other hand, is scarce and always in demand at
+a highly remunerative price, as also are Ash, Oak and Beech of large
+size and good quality.
+
+It is useless to go into the question of how long our home supplies
+of timber will last, this depending largely on the volume of foreign
+importations and the duration of the war, but, judging from present
+demands, three years will find our plantations in a more or less
+depleted condition. The main question we have to consider and decide,
+without delay, is how our cut-over plantations are to be replaced by
+the replanting of exhausted woodlands and afforesting some of the waste
+lands of our country.
+
+Continental experience has demonstrated that, from a commercial point
+of view at least, State-owned forests are preferable to such as are
+owned either by public bodies or by private individuals. The resources
+and continuity of a nation will always make the State the best
+custodian of forest property; indeed, only the State can acquire the
+necessary land on the most favourable terms, and in sufficient quantity
+for the purposes of extensive afforestation. Private individuals—or,
+indeed, public bodies—labour under many disadvantages in this respect,
+not the least being the long period required—in most cases from fifty
+to sixty years—before the money expended in planting can be even
+partially recovered.
+
+Contrary to the conditions obtaining in the raising of agricultural
+crops, long periods have to elapse before the forestry harvest can be
+reaped. It will be obvious, therefore, that extensive tree planting
+is quite beyond the power of the private individual unassisted. It
+is a State business, in which systematic methods of cultivation, and
+large wooded areas are first necessities; and, unfortunately, in this
+country commercial forestry is but little understood—in fact, it may be
+described as an unknown industry.
+
+Extensive plantations of from a thousand to several thousand acres
+each, in compact blocks, are required, for it is only in dealing with
+such areas that the planting, tending, thinning, and conversion of the
+timber can be most economically and profitably carried out. From the
+purely economic point of view, the many small plantations dotted over
+the face of our country are worse than useless, though exceptions might
+be noted, especially in Scotland, where a few woods are planted and
+managed on a commercial basis.
+
+With compact blocks of forest 2,000 to 4,000 acres in extent, and
+with timber crops of mainly the same species in each, a continuity of
+supplies could be guaranteed, which under existing circumstances is
+quite out of the question. In many outlying districts all over the
+country that are far removed from road and rail it is difficult—in
+some cases impossible—to dispose of the usually small amount of timber
+that is periodically cut down; but were large quantities of the same
+kind and a continuity of supply ensured, merchants would be tempted
+to make special transit and other arrangements, as well as to offer a
+remunerative price for the timber, while railway companies would no
+doubt provide cheaper facilities for its transport.
+
+More than once I have been asked by owners of woodlands to recommend
+buyers of good Larch, Ash, and other timber, the demand for which far
+exceeds the supply; but after negotiating have invariably been told
+by the merchants that the quantity offered was too small to allow of
+special facilities for delivery being provided, the timber being far
+removed from road and rail, but that if a specified number of trees
+could be guaranteed annually for a number of years they were quite
+prepared to buy. Such cases occurred in the South and West of Ireland,
+and in remote parts of Wales and Scotland. These, then, are cases in
+which a continuity of supply—such as would be quite possible if an
+extensive scheme of afforesting was carried out—would ensure speedy
+sales at fair rates in places where at present it is difficult, if
+not impossible, to dispose of the small quantities of timber, even at
+ruinously low prices.
+
+The question, then, before the nation is: How, and by whom, is
+afforestation to be carried out on a scale commensurate with our
+necessities as by far the largest timber-importing country in the
+world?—larger, indeed, than all the countries of Europe put together.
+In answer, and without the slightest hesitation, I would say that the
+State should acquire and plant suitable lands at the rate of 40,000
+acres annually for a period of twenty-five years, or 1,000,000 in all.
+
+When we consider that the total area of woodlands in this country is
+only a little in excess of 3,071,000 acres, that fully 17,000,000 acres
+of waste lands exist, and that we annually import over 10,000,000
+tons of timber at a cost of about £25,000,000, the necessity for an
+increased area of woodlands, so that a portion at least of this vast
+sum may be kept at home, will be apparent to all, the more so as a
+dearth of timber is imminent and outside supplies are being rigidly
+conserved, while our home demands are ever on the increase.
+
+In order to carry out my proposed scheme of planting a million acres
+during the next five years, at the rate of 200,000 acres annually,
+profitable and healthy employment would at once be found for several
+thousand workmen. The question of transporting, housing and otherwise
+dealing with these workmen has been brought forward as the most serious
+drawback to the scheme, but, personally, having had to deal with such
+cases I can see no insuperable difficulty in the undertaking. Surely,
+if our railway and water companies, as also private landowners, can
+deal with hundreds of men in remote mountain districts that are far
+removed from road and rail, the Government could make the necessary
+arrangements for the various bodies of workmen that would be employed
+for afforesting purposes. Nor must tree planting be considered as a
+new departure for unemployed labour, as in the formation of a large
+plantation on a dreary exposed hillside in Wales, the whole of the
+work, including clearing the ground of rough surface growth, draining,
+pitting and planting, was most successfully carried out by detachments
+of the unemployed.
+
+The general physique of Army and Navy men and the discipline and hard
+work to which they have been subjected during the war will render them
+peculiarly suitable for carrying out the various operations connected
+with the formation of plantations. Convalescent soldiers and sailors
+could also find healthy employment in the various lighter tasks which
+go hand in hand with afforestation, such as clearing the ground of
+rough growing vegetation and lifting and distributing the young trees.
+
+Several suggestions have been made for providing employment for our
+returned soldiers and sailors, but much of this proposed work is, so to
+speak, invented for the purpose, and would probably never be seriously
+considered except for the exigencies of the case. Now I am quite of
+opinion that afforesting waste lands offers a sensible system of
+employment, for it is now generally admitted that a largely increased
+area of our woodlands is an imperative and pressing necessity, and what
+is of equal importance, the undertaking, if wisely entered upon, would
+not only increase the value of such lands fourfold but form the nucleus
+of an ever-increasing revenue of the State.
+
+But this is not all, for apart altogether from the question of
+immediate labour, what an industry would be opened up in years to come
+by the planting of waste grounds! In the first instance there would
+arise the necessity for clearing, fencing, draining, and planting the
+ground, subsequently the tending of the plantations in various ways
+would give employment. Thinning would commence about the tenth year,
+after which the erection of sawmills and the conversion of the timber
+would open a vast and ever-increasing industry, providing highly
+remunerative work to thousands of the unemployed.
+
+There are other ways in connection with forestry in which the
+unemployed could be usefully and profitably set to work, such as in
+preparing osier beds, planting dogwood for gunpowder charcoal, and in
+the formation and stocking of tree nurseries, the produce of which
+could with advantage be used in the formation of plantations. Osiers
+for basket-making, charcoal for gunpowder and heating purposes, and
+seedling plants for afforestation will all be greatly in demand after
+the war when foreign supplies will not be forthcoming.
+
+Regarding the most desirable centres at which to commence planting
+operations, I would suggest those counties where the greatest areas of
+waste lands exist, and where, in addition, advantages are offered in
+the matter of cheap land purchase, as well as in a demand for and easy
+removal of the produce. Thus we have:—
+
+    England      Yorkshire and Northumberland with 1,010,924 acres.
+    Scotland     Inverness and Argyleshire with 3,087,312 acres.
+    Wales        Breconshire and Merionethshire with 461,320 acres.
+    Ireland      Donegal and Kerry with 657,337 acres
+                   (exclusive of 172,436 acres of bogland).
+
+From these figures it will be seen that in case of necessity we could
+get all the ground required for this afforesting scheme in two of the
+counties of England and Scotland, or in three of Wales and Ireland.
+
+The cost of procuring suitable land for afforesting purposes need
+not be considered as any obstacle to the scheme. From extensive
+inquiries made the price on an average would not be greater than £2
+per acre. Through the kindness of the agent on the Gwydyr Estate, in
+Carnarvonshire, I have been allowed to look over the sale contracts on
+several of the properties, and from these I find that 7,412 acres were
+disposed of at an average price of £2 2_s._ 3_d._ per acre. The ground
+was excellent for the production of timber, as the Larch on adjoining
+lands clearly evidenced. Again, the Crown recently purchased 12,500
+acres in Scotland at the modest rental of £2 per acre. Many other
+instances could be quoted, but the above suffice to show that land
+in every way suitable for the production of high-grade timber can be
+bought at probably less than £2 per acre.
+
+The cost of forming plantations has been very carefully considered, and
+for all practical purposes may be put down at £5 per acre, taking the
+British Isles as a whole.
+
+Regarding financial returns from tree planting, there is overwhelming
+proof that land worth only from 1_s._ to 3_s._ 6_d._ per acre has been
+made to realise as much as 20_s._ per acre for fifty or sixty years,
+with a final crop worth from £50 to £75 per acre.
+
+Taking all the above points into consideration—the price of land,
+the cost of planting and the financial returns—it will amply repay
+the State to plant up uncultivated and waste lands. There should
+be no loss of time in setting about this work if we are to provide
+suitable employment for our returned soldiers and sailors and avoid the
+threatened timber famine which, according to well-informed quarters, is
+fast approaching.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II
+
+COLLECTING AND STORING TREE SEEDS
+
+
+Owing to the war there is little doubt that for several years to come
+adequate supplies of seeds and young forest trees will not be available
+from their usual sources on the Continent. Vast quantities of both are
+annually sent to this country from Germany alone, while from other
+parts of the Continent coniferous seeds in particular are largely
+imported—in fact, we are almost wholly dependent for both seeds and
+seedlings on foreign supplies.
+
+Under these circumstances, it behoves the owners of woodlands in every
+part of the country to collect seeds, particularly of such trees
+as our plantations are mainly composed of. After these have been
+properly harvested, they should be stored away in suitable places till
+seed-sowing time in the spring. To some extent this will be a new
+forest industry, though for long, the seeds both of Scotch Pine and
+various hard-wooded trees, particularly the Oak, Ash and Elm, have been
+annually collected on various estates throughout the country, and the
+young plants raised from such stock have given every satisfaction when
+planted out permanently.
+
+For several reasons, however, we cannot compete with foreigners either
+in the production of seeds or in raising young forest stock. For some
+years to come, owing to the uncertainty of supplies from abroad, both
+seeds and seedlings are bound to be scarce and expensive.
+
+In the past, far too little attention has been bestowed on the
+collecting and harvesting of the seeds of trees and shrubs, the result,
+in not a few cases, being weak and unhealthy plants and an uneven and
+irregular crop. The best seeds, it should be remembered, are those
+collected from healthy trees in the prime of life, and grown under
+conditions favourable to their perfect development. An unhealthy tree
+will often bear a heavy crop of seed, but although the inducements to
+collect such are great, they should be discarded, those from the most
+robust specimens in the prime of life being chosen in preference.
+
+Regarding the best way of collecting tree seeds little need be said,
+the exigencies of the case determining the best method to be adopted.
+The seeds of not a few trees may be collected as they fall, and this
+is especially the case with those of the Oak, Beech, Elm, etc., all of
+which may be swept into heaps and gathered in quantity from beneath
+desirable trees.
+
+In the case of the various Coniferæ this method of seed collecting
+will not answer—indeed, in the majority of instances, the seed should
+be gathered, or rather picked, from the trees just before they became
+fully ripe, as in falling they get loose from the cone-scales and
+are lost. When collecting the cones of coniferous trees, a long,
+light hooked staff with which to draw the branches towards one can
+conveniently be used to procure an abundant supply. A bag or satchel
+should also be in possession of the seed collector, into which may be
+put such kinds of cones as fall readily apart, as the seeds from these
+are easily lost. Sometimes, as in the case of rare seeds, and when only
+a few cones are borne near the top of the tree, the seed collector
+must have recourse to climbing; but, in such cases, in order to avoid
+injury to the bark, he should be provided with a pair of elastic shoes
+or slippers. Great care is required in the collection of such seeds as
+those of _Abies nobilis_ and _A. nordmanniana_, the cones, when fully
+ripe, falling to pieces on the slightest touch. This, however, applies
+equally to almost every species of Abies, whereas, with the Pines and
+Spruces, the cones remain intact for an almost indefinite period of
+time, even though the seeds may have fallen out on becoming ripe.
+
+The proper harvesting of tree seeds rarely, except in the case of
+experienced nurserymen, receives sufficient attention, although this
+operation should be as carefully attended to as in the case of the
+seeds of any other form of crop. After being collected, the seeds
+of all trees, unless such as are mixed with sand for the purpose of
+rotting, should be thinly and evenly spread out in a sunny spot, until
+thoroughly dry. They may then be deposited in a cool, airy place,
+and in thin layers, until wanted for sowing. An occasional turning
+is all-important and should never be neglected. The smaller and less
+common seeds may, for convenience sake, be hung up in calico bags, but
+they, too, should be occasionally examined to prevent dampness and
+heating.
+
+The number of plants of various kinds that may be expected from
+a bushel of seed of average quality varies very much, and may be
+approximately given as follows: Horse Chestnut, 2,500; Oak, 6,000 to
+8,000; Spanish Chestnut, about 3,000; Walnut, 5,000; Norway Maple,
+12,000; Sycamore, about 12,000; Ash, 14,000; Beech, 10,000; Elm, 1,000;
+Birch, fully 16,000; Holly, 17,000; Scotch Fir, 9,000. To 1 lb. of
+seed: Spruce Fir, about 9,000; Larch, 3,000; and the Cluster Pine,
+Silver Fir, and some others, from about 500 upwards.
+
+For convenience in regulating orders for sowing, the following table
+will show at a glance the approximate and relative number of seeds of
+the various commonly cultivated forest trees contained in 1 lb. weight:—
+
+    Abies nobilis           about       19,400
+    Abies nordmanniana        ”         10,000
+    Ash                       ”          6,800
+    Beech                     ”          2,700
+    Douglas Fir               ”         95,200
+    Horse Chestnut            ”             36
+    Hornbeam                  ”          9,968
+    Larch                     ”         65,000
+    Lawson’s Cypress          ”        131,400
+    Lebanon Cedar             ”         10,800
+    Norway Maple              ”          4,600
+    Oak                       ”            100
+    Pinus Austriaca           ”         35,000
+    Pinus Laricio             ”         43,000
+    Pinus Pinaster            ”         12,000
+    Pinus Sylvestris          ”         75,000
+    Spruce                    ”         64,500
+    Silver Fir                ”         14,960
+    Sycamore                  ”          4,624
+    Walnut                    ”             36
+
+These figures must only be taken as approximate, the seed of various
+trees of the same species seeming to vary in the number to the pound
+in a marked degree. The results of careful analysis of one or two
+kinds may be cited as examples. In one case the number of seeds in 1
+lb. weight of Scotch Fir was 69,600, while in another it had increased
+to 90,600; and in the Larch the numbers were 33,900 and 68,000. These
+differences are, however, mainly due to the individual seeds being
+weightier in one case than in another, probably owing to the age and
+health of the tree from which they were collected, the situation and
+exposure to which it was subjected, etc. However, for all nursery
+purposes the above figures may be accepted as a fair standard.
+
+The time of collecting and the after-management of the different
+forest seeds vary so much that a brief description of those kinds most
+commonly planted will be found useful:—
+
+=Alder= seed should be gathered from the trees in October and sown in
+spring, say May.
+
+=Ash= seeds are ripe in October, when they should be collected and kept
+in moist sand during the winter, and sown in March.
+
+=Austrian=, =Corsican= and =Weymouth Pine= seeds are treated in every
+respect like those of Scotch Fir, varying the kiln heat according to
+the looseness of the cone-bracts.
+
+=Beech= seeds are collected in October and November, placed in sand,
+and sown in April. The young plants are readily affected by frost, and
+the seed should, therefore, not be sown earlier than the time mentioned.
+
+=Birch= seed must be collected from the trees just before it becomes
+ripe in August, otherwise it is scattered broadcast and lost for
+cultivation. March is the time for sowing.
+
+=Cupressus Lawsoniana= seed is usually ready for collecting in October,
+but should not be sown before the first week in April.
+
+=Douglas Fir= seed is, in most cases, readily removed from well-ripened
+cones by threshing or by pulling the cone to pieces, but, in some
+instances, particularly where the quantity is large, kiln-drying is
+resorted to. The seeds are ripe in December and should be gently
+watered and sown in May.
+
+=Elm= seeds are ripe in June, when they may either be sown at once, or
+dried and kept in stock for planting in March and April.
+
+=Hawthorn= seed, or berries, may be sown when collected, or the outer
+coating rotted off by keeping them during the winter in moist sand.
+
+=Hazel= nuts may be collected in autumn and sown at once, or kept till
+spring.
+
+=Holly= berries require to be placed in sand for about eighteen months
+so as to rot off the fleshy outer coating, and may be sown in March.
+The mixture of sand and berries, which should be about in equal
+proportions, must be turned frequently. They are usually sown with the
+sand in which they have been lying.
+
+=Horse= and =Spanish Chestnut= seeds may be taken together, the method
+of collecting and sowing being very similar in both cases. They are
+ripe by the middle of October, and may either be sown at once or kept
+till spring. One seed to 4 square in. will be close enough.
+
+=Larch= cones, when ripe, are of a rather bright brown colour and
+require to be collected from the trees. This should not, however, be
+done till spring, though occasionally they are gathered in December.
+They part with the seeds far more readily than those of the Scotch Fir,
+and consequently require less heat when in the kiln.
+
+=Maple= seeds are ready for collecting about October, and should not be
+sown till the beginning of April.
+
+=Mountain Ash=, indeed, all the Pyrus family and others of a like kind,
+require the berries to be placed in sand, and when the outer fleshy
+coating has rotted away they may be sown either in autumn or spring.
+
+=Oak.=—The acorns may be gathered or swept from the ground in November,
+and either sown at once or stored away in a cool, dry place till
+Spring. One acorn to every 4 square in. will be ample in the seed-bed.
+Sow in spring or autumn.
+
+=Scotch Fir= cones are better not collected till early in January, and
+the time may even be extended till March. When quite ripe they have
+changed from bluish-green to a light, grey colour. As the cones part
+tardily with the seeds, artificial means have to be resorted to, the
+cones being placed thinly over a kiln heated to a temperature of from
+75° to 112°. They should be turned every third hour, and after about
+thirty hours the kiln should be cooled down and the cones extracted
+as quickly as possible. By beating with a flail the seeds are readily
+removed from the cones, but it is best to do this before the cones have
+cooled down or immediately they are removed from the kiln. The seeds
+are then swept together and collected, and stored away until wanted
+for sowing. When not required for sowing at once, the seeds should
+be thinly spread out on the floor and slightly moistened with water
+from a fine rose watering-can. They should then be turned about until
+perfectly dry before being stored away.
+
+=Silver Fir= seed does not require much, if any, artificial heat to
+cause it to part from the cone. By placing the cones in the sunshine,
+and heating and turning freely, the seeds come out without much
+trouble. In all cases, however, wherever possible, it is wise policy to
+dispense with artificial heat or kiln-drying as, unless this is carried
+out most carefully, the vitality of the seeds is greatly impaired
+thereby.
+
+=Sycamore= seeds are ready for gathering in October, but should not be
+sown till the end of March or beginning of April.
+
+=Walnuts= are collected, when ripe, in autumn, and sown in late spring.
+
+=Yew= seeds are usually washed of the pulpy matter before being sown.
+
+In the case of large seeds, such as those of =Araucaria imbricata=,
+=Pinus sabiniana=, and =P. macrocarpa=, the best way is to cut the
+cones to pieces and carefully remove the seeds. This operation should
+be performed with great care, so that the hard seed coating may not be
+injured.
+
+With conifers in general I have invariably found it the best plan to
+allow the seed to remain in the cones until wanted for sowing. By
+keeping the cones in a cool, dry place, and occasionally turning them
+over, there need be little fear but that the seeds will turn out well.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III
+
+PROPAGATING TREES AND SHRUBS
+
+
+There are several methods of propagating trees and shrubs: such as by
+seed-sowing, from cuttings or layers, and by budding and grafting.
+
+=From Seed.=—This natural process of reproduction is that most commonly
+adopted where large numbers of trees are required—indeed, certain
+species, particularly of the Coniferæ, cannot successfully be raised
+in any other way. The preparation of the seed-beds is a point that
+deserves far more attention than it usually receives, and that not
+only on economic grounds, but in view of the general appearance of the
+nursery borders as well. To tumble the seeds indiscriminately into
+the ground as if they had fallen in showers from the trees is highly
+objectionable; and just as censurable is the too-oft-repeated practice
+of sowing these in rough, cloddy, and ill-prepared ground.
+
+Systematic arrangement in the laying out of the beds, as to the number
+and requirements of the future seedlings, should also be attended to.
+
+The ground intended for seed-beds should be trenched or deeply dug up;
+but this operation would, for the mellowing and cleaning of the soil,
+be better performed the autumn before than at the time of sowing down.
+
+In any case, just before sowing, the ground should be carefully turned
+over, all hard clods being broken down, and large stones raked off,
+the surface soil to the depth of 3 in. or 4 in. being made as fine as
+possible. Dry weather must be chosen for the formation of seed-beds,
+as also, indeed, for the sowing of the seeds. The beds are marked off
+and prepared as follows:—A light, strong line is stretched along the
+ground at, say, 3 ft. from the boundary fence or path, and, after
+being fixed at each end, the first alley, or path, is marked out by
+treading the soil alongside of the line. The length of the bed thus
+marked off on one side is quite immaterial, but the width is of great
+importance, and should never exceed 4 ft.; 3 ft. 6 in. is nearer the
+mark.
+
+Adjoining this first line, a bed the above width is marked off with
+a peg or stake at each end, the line reset and a second alley marked
+off. The alley, or path, between each couple of beds need not exceed
+15 in. in width, this being for the sake of convenience in sowing,
+weeding, watering, shading, and otherwise attending to the bed, and
+its occupants. Outside this follows a second bed, and so on, until
+the desired number has been formed. Some persons raise the seed-beds
+a little above the level of the paths, but, except in very retentive
+or damp soils, this is not to be recommended. The beds should in
+no instance, however, be below the level of the paths. There are
+two methods employed in opening up and preparing the beds for the
+reception of the seeds either of which, if carefully gone about, is
+well suited for the exigencies of the case. My own way has always
+been to level and smooth the surface of the bed with a small-toothed
+rake, and after sowing the seeds to cover lightly with fine soil and
+ashes carefully sifted over the bed by means of a small-meshed riddle.
+This plan has many advantages, not the least important being the
+covering of the seeds to an equal depth, and the employing of only the
+finest class of soil. The other method is by using what is termed a
+“cuffing-board”—that is, a board about 8 in. wide, placed on a handle,
+which is inserted in the centre, towards the back, the handle being
+fully 5 ft. long. A skilled person is required to use this tool, who
+stands in the alley, first on one side of the bed, and then on the
+other, pushing or drawing towards him from the surface of the bed a
+thin coating of soil along its full length and from about two-thirds of
+its surface.
+
+As to the amount or depth of soil taken off, this is regulated by the
+particular kind of seed to be sown, as well as the nature of the soil.
+
+The next matter, the depth at which the seed should be sown, is one
+of great importance. Usually seeds are sown unnecessarily deep. In
+the majority of cases a safe guide is to place the seed, of whatever
+kind it may be, about three diameters below the surface of the soil.
+The conditions most favourable to germination are moderate dampness,
+abundance of air, and a temperature of about 45°. In order to ensure
+these conditions, the depth at which the seeds are placed will be
+seen to be of the greatest moment. Generally speaking, the less seeds
+are covered, consistently with their receiving a sufficient supply of
+moisture, the better, and but for their destruction by birds, many
+of the smaller seeds would vegetate just as well if cast upon the
+ground-surface, and pressed in, as by being covered with soil. The
+following interesting experiments with Scotch fir seeds have been made:—
+
+    “Those buried one-fifth of an inch came up first,
+        but were subsequently less vigorous—they soon,
+        however, acquired vigour;
+
+    “Those covered from one-third to one-half of an inch
+        came up more slowly, but evenly and strong;
+
+    “Those buried from two-thirds of an inch to one inch
+        came up in deficient numbers; and
+
+    “Those buried from one to two inches never showed any
+        signs of germination.”
+
+These statements are equally applicable to the sowing of seeds in
+general but especially if their relative size and the hardness of their
+covering are taken into account.
+
+Immediately after the bed is prepared the seed should be sown, the
+amount used varying according to quality, which latter may readily be
+tested by examining the embryos of a dozen seeds picked up at random
+from the heap. To ascertain whether seeds are good, the simplest way
+is to cut the sheath open with a sharp penknife, when the kernel ought
+to completely fill the entire coating or shell. Small seeds might be
+crushed by the nail, and if good, will leave traces of moisture or
+emit an odour of turpentine. Another method is to place, one after
+the other, say a dozen seeds taken at haphazard from the heap, on a
+red-hot iron. If good they will turn about with a cracking report; but
+if otherwise, combustion is slow and smoke is given off.
+
+Seed may, however, be considered good if the germinating test gives,
+say, 70 per cent.
+
+The quantity of seed to be sown on a given area will depend mainly on
+the quality and particular species.
+
+When sown broadcast, about a pound weight of larch, and full half a
+pound of Scotch, is allowed per 100 square ft. of seed-bed.
+
+Generally, however, drill sowing is resorted to, and in this case the
+following may be considered as about an average of the quantity used
+per 100 square ft.:
+
+    Alder              7¾ ozs.
+    Ash                5   ”
+    Austrian Pine      4¼  ”
+    Birch              6½  ”
+    Elm                3½  ”
+    Hornbeam           2¾  ”
+    Larch              7½  ”
+    Maple              5   ”
+    Scotch fir         2¾  ”
+    Silver  ”         13   ”
+    Spruce  ”          3½  ”
+
+Sometimes a small quantity of guano or other manure is sprinkled over
+the seeds, after which they are gently pressed down with a light
+roller, and the soil, which was temporarily deposited along the margin
+of the bed, replaced by the “cuffing-board” or riddle. When seeds are
+sown early, and with care, on well-prepared ground, watering is seldom
+necessary; but still, with small seeds and in very dry ground, an
+occasional sprinkling the last thing at night is highly beneficial.
+Great care is, however, necessary to ensure the soil being thoroughly
+moistened. Protection from mice and birds must be afforded in some such
+manner as by coating the seeds with red lead; and an occasional shading
+of the bed in very warm weather might be advocated. There are not a few
+kinds of seeds, such as those with a hard covering, that it is almost
+imperative to steep in water before sowing. Larch seed, in particular,
+can be soaked for a week without fear or harm, and many leguminous
+seeds for two or three days with great advantage. Some seeds do not
+come up until the second year, such as the ash, pyrus, thorn, etc., and
+in these cases it is but a waste of ground to sow them as collected.
+They should be mixed with sand, as before directed, and stored away for
+a year before being sown.
+
+It should also be remembered that, as a rule, the sooner seeds are sown
+after being collected, the stronger will be the young plants.
+
+Soon after germination, hand weeding must be commenced, and this may
+most successfully be performed after a shower of rain, as the young
+plants then suffer less from loosening of the soil, consequent on
+pulling out the weeds, than would be the case in dry and warm weather.
+
+The above method of raising plants from seeds will be found suitable in
+most cases, but in respect of choice or half-hardy trees the shelter
+afforded by a frame is usually provided. In this case the seeds are
+sown in pots or shallow boxes, according to quantity, and placed in an
+unheated frame.
+
+The best time for seed-sowing is from the first to the fifteenth of
+April.
+
+Transplanting the young seedlings may be taken in hand usually after
+the first year, but no hard and fast line can be laid down, so much
+depending on the season and rate of growth of the young plants. The
+experienced eye can always tell when seedlings should be lined out. The
+best time for this operation is after the spring frosts are at an end,
+for, if planted out in the autumn, the frost is apt to lift the tiny
+seedlings wholesale from the ground.
+
+After this they should be transplanted at least every second year until
+planted out permanently.
+
+=By Cuttings.=—Propagating trees and shrubs from cuttings is at once a
+simple and inexpensive way of getting up a stock of such kinds as may
+be increased in that way. The best months are August and September, at
+which time the temperature of the earth and air are equal, and roots
+are most readily emitted.
+
+Choose a sheltered and partially shady border for the insertion of the
+cuttings, and be sure that the soil is not stiff and water-logged, but
+fine, rather inclined to sandy, and moderately dry. It should be well
+forked over and cleaned of weeds, large stones being also removed.
+
+The cuttings may be made of the present year’s growth, with a small
+portion—“heel” it is generally termed—of the old wood, and cut clean
+across beneath where a bud or shoot has protruded. Until a sufficient
+quantity has been made, they should be stuck loosely in a heap of sand
+or soil, and in the shade. Cuttings should be taken from the sunny side
+of a tree or shrub.
+
+In planting the cuttings, stretch a garden line along the previously
+prepared ground, and, having removed a trench about 6 in. deep, by
+cutting in a perpendicular manner with a spade along the front of the
+line, proceed to place the cuttings not too closely together, and
+leaning somewhat backwards in the trench cut out. This being done, it
+is always well, so as to hasten the formation of roots, to sprinkle a
+small quantity of sand or grit along at the base of the cuttings, at
+the same time regulating these as to their distances apart and upward
+inclination, the remaining portion of the trench being filled up with
+the soil formerly removed. Firm tramping is one of the chief points to
+be observed, as cuttings will not take at all quickly in loose soil.
+The line should then be moved forwards about 12 in. and the same method
+of procedure followed until the whole of the cuttings are inserted. For
+such shrubs as the common and Portugal laurel, privet, box, euonymus,
+laurestinus, aucuba, etc., the above method will be found the quickest
+and best for raising young plants from cuttings. It should be stated
+that cuttings taken from the sunny side of a tree or shrub always root
+more freely, and turn out a greater number of plants, than such as have
+been cut from the shady side—indeed, this point should be carefully
+borne in mind and acted upon. Conifers, such as the various species of
+Cupressus, Juniperus, the Wellingtonia, etc., are also readily raised
+from cuttings inserted in the ground out of doors. It is, however,
+well to put such cuttings in boxes, so that they have the advantage of
+being placed in an unheated frame, this greatly enhancing the speedy
+formation of roots. Two or three large frames are always useful in
+the nursery for the reception of choice cuttings, seeds, etc., and
+if boxes, say, 24 in. by 14 in. by 5 in., are made just to suit the
+dimensions of the frames, a great number of young plants, cuttings, and
+seeds of the less common kinds will find a beneficial protection. The
+boxes should be made of stout wood, and have six holes bored in the
+bottom of each, so that the excess water may readily pass away. Before
+planting these, fill each with a mixture of half sand, half soil,
+broken finely down, the cuttings being inserted in small holes made by
+a sharp-pointed stick. A thin coating of sand placed on the surface
+will greatly facilitate the process of rooting. Cuttings of coniferous
+trees should have 2 in. of ripened wood attached to them, and be
+inserted 4 in. deep in the ground; while, for most others, the cuttings
+may be 8 in. long, 3 in. being inserted in the soil.
+
+=From Layers.=—For increasing game coverts, shrubberies, or some of
+those trees and shrubs that cannot well and speedily be raised from
+cuttings or seed, layering will be found a convenient and cheap method.
+There are several other advantages too, as no protection of any kind
+is necessary, and the risk of loss is reduced to a minimum. It is,
+however, generally resorted to as a means of increasing such plants as
+cannot readily be raised from cuttings, and applies with greatest force
+to the rhododendrons and azaleas, the magnolias, coniferæ of various
+kinds, and several species of our hardy deciduous trees.
+
+The operation of layering is very simple, and consists merely in
+bending down the outer branch of a tree or shrub and bringing it in
+contact with the soil, it being there held in position by means of
+a hooked peg. Before fastening the layer with the peg, it is well,
+however, to remove a portion of the bark from that part of the layer
+that is to be brought in contact with the ground, this arresting the
+flow of sap and hastening the formation of roots. The soil beneath
+the tree or shrub should be first loosened, and, if found hard and
+stiff, a small quantity of sand and leaf soil might with advantage be
+added. The same principle is carried out in all kinds of layering, but
+the position of the plant will alter the method of bending over and
+bringing in contact with the soil. In the case of layering coniferæ it
+is not only necessary to bend over and peg down the branch, but, so as
+to form a leader and assist in gaining an upright position, it should
+also be tied or staked in a vertical position. Generally speaking,
+trees and shrubs require two years before the branches that are layered
+are sufficiently well rooted to be removed from the parent, but a few
+kinds require nearly double that time before they can be severed with
+safety. A good plan is, after the second or third year, to cut through
+the layered branch behind the point that is brought in contact with the
+ground, and to let it remain in position for another year. It may then,
+except in a very few cases, be lifted and lined out with others in the
+nursery border, the object being to get it into a good habit of growth
+before being finally planted out.
+
+Most varieties of trees and shrubs can readily be increased by layering
+the side branches in the way above described, and it is a good plan to
+cover over with a spadeful of earth that part of the branch brought in
+contact with the ground.
+
+=By Grafting.=—This may best be described as a makeshift method of
+increasing trees and shrubs. It has only a few advantages, and many
+disadvantages, as is well known to every one on a large estate who goes
+in for collections of the less common kinds of trees and shrubs.
+
+If a plant cannot be increased conveniently by any of the above methods
+grafting may be resorted to, but the work should only be entrusted
+to those who have great practical knowledge of the art, and who have
+paid particular attention to the evils attending injudicious grafting.
+Some of the errors in grafting may be cited as follows: Working on too
+tall stocks whereby an unnatural appearance and continual source of
+danger in windy weather are brought about; grafting small scions on
+large stocks, and grafting evergreen on deciduous species—all of which
+have tended, in a marked degree, to lower the art in the opinion of
+horticulturists generally.
+
+The grafting of conifers may be performed at one of two seasons: either
+early in spring or about the month of August. Two-year-old stock are
+mostly to be preferred, so that the stock and scion may be of as near
+a size as possible. Several methods of grafting are adopted, but that
+generally practised is what is known as “side grafting.” This consists
+in making a clean cut in the stem, downwards, for about an inch in
+length. A transverse cut is made at the termination of this first cut,
+whereby a piece of the bark wood is removed from the side of the stock.
+The scion is next prepared by being cut off square at the end, and one
+side of the wood shaved off for about an equal length to the cut on the
+stock. Place the scion in the notch made on the stock, and be careful
+that the barks, on one side at least, come neatly together, for on this
+hangs the whole fate of successful grafting. The scion should, indeed,
+be made to fit as nearly as possible and replace the wedge cut from the
+stock. Tie firmly and carefully with bast matting, and cover over with
+prepared clay or grafting wax. Another method consists in making an
+incision obliquely in the stock, the scion being so prepared that one
+side of it forms a sharp edge, in order that it may be readily inserted
+therein, the bark of the scion and stock coming neatly together. Tie
+with matting as before directed, and cover over with clay or grafting
+wax. Inarching, or grafting by approach, consists in bringing the scion
+into union with the stock without detaching it from its own stem, and
+the separation is not made until the new connection has been formed.
+
+=Budding.=—This is usually performed in July, and in the case of
+certain shrubs has been found useful. The bud should, in addition to
+its strip of bark, have a portion of the cambium attached, as unless
+this be present to unite with the cambium of the stock the operation
+will fail.
+
+The bark of the stock is cut into a =T= shape, opened with the end
+of the budding knife, and the bud slipped neatly in. Bast matting
+will serve for tying, until a junction takes place, which is usually
+effected in five or six weeks.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV
+
+THE HOME NURSERY: ITS FORMATION AND MANAGEMENT
+
+
+In the course of my experience on large estates where planting has
+been extensively engaged in, few things have been more particularly
+impressed upon me than the importance of having a well-managed and
+well-stocked home nursery, where the propagating and raising of
+trees and shrubs required for forest and ornamental planting may be
+taken in hand. The numerous advantages of a home nursery, especially
+where planting is extensively carried out, are now so well known and
+appreciated by every proprietor of large estates that comment on this
+subject seems almost unnecessary.
+
+Where ornamental planting, the formation of woods and plantations, game
+coverts, or hedging is performed on an extensive scale, the convenience
+of a home nursery cannot be over-valued, the plants being at hand when
+wanted, of the size and in the quantity required, and known to be well
+rooted, sturdy, and free from disease.
+
+The advantages in these cases are too well known to require comment,
+and plants, more especially those of a large size, sent from even a
+short distance by either road or rail, cannot be expected to succeed
+equally with those raised and planted on the same day. The extra soil,
+or ball, with which large plants can be removed for a short distance is
+also much in their favour, but it is next to impossible to retain this
+where packing and transit have to be resorted to.
+
+It is well known that too sudden a change from rich, well-sheltered
+nursery borders to bare, exposed hillsides often proves fatal to
+young plants; and, when we consider that few public nurseries are at
+a greater elevation than about 500 ft., the necessity of proprietors
+rearing their own stock, whose plantations are, perhaps, upwards of
+1,000 ft. above sea-level, will the more readily be seen. There are
+certain difficulties to contend with in planting high-lying ground,
+more especially if the soil is poor and thin, and the situation
+exposed, and in these cases the advantage of using hardy plants that
+have frequently been transplanted in a well-chosen home nursery at
+a fair altitude is very noticeable, especially when contrasted with
+others that have been grown under more favourable circumstances and
+in a sheltered position. Some plants seem better adapted than others
+for this removal, but in the majority of cases the shock sustained by
+transferring from low-lying ground to that at a great elevation is only
+too apparent, and one from which the plants seldom recover. The same
+holds good in the case of seaside and town planting.
+
+Of late years in particular, a good deal of comment has taken place
+as to the necessity of rearing trees from seed sown on the site of
+the future plantation, and although the suggestion has many points in
+its favour, still artificial planting is better adapted to the wants
+of our country, and is not at all likely to be superseded by natural
+reproduction, which is more fitted for countries differently situated
+from our own.
+
+The nursery treatment of plants is, therefore, sure to remain a
+prominent feature of British forestry, and this being the case, the
+soil and situation, as well as the most successful treatment of these,
+with a view to producing plants suitable for the positions they are
+intended to occupy, will require due consideration. This will vary much
+according to the situation of the estate and ground to be planted. In
+choosing the site of a home nursery, a great deal will depend on the
+general elevation and exposure of the estate. The situation should
+neither be too much exposed nor yet too sheltered, and should have a
+southern or western aspect; for, although too sudden a change from
+sheltered to exposed ground often proves fatal to young trees, this
+should not altogether form a criterion for rearing them in situations
+unfavourable to the development of strong, healthy plants. The soil
+should be good, friable loam, on an open, porous subsoil; but the
+quality of ground required for different seedlings is so diversified
+that it is next to impossible to suit all within the small bounds
+required for a home nursery.
+
+As water is indispensable where seedlings are raised, as well as for
+numerous other purposes in the nursery, it is well to have provision
+made for a continuous supply, either by a stream running through the
+ground, or in close contiguity to it, or by having a pipe laid on from
+the main water-supply.
+
+From six acres to ten or even fifteen acres will be found sufficient
+nursery ground for most estates, but it is always advisable to add
+a little more than is really required, so that the brakes may not
+be all under forest trees at the same time, but undergo, when found
+necessary, a course of green crops, which will not only enrich, but
+clean, the ground and leave it in good condition for replanting with
+seedling forest plants, bearing in mind that farmyard manure should
+always be applied first to the green crop, and never directly to the
+plants themselves. When a plot has become impoverished by repeated
+croppings of forest trees, a heavy coating of well-decomposed farmyard
+manure should be applied, and the ground planted with potatoes, or sown
+down with turnips. This has an almost magical effect in improving,
+regenerating, and cleaning the ground, and leaving it in the best
+possible condition for receiving a crop of forest plants. Land intended
+for nursery ground should be thoroughly trenched to the full depth of
+the soil, taking care, at the same time, that the best soil is kept
+within a reasonable distance of the surface, and, where necessary,
+heavily manured or enriched by the addition of lime, vegetable soil, or
+loam as the case may be.
+
+In laying out the ground into brakes it will be found convenient to
+have these either square or rectangular in shape and, if possible,
+parallel with each other. The brakes should be of different sizes, and
+divided from each other by walks or hedges, but the fewer of the latter
+the better. It is well for convenience sake to have a border, say from
+12-15 ft. wide, running around the nursery, which may be stocked with
+such trees and shrubs as are only limited in demand. A narrow border
+like this is of great value, too, for planting out seedling stock of
+the less common kinds, for the insertion of cuttings of the rarer
+shrubs, as well as for any odds and ends that may be collected.
+
+[Illustration: PLAN OF NURSERY.
+
+Roadway, 9 ft. wide; Paths, 4 ft. wide; Border, 12 ft. wide.]
+
+The site chosen for the seed-beds should be naturally sheltered, or
+failing this, such artificial shelter as is found necessary should be
+provided, as exposure of the young plants to cold, cutting winds causes
+them to become stunted and bark-bound. There should be a few cold
+frames for raising choice seeds and cuttings, but, as a rule, the less
+glass the better. In stocking the home nursery, it is always preferable
+to buy young plants of the kinds most needed, as also a few older
+specimens of such kinds as it may be deemed advisable to propagate
+from layers or by cuttings. Seedlings of many trees and shrubs can be
+procured from plantations on the estate, and when such are grown on,
+and carefully transplanted for two, three, or four years in the nursery
+borders, they soon form stout, bushy, and well-rooted specimens of the
+greatest value for forest-planting. This is a good and comparatively
+inexpensive way of getting up a stock of many trees and shrubs, but
+particularly such as are reproduced plentifully in a wild state. In the
+management of a home nursery the amount of care and attention required
+is certainly great; but any trouble, as well as expense, connected with
+starting and keeping it in good condition afterwards will be amply
+repaid by the increased value and superiority of the stock obtained.
+
+In the working of the home nursery no hard and fast lines can be laid
+down, the nature of the season having much to do with the time at which
+the various operations may be taken in hand. A wet spring retards
+seed-sowing, a damp summer the killing-out of weeds and cleaning of the
+ground, and early autumn frosts transplanting.
+
+For the various seasons the nursery-work might, however, be sketched as
+follows:—
+
+=Spring.=—By February, all trenching, digging, manuring, top-dressing,
+and such-like work should be completed. Larch and thorn should be
+planted at once, as they start early into growth, following up with
+the various kinds of hardwoods and pines. Layers should be planted
+out and trees for grafting and budding made ready. Collect larch and
+pine cones, and when quite dry store away in a cool, airy place, until
+wanted for sowing. During March and April general grafting may be
+taken in hand. Ornamental coniferæ may be pruned and transplanted, and
+towards the middle of April plants from the seed-beds may safely be
+lined out in a sheltered part of the nursery. Tree seeds of all kinds
+should be collected as opportunity offers. In February sow yew, holly
+and thorn; in March, birch, beech and alder; in April, larch, silver
+fir, Scotch, Austrian and Corsican pines; and seeds of the less hardy
+coniferæ may be sown in pans or boxes and placed in a cool frame.
+General nursery-work should be finished up by the end of April.
+
+[Illustration: TOOLS REQUIRED IN NURSERY.]
+
+=Summer.=—The keeping down of weeds, watering and shading seed-beds,
+and turning over and mixing of compost-heaps will be the principal work
+for the months of May, June and July. Hollies should be planted out in
+May, and seedlings of the same kind lined out in the nursery borders.
+
+Elm seeds may be collected as they ripen, and some of these sown in
+well-pulverized beds in June.
+
+=Autumn.=—Weeds will still require attention, particularly in
+seed-beds, and amongst young trees that have been recently planted out.
+General transplanting of shrubs, particularly evergreens, may now go
+on, and seedlings be lined out. Cuttings should be inserted in light
+sandy soil by the middle of August, or when the temperature of the
+earth and air is most nearly equal.
+
+Trim nursery fences, cut grass, clean walks and roads, and attend
+generally to neatness and order. Look over the brakes of pines, and
+remove and burn such as are attacked by any of the various insect and
+fungus pests to which they are liable. The seeds of ash, hornbeam, yew
+and thorn should be collected and placed in barrels with about an equal
+bulk of sand, to hasten the decomposition of the outer coating.
+
+=Winter.=—The early winter months will be a busy time in the nursery,
+the lifting and dispatching of trees for forest-planting being one of
+the principal operations—at least, so long as the weather remains mild
+and open. As time permits, two and three year old plants should be
+lined out, well-rooted cuttings lifted and transplanted, and layers
+from old stools carefully cut away and placed in the borders for a
+year or two before being finally planted out. Turn manure-heaps, and
+add a small quantity of fresh lime to hasten general decomposition, to
+sweeten the soil, and deprive the seeds of weeds of their germinative
+properties.
+
+Sloe, holly, and similar berries may be collected as they ripen, and
+stored in the usual way.
+
+In November and December, horse chestnut, oak and hazel may be sown in
+well-pulverized beds of good, rich soil. Ash and hornbeam are sometimes
+sown in January.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V
+
+FORMATION OF PLANTATIONS
+
+
+=Laying out the Boundary.=—Before commencing actual planting operations
+several preliminaries must be attended to. These will include (1)
+laying out the boundary, (2) clearing the ground of rough-growing
+vegetation, (3) drainage where necessary, (4) fencing, and (5) laying
+out such roads as may be necessary for the efficient working of the
+plantation. For the benefit of the trees, for shelter purposes, and for
+the general appearance of the landscape, it would be well were more
+attention paid to the laying out of the sites for new plantations. In
+many cases, however, there is no choice in the matter, the proprietor
+saying, Here is a field that is of no great value for agricultural
+purposes, plant it up. But in the case of hillside or moorland planting
+the matter is usually different, the choice of ground, size of
+plantation, and method of planting being left entirely in the hands of
+the forester. Many considerations will tend to determine the position
+of boundaries—bounds of property, proximity to roads, public paths, and
+the existence or future probabilities of modes of transit, all being
+more or less significant factors.
+
+First, however, it is advisable to take into consideration when
+planting hillside or moorland, the shelter to be afforded to cultivated
+land in the neighbourhood, but a combination of this with the
+aforementioned considerations will be all-important.
+
+The form of the outline must also be laid out with due regard to the
+prevailing wind, and should always present a convex side towards it, as
+it is obvious that on striking such a curve the force of the wind would
+be divided and expend itself in two opposite directions, thereby losing
+much of its destructive power. Blending one curve with another should
+be strictly observed, and continuous straight lines should be avoided,
+not only for appearance sake, but as it is well known that the most
+destructive force of the wind concentrates on such outlines.
+
+[Illustration: HILLSIDE WITH PLANTING ARTISTICALLY ARRANGED]
+
+[Illustration: SAME HILLSIDE WITH STIFFLY ARRANGED PLANTATION]
+
+=Woodland Roads.=—These are necessary for access to the wood when
+thinning, the removal of timber and firewood, and for sporting
+purposes. They should either be pegged out or formed before planting
+operations have been commenced, and need neither be of an elaborate
+character nor attended with great expense in construction. According
+to the area of the plantation, so should the roads be arranged, and a
+considerable saving is effected by laying out the roads and leaving
+them unplanted. Usually they are made 30 ft. wide, and only require
+to have the surface equalised and any stagnant moisture removed by
+drainage.
+
+It is a good plan, so as at all times to keep the drives in a passable,
+dry condition, to cut a ditch along each side of the ride, parallel to
+it, and, say, 18 in. wide by 15 in. deep. The soil so removed will come
+in for filling up inequalities on the road surface. Steep roads should
+be avoided by following, in quickly sloping woodlands, the curve of
+the ground., For sowing down woodland drives, bridle-paths, etc., the
+following mixture of grass seeds is to be recommended:—
+
+                                                        lbs.
+    Timothy grass, hard fescue, tall fescue, and
+      meadow foxtail, 2 lbs. each                         8
+    Smooth stalked meadow and rough cocksfoot,
+      4 lbs. each                                         8
+    Rough stalked meadow and sweet-scented vernal,
+      4 lbs. each                                         8
+    Wood meadow grass                                     8
+                                                        ————
+                                              Total      32
+
+In sowing down gravelly or sandy rides, I have found the Lyme or sand
+grass—_Elymus arenarius_—and the Sea Matweed—_Psamma arenaria_—to
+answer well, the seeds of each being sown in equal proportions.
+
+Before sowing down woodland rides the soil should be well consolidated,
+and all surface inequalities levelled.
+
+=Fencing.=—Local circumstances will often determine the mode of fencing
+new plantations. Where stones are abundant these may be utilized in the
+formation of walls, while in districts where slate abounds excellent
+fences of this kind may be erected at a cheap cost.
+
+Turf walls and ditches are sometimes formed as plantation boundaries,
+but unless carefully looked after they are rarely very successful.
+
+Stone and turf walls are now, however, almost entirely superseded by
+iron fencing, it being not only readily conveyed to any desired point,
+but quickly erected and moderately cheap.
+
+To recommend any particular system of wire fencing would, for various
+reasons, be out of place, for amongst the numerous kinds now offered
+almost any desired pattern can be obtained.
+
+In any case the fence need not exceed 3 ft. 6 in. in height, with
+seven-strand wires, two No. 6 and five No. 7; and, as this is placed
+in position at so much per mile by the makers, it is always well, so
+as to avoid bad erection and keep down expense, to have it so put up.
+Where an abundance of larch timber is growing on the estate, it would,
+perhaps, be unwise to employ iron, but in the majority of cases it will
+be found cheapest in the end to have the fences erected wholly of iron
+and wire.
+
+The straining-posts should be of sound, well-seasoned larch or oak, and
+7 ft. long by 6 in. square, or if round 7 in. in diameter.
+
+The intermediate posts are usually of larch, 5½ ft. long by 3½ in., by
+3 in., or if round, not less than 3½ in. diameter at small end.
+
+The straining-posts are placed in the ground at 150 yards apart, with
+an additional strong post at every angle or curve that occurs in the
+line of fence. The intermediate posts are pointed and driven into the
+ground along the line of fence at 6 ft. apart.
+
+In order to make a fence proof against the inroads of sheep and cattle
+not less than six wires should be erected, and galvanized strand wire
+is preferable. The total height of the fence need not exceed 3 ft. 6
+in., and the top wires should be placed farther apart than those lower
+down.
+
+In tightening the wires a straining machine is usually employed, but
+brackets for the same purpose are preferable, these being attached to
+the straining-posts.
+
+They are of particular value, as the wire can be tightened or slackened
+at will.
+
+The posts should be rounded on the top or sawn with a slant, so that
+the rain may run off.
+
+=Draining the Ground.=—Efficient drainage must be considered as one of
+the most important operations in the formation of a plantation. Every
+portion of the ground may not, probably, require to be drained, but
+where it is at all surcharged with moisture the removal of such will be
+a step in the right direction if the future welfare of the trees is a
+point of first importance. In commencing draining the position of the
+main outlet must first be determined, and in doing so every fall of
+the ground should be taken advantage of. It is quite impossible to lay
+down rules as to the number, sizes, and distances apart of the various
+drains, these being points that can only be satisfactorily settled
+on the spot, and when the nature of the soil, lie of the ground, and
+amount of rainfall to be carried off are determined. In most cases,
+however, the main drains should be from 2 ft. 6 in. to fully 3 ft. wide
+at the top or surface, from 10 in. to 12 in. wide at the bottom, and
+about 3 ft. deep. The minor drains may be less in proportion to the
+mains, and are usually 2 ft. deep, 2½ ft. wide at top, and the width of
+the draining spade at bottom.
+
+According to the nature of the ground so will the distances at which
+the drains should be cut vary, but in most cases from 15 ft. to 30 ft.,
+sometimes even less, and sometimes considerably more. The minor drains
+should never run at right angles to the main, but at about 45°, which
+will prevent the mouths becoming choked up when there is a rush of
+water in the main. The soil removed from the drains should be evenly
+spread out over the ground-surface.
+
+[Illustration: TOOLS USED IN DRAINING]
+
+=Levelling.=—In the carrying out of drainage operations in connexion
+with the formation of new plantations, but particularly where the
+land is nearly level, one of the most necessary implements is the
+spirit-level or theodolite. There are many other operations, as well
+as in connexion with draining, where the level and the knowledge of
+its working are all-important for the forester. Thus in the formation
+of roads and paths, levelling of ground inequalities, lake and pond
+forming, etc., the level will be found an almost indispensable
+instrument—in fact, it cannot well be done without.
+
+Of levelling instruments there are various descriptions, but the
+simplest of any is the ordinary spirit-level, it being cheap, easily
+carried about in the pocket, and when erected on a temporary staff
+will fall in with most requirements in connexion with general forest
+work. The illustration (Fig. 1) will give a good idea of the simple
+instrument. When in use the spirit-level is fixed in a frame of brass,
+the whole being screwed into a staff or support, _e_. The brass screw,
+_d_, serves to adjust the level as required.
+
+There are two eyesights, _a_ and _b_, the latter being a square
+opening, with a fine hair wire crossing it in the middle.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1. SPIRIT-LEVEL.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2. METHOD OF LEVELLING.]
+
+The relative heights of a series of points are obtained by means of
+their vertical distances from others which, on the supposition of
+the earth being a sphere, are equally distant from its centre, and
+these, which are called level-points, must be found by an instrument
+constructed for the purpose—spirit-level, theodolite, etc. Generally
+choice is made of any convenient stations, _a, b, c, d_, on the line of
+operation (see Fig. 2), and the distances between them are determined
+by actual ad-measurement. The instrument is then set up and adjusted
+at, or near, the middle of the interval between every two such points
+in succession. When the level thus placed, as at _f_, has been rendered
+horizontal by means of the adjusting screw, an assistant at each of
+the stations _a_ and _b_, holding what is called a station-staff in
+a vertical position, moves an index along the staff, up or down, as
+dictated by the observer of the level, till it coincides with the
+intersecting wire as seen in the eyesight or telescope. The points
+thus determined on the stave are represented by _e_ and _g_, and these
+are termed level-points, or points equally distant from the centre of
+the earth. Therefore the heights _a, e_, and _b, g_, being read on the
+graduated staves, the difference between them will give the relative
+heights of the ground at _a_ and _b_. Similar processes are repeated
+with respect to the points _b_ and _c_, and _c_ and _d_, the instrument
+being placed at _i_ and _m_, midway between them. Usually the heights
+_b g, c l_ and _d n_ are inserted in a column headed “Foresights,” and
+the heights _a e, b h_, _c k_ and _d n_ in a collateral column headed
+“Backsights.” The difference between the sums of the numbers in these
+two columns will be equal to the height of one extremity (_a_) of the
+line, above the other (_d_). When a number of levels have to be taken
+in succession, it will be found a saving of time to use the surveyor’s
+level or theodolite instead of the ordinary spirit-level illustrated.
+
+With regard to the use of the instrument as shown in Fig. 1, it may
+be necessary to state that the height of the eyesight _b_ from the
+ground must be deducted from the point observed. As an example: if the
+object-pole or staff be marked in feet or inches, and the hair wire in
+taking a sight strike the same at, say, 8 ft., then, if the eyesight be
+4 ft. from the ground, the difference of level between the two stations
+(instrument and station) will be 4 ft., that is, there will be 4 ft.
+of a fall from the spirit-level station to that of the station where
+the staff was placed. On the other hand, should the hair wire strike
+the object-pole at, say, 2 ft. from the ground, these 2 ft. must be
+deducted from the height of the eyesight, which, as we have said, was 4
+ft., then the ground at the station-pole must be 2 ft. higher than that
+at the spirit-level.
+
+=Clearing the Ground.=—Coarse-growing herbage, which often includes
+heath, gorse, and rough grasses, that would interfere with planting
+operations, should be removed, but not indiscriminately, as it may
+prove of inestimable value under certain conditions. On exposed and
+high-lying ground, the heath and grasses will prove of great advantage
+to the young trees, and usually they are not too luxuriant or apt to
+cause damage at high altitudes. Where, however, the growth of such
+shrubs or grasses would be detrimental to the young trees, by all means
+have them removed. The best way is either to cut them over or grub
+out by the root, and burn on the ground. During a continuance of dry
+weather it may be possible to burn without either cutting or uprooting,
+but, generally speaking, removal of the roots is to be encouraged.
+
+=Pitting.=—The advantages of pitting over any method of planting
+cannot be questioned, and this is particularly the case with ground
+that has hitherto been uncultivated. Compared with notch planting,
+this system is, no doubt, more expensive, but that the future benefits
+to the plants are greatly enhanced is admitted by all practical
+arboriculturists.
+
+It is not, however, to be inferred that, though pitting is preferable,
+notching is to be abandoned, for there are many precipitous, rocky
+places where it would be the only practice feasible, and plants so
+inserted have often succeeded admirably.
+
+The pits should in all cases be opened for some time before
+planting—indeed, in unfavourable soils and situations, it is a good
+practice to have such work performed in autumn and the plants inserted
+the following spring. By so doing, the earth that has been removed from
+the pits will lie fully exposed to the mellowing influences of frost
+and sunshine, so that when the time for replacing it comes round, it
+will be in the best possible condition for applying to the roots of the
+young trees.
+
+The pits in uncultivated lands should be made circular, about 18 in. in
+diameter and fully 12 in. deep, and the sides and bottom well loosened
+up with a pick. In loose or recently cultivated soil the pits may be
+much smaller. Take off the surface turf in halves, placing these on one
+side of the pit, and the soil on the other, for ease and convenience in
+planting. When the ground slopes quickly the soil removed from the pits
+should, so as to facilitate quick replacing, be deposited on the higher
+side.
+
+=Planting.=—This may be successfully carried out during all open
+weather from about the end of September to the beginning of April, but,
+generally speaking, autumn planting is to be recommended. There are
+several exceptions however: such as when we have to deal with peat bog,
+water-logged soil, exposed hillsides, or land by the sea-coast. Where
+the newly-inserted plants have to cope with prolonged storms, such as
+we get on hillsides or by the sea, or contend with very uncongenial
+soils, it is always a wise policy to defer planting until spring, or
+just when the trees are about to make a start to growth, as they, with
+their freshness and vigour undiminished by the change from the nursery
+border to the more trying surroundings just referred to, are more
+likely to take hold at once and succeed.
+
+The battering and swaying that autumn planted trees receive when
+exposed to the hurricanes of our hillsides or seaside sites so enfeeble
+them that, in spring, when growth should commence, the majority will be
+found to be in a very unsatisfactory state, whereas, by inserting in
+spring, when growth will soon be at its full activity, the chances of
+succeeding are greatly enhanced. In peat bog the antiseptic properties
+of the soil act dangerously on the roots of young trees if allowed
+to remain therein for some time before active growth has commenced.
+However, with the exceptions cited, tree planting throughout the
+British Isles generally should be taken in hand as soon as the leaves
+of the hardwood species have fallen, which usually takes place about
+the second or third week of October, much depending on the particular
+season. Lift the plants very carefully from the nursery brakes, and
+do not, on any account, tolerate the too-often-enacted practice of
+tearing the trees from the ground, and before they have been properly
+loosened on both sides of the lines with a fork. To lift nursery stock
+properly—and the extra expense incurred in so doing is money well
+spent—a trench should be thrown out along each side of the line and
+the soil undermined from beneath the roots, so that the plants can be
+lifted without tearing or straining the tender rootlets. It is not
+important, if the plants are inserted soon after being lifted, that
+soil should accompany each, the roots being plentiful and unmutilated
+making up for the want of this. Where, however, the plants have not
+to be conveyed far from the home nursery to the plantation there is
+no need to remove much of the soil, for if left intact the young tree
+is far more likely to start away freely into growth than if this was
+shaken clean off.
+
+[Illustration: TOOLS USED IN PLANTING]
+
+Immediate planting after being lifted is to be strongly recommended,
+the evil of allowing plants to lie about exposed to wind and weather
+being well known. Should it, however, not be convenient to plant at
+once, the nursery-stock should be stood closely together, and some damp
+straw, leaves, or soil heaped around the roots of the outer or exposed
+specimens in the lot. In any case, the roots must never be allowed to
+become dry and parched, or be subjected to frosty winds, as these act
+most perniciously, and soon destroy the tender fibres and render them
+almost useless for the purpose intended.
+
+In planting, spread the roots to their full extent in the pits,
+avoiding all cramping and bending, placing the largest to the most
+exposed side, and cover with earth, the finest soil being placed next
+the roots, and the rougher and grassy on the top. Placing the turf in
+the bottom of the pit, cutting it well up with the spade, putting a
+little earth on the top of this, and then planting the trees, has its
+advantages, the rotting turf acting as manure by the time the roots
+have got down to it.
+
+=Slit or Notch Planting.=—This is done by simply cutting the sod or
+surface by two strokes of the spade, and to the depth of about 5 in.:
+thus =L= or =T=. With the first stroke the spade is inserted in the
+ground in an almost perpendicular manner; it is then withdrawn and
+inserted at right angles to the first notch and at the end of it, and
+by pressing down the handle of the spade the turf is opened up, the
+plant being inserted from the blade of the spade towards the further
+end; the spade is then carefully withdrawn and the turf trampled so
+as to cause the notches to close completely. This latter should be
+strictly attended to, as should the notch be left partially open, the
+plant will suffer from the admission of an undue quantity of air. The
+operation requires two persons—a man to open the notch, and a boy to
+insert the plant. It is chiefly employed in bare and hilly ground, and
+large tracts of ground in Scotland have been very successfully operated
+upon in this way. With the notch system there are advantages and
+disadvantages. In the first instance, we have reduced cost, expedition,
+and firm insertion; whilst in the second small plants only can be used,
+the soil remains unbroken, and the root system presents an unnatural
+position.
+
+The plants used with the notch system should not exceed 9 in. in
+height.
+
+=The Planting-iron= has been found of great value for inserting small
+forest trees in rocky ground, where it would be almost impossible to
+do so in any other way. It is 17 in. long, weighs 3 lbs., and can be
+conveniently used with one hand.
+
+Holding the “iron” slackly, the planter strikes it into the ground with
+a force sufficient to drive the sharp, heart-pointed blade in about 3
+in. or 4 in. By pressing it down and towards the planter, with a slight
+twist to the right, the left corner of the turf is opened up, the plant
+being carefully inserted with all the roots beneath the ground. The
+iron is then withdrawn, and the loosened turf made firm by tramping.
+
+Only a small plant should be inserted with the planting-iron, and great
+care taken to insure the soil and turf being firmly pressed around the
+stem of the young tree.
+
+=Planting Trees too deep.=—Fully 50 per cent. of the deaths amongst
+newly-planted trees may be directly attributed to the pernicious
+practice of too deep planting. Cases come before us frequently where,
+owing to burying the roots of the trees and shrubs at too great a depth
+in the soil, they have either died out or gradually become unhealthy
+owing to strangulation and want of air. It is a mistaken idea that by
+placing the roots at an excessive depth in the soil the young tree
+will be better enabled to withstand wind, and so remain in an erect
+position. Most workmen quite ignore the original mark on the tree stem
+as to the depth it stood whilst in the nursery, and go to an opposite
+extreme by covering up both root and stem to an unnecessary depth.
+Large trees suffer quite as much from being planted too deep as those
+of smaller growth. Quite recently we were asked to look at a large
+number of lime trees about 16 ft. in height that had been planted for
+several years without a sign of upward growth. The reason for this
+was not hard to discover, for on unearthing one of the trees it was
+found that the roots were covered with fully 2 ft. in depth of soil.
+The trees in question had never budged an inch, and were from year to
+year gradually on the decline owing to the ruinous practice of too
+deep planting. No better guide as to the depth at which a tree should
+be planted can be had than the distinct mark on the stem showing the
+depth at which it stood whilst under nursery management. In order
+to keep newly-planted trees from being damaged by rocking with the
+wind, and to preserve them in an upright position, firm trampling is
+all that is required. In very exposed situations it may sometimes be
+found necessary to place a small piece of turf against the stem on
+the opposite side from which it is leaning, and to make this firm by
+means of the foot. Staking, at least in the case of small transplants,
+is never necessary, though in the case of larger trees and where the
+situation is exposed, light poles thrust into the ground to which
+the stems are made fast may be found necessary. Of course, it is a
+mistake to allow trees to rock about in the wind to such an extent
+that the roots become strained and barked, and holes worked around the
+stems, but this can readily be prevented by periodical examinations of
+the newly-planted trees. Stones should never be placed in the holes
+referred to, as they damage the roots, a piece of stiff turf or heavy
+soil being far preferable. With a large experience of tree planting I
+find that the general tendency is to plant too deep—an evil that it
+is hoped these notes will be the means of remedying, in some cases at
+least.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI
+
+TREES FOR ECONOMIC PLANTING
+
+
+From a commercial point of view the best trees to plant are such as
+will produce the largest volume of the most valuable timber in the
+shortest space of time.
+
+Amongst the several hundred species of trees that are cultivated in
+this country it is a remarkable fact that less than twenty can be
+recommended for profitable planting. Of course many others are valuable
+as shade and shelter producers, but from a strictly economic point of
+view, that is to say where the value of the timber is a point of first
+consideration, only about ten hard-wooded and eight coniferous species
+can be included in the list.
+
+Amongst hardwoods we have the oak, ash, beech, sycamore, elm, Spanish
+chestnut, willow, poplar, alder and birch; while coniferous trees would
+include the larch, Scotch and Corsican pines, common and Sitka spruce,
+silver and Douglas firs, and possibly the giant Arborvitæ and Weymouth
+pine.
+
+The =Oak=.—Than the timber of the oak none other produced in this
+country is more lasting or valuable—indeed, in few other trees are the
+qualities of strength and durability, hardness and elasticity combined
+to such an extent. As might be expected, however, the value of oak
+timber is greatly influenced by soil, that produced on deep, heavy loam
+or clay lands being of superior quality. The colour of the wood also
+varies greatly with age from a dark grey to a deep rich brown and even
+green. Brown oak, which is almost confined to the Midland counties of
+England, is considered to be wood in the first stage of decay, and
+attacked by a fungus, and is generally associated with trees that are
+long past their prime and whose larger limbs have become hollowed and
+unhealthy. The finest examples I have seen of brown oak were produced
+at Ampthill in Bedfordshire, and on the Welbeck Estate in Notts. The
+beautiful vivid green colour assumed by oak timber under certain
+conditions is due to the action of the fungus _Peziza æruginosa_. As
+this colouring matter in the timber is quite permanent and cannot be
+destroyed, wood so affected is eagerly bought up by the makers of fancy
+furniture. Unhealthy or dead trees in damp shady positions are most
+often attacked by the fungus, and we have known timber of the oak when
+left lying about in the woodlands to assume this colour. Owing to the
+scarcity and value of green oak timber experiments have been undertaken
+to produce the colouring by artificial means, but as far as we are
+aware the results were not satisfactory. The best examples of green oak
+timber that we have seen were produced in Kent, and in the North of
+Ireland.
+
+The =Ash=.—When viewed in a purely economic sense the ash must, next to
+the oak, be considered as our most valuable forest tree. The massive,
+deeply fluted, or cylindrical trunk, the weighty swelling branches,
+and the usually pendant masses of the freshest pea-green foliage, all
+combine to render this tree one of the most majestic for ornamental
+planting, but particularly so when associated with others that are of
+a darker shade of green. The ash is indigenous to Europe, Northern
+Africa, and North America, while throughout the British Isles it is
+widely dispersed.
+
+It thrives tolerably well in most soils and situations, but the finest
+timber is produced in fairly sheltered sites, and where the soil is
+rich and open or freely interspersed with loose rock or stones. In
+order to produce clean, springy timber, such as is in request for the
+making of tool-handles, aeroplanes and agricultural implements, the ash
+should be planted thickly in order to induce straight stems that are
+for the greater part destitute of branches. For black, peaty soils,
+or that of a dampish, loamy character the sapling ash is peculiarly
+suited, in which, after being cut over, it will reproduce itself
+freely. At from thirty to forty years’ growth the ash is most valuable
+for handle wood and for agricultural implements.
+
+The timber is hard, heavy, and flexible, and though rapidly grown it is
+tough and elastic above that of any other tree grown in this country,
+hence its universal employment for machinery and other special purposes
+where great strength, combined with yielding powers, are points of
+first consideration. Few timbers become useful at such an early age
+as does the ash. At from four to six years’ growth it is fit for
+walking sticks, for spade handles at ten years, while after that age
+the uses to which it is applied are very numerous and diverse. For the
+cartwright, the agricultural implement maker, carpenter, cooper and
+turner, it is of special value. No timber has been found to equal it
+for the making of oars, pulleys, blocks, ladders, hoops, and crates.
+Owing to its sawing without splintering it is used for milkpails,
+kitchen tables, staircases, and similar purposes, while when of large
+size it is greatly in demand for furniture making.
+
+For smoking herrings ash wood has a certain local demand. Potash is
+procured from the ashes of the branches, and the bark has a special
+value in the tanning of nets.
+
+The =Beech=.—For profitable planting the beech is one of our most
+valuable trees, while it has the extra recommendations that it grows
+rapidly, succeeds well in the shade, and reproduces itself freely.
+
+The finest beech timber is produced on chalky or deep sandy soils,
+the former being preferable as may be instanced by the comparatively
+high price obtained for that grown on the Chiltern Hills and chalky
+formations of parts of Kent and Herts. The growth of the beech is rapid
+and it attains its prime at from sixty to seventy years, after which
+age the timber often becomes black at the heart and accompanied by
+rottenness and shakes which render it almost useless for constructive
+purposes. It is better suited for indoor than outdoor use and is
+extensively used in the making of Windsor chairs, for millwright and
+engineering purposes, for the handles of carpenters’ tools, for bobbins
+and, when clean and of large size, for the calendar machines of cloth
+manufactures.
+
+[Illustration: STANDARD BEECH TREE]
+
+Growing on comparatively poor soils where other species will not
+produce profitable timber the beech is particularly valuable on account
+of its reproducing itself freely from seed and withstanding a greater
+amount of shade than perhaps any other species. It associates well with
+the oak under cultivation.
+
+The =Sycamore= for profitable planting can be recommended owing to the
+high price which can be obtained for timber of large size, though even
+when of thirty years’ growth it finds a ready market for bobbin making
+and other turnery purposes.
+
+The most suitable soil for the sycamore is a dry sandy loam or even
+deep sand. The tree is peculiarly suitable for planting in exposed or
+seaside situations and also for standing alone as a field or hedgerow
+tree. The timber is white, smooth and free from grain. It is used for
+curtain rings, churns, butter prints, backs of violins, founders’
+patterns, cutting boards, and in the making of wooden vessels and
+furniture. For calendar machines it is especially valuable.
+
+The =Sweet= or =Spanish Chestnut= is largely cultivated for the value
+of the timber it produces. It thrives best on deep gravelly soil or on
+granite or sandstone with a dry subsoil, and with a southern or western
+exposure. The timber is of excellent quality and lasts well either in
+water or above or below ground. It is often substituted for that of the
+oak, and is extensively employed for mill timber, bridges, fencing of
+all kinds, posts, stakes, casks, and for hop poles.
+
+The Spanish Chestnut is a tree of rapid growth and when the timber is
+of fair size it finds a ready market, though at a lower figure than
+that of the oak.
+
+Unfortunately the timber produced on certain soils and situations is
+much reduced in value owing to cup shake.
+
+=Elm=, both English and Scotch, are extensively planted for the value
+of timber produced.
+
+The timber of the English elm is of a rich brown colour, hard, tough
+and usually twisted in the grain. Owing to the strength of its
+lateral fibre the timber is much in request for making blocks for
+ship’s riggings, while it furnishes naves for wheels, coffin boards,
+furniture, pumps, piles, and is employed largely by the wheelwright.
+For using under water it is the best wood cultivated in this country.
+
+The wood of the Scotch or Wych elm is considered to be more valuable
+than that of the English species, and is used for similar purposes and
+also as a substitute for ash. It is very liable to become rotten at the
+core.
+
+=The Alder and its Uses.=—Whether viewed from a strictly commercial
+standpoint, for its justly recognized capacity for thriving luxuriantly
+where few other trees could exist, or for its ornamental qualities, the
+common alder will be found to rank high among British forest trees. It
+usually attains to a height of from 50 ft. to 60 ft., with a stout,
+well branched trunk that is more or less gnarled and fluted. The
+branches have an upward inclination, and are well clothed with roundly
+wedge-shaped leaves that are of a deep, dark green colour. With age the
+bark usually assumes a dark brown, or almost black, colour. The alder
+is found in all parts of Europe, North Africa, and from Asia to Japan.
+For planting in wet, even swampy, situations, where only a very limited
+number of trees could eke out an existence, the alder is of particular
+value, and it is in such situations that it attains to the largest size
+and produces the greatest quantity of timber. Even in situations where
+the poplar and willow find a difficulty in battling with the excessive
+and stagnant moisture the alder thrives luxuriantly and reproduces
+itself freely from seed. As an ornamental tree the alder is not much
+in request, although the stately habit and ample deep-green foliage
+render it of value in that respect. The fine old specimens by the river
+and stream sides at Esher Place in Surrey, have a beauty that is quite
+their own, and it is in such tranquil situations that the tree is seen
+to perfection—the beauty of form and picturesque appearance causing
+it to be unrivalled in river and lake scenery. The tree is readily
+propagated and comparatively cheap in consequence, grows rapidly after
+becoming established, and is not subject to disease or premature decay.
+
+Though soft, the timber of the alder is in much request, and in
+consequence numerous wants are supplied by it. It is very durable
+under water, and for this reason is largely employed for piles, bridge
+foundations, water pipes, and for lining the banks of rapid running
+streams and rivers. The celebrated bridge of the Rialto, at Venice,
+was, according to Evelyn, built on piles of alder wood, while the city
+of Ravenna was stated to have likewise been built on piles of the same
+wood. For herring barrel staves the wood is also in request, as it
+is for mill bobbins and turnery work. In cabinet work and for cheap
+furniture alder wood is largely used, while as it does not readily
+split, boards for the bottoms of carts and wheelbarrows are frequently
+made of the same wood.
+
+The beautiful pale pink colour which the timber permanently retains
+causes knotty planks to be in great demand for veneering purposes.
+
+In Wales, and throughout the Midland counties, large quantities of
+alder timber are consumed in the making of clog soles, which, after
+being roughly formed in the woodlands where the trees have been felled,
+are sent by rail to several of the Lancashire towns to be finished off.
+Throughout Ireland—chiefly the north—large numbers of clog soles, made
+of alder, are annually employed in the manufacture of cheap boots;
+indeed, in many parts the making of clogs is quite an industry.
+
+The bark of the alder is used in tanning leather, though in much
+smaller quantities at present than was the case half a century ago,
+when oak bark fetched as much as £10 a ton, and when none of the
+chemicals that are now so commonly employed were offered in the market.
+Excellent gunpowder is made of the wood, said to be second only in
+quality to that prepared from the dogwood. The young shoots, according
+to the peculiar way in which they are prepared, are employed in dyeing
+red, brown, yellow, and black.
+
+Alder is generally in good demand at all stages of its growth, and
+is seldom grown to very large dimensions. For the clogger, turner,
+or charcoal burner it is of greatest value up to about thirty years’
+growth, while by cutting it over at that age a second crop springs
+rapidly from the stools.
+
+The =Birch=.—It is hardly necessary to speak of the hardiness of the
+birch, for no other native tree, not even the Scotch pine, ascends
+to such elevations in Britain. The higher the tree ascends the more
+shrub-like it becomes, until on very exposed rocky sites at great
+altitudes it hardly exceeds a yard in height.
+
+As regards soil, the birch is by no means particular, for we find it
+succeeding well even on that of a poor rocky or gravelly character.
+The largest individual specimens always, however, occur at not too
+high an altitude, and on soil of a light, loamy nature, an abundance
+of moisture being still further favourable to quick development.
+For planting on exposed ground for shelter-giving purposes, but
+particularly where the soil is thin and poor, the birch is a most
+valuable tree. Its growth is fairly rapid, and it does not suffer to
+any appreciable extent either from insect or fungoid attacks. As a
+coppice tree it is also valuable.
+
+The timber of the birch, though of little value for general estate
+purposes, is largely employed in the arts and manufactures. It is
+much used for thread bobbins, turnery work, shoe pegs, hoops, and
+fish barrels, while it makes excellent firewood, and yields superior
+charcoal for smelting purposes. In Wales large quantities of birch wood
+are cut into clog soles, while the sabots used by the French peasantry
+are also made of that wood. When of large size and good figure,
+furniture and veneers are made of the wood, and on the Continent
+felloes for carriage wheels. Brooms and switches are made of the
+smaller branches or sprays, while the bark is used for tanning, and an
+oil expressed from it is employed in the preparation of the well-known
+and fragrant Russian leather.
+
+[Illustration: STEM OF THE TRUE “CRICKET BAT” WILLOW (_Salix cærulea_)]
+
+The =White= or =Huntingdon Willow= (_Salix alba_).—Whether for ornament
+or utility the White or Huntingdon Willow must be considered as one of
+our most valuable trees. The timber sells readily at all prices up to
+10_s_. per cubic foot, and when it is considered that the tree will
+succeed in dampish ground where most other species decline to grow,
+and that it is of rapid growth, attaining maturity in less than forty
+years, its value in economic planting will be recognized. At the outset
+it may be well to point out that the wood of the particular willow
+from which the best class of cricket bats are manufactured sells at a
+higher rate than any other timber that is cultivated in this country.
+There are many kinds of willows found growing throughout the British
+Isles, but one alone produces the particular class of wood from which
+first-class bats are turned out. Until quite lately the timber of the
+White or Huntingdon Willow (_Salix alba_) was largely used in the
+making of cricket bats, but it has been found that a cross between that
+species and the crack willow (_S. fragilis_), and named _S. cærulea_,
+produces by far the best wood for the manufacture of high-grade
+cricket bats. In the trade the “Cricket Bat Willow,” as it is now
+known throughout England, is popularly designated as the close-barked
+willow in order to readily distinguish it from the open-barked or crack
+willow. Confusion generally exists in determining the various forms
+of willow, but in _S. cærulea_ the branches incline upwards; indeed,
+the tree has a semi-fastigiate form of growth, and the branches also
+have an upward tendency. The bark is a dark grey, with long, straight,
+narrow fissures closely arranged and from which the term “close-barked”
+is derived. The leaves are of a bluish tint or covered with bluish-grey
+hairs beneath and long and narrow in shape, while an unerring point
+of difference between the hybrid and other willows is that the tree
+produces only female flowers. It may be well to mention in connexion
+with the crack willow that the bark fissures are far more rugged and
+placed farther apart than is the case with the true cricket bat willow,
+_S. cærulea_. The great importance of recognizing and growing for
+purely economic purposes the true variety will be apparent when it is
+mentioned that makers of cricket bats will have nothing to do with any
+but the true “close-barked” tree, and the English bat-maker is keen to
+recognize the characteristics of the timber he requires, and will not
+stick at paying exorbitant prices for trees of the right kind.
+
+As showing the value in England of the timber of the true bat-making
+willow, it might be mentioned that in many instances that have come
+under my notice as much as 16_s._ per cubit ft., or six times the price
+of the best oak, has been paid for trees of the true _S. cærulea_. A
+single tree growing in London lately sold at £10, and in Hertfordshire
+eleven trees fetched the handsome sum of £81, while £20 was refused
+for four trees growing in a wood in Essex. Such prices are, however,
+exceptional, though on a visit to two of the largest bat-making
+establishments in the metropolis I was told that for several years past
+the average price paid for willow worked out at 6_s._ per cubit foot.
+A well-known grower tells us that if planted in suitable soil a “set”
+or cutting, which usually costs 1_s._ 6_d._, will in fifteen years be
+worth about £6.
+
+The home of the true bat-making willow is in the Eastern English
+counties, and it is there that the manufacturer goes when wishing to
+purchase the most valuable timber for his special work. The propagation
+of the bat-making willow is simple, either by rooted cuttings or
+“sets,” the latter being the best and cheapest method. “Sets” are
+usually from 12 to 20 ft. long, with a basal diameter of, say, 3
+ins., the best being got from pollarded trees, and straight, clean,
+branchless shoots are preferable. They should be stripped of all side
+branches for about three-fourths of their length and only cut in
+spring. By placing these sets together in a ditch or pond for about a
+month rootlets will be emitted, when they may be planted in previously
+prepared holes, which are formed by driving an iron rod or stake in the
+ground for a distance of, say, 2½ ft.
+
+The =Poplar=.—Several species of poplar are valuable for the timber
+they produce, as also for their rapidity of growth and succeeding in
+low-lying, damp ground. When clean grown and of large size the timber
+sells readily at prices which vary from 1_s_. to 1_s_. 6_d_. per ft.
+
+Probably the most valuable species is the white poplar (_Populus
+alba_), though the black Italian (_P. monilifera_) produces excellent
+timber for which there is generally a demand.
+
+From a purely commercial point of view the above hard-wooded trees are
+the only kinds that can be recommended for planting in this country.
+The timber of the lime, hornbeam, walnut and one or two others at times
+sells at a fair price, but the small quantity offered shows that they
+have not been considered worthy of attention where the economic value
+of the plantations was being considered.
+
+
+CONIFEROUS TREES
+
+Amongst the many conifers that have been introduced to this country
+during the last century very few can be recommended as suitable for
+profitable planting. The following, so far as is known, are the only
+species to be recommended:—
+
+The =Larch= (_Larix europæa_).—Both for and against the larch much
+has been written and said, particularly of late years; but, however
+much has been said in commendation of it, there can be no doubt that
+to overstate its value as a timber tree in the economy of British
+forestry would be a task of some difficulty. When we combine its great,
+almost peculiar, aptitude to suit itself to nearly all conditions of
+soils, altitudes, and diversities of climate, its long-established
+value as a timber tree, rapidity of growth and ease of culture, it is
+clear that no other tree cultivated in this country can be ranked on
+a par with the larch. Unfortunately, however, of late years the larch
+has suffered much from disease, the predisposing causes of which may
+mainly be attributed to the variableness of our spring weather, and the
+rapidly degenerating state of the tree—the latter chiefly brought about
+by an injudicious selection of seed. By far too little attention has
+been paid to this important matter, the result being that weakness and
+tenderness have got into the constitution of the tree, and it is thus
+unable to withstand even a few degrees of frost. So weakened, blight,
+fungus, and ulceration find a footing, and thus the fell disease is
+generated about which so much has been said and written of late years.
+In my own opinion, strengthened by careful investigation and research,
+induced tenderness in the constitution of the larch is the primary
+cause of disease, cold winds and frost being the destructive agents,
+and ulceration the direct consequence.
+
+Injury to the roots of the larch in transplanting is attended with most
+injurious results. In corroboration of this, it may be stated that
+natural or self-sown trees are, in this country, almost exempt from
+disease.
+
+The variableness of our spring weather is, no doubt, one of the
+predisposing causes of disease, for although no degree of cold
+experienced in this country can injure the tree when leafless, yet few
+are more sensitive when in young foliage.
+
+The durability of the wood of the larch is well known, and this
+peculiarity is even noticeable when of only a few years’ growth. As
+compared with Scotch and spruce firs, the wood of the larch is about
+twice as durable—a fence of the latter cut at from twenty to thirty
+years’ growth lasted from seventeen to twenty years, while that of
+the spruce lasts about eleven years, and the Scotch seven years. This
+refers especially to rails, not to posts, which decay in about half
+that time. For mining and railway purposes the durability of larch wood
+makes it much sought after, this being further enhanced by its extreme
+lightness, the weight of a cubic foot when seasoned being only 34 lbs.
+It takes a beautiful polish, works with great freedom, and, when fully
+seasoned, is not at all liable to twist or warp.
+
+Substitutes for the larch have often been recommended, but, in the true
+sense of the word, there are practically none, although, doubtless,
+some of those whose claims have been set forth might to a certain
+extent reflect one or more of its valuable qualities.
+
+=Sitka or Silver Spruce= (_Picea Sitchensis_).—From a purely commercial
+point of view the Sitka or Silver Spruce is probably the most valuable
+of any of the family to which it belongs. It is a tree of noble
+growth in this country, several specimens being well over 100 ft.
+in height and with boles that girth fully 10 ft. at a yard from the
+ground, these dimensions being attained in seventy-five years. When
+used as a standard, the tree is one of great beauty, the stiff and
+rather irregularly disposed branches being thickly beset with vivid
+bluish-green foliage that is silvery on the under side. It delights in
+a cool, moist loam and not too exposed situation, but when grown on
+gravel or any warm soil the foliage is distinctly meagre and affected
+by red spider. The timber, which is remarkably light for its bulk,
+strong and flexible, is of great value in the making of aeroplanes, and
+special logs find a ready market at highly remunerative prices in the
+London market.
+
+The =Corsican Pine= (_Pinus laricio_).—This is, undoubtedly, one of the
+best all-round conifers that has found its way into the British Isles.
+It is of very rapid growth, and well suited for planting, even in the
+most exposed and wind-swept situations; a non-fastidious subject as to
+soil, and a valuable timber-producer.
+
+As to its adaptability for withstanding long-continued cold blasts at
+high altitudes, ample evidence can be adduced on many an English and
+Scotch estate where the pine has been introduced into the woodlands in
+such quantity as in certain places to form the ultimate or standing
+crop. In North Wales, on one of the Snowdon range of hills, I have
+planted the Corsican pine in great quantity. The plantation was, for
+the greater part, fully exposed to the dreaded south-westerly wind,
+which at times blows hard and long, and sweeps the hillsides with
+terrific fury; yet, under such conditions, the Corsican pine has done
+remarkably well—in fact, proved itself to be well suited for planting
+at high altitudes on our English hillsides. Even at the highest point
+of the woodlands in question, this pine has thriven in a manner that
+is quite surprising, and thrown its stoutest branches out into the
+very teeth of the blast, and that where hardly a hardwood tree could
+survive, and even the Scotch fir shrank from the cold and almost
+unceasing storms. Other notable instances of how well the Corsican does
+on exposed ground and high altitudes might be pointed out—such as at
+Blair Athol, in Perthshire, at 700 ft., where it is thriving amazingly;
+and again in Yorkshire, one of the most barren and wind-swept of
+English counties, where in parts, it grows with a luxuriance that is
+almost unparalleled in any other part of Britain. The timber produced
+by the Corsican pine in this country is strong, tough, elastic, very
+resinous, and easily worked; this is speaking of trees of fully fifty
+years’ growth. It thrives well on gravelly soil, some of the largest
+specimens of the tree in this country growing along the margin of a
+disused gravel-pit.
+
+It may be said that the Corsican pine is perfectly hardy, peculiarly
+well suited for planting in exposed situations, a rapid and valuable
+timber-producer, a tree that is cheaply and easily raised from
+seed, and one of the most non-exacting conifers as regards choice
+of soil that could be named—all qualities of the highest value in a
+timber-producing tree and a combination that is rarely found in any
+other species.
+
+In France extensive plantations of the Corsican have been formed, while
+it has also been introduced extensively into the State forests by the
+Prussian Government.
+
+[Illustration: THE WEYMOUTH PINE AT GWYDYR CASTLE]
+
+The =Weymouth Pine= (_P. Strobus_), whether viewed in an ornamental or
+economic aspect, must be considered as another of the most valuable
+pines that have been introduced into this country. Admit, we must,
+that in certain situations the cultivation of this handsome tree has
+been attended with no very promising results; but then it should be
+remembered that, like most other trees, the Weymouth pine has its likes
+and dislikes of soil, as well, indeed, as of aspect and altitude.
+That it has succeeded well, and produced an unusually large quantity
+of clean and firm wood in various parts of the country cannot be
+denied; but then in such places its peculiar wants have been attended
+to. At Gwydyr Castle, in North Wales, the tree succeeds admirably,
+specimens fully 90 ft. in height, straight as arrows, branchless for
+three-fourths their length, and fully 8 ft. in girth at breast-high,
+being not uncommon. The soil is rocky debris, largely intermixed with
+vegetable refuse, fairly moist at all times, but without stagnant
+moisture.
+
+On the western borders of Ross-shire, at Strathkyle, where the
+altitudes vary from 100 ft. to 1,200 ft., the Weymouth pine is making
+rapid progress. We do not wish it to be inferred that the Weymouth
+pine alone is suitable for planting at high altitudes and on exposed
+situations; but that it will grow rapidly and produce useful timber
+in partially-sheltered districts has been proved by those who have
+paid particular attention to the value of the more recently introduced
+conifers as profitable timber-producers in this country.
+
+A comparison of the wood produced by the Weymouth pine in this country
+with that sent to the late Colonial and Indian Exhibition showed but
+slight differences, and nothing more than could naturally be expected
+between a mature and an only partially-developed tree.
+
+The =Scotch Pine= (_P. sylvestris_) must on no account be omitted from
+our list; as, especially for planting in exposed situations where
+few other trees could succeed, it is one of the best. Probably the
+principal reason why this tree has not been more generally cultivated,
+is on account of the low-priced timber it produces, for, of late years,
+it has been difficult, except in certain favoured districts, to get
+rid of it at a remunerative price. With the war, matters are quite
+different. The finest quality of Scotch pine timber, such as that
+produced in some of the northern Scottish counties, no doubt, is even
+now fairly remunerative; but, generally speaking, that grown throughout
+Southern Scotland, England as a whole, and also Ireland, is of so
+inferior a quality as hardly to fetch a remunerative price. No doubt,
+however, this pine will continue to be largely planted wherever shelter
+and ornament are of first importance: and rightly so, for few others
+are so well able to withstand cold, cutting blasts at high altitudes.
+
+The =Douglas Fir= (_Pseudotsuga Douglasii_) is, in certain situations,
+a valuable timber-producing tree—indeed, as regards the actual
+production of timber in a given time, it is, perhaps, ahead of any
+other tree grown in this country. From measurements we have taken, the
+actual production of timber during fifty years was 240 ft., or nearly
+5 ft. per year for half a century. In a plantation of the Douglas fir
+in Wales, planted twenty-two years, we found the average dimensions
+to be as follows: Height, 76 ft.; girth of stem at 24 ft., 4 ft.;
+cubic contents, fully 50 ft. The timber produced in this country is of
+excellent quality, being light but strong, works very readily, has a
+pleasant yellowish tinge, and takes on a good polish. That the Douglas
+fir is a tree that is eminently adapted for cultivation in this country
+is already well known; but to grow it in anything like a satisfactory
+way it must be planted in sheltered hollows, for extensive experience
+has long ago proved to us that it is ill-adapted for braving the storm,
+even at a few feet above the sea-level. Long ago we strongly advocated
+the forming of plantations of _P. Douglasii_ alone, or with some
+other tree of about equally rapid growth, for, when mixed up with the
+general run of our forest trees, the leader, on overtopping those of
+its neighbours, soon gets broken over, or otherwise presents an almost
+branchless, whip-handle-like appearance. We do not wish to say one word
+against this our favourite fir: but the truth must be told, and our own
+experience, gained principally on a low-lying seaside estate, where
+the tree was annually planted by the thousand, is that _P. Douglasii_
+must occupy a sheltered situation if either ornament or utility be
+considered as points of first importance.
+
+The =Giant Arborvitæ= (_Thuja gigantea_) is fast coming to the front
+as a British timber tree, and has already, at the hands of far-seeing
+planters, received a fair amount of attention. After a fair and
+impartial trial on our part, we have found it to be perfectly hardy,
+even at high altitudes, a fast grower and rapid timber-producer, a
+non-fastidious subject as regards the quality of soil in which it is
+planted, and one of the most easily managed and most accommodating of
+trees. The quality of timber produced in this country is such as to
+warrant us in speaking highly of it, it being of a desirable yellow
+colour, fine-grained, easily worked, remarkably durable, and light in
+proportion to its bulk. From the measurements of fully twenty-four
+specimens scattered over an English park, we have found that the
+average annual rate of growth is 22 in., but even this is exceeded by
+young trees.
+
+The =Norway Spruce= (_Picea excelsa_).—Whether as a hardy,
+shelter-giving tree, or for the quantity of fairly good timber it
+produces, the common or Norway spruce must ever rank high in the list
+of useful trees that have been found suitable for culture in the
+British Isles. That it is a tree in every sense of the word admirably
+suited for extensive planting is acknowledged by all, as it luxuriates
+at high altitudes, and where fully exposed to our worst winds, and at
+the same time produces a great quantity of timber that has been found
+of excellent quality, well suited for general constructive purposes.
+As a shelter tree few others can equal the spruce, and when planted
+along the outskirts of exposed plantations the amount of warmth and
+protection it affords is quite surprising.
+
+The =Silver Fir= (_Abies pectinata_) is another of those trees that
+have of late years fallen into disrepute, mainly owing to the increased
+importation of foreign timber. That it is an excellent and highly
+remunerative tree is unquestionable, and the very fact of its thriving
+luxuriantly on soils where the larch declines to grow should make it,
+in this country at least, of great value as a forest tree.
+
+With the most satisfactory results has the timber been used for railway
+sleepers—in fact four sleepers laid experimentally have stood the wear
+and tear quite as well as those of Baltic timber, alongside of which
+they were placed. For roofing purposes the wood has likewise attained
+great fame, as it is found to stand vicissitudes of dry and damp
+alternately better than almost any other home-grown timber.
+
+The coniferous trees just treated of are about the only kinds that can
+be recommended for profitable planting in this country.
+
+The Atlantic Cedar and Japanese Larch might be added to the list,
+but present experience will not justify us in bringing any of these
+prominently to notice.
+
+Twenty-five years ago, at the instigation of the then Earl of Derby,
+the writer formed several plantations on the Holwood Estate in Kent.
+At the outset it may be well to state that these plantations were not
+formed with the object of producing valuable timber, but rather for the
+ornamentation and privacy of the newly-acquired property. The trees
+used were the Scotch, Corsican, Austrian and Weymouth pines, Douglas
+fir, the larch, and several species of hardwoods. As all have succeeded
+well under exactly similar conditions, the following notes as to the
+rate of growth and production of timber, both of which are unusually
+great, during a period of twenty-five years may be instructive.
+
+Previously to being planted the land, which may best be described as a
+hungry loam on a gravelly subsoil and sheltered, was let out for rough
+grazing and the cultivation of strawberries and other fruit.
+
+The cost per acre of forming these plantations was:—
+
+                                       £  _s._ _d._
+    Pitting, 2,722 at 1_s._ per 100    1   7    2
+    Planting                           1   1    0
+    Trees, at 40_s._ per 1,000         5   8    0
+                                      ———————————————
+                                      £7  16    2
+
+This price may appear both high and low, but in connexion with the
+former it should be explained that the coniferous trees when planted
+were about 16 in. high, the others about 3 ft., all being placed 4
+ft. apart. Owing to the land having recently been under cultivation
+and labour at that time being cheap in the district, the opening of
+pits was carried out by contract at quite a nominal rate, the size of
+each being 12 in. square and 9 in. deep. After being planted the trees
+required little attention for the first six years, at which period they
+averaged 8 ft. in height, and the shade occasioned by the branch spread
+had killed out most of the grassy undergrowth.
+
+As the plantations were primarily intended for ornament and shelter,
+the retention of the lower branches of the trees, at least along the
+margin, was imperative, and in order to ensure this, early thinning was
+engaged in and carried out at regular intervals up to the present time,
+always bearing in mind to allow the boundary trees plenty of room for
+branch development, those inwards, in order to induce clean growth,
+being left much closer on the ground. Though in the latter case the
+volume of timber produced is comparatively less than along the margins,
+yet it is of greater value owing to the trees being straight and
+clean-stemmed, the only exception being the Corsican pine which, even
+when isolated, has little inclination to form stout side branches.
+
+The soil being light and resting on gravel was peculiarly suited for
+the growth of the pines, none of which suffered from disease or insect
+attack, though the Weymouth had occasional patches of the aphis with
+which it is usually attacked around London. The larch was practically
+free from canker.
+
+During recent thinning operations a good opportunity was afforded of
+taking the actual measurements when felled of the various species of
+trees, these being as follows:—
+
+    Austrian pine, average height, 46 ft.; cubic contents, 9 ft.
+    Corsican   ”       ”      ”    51 ft.;  ”      ”      11 ft.
+    Scotch     ”       ”      ”    45 ft.;  ”      ”       8 ft.
+    Weymouth   ”       ”      ”    42 ft.;  ”      ”       6 ft.
+    Larch              ”      ”    47 ft.;  ”      ”       8 ft.
+
+It will thus be seen that the Corsican pine has surpassed all the
+others both in height and in the quantity of timber produced; and in
+viewing the plantations from a distance the leaders of the Corsican
+pines soar quite 6 ft. above those of their neighbours. The Austrian
+comes next in the quantity of timber produced, but not in height; and
+the larch and Scotch are of about equal size, the Weymouth being equal
+to the latter in height but not in bulk of stem. But the larch beats
+all in value of timber, for, while that of the various species of pine
+was difficult to sell at a remunerative figure, the larch wood was
+readily disposed of at a fair valuation.
+
+My experience is that timber merchants fight shy of purchasing any of
+the pine family excepting the Scotch. This may be owing to prejudice or
+want of knowledge as to the value of timber produced by the Corsican
+and Weymouth; but whatever the cause, the fact remains that the timber
+of both these species is difficult to dispose of at any but firewood
+rates. That of the Scotch being better known finds a ready market
+at about half the price of larch, which latter, after all, is the
+most useful and profitable of any coniferous tree cultivated in this
+country, and one for which the demand always exceeds the supply.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII
+
+PLANTING EXPOSED GROUND
+
+
+As the majority of plantations for purely economic purposes are formed
+on the wind-swept moor or hillside, the successful management of these
+is a matter of considerable importance.
+
+There are many difficulties to encounter in planting high-lying and
+exposed ground that one would never have to think about in low-lying
+and sheltered situations. Planting, for instance, should not be
+commenced until February or March, as, by deferring it till that time,
+the newly-inserted plants will be fresh and vigorous, and ready for an
+immediate start in growth, which would not be the case if they had been
+put out in autumn and subjected during winter to the inevitable wind
+shaking that is always to be reckoned with on exposed ground.
+
+The choice of trees, too, for planting on wind-swept ground is a matter
+of far more moment than is generally supposed, for that there are
+certain species of trees peculiarly suitable for withstanding prolonged
+storms is well known to those who have had to do with the forming of
+woods and plantations at high altitudes. The size of trees planted has
+also much to do with the after success of the woods, and it may be
+well at the outset to say that these should not exceed about 12 in. in
+height on the most favoured sites to about from 6 in. to 9 in. on the
+more exposed grounds. They should also be properly prepared by frequent
+careful transplanting for the situations they are intended to occupy,
+as it can hardly be expected that a young and immature tree can, after
+being brought from a probably sheltered lowland nursery—as nine-tenths
+of those in this country are—to a high piece of ground, where at
+times the wind blows with terrific fury, and where one can scarcely
+stand upright, have sufficient stamina to stand against such odds and
+difference as must and do exist between the two points at present under
+consideration.
+
+Sometimes it is well to trench over a piece of ground on
+partially-exposed land, and insert therein for a couple of years before
+the proposed plantation is to be formed, the young trees intended for
+planting out. This has a wonderful effect in hardening and inuring
+them to severe cold and a wind-swept situation. By forming a nursery
+of young trees by the sea-coast, I have known great success attend the
+formation of woods and plantations in maritime situations, and like
+results are sure to attend the planting out of trees in any uncongenial
+and unfavourable situation.
+
+About the trees to be planted, being such as are sufficiently hardy
+to withstand prolonged storms, we will now say a few words. In the
+outer line—or, rather lines—the Scotch, Austrian, and Corsican Pines
+(_Pinus sylvestris_, _P. austriaca_, and _P. laricio_) are of first
+value, since they are able to stand against the storms of the hillside
+and produce a great amount of shelter to other less hardy kinds. It is
+often only necessary to make a wind-barrier, as it were—that is, to
+plant well-tried evergreen kinds, from which shelter can be obtained
+next the most windy position, then to follow up with other kinds that
+are second hardy in nature, and so on inwards; while, in the very
+centre of the plantation, almost any kind of tree can be used.
+
+The =Austrian Pine= has been successfully planted at high altitudes,
+and in the most exposed situations, and on the Continent it has proved
+itself of great value for breezy sites and maritime situations.
+
+The State forests are composed of not a few Austrian pines, and they
+are greatly valued for the shelter and warmth they afford to other less
+hardy kinds of trees. The best results are to be obtained if planted
+when young, for when removed at a greater age, with roots large and
+rampant of growth, it is with great difficulty that they can be got to
+keep upright. Unfortunately the timber is of no special value.
+
+The =Corsican Pine= is equally as good as the latter for using where
+winds are of common occurrence, proving stout and strong, rooting well,
+and presenting a broad surface of hardy evergreen foliage to the blast.
+It is a good timber-producer, and, being well fitted for growing in
+patches close together, will yet be largely used for forest work in
+this country.
+
+About the =Scotch Pine= it is, perhaps, needless to speak, for every
+one who has travelled in Scotland, particularly in the more exposed
+northern parts, must have made himself acquainted with the capabilities
+of this valuable native tree. It can grow and flourish almost
+anywhere—on pure gravel, on the rocky mountain-slope, or by the rushing
+brookside, and in all these positions it seems to feel quite happy and
+contented, as the beautiful silvery glaucous foliage, the upright,
+rampant growth, and the cheery cinnamon or terra-cotta bark clearly
+indicate.
+
+With these three excellent storm-resisting trees for an outer barrier
+almost any kind of planting can be engaged in, for the shelter they
+afford is amply sufficient to start away into rapid growth even our
+only second-class hardy kinds of trees. The =Sycamore= is a good
+tree for planting where the storms blow loud and long, being able to
+withstand in a very commendable way the first brunt of the hillside
+winds. It is also a good timber-producer, the wood at all times being
+easily disposed of, and at a very remunerative price.
+
+The =Elder= and =Mountain Ash= are other valuable small-growing trees
+for planting on exposed ground, both flourishing apace even in very
+high and exposed woodlands.
+
+In the =Scotch= or =Mountain Elm= (_Ulmus montana_) we have a
+first-class tree for planting as shelter, while the =Alder=, =Willows=
+of various kinds, and the =Hornbeam= should all receive attention in
+the formation of woodlands on exposed and storm-swept sites.
+
+The =American Winged Elm= (_Ulmus alata_) has few equals for
+withstanding long-continued storms at high altitudes, for it sends out
+its cork-covered branches without fear of harm into the very teeth of
+the blast. I have noticed how well suited this elm is for planting
+on exposed, high-lying ground by the few examples that occur at
+considerable elevations in some of the screen-belts that have been
+formed on the flanks of the Snowdon range of hills, where the tree
+looks quite as healthy and happy as at lower elevations in a sheltered
+park.
+
+The =Larch=, be it remembered, is a good tree for planting on exposed
+ground, for, though it gets twisted about and untidy of appearance, it
+has a wonderful recuperative nature, and will succeed well even when
+planted on the margins of exposed woodlands. By taking advantage of
+natural tree or shrub growth when forming plantations at high altitudes
+much good may be brought about. A young tree planted to the leeward of
+a clump of gorse, broom, juniper, or birch has a much better chance of
+succeeding than another planted where it has no shelter from the worst
+winds of the particular district. These wild clumps of natural shrubs
+should be encouraged in every way, for they will not only give a great
+amount of shelter, but help to thicken up the plantations as well. In
+exposed woodlands it is a good plan to plant up the margins with such
+hardy wild shrubs as the gorse, broom, thorn, juniper, blackthorn,
+etc., all of which will afford a great amount of shelter to the young
+plants when newly inserted, and help them to start away freely.
+
+The =Common Beech= is a good all-round tree for planting in exposed
+sites, but especially where the soil is poor, or, in other words,
+composed principally of chalk or gravel. Some of the highest grounds
+in several of the English counties are occupied by thriving beech
+plantations, these acting as landmarks for many miles around, as
+notably at Knockholt and on the Chiltern Hills.
+
+The =Oak= and =Ash= should both find places in high-lying and exposed
+woodlands, for, although they cannot be planted successfully along the
+margins, yet they thrive well where a little shelter is afforded, and
+where the soil is fairly deep and rich.
+
+The =Birch= cannot be passed by in any list of trees for planting in
+exposed places; it thrives well at high altitudes, and where only a
+small quantity of soil overlies the rock.
+
+The =Wild= and =Bird Cherries= (_Cerasus vulgaris_ and _C. Padus_) are
+excellent ornamental trees for exposed grounds, where they grow to a
+large size and flower freely. They can both subsist where but a small
+depth of soil is present.
+
+=Preparation of the Ground and Planting.=—As regards the pits for
+planting, these should be well prepared—that is, the soil loosened
+up and made free for the roots to run in, which will greatly help
+the trees to become quickly established—a point of great importance
+on exposed ground. The top turf may be chopped up and placed in the
+bottom of the pit, this serving, when decomposed, as manure to the
+roots, and assisting to promote vigorous growth. In planting, place the
+best-rooted sides of the trees to the windward or most exposed site,
+and do not cover with the soil to a greater depth than that in which
+the plant stood whilst in the nursery border. On very exposed sites,
+and where the soil is thin, notch planting and inserting with the
+planting iron are to be recommended.
+
+It will be well, at stated intervals, to examine young plantations
+formed on high-lying and exposed ground, to see that the plants do not
+get shaken about with the wind and holes formed around the stems. This
+latter is highly injurious to the welfare of the plants, as the air
+passing down the stem side causes the roots to get dry to an inordinate
+degree.
+
+Wind-swaying, where these holes have been formed around the stem, is
+also hurtful, as the tender roots get strained and barked, and ill
+fitted for maintaining a healthy condition of the young trees. The
+holes formed by swaying of the stems should be filled up with fine
+soil—not stones, as is sometimes the case—and a small piece of stiff,
+grassy turf tramped firmly against the stem on the side opposite that
+from which the worst winds may be expected.
+
+Should rank vegetation, which, is, however, rarely met with at high
+altitudes and on exposed ground, interfere with the growth of the young
+trees, it would be well to have such cut over and either burned or
+spread evenly over the ground.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII
+
+SEASIDE PLANTING
+
+
+Few persons other than those who have actually been engaged in the
+work have the remotest idea of the difficulties to be encountered
+in the formation of belts and plantations on exposed and wind-swept
+seaside ground. To plant young trees around many parts of the coast of
+the British Isles, particularly where wide stretches of open seaboard
+are to be dealt with, without first erecting a shelter-screen of
+some kind or other, is useless work, and only productive of the most
+unsatisfactory results.
+
+That there are not a few districts, however, where such a preliminary
+would be needless is well known, all that is required in certain
+instances being, first of all, to prepare the ground, and secondly, to
+suit the trees to the soil and situation, seeing that some varieties
+succeed better than others in certain soils and sites.
+
+From experience I have found out how useless it is to plant in a
+haphazard way, at least, on the more exposed seaboards along the west
+coast, whereas, by careful manipulation, I have been successful in
+getting up shelter where before it was deemed almost an impossibility.
+The chief consideration in seaside planting is unquestionably shelter,
+be it only of a temporary kind, for it may be noticed anywhere along
+our coast that, wherever the direct force of the hurricane is broken,
+there trees and shrubs are growing best. Another evil—a great one,
+too—with which the planter has to contend is the injurious effect
+on trees, but more particularly on evergreen shrubs, of the saline
+particles which are driven and deposited with such force on the leaves
+and branches as in many instances to give them the appearance of having
+been scorched or cut over when in full vigour by an untimely frost.
+Wind-shaking, although a minor evil, must also be carefully guarded
+against, so that at the outset it is well to have the trees, except
+such as are of dwarf size, securely staked and tied, so as to obviate
+the dire results occasioned to the roots of newly-planted trees when
+the stems are allowed to rock to and fro with the wind.
+
+Before commencing planting operations on the sandy and exposed
+sea-coast, the preliminary step is to erect a barrier of some kind,
+which will intercept the violence of the wind, and act as a screen
+or shelter to the young plants. For this purpose various kinds of
+erections are equally suitable, but that usually adopted, especially
+where loose sand alone is present, is a strong paling fence thatched
+with brushwood. The posts should if possible be 6 ft. above ground and
+about 12 ft. apart, the paling-rails, two in number, being securely
+nailed to these at 2 ft. and 5 ft. from the ground; against this are
+placed spruce or gorse trimmings, these being 6 ft. long if possible,
+in an upright manner, and firmly tied to the crossbars by means of
+binding wire or strong tarred rope. This may best be described as a
+dead fence, but it is, nevertheless, quite as valuable for the purpose
+required as a perfectly developed living hedge. By means of this a
+great advantage is gained and a favourable start for the newly-planted
+trees is secured. Then, compared with a stone wall, or, in fact, a
+wall of any kind, this screen-fence is greatly superior, the wind
+being broken up in passing through it, and, what is of as much value,
+also relieved of its saline particles, at least to a very considerable
+extent.
+
+Where the shore is almost destitute of sand, and where certain kinds of
+vegetation subsist, I find it to be a capital plan to substitute for
+the dead fence just described that composed of turf and earth.
+
+The raised mound should be not less than 5 ft. in height, and of
+sufficient width at top to allow of the planting of a double line
+of such plants as have been found most suitable for the wind-swept
+maritime situation in which they are to be used. For this purpose few
+plants equal, and certainly none surpass, the Sea Buckthorn (_Hippophæ
+rhamnoides_), Tamarisk (_Tamarix gallica_), the common elder, hazel,
+whitethorn, and at least three species of willow—_Salix Caprea_, _S.
+helix_, and _S. alba_. Immediately behind this screen, pits of not
+less than 2 ft. in diameter and about 18 in. in depth may be formed,
+and it will be all the better if some time is allowed to elapse before
+they are planted. The bottom and side of each pit should, where found
+necessary, be loosed with a pick, and if the soil is found to be of
+very inferior quality, it will be well, more especially where such can
+be readily obtained, to add a spadeful or two from some adjoining field.
+
+Planting should not be commenced before March or April, an early start
+at growth being much in favour of young trees that have recently been
+transferred to the sea-coast. The plants to be used should not exceed,
+say, 12 to 15 in. in height, but of strong growth in proportion to
+their size, and supplied with an abundance of fibrous roots. Lanky,
+ill-grown, and coddled plants have but a poor chance of succeeding
+under such adverse circumstances.
+
+In planting, keep the strongest roots seaward, and do not place the
+trees at a greater depth in the soil than that at which they stood
+whilst in the nursery border. The failure to use this precaution is
+a mistake, and is productive of anything but favourable results.
+Immediately behind this raised mound of turf, or the dead fence
+of branches above described, the best trees for withstanding the
+first brunt of the sea-breeze are the sycamore, elm, elder, and
+willow amongst hardwoods, and the Austrian and cluster pines (_Pinus
+austriaca_ and _P. Pinaster_), to which might be added _P. laricio_,
+_P. sylvestris_, and _P. montana_, amongst conifers. These are all
+well-tried subjects, and may be relied upon as peculiarly suited
+for doing battle with hard-blowing and long-continued storms on the
+sea-coast.
+
+Regarding the merits of the cluster pine for seaside planting, it would
+be almost superfluous for me to speak; while the elm and sycamore send
+out their stout branches into the very teeth of the blast, and are
+known as peculiarly well suited for such situations.
+
+The following list includes such trees and shrubs as have, from long
+experience, been found well suited for planting on cold and wind-swept
+shores, and the trees are arranged according to their value in this
+respect.
+
+
+HARDWOODS
+
+The =Sycamore= (_Acer Pseudo-platanus_) is, without doubt, the most
+valuable hard-wooded tree of timber size that I have come across for
+planting in exposed seaside situations. It succeeds well, even at
+highwater mark, the stout, twiggy branches being thrown out into the
+very face of the blast. Even during winter, and in a leafless state,
+the amount of shelter afforded by this tree is quite surprising. Taking
+everything into consideration—its great hardihood, and suitability to
+various soils and situations, I consider the sycamore the most valuable
+of any deciduous tree that I have yet tried for seaside planting.
+
+The =Elder= (_Sambucus nigra_) is, amongst small-growing trees, the
+best for planting in exposed seaside districts. Its powers of endurance
+are even greater than those of the sycamore, although the amount of
+shelter it affords is by no means so great. Where its branches are
+constantly exposed to the saline-laden breeze, and its roots amongst
+almost pure sand, it grows and thrives in a manner that is quite
+surprising. With the greatest advantages have I used the elder as a
+wind-break on some of the most exposed and desolate coasts of the
+British Isles. Even where grown as a single specimen, it seems to
+disregard the angry blast and saline particles with which it is almost
+constantly pelted—a fact that may be verified, in not one, but several
+stations along the coast. Then, what tree is of readier culture than
+the elder, succeeds better in poor, sandy soils, or spreads about to an
+equal extent?
+
+The =Norway Maple= (_Acer platanoides_) stands the first brunt of the
+sea-breeze in a most commendable way—indeed, it may be recommended
+as one of the most hardy and valuable trees for the purpose under
+consideration that could be named. On the western coast of England,
+and in a very exposed and wind-swept district, I have used it with the
+greatest success in the formation of plantations, as it is of rapid
+growth and soon forms an excellent shelter to the other less hardy
+kinds of trees. It is by no means particular as to soil, but succeeds
+all the better if this is fairly rich.
+
+The =Winged Elm= (_Ulmus alata_).—From a long experience of this, at
+present, little-known tree, I have every confidence in recommending it
+as one of the most valuable trees for planting in cold, wind-tortured,
+and maritime districts that have yet found their way into this country.
+Where many of our hardiest trees are bent and shrinking from the blast,
+this elm stands nobly out, and seems to defy both winds and storm.
+
+The =Huntingdon Willow= (_Salix alba_) and =Bedford Willow= (_S.
+Russelliana_), but particularly the former, are excellent trees for
+windy shores. In many places along the coast the Huntingdon willow may
+be seen in a most flourishing and happy condition, and that, too, where
+the surroundings are the reverse of favourable. It is a tree of quick
+growth, and will succeed well in any class of soil if it be not too
+damp. In one instance that came under my notice, the trees were planted
+on a promontory overhanging the sea and in such a situation that they
+were almost constantly subjected to rough-blowing winds coming in from
+the Irish Sea, and yet they have grown with the greatest freedom, and
+to-day look as healthy and happy as if planted in some sheltered inland
+situation.
+
+The =Beam Tree= (_Pyrus Aria_) is another excellent small-growing tree
+for planting in sites where, from cold saline blasts, few others could
+eke out even a miserable existence.
+
+On the limestone cliffs of the Great Orme’s Head this handsome and
+hardy tree grows in a most surprising way—indeed, with the exception of
+one or two species of willow, I question very much whether any other
+tree could exist under the trying circumstances. The hard and leathery
+leaves seem as if specially constructed for bearing storms, and, being
+plentifully produced, render a great amount of shelter to other trees.
+
+The =Goat Willow= (_Salix Caprea_), for planting in almost pure sand
+on the sea-coast, is a most valuable small-growing tree, and it is so
+hardy that, without the least risk of harm, it may be planted at great
+altitudes, and in very exposed situations. In several of the maritime
+plantations that I have formed, this willow was used with remarkable
+success in the outer line or screen.
+
+The =Aspen= (_Populus tremula_) is an excellent shore-tree, one
+that can withstand a great amount of rough usage, and as hardy and
+fast-growing a subject as could well be desired. In the formation
+of several exposed seaside woods on the west coast of England I
+planted the aspen largely, and, I may add, the results have been most
+satisfactory.
+
+=P. canadensis=, =P. alba=, and =P. nigra= are likewise worthy of
+extended culture, for they succeed well by the seaside. They all stand
+the breeze from the sea, are perfectly hardy, and afford a great amount
+of shelter.
+
+The =Mountain Ash= (_Pyrus Aucuparia_).—Although valueless, or
+nearly so, for the quantity of timber it produces, yet, as a hardy,
+free-growing tree, the mountain ash, or rowan tree, merits attention
+from planters of exposed seaside land. All along the coast of Great
+Britain this pretty tree may be found growing luxuriantly, and in such
+situations affording a great amount of shelter to other less hardy
+kinds of trees and shrubs. It may be planted without fear of harm,
+down even to highwater mark, and where the soil is of the poorest
+description. It is thus one of the most useful of trees for planting as
+shelter along the roughest and most wind-tortured parts of the coast.
+
+The =Hoary Alder= (_Alnus incana_) and the =Common Alder= (_A.
+glutinosa_) can hardly be excelled for planting in wet portions of
+cold, wind-swept ground, and in the vicinity of the sea. Both trees
+grow with the greatest freedom, and are perfectly hardy, standing the
+first brunt of the saline blasts in a most commendable and praiseworthy
+manner.
+
+I have found it to be a good plan where shelter is wanted on bare
+coast-tracts, if the quality of soil be at all suitable, to plant the
+alders pretty closely, and when they have attained to 15 ft. or 20 ft.
+in height, to cut every alternate one over at ground level. By so doing
+a number of stout shoots are thrown out early in the following spring,
+which, as they grow with great rapidity, soon fill up the blanks
+occasioned by cutting over the young trees.
+
+After these have had several years’ growth the remaining half of the
+original crop should be cut over, and when all have started from the
+stools a first-class shelter is obtained. Of course, damp portions of
+the ground should be selected on which to plant the alder.
+
+The =English Maple= (_Acer campestre_) can well hold its own as a tree
+for planting on exposed seaside grounds. It is one of the hardiest
+trees with which I am acquainted, growing on exposed hillsides and at
+considerable elevations in a way that seems to attract the attention of
+every one.
+
+Hedges or fringe fences of the native maple have succeeded amazingly
+in several maritime woods in which it was planted, and in places, too,
+where the wind blew loud and long.
+
+The =Scotch Elm= (_Ulmus montana_) comes next on the list of such trees
+as I would recommend for the purpose under consideration. It affords
+plenty of shelter, as it grows freely from the root-stock, sending up
+numerous suckers, and is so hardy and proof against damage from storms
+that it may safely be planted in wind-swept districts by the seaside.
+
+=Birch= (_Betula alba_) and =Ash= (_Fraxinus excelsior_) are other
+trees that repeated experiments have proved to be well suited for
+withstanding the ocean’s blast and for planting in poor, rocky soils.
+
+The =Turkey Oak= (_Quercus Cerris_), with just a small amount of
+shelter, will be found a most valuable tree for planting within the
+influence of the sea. It thrives well in very poor soils, and when in
+full leaf is capable of affording a great amount of shelter.
+
+The =Evergreen Oak= (_Q. Ilex_) has proved itself to be peculiarly
+fitted for planting as shelter in exposed and maritime districts. In
+the formation of seaside plantations, but particularly where, from
+the frequency and force of the storms, few trees can succeed, I have
+planted the evergreen oak with the greatest success.
+
+The trees just treated of have no equals, among such as have yet been
+introduced, for withstanding cold seaside winds, a trial of many other
+varieties only resulting in proving their unfitness for planting in
+such situations. Two or three others, such as the =English Oak=,
+=Hornbeam=, =Beech= and =English Elm=, might be added to the list,
+but they can only be recommended for planting where at least partial
+shelter is afforded.
+
+
+CONIFERÆ
+
+Foremost amongst these I must, from long personal experience and a fair
+trial of several kinds under exactly similar conditions in every way,
+place the =Austrian Pine= (_Pinus austriaca_). It grows with unusual
+freedom, and affords a greater amount of shelter than any other tree
+with which I am at present acquainted.
+
+That it will succeed equally well with the _P. Pinaster_ when subjected
+to the sea-breeze, I am now fully convinced, while the amount of
+shelter it affords, and rapidity of growth, place it far ahead of that
+species for the purpose we are now considering. It may not succeed so
+well as the Pinaster when planted in pure sand, on the sea-coast, and
+this is the only point that can be adduced in favour of the latter
+species over _P. austriaca_.
+
+In forming many large woods along the coast of Northern England I used
+the Austrian pine in preference to several others, and happily, too,
+for it has succeeded in a surprising manner, trees of ten years’ growth
+being fully 13 ft. in height, and nearly as much in diameter of branch
+spread. With such a screen as that afforded by the hardy Austrian,
+many half-tender trees can be planted farther inland; and this is the
+method of procedure that I have found to be most successful in getting
+up shelter along bare and fully exposed parts of the shores of Western
+England and Scotland.
+
+The =Cluster Pine= (_P. Pinaster_) and its smaller-growing variety
+_P. maritima_ have a world-wide reputation for their suitability
+for planting on exposed seaside tracts of ground. That they are of
+great value for planting on sandy wastes is a fact that cannot be
+gainsaid—indeed, few other trees could succeed or eke out an existence
+in pure sand and where the roots come in contact with the salt water.
+A great drawback to this pine is its long tap-root and want of fibrous
+roots; it transplants with difficulty, but this, as in various other
+species of pine, may be greatly obviated by careful nursery management.
+
+In my own opinion the typical tree is hardly equal to the variety
+_maritima_ either for shelter or withstanding the sea-breeze. The
+variety, too, is, if anything, the most valuable for shelter-giving, it
+having a much greater inclination to retain the lower branches intact.
+
+The =Corsican Pine= (_P. laricio_) quite equals the Austrian in its
+powers of withstanding long-continued and cold winds. That it does not
+succeed so well on the sea-coast is a fact of which, from repeated
+experiments, I am fully aware. The Corsican pine, too, is a valuable
+timber-producer—a fact that is well worthy of consideration in
+extensive planting.
+
+In the =Giant Arborvitæ= (_Thuja gigantea_) we have another excellent
+addition to the list of trees that have been found suitable for
+planting on exposed maritime grounds. It grows with great rapidity, and
+I have never found even a solitary example of this tree having been
+uprooted or injured during the most severe storms. On the sea-coast of
+Wales I have used the giant arborvitæ largely in the formation of woods
+and plantations, and with great success. It transplants well, even when
+of large size, and is readily propagated.
+
+=Pinus montana= may also be recommended for afforesting tracts
+of ground by the sea-coast. It is a tree of undoubted hardihood,
+withstanding cold and cutting winds in a worthy manner.
+
+The =Scotch Pine= (_P. sylvestris_), though by no means equal to the
+above for planting by the seaside, must on no account be omitted from
+our list, for it is a hardy, fast-growing specimen, and one that can
+do battle with very severe and long-lasting storms. It should not be
+planted where it will meet the first brunt of the storm, but given a
+little shelter, such as that afforded by the above-named kinds. The
+varieties of pine just named may all be relied upon as peculiarly well
+fitted for the purpose under consideration.
+
+The =Large-fruited Cypress= (_Cupressus macrocarpa_) and =Pinus
+insignis= might be added to the list, both being well suited for
+maritime planting—inland, however, they cannot be relied upon. _Pinus
+insignis_ grows with unabated vigour on the wind-swept coast of the
+Isle of Anglesey, and stands the breeze in a most surprising and
+praiseworthy manner.
+
+The =Atlantic Cedar= (_Cedrus atlantica_) and =Swiss Stone Pine=
+(_Pinus Cembra_) do fairly well as seaside trees.
+
+
+SHRUBS
+
+The =Sea Buckthorn= (_Hippophea rhamnoides_) is unquestionably the
+best all-round shrub for planting as a shelter by the sea-coast with
+which we are acquainted. To see it in several districts of Scotland,
+growing amongst almost pure sand, and where constantly exposed to
+fierce blasts, shows how valuable a shrub it is for exposed maritime
+situations. For affording shelter it is one of the best shrubs that I
+know of, the unusually twiggy branches sifting and dividing up the wind
+in a most remarkable manner.
+
+=Tamarix gallica= and =T. germanica= are two excellent seaside shrubs,
+and such as are well suited for planting on exposed places. They grow
+with great freedom, transplant well, and are readily propagated. Even
+in pure sand they seem quite at home, growing freely, and producing a
+rich abundance of their showy flowers. In very exposed parts of the
+coast, and when fully open to direct sea-blasts, we have frequently
+seen the tamarisk fully a dozen feet in height, and nearly as much in
+branch-spread. Though little known _T. germanica_ is a most valuable
+seaside shrub, about 6 ft. in height, with small leaves, and spikes of
+conspicuous red flowers.
+
+The =Box Thorn= (_Lycium europæum_) may be introduced without fear of
+harm to the seaside woods, for it is not only perfectly hardy in such
+situations, but it bears constant exposure to wind as well as any shrub
+I know of. Hedges of this plant have been formed in many maritime parts
+of England and Wales, the only support being a few stakes driven in
+here and there along the line of fence. It will grow in pure sand, and
+when lashed by the waves.
+
+The =Snowberry= (_Symphoricarpus racemosus_) comes next on the
+list of shrubs that have been found suitable for the purpose under
+consideration. It is a plant of extraordinary hardihood, one that
+increases rapidly from the root-stock and affords a fair amount of
+shelter.
+
+The =Tree Mallow= (_Lavatera arborea_) can hardly be surpassed for
+shore planting, where it frequently attains to a height of 10 ft. It
+has been found of great utility in some of the islands along the coast
+of Scotland.
+
+=Spirea Adiantifolia= is a fitting companion for the latter, growing
+and flowering very freely in wind-swept gardens along the Scottish
+coast.
+
+=Griselinia littoralis= has stood a severe test as to its capability
+for withstanding cold winds blowing in from the sea.
+
+The =Dogwood= (_Cornus sanguinea_) and =Flowering Currant= (_Ribes
+sanguineum_) are, likewise, excellent seaside shrubs, of perfect
+hardihood and readily propagated.
+
+The =Tree Purslane= (_Atriplex halimus_) is also a really valuable
+shrub that is totally indifferent to the salt spray, and from its
+dwarf, evergreen nature, and silvery-scaly leaves, is also more or less
+ornamental. It does not seem to mind either wind blowing direct from
+the sea, or whether the soil in which it is planted is of only moderate
+quality.
+
+The =Laurustinus= (_Viburnum tinus_).—Where the situation is not too
+exposed, this is a most valuable and ornamental shrub.
+
+=Lilac= of various species are well adapted for planting by the
+seaside, the two kinds most to be recommended being the =Common= and
+=Persian= (_Syringa vulgaris_ and _S. Persica_).
+
+The =Spanish Broom= (_Spartium junceum_) has been used with the
+greatest success all along the coast, being perfectly hardy, and an
+excellent subject for cold, draughty positions.
+
+The =Tree Groundsel= (_Baccharis halimifolia_) is not only a shrub of
+great beauty, but one that is perfectly hardy, and well adapted for
+planting by the seaside. It will thrive in almost pure sand, but it is
+all the better for a poor gravelly loam, and seems to delight in the
+ozone of the seaside atmosphere.
+
+Both the =Portugal Laurel= (_Prunus lusitanica_) and =Sweet-Bay=
+(_Laurus nobilis_) are valuable evergreen shrubs for seaside planting.
+From their large size and compact habit, they afford a great amount of
+shelter.
+
+The =Common Holly= (_Ilex aquifolium_) and its golden form both do well
+at the seaside, and this may also be said of the =Common= and =Scotch
+Laburnums=. They may be used with best advantage where the direct force
+of the blast is broken up.
+
+The =Common Gorse= (_Ulex europæus_) and the =Broom= (_Cytisus
+scoparius_) should on no account be omitted from our list of shrubs
+that are valuable for maritime wastes where the wind exerts its full
+power.
+
+The above shrubs include the principal of such as can be recommended
+for planting along the sea-coast, but where good shelter is afforded
+by the trees named in this chapter, a few others might be recommended
+for trial. These include the =Strawberry Tree= (_Arbutus unedo_),
+=Euonymus japonicus=, =Berberis Darwinii=, =Ligustrum Ovalifolium=,
+=Daphne Mezereon=, and =D. laureola=, =Ruscus aculeatus=, =Hypericum
+calycinum=, =Vinca major= and =V. minor=, and several kinds of thorn.
+
+The =Maram=, or =Sea Matweed= (_Psamma arenaria_) is one of the most
+useful grasses with which I am acquainted for binding shifting sands on
+the sea-coast. Not only so, but by using it as a pioneer, the amount
+of shelter it affords renders other more difficult subjects by no means
+hard to cultivate. It usually attains to a height of from 2 ft. to
+2½ ft., much depending on the situation, whether partially sheltered
+or fully exposed. The root-stock creeps widely, some specimens that
+have been followed up in the sand being of the amazing length of 35
+yards. Amongst loose and drifting sand the running roots find what is
+most suitable for the welfare of the plant, and it is astonishing with
+what persistency they bind in an unusually short space of time these
+shifting hills of almost dust-dry sand. In planting, place the plants
+in parallel lines, about 16 in. apart, and at a distance of 12 in.
+from each other. Large plants may be subdivided to almost any extent.
+A garden line is stretched along the ground, a notch 10 in. deep taken
+out, the grass inserted therein and filled with sand, and afterwards
+firmly trodden. That the sea matweed is a most useful plant for fast
+gaining a footing on sandy tracts of sea-coast, and thus allowing of
+following up with the shelter-giving trees, cannot be disputed.
+
+The =Lymegrass= (_Elymus arenarius_) is also valuable for growing in
+almost pure sand on the sea-coast.
+
+It is of tall, elegant growth, and is readily increased from root
+divisions.
+
+The following trees and shrubs, alphabetically arranged, are
+recommended for seaside planting:—
+
+TREES FOR THE SEA-COAST.
+
+    Acer campestre        Pinus Pinaster maritima
+    —— creticum           Populus canadensis
+    —— Pseudo-platanus    —— nigra
+    Alnus glutinosa       —— nigra
+    —— incana             Pyrus Aucuparia
+    Betula alba           —— Aria
+    Carpinus betulus      Quercus Ilex
+    Cedrus atlantica      —— Robur
+    Cupressus macrocarpa  Salix alba
+    Fagus sylvatica       —— Caprea
+    Fraxinus excelsior    —— Forsteriana
+    Pinus austriaca       —— Russelliana
+    —— laricio            Thuja gigantea
+    —— montana            Ulmus alata
+    —— Pinaster           —— campestris
+                          —— montana
+
+SHRUBS FOR THE SEA-COAST.
+
+    Atriplex halimus         Lavatera arborea
+    Aucuba japonica          Lycium europæum
+    Cerasus lusitanica       Rhamnus frangula
+    —— Padus                 Ribes sanguineum
+    Cytisus Laburnum         Rosa spinosissima
+    —— scoparius             Shepherdia argentea
+    Euonymus japonicus       Spirea adiantifolia
+    —— europæus              Syringa persica
+    Fabiana imbricata        —— vulgaris
+    Griselinia littoralis    Symphoricarpus racemosus
+    Hippophæ rhamnoides      Tamarix gallica
+    Ilex Aquifolium           —— germanica
+    —— Aquifolium aurea      Ulex Europæus
+    Laurus nobilis           Viburnum tinus
+
+GRASSES.
+
+    Elymus arenarius
+    Psamma arenaria
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IX
+
+TOWN PLANTING, AND THE TREES AND SHRUBS THAT ARE BEST ADAPTED FOR SMOKY
+LOCALITIES
+
+
+Probably no work connected with horticulture requires more judgment
+and good management than the planting of trees and shrubs in urban
+districts. The materials and soil of which streets and town gardens
+are usually formed are ill-fitted for maintaining a healthy condition
+in trees and shrubs for any length of time. This fact, coupled with
+the impurities of the atmosphere in densely populated centres, has to
+be constantly borne in mind. In more favourable districts all that is
+necessary is to open a pit of sufficient size to contain the roots of
+the tree or shrub to be planted; but in towns the soil, often as hard
+as iron and composed mainly of refuse building materials, contains
+but little plant food. For many years past careful observations have
+been made, not only in London, but in Glasgow, Liverpool, Manchester,
+Warrington and Dublin, as to which trees and shrubs succeed best in the
+smoky localities of each town, and it is mainly by tabulating these
+different experiences that satisfactory information on the subject
+has been obtained. Coal smoke from the chimneys in the larger and
+more crowded centres of industry is no doubt bad enough, but, when we
+have to contend with an atmosphere that is largely impregnated with
+the outcome from chemical, gas, or iron works, the difficulties to be
+encountered are correspondingly increased.
+
+The injurious effects of smoke have become much more pronounced during
+the past century, and Sir William Richmond, R.A., told the annual
+meeting of the Coal Smoke Abatement Society that Westminster Abbey
+had suffered from more rapid decay in the last hundred years than in
+all the previous centuries of its existence. The chief cause of the
+destruction of the stonework has been shown to be the presence in the
+air of sulphur acids: the stone is converted into sulphate of lime; in
+the process of its formation this disintegrates the stone by expansion.
+The connexion between smoke and stone decay appears to lie in the
+action of invisible gases emitted from the smoke particles.
+
+If stonework suffers so at the hands of smoke and sulphuric and other
+acids, what, it may be asked, must the effect be on the foliage
+of trees and shrubs—particularly such as are planted in the most
+smoke-infested parts of our great towns and cities? When compared
+with Continental cities—Paris, Brussels or Berlin—where tree-culture
+is carried out most successfully, the atmosphere of British towns is
+impregnated to a far greater extent with noxious fumes. Dry low-lying
+and confined areas, particularly where excessive heat and atmospheric
+impurities are present, are decidedly the worst, while open and
+high-lying districts, though in the centre of a town, offer fewer
+difficulties.
+
+That certain trees and shrubs succeed best in particular towns is
+a well known fact, and the smoke-proof London Plane is by no means
+the best tree for some of the colliery districts; in Sheffield,
+for instance, its place is largely taken by the Canadian Poplar.
+In Manchester, the Lime would appear to thrive best, after which
+the Elder, Thorn and Plane succeed in the order named. The
+variegated-leaved Sycamore and the horse chestnut are favourites where
+the smoke from collieries is most offensive. But many such cases
+could be pointed out, and even in the case of bedding plants certain
+species succeed best in particular localities. In the gardens about
+the Royal Mint, where they are exposed to the deleterious fumes from
+gold-refining works, Fuchsias do remarkably well; indeed, the dwarf
+edging variety, Golden Treasure, thrives so well that advantage has
+been taken of the fact to propagate some of the stock that is annually
+required for one of the London parks from cuttings taken at the Mint.
+In the East End of London the Creeping Jenny (_Lysimachia_) thrives
+well as a window plant, while in the chemically impure atmosphere of
+Lambeth one of the Veronicas is the favourite plant for indoor culture.
+The St. John’s Worts (_Hypericum_) do not as a rule thrive well in
+London; yet around the Tate Gallery, which is only divided by the
+river from the Lambeth pottery district—the worst in the metropolis
+for atmospheric impurities—one species at least flourishes amazingly,
+and has produced flowers in abundance for many years past; while at
+St. Paul’s Churchyard, the lesser Periwinkle (_Vinca minor_) has
+become quite established and runs about freely. In Chancery Lane, at
+the Record Office, the common Ivy, Bladder Senna, and Yucca do best.
+In other parts of London, too, well known varieties of Campanula are
+largely grown as pot plants. It is a somewhat strange fact, too,
+that some varieties of trees and shrubs succeed better than the type
+species in smoky localities, as witness the London Plane (a variety
+of _Platanus orientalis_), variegated-leaved Sycamore, fastigiate
+Poplar, two varieties of Pyrus, Weeping Elm, Weeping Ash, and several
+varieties of Acacia, notably _Robinia pseudo-acacia inermis_ and _R.
+pseudo-acacia Bessoniana_.
+
+Similarly, amongst shrubs, we have the dwarf Holly, golden variegated
+Euonymus, golden Privet, Ribes, double-flowered Gorse, _Euonymus
+radicans variegata_, and others. With Grasses, too, some curious
+experiences might be related. At the British Museum the Yarrow
+completely ousted the Grasses from the plots in front of that building,
+and in the moat of the Tower of London several Grasses that succeed
+in less smoky parts of the metropolis quickly die out. Near the main
+entrance to the Tower of London, and close to Billingsgate Fish Market,
+considerable difficulty was experienced in getting the Plane trees
+established; though in the matter of soil, and choice of strong sturdy
+specimens, every possible care was taken. At last it was found that
+the drip from the fish carts was the cause of the evil, and a remedy
+was quickly found. In another garden, where dust, smoke, and soot
+are plentiful, the Bladder Campion (_Silene inflata_), _Saponaria
+officinalis_, the common Marigold, and Rye Grass seem positively to
+revel. In situations almost constantly subjected to the sulphurous
+fumes of the railway engines near Camden Town, and in the poorest of
+soils, _Poa annua_ would appear to be quite at home. The chemical fumes
+from the pottery works at Lambeth are well known to act injuriously
+on vegetation generally, but the Mulberry, Fig, Sycamore, Turkey and
+Evergreen Oaks thrive as well there as they do in any part of the
+metropolis. The fumes given off from many of our city manufactories act
+most perniciously on vegetation generally—a fact that was brought to my
+notice by the behaviour of some of our most valuable smoke-resisting
+trees and shrubs planted in the graveyard at St. Giles-in-the-Fields.
+Meeting the gardener there I remarked on the wretched condition of the
+trees and shrubs generally, his quick reply being, “Well! with Crosse &
+Blackwell’s on the one side, and Nixey’s Black Lead Works on the other,
+it’s a wonder there’s a living plant left!” Here the common Fig and
+Black Poplar seemed better able to withstand the atmospheric conditions
+than either the London Plane or Acacia. With the largely increased
+use of coal gas for cooking purposes, improved grates, and the better
+combustion of fuel, the atmosphere of certain districts of London,
+has, however, become much less smoky than was the case a few years
+ago, and in consequence vegetation generally succeeds better. This is
+especially the case in some of the low-lying districts adjoining the
+Thames where the “slot” system of providing gas for cooking purposes
+has caused a great decrease in the consumption of coke and coal, with
+a corresponding reduction of the attending evils of smoke and soot.
+In one of the poorest parishes many of the inhabitants have taken
+advantage of the facilities offered by the Gas Company in the matter
+of cooking by means of gas provided by the “slot” system, which, in
+comparison with coal, has been found not only cheaper, but cleaner
+and handier to use. According to a competent authority the smoke
+nuisance has, in consequence, greatly abated, and with the purer air,
+the cultivation of window and other plants, as well as of trees and
+shrubs, has been to some extent simplified. The electrification of the
+Underground Railway has also had a beneficial effect on vegetation.
+Although we cannot prevent fog, which is an atmospheric condition, yet
+much can be done to prevent it being a dirty fog, and during the past
+five years much has been done in that direction. Better roads with less
+dust also assist largely in keeping the atmosphere of London in a pure
+condition.
+
+With the rage for coniferous trees which was at its height about half a
+century ago, it is not surprising that several species of Cypress and
+Cedar, the stately Pines and Arbor vitæs, as also the Araucaria and
+Junipers, found their way into our town gardens and squares. Hosts of
+evergreens, too, from almost every part of the world were introduced
+into London, but few have been able to survive the smoky and otherwise
+impure atmosphere of the great metropolis.
+
+Deciduous trees and shrubs, both flowering and ornamental-leaved,
+should certainly be regarded as the _sine qua non_ of the London
+planter. Amongst evergreen trees few are suitable for town planting,
+and, though a limited number of evergreen shrubs may succeed for a
+time, yet the list of deciduous species is far more extensive. We have
+only to take notice of such evergreens as the Holly, Rhododendron,
+Laurel and all the conifers, with probably one exception, to find
+how useless it is to plant them in expectation that they will give
+satisfaction. This is not hard to account for, as in winter, when the
+fires are all alight and smoke and soot the order of the day, the
+leaves of evergreens are fully developed and in the best possible
+condition for reaping the attending disadvantages. With deciduous
+species the case is quite different, for these are, so to speak, asleep
+when the deadly smoke and vapours are most abundant in our towns and
+cities. I am quite aware that one occasionally sees evergreen shrubs
+and trees in a fairly thriving condition; but it should be remembered
+that in the majority of such cases they were planted when conditions
+were much more favourable than at present.
+
+It is, perhaps, to be regretted that evergreen shrubs do not succeed
+better in smoky localities, being planted principally for their
+refreshing colour in winter; but if our atmospheric conditions utterly
+preclude the use of such, then it is folly to throw away money on
+useless planting, and the winter aspect of deciduous trees and shrubs
+is infinitely preferable to that of unhealthy evergreens. The bursting
+into leaf of the deciduous tree or shrub is not shared to a like extent
+by evergreens, which lack that delightful changeableness and the
+interest that is attached to spring growth.
+
+It is difficult to define accurately the boundaries of a town or
+the worst smoke-infested areas, as far as tree and shrub growth is
+concerned. In London, for instance, certain trees and shrubs which
+positively refuse to live in the heart of the city do fairly well
+in the suburbs, while still further out, where the atmosphere is
+comparatively pure, they may thrive in quite a satisfactory way. These
+thriving and non-thriving areas are sometimes very sharply defined,
+and this has given rise to a false idea regarding certain trees and
+shrubs that will rarely succeed in the more smoky parts when compared
+with the same species which are found to do well in the outer suburbs.
+High-lying and fairly open parts of a town are also far more conducive
+to plant growth generally than those that are close and confined. In
+town planting there is, however, no necessity for the almost monotonous
+repetition of such trees as the Plane and Lime, or amongst shrubs, of
+the Privet and Lilac, for there are many others that will do almost
+equally well, and that are quite as ornamental. Probably the fact that
+such are not well known would form an excuse for their absence, and
+it is to be hoped that at least one object to be accomplished by the
+writing of this book will be a greater interest in, and wider knowledge
+of, the various species of trees, shrubs, and plants generally that
+from long experience have been found suitable for planting in the town
+garden.
+
+=Preparation of the Ground.=—Generally speaking, the materials with
+which roadways are made are not only unsuitable for tree cultivation,
+but positively destructive to vegetation of almost every description.
+This also applies to our squares, terraces, and open grounds around
+houses, the soil of which is little other than refuse building
+materials, and mainly composed of broken bricks and stones, gravel,
+old mortar, iron, wood and shavings. In such a medium it is perfectly
+useless to look for that healthy and vigorous growth which is so
+essential in street trees, that are still further handicapped by having
+to do battle above ground with the impurities of a town atmosphere.
+
+Having for a number of years had to plant trees and shrubs in
+many parts of London, it was found that in nearly every instance
+substituting good soil for that found naturally was a first necessity.
+Many failures in street planting from this neglect of providing
+suitable soil could be pointed out, the result being that a section
+of the public has become tired of the subject in consequence of the
+initial expense and subsequent failures. Too often, also, the important
+operations of preparing the ground and planting the trees are left in
+the hands of the surveyor or builder, who has little or no knowledge
+to fit him for the work, the operation being carried out by labourers
+who are also entirely ignorant of what is required or the conditions
+necessary for successful tree and shrub culture. The consequence is
+that failure is almost certain, and the trees which were strong and
+healthy when planted gradually become unhealthy and ultimately succumb
+to a combination of circumstances which were brought about by the
+ignorance of the operators.
+
+Another source of failure in street planting is the generally pent-up
+condition of the roots, for in several cases that have come under our
+notice lately the planter seemed to think that it was quite enough to
+cut a small hole in the pavement or street of sufficient size to hold
+the roots of the tree to be inserted. Were the soil free, as we find
+in a field, this system might answer; but where the roadway is hard as
+iron and composed mainly of clinkers and gravel, the case is totally
+different. Another fruitful source of failure in street planting
+is placing the pavement in too close proximity to the stem of the
+tree, and numerous instances could be pointed out where even old and
+established specimens have suffered irreparable damage in consequence
+of having the paving brought up too close to the stems.
+
+The roots should always be allowed plenty of breathing room, and
+to affect this a good-sized space should be railed off around each
+tree and no pavement laid within it. Gratings may be placed on the
+surface of the ground around the tree, should circumstances compel
+such a course. By adopting either plan, a double benefit to the trees
+is brought about by allowing free access of water to the roots and
+preventing an accumulation of noxious gases in the soil, as would ensue
+if the flagstone or pavements were used.
+
+Where street trees are to be planted, the ground-surface should
+in every instance be thoroughly broken up for a space of not less
+than 8 ft. square, and to a depth of, say, 4 ft., the inferior soil
+removed and replaced by that of good quality, preferably of a loamy
+description, or loam and leaf soil in about equal proportions. Before
+placing the fresh soil in position, the sides and bottom of each pit
+should be thoroughly loosened with a pick or fork. By undermining the
+sides of each pit, a much larger and freer root run will be provided,
+and this will not necessitate so much of the street or pavement being
+torn up as if the pits were of equal width at the top and bottom. We
+have found, in London at least, that the addition of a small quantity
+of leaf soil to the loam is highly beneficial to the growth of trees
+by retaining dampness and encouraging root spread. The newly added
+soil should be firmly trampled in the pit before planting is engaged
+in. Sometimes, where the original soil is not of too inferior quality,
+a small proportion has been mixed with the loam and leaf soil, but,
+speaking generally, this course cannot be adopted.
+
+In squares and gardens where shrub planting is to be engaged in,
+a general renovation of the soil is also imperative, and this can
+best be done by thoroughly trenching the soil to a depth of, say, 4
+ft. and adding a large proportion of fresh loam or other soil. Deep
+trenching and thoroughly breaking up and loosening the soil is a most
+important factor in town planting, and should never be neglected.
+Manure is sometimes added to the soil, but it is objectionable from
+several points of view, and, if used at all, should be thoroughly
+decomposed and incorporated in small quantity. Good loam and leaf soil
+is infinitely preferable, and, where necessary, sandy soil makes a
+good addition. A little fresh lime added to the soil has been found
+most beneficial in town planting, and in old and exhausted borders,
+where the soil has become tainted with chemical impurities, the value
+of lime or chalk as a cleansing agent is not sufficiently appreciated.
+Of course, where so-called American shrubs are to be planted—which is,
+however, rarely attempted in London—neither chalk nor lime should be
+added to the soil. This question of soil is so important that no one
+planting street trees or shrubs can afford to ignore it, and while the
+extra cost in providing it is but little, the advantages gained are
+great.
+
+=Preparing the Trees and Planting.=—Trees intended for planting in
+towns, and especially alongside streets and footpaths, should be
+specially prepared in the matter of transplanting and pruning. As tree
+guards are a necessity in protecting trees by the sides of streets,
+the trees must have their stems free of branches; therefore the buds
+and branches on the stems need to be removed for a distance of 6 or
+7 ft., whilst surplus leading shoots and ungainly branches should at
+the same time receive attention in pruning. The tree also needs to be
+frequently transplanted in order that an abundance of fibrous roots
+may be produced, and every effort made to produce healthy, vigorous
+specimens suitable for the uncongenial surroundings of their permanent
+quarters. In street planting it is advisable to use trees that are from
+12 to 14 ft. in height; and if these, for some years previously to
+their final shift, have been specially prepared in the way of frequent
+transplanting and careful pruning, little fear for their future
+welfare need be entertained. Autumn or early spring planting is to be
+recommended, the former time being in most cases preferable. As little
+time as possible should be allowed to elapse between the lifting of the
+tree in the nursery and its being transplanted in the new position.
+Spread the roots out to their full extent around the stem and avoid
+planting too deeply; the nursery mark on the stem serves as the best
+guide as to the depth at which to plant. Planting too deeply under
+the mistaken idea that doing so will secure the tree in the ground is
+a fruitful source of decay and ultimate death of many street trees
+planted in the metropolis, and it is not uncommon to see whole avenues
+of trees that have made little or no progress for many years owing to
+this cause. After a tree has been placed in an upright position on
+the prepared site and the roots properly disposed, the soil should be
+filled in and trampled firmly both amongst and over the roots. It may
+be well to warn planters against the pernicious practice of allowing
+leaves, packing materials, or grassy turf to come in contact with the
+roots of newly-planted trees. In dry situations a saucer-shaped hollow
+may be left around the stem of the newly-planted tree, while mulching
+applied during dry and warm summers is to be recommended. The planting
+of shrubs should be carried out with as much care as is used in the
+case of trees. It is preferable to trench land in which shrubs are to
+be planted rather than to make a separate pit for each shrub.
+
+Street trees should be carefully matched—that is, those of similar
+height and shape used in the same street. Too often this principle is
+not observed, as in a new street near the Strand, where some of the
+specimens are about 10 ft. high, others, 15 ft. and 20 ft. high—forming
+a very irregular, badly matched row. Many newly-planted town trees are
+destitute of leading shoots and have ungainly side branches—faults that
+should never be permitted when choosing specimens for such an important
+purpose. In choosing trees for street planting, the following rules
+should be observed:—
+
+1. Stout, healthy, well-rooted and recently transplanted trees should
+alone be chosen.
+
+2. They should, for the same street, be of nearly equal height and
+branch spread.
+
+3. Straight-stemmed trees, with stout leading shoots, are to be
+preferred.
+
+4. The height should range from, say, 12 ft. to 14 ft. or over, and the
+strength of stem should be proportionate to the height.
+
+5. Trees with wand-like, crooked, or cankered stems should be avoided
+in street planting.
+
+6. They should be beautiful, shade-giving, and easy of culture.
+
+=Fencing and Staking.=—In order to prevent damage, newly-planted trees
+should be fenced and staked at once. Of fences or guards there are
+many kinds: they are made of wood, wire or iron. The iron tree guard
+has many advantages over those of wood or expanded metal, and, being
+made in two sections, it can be readily placed in position after the
+tree has been planted. For trees from 12 to 14 ft. high the guards
+need not exceed, say, 7 ft. in height, and preference should be given
+to those in which the uprights are bent outwards at the top; for this
+not only lessens the risk of interference with the branches, but is
+pleasing in appearance. Sometimes it may not be considered necessary to
+protect town trees, particularly such as are growing in side streets,
+or in squares, but in every case firm staking is necessary in order to
+prevent damage from wind.
+
+Wooden tree guards consist of about half a dozen poles or uprights,
+about 7 ft. long, joined together around the tree trunk by means of
+wire. When compared with those of iron, they have, however, several
+disadvantages; for they may be climbed with ease and they do not last
+long. Where it is found sufficient to stake the trees without having
+recourse to guards, ash poles, from 2 in. to 3 in. in diameter, and 10
+ft. high, should be driven firmly into the ground as close to the stem
+as possible. The tree should be tied with specially prepared tar rope,
+which should be crossed between the stem and stake to prevent damage
+by chafing. From time to time it will be necessary to see that the
+band of string does not become too tight. On rare occasions only is it
+necessary to stake shrubs, but this is sometimes advisable in exposed
+positions or in the case of shrubs of unusually large size.
+
+=Watering and After-Management.=—For a few years after being planted,
+trees and shrubs will require a certain amount of attention in the
+matter of watering and mulching during the prolonged heat and drought,
+and also in preventing the evils attending excessive wind-swaying owing
+to the stakes and moorings becoming defective.
+
+The goat and wood leopard moth, as also numerous kinds of caterpillars,
+attack newly-planted town trees, particularly the various species of
+Pyrus, Thorn, Willow and Poplar. The former tunnel into the main stem
+and render it so weak at the point attacked that it readily breaks
+across during windy weather, while the caterpillars feed on the
+foliage and greatly impair the health of the trees attacked. Spraying,
+hand-picking and shaking are to be recommended in the case of the
+caterpillars, while, to combat the goat and leopard moth, a small
+quantity of cyanide of potassium can be inserted in the mouth of the
+tunnel in order to dislodge or kill the insect.
+
+Watering should preferably be performed in the evening, the ground
+around the roots being thoroughly soaked, while mulching with
+freshly-mown grass or old straw will prevent the too rapid evaporation
+of the moisture. In extreme cases binding the stem with a hay rope is
+to be recommended. In order to prevent straining of the roots and bark
+chafing, the moorings of trees should receive a periodical examination.
+
+The following trees and shrubs are to be recommended for town planting:—
+
+[Illustration: PLANE TREE IN REGENT’S PARK]
+
+
+TREES
+
+The =Oriental= or =Common London Plane= (_Platanus orientalis
+acerifolia_).—This variety of the oriental plane stands first in the
+category of select town trees. Not only does it grow vigorously in
+towns, but it is peculiarly well adapted for withstanding smoke and
+other impurities of the atmosphere. Repeated experiments have clearly
+proved that in London this tree flourishes better than any other, and
+a visit to the Thames Embankment and several of the urban districts
+will substantiate the statement; while the fine old tree which still
+exists in Cheapside, and the equally beautiful specimen which has
+hardly room for perfect development in the Court of Stationers’ Hall,
+Ludgate Hill, afford other examples of how well suited this handsome
+tree is for doing battle with the adverse conditions peculiar to the
+great metropolis. As a diversity of opinion has existed about which
+variety of plane it is that grows with such vigour in and around
+London, it may be stated that, on a careful examination of a large
+number of specimens, the variety _P.O. acerifolia_ was found not only
+more commonly distributed, but, likewise, better suited for town
+planting than the typical _P. orientalis_. This valuable variety is
+readily distinguished from the normal plant by the less deeply divided
+leaves, and from the American plane (_P. occidentalis_), with which it
+is sometimes confounded, by the many fruit “balls” which are attached
+to each peduncle, the fertile catkins of _P. occidentalis_ being, for
+the greater part, produced singly.
+
+But not only for its value as a town tree is the oriental plane much
+sought after, but the giant proportions to which it attains, coupled
+with the handsome, finely-cut leaves and easy habit of growth, render
+it one of our most desirable ornamental trees. Further, it is of the
+easiest culture, succeeding extremely well in soils of very opposite
+qualities. Taking everything into consideration, we question whether
+any other of our forest trees is equal in value to the plane for
+purposes of town planting.
+
+The =Maidenhair Tree= (_Ginkgo biloba_).—The maidenhair or ginkgo
+tree is one of the most valuable that can be planted in the impure
+atmosphere of a town garden. Few trees can compare with the one
+in question for withstanding the deleterious effects produced on
+vegetation generally by coming in too close contact with the impurities
+of our great centres of industry. The ample delicate-green foliage
+betrays—even late in the season, and when about to be cast off—little
+evidence of the fierce struggle that must almost constantly go on
+between vegetation and the smoke and filth of our towns and cities.
+That the thick, leathery leaves and strong constitution of the tree
+play an important part in keeping it free from disease is clearly
+evident, while the annual renewal of the leaves enables it to cast off
+the sooty nodules which work such havoc on the tender foliage of most
+evergreen trees.
+
+At several places in and around the great metropolis—and in places,
+too, where one is almost stifled with the fumes from chimneys—this tree
+may be seen in almost as fresh a condition as those in the open country.
+
+The =Ailanthus= or =Tree of Heaven= (_Ailanthus glandulosa_) may be
+seen in a very flourishing condition in many of the largest centres
+of industry in Southern England. It has been largely planted in many
+Continental cities, and has proved itself one of the few trees that is
+capable of withstanding the impurities of a town atmosphere.
+
+The =Black Italian Poplar= (_Populus monilifera_).—Next to the plane
+amongst forest trees I consider the black Italian Poplar to be the
+most valuable for planting in smoky towns. As a proof of this there
+are to be seen numerous fine specimens of this tree in a flourishing
+condition, and clothed with the most healthy foliage, in some of our
+large cities—to wit, London, Glasgow, Liverpool and Manchester.
+
+The =Canadian Poplar= (_P. canadensis_), and its variety, _P.C. nova_,
+are excellent trees for planting in smoky localities. The former
+succeeds admirably in the very centre of Sheffield, in the old parish
+churchyard, where for hundreds of yards around not a particle of
+living vegetation is to be seen. The variety _nova_ is a very superior
+tree for street planting, it being far more ornamental, and of more
+rapid growth than the black Italian poplar, and equally noticeable
+for retaining a healthy and flourishing condition under the adverse
+circumstances connected with a town atmosphere.
+
+The =Abele Poplar= (_P. alba_) grows with great freedom when subjected
+to smoke and foul air. In the very heart of our largest towns it may be
+seen flourishing in a manner that is almost incredible.
+
+The =Lombardy Poplar= (_P. fastigiata_) is another tree that has been
+planted with some success in and around many of our largest cities,
+but it cannot equal any of the foregoing for withstanding the baneful
+effects of a tainted atmosphere. In the outskirts of towns, where air
+is purer than amid chimneys pouring forth their volumes of smoke, the
+Lombardy poplar succeeds fairly well, and imparts an air of grandeur
+that could hardly otherwise be obtained.
+
+The =Cucumber Tree= (_Magnolia acuminata_).—Few planters are aware of
+how valuable this tree is for withstanding the germs and soot of large
+towns. Experiments have, however, resulted in this highly ornamental
+tree being added to the list.
+
+The =Tulip Tree= (_Liriodendron tulipifera_).—Excellent examples are
+not wanting of how valuable a tree this is for towns and streets.
+It seems to have a wonderful recuperative power, for, scorched,
+blackened, and encrusted as may appear the falling foliage, yet in the
+following spring it again puts forth a garb of the freshest and richest
+greenery. The remarkable four-lobed, truncate leaves render the tree
+almost without an equal for ornamental planting, while its undoubted
+smoke-resisting qualities place it high in the rank among town trees.
+
+The =Indian Bean= (_Catalpa bignonioides_).—For various reasons
+this fast-growing tree is to be recommended for planting in smoky
+localities. It grows with great vigour in many smoky centres of
+industry, is a tree of handsome proportions, and, when fully
+established, flowers freely.
+
+A valuable trait in the character of the Indian bean is that should
+accident befall it, and the stem get injured, numerous strong suckers
+are produced, which, as they grow with great rapidity, soon take the
+place of the original.
+
+The =Common Mulberry= (_Morus nigra_) and the =white-fruited Mulberry=
+(_M. alba_) may be seen growing satisfactorily in several of the old
+gardens and nurseries of the metropolis, where they are now buried
+alive, as might be said, in stones and mortar. That they are excellent
+town trees will be admitted by every one who sees the fine specimens in
+Liverpool and Manchester.
+
+The =Honey Locust= (_Gleditschia triacanthos_) is a very suitable
+subject for planting in smoky localities. In many of the worst
+smoke-infested parts of London and Manchester are seen goodly specimens
+of this handsome tree—not poor, miserable trees, but, from their great
+size, wealth of foliage, and general appearance, betokening perfect
+health amid their rather adverse surroundings.
+
+The =False Acacia= (_Robinia Pseudo-acacia_).—Almost by the hundred
+can the false acacia be seen in London and many other English towns,
+thus proving that it is one of the most valuable trees that we possess
+for withstanding the injurious effects of an impure atmosphere.
+
+What renders this acacia of greatest value as a town tree is that it
+retains its rich verdure till well on in autumn. The varieties known as
+=Decaisneana=, =inermis=, =microphylla=, =macrophylla=, =sophoræfolia=,
+and the upright-habited are most to be desired.
+
+[Illustration: THE BEAM TREE IN LONDON]
+
+The =White Beam Tree= (_Pyrus Aria_).—In many of the confined spaces in
+Glasgow the white beam tree grows luxuriously, and produces annually
+great quantities of its brightly-tinted berries.
+
+The =Lime= (_Tilia europæa_).—Where the situation is not too confined,
+and where soot and smoke do not abound, the lime may, and does,
+succeed; but in the worst parts of the metropolis it soon shows signs
+of distress, the tops of the branches dying off, and the whole tree
+sooner or later showing the fierce struggle it has to endure with smoke
+and fumes. As an avenue tree in the more airy and pure parts of a
+town, the lime has certainly few equals, its general contour and the
+pleasing shade it affords being points of special recommendation.
+
+The =Sycamore= (_Acer pseudo-platanus_).—This tree may be classed as
+amongst the most useful for planting in smoky towns.
+
+In Warrington, where the noxious emanations from alkali and other
+chemical works are most disastrous in their effects on vegetation, the
+sycamore is one of the few trees that grow satisfactorily. Being a
+rapid and strong grower, it is thus seen to be, for a certain time at
+least, unaffected by its inimical surroundings. The variegated variety
+would seem from recent experiments to be preferable, and better adapted
+for smoky localities than the normal form.
+
+The =Weeping Ash= (_Fraxinus excelsior pendula_) would seem to
+be superior to the common ash for planting in towns. It thrives
+satisfactorily in many of our largest centres of industry—to wit,
+London, Liverpool, Glasgow and Manchester.
+
+The =Horse Chestnut= (_Æsculus hippocastanum_) may be seen in a fairly
+satisfactory way in many town parks, but only where it is not exposed
+to smoke and soot to any great extent. In confined spaces both it and
+the =English Elm= (_Ulmus campestris_) soon show signs of distress,
+the points of the branches gradually becoming unhealthy, and the trees
+dying off prematurely. Taking everything into consideration, neither
+of these trees can be recommended for planting in smoky districts.
+The =Birch=, =Walnut=, =Hornbeam=, and one or two kinds of =Willow=
+will succeed in the less smoky parts of a town; but they are not to be
+recommended for planting where the air is constantly impregnated with
+soot and dust.
+
+The =Mountain Ash=, or =Rowan Tree= (_Pyrus aucuparia_) and =Bird
+Cherry= (_Cerasus Padus_) are both good town trees, and excellent
+examples of both may be seen in the back streets and slums of London.
+
+=Sophora japonica= is well worthy of recommendation as a tree that
+is admirably suited for planting in towns. It is of large and rapid
+growth, with elegant dark green pinnate leaves. Being a native of China
+and Japan, it may not be perfectly hardy in the northern portions
+of the British Isles, but it succeeds well in Southern England, and
+thrives admirably in the most smoke-infested parts of London.
+
+=Thorns= of various kinds succeed well in towns, but they must not be
+recommended for the most smoky and confined localities.
+
+The =Tansy-leaved Thorn= (_Cratægus tanacetifolia_) is an excellent
+member of the family for town planting.
+
+
+SHRUBS
+
+Of these there is rather a long list of kinds that are suitable for
+planting in smoky localities.
+
+Evidently deciduous species possess an advantage over evergreen kinds
+in the total annual renewal of their leaves, and hence it follows that,
+as with trees, deciduous shrubs should have the preference.
+
+The following list includes only such kinds as have been proved
+suitable for town planting:—
+
+=Osmanthus ilicifolius= is one of the handsomest of evergreen shrubs,
+and also one of the few that succeed, in a satisfactory way, when
+subjected to the impurities of a town atmosphere. In the smokiest
+districts of both London and Liverpool it is unquestionably the best
+all-round shrub.
+
+=Ligustrum coriaceum= is a fitting companion to the last, so far,
+at least, as its powers of withstanding the effects of an impure
+atmosphere are concerned. Being an evergreen, it is peculiarly well
+suited for planting in the town garden, where it grows with great
+freedom.
+
+=Olearia Hastii= and =O. macrodonta= are excellent shrubs for the
+London garden.
+
+=Aucuba japonica.=—This well-known evergreen shrub is of great value
+for planting in urban districts, it being able to do battle with a more
+than ordinary amount of atmospheric impurities. For this reason it has
+been largely planted in town squares and gardens, in the most crowded
+and densely populated parts.
+
+=Griselinia littoralis.=—Although a little-known evergreen, this is
+well suited for town planting, experiments having proved it to be a
+most valuable addition to the limited number of shrubs suitable for
+such a place.
+
+=Hibiscus Syriacus= is one of the few shrubs that can successfully
+battle with an impure atmosphere. It is a shrub which town residents
+should plant freely if they have a bit of ground that they want to look
+pretty.
+
+The =Warfaring Tree= (_Viburnum lantana_) does not receive that amount
+of attention to which on its merits it is entitled. It succeeds well in
+some of the most filthy and smoky districts of our largest cities.
+
+The =Venetian Sumach= (_Rhus cotinus_) is a much-neglected shrub, but
+for general usefulness it can hardly be surpassed. It is peculiarly
+suitable for planting in cities.
+
+The =Stag’s Horn Sumach= (_Rhus typhina_) must, on no account, be
+omitted, as it is a shrub of curious appearance and one that thrives
+well in soot and dirt.
+
+=Leycesteria formosa= is a capital town plant; this may also be said of
+the =Flowering Currant= (_Ribes sanguineum_)—indeed, too much praise
+can hardly be bestowed on these shrubs for planting in the town garden
+and shrubbery.
+
+=Skimmia japonica= and the =Snowy Mespilus= (_Amelanchier Botryapium_),
+too, succeed well in smoke-infested districts; and the various kinds
+of Lilac—particularly the Common and Persian—have few equals as town
+shrubs.
+
+In the =Kentucky Coffee-Tree= (_Gymnocladus canadensis_) and =Bladder
+Senna= (_Colutea arborescens_) will be found two most useful shrubs for
+the town garden.
+
+=Phillyrea Vilmoriniana=, =Forsythia viridissima=, and the =Strawberry
+Tree= (_Arbutus unedo_) are all more or less suitable for town planting
+where the atmospheric conditions are not too seriously affected by
+smoke and dust.
+
+The =Double Furse= (_Ulex europæus florepleno_) is one of our
+handsomest flowering-shrubs, and a good addition to the list of such as
+are suitable for planting in town gardens and squares.
+
+The =Spurge Laurel= (_Daphne laureola_) grows freely in many a town
+garden—indeed, it is no uncommon thing to see large and well-balanced
+specimens where smoke and filth are the order of the day.
+
+=Cotoneasters= of various kinds succeed well as town plants. Those
+to be particularly noted are _C. frigida_, _C. Simonsii_, and _C.
+vulgaris_.
+
+=Euonymus japonicus= is another excellent shrub, being almost
+smoke-defying.
+
+The double-flowered forms of =Prunus sinensis= and the equally
+ornamental =P. triloba= all succeed well as town plants; while the
+=Almonds= are quite as good.
+
+=Koelreuteria paniculata=, the =Laurustinus= (_Viburnum tinus_),
+=Weigelia rosea=, =W. amabilis=, =Deutzia scabra=, the common =Green
+Box=, =Gum Cistus= (_C. ladaniferus_), =Mahonia aquifolia=, =M.
+Bealii=, and =M. japonica= are all more or less suitable for town
+gardens, but not for those in the most smoke-infested parts. The =Japan
+Quince= (_Cydonia japonica_), =Hypericum Nepalense=, and =Euonymus
+radicans= all do well when subjected to the town atmosphere.
+
+
+CLIMBERS
+
+Of shrubs suitable for covering walls, trellises, and arbours, and
+able to resist the dire influences of smoke and soot, there are a few
+valuable and well-tried kinds.
+
+The =Virginian Creeper= (_Ampelopsis hederacea_) has few equals as
+a town plant, thriving successfully in the midst of our busiest
+centres of industry. Many instances could be pointed out in which this
+handsome climber grows with the greatest freedom in the most impure and
+smoke-laden atmosphere.
+
+The =Common Ivy= (_Hedera helix_) is, perhaps, the most valuable of all
+climbing plants for using in smoke-infested localities. In some of the
+courts near Ludgate Hill, a district of London that is by no means free
+from smoke and dust, the ivy climbs houses to a height of 60 ft., and
+surprises one by its fresh appearance in such localities.
+
+The =Evergreen=, or =Trumpet=, =Honeysuckle= (_Lonicera sempervirens_)
+is another shrub of great merit for town planting, as it thrives well
+in confined spaces, and where the atmosphere is very impure.
+
+=Cratægus Pyracantha= is a most valuable wall shrub for the town
+garden. It is of free growth, stands smoke well, and is one of the
+handsomest berry-bearing plants in cultivation.
+
+=Jasminum nudiflorum= needs little description, as it is one of our
+handsomest wall-plants. For smoky districts it is invaluable, blooming
+freely when flowers are scarce, and seeming to heed but little the
+impurities of a town atmosphere.
+
+[Illustration: THE SAVIN, OR JUNIPER, AS A TOWN SHRUB]
+
+The =Vine= (_Vitis vinifera_) must not be omitted from our list, it
+being an excellent plant for withstanding soot, smoke, dust and heat.
+
+
+CONIFEROUS TREES
+
+Few of these, if any, succeed in a satisfactory way, when constantly
+subjected to the impurities of a town atmosphere.
+
+Where the conditions are at all favourable the =Austrian Pine=
+(_Pinus austriaca_), =Thyiopsis Dolabrata=, =Toxodium distichum=,
+and =Cupressus Lawsoniana= do fairly well, but they are not to be
+recommended for general town planting.
+
+=Retinospora plumosa aurea= has stood for many years in one of the
+most smoky districts of Glasgow, and at present looks almost as well
+as it did when brought from the country, while the =Savin= (_Juniperus
+Sabina_) may generally be relied upon.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER X
+
+TREES SUITABLE FOR HEDGEROW AND FIELD PLANTING
+
+
+The well-founded complaint that hedgerow and field trees harbour
+birds to the serious destruction of the grain crops is largely
+counterbalanced by their ornamental appearance and the shelter they
+afford both to man and beast.
+
+In proceeding to consider the trees that are most suitable for hedgerow
+and field planting four important points must be kept in view. (1) That
+the spread of branches is, comparatively speaking, small in proportion
+to the tree’s height; (2) that the roots have a downward tendency, or
+do not ramify to too great an extent; (3) that the tree is well adapted
+for exposed situations and standing singly; and (4) that the timber
+value is such as to compensate in some degree for the cost of planting
+and after-management in the matter of pruning and fencing. Although we
+rarely find all these qualities concentrated in one tree, still, with
+careful choice and good after-management, much may be done to produce
+the desired effect, even in trees of a partially opposite character.
+
+That the wrong class of timber is often planted in our hedgerows and
+fields is painfully apparent to every one who has paid attention to
+the subject—trees of wide-spreading habit both in root and branch
+occupying positions and doing irreparable damage, where others of
+less obtrusive nature could with advantage have been selected to take
+their place. Timely and judicious pruning is of the utmost importance
+in the production of hedgerow timber: but to be productive of the
+best results, the work must be attended to early, and prosecuted at
+intervals, as by skilfully shortening the branches from time to time,
+the spread of root is also checked, thereby securing a double benefit
+to the farmer and the land.
+
+The =Cornish Elm= (_Ulmus cornubiense_), unfortunately, is far too
+seldom seen either as a standard or in our woodlands, for which the
+propagator is greatly to blame, there not being offered anything like
+a sufficient quantity to meet the demand. As a park or hedgerow tree
+this distinct and well-marked variety of the elm has much to recommend
+it—such as a narrow branch-spread in proportion to the height,
+suitability for exposed situations, and the very decided ornamental
+character it imparts to the landscape when properly placed.
+
+The principal advantages of this tree for hedgerow or field planting
+are that no pruning is required to keep the branches in bounds, that
+the spread of branches is very small in proportion to the tree’s
+height, and that the roots do not approach too near the surface, or
+ramify to any great extent, so as to become injurious to crops in their
+immediate vicinity.
+
+The =English Elm= (_Ulmus campestris_) is another tree of value for
+hedgerow planting, and is, perhaps, more commonly used for that purpose
+than any other. Like the Cornish variety, though in very much less
+degree, it has an upward inclination, the ramification of its branches
+being narrow in proportion to its height, while as an ornamental tree
+and valuable timber-producer it is held in high esteem.
+
+As a shelter tree it is of great value, and as the branches,
+particularly the lower, seldom spread to a great extent, the injury
+caused to the adjoining crop is usually not very serious.
+
+The =British Oak= (_Quercus Robur_) is of about equal value with
+the elm for hedgerow planting—indeed by careful manipulation it is
+even superior to that tree, being, perhaps, less injurious to the
+herbage beneath it, and the roots having a greater downward tendency.
+As an ornamental tree and valuable timber-producer the oak requires
+no praise from us, these qualities having been recognised from the
+earliest date.
+
+It bears pruning with impunity, so that all ungainly or far-spreading
+branches can be cut back or foreshortened at pleasure; while those near
+the ground, which in any way interfere with the fence or crop, can, by
+judicious management, be altogether removed. Several of the fastigiate
+forms of the oak are equally, if not better, suited for hedgerow
+planting.
+
+The =Lombardy Poplar= (_Populus fastigiata_).—Although of but little
+value as a timber-producer, yet, as an ornamental tree of singular
+habit and appearance, the Lombardy poplar is almost unique amongst our
+hardy deciduous trees.
+
+When planted in judiciously-arranged clumps in the corners of
+fields, or hedgerows, this poplar produces a most pleasing effect
+in the landscape: and, being of close, fastigiate growth, it is not
+in the least injurious to crops in its immediate vicinity. No tree
+is, however, more readily misplaced than the one in question; and
+in planting it is well to avoid the prevalent mistake of placing in
+lines, squares, round or oval forms, or even in single specimens, these
+methods being highly objectionable and devoid of good taste—that is, if
+we desire to preserve in the landscape a natural appearance.
+
+The =Sycamore= (_Acer pseudo-platanus_), as a standard tree, either in
+field or fence, is worthy of attention, not only for its well-known
+ornamental character, but also on account of the great value of the
+wood produced, as it is in this latter respect, perhaps, second to
+none. As a farmer’s tree it is, also, not one of the worst; for,
+although the branches incline to spread, still, by careful manipulation
+in the way of pruning, this may be corrected without doing injury
+to too great an extent to the ornamental qualities of the tree. For
+imparting both shade and shelter to farm stock the sycamore may be used
+with the best advantage. Few trees produce such valuable timber when
+grown singly or in clumps in the corners of fields and paddocks as
+the sycamore, and no other repays so fully the damage it occasions to
+fences and the surrounding ground.
+
+The =Hornbeam= (_Carpinus betulus_), for exposed situations and poor
+soils, has few, if any, equals. The roots do not run near the surface,
+but, like those of the oak, derive sustenance at a considerable
+distance from it, and this quality, combined with its somewhat upright
+inclination of growth and hardy nature, renders it well adapted for
+hedgerow or field planting, where shelter combined with effect is
+required.
+
+The =Lime= (_Tilia Europæa_), although one of our most ornamental
+trees, can hardly be recommended as suitable for situations in which
+the underlying herbage is at stake. For this latter reason alone,
+however, can it be omitted from our list, and, as it bears pruning
+well, does not to any great extent impoverish the adjoining ground.
+It is at all times a pleasing object in the landscape, and it will
+therefore be seen that the evil done by shade is in a great degree
+compensated for.
+
+Amongst coniferous trees, if we except the =Larch= and =Scotch Fir=,
+few are at all suitable for the end in question. The larch is a
+much-neglected fence and park tree, this being attributable to an
+erroneous impression that it is of too stiff and cold an appearance,
+either for standing singly or giving effect to the landscape.
+Nothing can, however, be farther from the facts, as when placed so
+that its fine form is seen to advantage, few deciduous trees are
+more picturesque than the larch, or offer a better contrast to the
+ordinary run of our forest trees. It also occasions less damage to
+the undergrowing herbage than most trees, while, at the same time,
+it enriches the soil to a great extent by the annual shedding of its
+leaves.
+
+The =Scotch Fir=, especially for shelter-giving purposes, has much to
+recommend it for being extensively planted as stock-shelter in the
+corners of exposed fields.
+
+As it usually rises to a great height without branches, it cannot be
+considered as extremely injurious to its surroundings, although the
+shallow-running roots can hardly be spoken of as non-injurious to the
+greensward.
+
+=Planting and Fencing.=—Whether for planting in the hedgerow or singly
+in the fields, good, strong, well-rooted specimens should always be
+used—indeed, it is well when a home nursery is on the estate to have
+these specially prepared, by frequent transplantings for a few years
+previous to their final planting out. The nursery management will
+require both care and experience, so that trees with strong, fibrous
+roots equally distributed around the stem may be produced; lanky,
+ill-grown, and ill-rooted plants having but a poor chance of succeeding
+under the circumstances. From 10 ft. to 14 ft. will be found the most
+suitable size for the purpose under consideration. The pits for their
+reception should be opened of sufficient size to admit the roots
+without cramping or bending, the bottom and sides being made loose
+and free with a pick—it will be all the better if the pits have been
+opened for some time previously to planting, the winter frosts having a
+beneficial effect in clearing and pulverizing the soil.
+
+This is, however, seldom convenient, as, if in the field, they become
+filled in, and trampled on by cattle, while gaps in the fences
+occasioned by these cannot well remain open for any length of time.
+
+The better plan—at least, we have found it so—is to open the pits,
+plant the trees, and have these fenced in on the same day, as by
+this method no part of the work has ever to be done a second time,
+everything being finished up as the work proceeds. In planting, be
+careful to spread the roots out in an even manner around the stem, as,
+by so doing, the tree is not only more firmly fixed in the ground, but
+is enabled to collect food from all quarters.
+
+Fencing should follow up at once the work of planting, as, if the young
+trees are allowed to remain unprotected for any length of time, they
+get injured by the farm stock. The fences may be of any desired kind,
+but, as they are only required for a few years, a simple erection made
+of small larch poles about 8 ft. long, driven firmly into the ground
+in a circle around the tree, say, 18 in. from the stem, and made fast
+to hoops of wood at top, and half-way up, will be found sufficient.
+Wooden erections are, perhaps, preferable to those made of iron for
+fencing hedgerow trees, as they seldom require renewing, for by the
+time the fence has decayed the trees will, in most cases, be out of
+harm’s way.
+
+For shelter and shade clumps in fields probably the best trees to use
+are the oak and sycamore, the value of timber produced being also a
+valuable asset.
+
+=Pruning and After-Management.=—For at least the first ten years
+after planting, careful and regular pruning of hedgerow and field
+timber should in all cases be attended to, bearing in mind that timely
+attention in this way will alone obviate the necessity for heavy
+prunings at any future stage of the tree’s growth.
+
+Early and judicious pruning is necessary to the trees in question;
+for it is well known that if branches are allowed to ramify at will,
+greater injury to the underlying herbage must be committed than where
+timely pruning and shortening of all straggling branches has been
+attended to.
+
+Early summer pruning, say, in the month of June, is to be recommended,
+as at that time, owing to the active circulation of the sap, the wounds
+heal up much more quickly than when the operation is performed at any
+other season of the year. The pruning should be performed by a person
+who is thoroughly conversant with the work, haphazard cutting and
+hewing, by an inexperienced hand, and at any season, being injurious.
+If the young trees have been well attended to in the matter of pruning
+whilst in the nursery border, little or no attention will afterwards be
+required—at least for a number of years.
+
+The main object in pruning both hedgerow and field trees is to develop
+a valuable main stem which is only to diverge into branches at a given
+height from the ground, and to prevent the overgrowth of straggling
+branches farther up, so as to maintain a symmetrical and rather
+fastigiate head.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XI
+
+ORNAMENTAL PLANTING
+
+
+As the beauty and picturesqueness of an estate are so dependent on the
+disposition of its single trees, groups and plantations, the forester
+should never lose sight of the fact, even when dealing with plantations
+that are mainly intended for the value of the timber produced.
+
+In ornamental planting one of the principal things to bear in mind
+is to allow sufficient space for each of the permanent standards
+to develop its true and natural character. Instead, therefore, of
+planting indiscriminately and in a sort of haphazard way, have a fixed
+idea, and only plant on a regular and well-matured plan. Should the
+individual standards be considered stiff or unsightly for the first
+few years, a good plan is to fill up the spaces between them with
+small-growing trees and shrubs, these being removed subsequently as
+necessity demands, but always before damage to the permanent specimens
+has been brought about by too close contact. The habit of the tree or
+shrub, and the size to which it will ultimately attain are points that
+should never be lost sight of in ornamental planting. Far too often
+the mistake is made of planting specimen trees too near roads and
+buildings, or, quite as bad, too close to each other. This is a most
+unfortunate mistake, as it sooner or later necessitates the sacrifice
+of specimens when their full beauty is probably developed, or when they
+can least be spared.
+
+In the case of both hard-wooded and coniferous, the latter in
+particular, the trees are planted when young and small, and ample
+room is supposed to be given to them; but, as they grow up and near
+perfect development, the spread of branches soon points out that a
+great mistake has been made in the space of ground allotted, and that
+the ultimate size to which the particular specimen would attain had
+never, at the time of planting, been duly considered. There is little
+left then to be done but either to put up with crowded and ill-formed
+specimens, or to attempt their removal to more suitable quarters. The
+latter, in the case of trees that have been left undisturbed for many
+years, and when tap and side roots have been sent down to a great
+depth for safe anchorage, is quite out of the question, the only
+remaining way out of the evil being to sacrifice the specimen by having
+it stubbed out and removed. In any case, in the event of one tree
+encroaching too closely on another, no time should be lost in deciding
+which is to be removed, for, if they crowd into and interfere with each
+other, the branches on that side will get thin and die off, and the
+tree will thus lose the uniformity of appearance on which its whole
+beauty depends. Should crowding of specimen trees be permitted for even
+a few years, partial disfiguration of the trees will have been brought
+about, and it will take years of careful management to restore them to
+their original beauty.
+
+In order to plant with any degree of certainty as to future results,
+it is absolutely necessary to become first of all well acquainted with
+the nature and habit of every tree planted, as also the properties and
+peculiarities of the various soils, and aspect and position of the
+ground to be planted.
+
+Probably no other branch of forestry requires sound judgment and
+correct ideas to such an extent as the laying out of parks and grounds,
+or, in other words, landscape and ornamental planting—and this
+knowledge can only be attained by perseverance, investigation, and
+study.
+
+In selecting sites for the various trees, it will be well to bear in
+mind that certain species are better suited than others for planting
+in exposed places, for using in particular soils, and for inserting in
+either dry or damp ground.
+
+By the lake or pond side the =Deciduous Cypress= (_Taxodium
+distichum_), the =Bhoton Pine= (_Pinus excelsa_), the beautiful
+cut-leaved =Imperial Alder= (_Alnus glutinosa imperialis_), the
+=Golden= and =Purple Willows= may all be planted with the best chances
+of success; whereas none of these would thrive well on dry or sandy
+soils. Should chalk or calcareous soil crop up, we have good subjects
+in the =Fern-leaved Beech= (_Fagus sylvatica asplenifolia_), the
+=Cephalonian= and =Spanish Silver Firs= (_Abies cephalonica_ and _A.
+Pinsapo_) and many of the =Pyrus= family; while, where only a small
+quantity of loam overlies the gravel, the =Scotch= and =Cluster Pines=
+(_Pinus sylvestris_ and _P. Pinaster_), the pretty and far from common
+=Manna Ash= (_Fraxinus Ornus_), and many others may be successfully
+planted. In good, rich soil, and where the position is fairly
+sheltered, there are no end of ornamental trees, both hard-wooded
+and coniferous, that may be planted. Some of the =Magnolias=, but
+particularly _Magnolia stellata_, _M. acuminata_, and _M. Umbrella_
+should find a place, while the =Juneberry= (_Amelanchier canadensis_),
+the =Cornelian Cherry= (_Cornus Mas_), and various =Thorns= should
+not be neglected. In exposed places plant clumps of the =Corsican=
+and =Austrian Pines= (_Pinus laricio_ and _P. austriaca_), following
+up with the hardy =Spruces= and =Cypresses=. Such dainty conifers as
+the =Japanese Cryptomeria= (_C. japonica_), the =Elegant Cryptomeria=
+(_C. elegans_), =Fitzroya patagonica=, =Prince Albert’s Fir= (_Tsuga
+Mertensiana_,) and =Umbrella Pine= (_Sciadopitys verticillata_) must
+have cosy corners and good soil to show their beauty to perfection.
+
+=Pitting and Planting.=—The pits for the reception of ornamental trees
+should be well formed: that is to say, should be made of sufficiently
+large size for the specimens to be planted—indeed, it is always
+preferable to dig out pits of a greater size than are required, thus
+allowing of a quantity of broken-up soil being placed beneath and
+around the roots. In any case, have the bottom and side of each pit
+thoroughly broken up, and should the soil be found to be of inferior
+quality, it is best to substitute that of a more desirable kind such
+as is known to be suitable for the wants of the particular specimen.
+In removing large specimen trees great care should be exercised—first,
+that the roots are uninjured, or if at all, in a very small degree;
+second, that a good ball of earth is attached; and, third, that
+replanting is delayed as short a time as possible. Have the pit, for
+the reception of the tree, dug out and prepared before the specimen is
+lifted. Lift carefully by undermining the roots, and digging out a deep
+trench at a reasonable distance from the stems, the distance from the
+stem to be regulated by the root spread, size of the specimen, etc. In
+order to avoid falling apart, the ball of earth should be bound with a
+strong mat or tarpaulin, the ends being made fast around the stem.
+
+A stout low-wheeled truck has been found a most convenient appliance
+for removing the specimen; but in the case of large and heavy trees the
+common timber wheels, or janker, may be found of great service. The
+truck to which we refer should be specially made, and should be of the
+following dimensions: length, 5 ft.; width, 3 ft.; on wheels 1 ft. 3
+in. in diameter, these being placed so as to be below the level of the
+body, thus avoiding contact with the load when that is either longer
+or broader than the specified dimensions. The framework should be of
+stout oak, and the bottom 3 in. thick boarding. The timber wheels, or
+janker, being an adjunct of forest appliances, is always at hand, and
+does away with the necessity of procuring any of the elaborate and
+costly carriages usually recommended for transplanting large trees and
+shrubs. The tree being placed in the pit opened for its reception, the
+roots should be spread out and the soil replaced and trampled firmly,
+and afterwards well watered.
+
+=Staking the Trees.=—Next to careful planting and watering a matter of
+the most vital importance—but one that, unfortunately, is too often
+lost sight of—is the efficient staking or otherwise securing of large
+transplanted trees. The great strain and consequent damage to the roots
+of large transplants when allowed to rock about with every gust of wind
+is not only highly injurious, but, viewing the matter from a point of
+neatness, few things in forestry have a more unsightly or neglected
+appearance than trees almost blown over by the wind. Various are the
+methods usually adopted in staking and tying newly-transplanted trees.
+As no hard and fast lines can be laid down, as a rule, the size of
+the trees and the exposure of the positions in which they are planted
+must determine the method of procedure to be adopted. It may be that
+when growing in a low-lying, sheltered valley, trees of even 8 or 10
+ft. in height may be perfectly safe without stake or tie of any kind,
+whereas others of similar or even smaller size, growing in an open
+position and exposed to the prevailing winds of the district, will
+require a mooring of the most secure description, and adjusted in the
+most efficient manner. For trees and shrubs up to 6 ft. in height, a
+strong, sharp-pointed stake should be driven firmly into the ground,
+within about 9 in. of the main stem, and on the most exposed side. The
+stake should be fully 7 ft. long, and driven, not perpendicularly, but
+with the head slightly inclined from the tree, and in the direction
+from which the prevailing winds usually blow. A strong ligature of some
+kind, such as tarred rope or thick matting, is then placed round the
+stem of the tree requiring support, at about 4 ft. from the ground, and
+made fast to the stake at a similar height.
+
+By crossing the tie between the tree and stake, a more efficient job
+results, as there is then less room for the tree to work in when
+rocking with the wind. It will thus be seen that the nearer to the
+stem of the tree the stake is placed, the greater will be the power of
+resistance.
+
+When the trees and shrubs are from 8 ft. in height and upwards, but
+especially in the case of evergreen species, stronger moorings than
+those just described will have to be employed, and the following plan
+we have found suitable for almost any emergency. A strong band of
+leather, or several strands of tarred rope, are placed loosely around
+the stem of the tree to be staked, and at, say, three-quarters of its
+height. Three wires—ordinary fencing wire does well—are then joined to
+this collar, two on the most exposed side and one on the other, and
+made fast to stout stakes driven firmly into the ground, at a distance
+from the main stem proportionate to the tree’s height. In the case of
+very large trees, or those that have been reinstated from a fallen
+position, double wires are used in a manner similar to that just
+described, the collar, however, being unusually strong. The advantages
+of double wires are extra strength, and the fact that they admit of
+being twisted at any time to the tightness required.
+
+The above may be considered the two principal ways of staking large
+transplants, but occasionally cases will crop up in which it may be
+necessary to resort to other methods, but such are peculiar cases, and
+must be dealt with in a peculiar manner.
+
+
+CUT-LEAVED, WEEPING AND FASTIGIATE TREES
+
+These have their own place in landscape gardening, and when placed
+in the hands of a skilful planter are capable of producing the most
+beautiful and pleasing effects. The majority are graceful in outline,
+distinct and impressive in appearance; in fact, possess all those
+qualities which render them specially valuable for the embellishment
+of park or garden. Great care is, however, necessary in planting these
+trees, for if not used with the greatest discretion, the good effects
+they are so capable of producing in the hands of a trained planter are
+destroyed.
+
+=Weeping Trees.=—Both picturesque and beautiful is a well-developed
+specimen of the Weeping Beech, and particularly so when associated with
+trees of a light and airy appearance, for the general character of the
+tree is somewhat massive and lumpy. Being of large growth, the Weeping
+Beech wants plenty of room for development. There is also a desirable
+weeping form of the purple Beech.
+
+The Kilmarnock Weeping Willow (_Salix caprea pendula_) is one of the
+most popular and widely cultivated of weeping trees. It originated
+near Ayr, in Scotland, and was so named to distinguish it from two
+other well-known varieties, the common Weeping Willow and the American
+Weeping Willow—two desirable forms for waterside planting. In the
+American Fountain Willow we have another excellent weeping tree, while
+the ringed-leaved Willow (_S. Babylonica annularis_ or _crispa_) is one
+of the most curious and picturesque of the whole group.
+
+Amongst the Birches are at least two desirable weeping forms in the
+cut-leaved (_Betula pendula Youngi_), Young’s weeping Birch, and the
+weeping white Birch (_B. alba pendula_), both of which are admirably
+adapted for lawns, even where space is restricted. The Birch will
+thrive on poor, light soil, and is, therefore, peculiarly suitable for
+planting in gravelly or rocky formations.
+
+The distinct habit of the Weeping Mountain Ash, or Rowan tree, has made
+it a favourite in the embellishment of small grounds, and the wealth
+of conspicuous fruit produces a telling effect, especially if the tree
+is backed up by darker foliaged trees or shrubs. There are other forms
+of Pyrus well worthy of attention, such as the pendulous Siberian
+Crab (_P. prunifolia pendula_) and _Salicifolia pendula_, the latter
+in particular being a distinct and graceful small-growing tree. The
+Weeping Mulberry (_Morus alba pendula_) is occasionally seen in good
+form when it is a desirable acquisition, so is the Weeping Laburnum
+(_L. vulgare pendulum_) and the curious and scarce _Gleditschia
+triacanthos excelsa pendula_. In the silver-leaved Weeping Holly we
+have one of the best of evergreens for confined situations; and _Cornus
+florida pendula_ is a strikingly beautiful tree in which the weeping
+habit is decidedly pronounced.
+
+Among Weeping Elms some varieties are most pronounced, but there are
+several others all equally worthy of culture. Of the English Elm,
+probably the best is _Ulmus campestris Petersii pendula_, while of the
+Mountain or Scotch, that known as _U. montana pendula_ is the most
+desirable. Weeping thorns are by no means common, but they are probably
+the most natural and graceful of all drooping trees of modern growth.
+In the flower garden at Regent’s Park is growing a beautiful specimen
+of this tree.
+
+Perhaps the most common of weeping trees is the Weeping Ash (_Fraxinus
+excelsior pendula_), and its strong, vigorous growth causes it to be
+employed where others would not succeed. Even in smoky localities it is
+quite at home, as many fine old trees throughout London clearly prove
+that the deleterious effects of an impure atmosphere have but little
+effect on its hardy constitution. It is one of the best of weeping
+trees for forming an arbour, and as a distinctly ornamental specimen
+for the park or large lawn it has few equals.
+
+Amongst coniferous trees we have several distinct and beautiful
+pendulous trees or shrubs, such as _Abies excelsa inverta_ and the
+well-known and much appreciated _A. Smithian_ or _morinda_. The
+pendulous Hemlock spruce (_A. Canadensis pendula_) is one of the
+prettiest and most natural in appearance of all weeping trees.
+
+There are several distinct and beautiful forms of the Cypress,
+particularly _C. Lawsoniana gracilis pendula_ and _C. Lawsoniana alba
+pendula_. The Weeping Chinese Juniper (_Juniperus Chinensis pendula_)
+and _Virginiana pendula_ are well worthy of attention where this
+particular class of trees or shrubs is in request. Than the weeping
+form of the common Larch, perhaps no tree is more beautiful, the
+feathery pea-green foliage being distinct from that of every other tree.
+
+=Cut-leaved Trees.=—Of the Maples we have several cut-leaved forms,
+such as the beautiful _Acer palmatum laciniatum_ and _dissectum_, while
+of the Norway Maple, the variety known as _Platanoides dissectum_ is
+particularly valuable on account of the freely divided and beautifully
+coloured leaves.
+
+In the cut-leaved Birch (_Betula alba laciniatum pendula_), we have at
+once one of the most graceful and distinct of hardy trees. Not only
+are the leaves cut up and divided, but the weeping sprays of foliage,
+owing to the fine, whipcord-like branchlets, produce a most beautiful
+and graceful effect. In addition, this Birch is a tree of neat, clean
+growth, and will succeed in a satisfactory way even on poor gravelly
+soils and upland situations.
+
+Amongst the Beam trees (_Pyrus_) we find several good cut-leaved
+forms, such as _pinnatifida_ and _salicifolia_, both highly desirable
+medium-sized trees and valuable for woodland margins or steep,
+undulating grounds. Numerous forms of the Oak have appeared with
+incised leaves, such as _Quercus dentata_ and the fern-leaved variety
+of the Turkey Oak (_Quercus Cerris asplenifolia_), a decidedly
+beautiful and worthy form. Of the English Oak (_Q. Robur_) we have
+at least two good cut-leaved forms in _Pedunculata asplenifolia_ and
+_pectinata_. There are other varieties of the Oak in which the foliage
+differs considerably from that of the species in being much more freely
+divided.
+
+_Rhus glabra laciniata_ has become widely known of late years on
+account of its neatly divided foliage and as being a good town shrub.
+The leaves are of a delicate pea-green and the flowers inconspicuous
+and succeeded by feathery lawns.
+
+The common Alder has at least two forms that are much sought after for
+dampish ground by the pond or lake side, in _Alnus glutinosa laciniata_
+and its well-marked and distinct variety _imperialis_. Both attain to a
+goodly size, and when suitably placed where the abundant, rich green,
+deeply divided leaves can be readily seen, are distinctly valuable for
+contrast and waterside effect.
+
+The incised or cut-leaved Hornbeam (_Carpinus Betulus incisa_) is
+rarely seen, but it is of so distinct a type that its inclusion in this
+list is considered desirable. In this case the almost entire beech-like
+leaf is finely divided and the whole tree presents a comparatively
+light and airy appearance. Of the common Hawthorn there is a specially
+elegant cut-leaved form in that named _laciniata_, but its distinctive
+characteristics are best revealed when planted in conjunction with the
+species.
+
+Several of the Vine family are rendered highly ornamental for covering
+walls and pergolas by reason of their beautifully coloured and divided
+leaves. _Vitis heterophylla dissecta_ is one of the best in this way,
+but others of the less-incised forms are well worthy of attention. _V.
+vinifera purpurea_ has much to recommend it as an ornamental-leaved
+variety, and is specially suitable for covering mounds of earth, stones
+or tree stumps.
+
+We must not omit to include the cut or fern-leaved variety of the
+Lime (_Tilia platyphillos laciniata_), which for neat habit of growth
+and distinct character from the species merits special attention. The
+cut-leaved Japan Maples are exceedingly beautiful, but their slow
+growth and difficult propagation will always be against extensive
+planting, and render them rare and expensive. Other interesting
+cut-leaved trees are the willow-leaved Ash, laurel-leaved Willow,
+scarlet Oak, Maidenhair tree, and that most beautiful of all, the
+fern-leaved form of the golden Elder.
+
+Though somewhat stiff of outline the cut-leaved Horse Chestnut
+(_Æsculus_), in the form known as laciniatum, is not to be despised,
+and affords a striking contrast to the species.
+
+The fern-leaved Beech (_Fagus sylvatica asplenifolia_) is probably the
+most commonly distributed of cut-leaved trees, and rightly so, for it
+is certainly one of the most beautiful and distinct of the type. _F.
+sylvatica quercifolia_, the Oak-leaved, is also worthy of attention,
+but cannot compare with the former in point of beauty. Even of the
+common Walnut (_Juglans Regia_) there is a cut-leaved variety, which
+is distinct and worthy of culture as an ornamental tree. It is named
+_laciniata_ and is fairly common.
+
+Of the numerous varieties of the Sweet or Spanish Chestnut, the most
+desirable is that which bears the rather cumbrous name of _Castanea
+vesca heterophylla dissecta_. It is one of the most beautiful of hardy
+trees, in which the long, narrow leaves of the upper parts of the
+branches droop in a graceful manner and render it so much sought after
+in ornamental gardening.
+
+=Fastigiate Trees.=—The Lombardy Poplar (_Populus fastigiata_) is
+at once one of the most conspicuous and picturesque of tapering
+trees. Though it can hardly be described as a beautiful tree, yet
+for landscape effect the tall, spiry, column-like appearance renders
+the Lombardy Poplar of particular value for certain well-chosen
+positions in our parks and grounds. In the neighbourhood of a town or
+country village it produces an effect almost akin to architectural
+embellishment, while in flat or low-lying districts, and particularly
+near water, it is most at home and probably looks best. It also
+associates kindly with old ruins and has a pleasing effect when rising
+out of pointed-headed Cypresses or Yews, but in all cases it is a
+tree that should be used sparingly and with extreme caution. Forming
+avenues or lines of the tree is not good taste, while planting single
+specimens in open situations should be avoided.
+
+Of the Poplars there are several upright-growing varieties in addition
+to the Lombardy, such as the beautiful _P. alba Bolleana_, a desirable
+fast-growing tree with a character of its own.
+
+The Oak, too, has its decidedly upright form in _Quercus pedunculata
+fastigiata_, which in old parks is a fairly common tree. A decidedly
+beautiful small-growing tree is the upright form of the dwarf Acacia
+(_Robinia Pseudo-acacia inermis fastigiata_) which for confined spaces
+and wealth of delightful pea-green foliage is a valuable small-growing
+variety.
+
+The Elms are not wanting in upright-growing forms, both the English
+and Scotch being represented, the former in _Dampieri aurea_, and
+the latter in _Montana fastigiata_. A beautiful and distinct tree of
+upright habit will be found in the fastigiate variety of the Tulip tree
+(_Liriodendron tulipifera fastigiata_).
+
+_Cupressus sempervirens_, in many parts of England, but particularly
+by the coast, forms a beautiful tapering evergreen tree with the
+darkest-green foliage. For clump planting it is particularly desirable,
+but it is not quite hardy in some parts of the country. Another
+coniferous tree of naturally erect growth is the red or Virginian Cedar
+(_Juniperus Virginiana_), which in sheltered sites is a most desirable
+member of the family. Two other Junipers are of decidedly strict
+growth, _J. drupacea_ and _J. thurifera_.
+
+The Irish Juniper (_Juniperus hibernica_) originated in Ireland, most
+probably as a chance seedling. It is a most desirable shrub, and on
+account of its singular habit of growing in a compact, slender and
+graceful column, has proved itself a most valuable evergreen for
+almost any position, but particularly where geometrical gardening is
+carried out. The silvery glaucous hue of the thickly produced foliage
+is extremely beautiful. The nearly allied but much smaller growing _J.
+hibernica compressa_ forms a compact slender pyramid of bright-tinted
+foliage and is an excellent plant for rockwork or small gardens.
+
+Amongst the Cypresses are several upright-growing forms, probably the
+best, and certainly the most widely distributed, being Lawson’s erect
+Cypress (_Cupressus Lawsoniana erecta viridis_), of dense, erect habit
+and with vivid green foliage. _Cupressus macrocorpa lutea_, raised by
+Messrs. Dicksons, of Chester, has a decidedly neat and upright habit
+of growth, while the distinct golden tint of the foliage renders it a
+desirable acquisition for ornamental planting.
+
+Than the Irish Yew (_Taxus baccata fastigiata_) with its dark sombre
+foliage and neat columnar outline, few evergreens are more conspicuous
+and effective. This favourite and far-distributed variety originated at
+Florence Court, in Ireland, a century and a quarter ago.
+
+_Cupressus macrocarpa fastigiata_ is a well-marked variety in
+which the branches closely press to the main stem. The foliage is
+of the brightest green, and the long whip-cord-like shoots with
+the conspicuous reddish back, impart a peculiar grace to healthy
+specimens. _C. torulosa_, for planting where space is confined, is
+a decided acquisition, the easy though columnar habit of growth,
+slender branchlets and bright glaucous foliage being all points of
+recommendation.
+
+The upright form of the Birch (_Betula alba fastigiata_) has a
+peculiarity of habit that, associated with the slender weeping shoots,
+is highly ornamental; while _Cornus stricta_ and the upright variety of
+our common Hawthorn have both points of recommendation.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XII
+
+TREES BEST ADAPTED FOR VARIOUS SOILS
+
+
+There is, perhaps, no soil so bad and barren that it may not be
+rendered either profitable or ornamental by judicious planting; but,
+as might be expected, there is often a great want of knowledge as to
+the proper kind of trees to be chosen to suit a particular soil. In
+looking over a large extent of woodland one will often be struck with
+the great disproportion in size of the individual trees of a species;
+but it will generally be noticed that where the largest and healthiest
+occur the tree is usually growing upon its own soil, and is found to
+be flourishing at the expense of all around it. Thus the finest oaks
+will be found where the soil is deep and loamy, resting on clay; beech,
+and the Austrian pine (_Pinus austriaca_) upon a calcareous gravel,
+resting on a bed of chalk; ash and elm on a dampish, loamy gravel;
+birch in a light, black loam, with a gravelly substratum; Spanish
+chestnut, in a good loamy or gravelly soil, not too damp; the Scotch
+and Corsican pines (_P. sylvestris_ and _P. laricio_) at fairly high
+altitudes, and in gravelly, well-drained soils; and the Cluster and
+Aleppo pines (_P. Pinaster_ and _P. halepensis_), in almost pure sand
+on the sea-coast. Some trees grow rapidly for a few years in almost
+any soil, but where the soil is unsuitable they generally show signs
+of distress after a time, make little or no progress, and ultimately
+become stunted and ill-grown. Should the soil be very unfavourable,
+they die outright. Instances of this are, unfortunately, far too
+common wherever one travels over the country, owing to trees of a kind
+that are utterly unfitted for the particular class of soil being
+planted in a haphazard kind of way, without any consideration of their
+individual requirements. For all practical purposes with reference
+to tree-culture, soils, generally speaking, may be divided into six
+distinct classes—peaty, chalky or limey, gravelly, clayey, loamy, and
+such as contain ironstone, coal, etc.
+
+(1) =Peat.=—Few trees will succeed well on an unreclaimed peat bog,
+but, where draining and soiling have been attended to at the outset,
+the number that grow and produce a fair amount of valuable timber is
+almost without limit among our generally cultivated species. Among
+conifers that have proved themselves suitable for bog planting are the
+larch, Scotch pine, and common and black spruces (_Picea excelsa_ and
+_P. nigra_). The larch grows rapidly, and is less subject to disease
+on peaty than any other soil—indeed, up to a few years ago, I cannot
+remember having seen a trace of any of the diseases which have rendered
+the life of the tree so precarious of late years in this country. In
+thinning a larch plantation of fully sixty years’ growth I found the
+trees felled to be perfectly healthy, and of exceptional quality, with,
+on an average, 72 ft. of wood in each. The subsoil in this case was
+clay, and the bog, previous to being planted, had been cut over for
+fuel. The Scotch pine grows almost as freely as the larch—the average
+in over fifty trees measured being about an eighth less—under similar
+conditions. Natural reproduction of the Scotch pine goes on so rapidly
+that it must be considered one of the very best trees for planting on
+peat bog. The spruces are excellent trees for planting on reclaimed
+peat bog, where they produce a fair amount of timber and afford
+excellent shelter to other trees. Of hardwoods, the beech is one of the
+best for bog planting, as it grows rapidly and produces a large amount
+of clean timber. The alder grows luxuriously on peaty soils, and shows
+no traces of disease or canker. Another excellent bog tree is the Gean
+or Wild Cherry, and this may likewise be said of the holly. Ash and oak
+are not generally of large size, nor are they always healthy on peat
+bog, even when it has received a great amount of attention in the way
+of reclaiming. Birch, lime and poplar of various kinds are all suited
+for planting on well-drained bog.
+
+Among coniferous trees, a large number are well suited for planting in
+reclaimed peat bog. By way of experiment I have planted specimens of
+various kinds in newly-formed plantations, and in nearly every case
+the trees have grown well, particularly when partially sheltered.
+_Cupressus macrocarpa_ is one of the best, and not one whit behind
+it are _C. Lawsoniana_ and _C. goveniana_. _Wellingtonia gigantea_
+and _Sequoia sempervirens_ have done well, while _Pinus laricio_ and
+_P. austriaca_ grow freely. I find that the majority of the recently
+introduced conifers do well on prepared peat bog—that is, where a
+quantity of loam has been incorporated with the bog and all superfluous
+moisture drained away.
+
+(2) =Chalky Soils.=—The beech is peculiarly well suited for planting
+in chalk districts, for it will grow and produce a large quantity of
+excellent timber where but a few inches of loam overlie the chalk. It
+is a fact that, in Southern England particularly, in order to find
+where the chalk beds lie, one has only to be guided by the line traced
+out by the largest and most luxuriant beeches.
+
+The beech will grow freely enough on almost pure chalk, but it
+certainly flourishes best where loam, say, from 1 ft. to 3 ft. in
+depth, overlies the chalk, or is incorporated with it, as on the
+Chiltern Hills.
+
+The Norway maple (_Acer platanoides_) revels in a chalky soil, and
+so does _A. colchicum rubrum_. These are both handsome, hardy,
+large-growing trees, and well suited for extensive forest-planting
+under certain conditions of soil. White poplar (_Populus alba_) is
+an excellent tree for planting in chalky districts—indeed, it is
+surprising to see to what an immense size it attains on almost pure
+chalk.
+
+Other poplars that do almost equally well on the chalk formation are
+_P. monilifera_ and _P. canadensis_, both excellent, free-growing
+trees. Elms, particularly the Huntingdon and the American, grow
+rapidly, and attain to a large size, where but a small quantity of
+loam is present in the chalk. The wych elm grows freely in chalky
+districts, and this may also be said of the common and silver-leaved
+lime. False acacia (_Robinia Pseud-acacia_) is an excellent tree for
+chalky soils, and there attains to a greater size than in even the
+richest of loams. The alder and birch also thrive with vigour on chalky
+soils. Indeed, most trees which in a state of nature grow in damp or
+marshy soils, are well suited for planting where chalk is the component
+of the main soil, and this is explained as follows:—Chalk, although
+sufficiently porous to allow water to percolate through it, has, like
+all other calcareous matter, a strong attraction for water, and acts
+like a sponge in holding it in considerable quantity for a very long
+time. Among the conifers that are suitable for chalky soils the Spanish
+fir (_Abies Pinsapo_) is one of the best. In the chalky districts of
+Southern England it thrives with unusual luxuriance. The Mount Enos fir
+(_Abies cephalonica_) is, likewise, well adapted for growing in chalky
+districts. Of evergreen trees that succeed well on chalk the number is
+well known to be limited, and it is important that two such beautiful
+conifers as the Spanish and Mount Enos firs should there find their
+most congenial home.
+
+Both the Scotch and Weymouth pines (_Pinus sylvestris_ and _P.
+Strobus_) are well suited for planting on chalk, and many fine examples
+of both may be seen on the chalky reefs of Kent and Surrey.
+
+The common Yew grows freely where hardly a particle of soil overlies
+the chalk formation.
+
+The Giant Arborvitæ (_Thuja gigantea_) is peculiarly suitable for
+planting in chalky soils: and the Lebanon Cedar (_Cedrus Libani_) is
+never found in greater perfection than when growing in the chalk with a
+fair depth of loam atop.
+
+_Wellingtonia gigantea_ also does well.
+
+(3) =Gravelly and Sandy Soils.=—The Corsican pine is an excellent tree
+for planting on gravelly soils, and some of the largest and finest
+specimens in this country are growing in a disused gravel-pit, and this
+may also be said of the Douglas fir (_Pseudothuga Douglasii_).
+
+The Scotch pine is well known to be one of the best conifers for
+planting in gravelly soils, where it reproduces itself in great
+numbers, when the conditions of growth are at all favourable.
+
+_Pinus Pinaster_, the cluster pine, is, perhaps, one of the most
+valuable conifers for planting either in gravelly or sandy soils. The
+great value of the tree in reclaiming sandy tracts, both at home and
+abroad, has been so often described that further reference here is
+not required. The Aleppo pine is a good companion to the Pinaster,
+and grows with great freedom in a sandy or gravelly soil, within the
+influence of the sea. Gravelly soil also suits the Weymouth pine, on
+which it produces a fair quantity of very resinous timber. Both the
+beech and oak produce a large volume of timber on poor gravelly and
+sandy soils.
+
+(4) =Clay Soils.=—The soil here referred to is genuine clay, devoid of
+stones, and without a particle of sand or loam in it.
+
+It occurred on the slopes, and for some considerable distance along the
+sides of one of the park roads on an estate in England.
+
+This is recorded simply to show what species of trees are best able to
+succeed when planted in pure clay. The pits, in this case, it may be
+well to mention, were dug and the soil thrown loosely up for a month
+previous to planting, but no soil was added to the stiff clay. Nearly
+one hundred kinds of trees and shrubs were used, but out of all these
+not more than eight are doing well, the others having gradually died
+out, or become so rusty and miserable looking that their removal was
+compulsory. First among the trees that have succeeded is the giant
+arborvitæ (_Thuja gigantea_), which seems to revel in what is generally
+considered the most unkindly of soils. _Cryptomeria japonica_ has also
+done well, but the trees of this kind, though bushy and well-furnished,
+have grown at a comparatively slow rate.
+
+_Cupressus macrocarpa_ also has done fairly well: the growth certainly
+has not been rapid, but for all that the general appearance of the
+trees is the reverse of what one might expect from the unfavourable
+nature of the soil. The Indian Cedar (_Cedrus Deodara_) we have found
+to be peculiarly well suited for planting in clayey soils, the bright
+silvery tint that is so characteristic of this cedar when well grown
+being discernible in the clay-grown specimens. _Pinus austriaca_ has,
+in a few instances, done well, the foliage being ample and of the
+usual dark yew-green. Amongst shrubs the double-flowered gorse (_Ulex
+Europæus_, fl. pl.) has done best of any—indeed, it has grown and
+increased freely, and would seem to be quite as much at home as in its
+natural element—a dry, gravelly bank. These may be considered as the
+trees that have succeeded best in stiff, clayey soil. Few of the pine
+tribe did well, and this may also be said of the spruces, cypresses,
+yews, junipers, arbutus, dogwood, cotoneaster, hollies, and others
+planted.
+
+It is, of course, far from advisable to plant trees or shrubs in such
+unkindly soil without first adding other of better quality; but it is
+of great value to know that there are a few trees and shrubs that will
+thrive almost in defiance of the stubborn and unkindly nature of a
+stiff clay soil.
+
+(5) =Ironstone Soils.=—The particular class of soil to which I refer,
+and which in several districts occurs in plenty, is on the coal and
+ironstone formation, where the top soil is usually shallow, and the
+subsoil consists of a loose, yellowish rag that is largely impregnated
+with iron. In most places but a very small quantity of soil exists, and
+that is of the poorest description, varying in depth according to the
+lie of the measure. The Spanish Chestnut is one of the very best trees
+for this soil, growing with freedom, and producing a fair amount of
+good timber, while its appearance indicates perfect health.
+
+Birch and beech do well, although neither of them attains to a large
+size. The latter reproduces itself freely from seeds, and soon spreads
+wherever a footing can be got. Sycamore grows freely, particularly
+where the pan is broken up, and produces a small quantity of good
+timber. Another tree that seems perfectly at home on the coal and
+ironstone is the wild cherry, for there it grows to a fair size,
+flowers freely, and produces excellent timber. Larch cannot be
+recommended for this soil, but in places where a small quantity of
+loam overlies the coal and ironstone it grows with great freedom for
+a number of years, and the timber, if cut early, is of good quality.
+The common spruce soon dies out, although it may grow freely enough for
+a number of years after being planted, and wear a healthy appearance.
+Oak and ash do fairly well, but they rarely attain to a large size or
+produce first-class timber. Rhododendrons almost revel in this soil,
+and some of the largest and healthiest are growing with their roots in
+close contact with the coal and ironstone.
+
+=Shrubs for Hot and Dry Soils.=—The Bladder Senna (_Colutea
+arborescens_) is one of the most useful of shrubs for planting in
+poor, hot, dry soils, and not only will it succeed and flower well in
+these, but it is equally valuable for using where the air is chemically
+impure, and for that reason has few equals for the town or city
+shrubbery. _C. cruenta_ is also valuable in a similar way. The Sea
+Purslane (_Atriplex halimus_) is another valuable shrub for planting
+in hot and dry situations as is _Caragana arborescens_, the native
+Barberry (_Berberis vulgaris_), many forms of Genista and Cytisus,
+_Spartium junceum_, and the double flowering Gorse. Another excellent
+shrub is the Box Thorn or Tea Tree (_Lycium Europæum_) which is
+useful for covering an arid hot bank, several species of Cotoneaster,
+particularly _C. horizontalis_ and _C. microphylla_, and the neat
+and curious _Muchlenbeckia complexa_. Helianthemums also do well, so
+does the Venetian Sumach (_Rhus cotinus_), and several varieties of
+bramble, but especially the double pink flowering form. The Rest Harrow
+(_Ononis arvensis_), a native shrubby plant of great floral beauty,
+also does well; while the little known _Celastris articulatus_ should
+not be neglected in hot and dry situations. Other good shrubs for hot
+dry banks are _Potentilla fruticosa_, the Tamarisk and _Juniperus
+tamariscifolia_.
+
+=Concluding Remarks.=—In conclusion, it may be pointed out that
+it is only by a careful selection of soil that we may expect tree
+planting to be successful, and I have no hesitation in saying that
+many failures can be clearly traced to errors of judgment in the
+selection of trees for planting on particular soils. The subject
+is a wide and complicated one, and it must be admitted that very
+perplexing diversities occur with the same kinds of trees on what, to
+all appearance, is the same class of soil. There are, of course, other
+considerations beyond the soil itself which must be taken into account,
+such as aspect, elevation, and whether the ground is inland or on the
+coast.
+
+With reference to some of the newer conifers it must be admitted that
+soil and situation have a wonderful influence on their successful
+culture, and this applies in particular to such kinds as are not
+perfectly hardy and liable to injury by unseasonable frost. The too
+common practice of selecting warm and sheltered spots for such is, in
+the main, to be condemned.
+
+It may be said that _Abies cephalonica_ and _A. Pinsapo_ are not worth
+growing, and in many places they are not, but when planted on limestone
+or chalk they are highly ornamental.
+
+The same holds good in the case of _Tsuga Mertensiana_, _Picea
+Sitchensis_, and _P. excelsa_, which are rarely seen in good form
+except on soil of a peaty description.
+
+Every one at all interested in trees and shrubs knows that there are
+certain kinds which in a state of Nature are only found growing in a
+peaty soil, mixed it may be more or less with sand, and any attempt
+to cultivate them in other soils is productive of very unsatisfactory
+results.
+
+Who would ever think of planting the so-called American or peat plants,
+Cape Heaths, etc., amongst gravel or chalk, or Rhododendrons where lime
+is present in the soil? And these facts show us that there is something
+in the composition of certain soils only suitable for the requirements
+of a certain class of plants.
+
+Another curious fact is this, that when growing on certain soils the
+timber of one species of tree is found to be far more durable than in
+others.
+
+Deep loamy soil and soft peat produce timber that is usually of a
+second-rate description, being deficient in firmness.
+
+By studying the geological strata of a district much useful information
+may be learnt regarding the trees best suited for planting.
+
+The following alphabetical table will serve to show at a glance the
+trees that have been found best suited for planting in the class of
+soil under which they are enumerated:—
+
+RECLAIMED PEAT BOG.
+
+_Hardwoods._
+
+    Alnus glutinosa     Populus alba
+    —— —— imperialis    —— balsamifera
+    —— —— laciniata     —— canadensis
+    Betula alba         Quercus Robur, and vars.
+    Cerasus Padus       Salix fragilis
+    —— vulgaris         Tilia europeæ
+    Fagus sylvatica     Ulmus alata
+    —— —— purpurea      —— montana
+
+_Conifers._
+
+    Abies concolor        Larix Kæmpferi
+    —— bracteata          Pinus austriaca
+    —— nobilis            —— excelsa
+    —— Nordmanniana       —— laricio
+    Cedrus Deodara        —— sylvestris
+    Cryptomeria japonica  Retinospora ericoides
+    Cupressus Goveniana   —— plumosa
+    —— Lawsoniana         —— —— aurea
+    —— macrocarpa         Taxus baccata
+    Juniperus chinensis   Thuja gigantea
+    —— recurva            —— occidentalis
+    —— Sabina             Thujopsis borealis
+    Larix europeæ         Wellingtonia gigantea
+
+CHALKY OR CALCAREOUS.
+
+_Hardwoods._
+
+    Acer colchicum rubrum       Cerasus Padus
+    —— dasycarpum               Cratægus (nearly all)
+    —— Negundo                  Cytisus Laburnum
+    —— platanoides              Fagus sylvatica
+    —— Pseudo-platanus          —— —— purpurea
+    Æsculus Hippocastanum       Fraxinus excelsior
+    —— rubicunda                —— Ornus
+    Alnus glutinosa, and vars.  Gleditschia sinensis
+    Amelanchier Botryapium      —— triacanthos
+    Amygdalus communis          Koelreuteria paniculata
+    Betula alba                 Populus alba
+    Castanea vesca              —— balsamifera
+    Catalpa bignonioides        —— canadensis
+
+    Populus monilifera          Quercus Turneri
+    —— tremula                  Robinia Pseud-acacia, and vars.
+    Pyrus Aria                  Salix alba
+    —— Aucuparia                Tilia argentea
+    —— Malus floribunda         —— europeæ
+    —— spectabilis              Ulmus alata
+    Quercus Ilex                —— glabra
+    —— Mirebecki                —— montana
+    —— rubra                    Virgilia lutea
+
+_Conifers._
+
+    Abies Amabilis            Pinus austriaca
+    —— magnifica              —— Cembra
+    —— nobilis                —— excelsa
+    —— Nordmanniana           —— laricio
+    —— Pinsapo                —— Pinaster
+    —— Webbiana               —— Strobus
+    Cedrus atlantica          —— sylvestris
+    —— Deodara                —— tuberculata
+    —— Libani                 Retinospora ericoides
+    Cupressus Lawsoniana      —— filicoides
+    —— macrocarpa             —— plumosa
+    Juniperus chinensis       —— —— aurea
+    —— communis               Salisburia adiantifolia
+    —— Sabina                 Taxus baccata, and vars.
+    —— —— tamariscifolia      Thuja gigantea
+    Larix europeæ             —— Lobbii
+    —— Kæmpferi               —— occidentalis
+    —— leptolepis             —— Warreana
+    Picea excelsa             Thujopsis borealis
+
+GRAVELLY AND SANDY.
+
+_Hardwoods._
+
+    Alianthus glandulosa   Morus nigra
+    Alnus cordata          Platanus occidentalis
+    Betula alba            Populus Bolleana
+    Carpinus betulus       Quercus Robur, and vars.
+    Fagus sylvatica        —— suber
+    —— —— purpurea         Robinia Pseud-acacia
+    Fraxinus Ornus         Sambucus nigra
+    Gleditschia horrida    Tilia europeæ
+    Ilex, many vars.       Ulmus alata
+    Juglans cinerea        —— campestris
+    —— nigra               —— montana
+    Magnolia acuminata     Virgilia lutea
+
+_Conifers._
+
+    Juniperus communis  Pinus Pinaster
+    —— Sabina           —— pumilio
+    Pinus austriaca     —— sylvestris
+    —— halepensis       Taxus baccata
+    —— laricio          Thuja gigantea
+
+CLAY.
+
+    Carpinus betulus         Quercus Ilex
+    Castanea vesca           —— pannonica
+    Cryptomeria elegans      —— Robur
+    —— japonica              Thuja gigantea
+    Gleditschia triacanthos  —— Lobbii
+
+IRONSTONE AND COAL.
+
+    Acer Pseudo-platanus    Larix europeæ
+    Betula alba             —— —— pendula
+    Castanea vesca          Pinus Cembra
+    Cerasus Padus           —— Montana
+    Cupressus Lawsoniana    Quercus Robur
+    Fraxinus excelsior      Thuja gigantea
+    Juniperus communis      Ulmus montana
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIII
+
+TRANSPLANTING LARGE TREES
+
+
+Where immediate effect is required, the transplanting of large trees
+and shrubs will be an operation of considerable importance, and though
+it is fraught with both trouble and expense, the results obtained have
+led to an increased adoption of the system during recent years.
+
+There is hardly a limit to the size or weight of the tree to be removed
+when the operator is provided with suitable appliances, and success has
+crowned the effort of several recent operations of this nature in our
+Royal and other parks. Of late years several appliances for removing
+large and weighty trees and shrubs have been placed on the market;
+amongst these one of the best is certainly that made and patented by
+Messrs. Faulkners Ltd. Its principal recommendations are simplicity
+of structure, the ease with which it may be worked, and lightness,
+combined with such strength that even the weightiest tree can be
+removed. But not only is this tree-lifter valuable where transplanting
+is being engaged in, for in removing large tree roots, logs of timber,
+blocks of stone, and heavy materials generally, it has been found most
+useful.
+
+The apparatus is made somewhat in the form of a four-wheeled lorry,
+having a steel frame only. The frame at the back is made movable to
+admit of the apparatus being placed so that the tree to be moved stands
+in the centre of the machine. Two stout planks with guide rails are
+laid across the trench, and the machine is backed on to these. The
+machine is constructed with four iron rollers, lying along over the
+side frame and parallel with the frame. Around the rollers a chain is
+wound, the loose end being fastened to the planking which has been
+placed under the ball of earth containing the roots of the tree.
+The rollers are worked with a specially made screw-gear, which is
+self-sustaining, and can be moved to draw up or lower at will.
+
+[Illustration: FAULKNER’S TRANSPLANTING MACHINE.]
+
+The illustration given clearly shows the apparatus with the tree being
+lifted for transportation. Barron’s transplanting machine is also well
+known, and with this much valuable work in the removal of large and
+heavy trees and shrubs has been accomplished.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIV
+
+THINNING PLANTATIONS
+
+
+In the successful rearing of timber trees for profit there is, perhaps,
+no other branch of more importance than a good knowledge of the art of
+thinning, and, at the same time, one on which so great a diversity of
+opinion exists.
+
+Thinning plantations, be they old or young, must always be subject to
+great modification, according to the nature of the trees and soil, or
+ultimate design of the plantation being operated upon, and is a matter
+requiring great tact, forethought, and discrimination, and this can
+only be acquired by long experience and by those having a good insight
+into the peculiarities and properties of our forest trees.
+
+The same rule as regards thinning will not apply to, say, fir,
+hardwood, and mixed plantations; and far less will it hold good in the
+case of an ornamental and a profitable wood. No universal rule can,
+however, be laid down for thinning, but general principles can be given
+that will be sufficient for the guidance of those who have to undertake
+such work.
+
+In thinning any plantation two important points are to be borne in
+mind—first, cut away all diseased, dead and dying trees; second,
+study the relationship of trees and soil, and act accordingly. To be
+more explicit, we might say that in the first case, the removal of
+all dead and dying trees is a necessity, and that being done, one can
+proceed with the disposal of the standards to be left. In the second
+case, by suiting the trees to the soil, at least as far as possible,
+great benefit results, and an instance of this that came under our
+own observation lately will be given as an example. A plantation
+130 acres in extent was composed of oak, larch and Spanish chestnut,
+placed at regular distances apart throughout the whole extent of the
+wood. Now, the soil was gravelly for a considerable distance down, and,
+consequently, fairly well suited for the chestnut, but just the reverse
+for the larch, which, on such a soil, generally becomes “pumped,” or
+rotten at the core. In thinning this particular plantation, it would
+have been very unwise to cut away the chestnut and the oak and leave
+the larch, and this had happened to some extent before the proper
+system of management and adaptability of soil to tree was thought
+of. Larch may look healthy enough, and show but small indications of
+disease, even when growing on gravel up to twenty or thirty years of
+age, so that it is with difficulty that the inexperienced become aware
+of the pending doom that usually awaits this tree when planted on
+such a soil. This example is merely given to point out how carefully
+thinning should be gone about, and that in all cases it is a wise
+policy to study soil in relation to the future crop of timber before an
+axe is laid to the tree.
+
+At the outset of these remarks on thinning plantations it should be
+distinctly borne in mind that there are two chief objects for which
+trees may be grown, each requiring a special mode of management, in
+order that the best results may be obtained.
+
+The first is their management in a purely economical sense or with a
+view to profit; the second, their management with a view to ornament.
+There is also a third object that is well worthy of consideration,
+and that is the growing of timber in one and the same wood, both for
+ornament and utility combined, and this is very frequently the case
+with home woodlands that are visible from roads and drives, with strips
+bounding parks or pleasure-grounds, and on small properties.
+
+To produce ornamental trees of natural appearance is by no means
+difficult, as by allowing the individual specimens ample room for
+branch development, the desired effect is gradually brought about. Far
+greater difficulty, however, attends the production of the greatest
+quantity of the most valuable trees on a given space of ground. Here
+many questions of the greatest moment, on which difference of opinion
+exists, crop up: such as at what age thinning should be commenced, to
+what extent should it be engaged in, what time should elapse between
+each thinning, and which trees should be removed.
+
+[Illustration: FELLING TOOLS.]
+
+Any one at all interested in the management of our woods and
+plantations must have noticed that trees having an abundance of room
+and light on all sides make comparatively short and thick trunks that
+are well furnished with branches; whereas such as are grown up in a
+circumscribed space and amongst others are tall and straight, with
+clean, well-formed stems destitute of branches for the greater part
+of their height. All species, or nearly all, are governed by the same
+laws, that is to say, those that have the least room laterally within
+certain prescribed limits, which will be described hereafter, produce
+the tallest, cleanest and straightest trunks, and vice versa.
+
+The influence of light has not, in this country at least, been
+sufficiently taken into account in the rearing of timber, but it has
+everything to do in directing the growth of trees, and should be
+reckoned as a most important factor by the forester. Thus, if it be
+allowed in excess, as when the trees stand far apart, the growth of
+lateral shoots and large branches will be greatly induced, the result
+being short and thick boles, that are rough and knotty, and ill-adapted
+for constructive purposes. On the other hand, by keeping the trees
+thick on the ground, light is, to a greater or less extent, excluded,
+and the trees grow tall, straight and branchless for the greater part
+of their height, and are of the greatest economic value. But here
+another and very important question crops up. To what extent in a wood,
+managed solely for the value of the timber it produces, will it be
+profitable to thin? In dealing with this, two distinct bearings should
+be kept in mind—the first, that too small a quantity of branches and
+consequently of leaves, must, to a greater or less extent, check the
+growth of the trees, and so diminish the production of timber; and,
+second, that by having too large a quantity, the value of the timber
+is greatly reduced in consequence, and the number of trees to the acre
+much diminished as well.
+
+There is, therefore, a medium between these two, by adopting which,
+the greatest quantity of the most valuable timber will be produced;
+although, at the same time, it is astonishing, when looked at from
+a physiological point of view, what a small quantity of foliage is
+required to keep a plantation tree in a healthy, growing condition,
+and to produce a trunk of useful dimensions. This may, however, be
+explained by the fact that the almost entire absence of large limbs and
+branches, which in some cases would amount to one-fifth the total bulk
+of the tree, renders the amount of sap, and consequently of leaves,
+required proportionately less, the nutriment being mainly elaborated in
+the building of the trunk.
+
+Independent altogether of the forests of northern Europe, Canada,
+etc., which have grown up naturally, examples might be given in our
+own country—the native Fir forests in the Highlands of Scotland, the
+valuable Beech woods on the Chiltern Hills, and a few Larch plantations
+in Yorkshire and Bedfordshire—where trees averaging 70 ft. in height,
+growing at from 4 to 6 yards apart, and with only a tuft of foliage
+atop, may be seen. It is only, however, by long and careful study and
+attention to different trees at different stages of their growth that
+any idea can be formed of the amount of branches and foliage required
+for preparing the sap that will be necessary for the profitable yearly
+increase of the trunk until maturity is arrived at.
+
+The questions now to be dealt with in growing timber for purely
+economical purposes are: (1) At what age should thinning be commenced?
+(2) To what extent should it be engaged in? (3) What time should elapse
+between each thinning? And (4) Which trees should be removed?
+
+At the outset, it may be well to mention, that in so far as any of
+the above questions are concerned, no hard and fast line can be laid
+down as to the universal management of plantations, each tract of
+wood, and even different parts of the same wood, according to the
+particular species of tree, quality of soil, altitude, and exposure,
+being dealt with on its own peculiar footing. Many serious mistakes
+have been committed, and irreparable damage done, by treating every
+plantation alike and according to the rule-of-thumb method. Upon the
+manner in which thinning is performed, much of the ultimate success
+of a plantation will depend, and it is a matter requiring great tact,
+forethought, and discrimination, which can only be acquired by long
+experience, and an intimate knowledge of trees and their surroundings.
+
+The quality as well as quantity of timber produced should be carefully
+considered in the management of every plantation. In dealing with the
+following questions regarding thinning, it may be well to state that
+the average plantation will alone form the basis of remarks.
+
+=1. At what age should thinning be commenced?=—The necessity of
+thinning, few practical arboriculturists will care to deny, and that
+whether the plantation be composed of coniferous or hard-wooded trees.
+It is the abuse of the practice that, in this country at least, is so
+to be condemned, and I entirely dissent from those who consider that
+a coniferous plantation should be left to Nature, or, in other words,
+should thin itself. The argument that the natural forests of America,
+the source from which we derive the finest and best quality of timber,
+thinned themselves, is often quoted; but it should also be remembered
+that the conditions of such forests are widely different from those
+of our own, and that the waste of timber is immense, great quantities
+being destroyed in procuring what is required. Although, however,
+we cannot adopt all the details of Nature’s practice, we can and we
+should admit the correctness of the principle on which she acts, and by
+studying this we learn much, and it is by acquiring a knowledge of her
+economy, and where and when to apply assistance, that the point of the
+whole argument rests. Natural regeneration, unless it be in a limited
+number of cases, and particularly with our least valuable classes of
+timber, is never, in this country, likely to supersede artificial
+planting, and it has been conclusively proved in the Forest of Dean,
+that with our most valuable timber-producing tree, the Oak, the latter
+system is most to be encouraged.
+
+No thinning of young trees should take place until a complete ground
+shade has been established; and it is most important for the welfare of
+the plantation, that a complete overhead foliage covering be brought
+about at as early a date as possible after planting. At what age this
+may take place will depend mainly on the size of the plants used and
+the distance apart at which they were inserted in the ground, and
+to a lesser extent on the quality of soil and other considerations.
+At a short period after a complete leaf canopy has been established,
+the individual trees begin to press against each other, and later on
+a struggle for existence commences, the stronger specimens gaining
+the supremacy over the weaker. Here it must be borne in mind that
+hard-wooded trees require proportionately more room for their healthy
+development than coniferous kinds, while length and clearness of
+stem, produced by a due proportion of shade, is an object of prime
+importance. It might, as some suppose, do little harm, to let the
+struggle for existence go on unchecked, but there can be no question
+that for several reasons it is wise policy to allow the stronger trees
+every chance of succeeding, and to cut away the weaker. The object
+should be to provide for the trees left standing that amount of room or
+growing space best suited for bringing about the particular conditions
+aimed at, and in thinning, it must be the aim of the forester to arrive
+at the happy mean—neither over nor underdoing the work, the former in
+particular. But while overcrowding is not to be tolerated, the danger
+of suddenly exposing the trees to currents of air, to which they have
+hitherto been unaccustomed, must be carefully guarded against, and it
+should be distinctly borne in mind that to thin trees in an abrupt
+manner is one of the greatest mistakes that it is possible to make.
+
+Statistics compiled from a healthy Larch plantation, growing on fair
+soil, and in a moderately sheltered position in southern England, will
+now be given, from which a good idea can be formed as to the age and
+size when thinning should be commenced. The trees when planted were 2
+ft. high, and pitted at 3 ft. apart. In four years the outer branches
+began to touch each other, and in six years from time of planting the
+average height of trees was 7 ft. 10 in. and the shade occasioned had
+killed out most of the grassy undergrowth. At this period of growth,
+the disproportion in the size of the trees was, as is usually the case,
+considerable, and left no doubt about which to remove when the first
+thinning took place. Two years afterwards, or in eight years from time
+of planting, thinning was first engaged in, the taller trees at that
+time averaging nearly 11 ft. in height, but many of the suppressed and
+weakly were little more than half that size. Another thinning took
+place during the twelfth year, and in 1911 the trees average 40 ft. in
+height and were standing at a distance of 9 ft. apart. The plantation
+referred to is on the Earl of Derby’s property of Holwood, in Kent.
+
+=2. To what extent should thinning be engaged in?=—In following up
+the latter case, the tallest and healthiest trees were reserved; all
+distorted, sickly, and stunted specimens being removed; but in the case
+of two or more proportionately small trees growing in close proximity,
+the most promising was left, and the others cut away, thus avoiding
+gaps in the plantation. At the first thinning it will be found quite
+impossible to leave the trees anything like regular over the ground,
+although this should be studied as much as possible, and bare spaces
+are to be carefully guarded against. With the vigorous growth of the
+trees, and the interlacing of branches previous to the first thinning,
+no great openings will require to be made, and nothing more than will
+be canopied over during the next two years.
+
+=3. What time should elapse between each thinning?=—This can only be
+correctly decided after a careful inspection of the particular wood.
+Generally speaking, after the first thinning, when the trees were
+eight years old, the lower branches gradually began to give way, and
+as the trees increased in height, this became more and more apparent,
+and formed a good guide as to the time which should elapse before the
+second thinning might profitably be engaged in. The intervals between
+the various thinnings should for the first thirty years in the case of
+Larch—and, indeed, most other trees—be comparatively short, but become
+longer with advance of age; but heavy thinnings must be carefully
+avoided, especially if the best class of coniferous timber is to be
+produced.
+
+A well-managed Larch plantation of twenty years’ growth should have
+the trees branchless for about one-half of their height, which is, of
+course, brought about by crowding, and at forty years three-fourths of
+the trunk should be clear of branches.
+
+I have purposely abstained from giving the number of feet apart at
+which trees ought to stand at various stages of their growth, and the
+number of thinnings they require, as being likely to prove misleading.
+
+=4. The question as to which trees should be removed= need cause little
+or no anxiety, as the dead, dying, diseased, and badly-formed will
+naturally receive first attention.
+
+In thinning, the following short rules should be observed:—
+
+1. Thin not at all until the undergrowing vegetation has been
+completely killed out by the overhead foliage, the golden rule of
+sylviculture being to keep the sunshine off the ground until near the
+end of the tree’s career.
+
+2. Thinning should be performed in such a manner as not to reduce the
+value of the crop, but so as to tend to the production of the greatest
+quantity of the most valuable timber in the shortest possible space of
+time.
+
+3. By thinning allow of sufficient light and air to prevent the trees
+becoming drawn up and lanky, but avoid too much space, which induces
+the growth of side branches and detracts from the value of the timber.
+
+4. Keep up the number of trees to the highest possible pitch until they
+are tall, straight and clean, and thin gradually.
+
+5. The danger of suddenly exposing the trees to currents of cold air to
+which they have hitherto been unaccustomed must be carefully guarded
+against and it is a serious mistake to thin in an abrupt or unequal
+manner.
+
+6. In thinning remove all dead and dying trees first, then the
+distorted and stunted, the best grown and healthiest being preserved
+for the permanent crop.
+
+7. Hard-wooded trees require proportionately more space for development
+than conifers, and the annual rings in the timber of the latter should
+be narrow in proportion to those of the former, good quality of
+hard-wooded timber being indicated by broad annual rings, but with
+coniferous wood the reverse is the case.
+
+8. Thinning should be commenced at the central or most sheltered point
+of a plantation, or section of same, so that the outer intact boundary
+may continue to form a barrier to cold winds, which might prove
+injurious to trees that had hitherto stood in close order.
+
+9. In economic forestry, timber trees should be cut down when they have
+arrived at maturity or have ceased to grow. With coniferous trees this
+generally occurs at from seventy to ninety years; but with hardwoods,
+excepting the ash and chestnut, which are of most value, say, up to
+fifty years’ growth, the period may be greatly extended.
+
+10. Thinning is usually performed in autumn and early winter, but
+it may be well to remember that at the latter period the lowest
+percentage of moisture (about 47 per cent.) is present, and the timber
+consequently of the greatest value for constructive purposes.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XV
+
+TREE-PRUNING IN ECONOMIC FORESTRY
+
+
+Where trees are grown for profit, they will, if properly managed, prune
+themselves, and where for ornament the natural outline is far better
+than any of the contortions and symmetrical shapes that have been
+recommended by various writers on the subject.
+
+A broken or dead branch may be removed, a rival leading shoot cut away,
+or an ungainly or dangerous limb amputated, but here all pruning should
+cease, the practice being wholly wrong and unreasonable, and without
+one recommendation to be adduced in its favour. In an economic way the
+finest plantations of either coniferous or hard-wooded trees in this
+country are those where the individual specimens are growing so thickly
+together that the branches are killed outright for fully one-half
+of their height. Here the stems will be straight and clean, and the
+timber when converted free from the knots and warping that are so
+characteristic either of standard specimens or such as have been grown
+too thinly on the ground.
+
+Every one knows that an Oak growing alone or along the margins of
+a wood is in nine cases out of ten branched almost to the ground,
+and the bole in consequence rough and ill-fitted for any particular
+constructive purpose, and the same may be said of every other tree,
+be it hard-wooded or coniferous. Larch and Scotch Fir trees growing
+along the margins of plantations are rough and knotty, and sell at a
+considerably lower figure compared with those further in, where the
+branches have been killed back gradually as the trees increased in
+size.
+
+The same thing is markedly the case in young woods of ash, oak and
+chestnut, where they have been grown sufficiently thick on the ground
+to kill off the lower branches, and also to cause the trees to rise
+straight, clean and tapering. It is a well-known fact, too, that the
+timber of trees so grown is far more elastic and realizes a much higher
+price than that of the same age grown under conditions where pruning
+might have been a necessity. A case of this kind came under my own
+notice only a short time ago in which one-half of a plantation of
+hard-wooded trees realized fully one-fourth more than the remaining
+half. It came about in this way. Both ends and a large patch in the
+centre of the wood had been thinned out severely for the purpose
+of planting game covert. The trees, standing thinly on the ground,
+branched out and soon covered the open spaces where underwood had been
+planted. In thinning the whole plantation the trees on these particular
+parts were very rough and knotty, and bore no comparison to those where
+they had been left moderately thick on the ground, in consequence
+of which the boles were straight, clean and tapering. This case is
+specially noteworthy, inasmuch as the trees over the whole area were
+growing under exactly similar conditions as to soil, shelter, etc., and
+were of the same age and species.
+
+Great and irreparable damage has been done to woods and plantations in
+this country by too heavy thinnings, by commencing the thinnings at too
+early a period, and by adopting the book method of leaving the trees
+at measured distances apart and a stated number to the acre according
+to the age of the plantation. Such rules can never be expected to work
+satisfactorily, the size of trees depending so much on the character
+of the soil, exposure of the woodland, and other peculiarities of the
+particular district in which they are planted.
+
+[Illustration: PRUNING TOOLS]
+
+Timely and judicious thinning should never be neglected, but it is the
+over-thinning, whereby branches and knotty trunks are produced and
+the supposed need for pruning follows, that I wish to deprecate and
+entirely dissent from. Grow your timber trees so thickly on the ground
+that the stems are induced to become straight, clean and branchless for
+the greater part of their height, and on no account admit sufficient
+light and air to cause the lower branches to be retained intact, or, in
+other words, at all times retain an unbroken leaf canopy. The necessity
+for pruning will then be entirely done away with, and a more valuable
+class of timber produced. The losses sustained through injudicious
+planting and the unnecessary and ruinous practice of pruning have
+taught a lesson that is fraught with good for the tree planter of the
+future.
+
+=When Pruning is Admissible.=—There are a few cases, however, where
+pruning is quite justifiable, and where the abuse of a system should
+furnish no argument against its legitimate use. Hedgerow and field
+timber, for the sake of the live fences, the grass, or the grain crop
+in the vicinity, may require attention in the way of judicious pruning.
+
+Again, pruning is sometimes a necessity where standard trees are grown
+in conjunction with coppice wood, as by shortening the lower branches
+the undergrowth in consequence becomes much improved. In the case
+of town trees, too, where it is necessary to restrict the spread of
+branches, pruning is resorted to, as also with old and heavy-headed
+elms and other trees in our parks and public gardens.
+
+=Pruning Live Branches.=—In and around London, as well as many other
+large centres of industry, the hacking and hewing—pruning we cannot
+call it—to which trees are subjected is barbarous in the extreme, and
+calls for the strongest denunciation. To annually prune and elbow
+in such noble forest trees as the lime and plane, in order that the
+restricted growth may render them suitable for the cramped positions in
+which they have been unwisely planted, is little short of vandalism.
+The lime and plane, perhaps, suffer most in this way, for as soon as
+they have overgrown the allotted space an annual system of pruning
+back the branches is resorted to, the result being great mop-headed
+protuberances at the points where amputation took place, which not
+only rob the tree of its graceful natural appearance, but render it
+susceptible to disease and insect pests. There is no need to specialize
+cases where this most objectionable system is carried out, for a walk
+around our squares and gardens will unfortunately reveal how prevalent
+is the maltreatment of trees in the way of pruning. There might be some
+excuse for planting our noblest forest trees in cramped and unsuitable
+positions were there no other species of smaller growth that would
+take their place, but the Pyrus, Cratægus, dwarf Acacia, Mulberry,
+Catalpa and Sumach surely give us sufficient scope for choosing trees
+of restricted growth for confined positions and so do away with the
+barbarous system of pruning which the use of large-growing species
+necessitates.
+
+[Illustration: BAD EFFECTS OF PRUNING]
+
+Even in the case of dwarf avenues and screens it is quite unnecessary
+to use such large-growing trees as the lime and plane where pruning
+must oft be resorted to, for an avenue or screen of thorn or mulberry,
+the beam tree or mountain ash would be more suitable, and in the end
+far more natural and artistic in appearance.
+
+To sum up in a few words, my contention is that no tree should be
+planted in a position where, in order to keep it within due bounds, a
+systematic clipping and pruning has to be resorted to.
+
+=Pruning Dead Wood.=—Opinions differ greatly as to whether or not
+dead branches should be removed from park and woodland trees. It is,
+however, mainly a matter of taste, and a point on which two of the
+largest owners of woodlands in this country hold distinctly opposite
+opinions, though at the same time it cannot be denied that the careful
+removal of all dead and dying wood from a tree is highly beneficial.
+Pruning should, however, only be extended to such trees as are in a
+fairly healthy condition, with well-developed heads, and containing
+only a moderate quantity of dead wood, there being many fine old
+specimens that would be rendered unsightly in the extreme and receive
+no benefit from removal of the dead and dying timber, but this has
+direct reference to trees standing singly throughout the park, and not
+to specimens in the woodland.
+
+In many of our parks and woodlands at the present time there exists
+an undue quantity of dead and dying wood, which may be attributed
+to natural decay, the quality of the soil, and in some instances to
+long-standing neglect in the matter of non-attention to wounds which
+have been caused by wind-broken limbs and branches. Such trees would
+be greatly improved, both in health and appearance, by judicious
+removal of the dead branches and attention to old wounds in order to
+prevent the ingress of water, the decay of many branches being directly
+attributable to this cause. That an undue quantity of dead wood will
+induce injurious insect pests, such as the goat and wood leopard
+moths, which attack healthy trees, is well known, and was exemplified
+in one of our London parks recently where numerous young thorns and
+various species of Pyrus were injured by the latter. In removing dead
+branches cut them well back into the living wood in order to induce
+fresh growth at the point where amputation takes place. The removal of
+large dead limbs from old specimen trees is an operation that requires
+a great amount of skill, and should only be entrusted to those who have
+had practical experience of pruning in its various phases. As before
+stated, the removal of dead wood is merely a matter of sentiment,
+though of its practical utility there can be no doubt, and in all cases
+where the stag-headed trees are conspicuous, the removal of the dead
+wood is to be recommended.
+
+=Pruning Shrubs.=—Generally speaking, shrubs are pruned with little or
+no consideration as to whether they will be benefited by the operation.
+While symmetry and regularity of outline are to be admired in a shrub,
+these qualities should never be gained at the expense of natural grace
+and production of flowers. The judicious pruner will, therefore, aim at
+preserving the peculiar habit of each shrub as far as possible, while
+interfering but little with the production of flowers. The various
+species of Deutzia, Forsythia, Philadelphus and Weigela flower on the
+wood of the previous year’s growth; therefore such shrubs should be
+pruned immediately after the flowering season—say in June, but never in
+spring or winter—at least, if the production of flowers is to be taken
+into account. Again, the various species of Syringa, Spiræa, Lonicera
+and Hibiscus may safely be pruned during winter, the flowers being
+produced on the young wood; while _Hydrangea paniculata grandiflora_
+must be severely pruned in early spring, for only by so doing will the
+greatest wealth of flowers be produced. _Chimonanthus fragrans_ should
+be pruned in February; while the various species of Ceanothus should
+not be touched till all danger of frost is past. _Kerria japonica_
+should be pruned in autumn, when old wood may be cut away.
+
+All pruning operations should be carefully carried out with a sharp
+knife and not with the pruning shears, the point of amputation being
+always close to an eye or bud. Too severe pruning should be avoided,
+a judicious thinning out of the branches being far preferable to
+indiscriminate shearing and cutting back.
+
+=How and when to Prune.=—The latter part of May or beginning of June
+is undoubtedly the best season for pruning the majority of hard-wooded
+trees, as during that time the motion of the sap is most vigorous, and
+in consequence the wounds caused by amputation heal most quickly.
+There are a few exceptions—the birch, sycamore and maple—where, on
+account of profuse bleeding, pruning had best be postponed till after
+full foliage has been attained.
+
+Much mischief has been done by the pruning knife, and still more by the
+handbill and saw when placed in the hands of inexperienced workmen—a
+fact that is apparent to any interested person who visits various parts
+of the country.
+
+When conducted with care, on sound principles, the effect of pruning
+on the class of timber referred to is highly beneficial, whereas, when
+done in a haphazard way and by an inexperienced hand, it is often
+attended with great danger and grave results.
+
+In cutting or foreshortening small branches, a sharp pocket-knife will
+be found most convenient, but when large limbs have to be removed the
+pruning saw should be brought into request. The branch to be removed,
+especially if of large size and weighty, should first be cut through at
+any convenient distance from the main stem, thus preventing splitting
+and tearing of the bark, after which the stump may be neatly sawn
+through as close to the bole of the tree as possible. Undercutting by a
+few draughts of the saw will here also go far in preventing tearing of
+the wood and bark. So as to render the saw-cut smooth and prevent water
+lodging on the surface, the face and edge should be neatly dressed with
+an adze or sharp pruning knife, and then painted with tar. When cutting
+over an upright-growing branch, such as in pollarding trees, etc.,
+never cut on the horizontal, but always in a sloping direction, so that
+the rain may pass off quickly.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVI
+
+BRACING AND REPAIRING TREES
+
+
+Though occasionally resorted to in olden times, particularly in the
+case of orchard trees, it is only of late years that the systematic
+treatment of tree wounds and diseases has been generally adopted. Even
+at the present time, the filling of hollow trunks, bracing of heavy and
+diseased branches and attention to insect and fungoid pests are rarely
+engaged in and but imperfectly understood.
+
+When the value of old trees in an ornamental or utilitarian sense is
+taken into account, it is remarkable what a small amount of attention
+they receive when subjected to accident or disease. As a general rule,
+cavities or hollows in a tree stem, if left to themselves, gradually
+increase in size until the ascending sap is entirely cut off, when the
+crumbling stem either falls to pieces or is broken over by the wind. A
+branch requires to be braced or strengthened when from its weight and
+shape it is likely to get wrenched from the main stem during stormy
+weather and so injure the tree or man its natural beauty.
+
+Both insect and fungoid pests do a considerable amount of damage to
+trees, both young and old, but as special chapters are devoted to their
+depredations they need only receive a passing notice here.
+
+=Hollow Trunks and their Treatment.=—However desirable it may be to
+repair hollow trunks, yet a great deal of discrimination is necessary
+in deciding which trees should be operated upon, especially in the case
+of such as are reduced to mere shells and are not likely to derive any
+benefit commensurate with the labour and cost of materials involved in
+bracing and filling.
+
+Young, healthy, vigorous growing trees, that have become damaged or
+diseased, should in the majority of instances be attended to; but in
+the case of old specimens on which a great amount of labour and money
+would necessarily have to be expended, several important bearings must
+be considered before works of repair are taken in hand. Historic and
+valuable trees, those occupying prominent positions on a lawn or park,
+town trees where vegetation is scarce, and such as are not too old and
+fragile, may be dealt with within certain bounds, but to doctor all
+diseased and hollow trees on the most approved principle in such places
+as Epping Forest or Burnham Beeches would be highly imprudent, whether
+in view of the little benefit which in many instances would accrue by
+so doing or of the great expense involved in such an operation.
+
+The filling, too, must be adapted to circumstances, and to deal with
+the entire trunk of a hollow tree is in most cases quite out of the
+question, both from the point of utility and expense. Short-lived
+trees, such as the Alder, Birch and Poplar, or such as are liable
+to sudden attacks of insect and fungoid pests, and those that are
+unfavourably situated in mining and chemical areas, should be scantily
+dealt with, but the practical woodman will see at a glance which trees
+are best worthy of his attention and treatment.
+
+Probably the simplest, and certainly the cheapest method of dealing
+with diseased and hollow trunks is to clean out thoroughly all dead
+and decaying matter, the interior being scraped and swept with a
+rough brush, so that the loose rotting wood and bark is removed. When
+quite dry, the interior of the trunk should be painted with one, or
+preferably with two coats of creosote or carbolineum, and filled up
+with a composition of one part of Portland cement to three of clean
+gravel and sand, the surface coating at the orifice containing the
+largest quantity of cement. A coat of coal tar on top of the dry
+creosote goes far in making the concrete adhere firmly to the wood.
+
+When a fairly healthy tree is being operated upon, and when the bark
+is likely to grow over the exposed surface, the concrete should only
+be brought up on a level with the underside of the living bark; in
+other words, the cambium should be left free for expansion. Sometimes,
+brickbats, broken small, are used instead of gravel, but for various
+reasons concrete is preferable. The concrete surface may be prevented
+from cracking by applying annually a coat of paint, which, for
+appearance sake, may be of a similar colour to that of the bark of the
+tree.
+
+In the case of a large tree in which the trunk is quite hollow, usually
+with a basal and top opening, the amount of cement required to fill the
+cavity precludes the possibility of it being employed on the score of
+economy, but where the hollow only extends for a comparatively short
+distance upwards and inwards the composition is to be recommended. When
+a large amount of material is required to fill a hollow stem, clean
+bricks broken to about the size of a golf ball may be used, but they
+must be packed firmly and the surface, wherever it comes in contact
+with the weather, glazed over with cement in order to effectually shut
+out dampness. Asphalt has of late years been employed in the filling of
+hollow stems, and is to be recommended on account of its elasticity and
+lasting properties.
+
+Sometimes, the interior of a large, hollow tree stem is strengthened
+by crossbeams of timber, any holes which extend to the outside being
+carefully covered with sheet lead or zinc so as to prevent the ingress
+of water. A sheet of lead or zinc is, however, only a superficial
+remedy and should be dispensed with where filling the cavity is at all
+practicable. Lead, in some cases, is preferable to zinc for covering
+wounds in trees, as it fits into position more readily and is easily
+fixed.
+
+The treatment of hollow stems without filling the cavity is in certain
+instances quite permissible, and can be carried out at a comparatively
+small cost. Broadly speaking, this method consists in cleaning out all
+decayed and decaying matter, painting the interior with carbolineum
+or tar, and, where possible, bracing the trunk from the interior by
+means of stout crossbars of wood and covering surface holes with lead,
+zinc or sheet copper. When a tree trunk is hollow from top to bottom
+this method is to be recommended, and stout struts placed within the
+cavity at various of the weaker points will go far towards preserving
+many an aged specimen. When the cavity in a hollow stem is so large
+that a person can enter it, the work of either filling with a suitable
+composition or supporting with wooden struts is greatly simplified.
+
+Recent experiments have proved the value of a mixture of sawdust and
+asphalt for filling cavities. It is particularly valuable in cases
+where concrete is too rigid and unyielding, such as in dealing with
+trunks and branches that are apt to be swayed about in stormy weather.
+The materials are dry sawdust, that of Oak, Chestnut and Beech being
+preferable, and solid asphalt derived from the refining of petroleum,
+which is at present in use for filling the interstices of street
+pavements in various parts of the metropolis.
+
+For filling cavities in heavy, swaying branches, one part of asphalt
+to four of clean, dry sawdust will form a mixture that is non-rigid
+and yields with the motion of the branch in which it is inserted.
+In dealing with the trunk, which is more rigid and less affected in
+stormy weather, a larger quantity of sawdust should be used. The
+filling is made by stirring dry sawdust into boiling asphalt until
+the desired consistency is reached, and before the composition has
+cooled, it should be inserted in the previously prepared cavity. As in
+cement filling, the preparation of cavities to be filled with sawdust
+and asphalt should be carefully attended to, the decayed wood and
+all soft and rotten material being removed, and the interior surface
+rendered sterile by an application of carbolineum or kerosene. For
+wound dressings, gas tar and liquid asphalt is to be recommended, this
+combination forming a more continuous and elastic covering than is the
+case when tar or paint alone is used.
+
+Where the cavity is small and, as is often the case, filled with water
+and decayed and decaying vegetable matter, the following course is
+recommended:—When only a few inches deep, the water can usually be
+got rid of by mopping it out with a sponge attached to a convenient
+handle, but when the hole is too deep for this method the water may be
+extracted by tapping, that is by boring a hole with an auger through
+the trunk to the bottom of the hole. A half-inch auger will suffice,
+and the correct spot to bore can usually be ascertained by measuring
+the depth of the hole. After the water has been removed the cavity
+must be thoroughly cleared of all decaying tissue and accumulated
+vegetable matter, and in order that this may be done effectually, it
+may sometimes be necessary to enlarge the opening so that a suitable
+tool can be inserted.
+
+When the cavity has become quite dry—a matter of considerable
+importance—it should be treated with creosote or carbolineum and
+afterwards filled with concrete in the proportion of one part of cement
+to four of clean gravel. Ram the concrete firm so that the cavity is
+perfectly filled, and finish off at the orifice with pure cement in
+such a way that the cambium may be induced to form a growth over the
+edge of the filling.
+
+A cheap but temporary method of dealing with small hollows and cavities
+in fruit and other trees, is to fill these with a mixture of clay and
+cow-dung in the proportion of two of the former to one of the latter.
+Knead well and apply when in the consistency of putty, cleaning and
+disinfecting the hollows before filling.
+
+=Supporting Heavy and Diseased Branches.=—A limb requires to be braced
+or strengthened when from its weight and shape it is likely to get
+wrenched from the main stem during stormy weather, when the weight of
+the minor branches and foliage is too great for the strength of the
+limb, when the wood of the tree is unusually brittle, when trunk or
+limb is decayed, and when, from accident, the tree has become one-sided
+and lost its natural appearance.
+
+Forked trees often require staying, as also do such as have suddenly
+become exposed to storms to which they have hitherto been unaccustomed.
+But probably in the matter of bracing and strengthening, the most
+important of all trees are those in our public parks and such as are
+contiguous to or overshadow dwelling-houses. Park trees should receive
+special attention in the way of making sure that limbs are secure and
+not likely to cause injury to visitors; while in the case of heavy
+branches hanging over dwelling-houses these should be carefully and
+periodically examined and made secure whenever it is found necessary.
+Should there be any doubt as to whether a limb is insecure and
+dangerous, a decision should be made in favour of bracing or reducing
+the weight by pruning.
+
+Unwieldy and heavy limbs are most commonly to be found on isolated
+trees, or such as have had plenty of room for the perfect development
+of stem and branch. As the loss of one or more of the larger branches
+often mars the ornamental appearance of a specimen tree, every
+reasonable means should be employed to prevent such a disfigurement.
+By reducing the weight of a branch by pruning, or by giving support to
+any that are heavy and diseased by means of wires, chains or light iron
+bands and connecting-rods, the trouble may be averted. In all cases
+the object should be to unite the branches in such a way that they
+may offer the greatest amount of resistance to the storm, and at the
+same time be neither conspicuous nor clumsy in appearance owing to the
+operation.
+
+Chains, though often used, probably owing to their being readily
+obtainable and cheap, are for various reasons to be avoided, the flat
+iron band lined with leather or rubber being preferable, more readily
+adjusted, and less likely to cut into the bark and wood. The bands,
+which can be made by any blacksmith, are usually 2½ in. wide, and of
+the shape of the branch to be encircled, each being in two parts to
+facilitate fixing and to allow of slackening at any future time should
+the necessity arise. The band is made of a larger size than the branch
+to be encircled, so as to allow of the insertion of a leather or rubber
+collar between it and the wood, the purpose of the packing being to
+prevent undue friction and chafing of the bark owing to the movement of
+the tree. The bands, whether placed around two opposite branches or the
+main stem and a branch, are connected together by a light iron rod and,
+according to the strain, may be from one-half to three-quarters of an
+inch in diameter. This rod, like the bands, is divided into two parts,
+which are connected by a swivel and screw for convenience in loosening
+or tightening.
+
+[Illustration: BRACING A TREE]
+
+Great care is necessary in choosing the point at which a band should
+be placed, and in deciding which branches or branch and stem should be
+joined together, so that the greatest resistance may be obtained and in
+order that the one may act as a support to the other. The shape of the
+tree and disposition of the stem and branches can alone be the guides
+in this matter. In comparison with the use of a chain, the advantages
+of this method of supporting heavy branches are principally ease of
+fixing, greater rigidity, less friction, adaptability for loosening or
+tightening as may be required, and better results.
+
+Accurate measurements as to the size and shape of the limb to be
+operated upon must be taken and the girdling hoops made accordingly.
+The best way to take these is to ascend the tree, and, after deciding
+as to the points where bracing is to take place, encircle each branch
+with a strip of hoop-iron, which will not only give the size but shape
+of the particular limb, a most important point where neatness is
+studied and after-chafing of the bark and wood is to be avoided.
+
+[Illustration: BAND AND CONNECTING-ROD]
+
+In the case of old trees, or such as are not likely to greatly increase
+in size, the bands need not be much larger than the actual size of
+the branches to which they are to be affixed, but where the tree is
+young and vigorous, room for expansion should be provided. Fixing the
+bands and connecting-rods is readily accomplished either by the use
+of ladders or by climbing the trunk and slinging the portions into
+position by means of ropes. The exigencies of each case will point out
+the best means of carrying out the work, as also the height at which
+the supports can most effectively be placed. When damaged or diseased
+branches are being dealt with, great care is necessary to ensure that
+the bands are placed in such positions that the greatest leverage
+against wind is afforded, and so as to minimize the risk of the branch
+being broken across at the weakened point during stormy weather.
+
+Frequently, where the main trunk divides into two or more portions near
+ground level, it will be found that a split or crack has been caused by
+the swaying of the divided stems. In such cases the split between the
+stems should be carefully cleaned out, treated with an antiseptic and
+filled with asphalt. The limbs should then be braced together by means
+of a band and connecting-rod, and, as the asphalt becomes set, the
+brace may be tightened up as may be found necessary.
+
+Rarely is it found necessary to place a band around the stem of a
+tree to prevent splitting. Where, however, appearances point to the
+likelihood of this taking place, as in the case of forked trees,
+especially when the stem divides abruptly into two or three heavy
+limbs, it is a wise precaution to encircle the bole with a wide band
+of iron. This band should be placed at such a height that the greatest
+possible resistance to splitting of the stem is afforded. Such bands
+are usually proportionate to the strain of the stem to which they are
+to act as support. A band of leather or rubber between the iron and
+bark of the tree to allow for expansion of the stem is necessary.
+
+Supporting tree branches by chains is not to be recommended, for the
+simple reason that, however carefully they may be adjusted, friction
+and chafing of the bark and wood is sooner or later bound to ensue.
+Connecting the flat iron bands, already referred to, by means of chains
+or strand wire, is, however, not so open to objection nor attended
+with such ill effects as is the case when the chain or wire is placed
+in direct contact with the branch, for even with the most careful
+adjusting and packing, the uneven surface of a chain, with its saw-like
+action during stormy weather, soon renders the belting useless for the
+purpose intended, and both bark and wood suffer in consequence.
+
+Occasionally we see holes bored through the live branch or trunk in
+order to fix the binding rod or chain—a most reprehensible practice
+that, fortunately, has few supporters amongst those who have even had a
+cursory knowledge of trees and their growth.
+
+It is, however, generally admitted that there are several disadvantages
+connected with bracing trees with iron rods that pass through holes
+bored in the trunk or branch. However carefully this operation may be
+performed, there are grave risks from insect and fungoid attacks in
+holes that have been made in living wood, as the friction caused by the
+movement of the tree renders healing of the wound quite problematical.
+Further, the movement of an embedded iron rod is not only apt to cause
+friction with the wood but the strain must often be in an opposite
+direction to that which was intended, this increasing with the diameter
+of the stem or branch.
+
+Another untidy, slipshod and most objectionable method of staying a
+tree is by using wire as a band around the trunk. This certainly has
+the virtue of cheapness, but in so far as efficiency is concerned, and
+especially in the case of old trees, it is to be deprecated.
+
+In the repairing and strengthening of tree limbs it should consistently
+be borne in mind that any girdle or band that either partially or
+wholly constricts the growth of a branch defeats its own object
+by preventing the uninterrupted flow of sap and impairing the
+strength of the limb. With care in forming the band and a proper
+method of adjusting it, there is no reason why the desired object
+of strengthening a stem or branch may not be attained. On the other
+hand, a badly formed, narrow band, too tightly applied and without
+the requisite packing, may in a short space of time be productive of
+the most unsatisfactory results, particularly in the case of young
+and fast-growing trees. The main point is that the bands should be
+fixed in such a way that friction to the bark is avoided and the flow
+of sap uninterrupted. Unfortunately in the past this has not in all
+cases been carefully provided against, with the result that the bands,
+owing to their being too small, gradually became embedded in the wood
+and, by injuring the cambium and preventing the flow of sap, defeated
+the object for which they were intended. For fuller information on
+doctoring trees, the reader is referred to my book on _Tree Wounds and
+Diseases_.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVII
+
+COPPICE AND UNDERWOOD: THE MANAGEMENT OF COPPICE WOOD
+
+
+Although coppice wood has deteriorated considerably in value during
+late years, yet in certain districts and on suitable soils its
+cultivation is still to be recommended. Unfortunately, however, the
+uses to which coppice wood are in the main applied are much localized,
+and this, with the bulky nature of the commodity, will to a very
+considerable extent restrict its sale to the localities in which it is
+used. Thus in parts of Kent and Sussex hop poles find a ready market,
+pea and bean stakes in the gardening districts around London, crate
+wood in the neighbourhood of potteries, willow and ash in basket-making
+localities, and faggot wood wherever kilns abound, or in the environs
+of populous districts generally. It will, therefore, be seen that next
+to the question of soil probably the most important is that of local
+demand, so that in forming a coppice plantation only such underwood
+should be used as there is a demand for in the particular district.
+Foreign importations and preferential carriage rates have also dealt
+hardly with the profitable cultivation of coppice wood. Coppice wood
+may either be grown alone or in company with large standard trees, but
+the latter must at all times be kept sufficiently thin, so as not to
+overshadow and kill out the undergrowth. There are advantages, too,
+in employing standards for the protection they afford to the young
+shoots in spring, as also in the amount realized for the periodical
+thinnings to which they may be subjected. For this purpose the oak is
+to be recommended, but such wide-spreading trees as the ash, elm and
+beech, which produce so dense a shade as to kill out or seriously
+injure all vegetation that might spring up beneath them, are to be
+avoided. Generally where the health and vigour of the coppice wood are
+points of first consideration, it will not be advisable to allow the
+standard trees to occupy altogether more than about one-fifth of the
+wooded area; and even then the lower branches should be pruned off, so
+that the effects of shade will be mitigated as much as possible. As to
+the woods which coppice most freely, the ash, oak and hazel occupy the
+first rank, at least in a profitable sense, the elm, willow, beech,
+birch, hornbeam, alder and sycamore occupying a second, but, as before
+stated, the nature of the soil, and less so the altitude and exposure,
+have everything to do with the particular species that will succeed
+best. Thus ash will do well where the soil is moist and loamy, the
+Spanish chestnut in sandy or gravelly districts, for rich plains and
+hollows the oak will be most remunerative, the alder and willow in
+marshy ground, and where bare and exposed, the birch, hazel, beech and
+hornbeam will succeed best.
+
+The preparation of the land and planting for coppice are similar in all
+respects to that adopted for the growing of an ordinary timber crop.
+Where the ground is too wet, draining should be judiciously engaged
+in, while trenching, although expensive at first, is amply compensated
+for in the increased growth and vigour of the underwood. The pits for
+planting may be made from 3½ ft. to 4 ft. apart, and, if the ground
+was previously trenched, of sufficient size to hold the roots without
+undue cramping. It is always well to keep the stools tolerably close
+together, as the shoots take a more erect habit and are straighter
+and more valuable than when allowed too much space and side room. Two
+years after being planted, or at the end of the second autumn, the
+young trees, excepting such as it may be thought advisable to leave as
+standards, should be cut over near ground level. This cutting is a most
+important operation, and should only be performed by skilled workmen,
+with tools of the best description well sharpened. The cut should be
+clean and directed upwards, all splitting of the stems and tearing of
+the bark being assiduously guarded against as conducive to decay and
+early death to the stools. After four years’ growth the shoots should
+be thinned out, leaving, say, four on each stool, and these preferably
+the strongest, the work being carried out at any time from November to
+the end of March, but not during frosty weather.
+
+Upon the kind of wood grown and uses for which it is designed will
+depend very much the length of rotation pursued, for while osiers might
+profitably be cut at the end of the second year, ash, oak and chestnut
+would not usually, even on the best quality of soil, be felled sooner
+than from ten to twelve years, and the poorer classes of coppice wood,
+especially on light soil, at from twelve to sixteen years. It should
+be remembered, however, that the duration of the stool is usually
+proportionate to the length of the rotation adopted, and with good
+management on fair soil the best class of coppice wood has a duration
+of nearly a century. In felling the coppice wood it is always advisable
+to cut as near the ground level as possible, the shoots sent up having
+the advantage of rooting in the ground and so extending the area of
+the stool. The system of allowing the stools, by careless cutting, to
+rise in some instances several feet from the ground is contrary to the
+methods adopted under the best management. A sharp billhook should be
+used for all smaller shoots, a light well-ground axe for those from 3
+to, say, 6 inches in diameter, and the cross-cut saw for all over that
+size.
+
+The coppice wood is usually sorted out after being cut down, the best
+poles being laid aside for the use of the hop grower, the next size for
+pit props, or fencing according to the demand of the moment, and so on
+until every pole has been sorted according to the use for which it may
+be intended, the lop and branches being bound into faggots for fire or
+oven-lighting.
+
+The following are the various uses to which underwood is applied:
+hoops, hurdles, crate rods, pea stakes, spars for thatching, withes for
+faggot-tying, sheep cages, hop poles, brooms, broom handles, skewers
+for butchers, chisel handles, plant stakes, whip handles, gunpowder
+wood and faggots.
+
+Profits will vary from 15_s._ to 25_s._ per acre, exclusive of the
+standards which are left, and the crop, according to age and quality,
+will realize from £5 per acre downwards.
+
+Great care is necessary to avoid damage to the stools when removing
+the fall, which is not usually done until just before the young buds
+are shooting out, and consequently at the time when injury is most
+easily brought about. The trampling of horses and passage of wheels
+are most injurious, while the browsing of cattle should be carefully
+guarded against. Good roads are always a great advantage in a coppice
+plantation, and to these as much of the produce as possible should be
+carried for loading, thus avoiding damage to the stools.
+
+Although the growth of coppice wood has its disadvantages, particularly
+in park scenery, yet it is valuable in this way, that should the crop
+from local circumstances not be found remunerative, the plantation can
+at any time be converted into a standing wood by allowing the best and
+strongest shoots from the stools to form the permanent crop.
+
+The approximate cost of forming a coppice wood per acre is as follows:—
+
+                                        £   _s._  _d._
+    Trenching at 2_s._ per rod         16    0     0
+    5,000 trees at 35_s._ per 1,000     8   15     0
+    Pitting and planting                2    5     0
+                                      ————————————————
+                                      £27    0     0
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVIII
+
+THE FORMATION AND MANAGEMENT OF GAME COVERTS
+
+
+When we consider that on not a few estates in this country the value
+of the plantations as game coverts is wellnigh of as much importance
+as that of the timber produced, it will be readily seen that the
+successful formation and management of these is a matter of no small
+moment to those entrusted with the work. That game-rearing and economic
+forestry can be advantageously carried on in the same woods is,
+however, a contention we by no means feel inclined to uphold, and from
+which, being apart from the subject matter of the chapter, we will for
+the present stand aloof.
+
+Game coverts may be divided into two kinds, natural and
+artificial—natural when the woods are kept sufficiently thin to admit
+of the free growth of bramble, bracken or other native vegetation;
+and artificial when the planting of such shrubs as are suitable for
+underwood is resorted to.
+
+Natural game coverts, which, by most sportsmen, are considered superior
+to those artificially formed, can only exist where the plantations
+are kept well and regularly thinned, so as to admit abundance of both
+light and air—the two principal requisites for the successful growth of
+natural underwood. Generally speaking, the formation of natural coverts
+has seldom to be helped, although occasionally it is found necessary
+to assist Nature by the sowing of such seeds as those of gorse, broom,
+etc., in the thinner and more open portions of the woodlands. This may,
+however, be considered an exception to the rule, as where the woods
+are kept sufficiently thin, spontaneous undergrowth is usually pretty
+abundant, and requires neither care nor management, beyond preventing
+its too free incursions along the margins of roads and shooting drives.
+Where, however, bare patches do occur, the sowing of seed may be relied
+upon as not only a speedy but most effectual method of increasing
+the cover. Where seeds are intended to be sown, the soil should be
+dug over, and all hard clods or lumps broken down, and the whole
+made smooth and fine with a rake. The seeds may be sown in spring,
+and afterwards covered over with hardwood branches as a preservative
+against the depredations of small birds and game.
+
+The best natural game coverts are those composed of bramble, gorse,
+heath, hazel, holly, blackthorn, elder, blackberry, bracken or the
+stronger growing grasses, these being arranged according to merit, and
+each possessing some peculiar feature, specially recommending it for
+planting in certain soils, altitudes or situations.
+
+In the formation of artificial game coverts, when not only shelter and
+protection for game are required, but ornamental effect as well, the
+judicious grouping of the different shrubs should never be lost sight
+of, more especially when the coverts are within the park or policy
+grounds, and visible from drives and roads. Formality and stiffness are
+so often the characteristics of the present style of shrub planting,
+that in many cases our woodlands seem utterly destitute of that variety
+of outline and contrast of light and shade so essential to picturesque
+beauty. In planting evergreen shrubs for the two-fold purpose of covert
+and ornament, the best method is to plant each variety in separate
+groups or clumps. No hard and fast lines can be laid down as to the
+distribution or number of plants to be used in the clumps, which, to a
+great extent, must depend on the size and shape of the ground as well
+as taste of the operator. The clumps should, however, be placed at
+irregular distances apart, be irregular in size and outline, and with
+from forty or fifty to one hundred plants in each—bearing in mind that
+game of all kinds delight in small patches of shrubs with abundance of
+open space around each, but detest in a most marked manner continuous
+masses or jungles of underwood.
+
+In selecting sites for the various groups, be careful to choose the
+most open positions, avoiding as much as possible planting immediately
+under the spread of trees; and, if practicable, so arrange that in
+viewing the wood from any point, the eye may not pass along a straight
+bare unplanted space, but become arrested by the various clumps in
+passing to the farther side.
+
+Having arranged the positions of the various clumps, the pits should
+be opened of a size, and at a distance apart suitable for the plants
+intended to be used, taking care that they are sufficiently large to
+avoid cramping or bending of the roots, which in all cases should be
+spread out to their full extent. In making the pits, it is well to
+thoroughly loosen the soil in the bottom and sides with a pick, so as
+to give the tender rootlets a free course when starting into growth
+in spring. Should the soil be found of inferior quality, a few loads
+of leaf-mould, road-scrapings or loam from an adjoining field will be
+found to work wonders in the way of giving the plants a start, and also
+in producing a strong, healthy growth. Drainage should also have been
+attended to previous to opening the pits, and all stagnant water or
+superfluous moisture removed by the formation of open ditches.
+
+In giving a list of the best evergreen shrubs for covert purposes, I
+would call attention particularly to the merits of laurel, box, privet,
+laurustinus, rhododendron, holly and yew, as these have been very
+extensively used for underwood, and with the best possible results.
+As to which of the above shrubs should receive pre-eminence as an
+ornamental covert plant I cannot decide, each having some peculiar
+merit rendering it valuable in its own particular place. We will for
+the present, however, consider all alike in this respect, and briefly
+describe the value of each separately, beginning with the laurel.
+
+The =Common= and =Colchic= laurels are amongst our best shrubs for
+underwood, and should be planted extensively; they are of free growth,
+bear cutting and pruning well, and thrive under the shade and drip of
+other trees. For covert planting the Colchic is perhaps preferable
+to the normal form, as it is of a more dense and procumbent habit,
+perfectly hardy, and less liable to injury from hares and rabbits.
+The common laurel requires frequent and heavy pruning to keep it in
+bounds, as, if allowed to ramble at will, it soon becomes bare near
+the ground, and useless either as game covert or ornament. Some years
+ago we layered a great number of this plant that had through neglect
+become useless for the purpose intended, many being from 12 ft. to
+over 20 ft. in height, with simply a tuft of foliage near the top. In
+layering, the stems were sawn half through near the ground, to assist
+in bending, and laid flat on their sides, a couple of stout pegs being
+driven alongside, the crooked heads of which served to keep the plants
+in their procumbent position. A spadeful of soil was then placed on
+the top of each peg to assist the layer in rooting. The result at the
+present time is everything that could be desired, each stem having
+thrown up quantities of young shoots, and thus formed a jungle of
+underwood, which year by year will increase in value.
+
+In planting the laurel for covert avoid overcrowding, as, being of
+quick growth, the plants, even although placed at a considerable
+distance apart, soon unite and form a continuous undergrowth. No rule
+can be laid down as to the distance which should be allowed between
+individual plants, this depending entirely on their size, as well
+as on the quality of the soil in which they are to be planted. We
+not unfrequently plant double thick, either for immediate effect, or
+to produce covert at once, and when the plants begin to encroach on
+each other every alternate one is removed, thus giving the remaining
+plants ample room for developing side branches and thereby inducing a
+dwarf-spreading habit. Having a tendency, especially when confined,
+to increase more in height than width, the laurel, after a few years’
+growth, should have all the leading and straggling upper branches
+cut over, by which not only will the under shoots be increased but
+the plants will be prevented from running up into tall, branchless
+specimens.
+
+The =Green Tree Box= (_Buxus sempervirens_) forms a very pretty as
+well as desirable covert plant, and thrives well beneath the shade of
+deciduous trees. It is also of slow, dense growth, and well adapted for
+planting in various soils and situations, although preferring a light
+loam and a shady position. Another recommendation is its immunity from
+the attacks of game, hares and rabbits having such an aversion to this
+plant that even during the most severe weather I cannot remember having
+seen it badly injured. Few plants suffer more from overcrowding than
+the box, and for this reason it should be planted at wide distances
+apart, the plants soon getting top-heavy and falling over of their own
+accord. Where the plants are not of large size, and immediate effect
+or covert is required, they may be planted pretty close, and in a few
+years, when encroaching on each other, every alternate one may be
+removed. It is well adapted for transplanting, the almost solid mass of
+matted roots holding the ball of earth firmly together, thus rendering
+the plant one of our easiest as well as safest to remove.
+
+The box would seem at one time to have been more abundant in our own
+land than it now is; thus, Boxley in Kent, Boxwell in Gloucestershire,
+and Boxhill in Surrey, were named from the quantity of this plant which
+was formerly found in their neighbourhoods.
+
+=Privet=, as a covert plant, has its advantages and disadvantages.
+On the one hand it is cheap, easily grown, and not at all fastidious
+about soil. When planted amongst trees, however, it generally assumes
+a loose, straggling habit, and as the shade increases it usually dies
+out altogether. Where the plantations are well thinned and regularly
+kept so, privet, if a little care and trouble be expended on its
+cultivation, will succeed and form capital underwood. In planting
+privet the greatest care is necessary to prevent its being overdone.
+Close planting is always productive of the most unsatisfactory results,
+not only as regards the health of the plants, but management of the
+woods as well. Instead of filling up the whole ground, as is not
+unfrequently done, plant in small clumps, and these at wide distances
+apart, as this will not only allow the privet to grow more healthy
+and compact but also admit of space for pruning and layering—two
+necessaries for the successful cultivation of privet as underwood.
+
+The layering of privet, which is a simple and inexpensive though
+effectual method of increase, is performed as follows:—Cut off all the
+branches, except those intended for layering, which are then laid flat
+on the ground equidistant around the main stem or root and kept fast
+by hooked pegs driven firmly down. A spadeful or two of soil should
+then be placed on the top of each peg, which will partly exclude air
+and hasten the formation of roots. The pegs may be made of any refuse
+branches—hard wood, such as ash or oak, being preferable—about 10 ins.
+in length, one end being hooked for holding the branches in position,
+and the other sharply pointed for ease in driving. As several forms of
+privet have crept into circulation of late, it is well to be sure that
+none but the true evergreen are used in the formation of game coverts.
+The oval-leaved privet, though a most desirable evergreen plant and
+well suited for ornamental hedges, is from its too luxuriant growth and
+upright form hardly to be commended for underwood; at least, its merits
+in this respect are inferior to those of the common form.
+
+=Aucuba Japonica= and the =Laurustinus= are two of our handsomest
+evergreen shrubs, but, unlike those already described, they will not
+succeed in the densest shade. In open places or along woodland drives
+they thrive well, and are excellent for variety and contrast. The
+laurustinus cannot, however, be considered as perfectly hardy in this
+country, for even in maritime situations where the air is to some
+extent ameliorated, it suffers severely from frost, and during severe
+winters it is even killed completely to the ground. It, however,
+springs very freely from the root, and in a few years quite regains its
+original size and luxuriance. From their bushy, well-furnished habit
+of growth both the above plants are excellent as game covert, more
+especially around the outskirts of woods and plantations. They should
+be allowed plenty of room for development of both root and branch,
+though they may, when necessary, be pruned with the greatest advantage.
+
+=Mahonia aquifolia=, =Berberis Darwinii= and =B. Stenophylla= are
+frequently recommended as covert plants and for using in similar
+situations to those favoured by the laurel and box. Along the margins
+of plantations or in very open places they may and do succeed, but from
+practical experience of these plants we find them next to useless as
+underwood in shady positions. Where many thousands of covert plants
+are used annually, we have entirely discarded them from use except in
+the most open situations. These plants are highly ornamental, both in
+foliage and flower; produce berries which are much sought after by
+game, are quite hardy, and not at all fastidious about soil—qualities
+which specially recommend them for extensive use in positions at all
+suited for their growth.
+
+The barberry, more especially when planted out in rich soil, and
+when at all confined, is apt to lose the compact, branchy nature so
+recognizable a feature of the plant when allowed ample room in the
+nursery border, and to assume a more upright habit of growth, which is
+anything but desirable in underwood generally. To check this and keep
+the plant in bounds, frequent light prunings will have to be resorted
+to, and this had best be effected during dull, damp weather, as the
+barberry is not a good subject for the pruning shears. Neither the
+barberry nor mahonia are adapted for planting in very high or exposed
+situations—at least where such has been tried the results have been
+anything but satisfactory, the plants soon presenting a miserable,
+half-starved appearance.
+
+Both plants are readily propagated—the mahonia, when planted in
+loose soil and an open situation, soon covering a considerable space
+of ground, the running roots being especially active under such
+circumstances.
+
+=Rhododendron ponticum=, although useful in an ornamental point of
+view, cannot be considered a first-class plant for game shelter. It
+has, however, several good qualities which recommend it for underwood,
+such as ease of culture, dwarf-spreading habit, and immunity from the
+attacks of game—indeed, in this latter respect, it is not equalled
+by any other plant, if we except one or two species of Daphne. It is
+seldom resorted to by pheasants, the bottom being not only damp, but
+such a tangled mass of branches that it forms anything but pleasant
+quarters for game. For ornamental effect along the outskirts of
+plantations, the rhododendron is invaluable, and is by no means so
+fastidious about soil as is generally supposed, peat being not at all
+essential to its growth and successful cultivation. Few plants can be
+made to increase in like proportion with the rhododendron, and for
+this reason it should be planted in small patches; and when it is
+desirable to increase the cover, the outer branches may be pegged down
+or layered. This plant also bears pruning with impunity, so that old
+plants that have, through neglect, become lank and straggling, may
+without fear or risk be layered or pruned in with advantage.
+
+The =Common Yew= and =Holly= cannot be too extensively used in the
+formation of game coverts, both being unrivalled for beauty and
+hardiness. They thrive in a great variety of soils, and beneath the
+densest shade of our woodland trees. In planting the yew it is well,
+however, to bear in mind that its branches are highly deleterious to
+farm stock that may browse upon them, and for this reason it should
+never be planted along the outskirts of a wood, or in any position to
+which such have access.
+
+The =St. John’s Wort=, as a low-spreading shrub, is unsurpassed, and
+thrives best in a light sandy or peaty soil. It is readily propagated
+by division of the roots; and when planted out in small patches a foot
+or two apart, the creeping stems soon cover a considerable surface of
+ground, and form a dense evergreen mass, covered in summer with bright
+golden flowers.
+
+=Gaultheria Shallon=, another plant of creeping habit, is,
+notwithstanding its many good qualities, seldom planted to any extent
+in our woodlands; but this may, to some extent at least, be accounted
+for by the high price of the plants, and the small size of those
+purchaseable from our nurserymen. Like most other North American
+plants, the Gaultheria prefers a rather damp, peaty soil, and is one of
+the few shrubs found to thrive in pine plantations. The berries, which
+are borne in great abundance, are greedily devoured by pheasants, and
+in their native country are not unfrequently used as food.
+
+The =Butcher’s Broom= is a fine glaucous green shrub densely covered
+with sharp, prickly, leaves and invaluable for planting in shady
+places—indeed, in such positions it seems to be quite at home. There
+it flowers and fruits freely beneath half-standard rhododendrons where
+few other plants could exist, far less succeed. The twigs of this shrub
+were formerly used by butchers for sweeping their blocks; hence the
+English name.
+
+Some of the above plants, notably the =St. John’s Wort= and
+=Gaultheria=, may be considered as carpet plants, which, in
+contradistinction to general underwood, may be classed as evergreens,
+which, from their low, procumbent mode of growth, are scarcely in the
+true sense of the word suited for game coverts. To clearly define
+the difference would, however, be no easy matter, and, even were it
+possible to do so, would in the end be productive of but little good,
+as the habits of different plants vary so much that what is used in
+one place for carpeting purposes might in another and more favourable
+situation be equally valuable for game covert. A good example of
+this will be found in the St. John’s Wort, which, when planted out
+and allowed to ramble at will amongst bramble, privet, etc., forms a
+capital covert; whereas, when used in open, airy situations—such as
+alongside shrubbery walks—it soon forms a dense evergreen carpet, of so
+compact a growth as to be almost impenetrable even to ground game.
+
+In addition to the above-named plants, the following are well adapted
+for giving shelter to game:—Dogwood, Hazel, Elder, Arbutus, Cotoneaster
+of sorts, Juniper of sorts, _Pernettya mucronata_, _Rubus nutkanus_,
+_Taxus adpressa_, _Photinia serrulata_, _Kalmia latifolia_, _Garrya
+elliptica_, etc. These should be planted out in small groups—the more
+valuable kinds in the most conspicuous position, such as alongside or
+within view of woodland drives and shooting-roads.
+
+=Protection from Rabbits=, etc.—It may seem somewhat absurd to speak
+of planting coverts, and then to protect them from the depredations
+of game; but that this is highly necessary for the first two years,
+at least, is well known to all planters. Few of the shrubs treated
+of in this paper are exempt from the attacks of hares and rabbits,
+more especially when in a young state and newly transferred from the
+nursery; and for this reason it is always found necessary to protect
+them in some way or other until fairly started into growth and beyond
+the reach of game. For this purpose wire netting is the cheapest
+and most effectual preservative with which I am acquainted. The
+netting should be about 4 ft. in height, not more than 1½ in. mesh,
+and inserted in the ground 4 in., to prevent rabbits from working
+underneath. It may be fixed to posts driven firmly into the ground at
+a distance of 5 ft. apart along the line of fence. This precaution
+against the depredations of game may not be necessary for all the
+clumps, but it is especially so for those of laurustinus, barberry, and
+laurel.
+
+For the first two or three years after planting, the shrubs should be
+kept free of grass and weeds, as this will encourage the plants to
+start into growth more quickly and thrive much better than they can do
+if the ground is impoverished and light and air excluded by weeds.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIX
+
+HEDGES: THEIR FORMATION AND MANAGEMENT
+
+
+Strictly speaking, hedges are divided into two kinds—useful and
+ornamental—the former being employed for keeping farm stock in bounds,
+and the latter in the subdivision of private gardens and for lawn and
+park purposes generally. Where the fences are intended purely for
+protective purposes the thorn, beech, hornbeam or holly are the plants
+usually employed, while for ornamental garden subdivisions almost any
+shrub may be used, the choice of which will lie with the operator.
+
+Amongst all the trees and shrubs that have been found suitable for
+the climate of Britain, none equals the common whitethorn, or Quick,
+for hedge-formation, where strength and shelter are points of first
+consideration. The beech and hornbeam certainly can thrive better on
+exposed and high-lying ground and where the soil is poor and thin, but
+neither forms so durable a protection against farm stock as the thorn.
+
+When properly treated the thorn is a fast grower, and as a fence plant
+it is ornamental, smooth, stubborn, and long lived. It is also not at
+all subject to disease, and is very readily propagated. Few soils come
+amiss to the thorn—that is, if they are not overcharged with moisture,
+but it delights in a rich hazelly loam.
+
+(1) =Plantation Hedges—Preparation of the Ground and Planting.=—Thorough
+preparation of the ground where live fences are formed should take
+precedence of all other operations—indeed, nothing can repay the
+planter more satisfactorily than the previous suiting of the land,
+in the way of draining and trenching, to the plants intended to be
+inserted.
+
+In all cases we have found it well to have the ground along the line
+of fence trenched to a depth of 2 ft., and about 3 ft. in width, and
+a quantity of manure incorporated at the same time. If this can be
+done some months before planting the thorns or other fence plants, so
+much the better, as it gives time for the loosely upturned soil to get
+mellowed and sweetened, as also for the manure to get well decomposed.
+In all cases it may not be necessary to apply manure, but, where the
+soil is at all poor, the addition of a quantity of well-rotted manure
+has a wonderful effect in stimulating the quick into active and strong
+growth. The vigorous and rapid growth of a hedge, when the soil has
+been well worked and manured, is remarkable, and in all cases the
+labour and outlay expended on the fence is amply repaid.
+
+[Illustration: HEDGING TOOLS]
+
+It is well to plant rather above than below the general ground level,
+so that in trenching the soil a slight mound should be raised along
+the intended line of fence, which will not only materially assist in
+keeping the plants from excessive moisture, but aid in the cleaning and
+general management of the hedge. Where superfluous moisture is present
+in the soil the hedge-and-ditch system is to be recommended, which
+consists in digging out a ditch parallel with the line on which it is
+intended to place the fence. It should be 3 ft. deep, 5 ft. wide at
+top, and 1 ft. at bottom, and the soil removed in so doing is thrown
+upon that side where the hedge is to be planted, thus forming a mound,
+or rather ridge, on which the plants are to be placed.
+
+In wet soils such a ditch is indispensable, but, under ordinary
+circumstances, it is to be condemned, and for the simple reasons that
+it is expensive and rather against than in favour of the free growth of
+the fence.
+
+=Thorn or Quick.=—The best time to plant the whitethorn is just after
+the fall of the leaf in autumn; but the operation is usually extended
+from that time until early spring, though in the latter case perhaps
+with less satisfactory results.
+
+In selecting the plants a great amount of care is necessary, as also in
+the lifting and after-planting. Four-year-old plants are best suited
+for hedge-formation, and they should be stout of growth and well
+rooted. The size of the plants is of more importance than the age, and
+those with stems as thick as one’s finger are to be preferred to others
+of greater height, but lank and small of stem. Frequent transplanting
+while in the nursery border should have been paid attention to, as
+then the roots are bushy and fibrous and well suited for planting out
+permanently.
+
+Great damage is frequently done to thorn plants by careless lifting,
+and, worse still, by bundling the plants in lots ready for the planter.
+This should never be tolerated, as it is quite evident that when tied
+up in bundles and covered over with soil, the plants in the centre of
+each bundle get dust-dry and fall a prey to the searching winds of
+spring.
+
+Plants should in all cases, where it is possible, be lifted and
+replanted within the week, but, much better still—and this is readily
+effected where a home nursery is on the estate—on the same or the
+following day.
+
+In planting, stretch a line along the centre of the prepared ground,
+and close to the line take out a perpendicular trench with the spade of
+sufficient size to allow of the roots of the plants being spread out
+to their full extent. From 6 in. to 8 in. will be found a convenient
+distance apart to place the thorns, and they should not be planted
+deeper than they stood whilst in the nursery border, which will readily
+be seen by the mark on the stems. A small quantity of fine soil should
+now be placed next the roots, and this firmly trodden, the remainder
+of the soil being added afterwards. Dibbling the plants is sometimes
+recommended, but, in our own opinion, it is a dangerous practice and to
+be avoided, the roots necessarily being thus confined to small space
+and placed in an unnatural position. Planting in single line is in most
+cases preferable to inserting in double line, as it is by the former
+method that the strongest and most durable fences have been formed.
+Some planters cut back the young thorns to within 2 in. of the ground,
+and the practice, although not readily reconciled with physiological
+principles, is to be recommended. It is unquestionable that headed-back
+thorns shoot out with greater vigour, and become thicker, than such
+as have been left untouched, but the fact that they are then greedily
+devoured by ground game has somewhat caused the practice to fall into
+disuse, at least where game is abundant and the cost of fencing cannot
+be entertained.
+
+The =Beech=, as a hedge-plant, must not be despised, being a rapid
+grower on most soils, and soon forming a very valuable fence. In rich
+soils it retains a great proportion of its leaves during winter, and
+is, therefore, an excellent shelter-plant. It, however, lacks the
+rigidity of the thorn, and for that reason is not very suitable for
+planting where farm stock have access. It may be planted in a manner
+similar to that recommended for the thorn, only the individual plants
+should stand farther apart.
+
+The =Hornbeam= makes a good live fence, and will grow readily in
+any fairly good soil and not too exposed ground. It may be treated
+similarly to the beech.
+
+=Privet=—both the common and oval-leaved—have been largely used, either
+alone or with other plants, in the formation of hedges, for which they
+are peculiarly suitable. They, however, want stiffness, so as to be
+able to cope with farm stock, and for this reason are principally used
+in ornamental garden subdivisions.
+
+=Gorse or Furze.=—Strikingly beautiful as well as useful hedges may be
+formed of gorse. It is well adapted for planting on light dry or sandy
+soils, or on the top of a dyke or sunk fence.
+
+Seed sowing is to be recommended in the formation of gorse fences,
+and after preparing and well working the soil, 1 lb. of seed to every
+100 lineal yards will be found sufficient for sowing down. It should
+be remembered that in order to keep the fence full and bushy, pruning
+should take place immediately after flowering and before seeds are
+produced.
+
+Cutting over the hedge at ground level every third year will be very
+beneficial to this fence.
+
+(2) =Ornamental Hedges—Holly.=—This makes an excellent ornamental
+fence, and it is occasionally though rarely used for plantation
+purposes. The ground should be thoroughly prepared, and, if necessary,
+enriched by a dressing of strong loam, and the plants inserted in
+May. The holly can be planted when of almost any height, if previous
+transplanting was attended to.
+
+=Yew.=—For purposes similar to the latter, the yew is generally in use.
+It may be planted at any time, but should be kept well watered until it
+has become established.
+
+=Laurustinus.=—As a flowering hedge for garden or lawn purposes few
+shrubs are of greater value than the laurustinus, particularly in
+maritime districts. In severe winters it suffers considerably, though
+generally fresh growths are sent up from the root-stock. Pruning should
+be carefully done, so that the flowering shoots are not cut away.
+
+=Box.=—Very neat and serviceable garden fences are made of this shrub.
+It grows freely and stands pruning well.
+
+=Rosa rugosa= and =R. rubiginosa= (Sweet Briar).—Both these species of
+rose have come greatly into favour for garden subdivisions, for which
+they are peculiarly suitable. They make charming hedges, are of easy
+growth, and stand pruning with impunity. Of course, where they are
+wanted to flower great care in pruning is necessary.
+
+=Laurel.=—Both the common and Colchic laurels make fairly good hedges,
+but they are apt to get gappy by portions dying out. This can, however,
+easily be remedied by filling up with others instead. They bear
+trimming well.
+
+=Aucuba japonica= forms a useful and ornamental hedge, stands pruning
+well, and lasts for a long time.
+
+=Berberis Darwinii= and =B. stenophylla= are both highly ornamental
+hedge shrubs, and when not pruned too severely flower with great
+freedom. Shortening the long shoots with a pocket-knife is best.
+
+=Cleaning and Pruning.=—An annual cleaning of the ground alongside
+hedges must never be neglected, as weeds rob the soil of its
+nourishment, choke the young plants, and to a great extent prevent the
+free access of rain to the roots of the hedge plants. The common hoe
+is, for this purpose, to be recommended, and any weeds that cannot
+be got at around the stems must be removed by the hand. Ivy, elder
+and honeysuckle should all be treated as weeds, for they are highly
+injurious to hedges, be these young or old.
+
+Very little, if any, pruning or switching should be done till the third
+year after the fence has been formed, and then only the longer twigs
+cut back, so as to get by degrees a general uniformity of shape. The
+switching-knife is alone to be recommended for pruning fences, shears
+never making a clean cut, and pressing and loosening the bark at the
+point where amputation took place. A well-sharpened switching-knife in
+the hands of a dexterous hedger turns out beautiful and commendable
+work.
+
+Unless it be an annual cleaning and trimming, a well-formed hedge
+should require but little attention for many years. Should it,
+however, when old, begin to show signs of distress and become gappy,
+a top-dressing of rich farmyard manure will go a great way towards
+throwing fresh energy into the plants. This should be applied in
+winter, and lightly forked in the following spring, and before growth
+has commenced. Should gaps occur by reason of deaths in the old plants
+these should be removed, and others of young growth substituted, the
+soil at the same time being dug out and other fresh from a field or
+roadside used instead. Great care should be exercised that the roots of
+living plants are not injured whilst removing the dead and substituting
+the live specimens. Specially-prepared plants and such as are unusually
+stout and bushy should alone be used in hedge-repairing.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XX
+
+SHRUBS FOR SHADY SITUATIONS
+
+
+The list of procumbent or carpeting shrubs that have been found to
+succeed when planted beneath the shade and drip of forest trees is by
+no means a long one, and as the clothing of such bare places is often
+a point of the greatest importance, particularly in park or ornamental
+grounds, the following notes may prove useful. By careful manipulation
+much may be done to carpet such places with suitable shrubs, but the
+task in some instances is by no means an easy one, and must be set
+about in a common-sense and practical way. Evidently deciduous trees
+have an advantage over evergreen kinds in that with the extra light and
+greater amount of surface dampness undergrowth succeeds better beneath
+their shade.
+
+The =common Ivy= is probably the best evergreen carpet for shade
+planting with which we are acquainted. It runs about and roots freely,
+soon covering a large space of ground with its neat, deep-green
+foliage. Propagation is brought about either by means of cuttings or
+suckers, and is simple and inexpensive.
+
+The =Periwinkles= (_Vinca major_ and _V. minor_) are well adapted for
+planting beneath our larger trees, where, unless the shade is very
+dense, they succeed admirably, soon forming large breadths of evergreen
+carpet and producing their deep blue flowers in abundance. They are
+readily increased by layering or subdivision, and when once established
+soon spread about unheeded.
+
+The =St. John’s Wort= (_Hypericum calycinum_) can confidently be
+recommended for planting as a ground covering beneath our larger trees.
+It increases readily, and if occasionally cut over, shoots out all
+the more freely and thickly. For the showy yellow flowers it is also a
+desirable shrubby plant.
+
+The =Mezereon= and =Spurge Laurel= (_Daphne Mezereum_ and _D.
+Laureola_) are excellent, medium-sized shrubs for planting in shady
+positions, where they not only succeed well, but flower freely. They
+are both increased by layering.
+
+=Euonymus Radicans Variegata= is a useful, procumbent shrub for
+planting in the shade, and succeeds well in smoky localities.
+
+The =Butcher’s Broom= (_Ruscus aculeatus_) grows with great freedom
+beneath the densest shade of our forest trees, and being an evergreen
+is to be recommended for such situations.
+
+=Gaultheria Shallon= and =G. Procumbens= may also be recommended for
+planting where the shade is not too dense; they both flower and fruit
+freely, and are of neat procumbent growth.
+
+Amongst taller growing subjects for planting in the shade, mention
+may be made of the holly and yew, both of which thrive beneath
+the shade and drip of forest trees and where they often assume a
+dwarf, procumbent habit of growth. Two at least of the recent shrubs
+introduced from China have just claims to be included in the list
+of suitable species for planting in the shade. These are _Sarcoccos
+humile_ and _S. ruscifolia_. They are of particularly neat growth, with
+persistent leaves and bear yellowish-white flowers.
+
+The =Common Ling= or =Heather=, =Blackberry=, and =Andromeda Catesbœi=
+all succeed well in the shade of trees, particularly if the soil be
+inclined to peat.
+
+It frequently happens that the soil beneath large trees is thoroughly
+exhausted, and that the small, fibrous rootlets are so abundant as
+to render planting almost impossible. Under such conditions it is
+advisable to first gently loosen the soil, without disturbing the
+larger roots, and add a top-dressing of, say, three or four inches of
+good friable loam. This, thoroughly incorporated with the existing
+soil, will give the young plants a start and allow of their becoming
+strong and established before the encroaching roots rob the ground of
+its nourishment.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXI
+
+INSECT ENEMIES OF TREES
+
+
+Whether viewed from a commercial or sylvicultural point of view, the
+widespread damage caused to timber from insect attacks can scarcely
+be overrated. The depredations in various parts of our own country,
+particularly in young plantations, are bad enough, but when compared
+with those of Europe and America they appear insignificant. In France
+and Germany whole woods have been wiped out by insect pests, while the
+Government of Bavaria were mulcted in something like £100,000 by the
+destruction of its spruce forests. The United States fares no better,
+for we find that over a period of ten years the amount of timber killed
+and reduced in value was calculated at fully £10,000,000. The coffee
+plantations of Ceylon suffered much from the attacks of a fungus, and
+we could go on multiplying cases. In our own country the ravages of the
+pine beetle and of the larch disease have caused incalculable damage;
+indeed, in the latter case there is hardly a plantation of larch where
+the presence of the fell disease cannot be distinctly traced, while the
+pine beetle has ruined whole plantations both in England and Scotland.
+Though the adult bark and wood-boring beetles do a great amount of
+damage, yet that inflicted by the caterpillar or grub from the egg
+is greater still, and in the case of fungi we have a typical example
+of their destructive properties in the case of the well-known larch
+disease.
+
+The =Pine Beetle= (_Myelophilus {Hylurgus_} _piniperda_) is a dreaded
+enemy to not a few species of Pinus, but particularly _P. sylvestris_,
+_P. laricio_, _P. austriaca_ and _P. Strobus_. The injury done by this
+beetle consists in its destruction of the leading shoots of the tree it
+attacks. It enters by boring a hole into the side of the shoot until it
+reaches the pith, after which its course is directed upwards, and an
+exit made at the terminal bud. This tunnelling of the shoot so weakens
+it that frequently during stormy weather it is broken across at the
+point where the beetle entered. Not only are unhealthy trees attacked
+by the pine beetle, but young and robust-growing specimens frequently
+fall a prey to its insidious depredations.
+
+June, July and August are the months when it is most commonly found.
+
+The only remedy is to collect and burn the affected shoots—work that
+requires to be done with the utmost care to prevent the escape of the
+wary insect. Burning all brushwood in plantations is a great preventive.
+
+The =Pine Weevil= (_Curculio_ {_Hylobius_} _Abietis_) is another
+destructive insect, which differs from the former in waging its attacks
+against the buds of the leaders and branches, as also by eating patches
+of the bark here and there on the stems and branches. The various
+species of Abies suffer most, but the pines are occasionally attacked
+as well. It is always most destructive in young plantations growing on
+the margins of old woods, and equally bad amongst trees that have been
+planted on the site of a former pine plantation.
+
+The beetle is about half an inch long, and nearly black. One remedy,
+probably the best, is to place fresh pieces of pine bark on the ground,
+beneath the infested trees. By shaking the trees and examining the
+traps the following morning, many may be destroyed.
+
+=Bostrichus typographus= is another pest of our woodlands, and may
+frequently be seen, like fine white wool, spreading over the stem
+and branches of the silver and other firs. It spreads with terrible
+rapidity, first appearing in small patches here and there on the bole,
+and particularly on the under sides of the branches. The tree infested
+soon becomes unhealthy, and frequently dies off prematurely. Trees
+growing in low-lying, heavy ground would seem to fall a first prey to
+this insect.
+
+=Bostrichus laricis= is nearly allied to the former, but its
+devastations, which are, however, not very deadly, are principally
+confined to the larch. It is usually known as the “larch blight.”
+
+The =Pine Shoot Moths= (_Retinia buoliana_ and _R. turionella_) would
+seem to be more numerous in this country than is generally supposed.
+Quite lately I visited a large plantation of young Scotch fir, the
+terminal buds of which were greatly injured by the caterpillars of
+this elaborately-coloured moth. The moth lays its eggs at the base
+of the buds, and into these the caterpillars enter by hollowing out
+the centre, thus destroying their vitality and causing them to take
+on a withered appearance and to feel soft and empty to the touch.
+Trees infested by this insect resemble greatly in their stunted shoots
+and exudation of resin such as have become a prey to the Pine beetle
+(_Myelophilus piniperda_), only in the latter case it is the fresh
+young shoot and not the bud that is attacked. The _Retinia_ would
+seem, from all my notes and observations, to be most abundant in what
+might be termed neglected fir plantations, that is, where the trees
+have suffered from overcrowding, or from unfavourable conditions as to
+soil, etc., and particularly when the wood is composed entirely of one
+species. There is no method of dealing with large infested areas, for
+the attacked trees have repeatedly been cut over and removed without
+any seeming diminution in the numbers of the insect. One experiment
+with a small infested corner has been rewarded with good results, viz.
+the lighting of a fire to windward, and causing the smoke of coal tar
+to pass over the infected area. This might be worth trying in the case
+of fruit trees infested by particular insects.
+
+The =Larch Miner= (_Coleophora laricella_).—Few, other than those
+specially interested in tree diseases, have the remotest idea that the
+yellow, withered appearance of many of our English larch plantations
+is due to the larvæ of the above tiny moth. It usually attacks young
+trees, say, from five to twenty years old, and although it may not kill
+them out, yet the repeated onslaughts year after year tend to keep the
+trees in an unhealthy condition, and so render them liable to other and
+more deadly diseases.
+
+Unfortunately the attacks of the larch miner are by no means confined,
+as is usually supposed, to trees growing under unfavourable conditions,
+for I have this season noticed in an unusually healthy, fast-growing
+plantation in Sussex that almost every tree was more or less affected.
+Certainly in another large extent of larch in Gloucestershire which I
+examined lately, where nine-tenths of the trees were being ruined by
+the _Peziza_, the larch miner was very abundant; but, I think, that
+young trees, whatever may be their state of health, suffer alike,
+although where hard-wooded trees form a portion of the crop the larch
+certainly suffers less than when grown in pure woods. The moth lays its
+eggs at the end of June on the needles of the larch; the caterpillar
+mining into and feeding upon the interior of the needle causes it to
+turn faded and yellow. It lives in the tube thus formed during the
+winter, changing to a pupa, and ultimately to a moth. It is a most
+difficult matter in the case of this insect, as, indeed, of all others
+that are fairly abundant, to suggest a remedy, and I have looked
+over and examined larch plantations that are differently situated in
+many respects to find out under what condition the attacks are most
+persistent, but with little or no success—healthy and unhealthy, native
+or Tyrolese, faring alike when grown as a pure crop.
+
+Where the larches are intermixed with hard-wooded trees—sycamore, oak
+and beech—the attacks are certainly less frequent, as I have noticed
+in a number of cases. Trees growing at high altitudes do not seem to
+suffer less than those only a few feet above sea-level, and this point
+I have paid particular attention to.
+
+Whether the wounds caused by this insect will serve as a nidus for the
+spores of _Peziza Willkommii_ has yet to be determined, but special
+importance should be attached to all larch-feeding insects, and their
+depredations minimized to as great an extent as possible.
+
+The =Pine Sawfly= (_Lophyrus Pini_).—Fortunately, this insect is not
+abundant in the British Isles, though on the Continent the damage it
+does in the pine forests is by no means inconsiderable. The insect
+may readily be recognized by its wide, flattish body, and usually
+dark appearance. Having attained to full size in the trees, they form
+cocoons among the foliage or on the stems, and remain in this condition
+until the following spring, when, in April or May, the perfect insects
+make their appearance. The male is considerably smaller than the
+female, while the full-grown caterpillar, which is of a greenish-yellow
+colour, with a row of black spots on either side, is about an inch
+long. The remedial measures are not at all easy, especially when
+a large number of trees are attacked, but single specimens may be
+entirely cleared by shaking the caterpillars into a sheet placed
+beneath the tree.
+
+[Illustration: (_a_) WILLOW BEETLE (_Phyllodecta vulgatissima_), AND
+(_b_) ITS LARVA.]
+
+The =Larch Aphis= (_Adelgis laricis_) and =Giant Sirex= (_Sirex
+gigas_) are both, more or less, harmful to the larch. The latter is a
+formidable and splendid insect, which is, however, not very abundant in
+this country.
+
+Generally felled trees, or such as are somewhat sickly, are chosen by
+the female in which to lay her eggs. These are deposited beneath the
+bark by means of the powerful ovipositor, and in course of time the
+whitish cylindrical maggots make an appearance, and with their strong
+jaws form large borings in the affected tree.
+
+Cutting down and burning infested trees is the only practical remedy.
+
+The =Willow Beetle= (_Phyllodecta vulgatissima_) causes considerable
+damage to osier plantations, and would appear to be greatly on the
+increase of late years. Much damage has been done to osier holts in
+various parts of the country, and in northern Ireland the ravages of
+this beetle were particularly noticeable during the past five years.
+The insect, which is metallic green or blue in colour, passes the
+winter in the adult state, at which time it may be found amongst refuse
+of the osier beds, such as the heaps of bark, and also at the base
+of old stools and beneath stones or other shelter. The larvæ have a
+tough yellowish cuticle with conspicuous brown bristles, the head and
+prothorax being black and hard. The eggs are laid on the undersides of
+the leaves in spring, and when the larvæ are hatched they feed on the
+leaves, eating holes quite through to the upper surface. Burning all
+rubbish in the osier beds is to be recommended, and spraying with Paris
+green or lead arsenate has been found useful.
+
+The =Larch Sawfly= (_Nematus Erichsonii_).—This is a species of
+sawfly the larvæ of which bear considerable resemblance to those of
+the caterpillar of the pine sawfly, and also to that of the better
+known gooseberry caterpillar. The larvæ are about three-quarters of
+an inch long, and possess twenty feet. From July to August they feed
+on the leaves of the larch, and a plantation that has been attacked
+presents a partially leafless condition with quantities of the brown
+cylindrical cocoon cases lying amongst the grass beneath the trees.
+There have been several notable instances in which larch plantations
+have suffered severely from the attacks of this insect, and in northern
+England, particularly Cumberland, whole areas of plantation have been
+attacked. Burning all brushwood and grass beneath the trees in infected
+plantations is probably the best means of lessening the numbers of this
+dread insect in our larch plantations.
+
+The =Spruce Gall Aphis= (_Chermes abietis_).—This is a common insect,
+and one that renders many fine young spruce trees very unsightly by
+reason of the cone-like excrescences that are formed by the action of
+the insect on the shoots of the infested specimen. The formation of
+this excrescence is brought about by the female aphis piercing with
+her beak, or sucker, one of the buds, and drawing off the sap, the
+consequence being an unusual growth at that part.
+
+When the young larvæ appear, they also, by piercing the gall, extract
+the juices, and the gall enlarging soon causes the larvæ to become
+embedded at the bases of the leaves, which, by this time, have become
+curiously malformed. The insects are scarcely one-tenth of an inch long.
+
+[Illustration: ELM TREE DESTROYER]
+
+    A. Entrance of Parent Tube.
+    B. Insect in Tube.
+    C. An imperfect Tube arrested from want of nourishment.
+    D. Scolytus Destructor. Natural size.
+    E. Lateral Tubes with Larvæ, some changing to the Pupa state.
+
+The only remedy is to collect the cone-like excrescences and have them
+destroyed, except in the case of badly infested trees, which should be
+cut down and burned.
+
+The =Elm Tree Destroyer= (_Scolytus destructor_) is about one-fifth
+of an inch long, stout and cylindrical, and usually confines its
+depredations to the elm.
+
+In the beginning of June this beetle bores into the inner bark, where
+it forms galleries, along the margins of which are laid the eggs.
+Cutting down and burning badly-attacked trees is the best remedy,
+but promoting exuberant health of the infested specimens by means of
+enriching the soil has been attended with promising results.
+
+The =Goat Moth= (_Cossus ligniperda_) is most frequently found on the
+willow, oak, lime and other trees. Being not only one of our largest
+native moths, but also one of the most destructive, its ravages are
+much dreaded, the holes or tunnels made by the moth being of large
+size—large enough to admit the little finger. Filling up the tunnels
+with a mixture of soot, lime and cow manure is an excellent remedy.
+
+The =Lackey Moth= (_Clisiocampa neustria_), so called from the gay
+colours of the caterpillar, is another destructive woodland pest,
+eating wholesale the leaves of the oak, elm, beech, poplar and most
+fruit trees.
+
+In April and May the caterpillars are hatched, when the leaves are
+just unfolding. They form a nest or web of silken hairs, generally
+amongst the smaller branches, in which they live during the day,
+sallying forth in the evening to feed on the tender foliage. Being very
+plentiful, they are usually difficult to deal with, but hand-picking
+and destroying the cocoons are the only practicable methods of meeting
+the evil.
+
+The =Winter Moth= (_Cheimatobia brumata_) and the =Lime Looper Moth=
+(_Hybernia defolaria_).—The caterpillars of both these moths are very
+destructive to the leaves of elms, limes and willows, but particularly
+to the buds of the apple tree.
+
+When full grown they descend to the ground, where they cover themselves
+and become chrysalides, from which the moths appear from October to
+December.
+
+Being almost wingless, it is by no means difficult to prevent their
+ascending the trees by painting a band of any sticky substance around
+the stems of the trees that it is expected they might attempt to crawl
+up.
+
+[Illustration: A. Larva of the Cossus Ligniperda, three years old,
+ready to change into the Chrysalis state.]
+
+[Illustration:
+
+    A. Cossus Moth.
+    B. Chrysalis from which the perfect Insect has escaped.
+    C. Cluster of Eggs.
+    D. Magnified Ovum.
+
+THE GOAT MOTH]
+
+The =Red Spider= (_Tetranychus_).—In hot and dry summers trees suffer
+much from this member of the mite family. Limes and poplars, as also
+many other trees, are greatly injured, the foliage turning to a russety
+brown colour, and falling off long before the usual time. There are
+several remedies, such as fumigating and spraying with a solution of
+soft soap, but none of these are applicable to a plantation of trees,
+or even a single specimen of large size.
+
+The =Thorn Fly= (_Aphis Cratægi_) attacks whole hedges or brakes of
+Quick, especially those in the nursery border; as a rule, the younger
+and more healthy plants first fall a prey to its depredations.
+
+Sponging with tobacco water, or almost any of the prescribed solutions
+will rapidly exterminate the fly; but such work is laborious when a
+large brake or long hedge of the thorn has to be gone over.
+
+The =Cockchafer= (_Melolontha vulgaris_) is usually pretty abundant,
+and does most damage by eating the leaves of the sycamore, beech, oak,
+cherry and many other trees. It will also eat the roots of most young
+trees, but those of pine in particular.
+
+The insect is about 1¼ in. long, and of a chestnut-brown colour on the
+upper part of the body, while the head and some other parts of the body
+are of a bronzy green, and thickly covered with yellowish-white hairs.
+
+In April and May the eggs are laid in a hole in the ground about 5 in.
+deep, and the grubs are hatched in July. They are of a dirty-white
+colour and much wrinkled. In this state, however, they do but little
+harm; but, after having changed their skins and remained in a torpid
+state during winter, come to the surface in spring and eat the roots
+of almost any plant that comes in their way. They again burrow deeper
+at the approach of winter, coming to the surface again in spring, and,
+when full grown, are about 1½ in. long, and almost ½ in. in diameter.
+The perfect insects do not live more than about twelve days, and are
+easily known by their heavy, awkward flight towards the evening.
+
+The =Laburnum Moth= (_Cemiostoma laburnella_) is fairly abundant—in
+England, at least; and, in some instances, every leaf of a tree has
+been eaten almost wholesale by the caterpillars of this pretty moth.
+The insect is about one-eighth of an inch in length, and three-tenths
+of an inch across the fully expanded wing. It is of a silvery-white
+colour.
+
+The greenish-grey caterpillars are about ¼ in. long.
+
+By burning the attacked leaves great numbers of the caterpillars may
+be destroyed, while, by shaking the trees in May and August, the moths
+will fly out, and may be caught in a butterfly net.
+
+[Illustration: WOOD LEOPARD MOTH
+
+(_Zeuzera æsculi_)
+
+(Very destructive to trees, particularly around London)]
+
+=Wood Leopard Moth= (_Zeuzera æsculi_).—The caterpillar of this
+beautiful moth is very destructive to the beech, ash, birch, elm,
+walnut, privet, etc., which it bores into, eating and living on
+the wood. Usually young trees or the branches of old specimens are
+attacked, and the tunnelling is confined in the former either to the
+pithy centre or the soft wood near the bark. The moths appear about
+mid-July, and the female, by piercing the bark with her powerful
+ovipositors, deposits her eggs, one in each hole. Three years are
+required for the caterpillar to arrive at maturity when it is nearly
+2 in. long. Both in form and colour the leopard moth is particularly
+elegant, the head and thorax being covered with a thick white pile, the
+body with a black down, fringed with white at each joint. The wings
+are white with yellowish-brown veins, a row of rounded bluish spots
+running between every two.
+
+By stuffing a piece of tow in gas tar, or placing cyanide of potassium
+in the hole and closing the aperture, the caterpillar may be
+overpowered and destroyed.
+
+A bent wire has often been successfully used in dislodging the
+caterpillar.
+
+The =Holly Fly= (_Phytomyza aquifolia_).—The foliage of the holly is
+frequently very much disfigured by the grubs of the holly fly, which
+burrow beneath the upper skin of the leaves, feeding on the internal
+substance. This imparts a blistered and discoloured appearance, which,
+in the case of ornamental varieties, is anything but desirable.
+Probably no great damage to the infested trees is brought about, but
+the wholesale destruction of the leaves, as is often the case, cannot
+but weaken the plant.
+
+In May and June the flies make their appearance, and lay their eggs
+beneath the upper skin of the leaf, from which the grubs, about
+one-fifth of an inch long, are hatched. These work their way beneath
+the skin of the leaves, forming small tracks of a more or less circular
+shape, thus causing the large and unsightly blisters. They quit the
+leaves about March, by making small holes in the skin of the leaf, and
+afterwards become chrysalides. The fly is small and inconspicuous.
+
+Picking off and destroying affected leaves, or crushing the grub by
+pinching the blisters are the only ways of lessening the attacks.
+
+The =Oak Leaf Roller Moth= (_Tortrix viridana_).—The widespread
+destruction caused to oak-woods in almost every part of the country
+by the caterpillars of this little moth would seem to be on the
+increase from year to year. But it is not the oak alone that suffers,
+for numbers of the hornbeam and beech are in an equally pitiable
+condition. Having closely watched this insect for several years, mainly
+with the view of striving to keep it in check or devise some means
+of destruction, I have come to the conclusion that a few individual
+trees may, at considerable expense, be rid of the pest, but in the
+case of whole woodlands artificial treatment is quite out of the
+question. Many observers are under the impression that the caterpillar
+is most abundant where the trees grow closest together, and when we
+consider that both wind and rain destroy numbers of these, the fact of
+isolated trees, which, consequently, are most exposed to storms, being
+comparatively free from attack is not to be wondered at. So far as we
+know at present, the only way to diminish in any appreciable degree
+the numbers of this insect is by encouraging as much as possible its
+enemies.
+
+The rook, jackdaw, starling, thrush and sparrow help immensely in
+destroying the caterpillars, and the occupants of a rookery will
+frequently in a few hours clear the pest from the trees over a
+considerable area of woodland. The same has been noted with regard to
+the starling, and I have frequently seen the trees over an infested
+area almost black with this particular bird when in the act of feeding
+on the caterpillars.
+
+In support of this recommendation it may be stated that insects are far
+less numerous in the forests of St. Germain, Senart and Fontainebleau
+than in the Bois de Boulogne, where, of course, small birds are scarcer.
+
+Sometimes with the oak leaf roller moth its excessive number proves
+the means of its extinction, the foliage being devoured before the
+caterpillars are fully fed; while, as is usual at the season of attack,
+parasitic flies and ichneumons destroy them wholesale, and a box of
+caterpillars sent to me the other day revealed the fact that each one
+had succumbed to the attacks of one of these enemies.
+
+The life history of this moth is full of interest, and the curious
+manner in which it rolls up the leaves is well worthy of study.
+
+The =Felted Beech Coccus= (_Cryptococcus Fagi_).—Judging from the
+numerous specimens of the beech coccus that are being forwarded to me
+for identification, and the inquiries as to how this insect pest may
+be dealt with, its presence in almost every part of the country is
+indicated. It was only in 1862 that Dr. Balfour reported the presence
+of this coccus in Scotland, and I remember well how the beautiful
+beech hedges on the Penicuik Estate, Mid-Lothian, were ravaged by the
+insect in 1875. In Germany, however, the beech coccus was noticed as
+early as 1849. It is probable that the beech coccus also extends to
+the Weymouth pine, as at Keston, Lord Derby’s estate in Kent, several
+of these trees were badly affected with an insect that appeared to me
+identical with this pest, and other instances of the Weymouth pine
+being similarly attacked have been recorded. Since the appearance
+of the insect in Scotland it has spread southwards rapidly, but it
+is only of late years that its ravages have been felt severely, and
+that owners of woodlands have been driven to do everything in their
+power to combat its injurious effects. I think I have nowhere seen
+the insect so abundant as on the Burnham beeches, which I visited in
+company with several members of the Royal Horticultural Society at the
+request of the Lord Mayor and the Corporation of the City of London.
+Here, speaking broadly, all the trees are affected in a greater or less
+degree, independent altogether of the age or health of the trees.
+
+Amongst the beautiful beech woods of Hertfordshire, where the timber
+produced commands a higher price than that from any other station
+in Britain excepting the Chiltern Hills, the trees are suffering
+severely. After a careful inspection of many beech woods, I am at a
+loss to account for the spread of this insect. Usually, in the case
+of injurious forest insects, the presence of dead and dying wood and
+the general health of the plantations have much to do with the attack,
+but this would not appear to be the cause in the case of the beech
+coccus. Even old and diseased trees do not appear to suffer more than
+the young and healthy specimens, and at Burnham some of the youngest
+and fastest growing specimens were by far the worst affected, appearing
+in parts as if coated with drifted snow. Neither would soil appear to
+have anything to do with the spread of the insect, as on chalky, sandy
+and loamy soils, as well as on shale rock, the trees are all more or
+less affected. I cannot say that unhealthy trees are more liable to
+be attacked than vigorous ones, for I have observed diseased trees to
+be sometimes quite free from the coccus, whilst healthy specimens in
+the immediate neighbourhood were badly infested. This was particularly
+noticeable on some park trees on two estates that I visited lately; in
+each instance the majestic boles rose to a height of fully 90 ft. and
+contained about 100 cubic ft. of wood. At one time I had an idea that
+beech trees when grown too thickly were most liable to be attacked,
+but more extensive observations have disproved the hypothesis. By some
+it has been suggested that the drainage of ground on which the beech
+is growing will facilitate the spread of the insect by bringing about
+an unhealthy state of the trees. To some extent this has been noticed
+at Burnham, and particularly in Gloucestershire, where a lake had been
+formed contiguous to a beech plantation. In another instance that came
+under my notice the burrowing of rabbits to an unusual extent was
+blamed for the appearance of the insect and the gradual death of the
+trees, the soil in this case being sand and gravel. It is a strange
+fact, too, that a badly infested tree may be standing amongst others
+that are perfectly free from the attack. Under a magnifying glass the
+insect appears of a yellowish colour, irregularly globular in shape,
+and almost transparent. It is thickly covered over by a secretion
+from the body, which looks like fine waxen-white threads or cotton
+wool, which effectually screens the insect from observation. With its
+proboscis it sucks up the juices, which are readily reached through
+the thin, smooth bark. When badly attacked, the foliage becomes meagre
+and has a burnt appearance, then the tips of the branches, and finally
+whole branches die off. Afterwards the bark becomes dry and cracks,
+usually longitudinally, falling off in flakes with the death of the
+tree. The timber of trees that have been killed by the coccus is
+dry, short-grained, and by no means comparable with that of healthy
+specimens. From whatever cause, the presence of the insect in our
+plantations is much to be deplored, and already many fine old trees
+in different parts of the country have succumbed to the attack. It is
+a curious fact that certain trees fall victims to the attack of this
+insect very rapidly, often in the short space of two years, while
+others of equal age and vigour, and, as far as can be seen, similarly
+situated, live for many years. Fully grown trees are, in my opinion,
+more liable to be killed quickly than younger specimens.
+
+As regards remedies, these can only conveniently be applied to
+single specimens and are scarcely practicable on a large scale. That
+success has, however, attended the application of certain remedies I
+am quite convinced, for several valuable ornamental trees on a lawn
+in Buckinghamshire that were badly affected by the pest are now,
+twelve months after being treated, quite free from the insect, and do
+not appear to have suffered in consequence. In this case the remedy
+was simple, and consisted merely in scrubbing the tree stems where
+affected with a stiff brush dipped in an emulsion of soft soap, this
+being rubbed well into all crevices of the bark. Only one application
+was given, but as the trees were nearly 100 ft. high with many large
+limbs, which also showed the presence of the coccus, the work took a
+considerable time. However, the results well repaid the expense of
+labour. Another excellent remedy is to mix together equal portions of
+paraffin and soft soap, and when required for use add twenty times
+their bulk of hot water, stirring all well together. This may be
+applied either with a scrubbing brush or syringed on to the affected
+parts. Other measures of a more drastic nature have been found to
+be beneficial, but those given are probably the simplest and best.
+Three or four handfuls of lime to a bucket of water is an excellent
+application, the only drawback being the unpleasant colour imparted to
+the trees. This is a simple remedy, and may be applied with a painter’s
+or scrubbing brush. It has saved many trees on an estate near London.
+
+=Wireworms.=—These occasionally do a great deal of damage in beds of
+seedling trees, particularly conifers, and in some instances they
+attack and destroy the seeds before germination. In the case of
+young conifers they are gnawed completely through just above or at
+the ground level, the beds in many instances being strewn with the
+cut-over plants. _Abies nobilis_ and _A. Nordmanniana_ suffer to a
+great extent, and I have frequently been at my wit’s end to put a stop
+to the repeated depredations. In the case of a newly-formed nursery or
+freshly-made-up seed-beds the attack of the wireworm is always most
+pronounced. In the case of fresh nursery ground, paring off and burning
+a couple of inches of the top soil in the autumn has been attended with
+excellent results, as has also dressing the ground with gas lime. When
+seedlings are attacked, hand-picking, with the use of sliced carrots,
+mangold or potatoes, varied with pieces of oilcake as a bait, are to be
+recommended. Dressing the seeds with red lead is very advantageous to
+prevent birds and mice from attacking freshly-sown quantities. Injury
+from wireworm is not likely to cause any serious consequences after the
+first year’s growth of the plants, especially if the ground has been
+kept clean and free from weeds during the egg-laying season in June.
+
+[Illustration: WITCH’S BROOM ON THE WILLOW (SUMMER APPEARANCE)]
+
+The above are only a few of the many insects that injure our forest
+trees; but those treated of are the most familiar to the forester, and
+those whose attacks he has most frequently to wage war against. Willow
+trees all over London are suffering severely from attacks of a mite
+insect. It is known as the “Witch’s Broom” on the Willow (_Eriophyes
+triradiatus_).
+
+Remedial measures are frequently of little avail, more particularly
+when a whole wood or plantation is attacked; but with single specimens
+the numbers may readily be lessened by the methods suggested.
+
+[Illustration: WITCH’S BROOM ON THE WILLOW (WINTER ASPECT)]
+
+Keeping the woodlands free of dead and dying trees and branches is a
+preventive of insect attacks that should never be neglected.
+
+As showing the injury that can be inflicted on our forest trees by some
+of these insect pests, the following cases may be mentioned:—
+
+During fifteen years (between 1853-68) the spruce in East Prussia,
+Poland and Russia was killed over an area of 7,000 square German miles;
+while in the Bavarian forests, the loss to the Revenue in one year was
+£40,000.
+
+In both cases the destructive insect _Liparis monacha_ was the cause of
+injury.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXII
+
+FUNGUS GROWTH ON TREES
+
+
+Some fungi attack living wood, some dead, and some both; and, while the
+majority are found growing on the stem, others attack the twigs, leaves
+or root. They are of all sizes, from the almost microscopical to the
+beefsteak fungus, which often exceeds a couple of feet in diameter.
+Some are jelly-like in consistency, others leathery or almost woody
+in texture; and while certain kinds spring up and disappear in a few
+days, others remain intact on the tree stem for several years. In
+shape, too, they vary considerably, from the curious Jew’s ear fungus,
+which greatly resembles the human organ, to the giant puff-ball, that
+sometimes measures four feet in circumference. Then the cup-shaped
+and parasol fungi are appropriately named, while the flat, shelf-like
+arrangement of a species that frequents the oak and elm has interested
+many a casual observer. Excepting perhaps green, they are found of
+almost all colours from dull brown to the brightest crimson, while
+beautifully spotted and mottled kinds are not uncommon.
+
+Healthy trees growing under normal conditions are little affected by
+fungi, whereas such as are predisposed to infection, by unsuitable
+soil, excessive drought or dampness, injury by accident or otherwise—in
+fact, those in a weakened condition however brought about—are, of
+course, far more liable to attacks. Though certain species of fungi
+only attack dead and decomposing wood, and are, therefore, the
+consequence and not the cause of disease, there are others, fortunately
+fewer in number, that attack healthy living trees and are the direct
+cause of disease and death. The prevention and extermination of fungus
+pests is by no means an easy matter, but by keeping the woods free from
+dead and dying trees and branches, and by giving immediate attention to
+outbreaks of the malady, much harm may be averted.
+
+[Illustration: LARCH CANKER]
+
+In the following notes, only the most serious cases are dealt with, or,
+in other words, such fungi referred to as are commonly met with and
+cause most damage to our woodland trees.
+
+=Larch Disease.=—In all probability the larch disease or larch canker
+owes its origin to the minute spores formed in the fructification of
+the now well-known fungus—_Peziza Willkommii_. It has been pretty
+conclusively proved that these spores can only find a footing where
+the rind of the bark has become in some way injured, such as might be
+occasioned by the puncture of an insect, by wind, frost or from many
+other causes. The spores send down their germ tubes into the cambium,
+between the bark and the wood, where the moisture and nourishment
+afforded causes rapid development of the fungus. This soon spreads to
+the cells of the wood, and the annual layers either entirely cease to
+grow, or become disorganized and crippled in growth, causing a hollow
+appearance of the stem at the point of attack. The surrounding bark,
+by its attempts to heal over the wound, causes a thickened or burly
+appearance of the trunk, thus imparting to affected trees the cankered,
+swollen and distorted look that is so distinguished a characteristic.
+
+The disease appears in this country on the larch, both common and
+Tyrolese, at all stages of growth up to thirty years, but rarely after
+that age. I have examined a plantation of only four years’ growth sadly
+infested by the _Peziza_ whereas, in other cases, the trees may be
+fully twenty years old before being attacked.
+
+=Cause.=—Under what conditions of growth the larch is most susceptible
+to the _Peziza_ is still a matter of vague uncertainty, but there can
+be little doubt that an enfeebled constitution, as fully explained in
+the article on the larch “Trees for Economic Planting”, aided by our
+peculiarly erratic climate, has much to answer for. The variableness
+of our spring weather is, no doubt, one of the predisposing causes of
+disease, for, although no degree of frost experienced in this country
+can injure the tree when leafless, yet few are more sensitive when in
+young foliage.
+
+Bearing on the subject of the larch disease, I have communications
+from almost every part of the country, and have personally visited
+and examined many of the worst infested plantations, particularly
+in England and Wales. Soil, if we exclude peaty, would seem to have
+little or nothing to do with encouraging the disease, as I have found
+it equally virulent on dry, sandy and heavy damp soils, but worse
+on chalk. Curiously enough, the disease is hardly known in the peat
+bogs of Ireland, and there the rainfall is excessive. It is equally
+strange that it first made its appearance in the Eastern and drier
+parts of England, and gradually proceeded to the more humid West. I
+have, however, noticed it in certain low-lying still, and damp portions
+of some woodlands, and where frosts would be most prevalent, but such
+cases are not general.
+
+=Remedy.=—Several remedies have been more or less successfully tried
+with a view to getting rid of the disease on trees, such as by cutting
+and scraping out the injured portions, and applying a suitable
+dressing; but such remedies, although suited for single specimens,
+cannot be applied to a whole area of infested trees.
+
+Under exceptionally favourable conditions, I have found the larch to
+outgrow the disease, though the cankered, swollen stems are never
+afterwards of great value for constructive purposes. Prevention in the
+present case is undoubtedly the best measure, for when once it has made
+headway, the larch disease is most difficult to cope with. By planting
+only sound, healthy trees, with uninjured roots in the most suitable
+soils and situations, and retaining these in as healthy a condition as
+possible, can we guard against attacks of the disease. Hardwoods mixed
+with the larch are to be recommended.
+
+_Polyporus squamosus_ attacks the elm and other hard-wooded trees and
+rapidly brings about decay. It is one of our commonest species on
+diseased trees.
+
+The =Sycamore Fungus= (_Rhytisma acerinum_).—Every one interested in
+trees must be familiar with the conspicuous black, pitch-like spots
+which so mar the appearance of sycamore leaves. These are due to the
+above-named fungus which, appearing as small yellowish spots on the
+undersides of the leaves towards the end of June, gradually increase
+in size and intensity of colour until they attain to fully half an
+inch in diameter and are inky black, with a margin of dirty yellow.
+The attacked portion of the leaf becomes wrinkled and much thickened
+in texture, while all the affected foliage drops off prematurely.
+After lying on the ground during the winter, the thread-like spores
+are produced in large quantities at the time when the foliage of the
+sycamore is appearing in May and June. The sycamore is not the only
+tree affected by this fungus, for the Norway Maple and our native _Acer
+campestre_ are equally liable to attack, and have in some instances
+suffered very severely from this cause. The fungus is becoming more
+plentiful, and it disfigures the maple and sycamore leaves to a wide
+extent.
+
+[Illustration: POLYPORUS SQUAMOSUS (ON ELM TREE)]
+
+_Rhytisma punctata_ may at once be distinguished from the above species
+by the many small black spots studded thickly together, which combine
+to form the large conspicuous blotches for which affected trees are
+remarkable. Both species are sometimes found on the same leaf. As the
+attacks of this fungus continue from year to year, and cause almost
+every leaf to drop off prematurely, the health of the trees is greatly
+impaired, and they become an easy prey to the still more destructive
+coral spot fungus, _Nectria cinnabarina_. By burning the leaves
+affected with _Rhytisma_ before the spores are liberated in spring, the
+spread of the fungus is prevented in a simple and effective manner. The
+sycamore fungus is very plentiful on trees around London.
+
+The canker of hard-wooded trees is brought about by one of the Nectria
+(_N. ditissima_), and is very common in every part of the country,
+affecting the oak, beech, ash, sycamore and fruit trees generally. The
+ash perhaps suffers most, the timber turning black and being quite
+unfitted for structural purposes. It is strictly parasitical, growing
+on wounded portions of the stem and branch, and spreads with great
+rapidity, attacking trees of all ages. We have known the trees in a
+plantation of ash to be quite destroyed by this canker, which attacks
+most freely those growing on wet, sour land. This should be a warning
+to planters to avoid such soil.
+
+The =Red-rot Fungus= (_Fomes annosus_ or _Trametes radiciperda_)
+attacks the roots of several species of pine, particularly the Scotch,
+Corsican and Weymouth, as also the Spruce and Silver Fir. It is
+probably the most destructive of the family, attacking living roots and
+spreading rapidly from tree to tree. The trees, when affected, quickly
+turn sickly and die, the wood becoming spongy and of a brownish colour,
+with distinct black spots. The only remedy is to take out affected
+trees and burn them root and branch, replanting the ground with
+beech or elm. Though one of the most destructive fungi in coniferous
+woodlands, its attacks are by no means confined to these alone, since
+it is found on the roots of several hard-wooded species, such as the
+filbert, hazel, birch and beech. Quite recently a nut plantation in
+Kent suffered severely from the attacks of this fungus, whole lines of
+trees being killed outright before the cause was detected. It spreads
+quickly underground from tree to tree, and unless eradicated, as it
+may easily be by uprooting affected trees and carefully destroying the
+mycelium, much damage may result.
+
+The =White-rot Fungus= (_Fomes igniarius_) is usually found on
+hard-wooded trees, and takes possession of wounds that may have been
+occasioned by the accidental breaking of a branch or stem injury. Oak
+trees suffer most from the attacks of this fungus, which is often as
+large as a foot across, and of a brownish colour. It is named igniarius
+on account of the inner surface being used as tinder, when prepared
+with saltpetre, especially in the old days of flint and steel. By
+removing the fungus and attending to the wound by cleaning away all
+dead and dying matter, and coating with tar, much benefit will ensue.
+
+The =Leaf-shedding Fungus= or =Pine-leaf Scurf= (_Lophodermium
+pinastre_) is a well-known and widely distributed species, and is
+usually found on the Scotch and Austrian Pines. The leaves, when
+attacked, wither suddenly and fall off, the fungus being most prevalent
+after unusually dry weather, or in early spring succeeded by a frosty
+winter. It occurs both as a saprophyte on dead pine leaves and a
+parasite on the living foliage. We have been most successful in
+combating the attacks and preventing the spread of the pest by spraying
+the affected parts with “Bordeaux mixture.” Young trees under ten
+years of age are most commonly attacked, and when this occurs in the
+nursery borders, the plants should be rooted out and burned. On several
+Scottish and English estates, thousands of Scotch Pines have been
+killed out by the attacks of the leaf-shedding fungus.
+
+One of the commonest fungi on old stumps is =Agaricus melleus=. It has
+no particular host, being found alike on coniferous and hard-wooded
+trees, and on both root and stem. Known as the honey fungus, and
+edible, this toadstool is about three inches in diameter, and of a
+yellowish-brown or rusty colour. It spreads with great rapidity both
+in the soil and between the bark and wood of the affected tree. The
+only remedy is digging out and destroying the fungus, and, in the case
+of healthy young trees, collecting and burning the mycelium.
+
+Next to the larch canker, one of the most destructive diseases
+of forest trees is caused by attacks of the =Bladder-rust= or
+=Cluster-cup= (_Peridermium piniacicola_). It is a wound fungus and
+attacks almost every species of pine, the Scotch in particular,
+especially when the trees are growing on light, poor soils. Young trees
+up to, say, twenty years old are most commonly attacked by this fungus,
+which appears like blisters, emitting bright reddish-coloured spores.
+Rooting up and burning all affected trees is the best remedy.
+
+[Illustration: POLYPORUS SULPHUREUS (ON WHITE POPLAR)]
+
+_Polyporus sulphureus_ attacks many species of trees—yew, poplar, etc.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXIII
+
+BARKING OAK
+
+
+Previous to the war the price of oak bark—about £2 10_s._ per
+ton—rendered it questionable whether from a purely financial point of
+view the operations of stripping and harvesting should be undertaken.
+Now, however, with bark at fully three times that figure, the operation
+is to be recommended.
+
+The period of bark-stripping and harvesting is one of the most anxious
+seasons of the year with the forester, as the quality of the bark is
+so largely dependent upon the weather during the time that intervenes
+between the stripping and stacking, or delivery, and not less so
+upon the carrying out of the work at the proper time, to secure easy
+and expeditious peeling. In most cases the time when the bud is just
+expanding into leaf is that which gives the greatest weight of bark of
+the best quality, with the smallest amount of labour. By deferring the
+work, even for a few days, there is often a loss in weight amounting to
+as much as 10 per cent., and a great deterioration in quality.
+
+Even in the most favoured situations it is seldom that the season
+for stripping extends beyond twenty-eight days. The advantages of
+early stripping are so well known that any comment on the subject is
+unnecessary; suffice it to say that, immediately the bark commences to
+“run” freely, no time should be lost in making a start, and the work
+should be prosecuted with vigour and dispatch until completed.
+
+The proper time to commence barking cannot, however, be fixed with
+any amount of certainty, much depending on the season, whether early
+or late, as well as on the district of the country in which the
+operation is to be performed. During ordinary seasons, and in most
+parts of England, bark-stripping commences during the third week in
+April and continues for about a month, or until such time as the trees
+are in full leafage, whereas in some parts of Scotland, especially the
+north, the operation is frequently nearly a month later. No mistake
+can, however, arise as to the right time to start barking in any
+locality, as in all cases the period when the bud is first bursting
+into leaf will be found the proper time for felling to insure easy
+stripping and the best quality of bark. As the season of bark-stripping
+is, therefore, of short duration, every preparation should be made
+beforehand—trees marked and numbered, tools in readiness, and squads
+arranged—so that an early start may be made, as, by deferring the work
+beyond the time stated above, there is not only a perceptible loss in
+weight, but considerable deterioration in the quality of bark as well.
+
+Elaborate directions regarding the arrangements of squads and tools
+to be used are unnecessary, as almost every district has its own
+peculiarities in this way. The tools generally in use are heavy axes
+and the cross-cut saw for felling, hand-bills and saws for pruning,
+peeling-irons or chisels for removing the bark, scrapers for removing
+moss, and light wooden mallets for beating refractory bark or such as
+cannot be removed by the peeling-irons alone.
+
+Previously to felling the trees a man or stout lad is sent before,
+who removes the bark from the root upwards for a distance of 2 ft. or
+3 ft.; this not only prevents its being injured when laying in and
+felling the tree, but is convenient for after-stripping as well. When
+the stools are intended for reproduction great care is necessary to
+avoid tearing or loosening the bark from the roots. After being thus
+prepared the trees are felled in the usual manner, those under 6 in. in
+diameter being cut with the axe; above that size it is found an economy
+of time and timber to fell with the cross-cut saw. Following in the
+rear of the cutters should be a squad of men, to clear the trunk and
+larger limbs of all branches down to 1 in. in diameter, leaving the
+limbs to be peeled as part of the tree.
+
+Heavy timber and large branches are usually peeled where they fall,
+but it will be found convenient to have the smaller trees and branches
+carried out to some open space adjoining the stacking ground, and
+peeled while one end is supported by means of two forked sticks placed
+against each other. When the bark of small branches cannot readily be
+removed by the peeling-iron, a smooth and flat stone is brought into
+use, beside which the peeler sits, and with one hand holds the branch
+on the stone, moving it along from one end to the other, at the same
+time applying the mallet with the other hand until the bark becomes
+loosened from the wood. Here it may be well to issue a caution against
+a too frequent use of the mallet, which should never be brought into
+request when the bark can be otherwise removed from the wood, as all
+hammering and beating not only diminishes the quality of tannin, but
+has a tendency to blacken the fleshy part of the bark and cause rapid
+decay in a bad season. The body, or trunk bark, is removed in lengths
+of from 30 in. to 36 in., and in as large pieces as possible.
+
+[Illustration: BARKING TOOLS]
+
+A dry, open and airy situation, convenient to the work, but without
+the wood, should be selected on which to harvest the bark, and rather
+than this should be done in a sheltered, humid spot, the bark should be
+carted to some distance off. The drying racks, or ranges, may be fully
+2 ft. high, drooping somewhat to one side, and formed of forked sticks
+driven firmly in the ground, while stout rods are placed transversely
+upon these. It should also be so arranged as that not only may the
+rain be thrown off, but so that the ends of the bark may be facing the
+prevailing wind, thereby insuring a current of air through and beneath
+the mass. After being carted or carried to the drying-ground, the
+small bark is spread out loosely on the stage to a depth of about 6
+in., and thatched or covered over with the larger pieces as a means of
+protection against rain. Each day’s bark should be cleared up, and put
+on the range the same evening, and oftener, if found necessary, during
+damp showery weather, keeping the white or fleshy part downwards and
+using the larger pieces as covers to run off the rain.
+
+During favourable weather the bark will be ready for stacking in about
+a fortnight from the time it was placed on the stage, but should
+close damp weather intervene, it may be found necessary to turn the
+bark occasionally, thus adding to the length of time required for
+harvesting. It should, however, be remembered that the less turning
+the bark receives after being placed on the stage the better will the
+quality be. Well-seasoned bark has the fleshy side of a creamy colour,
+whereas such as has been exposed to the sun or rain is of a dull brown,
+and is wanting in tannin matter, and consequently of inferior value.
+
+As soon as the bark is thoroughly dry and ready for stacking, which
+may readily be ascertained by its breaking freely across rather than
+bending or yielding to pressure, it should be secured in a shed,
+ricked, or delivered to the tanner.
+
+In stacking bark the rick should not be made too wide—say about 9
+ft.—but well hearted, so that the side pieces may have a good fall
+or declivity outwards to throw off the rain. The rick may be of any
+length, according to the quantity of bark on hand, and of a height
+proportionate to the width. The largest pieces of bark should be
+reserved for thatching the rick, the whole being covered over by a
+tarpaulin or waterproof cloth of some kind. In most cases the bark is
+chipped previously to being sold, but as this necessitates having a
+large shed at command, the system is not generally adopted. There are,
+however, several advantages accruing from this method, not the least
+of which is that the bark may be chopped up as it is removed from
+the drying-stands, thus saving the expense of stacking. Chopping the
+bark can also be done by the workmen during wet weather, and when not
+otherwise engaged.
+
+In computing the quantity of bark before stripping, we have found the
+following data fairly reliable:—
+
+1. A well-balanced tree with a good head will yield about 6 cwt. of
+bark for every ton of measurable timber, if branches down to an inch in
+diameter are peeled.
+
+2. Hedgerow trees usually yield about a ton of bark to every three tons
+of timber.
+
+3. Trees growing in close woodland are usually thin barked, the yield
+being about a ton of bark to every 4½ tons of timber.
+
+4. Oak poles will average five tons of timber to a ton of bark.
+
+Tall, clean stems, as are produced when the poles are grown thickly
+together, with small heads, give the smallest yield in proportion
+to the quantity of timber, and short stems with spreading heads the
+largest.
+
+The cost of production is as follows:—
+
+                                                        £ _s._ _d._
+    Labour, peeling and harvesting                      1  10    0
+    Cartage to railway station, including loading
+      (this is the average from six districts)          0   7    6
+    Loss on four months’ delay in selling the timber,
+      which, but for the bark, would have been
+      felled in winter at 5 per cent.                   0   5    0
+    Customary terms of payment, less 2½ per cent.       0   2    0
+    Superintendence, etc.                               0   1    6
+                                                       ———————————
+                                                       £2   6    0
+
+It has been carefully estimated that there is a loss of fully 12 per
+cent. of wood, caused by felling the oak during the barking season. In
+other words, the proportion of sap wood to the whole tree is about 14
+per cent., which, for the majority of purposes to which oak timber is
+applied, is rendered by the peeling of little or no value.
+
+We may say, however, that 2 per cent. can be profitably utilized, which
+still leaves us with a considerable loss on the whole tree.
+
+The average price of the best oak is 2_s._ per ft., 12 per cent. of
+which is as nearly as possible 3_d._ per ft., or £1 17_s._ 6_d._ per
+ton of bark to 150 ft. of wood.
+
+This, with the £2 6_s._ per ton cost of production, brings the total
+to £4 3_s._ 6_d._, leaving a considerable balance on the wrong side at
+pre-war prices.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXIV
+
+THE MANUFACTURE OF CHARCOAL
+
+
+Amongst dead or dying industries of our woodlands that have been
+revived by the war, none is at present receiving a greater share of
+attention than the manufacture of charcoal.
+
+There was a time, and not so long ago, when the merry voice and ring of
+the charcoal burner’s axe were familiar sounds in some of the Kentish
+and other forests of Southern England; but keen foreign competition,
+aided by preferential carriage rates, have caused this time-honoured
+industry to slip from our hands; indeed, it was almost forgotten
+till again called into existence for the battlefields of France and
+Flanders. The trenches must be warmed without apprising the enemy of
+the existence of our men, and in order to do this and prevent soaring
+signals of smoke, the tent brazier is filled with glowing charcoal.
+
+Except, perhaps, in Kent and Surrey and the English Lake district,
+where small quantities of charcoal are annually produced for the hop
+kilns and iron smelting, charcoal burning is a thing of the past.
+The expert charcoal burner is now a difficult man to find, and an
+independent, highly-paid workman when you have found him. Successive
+members of the same family in Kent have been known to follow the
+occupation of charcoal burning for fully a century and a half, and it
+is distinctly a skilled industry, and confined to few.
+
+Usually the men work in threes, and, having selected a piece of ground
+sheltered from the prevailing winds and in a position to which easy
+access with wood can be obtained, a rough hut is erected for the
+accommodation of these nocturnal workmen. Water, sand or sawdust and
+turf are other requisites that must be provided as the work proceeds. A
+couple of large tarpaulins and half a dozen straw-covered hurdles are
+other necessities.
+
+From the point of economy in carting the wood to the kilns it may seem
+that shifting the position of burning from one part of the woodland to
+another is to be recommended. Such is, however, not the case, as the
+hard, dry, ash-covered site, where charring has already been carried
+out, has its advantages, and the cost of transferring the workmen’s hut
+and tools from one position to another must also be considered.
+
+Several methods, largely dependent on the quantity and quality of
+charcoal to be obtained, are adopted, but in order to procure that of
+the best description the following system, which has been successfully
+carried out on a large estate for the past hundred years at least, is
+recommended. The timber carted to the charcoal yard consists of all
+kinds of hardwoods, preferably not under two inches in diameter.
+
+Firewood and rough, unsaleable timber, as also inferior grades of heavy
+coppice wood, are mainly utilized for the production of charcoal.
+The wood is sawn into pieces about 2 ft. long, this being the most
+convenient size for building the kiln, and these again split if
+required to some 4 in. to the side, and when a sufficient quantity for
+two pits has been cut up, the building of these is proceeded with. It
+has been found economical to burn two pits at the same time, as both
+can be attended to as conveniently as one, and it is unnecessary for
+the men to sit up at night to watch each separately. The charcoal pits,
+one of which is shown in the accompanying sketch, are made of a broadly
+conical shape, 21 ft. in diameter and about 9 ft. high, and the mode of
+construction is as follows:—
+
+A strong stake is driven firmly into the ground and left protruding
+about a foot. Around this are placed small pieces of dry ash of equal
+length, and standing as close to the upright stake as possible; around
+this another layer is placed in the same manner, and this is continued
+until a circle 5 ft. in diameter is obtained. A circle 1 ft. in
+diameter, and having the top of the stake previously driven into the
+ground as centre, is next made by placing the wood horizontally on the
+upright pieces and side by side, the ends of each piece being placed at
+the circumference of the circle already made, and directed towards its
+centre. Layer upon layer is built in this manner until the pit is of
+the required height, the wood used here being dry pieces of ash 2 ft.
+in length, but split rather smaller than the ordinary pieces. A sort
+of chimney is thus formed, by means of which the pit is fired. Outside
+the core the wood is placed on end and reclining inwards, this being
+continued until the pits are of the required size. When the building
+is completed the pits are covered with newly cut turf, the grassy side
+placed innermost, beginning at the base and working towards the top,
+each line of turf overlapping the previous one by a few inches. The
+circular hole or chimney is left open for firing. Before turfing the
+top half of each pit it is carefully examined, and any crevices between
+the wood packed full of small pieces of turf and sawdust to exclude
+the air. The turfs are cut about 1 ft. in width, and of any convenient
+length. The quantity required for two pits of the dimensions stated is
+seven loads.
+
+When the pit is satisfactorily covered it is fired by dropping a
+couple of shovelfuls of burning wood and some dry pieces of pine or
+ash into the opening left at the top; the top turf is then put on,
+which effectually shuts up the chimney, and the process of charring
+commences. The smoke is first seen issuing from the lower half of each
+pit, where the chinks were not packed with sawdust, and ultimately it
+escapes from the whole surface.
+
+Constant attention is required day and night during the period of
+burning, especially should the weather be stormy, as the wind, by
+striking on a particular part of the pit, causes that side to burn more
+rapidly, and fall in. When this occurs the hole must at once be filled
+in with rough logs, which had been set aside for the purpose when
+splitting the wood, and re-covered with turf.
+
+When the weather is mild the pits burn uniformly, require but little
+attention, and produce the finest charcoal. The time required for
+burning will vary with the size of the pit, quality of wood, method
+of covering, and meteorological conditions. From six to seven days
+are usually required for pits of the above dimensions, but smaller
+kilns only covered with grass, fern and a little soil may be ready for
+uncovering in from two to four days. Long experience has, however,
+proved that by the slower process of charring the best charcoal is
+produced, but the cost is higher. By covering the pits with grass and
+fern, as is often done, a considerable saving is no doubt effected,
+but where turf is available there can be no question as to its value
+over the former, and on the boundaries of most woodlands it is readily
+procurable at the cost of cutting. As the charring proceeds the turf
+gradually disappears until only a slight covering of burnt earth
+remains. When the pits have burned out and become cool, it is found
+that they are reduced to rather less than half their original size.
+
+[Illustration: SECTION OF CHARCOAL PIT]
+
+The charcoal is extracted by means of a specially constructed rake
+resembling a light drag, but having much finer teeth, which, after it
+has become quite cold, is stored in a shed until required for use.
+
+The very finest charcoal, superior to what is generally sold, is
+produced by this method. The expenses connected with making it are,
+however, a little heavier than usual, owing to the slower system of
+charring, the use of larger wood, and the extra cost of covering with
+turf. As to the cost of producing charcoal by the above method, this
+will vary greatly, much depending on the distance the wood has to be
+carted and on the cost of labour in the particular district.
+
+The price paid to the charcoal burners is 7_d._ per bushel, or about
+four guineas per ton, which may seem high, but when we consider that
+it is specialized work that is confined to few and attended with grave
+risks and discomfort, the amount earned is not excessive. It should
+also be remembered that, previous to lighting the kilns, sufficient
+rough, not corded, wood has to be sawn and split and the pits carefully
+built and covered, not to speak of the constant attention required,
+both day and night, wet or dry, for from three to seven days, during
+charring process. The usual price for burning charcoal when the wood is
+corded is 35_s._ per ton.
+
+Fresh-felled wood is rarely converted into charcoal, the greater
+portion of that used being thinnings of the previous season. The
+proportion of wood to charcoal varies greatly, much depending on the
+size, quality, and maturity of timber. Having had occasion to purchase
+charcoal lately, I found the price, retail, to be 2_s._ 6_d._ per
+bushel, or in quantities of not less than a ton, £14, for that of fair
+quality.
+
+From about the twelfth century onwards Scotland, where wood was
+abundant, produced annually a large quantity of charcoal iron; and in
+1660 the Navy Commissioners nominated John Evelyn to investigate the
+then denudation of forests owing to the manufacture of charcoal for
+iron smelting, and the following quaint extract from his report will
+be interesting:—“Nature has thought fit to produce this wasting ore
+more plentifully in woodlands than any other point, and to enrich our
+forests to their own destruction—a deep execration of iron mills and
+ironmasters also.” The Lorn Works, in Argyllshire, were started in
+1753, and annually consumed upwards of 3,000 tons of lump charcoal.
+
+The Sussex and Kentish forests at one time supported many of the
+familiar charcoal burners, and right brawny and thrifty were these
+denizens of the woodland with their rustic wooden huts and piles of
+rifted firewood, but the industry was almost a thing of the past till
+again called into active existence by the exigencies of the war.
+
+=Kiln burning.=—The kiln is made of brick, one course being sufficient,
+if bands of iron be added to strengthen the brickwork. It is usually
+conical in shape, 24 ft. in diameter, with an equal height, and holds
+about forty cords of wood. The wall of the kiln is carried up nearly
+straight for about 6 ft., when it is gradually drawn in and made a
+blunt cone shape. A plate of iron is fastened on the top in the manner
+of a stone to an arch. Three-inch hoop-iron bands, about an eighth
+of an inch thick, are placed around the kiln and drawn together by
+means of screw-bolts and nuts. At the base, and near the top, are
+double sheet-iron doors, by which it is filled with wood or emptied
+of charcoal. The time required to fill, burn and empty is about three
+weeks. Pit-burning, for estate purposes, is, however, most commonly
+pursued, and has this advantage—that the charcoal can be made at any
+place where timber is being felled, without extra expense, save that of
+the cartage of the charcoal, whereas in using the kiln or retort the
+wood must, in most cases, be conveyed to the place where it is erected.
+
+=Comparative Value of Woods for Charcoal making.=—Amongst home-grown
+timber, oak, ash, and beech are generally preferred for charcoal
+making, but the following table will show pretty correctly the
+proportionate relative values of the various descriptions of wood for
+gunpowder charcoal:—
+
+                              Per Cent.
+    Rhamnus frangula contains   27
+    Laburnum                    25
+    Boxwood                     24
+    Sweet Chestnut              23
+    Oak                         22
+    Holly                       20
+    Walnut                      20
+    Beech                       19
+    Sycamore                    19
+    Elm                         19
+    Willow                      18
+    Poplar                      18
+    Birch                       17
+    Alder                       17
+    Ash                         17
+    Hazel                       17
+    Mountain Ash                17
+    Scotch fir                  16
+    Larch                       16
+
+=Uses of Charcoal.=—The uses of charcoal for estate purposes are very
+numerous, for horticultural, agricultural and other departments.
+From remote antiquity charcoal has been used as a fuel, and for many
+purposes it is still unsurpassed. It is by far the cleanest solid fuel
+known; it burns steadily, gives out a great amount of heat, and lasts
+well. On account of its smokelessness it is invaluable for cookery, and
+it is also admirably suited for use in green-house and other stoves.
+It is not adopted for heating apartments on account of the poisonous
+gas (carbonic oxide) produced in its combustion, and the danger,
+most apparent when the charcoal is burnt in an open chauffer, is not
+obviated by using it in a stove, as carbonic oxide has the power of
+diffusing through red-hot iron.
+
+In gardening, charcoal is largely used for potting purposes, for vine
+borders, and for flower beds; and in the form of dust it is the best
+material for packing bulbs for transmission to a distance.
+
+Perhaps the most important of the uses to which charcoal can be put
+about a house or estate is that depending on its extraordinary power
+of absorbing gases. It is a perfect deodorant, a preservative of food
+and all animal substances and a valuable disinfectant. The gases most
+readily absorbed by charcoal are those which are most prejudicial to
+health and most frequently produced by putrefactive changes.
+
+In the pores of the charcoal they are destroyed by union with the
+oxygen condensed from the air. The fact of its being absolutely
+non-poisonous and perfectly odourless puts it before all other
+disinfectants.
+
+=“Dogwood” for Gunpowder Charcoal.=—The alder buckthorn, berry-bearing
+or black alder (_Rhamnus frangula_) is a native shrub that is fairly
+plentiful in Southern England, though rare in Scotland and Ireland.
+Confusion sometimes arises from the same popular name being applied
+to widely different species of plants, and this, unfortunately, is
+the case with the shrub in question. What is known among gunpowder
+manufacturers as dogwood is in reality the present shrub (_Rhamnus_),
+which, however, is quite distinct from the true dogwood (_Cornus_)
+and belongs to an entirely different family. To those who contemplate
+growing charcoal wood for the making of explosives, this distinction is
+of the utmost importance, as I have seen _Cornus sanguinea_ cultivated
+for the making of gunpowder.
+
+The alder buckthorn is perfectly hardy, growing freely even in the
+North of Scotland, where it ripens its seeds. It is usually found as an
+erect-growing bush from 8 ft. to 10 ft. in height, though in suitable
+situations in Southern England specimens fully 20 ft. high, with stems
+6 in. in diameter, are to be met with. The bright green leaves are
+oval in shape and vary, according to conditions of growth, from 2 in.
+to 3 in. in length, while the flowers are of a dull yellowish green
+and are succeeded by dark purple berries each about the size of a pea.
+From a very early date the alder buckthorn has been cultivated, though
+not extensively, in this country for charcoal making, and the price,
+upwards of £15 per ton, that is paid for the wood, shows that the
+growing of this shrub is a profitable undertaking. At one time large
+quantities of the wood were produced in Sussex and other counties, the
+selling price being £14 per ton when peeled and tied in bundles.
+
+The cultivation of the alder buckthorn is nearly similar to that of the
+osier for basket-making, and the produce is dealt with and disposed of
+in like manner. For soil any good loam inclined to be dampish will suit
+it well, and an open, but not wind-swept, situation should be chosen
+for its cultivation. The land intended for growing the alder buckthorn
+should be trenched the winter before planting, and a top-dressing of
+leaf soil or thoroughly decomposed manure, the former preferably, will
+greatly assist the growth of the young plants and prevent too speedy
+evaporation of moisture from the soil. Young plants are not offered
+in quantity in our nursery catalogues, and in order to obtain a stock
+sufficient to form a plantation, seed-sowing or layering old plants
+must be resorted to. Fortunately, by either method the plant is readily
+obtained in quantity, and as the seeds are produced in fair abundance
+and ripen freely this method of getting up a stock is to be recommended.
+
+The berries, after being collected in the early winter, are treated
+much as we treat those of the yew and holly. They are mixed with sand
+in order to separate the seed and fleshy covering, and the whole
+is sown during early spring in previously prepared beds. The seed
+beds may be prepared in any shady situation out of doors, the soil
+being largely composed of light sandy loam mixed with finely riddled
+leaf-mould. Sometimes the seeds are sown in boxes and placed in a cool
+frame, but we have found cultivation out of doors more satisfactory.
+When two years old, the seedlings should be transplanted into lines
+18 in. apart and 9 in. from plant to plant. Here they may remain for
+another two years, after which they should be planted out permanently
+and headed back the following season. Rather thick final planting is
+to be recommended, as the shrub being of upright growth, requires
+comparatively small room for development, and the best wands are
+produced by a close order of growth, say 5 ft. from plant to plant.
+
+Layering does not produce such upright-habited shrubs as those grown
+from seed, and the yield of wood per acre under exactly similar
+conditions of growth is greatly in favour of seedlings.
+
+After planting, the ground should be kept free from rough-growing seeds
+for the first two years, the crop being cut at from six to seven years’
+growth, when the wands are from 1½ in. to 2 in. diameter at butt end.
+Cutting and bundling is usually done by contract, but, as with the
+osier, it is imperative that the crop be cut over near ground level and
+short “stumps” without “spurs” encouraged.
+
+As in the case of ordinary coppice wood, the buckthorn for charcoal
+making may be cut every sixth or seventh year, the straightest shoots
+when sorted in about 5 ft. lengths being tied in bundles which are
+about a yard in girth. The buckthorn being a gross feeder, manuring the
+land after the removal of a crop has been found advantageous.
+
+Although largely imported from Holland, and other parts of the
+Continent, home-grown wood is preferred, as it produces a much
+superior charcoal for the manufacture of explosives. Unfortunately,
+however, home supplies are so limited that foreign wood is imported
+in considerable quantity, and as there was a scarcity before the war,
+the probabilities are that, with our greatly increased consumption of
+charcoal explosives, a dearth of suitable wood is now being felt.
+
+With the present small remuneration attaching to the cultivation of
+coppice or underwood, which under ordinary circumstances does not
+exceed £4 per acre, the cultivation of the alder buckthorn is to be
+recommended, particularly as the price is at least quadrupled. The
+cultivation of this is quite simple, while the quality of soil required
+need not be better than that which produces a crop of chestnut or
+hazel. In cultivating the alder buckthorn for charcoal purposes the
+following rules should be observed:—
+
+1. It will not succeed satisfactorily in sandy, poor or water-logged
+soils; rich, well-manured loam being preferred.
+
+2. The ground should either be trenched or ploughed and cleared of all
+rough-growing weeds the winter before planting.
+
+3. Plant seedlings or layers in the spring in lines about 5 ft. apart
+and the same distance from plant to plant.
+
+4. An annual clearance of weeds and loosening of the soil between the
+rows of plants is recommended where a heavy crop is expected.
+
+5. Induce the growth of stout clean shoots by liberal feeding and clean
+cultivation.
+
+6. Cut the shoots close to the ground so as to prevent the formation of
+long spurs and minimize the number of off-shoots. Clean cutting with a
+sharp tool is imperative.
+
+7. After the removal of a crop, stirring and enriching the soil is to
+be recommended.
+
+8. Though found mixed with undershrubs and in the shade of trees when
+in a wild state, yet the greatest quantity of the most valuable wood
+for charcoal making is produced in open situations.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXV
+
+PRICES OF HOME-GROWN TIMBER
+
+
+These vary so much in different parts of the country that it is
+almost impossible to give a list that would apply generally to the
+British Isles. Local demand and the situation of the plantations where
+the timber is to be sold have to be considered, while the quantity
+available and quality of the particular timber are also important
+factors in determining the price.
+
+In many instances woods and plantations are far removed from road and
+rail, consequently the cost of delivering to the consuming centre
+is proportionately high, while in the vicinity of coal mines or
+manufacturing towns almost every class of timber will find a ready and
+profitable market. Then the quality of the timber (its reputation, we
+might almost say) is a powerful factor in assessing its value, as will
+be seen in the case of oak produced in Surrey and Sussex, or beech from
+the chalky districts of Kent and Hertfordshire. No timber merchant
+thinks twice as to whether he should, on account of quality, purchase
+oaks at Rockingham, Ashridge, Welbeck or other well-known centres, and
+so it is with the beech timber on the Chiltern Hills, at the Chenies,
+in Hertfordshire, or with Scotch pine from the famous Aberdeenshire
+plantations.
+
+But there is another factor that frequently affects the price of good
+timber, and that is, that in inaccessible positions the quantity
+offered is too small. This has been the case with excellent larch
+timber in Ireland, where the quantity offered was not sufficient to
+induce the timber merchant to lay down plant and arrange for delivery
+to the nearest railway or port. There are other causes of a minor
+nature that greatly affect the price of home-grown timber, and it is
+a curious fact that in adjoining counties, sometimes even in the same
+county, the prices of various timbers vary several pence per cubic
+foot. With all woodland products the same is the case, and locality
+and local demand determine the price of faggots, firewood and other
+commodities.
+
+Previous to the war, the following were the average prices of
+home-grown timber, felled and lying in the wood; also of other woodland
+produce. The prices at present are generally much higher.
+
+                           _s._ _d._  _s._ _d._
+    Ash                from 1   6 to   2   6 per cubic foot.
+    Alder                ”  0   7  ”   0  10    ”     ”
+    Beech                ”  0  10  ”   1   4    ”     ”
+    Birch                ”  0   7  ”   0  10    ”     ”
+    Chestnut (Spanish)   ”  1   3  ”   1   6    ”     ”
+        ”    (Horse)     ”  0   8        ——     ”     ”
+    Cherry               ”  0   9  ”   1   2    ”     ”
+    Elm                  ”  0   7  ”   1   6    ”     ”
+    Larch                ”  0  10  ”   1   4    ”     ”
+    Lime                 ”  0  10  ”   1   6    ”     ”
+    Oak                  ”  1   3  ”   2   6    ”     ”
+    Oak, brown           ”  3   6  ”  10   6    ”     ”
+
+(but these trees are usually sold at so much for each)
+
+    Poplar             from 0   9 to   1   6 per cubic foot.
+    Scotch Pine          ”  0   5  ”   0  10    ”     ”
+    Spruce Fir           ”  0   5  ”   0   9    ”     ”
+    Willow               ”  1   6  ”  10   6    ”     ”
+    Walnut               ”  1   0  ”   2   6    ”     ”
+    Sycamore             ”  1   3  ”   2   6    ”     ”
+    Firewood             ”  5   0 per cart load.
+       ”                 ” 12   0 to  16   0 per cord.
+    Faggots (large)      ” 14   0  ”  21   0  ” 100.
+       ”    (small)      ”  2   6 per 100.
+    Oak bark             ” 52   0  ”  ton.
+    Charcoal             ”  1   0  ”  bushel.
+
+Since the war commenced several kinds of timber have increased greatly
+in value, notably ash, poplar, Scotch pine and spruce fir. For the
+latter as much as 1_s._ 4_d._ per cubic foot was obtained in Bucks,
+while in several cases first-class ash timber realized upwards of 4_s._
+per cubic foot.
+
+Pitwood, also, has increased in price.
+
+PRICES OF TIMBER PER TON WEIGHT
+
+In several parts of the country, particularly Ireland, timber is
+regularly sold by weight and the following prices were realized
+previous to the war:—
+
+                                        _s._ _d._  _s._ _d._
+    Ash and sycamore                     ——         18   0 per ton.
+    Beech                                 5   0  to 10   0   ”
+    Larch                                12   0   ” 20   0   ”
+    Scotch pine, spruce and silver fir   ——          8   0   ”
+    Spruce                                8   0   ” 10   0   ”
+    Oak                                  ——         15   0   ”
+    Elm and beech                        ——         10   0   ”
+    Hardwoods of pitwood size            ——          6   0   ”
+    Larch poles and pitwood (Wales)       9   0   ” 10   0   ”
+
+That the heavy importation of foreign woods has had a prejudicial
+influence on the value of home-grown timbers is realized by all those
+who are engaged in the trade. The depreciation in price has, however,
+been so gradual that it is difficult to realize this unless by
+comparing the prices of to-day with those of, say, a hundred years ago.
+Several of these comparisons clearly indicate that oak, at least, has
+become much reduced in value, less so ash and elm, and the following
+list of prices obtained in 1807 for timber on two estates in Hants will
+serve to show that for trees of equal size the price to-day is far
+behind that of a century ago.
+
+                                 _s._ _d._
+    Oak averaging 9 cubic feet    4   0 per foot.
+    Ash      ”    7     ”         2   3    ”
+    Elm      ”   22     ”         1   9    ”
+    Beech    ”   14     ”         1   6    ”
+    Sycamore ”   19     ”         1   3    ”
+    Fir      ”   11     ”         1   3    ”
+
+On another estate trees of about the same size brought: oak, 4_s._;
+ash, 1_s._ 6_d._; elm, etc., 1_s._; beech, 1_s._; and firs, 1_s._
+per cubic foot. When the small size of the individual trees is taken
+into account, and even admitting that only the best portion of each
+trunk was measured, the prices, as compared with those of to-day, are
+exceedingly high, particularly for oak, ash and fir.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXVI
+
+BRITISH TIMBER AND SOME OF ITS USES
+
+
+The following are a few of the many uses to which home-grown timber is
+applied:—
+
+=Alder= is used extensively for clog soles, barrel staves, mill
+bobbins, and occasionally in furniture making. It makes excellent
+charcoal for cooking and heating, as well as that used in the
+manufacture of gunpowder.
+
+The wood of the =Apple=, =Cherry= and =Pear tree=, when of large size,
+is used for cabinet purposes, and stained in imitation of other woods.
+For veneers, golf clubs, bowls, etc., these woods are of value, as also
+for weaving shuttles.
+
+=Ash= timber is largely used by agricultural implement makers on
+account of its possessing great elasticity and bearing considerable
+cross-strain. It is the best wood for shafts of all kinds, for tool
+handles and wooden rakes, and is largely used by furniture makers.
+
+=Beech= wood is the chief constituent of cane-bottomed chairs, and is
+largely employed for the handles of joiners’, carpenters’ and other
+wood-workers’ tools. For gunstocks, saddle-trees for heavy harness,
+wheel-felloes and bobbins it is also largely employed. When of large
+size and clean growth, it is used for calendar machines, and for
+engineering purposes in spinning and bleaching districts. It makes
+excellent charcoal.
+
+=Birch= wood is largely used for turnery work, thread bobbins, clog
+soles, shoe pegs, furniture, hatters’ blocks; it is also used in the
+manufacture of brushes and in toy making.
+
+=Chestnut= (Spanish) timber more nearly approaches that of oak than
+any other species, and when stained is not only substituted for it, but
+for the walnut as well. For piano sides it is largely used, as also for
+rafters in open-roof churches, for furniture and cabinet work, ship
+fittings, sign-boards, and post and rail fencing.
+
+=Elm= wood is extensively used for the boarding and flooring of carts
+and wagons, in coffin making, for the framework and foundations of
+bridges, for naves for wheels, and for the keels of boats and ships.
+It makes strong furniture, and is often substituted for ash in making
+agricultural implements.
+
+=Holly= is used by mathematical instrument makers, for fancy turnery
+and inlaid work. It is often sold as ebony when “ebonized.”
+
+=Hornbeam= timber for cogs in mill gearing is well known, also in
+“bushing” for sawmill rollers, and for skittle pins.
+
+=Horse Chestnut.=—The timber is largely used for packing boxes,
+moulding patterns for castings, cutting boards, manufacture of brushes,
+and occasionally for covering temporary buildings.
+
+=Larch.=—The wood of this tree is largely used for fencing, boat
+building, permanent staging, and pitwood.
+
+=Lime.=—The wood is white and very fine of grain, and used for carved
+work, sounding boards for musical instruments, wagon brakes, packing
+boxes, toys, domestic utensils, and for shoemakers’ and saddlers’
+cutting boards. Charcoal for gunpowder is made from this wood.
+
+=Maple= is employed in the turning of bowls, for toys, and “bird’s-eye”
+maple for furniture.
+
+=Oak= has long been associated with our national defence as the chief
+element in shipbuilding, but although iron and steel have to a great
+extent taken its place, yet for barges and small boats the timber is
+still largely used. Wagons for railway mineral traffic are largely made
+of oak, while the builder finds in it his best material for the strong
+frames of domes, spires and roofs of public buildings. It is also
+used for the bottoms of carts and wagons, cartwheel spokes, fencing,
+furniture making, railway “spraggs,” charcoal, etc.
+
+=Poplar= wood is woolly and tenacious, and for this reason is used for
+the bottoms of stone carts and barrows. It is well adapted for making
+packing cases, railway brakes, weather boarding, and for purposes where
+lightness is of greater importance than durability. The Abele, or
+white Poplar, produces perhaps the most valuable timber of any of the
+numerous species.
+
+=Scotch Spruce= and =Silver Fir= may all be classed under the same
+heading, being of about equal value and applicable to similar purposes,
+viz., for sleepers and pitwood, boarding under slates, headings for
+barrels, soap boxes, temporary fencing, also for conversion into
+planking for lead works, and for all erections of a temporary kind.
+
+=Sycamore= timber is peculiarly white and smooth and free from grain,
+which makes it very valuable. It is used for curtain rings, churns,
+butter prints, for the backs of violins, for founders’ patterns and
+cutting boards, and in the making of wooden vessels and furniture. For
+calendar machines and in cotton and jute factories it is much employed.
+
+=Walnut= timber is much in demand for gun and rifle stocks, for the
+best class of furniture, and for veneering purposes.
+
+=Willow= is famous for the production of the best class of cricket bats
+and for artificial limbs and crutches. It also makes good charcoal.
+
+=Yew= wood is valuable when employed for veneering.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXVII
+
+WILLOWS FOR BASKET-MAKING
+
+
+Previous to the war, preferential railway and boat rates, aided by keen
+foreign competition, wellnigh rendered the time-honoured industry of
+basket-making a thing of the past in this country. The best classes
+of osiers, cleaned and ready for manipulation, were delivered to our
+principal markets from Continental sources at so low a price that
+competition on our part was almost out of the question. There are
+still, however, a few stations, such as those in Bedfordshire, the fen
+districts of Lincoln and Cambridge, and along certain reaches of the
+Thames, where willow culture is engaged in, though not in the same
+energetic way as was the case some half a century ago.
+
+About 7,000 acres, producing roughly 20,000 tons of osiers, are
+cultivated in this country at the present time, many small plantations
+having been grubbed out and the land laid down in other crops during
+the past five and twenty years.
+
+This falling off is much to be regretted, as the sorting and harvesting
+of osiers and basket-making gave light and remunerative employment
+to a large number of residents, both young and old, of the districts
+in which the willow-beds were situated. Land that was damp and could
+not well be brought under other cultivation without the expense of
+drainage, gave a good return under a crop of osiers. Taking everything
+into consideration, and judging from talks that I have had recently
+with those who are interested in the osier industry, the formation
+of willow-beds, under the plea that considerable profits attend the
+undertaking, is not to be recommended. No doubt in some favoured
+districts where carriage is reduced to a minimum and local demand
+is considerable, osier cultivation gives a fair return for capital
+invested; but until we can get back the once lucrative trade in
+baskets for fruit and other similar commodities from the hands of our
+Continental rivals, profits of any magnitude are quite precluded.
+
+There is little doubt that on soil which is unsuited for farming
+purposes willow culture can be made fairly profitable, but it is a
+mistake to suppose that any marshy piece of stiff ground will grow
+osiers, or that the planting and tending are matters of small import.
+Quite the reverse is the case. The willow will not thrive for long
+in water-logged soils, though periodical inundations, particularly
+during winter and early spring, are highly beneficial. In addition,
+the soil must be well worked, the cutting of rods carefully and
+systematically carried out, and the clearing of the ground must receive
+strict attention, else deterioration of the crop will quickly ensue.
+Previously to planting the cuttings or sets, the ground should be
+ploughed, harrowed and consolidated, all objectionable weeds being
+destroyed.
+
+For some considerable time to come there is bound to be a dearth of
+willows for basket-making, as our main supplies have come from Germany
+and the Netherlands. Here, then, is a chance for the owners of suitable
+land in this country to set to work at once and revive a time-honoured
+industry by planting up suitable grounds with the most approved kinds
+of willow for basket-making. That the undertaking, if wisely carried
+out, would be a remunerative one is beyond question, and the excellent
+results attained at such places as Leicester and Bedford clearly prove
+that willow culture is a most profitable way of utilizing naturally
+dampish land in any but the most exposed situations.
+
+For the past few years the demand in this country for high-grade
+willows has been greatly in excess of the supply, in fact, hardly
+one-fifth of our requirements are produced at home. Germany, previous
+to the war, exported willows and rods to the value of about £42,000,
+this being an increase in five years of fully one-half; while of
+the manufactured articles in the way of baskets and basket ware her
+total value exceeded £42,000. But as giving some idea of our wants in
+this direction it may be stated that the total value of willow rods
+annually sent to this country from the Continent is in round figures
+about £100,000, and of baskets and basket ware fully £170,000. What a
+contrast with the period in our history when an important export trade
+in willows was done by this country!
+
+The willow working industry is a rapidly expanding one. Owing to the
+increasing demand, the value of peeled willows is gradually on the
+increase, and present prices range from £24 to £38 per ton for those
+of best size and quality. These are in the main exported and used for
+high-class work in the basket trade, rougher unpeeled willows that are
+largely in use for cheap packing hampers and farm purposes bringing
+in a much lower price. Fruit baskets in immense numbers are annually
+imported from the Continent, one firm alone having sent over £150,000;
+while at Leith basket works, which mainly caters for the agricultural
+and fishing industries, thousands of herring baskets alone are sent out
+every month, while the packing hamper department is of great interest
+and a special feature of this enterprising firm.
+
+Previous to the war willow or osier culture was mainly in the hands of
+the French for rods of good quality, the Belgians and Germans supplying
+a cheaper kind probably owing to the quality of soil and inferior
+varieties that are cultivated.
+
+There are not a few persons who consider that in order to cultivate
+willows successfully, any neglected, damp piece of ground, which is
+unsuited for other crops, may be utilized, and the cuttings simply
+stuck in without ground preparation of any kind. This is, however, a
+great mistake, as experience has long ago demonstrated that in order to
+make osier cultivation at all profitable, a low level, and a naturally
+rather moist situation must be chosen, and further, that the soil
+should be deep, well drained and thoroughly prepared.
+
+Thoroughly drain the ground first, then steam-plough or trench the
+soil to a depth of about 18 in., removing carefully all weeds,
+particularly such troublesome kinds as the bindweed, couch grass and
+dock. It is always preferable to take a crop of potatoes first from
+the land intended to be laid down for osier culture, as it not only
+sweetens and enriches the soil, but allows of the eradication of all
+obnoxious weeds. Where, however, it is not practicable to crop the land
+first with potatoes, the soil should be well and roughly broken up and
+left so for a year, or for a winter, at least, before being planted
+with the osiers. The best time to plant is from October to the middle
+of March. The sets, or cuttings, should be about 15 in. long, and
+formed of well-ripened rods, of one year’s growth, and the straightest
+and cleanest portion of the rod only used. Three or four buds should,
+if possible, be on the top end of each set. In planting, insert the
+cuttings from 9 to 12 in. into the ground, leaving 3 in. above soil,
+which forms the stool that bears the future crops.
+
+It is well to exercise great caution while inserting the cuttings,
+as, if the work has been delayed till the sap is rising, the bark
+readily strips away from the wood, and this is very objectionable, as
+the plants in such a state usually die. The sets may be placed about
+15 in. apart, and the rows, which, for convenience, should be lined
+off straight, about 30 in. from each other. Of course, as regards
+distances, these will depend to a great extent on the quality of the
+soil and the particular kind of willow being planted, but the above are
+good average distances.
+
+For basket-making, etc., the best kinds of osiers to use are
+_Salix triandra_ and _S. viminalis_, but there are others. A good
+basket-willow, be it of whatever kind, should, when green, twist from
+end to end without breaking. It is well to bear in mind that, in order
+to obtain the greatest profits from willow culture, only the very
+best kinds should be planted—indeed, next to preparing the ground, a
+judicious selection should be one of the main considerations. For the
+first year, at least, after being formed, osier beds must be carefully
+attended to in the way of cleaning and weeding. Hoeing will be found
+the most convenient method of getting rid of weeds, but, in the case
+of bindweed, hand-picking around and amongst the sets will be found
+necessary.
+
+Cutting the osiers must be done while the crop is dormant, or not later
+than the middle of February, but not during frost, which will injure
+and kill off parts of the stool. The cutting is done by means of a
+rod-hook, which resembles a miniature sickle; this should always be
+kept sharp, so that the cuts may be made clean. Tie the rods together
+when dry, in bundles of three or four sizes, and either house or stack
+them. It should be borne in mind that rods are easily spoiled by being
+tied up or stacked whilst in a wet state, as they very soon become
+heated, which makes them brittle and utterly valueless for the purpose
+intended. What is known in England as “bolting” is simply taking a
+number of osiers, as nearly of a size as possible, and laying them on
+a twisted wand, at the same time keeping the butts all one way, and
+level, then drawing them tightly together—not, however, to such an
+extent as to injure the bark—with a rope and two levers, and finishing
+off by tying the wand. The wand should be at 14 in. from the butts. A
+bolt of rods should measure 40 in. round the band.
+
+In forming a willow bed, the following short rules should be observed:—
+
+1. Willows will not succeed well in peaty, sandy, or water-logged
+soils; rich, well-drained loam, that can be flooded at will is the most
+suitable.
+
+2. Trench or plough, and thoroughly clean or pulverize the ground
+before planting.
+
+3. Plant only the best kinds, studying soil and market, and avoid a
+mixed crop.
+
+4. From November to March insert the cuttings about nine inches deep,
+avoiding such as are bark-chafed, and tramp firmly.
+
+5. Keep the beds clean and free from weeds.
+
+6. Cut the crop close to the ground; pollard willows soon decay and in
+that state harbour injurious insects.
+
+The following estimate of the approximate cost per acre of osier
+culture, and the returns therefrom for the first three years will be of
+interest:—
+
+FIRST YEAR.
+
+                                                        £ _s._ _d._
+    Ploughing the ground and planting                   4  10   0
+    Hoeing and other attention                          1   5   0
+    15,700 willow cuttings (_Salix viminalis_)         10   0   0
+    Rent, rates, and 5 per cent. interest on capital    2  12   0
+    Harvesting                                          0  18   0
+                                                      ————————————
+                                                      £19   5   0
+    Yield first year 3 tons, value                      9   0   0
+                                                      ————————————
+    Loss                                              £10   5   0
+
+SECOND YEAR.
+
+                                                      £ _s._ _d._
+    Rent, rates and incidentals                       2  10   0
+    Hoeing and cleaning                               1   8   0
+    Harvesting                                        1  10   0
+                                                    ————————————
+                                                     £5   8   0
+    Yield about 5 tons.                              20   0   0
+                                                    ————————————
+    Profit                                          £15   8   0
+
+THIRD AND SUBSEQUENT YEARS.
+
+    Expenditure £6.      Yield £24.      Profit £18.
+
+If the ground is properly cultivated and losses made good, the
+plantation should give a yield similar to the third year for fully a
+quarter of a century.
+
+In the low-lying district between Taunton, Bridgwater and Langport, in
+Somerset, willow or osier culture is largely engaged in.
+
+The system generally adopted is that the owner or tenant of the land
+planted to willows keeps the land free from weeds to prevent the
+withies being choked. This entails an outlay of about 25_s._ per acre
+per annum if properly done. The crops are measured and marked out
+in half-acre lots and sold in October or November. The purchasers
+cut and remove them, and in some cases convert them into baskets,
+basket-chairs, and such like. In other cases the purchasers select and
+bundle the crop in the regulation sizes and sell them to dealers.
+
+The results of some recent sales are as follows: One field of 11½
+acres realized £132 and the first two half-acres, being remarkably
+good withies, made £19 10_s._ Three other fields, containing 16 acres
+in all, made £161 10_s._; and three others, containing 22½ acres, £222
+2_s._ 6_d._ The agricultural annual rental value of this land when
+pasture, before it was planted to willows, was under £2 per acre.
+
+From the above it will be seen that if prudently entered upon and
+economically carried out the cultivation of willows for basket-making
+is a paying industry, and as for some years to come foreign supplies
+will be barred to our markets, the enterprise should prove highly
+remunerative.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXVIII
+
+UTILIZING WASTE FOREST PRODUCE
+
+
+That the production of timber, in common with other trades, has of
+late years been rendered far less remunerative than formerly, owing
+principally to keen foreign competition, is a fact that is now well
+known, even to the most casual observer. In face of this it behoves
+us to ask ourselves the question: Do we utilize to the fullest extent
+the by-products of the forest and woodland, and so diminish waste,
+and, at the same time, add to the general revenue of the forest
+department? By waste produce, or by-products, is meant anything other
+than wood in the condition in which it is generally used, and includes
+bark, charcoal, firewood, house and kiln faggots, tar, wood-spirit,
+turpentine, sawdust, wood-ashes, leaf soil, etc. That much may be done,
+both in economy of production and in utilization of waste produce, is
+well known to those in charge of woods and forests in every part of the
+country. Where the by-products cannot well be utilized in any of the
+above-named ways, it would be better, perhaps, to reduce them to ashes;
+for, by so doing, insect and fungus life are lessened, and a valuable
+manure is obtained, particularly rich in potash, whether for grassland
+or certain farm or garden crops.
+
+The forest by-products of Great Britain and Ireland are, in the main,
+applied in the four following ways:—
+
+    (1) Firewood.
+    (2) Charcoal, for heating purposes, etc.
+    (3) Bark for tanning.
+    (4) Faggots, for house and kiln purposes.
+
+Although the British forester has usually little or nothing to do with
+what we might term the volatile products of the forest—tar, pitch,
+turpentine, rosin, wood-spirit, acetic acid, etc.—nor, indeed, with
+paper-pulp, it may not be out of place to point out briefly the minor
+uses to which waste timber and by-products generally may be applied.
+
+Tar, which at present is largely imported from the Baltic ports and
+Southern United States, is obtainable principally from three species of
+Pinus: _P. palustris_, _P. Pinaster_, and _P. sylvestris_.
+
+Pitch is simply tar deprived of the volatile oils, which is brought
+about by boiling.
+
+Turpentine comes from incisions made in the stems of some of the pines,
+principally _Pinus palustris_, _P. sylvestris_, and _P. tæda_.
+
+The common silver fir (_Abies pectinata_) produces the famous Strasburg
+turpentine, while the larch is the source of the Venice turpentine of
+commerce.
+
+In New England the whole of the younger sapling pines—stem, branches,
+bark and leaves—are made into pasteboard, while in other countries the
+lime and poplar are converted into paper-pulp of great value. That the
+great and ever-increasing demand for paper of all qualities will cause
+a corresponding demand for the material used in its production cannot
+be doubted, and attention has already been directed to this matter in
+some parts of this country. From the sap of the larch and Scotch firs
+“coniferin” is obtained, while “rubber,” a valuable product for mixing
+with gutta-percha, which is very durable, is got from the bark of the
+common birch by distillation. The value of gorse as a food for horses
+and sheep is well known even in this country, while in Italy poplar
+leaves have long been used as cattle-food, and ground fir-needles in
+Styria for the same purpose.
+
+Dried leaves make excellent litter, and they are valuable as manure.
+Sawdust, though without manurial value, absorbs liquid manure, and is
+thus used as an excellent top-dressing. Leaf-mould is well known for
+its many uses in the garden, as for top-dressing and mixing with other
+poorer soils in the making of composts for planting. These are some
+of the many uses to which the minor by-products of the forest can be
+applied, but, as these hardly come within the scope of the forester,
+special attention will be devoted to the major by-products—firewood,
+charcoal, bark and faggots—with which the British forester is most
+intimately associated.
+
+=(1) Firewood.=—Never, perhaps, was the subject of English firewood
+more worthy of consideration than at the present time, when the price
+of other fuels is excessively high. Many persons will maintain that
+in districts where coal is abundant, it is very questionable whether
+there is any advantage to be obtained from burning wood. We have
+satisfied ourselves that even if wood could be procured at less than
+its present price—firewood price—it is nearly as expensive as coal,
+as sold previous to the war, in most of our large towns. No doubt, on
+many large estates where there is a superfluity of unsaleable wood,
+it would be utter folly not to have it converted into firewood, more
+particularly as such work gives employment to the woodmen when the
+inclemency of the weather puts a stop to general outdoor work. But this
+in itself is no proof that the firewood when prepared and ready for
+the grate is not as expensive as coal; for, when the rent of ground on
+which the wood was grown, and the cost of felling and converting it
+into firewood is taken into account, it will be found nearly as costly
+as household coal of ordinary quality.
+
+What will it cost to prepare a ton of firewood? This is a question that
+is not readily answered, the cost of labour in various parts of the
+country varying so widely. In England, generally speaking, the cutting
+up and stacking of a cord of fairly clean firewood—that is to say when
+large knotty pieces, which require the mallet and wedge for their
+manipulation, are excluded—costs from 5_s._ to 6_s._ Again, how many
+cords of wood will make a ton of firewood? This is another question
+that is more readily asked than answered, for the difference in weight
+between equal-sized logs of, say, oak and birch is considerable. For
+all practical purposes, however, we may state that about one and a
+half cords of wood go to the ton of firewood, thus making the cost of
+preparing and housing the latter about 10_s._ The lowest price at
+which we have sold a ton weight fresh cut was 8_s._, but 10_s._ is
+nearer the usual price, or about one-half of what is generally obtained
+for firewood. The cartage of this ton of wood cannot be less than 3_s._
+Much depends upon the distance it must be carted, no doubt, but it is
+usually delivered within a radius of two miles for the price quoted.
+
+The whole matter, therefore, stands something like this: Lowest cost of
+a ton of wood, 8_s._, cutting same into firewood and stacking, 8_s._;
+cost of delivery, 3_s._—total 19_s._
+
+It will thus be seen that the difference in price between a ton of
+firewood and one of coal is inconsiderable, and every one knows which
+of the two as fuel lasts the longer and imparts the greater amount of
+heat.
+
+Of course, where the firewood is cut up during wet weather by the
+estate workmen and consumed on the estate, the matter will stand
+somewhat differently, the two principal items, the cost of preparing
+and cutting being considerably diminished. In districts where the
+firewood cannot readily be sold, and would only rot in the woods, it
+is a wise policy to have it cut into firewood, not only for the saving
+effected in the coal bill, but also for preservation of the health of
+the plantations.
+
+In mining districts, or on the outskirts of large towns, there is
+usually little difficulty in getting rid of all surplus wood for firing
+and other purposes, but in thinly-populated, outlying parts of the
+country, where the cost of transit is excessive, the actual difference
+between the price of a ton of coal and one of firewood has to be
+considered.
+
+=(2) Charcoal.=—The following are the chief uses to which charcoal
+is put in this country: the manufacture of gun and blasting powders,
+the heating of hall-stoves, cooking, boiling preserves, and the
+smelting of iron. It is also employed as a filtering and deodorizing
+agent. Further, it occupies an important place in the making of black
+paint, ink, ivory- and lamp-black, and is valuable as a horticultural
+requisite in the packing of bulbs and for potting purposes. In the
+manufacture of gunpowder, for which a highly inflammable quality is
+required, the three principal woods used are the so-called dogwood
+(_Rhamnus frangula_), the white willow (_Salix alba_), and the common
+alder (_Alnus glutinosa_), though not infrequently the hazel, chestnut
+and our native _Rhamnus catharticus_ are substituted.
+
+Charcoal produced from the dogwood is, however, preferred to any other,
+as this forms a very explosive powder, used for military small-arms and
+for sporting purposes. For this purpose the dogwood is cut when an inch
+in diameter, and, if possible, when not more than of ten years’ growth.
+
+Although iron cylinders or retorts are more economical in the making of
+charcoal, yet for various reasons the primitive method of pit-burning
+is to be recommended for general estate purposes. The manufacture of
+charcoal in this way having received due attention elsewhere in this
+book, it need not be repeated here. It should be remembered that small
+wood is more profitable for charcoal making than that of a larger
+size, not only because the former requires little or no cutting and
+splitting, but for the main reason that it can be procured at less
+cost, and produces more charcoal, weight for weight. Even at the
+present low price of charcoal—about 1_s._ per bushel—there is a fair
+profit attached to the making of it, as will be seen from the following
+figures, which may be taken as fairly representative. A cord of
+ordinary mixed wood, which should measure, after being stacked, 12 ft.
+long, 3 ft. wide, and 3 ft. high, will usually, when properly burned,
+yield 35 bushels of charcoal, and this, at the low price of 10_d._ will
+realize 29_s._ 2_d._ The cost of cutting this cord of wood, which is
+generally performed by contract, will be at the least 5_s._, and that
+of burning 7_s._; thus leaving a clear profit of 17_s._ 2_d._ per cord
+for the wood.
+
+Even roots are made into charcoal, and we have seen whole woods grubbed
+up free of expense, the roots being given in return for the labour; but
+such work is usually performed during the winter, when labour is at a
+discount. Pinewood is not nearly so valuable for charcoal making as
+hardwood, but the former is not infrequently made to realize a profit
+of from 8_s._ to 10_s._ per cord of wood.
+
+=(3) Bark.=—In the past, the annual home supply of bark was estimated
+at about 300,000 tons, but, in addition to this some 30,000 tons were
+imported from the Continent; but of late years, owing to the employment
+of chemical substitutes, the amount used is much smaller. For tanning
+purposes, oak, and occasionally larch, bark is principally in use in
+this country, though both willow and alder are largely used for the
+same purpose in various countries, more especially in Russia. Although
+not at present a valuable product, a small margin of profit, even
+at the present low price, will accrue through careful and judicious
+management of the bark crop. Of this we are fully convinced. It is,
+perhaps, not so well known as it should be that of our two varieties
+of oak, _Quercus Robur pedunculata_ and _Q. R. sessiliflora_—the
+former contains 15 and the latter only 13 per cent. of tannin. The
+branches, too, down to an inch in diameter, contain a relatively higher
+proportion of tannin than the bark of the stem.
+
+The stripping and harvesting of oak bark having received notice in a
+separate paper, nothing further need be said of these here.
+
+=(4) Faggots.=—These are made of the smaller branches or spray, the
+remains of charcoal wood, etc., and tied into bundles similar in
+size to a sheaf of wheat. They are either left lying on the ground
+or standing upright in threes or fours together for a few days after
+being made, previous to being stacked, as they always are for about
+six months before being used. In thinning a woodland the faggots are
+usually bound up by contract at 4_s._ 6_d._ per hundred, except when
+the wood is exceptionally rough and crooked, when another shilling is
+added. When stacked and dry they realize about 16_s._ per hundred in
+the wood, thus giving a clear profit of 11_s._ 6_d._, if we deduct
+4_s._ 6_d._, for binding, per hundred.
+
+In England the demand for these faggots is considerable, they being
+used either for kiln purposes, or, when chopped up into smaller
+bundles, for fire-lighting. These latter are about 9 in. long, and
+half that in diameter, and are bound tightly round the centre with
+tarred rope. Previous to the war they were sold at 3_s._ 6_d._ per
+hundred.
+
+This is a good and profitable way of getting rid of all superfluous
+spray and branches. Brush or kiln faggots, which are largely used for
+brick-burning, consist of all refuse woodland scrub, and when tied
+up and dry can be sold at from 5_s._ to 6_s._ per hundred for the
+brick-kilns. They are made by contract at 2_s._ 6_d._ per hundred. By
+the utilizing of this otherwise waste-product, every twig and branch is
+carefully gathered together, and the woodlands are thus kept in a neat
+and healthy condition.
+
+=Minor Products.=—In addition to firewood, charcoal, faggots, etc.,
+which may be considered as the main by-products of the forest and
+woodland, there are other minor products, such as are to be met with
+largely where coppice wood is grown to any extent, which will repay
+the cost of singling out from amongst the above. These may include
+flower-stakes, tool-handles, walking-sticks, barrel-hoops, chisel-rods,
+etc., all of which sell readily in various parts of the country and
+from which considerable profits are realized.
+
+In cutting the coppice wood, the longest and straightest poles are
+selected for hop-stakes, the next size for bean stakes, pea-boughs,
+etc., and so on until every part of the wood is utilized.
+
+Leaf soil, too, sells readily at 5_s._ per cart load—indeed, near large
+towns the demand for this and peat often exceeds the supply. In all
+cases, however, it may not be a wise policy to remove this valuable
+soil from the woodlands, even at the high price offered.
+
+Half-decayed leaves, too, are much sought after where market gardening
+is largely carried on, being used to form forcing-beds, and to preserve
+plants and roots from severe frost.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXIX
+
+FENCING PLANTATIONS
+
+
+Many different methods of fencing are adopted throughout the country,
+each one, no doubt, possessing peculiar advantages according to the
+circumstances in which it may happen to be required.
+
+In hilly districts very efficient fences of stones may be made where
+these are abundant. Turf dykes may be constructed on high-lying grounds
+where stones cannot be readily procured, and iron or wood used wherever
+fancy dictates.
+
+The term “dead fence” may be applied to these in contradistinction to
+“live fence” or hedge, to which a special chapter is devoted.
+
+To describe even a few of the various wood or iron fences erected
+nowadays would be by no means an easy task, but typical examples of
+several kinds will be explained.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+=Stone Walls.=—These make capital plantation fences, but they are at
+first rather expensive, and unless well built require a good deal
+of attention in the way of repairing breaches. They possess a great
+advantage over most other fences in the amount of shelter afforded to
+the young trees. Two methods of building are usually adopted: firstly,
+where stones are abundant, the entire wall may be of these; and,
+secondly, where only a limited quantity are available, the wall is
+built to a certain height and wires placed atop.
+
+The dry stone wall as this is usually termed, is built without mortar,
+with the exception of the cope-stone, which in all cases should be
+bedded in and pointed with lime.
+
+From 4 ft. to 5 ft. is the usual height, the foundations being from 22
+in. to 24 in. wide, and the wall 14 in. across beneath the cope-stone,
+the latter being about 10 in. high and placed on edge. Great care is
+necessary in building to see that the “throughs” or binding-stones are
+placed in position, as on this depends mainly the efficiency of the
+fence. Where wires are used atop, the wall need only be 3 ft. high,
+22 in. wide at base, and 12 in. under the cope-stone. The latter are
+bedded in mortar, and an extra large stone is placed every 6 ft. for
+receiving the iron standard, to which the wires are attached. Slate
+slabs, where these are readily procured, may be used for the same
+purpose as the iron standards, but they should be built firmly into the
+wall, and reach from the base of the foundation. Two, and sometimes
+three, wires are used atop of the wall.
+
+=Slate Fences.=—These are commonly in use throughout Wales; in fact,
+wherever slate quarries are worked. When well erected and of fairly
+regular sized slates, this fence is certainly not to be despised,
+and it may be considered as practically indestructible. The expenses
+incurred for keeping these fences in repair are also very little, as
+they seldom become damaged, and when an upright chances to get broken,
+another whole one can easily be substituted, and without interfering
+with any other portion of the fence. The size of slate pale, or slab,
+as usually termed, is 5 ft. long, 4 in. to 6 in. wide, and about 1 in.
+in thickness. In erecting the fence a trench is cut about 12 in. wide
+and 8 in. deep, care being taken that the trench is cut perpendicular,
+so as to ensure the pales standing in a similar position. These are
+placed upright in the trench, about 3 in. apart, with their flat side
+close to the perpendicular cut and the soil replaced in the trench and
+made firm with a rammer.
+
+A double wire is then tightly interlaced about 3 in. from the top of
+the pales, and given a double twist between each, thereby ensuring
+great stability by uniting the fence and keeping the pales at equal
+distance apart. The straining-posts are also of slate, 6 ft. long, 6
+in. wide, and 3 in. thick.
+
+[Illustration: SLATE FENCES]
+
+=Turf Dykes.=—These were formerly much used in moorland and outlying
+districts, where stones are not abundant, and where, from the nature of
+the soil and situation, hedges would not succeed. They are, at best,
+troublesome fences to keep in repair, and require some adjunct either
+in the way of wires atop, or, failing this, they must be planted with
+gorse or other suitable shrubs. One advantage is the great amount of
+shelter they afford to the young plants, while they are, comparatively
+speaking, cheap of erection. There are several methods of building turf
+dykes, the best being to cut or pare the turf 3 in. in thickness in
+one or more lengths to suit the width of the dyke, and of a convenient
+breadth: these are laid cross-wise one above the other. Both sides
+of the dyke should be built at once, giving the necessary batter as
+the work proceeds, and the grassy surface of the turf placed to the
+outside. The dyke is usually made 3 ft. in height, 3 ft. wide, and
+drawn gradually in to 12 in. at top. A two-rail fence surmounts the
+dyke, bringing the total height to 4½ ft. or 5 ft. Sometimes a ditch is
+cut alongside the dyke 3 ft. wide, about 2½ ft. deep, and 9 in. wide at
+bottom, so as to prevent the farm stock getting at and damaging it, the
+soil removed being used in forming the fence. By sowing gorse and broom
+seeds on top of the dyke an excellent shelter fence is obtained.
+
+=Wood Fences.=—These are common on almost every estate throughout the
+country, especially such as are well wooded, and, owing to the low
+prices obtainable for home-grown timber, it is well that such should be
+employed as widely as possible. Wooden fences are also much preferred
+by many owners of property to those erected either of stone or iron on
+account of their rustic appearance.
+
+Wooden fences are, therefore, sure to be largely employed when the
+appearance of the property and not too-exacting financial results are
+points of importance.
+
+There are many forms of wooden fences adopted, these varying chiefly
+according to the particular use to which they are applied. The
+following descriptions are of such kinds as are generally in use for
+woods and plantations.
+
+Here it might be well to mention in passing that only matured and
+seasoned timber should be used in fencing, the cost of erection,
+whether the timber be good or inferior, being the same, and every one
+knows which will last the longer.
+
+A good strong fence is erected as follows:—Posts, 5 ft. 9 in. long, 4
+in. broad, and 2½ in. thick; bars or rails, 9 ft. long, by 3½ in. by
+1½ in. Four holes are mortised into the posts for the reception of the
+bars, the ends of which are so formed as to overlap each other tightly.
+The fence is usually 4 ft. high, and so as to strengthen the horizontal
+bars a stake is driven into the ground midway between the larger posts,
+and to this the rails are securely nailed. In some cases the posts are
+not to be mortised, so that the bars require to be attached by nails.
+
+[Illustration: SAWN WOOD FENCE]
+
+For park clumps, particularly where a substantial and neat fence to
+keep back horses, cattle or deer is required, the following, though
+rather expensive at first, is largely employed. The entire fence is
+made of oak or Spanish chestnut, and is shown on following page.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+[Illustration]
+
+[Illustration: OAK FENCES]
+
+Posts 7 ft. long, 6 in. by 4 in., and run out with the circular saw.
+Rails triangular, about 3½ in. to the side. The uprights are rent from
+oak or chestnut trees of straight grain, and are usually about ³/₁₆ of
+an inch thick, and 5 ft. high. The posts are erected 6 ft. apart, the
+rails being mortised into these, and the rent uprights fastened about
+2 in. apart by patent rose nails to the horizontal rails. A fence of
+this kind, when properly erected, will last for upwards of forty years,
+especially if the butts of the posts are charred before being inserted
+in the ground.
+
+[Illustration: WIRE FENCE WITH WOODEN POSTS]
+
+Rustic fences for small tree clumps may be of almost any design, but
+the following is cheap and easily erected. It is formed of larch posts
+6 ft. long, and about 4½ in. diameter, driven into the ground at 6
+ft. apart. Two flat or rounded rails about 3 in. by 1¼ in. are nailed
+horizontally to these, the lower at 9 in. from the ground and the other
+flush with the tops of the posts, which when driven in are 4 ft. from
+ground level. The uprights are also of larch, split up the centre and
+nailed on the horizontal bars at 2 in. apart. They extend above the top
+rail for 7 in., and are sharply pointed so that they cannot be climbed
+over.
+
+[Illustration: TOOLS FOR FENCING]
+
+=Wire Fences.=—These may be erected either with iron or wooden
+standards and straining-posts. The form most commonly in use for
+enclosing woods is that with wooden posts and strainers, these being
+made of mature and thoroughly seasoned larch or oak. The strainers are
+7 ft. long and 6 in. square, or, if round, about 7 in. in diameter,
+while the intermediate posts are 5½ ft. long, and 3½ in. by 3 in., or,
+if round, 3½ in. diameter at smallest end. The strainers should be
+fitted into the ground at 150 yards apart, and the posts driven firmly
+at 6 ft. from each other. At every sharp curve along the line of fence
+a stout post, say 5 in. in diameter, should be used. In order to make a
+stout fence proof against cattle and sheep, six wires should be used,
+the two top No. 6, and the others No. 7 gauge, the distances between
+each pair, beginning at the top, being 8, 7, 6, 5½ and 5 in., the lower
+being 5 in. from the ground. Brackets for straining the wires should
+be attached to each of the strainers, these having this advantage over
+the older system of using the straining machine, that the wires can
+be loosened or tightened at will, when repairs are found necessary.
+The tops of the posts should be rounded off or sawn on angle so as to
+prevent the lodgment of water. Iron and wire fences combined are now
+commonly in use, and there are so many excellent systems that it would
+be invidious to recommend one kind more than another.
+
+Iron box fencing, which consists of standards with double pronged
+feet for fixing in the ground and round or flat horizontal bars run
+through them, has been largely used and looks neat, being also, if
+properly erected, very efficient. Wrought-iron hurdles are sometimes
+used for fencing park clumps, and they possess at least this advantage,
+that they can be lifted at any time and re-erected should it be found
+necessary to remove them from one place to another.
+
+Unclimbable iron fencing, usually in hurdles 7 ft. long, are now much
+in use for park fencing, but for general plantation purposes this class
+of fencing is too expensive.
+
+=Tree Guards.=—These may either be erected of wood or iron; the former
+is, however, preferred on most large estates where timber is plentiful,
+and will receive first attention. For large trees whose branches
+sweep the greensward an elaborate structure is required, which may
+take the form of almost any of those described under wooden fencing.
+That entirely formed of oak is to be recommended, or split larch for
+uprights, with oak posts and rails may be considered more rustic in
+appearance. In any case the guard should be sufficiently high and wide
+to prevent cattle and horses reaching over to damage the branches.
+
+[Illustration: TREE GUARDS]
+
+When the trees are destitute of branches for a considerable distance
+up the stem, say 8 ft. or 10 ft., a very neat and efficient guard is
+made as follows:—Procure a number of larch, oak or Spanish chestnut
+poles, 7 ft. high, and about 2½ in. diameter at small end. Thread these
+on wires by boring holes in the poles at 2 ft. and 5 ft. from the butt
+end, keeping each couple separate by 3 in-long pieces of the same size
+of pole, also threaded on the wires. These can be formed on the level,
+and when sufficient to embrace the tree have been got together, the
+whole may be lifted up and placed in position closely around the trunk.
+Another method is to bind the poles together with fencing wire, giving
+a double twist between each to keep them at a suitable distance apart.
+
+When a more elaborate fence or guard is required, four posts 7 ft.
+long, 4 in. square, and sawn from crooked oak branches are used. The
+posts are quite straight for 5 ft. in length, the upper 2 ft. being
+inclined outwards, which not only gives the guard a neat appearance,
+but is a great preventive against the encroachments of farm stock. The
+posts are inserted nearly 2 ft. in the ground, and so as to form a
+square around the stem of 4½ ft. to the side, four bars, each 3 in. by
+1 in., are nailed horizontally on the straight portions of the posts,
+and at equal distances apart from where the angle occurs downwards;
+upwards from that three hoop-iron rails are nailed in a similar manner,
+the top one being one inch below the level of the crown of the posts.
+Iron has a light and neat appearance when used for the top bars, but
+wood is often substituted. Another cheap and neat tree guard for using
+with the rarer trees, to which horses and cattle have not access, is
+made as follows:—Pales 3 ft. long, 2 in. wide, by ⅜ in. thick, are sawn
+out and pointed. They are driven into the ground round the tree to be
+protected, the tops sloping outwards and 1½ in. apart. Stout tying wire
+is then interlaced at two heights from the ground.
+
+Oak or chestnut bark placed loosely around clean-stemmed young trees
+will prevent damage by ground game, and is cheap and looks unobtrusive.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXX
+
+TIMBER MEASURING
+
+
+To those who are not practically acquainted with the measuring of
+home-grown timber the following brief remarks in elucidation of the
+subject will be useful. It may, however, be well to mention that timber
+measuring is rather a vexed question, some following what is known as
+Hoppus’s system, and others advocating that of Horton. The former being
+that generally in use amongst timber merchants in this country, and
+consequently of greatest value to the forester, the following details
+of this system may prove serviceable.
+
+Regarding the timber-measurer’s equipment it may first be necessary to
+say a few words. This consists of a 66 ft. Chesterman’s tape-line, or
+instead of this a 5 ft. wooden rod, standard girt-strap, or fine cord,
+scribing knife, and bent piece of iron, with eye at end for drawing the
+girt-strap beneath such trees as the arm cannot readily pass under.
+
+For girthing timber a piece of thin whipcord or string is frequently
+used, but as the elasticity of this varies greatly, and has in many
+instances led to dispute, a much fairer plan and one that is liable
+to no abuse is to use the 12 ft. girt-strap, upon which every inch in
+length is reckoned ¼. As the proper quarter-girth can be seen at a
+glance on this strap, its adoption will at once remove any chance of
+trickery, which may be possible in the use of the string and rule.
+
+For entering measurements the most convenient book is that 9 in. by 4
+in., with stiff pasteboard covers, ruled with horizontal lines, and
+divided into four vertical columns. To measure proceed as follows:—Mark
+a number with the scribe on the butt end of the tree, and enter a
+similar number in the first column of the book; this will not only
+serve to identify the particular log, but prevent any risk of measuring
+twice. Should the taper throughout the whole length of the tree be
+tolerably gradual, set down the length in the second column of the
+book, opposite the number already entered. At exactly one-half of
+the length of the portion measured, take the girth by passing the
+girt-strap tightly around the stem. Put this down in the third column
+on the same horizontal line as the number and length. Should, however,
+the trunk taper not be fairly uniform throughout the entire length, as
+frequently happens, several measurements may require to be taken.
+
+For example, a tree may be 36 ft. in length, running with regular taper
+for perhaps 12 ft., after which it branches out, reducing the size of
+the remaining part very considerably for, say another 12 ft., where it
+again branches and leaves the last 12 ft. of a relatively small size.
+With such a tree it would be quite impossible to obtain anything like a
+correct measurement by taking only one length and girth. The difficulty
+is, however, readily got over by first measuring the lower 12 ft., then
+the second, and then the third, marking the respective lengths and
+girths in the vertical columns as already described.
+
+The measurement of these trees, so far as the field work is concerned,
+is now completed, the contents of each tree being found by referring
+to “Hoppus’s Measurer”—a book with which every forester should be
+supplied. By squaring the quarter-girth in inches, multiplying by the
+length in feet, and dividing by 144, the same result will be obtained.
+This is, however, a tedious method, especially where large numbers of
+trees have to be dealt with, and should only be adopted when Hoppus is
+not at hand.
+
+By committing to memory the following short table of quarter-girths
+much time in calculating and consulting authorities will be saved.
+
+     6-inch quarter-girth will give contents equal to  ¼
+               the entire length in feet.
+     7  ”           ”                ”                 ⅓
+     8½ ”           ”                ”                 ½
+    10  ”           ”                ”                 ⅔
+    12  ”           ”                ”               1
+    13  ”           ”                ”               1¼
+    14¾ ”           ”                ”               1½
+    16  ”           ”                ”               1¾
+    17  ”           ”                ”               2
+    19  ”           ”                ”               2½
+    21  ”           ”                ”               3
+    22½ ”           ”                ”               3½
+    24  ”           ”                ”               4
+    27  ”           ”                ”               5
+    29½ ”           ”                ”               6
+    31¾ ”           ”                ”               7
+    34  ”           ”                ”               8
+    36  ”           ”                ”               9
+
+The sliding rule is also useful for determining contents.
+
+The proper allowance to be made for bark is half an inch for every
+foot of quarter-girth for oak and elm under 12 in. quarter-girth, and
+an inch for all beyond, but it is quite impossible to fix upon any
+one uniform scale that will meet even the majority of circumstances.
+Trees growing in exposed situations will frequently have bark almost
+double the thickness of those of a similar size in the woodland. My
+plan has been always to allow for the bark of each tree at the time of
+measurement.
+
+=Measuring Standing Timber.=—For this a pliable pole 18 ft. long,
+marked in feet, and the girt-strap already referred to are the
+necessary equipment. In estimating the number of feet of timber upon a
+large area, it is not always necessary to measure each tree separately,
+particularly when the whole situation is composed of one species, and
+the individual trees are about the same age and size, as by multiplying
+the total number of trees by the average content of those selected and
+measured a very just calculation will be arrived at. Great care in
+their selection, and considerable judgment in taking the average will,
+however, be required.
+
+[Illustration: MEASURING HEIGHT OF TREES]
+
+When each tree is to be measured separately two assistants will
+be required, one to carry the 18-ft. pole, and the other the
+girting-strap. Sometimes, when the timber is of great height, jointed
+bamboos are used, and a light ladder brought into requisition.
+
+In carrying out the work in this way, the man with the pole declares
+the height of the tree, and the one with the tape the quarter-girth.
+
+=Measuring the Height of Trees.=—There are several methods of
+ascertaining the heights of trees, but the two following are, perhaps,
+the most simple, and the appliances necessary quite inexpensive:—
+
+No 1.—Take three laths, such as bricklayers use for tiling, and nail
+them in the shape of the frame shown; _a a_ must be of equal length;
+_a_ and _b_ being placed on the ground, the eye must follow up the
+larger lath _d d_ until it is in a line with _e_, the top of the tree
+or object you wish to measure.
+
+The frame must be placed as level with the bottom of the tree as
+possible. Should the ground be very uneven you must give and take
+accordingly.
+
+It will be seen that _b_ to _c_ is the same length as _c_ to _e_, and
+this gives the height of the tree.
+
+No 2.—Suspend the triangle between the thumb and forefinger of the
+left hand, knuckles down, upon the point _a a_, allowing it to swing
+freely. The edge _b c_ will then fall perpendicularly, and _c d_ will
+be horizontal. The remaining edge _d b_ will then lie at an angle of 45
+to the horizon. On this edge are two sights, _e_ and _f_. Look through
+_e_ until _f_ is aligned with the tree-top, advancing or retiring till
+the sights point exactly to it.
+
+Then, if the observer’s feet are level with the tree root, the height
+of the tree is the distance from his feet to the root, plus the height
+of the eye from the ground.
+
+The dendrometer is perhaps the most useful instrument for taking the
+height of a tree and can be procured from some of our nurserymen.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXXI
+
+BLASTING AND BURNING TREE ROOTS
+
+
+[Illustration: BLASTING AND BURNING TREE ROOTS]
+
+Blasting by gunpowder or dynamite is not only the most expeditious
+but also the cheapest method of clearing away tree stumps and large
+logs. In preparing to blast a stump, great care must be exercised to
+bore the hole in the right place and not to use too much explosive.
+For blasting powder the hole should be 1½ in. in diameter, and should
+penetrate to the centre of the stump. It must not be too low down, lest
+the bottom should blow out and the force be expended in shattering the
+ground instead of the stump or log. In selecting the spot to bore for
+the powder, choose the hardest part of the root and ensure an equal
+thickness of wood all round, and even splitting of the log will be the
+result. The following is a good way of putting in the powder:—For large
+stumps of from 2 ft. to 4 ft. in diameter about 3½ in. depth of coarse
+blasting powder should be inserted in a hole 1½ in. in diameter. The
+end of the fuse should be put into the centre of the powder, and left
+protruding for 15 in. outside the hole, which is filled with dry sand,
+consolidated, or packed around the fuse by means of a coarse iron wire.
+The outside end of the fuse should be teased out and lighted with a
+match, and as it will require over a minute for the fire to reach the
+powder, time is given for the operator to find a place of safety.
+
+=Burning Tree Stumps.=—With a 2-in. auger bore a vertical hole in the
+centre of the stump from the top towards the bottom. In the side of the
+stump, near ground level, bore a horizontal hole towards the centre,
+so as to open into the vertical hole, drop some fire down the vertical
+hole, and if the wood is at all dry the draught of air entering by
+the horizontal hole will, like the draught of a chimney, maintain the
+combustion of the fire in the centre, until this slowly spreads and
+ultimately burns away the stump.
+
+Another and equally simple method of destroying stumps of trees is as
+follows:—In autumn bore a hole 2 in. in diameter and 18 in. deep, put
+in 1½ oz. of saltpetre, fill with water, and plug up close. In the
+following spring put in the same hole half a gill of kerosene oil and
+then light. The stump will smoulder away without blazing, down to every
+part of the roots.
+
+=American Method of Blasting.=—At Studley Horticultural College,
+Warwickshire, the American method of blasting was successfully carried
+out and reported upon by Mr. A. P. Long as follows:—
+
+A hole is bored with a long auger or crowbar in a sloping direction
+from one side of the stump to its base, generally from 2½ ft. to 3½ ft.
+deep. The bore-hole is cleaned out, and a number of dynamite cartridges
+inserted, each being firmly pressed home by a wooden rod. A primer
+cartridge containing a detonator is then placed on the top of these,
+and the bore-hole is filled with clay and tightly rammed. The primer
+is either connected directly with a safety fuse, or to a high-tension
+battery, by a cable, and is afterwards fired. As dynamite strikes
+downwards as well as upwards, the effect of the explosion is that the
+roots and stump are all either ejected or loosened, so that they can be
+easily removed by hand.
+
+The American method is less costly and more speedy than the methods
+hitherto used in England in removing stumps. If there is no man on
+the estate qualified to handle explosives, an expert must be employed
+at about £1 per day, besides travelling and hotel expenses. Three
+men—an expert and two labourers—can bore holes and blast thirty sound
+stumps per day easily. If the stumps are hollow in the centre, two or
+three bore holes are necessary for each stump, and in that case twenty
+only can be blasted during the day. Taking the pre-war wages of two
+labourers at 2_s._ 6_d._ each per day, the cost of boring and firing
+averages 2½_d._ per stump, exclusive of the expert’s fee. The expert’s
+fee increases the cost by about 2_s._ per stump.
+
+The explosive used is Nobel’s dynamite, in the form of cartridges,
+costing 9½_d._ per lb. The average quantity used for each stump is
+between 2 lbs. and 3 lbs. (about twenty to thirty cartridges), so that
+the cost of the explosive is not more than 2_s._ 6_d._ per stump. The
+detonators and fuses required only cost a few pence. Summing up, the
+cost per stump is:—
+
+                        _s._ _d._
+    Expert’s fee         2    0
+    Cost of boring       0    2½
+    Cost of explosive    2    6
+    Detonators and fuse  0    9½
+                         ———————
+                         5    6
+
+Misfires and partial removal of stump may require fresh borings and
+further charges of explosive, thus increasing the cost. By employing a
+skilled estate hand capable of using explosives instead of an expert,
+the expense, however, is greatly diminished.
+
+By the old method of grubbing and jacking, stumps were removed at
+Studley some time ago at the high cost of about £2 5_s._ each butt,
+and even then success was only partial. In another case, on an estate
+in Norfolk, where an old pasture was converted into a plantation of
+mixed trees, trenching at the cost of £18 per acre had to be resorted
+to on account of the presence of roots and stumps of old trees. In
+this case it would have been much cheaper to have removed the stumps
+by blasting. The demonstrations at Studley showed that both sound and
+unsound stumps could be successfully blasted, and whole trees—an Apple
+and an Oak—were also uprooted by the same method with equal success,
+using only one bore-hole and about the same charge of explosive. The
+timber of the trees so treated, however, is very much split, so that
+blasting is only advisable when the timber is considered of little
+value.
+
+The particular explosives used are unaffected by damp, and, in
+consequence, the method is applicable in both wet and dry situations.
+Firing the charges was done at the demonstrations mostly by ladies, and
+a photographer was able to get sufficiently near to obtain photographs
+of the effect of the explosion without danger. The principal
+recommendations of this method, therefore, are cheapness, effectiveness
+and safety.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXXII
+
+PRICES OF CONTRACT OR PIECEWORK
+
+
+The following prices may be taken as approximating to those paid
+generally throughout the country previous to the war.
+
+It may be well to remember, however, that in districts where unusually
+high or low wages are paid, so in proportion will be the contract
+prices for the various classes of work.
+
+    BARKING OAK:                                    _s._ _d._   _s.  d._
+      Barking oak                           per ton  21   0
+      Loading bark on wagons                   ”      3   0
+      Barking oak per ton of bark                    30   0
+      Chopping bark                            ”      8   0  to  10   0
+
+    COPPICEWOOD:
+      Cutting out hurdle rods                        per score    0   1
+         ”    hurdle stakes                          per dozen    0   1
+         ”    rake stems                                ”         0   1
+         ”    spade stems                               ”         0   1
+         ”    spick gads                                ”         0   1
+         ”    dahlia stakes                             ”         0   1
+         ”    rose stakes                         per two dozen   0   1
+         ”    besom handles                             ”         0   1
+         ”    kidney-bean stakes                   50 in bundle   0   2
+         ”    pea stakes                             per bundle   0   1
+         ”    birchwood for besoms                      ”         0   1
+
+    DRAINING:                                        _s._ _d._   _s. d._
+      Pipe draining, mains, 4 ft. 3 in.
+                      deep, 4 in. or 6
+                       in. pipes           per chain  3   0  to   3   6
+        ”      ”     small, 4 ft. deep, 1½
+                       in. to 3 in. pipes      ”      2   0  ”    2   9
+        ”      ”     small, 4 ft. deep, 1½
+                       in. pipes               ”      1   9  ”    2   6
+      Ditches, open, 36 in. wide at top,
+        30 in. deep, and 9 in. wide at
+        bottom                             per chain  3   0  to   4   0
+      Scouring out ditto                         ”    0   9  ”    1   0
+      Small open ditches, 15 in. to 18 in.
+        wide at top, 12 in. to 15 in. deep,
+        and 9 in. wide at bottom                 ”    1   6  ”    2   6
+      Scouring out ditto                         ”    0   6  ”    0   9
+
+    FAGGOT-MAKING:                                   _s._ _d._
+      Making faggots                        per 100   4    6
+         ”   oven faggots                       ”     3    0
+         ”   faggots for fire-lighting          ”     1    3
+      Cutting bands for tying faggots           ”     0    4
+
+    FELLING AND STUBBING TIMBER:                     _s.  d._   _s.  d._
+      Felling oak timber         per ton of 40 ft.    3   0
+         ”    other hardwoods       ”       ”         2   6
+         ”    pinewood              ”       ”         1   6  to   1  9
+      Stubbing out timber           ”       ”         3   6   ”   4  0
+      Cutting underwood from 12 to 15 years’ growth
+                                            per acre  9   6   ”  12  0
+
+    FENCING:                                         _s.  d._   _s.  d._
+      Setting out and mortising 4-holed posts
+                                          per score   4   0
+         ”         ”       ”    3-holed    ”    ”     3   0
+         ”         ”       ”    2-holed    ”    ”     2   6
+         ”         ”       ”    1-holed    ”    ”     2   0
+         ” and cleaving rails                   ”     0  10
+         ”       ”        ”     stakes          ”     0   6
+         ”       ”        ”     long poles      ”     0   6
+         ”       ”        ”     short poles     ”     0   4
+      Hanging field-gates                     each    4   0  to   5   0
+      Fixing stile                              ”     2   0
+      Preparing posts, rails and pails for tree guards
+                                             per set  0   9
+      Fixing ditto                              ”     2   0
+      Six-wire fence larch posts and creosoted
+                                          per chain  35   0  to  40   0
+      Fixing same                            ”        4   6  ”    5   0
+
+    FIREWOOD:                                        _s.  d._   _s.  d._
+      Splitting firewood                   per cord   4   0  to  6   0
+          ”        ”     for charcoal          ”      2   6   ”  3   0
+      Cutting and stacking cordwood            ”      2   0   ”  3   0
+      Burning charcoal       per bushel of 20 lbs.               0   2
+      Loading and spreading soil           per load   0   5   ”  0   6
+
+    GATE-MAKING:                                     _s.  d._   _s.  d._
+      Field gate, oak                          5-bar            17   0
+      Posts                                 per pair            23   0
+      Iron fastening and ironwork complete                       5   9
+        ”  Fixing                                                4   6
+      Making 5-bar oak gate                                      2   6
+         ”   half gate                                           1   9
+         ”   rough wickets                                       2   0
+         ”   wrought wickets                                     3   0
+      Sawing hardwood                    per 100 ft.  3   6  to  4   0
+         ”   softwood                     ”   ”       2   6   ”  3   0
+
+    HEDGING:                                         _s.  d._    _s. d._
+      Trimming hedges, ordinary size      per chain   0   9  to   1  6
+      Making bank for quick hedge, digging
+               ditch and planting quick       ”       7   6  ”   10  6
+        ”    hedge, without bank or ditch,
+               trenching ground, preparing
+               bed and planting               ”       3   0  ”    4  0
+      Cleaning young hedges                   ”       0   8  ”    0  9
+      Laying hedge and scouring out ditch     ”       2   0  ”    3  0
+
+    HURDLE-MAKING:                                   _s.  d._    _s. d._
+      Making hurdles                      per dozen   3   6  to   4  0
+         ”   cattle hurdles (wattle)          ”       5   0   ”   6  0
+         ”   Welsh hurdles, for sheep         ”       4   0   ”   5  0
+
+    PITTING:
+      Digging out clay                     per yard               0  6
+         ”   holes for tree planting, 15 in. in diameter
+               and 15 in. deep              per 100   1   6  to   2  6
+      Inserting plants                         ”      0   6  ”    1  0
+      Notch planting                           ”      2   0  ”    3  0
+
+    PREPARING ROAD MATERIAL:
+      Quarrying stones                     per yard   0  10  to   1  3
+      Breaking stones for roads               ”       0   8  ”    1  0
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXXIII
+
+FOREST AREA OF THE WORLD
+
+
+Exclusive of the forests of China, Corea and parts of Africa and South
+America, for which there are no available data, the forest area of the
+world is approximately 3,800,000,000 acres.
+
+The forests of Europe total upwards of 750,000,000 or, roughly
+speaking, about 31 per cent. of the total land area of the Continent;
+whilst among non-European countries Canada comes first with 799,000,000
+acres, United States, 545,000,000, tropical South America 528,000,000,
+Asiatic Russia 348,000,000, and Central Africa 224,000,000.
+
+Finland is, perhaps, the best wooded country in the world, Bosnia,
+Herzegovina and Sweden coming next, whilst amongst the least wooded
+areas are Great Britain and Portugal, the former including only about 4
+per cent. of the total area of the land.
+
+So far as is at present known the following are the approximate areas
+of woodlands in the various countries of the world:—
+
+           COUNTRY.                           TOTAL FOREST AREA.
+                                                    (Acres.)
+    Russia—
+      European Russia                            461,611,000
+      Finland                                     52,500,000
+    Austria-Hungary—
+      Austria                                     23,996,000
+      Hungary                                     18,692,000
+    Croatia and Slavonia                           3,769,000
+    Bosnia and Herzegovina                         6,380,000
+    Sweden                                        49,390,000
+    Germany                                       34,990,000
+    France                                        24,021,000
+    Norway                                        16,848,000
+    Spain                                         16,065,000
+    Italy                                         10,115,000
+    Bulgaria                                       7,603,000
+    Roumania                                       6,367,000
+    British Isles                                  3,071,361
+    Switzerland                                    2,140,000
+    Belgium                                        1,304,000
+    Servia                                         3,865,000
+    Other Countries                                4,427,000
+                                                 ——————
+                                                 747,154,361
+
+    Asiatic Russia                               348,030,000
+    India                                        149,000,000
+    Ceylon                                         6,763,000
+    Japan                                         57,718,000
+    Philippine Islands                            49,000,000
+    British Australasia                          126,720,000
+    Cape Colony, Natal, Swaziland and Transvaal      641,000
+    Madagascar                                    25,000,000
+    Barbary States                                 9,527,000
+    Central Africa                               224,000,000
+    South America (tropical)                     528,000,000
+    West Indies                                   42,669,000
+    Canada                                       799,360,000
+    Mexico                                        25,000,000
+    Alaska                                       107,000,000
+    United States of America                     545,000,000
+    Other Countries including the Straits
+      Settlement, Java, etc.                       6,870,000
+                                               ————————————
+                                               3,050,298,000
+
+The approximate area of woodlands in Great Britain and Ireland are:—
+
+                   Acres.
+    England      1,715,473
+    Scotland       868,409
+    Wales          184,361
+    Ireland        303,118
+                 ——————————
+                 3,071,361
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXXIV
+
+AFFORESTING WASTE LANDS AND THE FINANCIAL RETURNS THEREFROM
+
+
+Now that the Government is being urged seriously to consider the
+question of afforestation, it may be opportune on my part, as one
+of the earliest writers on the subject, to briefly recall what has
+already been done in this matter, and to offer some remarks on planting
+waste lands, with special reference to cost and the financial returns
+therefrom.
+
+For the past thirty years I have not failed to urge on the State and
+private owners of woodlands the pressing necessity for planting up
+some at least of the waste and unprofitable lands of our country, in
+order to provide a sufficiency of timber for the future and leave us
+less dependent on the supplies that are annually sent us from abroad.
+As stated elsewhere, when we consider that the total area of woodlands
+in this country is only a little over 3,029,000 acres, that fully
+15,000,000 acres of waste lands exist, and that we annually import
+over 10,000,000 tons of timber, at a cost of about £25,000,000, the
+necessity for an increased area of woodlands, so that a portion at
+least of this vast sum may be kept at home, will be apparent to all,
+and the more so as a dearth of timber is imminent, and outside supplies
+are being rigidly conserved, while our home demands are ever on the
+increase. England being, so to speak, a residential country, the
+retention of a certain amount of heath, mountain and common lands, for
+the purpose of deer forests, grouse moors, game coverts and golfing
+links is imperative, and will considerably reduce the acreage of land
+available for afforesting purposes. But I think that I am well within
+bounds in alloting out of the 15,000,000 acres of waste land 1,000,000
+to afforesting and 14,000,000 to game preserves, deer forests and rough
+pasture.
+
+Having personally explored much of the mountain and heath lands in
+England and Scotland, and some of the vast tracts of bog land in
+Ireland (the latter extending to fully one million acres), I have
+carefully computed that of land up to 1,200 feet altitude, where
+timber would grow perfectly well, about 9,000,000 acres are available
+for afforesting purposes. As far as I have been able to find out, the
+average rental of the ground referred to is a fraction under 3_s_. per
+acre, and I am quite confident that any land which does not bring in
+at least three times that amount for grazing or agricultural purposes
+would be more profitably employed in carrying a crop of timber.
+
+It is unfortunate that much of these waste lands are private property,
+the owners of which, even could they afford it, have little inclination
+to sink, for a period of say twenty years, the necessary capital
+required to be expended on the formation of woods and plantations.
+Equally unfortunate is it that owing to an injudicious system of
+management many plantations in this country have been wrongly formed—in
+so far as adaptation of soil and trees are concerned, the results being
+that financially speaking the woods are a failure, and proprietors in
+consequence fight shy of further planting operations. I have examined
+and reported on several of such woods in various parts of the country,
+one of the most noticeable being in Nottinghamshire, where a large
+area of ground was planted with a crop of oak, for which tree the soil
+was quite unsuitable, the result being that over the whole ground the
+average production of timber per tree was under 10 cubic feet in sixty
+years. When pressing home the question of woodland extension I have
+frequently been confronted by the argument that past experience does
+not warrant further expenditure in that way. That this is true cannot
+be denied, but let us hope that it will be remedied in the near future
+by the better education of our foresters and by greater attention being
+given to the relation of trees and soil.
+
+With the wholesale felling of timber for war purposes and the
+disinclination of owners of land to engage in extensive planting
+operations, the question naturally arises: What is the most feasible
+way of overcoming the difficulty?
+
+In answer, and without the slightest hesitation, I would say that
+the State should acquire and plant suitable waste lands at the rate
+of 40,000 acres annually for a period of twenty-five years. Such
+lands could, in England, Scotland and Wales, be gradually and cheaply
+acquired by the State, while in Ireland there are vast tracts of peat
+bog which their owners would willingly hand over to the Government at
+the present time at a small cost per acre. Taking the British Isles as
+a whole, the cost of procuring suitable lands would be at an annual
+rental of about 3_s._ per acre, or 40_s._ per acre for purchase. On
+the Gwydyr Estate, Carnarvonshire, 7,412 acres of land, described as
+rough grazing and sheep walk, were lately sold by public auction for
+£15,670, or at the rate of £2 2_s._ 3_d._ per acre. I have little faith
+either in the State advancing money to landed proprietors towards
+afforesting, or in municipalities coming to the front as planters of
+woodlands. The State would be the best custodian of forest property for
+the simple reason that the State only can readily acquire the needed
+land in sufficient quantity and on the best terms, and I am fully
+convinced that plantations formed under Government supervision will, in
+an economic sense at least, be far more successful than those planted
+either by private persons or public bodies. Again, the continuity
+of ownership under such a scheme, together with the ample resources
+guaranteed by State control, would both largely contribute towards a
+successful issue in such an undertaking.
+
+The difficulty of housing and providing for the workmen employed in
+afforesting out-of-the-way lands has been brought to my notice, but
+from personal experience of similar work in Scotland and Wales I
+anticipate little difficulty in that way. In these cases, where a good
+deal of the work was carried out by contract, the workmen gladly walked
+to and from the adjoining villages each day, often a distance of three
+or four miles, bringing their midday meal with them, which was heated
+or cooked on the ground. Then, as the plantations increase in age
+and size, and sawmills are required, the ever-increasing industry so
+created will cause hamlets to spring up in the wooded regions, just as
+we find is the case in mining and quarrying districts.
+
+After careful computation I have no hesitation in saying that the area
+of plantations in the United Kingdom could at once be doubled by the
+planting of waste lands which at present do not bring in over 2_s._ per
+acre per year of rental, with infinite benefit to the country generally
+and a vast increase in the value of land both to the owner and farmer
+who cultivates it. In the matter of afforesting, a grain of practice
+is worth a ton of theory, and as I have personally supervised every
+operation, from marking out the plantation boundary on the exposed
+hillside, to draining, fencing, planting, thinning and disposing
+of the produce, my opinions on the question are at least worthy of
+consideration.
+
+=The Approaching Scarcity of Timber.=—Than timber no article is
+probably more indispensable to the welfare of a nation, entering
+extensively as it does into almost every trade and industry. For
+England, therefore, with an ever-increasing import, the possibility
+of a dearth of timber must be regarded with the keenest anxiety, more
+particularly as this would entail prohibitive prices and seriously
+cripple the trade of the country. The following table, as reported to
+the Washington Bureau of Manufactures, will show at a glance the annual
+imports of timber of the principal countries of Europe:—
+
+    England       16,342,600 cub. yds.
+    Germany       11,766,667     ”
+    France         8,496,300     ”
+    Belgium        1,897,777     ”
+    Italy            915,148     ”
+    Denmark          849,630     ”
+    Spain            392,222     ”
+    Switzerland      313,778     ”
+
+In face of this it is only reasonable to suppose that the Government
+will act promptly in the matter, remembering that no scheme of
+afforesting, however extensive or well ordered, can bring the necessary
+relief for at least forty years after its inception. For all this, and
+in spite of numerous warnings as to the pressing necessity for tree
+planting and the ominous signs of a timber famine, little or nothing
+has been done, save the holding of meetings by the Board of Agriculture
+and the purchase of a few hundred acres of waste land in Scotland.
+
+To sum up briefly, the situation is this:—England’s imports before the
+war rapidly increased from a trifle under 3¼ million loads in 1864 to
+fully 10 million loads in 1906, thus showing an increment of fully 7
+million loads in forty-two years.
+
+Most European countries have large internal supplies of timber, so
+that, by a system of conserving and protective tariffs, the pinch of
+want would not be felt severely for years to come. But not so England,
+which is almost wholly dependent on supplies from abroad.
+
+According to the Secretary of the Agricultural Department of
+Washington, the area of forests in the United States is 700 million
+acres, but even now the States are more or less dependent on Canada,
+and actually receive the entire surplus from that country. But
+regarding the United States, ex-President Roosevelt said: “If the
+present rate of forest destruction is allowed to continue with nothing
+to offset it, a timber famine in the future is inevitable. Remember
+that you can prevent such a famine occurring by wise action taken in
+time; but once the famine occurs there is no possible way of hurrying
+the growth of trees necessary to relieve it.” Again, the late Mr. Lewis
+Miller, who had vast forests both in Sweden and Nova Scotia, told me
+that in twenty-five years neither the United States nor Canada will
+have much timber left, while Sweden and Finland are already played out.
+“I am also of opinion,” he said, “that during the next twenty-five
+years timber will be double its present price, and that it will not
+only pay to plant land valued at 3_s._ per acre, but that worth 20_s._
+per acre.” These are no idle words, but the records of those who know
+well what they are talking about; neither are the writers in any
+sense pessimists. With all these warnings from men whose business it
+is to study the question and who are fully qualified to advance an
+opinion, surely it is time that we took up seriously the question of
+afforestation.
+
+It may be said by some that the timber of our foreign possessions
+will partly fill up the gap, but this is not the case. Indian timber,
+principally teak, is not in request to any appreciable extent, while
+the great African forests are hardwoods, and as a rule unsuited to our
+wants. The forests of South America are on a par with those of India
+and Africa, while China and Japan, as also Australia, require more
+timber than they possess.
+
+=Cost of suitable Land for Afforesting.=—When in the past the question
+of afforesting has been brought forward, the usual outcry has been
+that suitable land is too expensive to buy. But this argument will no
+longer suffice, for, as I have before pointed out, excellent land for
+the cultivation of high-class timber can be procured in considerable
+quantity at about £2 per acre. Through the kindness of Lord Ancaster’s
+estate agent, I have been allowed to look over the sale contracts of
+several parts of the Gwydyr Estate, in Carnarvonshire, and from these
+I find that 7,412 acres were disposed of, at an average price of £2
+2_s._ 3_d._ per acre. The ground was excellent for the production of
+timber, as the larch on other adjoining lands clearly evidenced. Again
+the Crown recently purchased 12,500 acres in Scotland at the modest
+rental of about £2 per acre. Other instances could be quoted, but the
+above suffice to show that land in every way suited for profitable tree
+planting can be bought at probably less than £2 per acre.
+
+It is perhaps unfortunate that many of these waste lands are private
+property, the owners of which, even if they could afford it, have
+little inclination to sink for a period of, say, twenty-five years
+the necessary capital required to be expended on the formation of
+plantations. But all this would be obviated by State ownership of the
+woodlands. Private individuals, or, indeed, public bodies, labour
+under many disadvantages in respect of afforestation, not the least,
+as before stated, being the quarter of a century required before the
+money expended in planting can be even partially recovered, while a
+systematic method of cultivation and large wooded areas are first
+necessities to successful timber culture. It is therefore preferable
+in every way that the Government should take up the question of tree
+planting on a large scale, the necessary land being available at a
+moderate cost per acre.
+
+=Cost of Forming Plantations.=—This will vary greatly with the manner
+in which the work is carried out, the particular district of the
+country, nature of soil and rate of wages paid, as also whether fencing
+and draining have to be engaged in. The difference in cost between
+“notch” and “pit” planting is very considerable, and the fact that
+the former method is almost exclusively adopted on the rough grounds
+throughout Scotland accounts mainly for the smaller first outlay on
+Scottish plantations. Thus at Grantown, Strathspey, the Countess of
+Seafield’s estate, Mr. Thomson, the very capable wood manager, has
+planted during the past forty-seven years upwards of 20,000 acres
+of woodlands, at a cost, including fencing, of rather under £2 per
+acre. In England, however, where, for various reasons, pit planting
+is adopted, and larger plants are used, the cost varies from £5 to £6
+per acre. For all practical purposes, however, the cost of forming
+plantations may be put down at, say, £5 per acre, as an average taken
+from the following figures will show:—
+
+ENGLAND AND WALES.
+
+                                                          £  _s._ _d._
+    Yorkshire, at 600 ft. altitude, cost of planting
+      and fencing                           per acre      4   18   9
+    Kent,        fencing and planting           ”         6    3   0
+    Lincolnshire      ”      ”                  ”         8    0   0
+    Gloucestershire   ”      ”                  ”         7   10   0
+    Carnarvonshire    ”      ”                  ”         5    2   0
+
+SCOTLAND.
+
+    Inverness-shire, Glengloy Estate, 800 ft. altitude,
+      cost of fencing and planting          per acre      3   10   0
+    Ross-shire, up to 1,200 ft. altitude, cost of
+      fencing and planting                  per acre      2   10   0
+    Perthshire (planting only)                  ”         2   10   0
+    Blair Athol, 3,665 acres, fencing and
+      planting                                  ”         2   10   0
+    Grantown, Strathspey, fencing and
+      planting                                  ”         2    0   0
+
+IRELAND.
+
+    Wicklow, 700-900 ft. altitude, fencing and
+      planting                              per acre      4   13  11
+    Armagh (bogland), fencing and planting     ”          5    2   0
+
+Another instance in Scotland may be recorded, in which 550 acres were
+planted at a cost of £1,178, or at the rate of £2 2_s._ 10_d._ per
+acre. This included for fencing, £164 18_s._ 4_d._; drainage, £123
+15_s._; plants, £520 10_s._; planting, £368 16_s._ 8_d._
+
+In connexion with these figures, it may be reassuring to state that
+in each case a strict account of the expenditure involved had been
+carefully noted, and the returns given are practically correct. The
+average cost, therefore, taking Great Britain as a whole, would be
+about £5 per acre for fencing and planting the ground. The above-named
+plantations, too, were formed on the very class of ground of which we
+have so much lying idle or bringing in only a few shillings rental
+per acre, in various parts of the country. The Ross-shire plantation
+referred to was a bleak and barren moorland which the crofters, who
+used it as a common for their cattle and sheep, refused to rent at
+1_s._ per acre per annum, while at Strathspey the 20,000 acres of
+land were let out previous to planting at 8_d._ per acre per annum.
+Vast tracts of the bare hillsides of Wales are only bringing in a few
+shillings of rental per acre. It should be remembered that all the
+above-named plantations were formed on bleak, exposed moorlands—the
+very class of waste lands that I have so strongly advocated as being
+suitable for the woodlands of the future, and of which at the present
+time there are about 15,000,000 acres lying idle in various parts of
+the kingdom. Therefore the cost of planting may be considered as or
+about £5 per acre. This, with £2 5_s._ for cost of purchase and 5_s._
+for incidental expenses, would bring the initial total expenditure to
+£7 10_s._ per acre. Elsewhere I have suggested that 1,000,000 acres
+should be planted over a period of twenty-five years, at the rate
+of 40,000 acres per year, which would entail an outlay of £300,000
+annually—a small sum when compared with the £25,000,000 expended each
+year by this country on supplies brought from abroad.
+
+But there is another point that I should like to touch upon whilst
+dealing with the formation of plantations, and that is that the work
+should only be entrusted to the efficient and practical wood manager,
+who is fully conversant with the whole routine of woodland work. It
+is frequently urged that forestry does not pay, but where this holds
+good, the cause is always traceable to injudicious planting and wrong
+methods of management. No more can we expect the gardener, gamekeeper,
+estate joiner, or even the land agent to undertake economical timber
+culture than we could expect the forester to carry out successfully
+the duties of any of these individuals. Wrongly formed plantations
+are, unfortunately, far too common, in so far, at least, as adaptation
+of soil and trees are concerned, the result being that, financially
+speaking, the woods are a failure, and proprietors, in consequence,
+fight shy of further planting operations. When pressing home the
+question of the extension of plantations, I have more than once been
+confronted by the statement that past experience does not warrant
+further expenditure in that way. That this is true cannot be denied, in
+many instances at least, but, then, as above stated, faulty methods of
+management are alone responsible for the failure.
+
+=Financial Returns from Tree Planting.=—Though it must be admitted
+that, in the majority of cases at least, the financial returns cannot
+be accepted as strictly correct (in most cases they are too low),
+owing to the woods being treated for other than commercial purposes,
+yet in not a few instances, where neither game-rearing nor ornamental
+effect have to be considered, the yield of timber and gross returns
+for a stated number of years are perfectly reliable. Of course, where
+game coverts and underwood, or where the perfect development of the
+trees, as in ornamental plantations, are matters of first importance,
+and require that the individual specimens be scattered thinly over the
+ground, the greatest yield of the best quality of timber cannot be
+expected; but where, as on various Scottish and English estates, the
+trees are grown thickly together and solely for their economic value,
+the case is quite different, as the returns given below will attest.
+
+One hundred acres of common land were planted from 1852 to 1862.
+Larch was the principal crop, with a few beech, Scotch pine, spruce
+and silver fir. The plantation was thinned at intervals from 1871 to
+1884, the thinnings being sold for close on £500, but many trees were
+used for fencing and estate purposes generally. The whole plantation
+was felled in 1907, and realized fully £4,500, or at the rate of £45
+per acre. The larch on the lower portion averaged 23¼ ft. per tree,
+but on the exposed ground the trees were only about one-third of that
+dimension. This plantation has a northern aspect, and is situated at
+from 800 ft. to 1,300 ft. above sea-level. After allowing for the cost
+of planting and interest on the money expended, the annual return
+per acre comes to about 20_s._ The adjoining heath-covered lands let
+for about 2_s._ 6_d._ per acre. Again, on the Countess of Seafield’s
+estates, Scotland, on grazing land which formerly brought in 8_d._ per
+acre, Mr. Thomson, the woods manager, tells me that, at the age of
+forty-seven years, Scotch fir realized £40 per acre; while in another
+wood the individual trees brought 24_s._ 6_d._ each.
+
+A larch plantation of 208 acres, on a steep hillside, was felled at the
+age of fifty years. The actual returns during that period were: from
+thinnings, £4,500; from final felling, £14,500; or fully £90 per acre.
+The original cost of planting was under £5 per acre, and the value of
+the land at thirty years’ purchase £7 10_s._ per acre, thus leaving a
+balance of fully £78 per acre at the age of fifty years.
+
+The extensive hillside plantations formed by the late Lord Powerscourt
+in Ireland, those at Glendalough in the same country, formed by the
+Duke of Atholl between Dunkeld and Blair Atholl, those at Glengoy, in
+Aberdeenshire, at Strathkyle in Ross-shire, and at Gwydyr and Penrhyn
+Castle in the Principality of Wales—all of which were formed over
+thirty-five years ago, account of the cost of formation and management
+being strictly kept—these surely afford sufficient evidence not only
+of the profitable returns to be obtained from woodlands, but of the
+feasibility of afforesting mountain lands with vast benefit in the
+way of shelter to the dreary, treeless, and bleak, exposed uplands
+where the planting has been carried out. As far as actual profits are
+concerned, it will be prudent to assume that for the first twenty years
+no return whatever will be derived from hillside plantations, the sales
+of thinnings up to that time barely covering the expense of cutting
+and interest on first cost. From twenty-five to forty years an annual
+return of fully 12_s._ per acre has in many instances been forthcoming,
+while the value of the standing crop at the latter age has been found
+to vary from £50 to £70 per acre. I do not think that these figures
+would be, generally speaking, too high, as at Balfour, in Scotland, the
+larch at forty-three years’ growth on a hillside were valued at 20_s._
+each, while a valuation of 21_s._ per tree was made of larch on the
+slopes of the Snowdon range of hills, in Wales, at the age of forty
+years. But many similar instances could be recorded, and are constantly
+coming before those who have to do with the valuing and felling of
+timber.
+
+The late Mr. Lewis Miller, who had probably a larger experience of home
+woods than any other person, has given me some valuable and interesting
+information regarding what he has paid per acre for larch in various
+parts of Scotland. In twenty years, between 1870 and 1890, Mr. Miller
+has cut down growing timber to the value of over £250,000. A great many
+of the plantations were fifty years old, and yielded over £50 per acre
+when finally cut down, apart from the value of the thinnings taken out
+of them previously to the time they were cut down. To one proprietor
+in Aberdeenshire he paid £60,000 for plantations about fifty years of
+age, and the price worked out on an average at fully £50 per acre.
+One particular plantation of larch in Aberdeenshire, about seventy
+years old, yielded £150 per acre; another plantation, all larch, about
+forty-four years of age gave over £100 per acre, and these plantations
+were for the most part growing on what was formerly pasture or waste
+land, and cost for planting and fencing from £2 to £2 10_s._ per acre.
+It will be needless to multiply cases in which poor lands worth only
+from 1_s._ to 3_s._ per acre have been made to realize by judicious
+tree planting as much as 20_s._ per acre for fifty or sixty years
+with a final crop worth from £50 to £75 per acre. All the plantations
+above referred to are excellent object-lessons of the possibilities of
+the British Isles for the production of high-class timber if woods are
+properly planted and managed.
+
+=Advantages of Tree Planting.=—Not only from a strictly financial point
+of view but also from a hygienic sense standpoint, plantations are of
+the utmost importance.
+
+For shelter for farm stock, for improving the agricultural value of
+the lower lying lands, and for the part they play in clothing and
+ornamenting our bare commons and hillsides, their value can hardly
+be over-estimated. Twenty-five years ago I formed a plantation on
+a spur of the Snowdon range of hills, in Wales, where the fierce,
+long-continued and hard-hitting blasts were of almost constant
+occurrence, and the amount of shelter and warmth it now affords to the
+farm stock and lower lying lands would hardly be credited. Previous to
+the formation of this particular plantation, at altitudes varying up to
+600 ft., the adjoining lands were quite incapable of cultivation, but
+now crops are gradually creeping up the hillsides, while the farm stock
+find the much-needed shelter and warmth that they were formerly denied.
+So great has been the benefit of this wood both to man and beast that
+the farmer on whose land it was planted speaks of it as “a Godsend.”
+Other similar cases in Wales might be mentioned, as for instance the
+plantations on the Gwydyr and Penrhyn Estates, and also those near
+Abergele, where the judicious planting up of rocky and almost worthless
+land has converted dreary and inhospitable districts into the most
+fashionable and expensive residential property. In many parts of
+Scotland, particularly Perth, Inverness and Aberdeenshire, equally good
+results have been obtained by judicious tree planting.
+
+Another notable advantage gained by the planting of trees lies in the
+provision of profitable work for the unemployed. As a special chapter
+is devoted to this important subject, it need only be mentioned here.
+It should not be overlooked that excellent results have followed in
+the wake of planting bog lands in Ireland. In 1862 my father formed
+several plantations there, a full account of which will be found in
+the _Transactions of the Highland and Agricultural Society of Scotland_
+for 1873. I examined these woods and was agreeably surprised at the
+height which the trees had attained, the cubic contents of the timber,
+and the price realized. Incidentally, it might be noticed that the
+ground previously to planting was a dreary, heath-clad waste, only
+suitable for snipe-shooting and the production of turf for fuel.
+Many other instances of the numerous advantages to be derived from
+a well-organized system of tree planting could be cited, not the
+least important being the greater facilities that would be afforded
+for disposing of the timber. In many outlying districts all over the
+country far removed from road and rail, it is difficult to get rid of
+the small amount of timber that is periodically cut down, but were
+larger quantities handled and a continuity of supply forthcoming, I
+feel certain that timber merchants would be prompted to make special
+transit arrangements. More than once I have been asked by Irish
+landowners to recommend buyers of good larch and oak timber, but, after
+negotiation, I have invariably been told by the merchant that the
+quantity offered was far too small to allow of special facilities for
+delivery being provided, since the timber was far away from road and
+rail. They stated, however, that if a specified number of cubic feet
+of good timber could be guaranteed annually for a number of years they
+were quite prepared to buy. The same obstacles to the sale of timber
+have been experienced in Scotland and remote parts of Wales. In these
+cases a continuity of supply, such as would be forthcoming if my scheme
+of afforesting was carried out, would ensure speedy sales at moderate
+prices in places where at present it is difficult, if not impossible,
+to dispose of small quantities except at ruinously low prices.
+
+
+
+
+INDEX
+
+
+                    A                PAGE
+    Abele Poplar for Town Planting, 101
+    Acacia, False, for Town Planting, 102
+    Advantages of Tree Planting, 293
+    Afforesting Waste Lands, 282
+    _Agaricus melleus_, 218
+    Ailanthus for Town Planting, 101
+    Alder as Timber, 240
+    —— Common, for Seaside Planting, 78
+    —— for Economic Planting, 52
+    —— —— Exposed Positions, 52
+    —— —— Ornamental Planting, 117
+    —— —— Seaside     ”        78
+    —— Hoary, for Seaside Planting, 78
+    Almond for Town Planting, 107
+    American Winged Elm for Exposed Planting, 70
+    Andromeda for the Shade, 192
+    Apple as Timber, 240
+    Appliances used in Forestry, 153
+    _Araucaria Imbricata_ Seed, 14
+    Area of Woodlands, 280
+    Arrangement of Plantations, 33
+    Ash as Timber, 240
+    —— for Economic Planting, 48
+    —— —— Exposed      ”  71
+    —— —— Ornamental   ”  132
+    —— —— Seaside      ”  79
+    —— —— Town         ”  104
+    —— Seed, 11
+    Aspect of Home Nursery, 26
+    Aspen for Seaside Planting, 78
+    Atlantic Cedar for Seaside Planting, 82
+    —— —— for Economic Planting, 65
+    _Aucuba Japonica_ for Town Planting, 105
+    —— —— —— Game Coverts, 179
+    —— —— —— Hedges, 189
+    Austrian Pine for Economic Planting, 65
+    —— —— —— Exposed Planting, 69
+    —— —— —— Ornamental Planting, 118
+    —— —— —— Town Planting, 108
+    —— —— Seed, 11
+    Autumn-tinted Foliage Trees for Ornamental Planting, 123
+    Autumn Work in Home Nursery, 30
+
+                    B
+    Bark, 255
+    —— Stripping——Tools used, 222
+    Barking Oak, 220-222
+    Barron’s Transplanting Machine, 140
+    Beam Tree for Seaside Planting, 77
+    —— —— in London, 103
+    Bedford Willow for Seaside Planting, 85
+    Beech Coccus, 205
+    Beech as Timber, 246
+    —— for Economic Planting, 49
+    —— —— Exposed      ”      71
+    —— —— Hedge        ”     187
+    —— —— Ornamental   ”     188
+    —— —— Seaside      ”      80
+    —— Seed, 11
+    Beetle Pine, 193
+    _Berberis Darwinii_ for Game Coverts, 180
+    —— —— —— Hedge Planting, 189
+    —— —— —— Seaside, 84
+    Bhotan Pine for Ornamental Planting, 117
+    Birch as Timber, 240
+    —— for Economic Planting, 53
+    —— —— Exposed      ”      71
+    —— —— Ornamental   ”     122
+    —— —— Seaside      ”      79
+    —— —— Town         ”     104
+    —— Seed, 11
+    Bird Cherry for Exposed Planting, 71
+    —— —— —— Town Planting, 104
+    Black Italian Poplar for Town Planting, 101
+    Blackberry for the Shade, 192
+    Bladder Senna for Town Planting, 106
+    —— Rust or Cluster-Cup, 219
+    Blasting Tree Roots, 273
+    Bog Soils, Trees for, 136
+    _Bostrichus Laricis_, 194
+    —— _Typographus_, 194
+    Box for Hedge Planting, 188
+    —— —— Game Covert, 177
+    —— Thorn for Seaside Planting, 83
+    Bracing a Tree, 159
+    Briar for Hedge Planting, 188
+    British Oak for Hedge Planting, 111
+    —— Timber and its Uses, 240
+    Broom for Seaside Planting, 84
+    Buckthorn, Sea, for Seaside Planting, 82
+    Burning Tree Stumps, 274
+    Butcher’s Broom for Game Coverts, 182
+    —— —— —— Carpeting in Shade, 192
+    By-products of the Forest, 250
+
+                    C
+    Canadian Poplar for Town Planting, 101
+    Cedar for Seaside Planting, 82
+    Cephalonian Fir for Ornamental Planting, 118
+    Chalky Soil for Tree Planting, 130, 136
+    Charcoal, 253
+    —— Making, 226
+    —— Comparative Value of Wood, 231
+    —— Pit, 231
+    —— Kiln Burning, 231
+    —— Uses of, 232
+    Cherry as Timber, 240
+    —— for Exposed Planting, 71
+    —— —— Ornamental Planting, 118
+    Chestnut as Timber, 240
+    —— for Town Planting, 104
+    —— —— Economic Planting, 51
+    Clay Soil for Tree Plantations, 138
+    Cleaning and Pruning Hedges, 189
+    Climbers for Town Planting, 107
+    Cluster Pine for Planting, 81
+    —— —— —— Ornamental Planting, 118
+    —— —— —— Seaside Planting, 81
+    Cockchafer, 202
+    Colchic Laurel for Hedge Planting, 189
+    Collecting Tree Seeds, 8
+    Common Alder for Seaside Planting, 78
+    —— Gorse for Seaside Planting, 84
+    Common Holly for Seaside Planting, 84
+    —— Ivy for Carpeting in Shade, 191
+    —— —— —— Town Planting, 107
+    —— Laburnum for Seaside Planting, 84
+    —— Laurel for Hedge Planting, 189
+    —— London Plane for Town Planting, 98
+    —— Mulberry for Town Planting, 102
+    Comparative Value of Woods for Charcoal Making, 231
+    Conifers suitable for Chalky Soil, 131
+    —— —— —— Reclaimed Peat Bog, 129
+    —— for Economic Planting, 57
+    —— —— Town Planting, 108
+    —— Seeds, 9
+    —— Seaside, 80
+    Contract Work, Prices of, 277
+    Contents, xi
+    Coppice Wood Management, 170
+    —— Cost of, 173
+    Cornelian Cherry for Ornamental Planting, 118
+    —— —— —— Hedgerow Planting, 111
+    Corsican Pine for Economic Planting, 59
+    —— —— —— Exposed Planting, 70
+    —— —— —— Ornamental Planting, 118
+    —— —— —— Seaside Planting, 81
+    —— —— Seeds, 11
+    Cost of Forming Plantations, 287-288
+    _Cratægus Pyracantha_ for Town Planting, 108
+    Cricket Bat Willow, 54
+    Cryptomeria for Ornamental Planting, 118
+    Cucumber Tree for Town Planting, 101
+    _Cupressus Lawsoniana_, Seed of, 11
+    —— —— for Town Planting, 109
+    Currant, Flowering, for Town Planting, 106
+    Cut-leaved Trees, 121
+    Cutting Osiers, 247
+    Cypress for Ornamental Planting, 118
+    —— —— Seaside Planting, 82
+
+                    D
+    _Daphne Laureola_ for Seaside Planting, 84
+    —— _Mezereon_ for Seaside Planting, 84
+    Darwin’s Barberry for Seaside Planting, 84
+    Deciduous Cypress for Ornamental Planting, 117
+    Dedication, v
+    Dogwood for Seaside Planting, 83
+    —— —— Charcoal, 232
+    Double Furze for Town Planting, 106
+    Douglas Fir for Economic Planting, 63
+    —— —— Seed, 12
+    Draining——Tools used, 37
+    —— and Clearing Ground for Plantations, 36
+    Dried Leaves as Litter, 251
+
+                    E
+    Economic Planting, 47
+    —— —— Trees for, 48
+    Elder for Exposed Planting, 70
+    —— —— Seaside Planting, 76
+    Elegant Cryptomeria for Ornamental Planting, 118
+    Elm, as Timber, 240
+    —— English for Hedge Planting, 111
+    —— for Economic Planting, 51
+    —— —— Exposed Planting, 70
+    —— —— Seaside Planting, 79
+    —— —— Town Planting, 104
+    —— Scotch, for Seaside Planting, 85
+    —— Seed, 12
+    —— Tree Destroyer, 199, 200
+    English Elm for Hedge Planting, 111
+    —— Maple for Seaside Planting, 79
+    _Euonymus Japonicus_ for Seaside Planting, 84
+    —— _Radicans Variegata_ for Carpeting in Shade, 192
+    Evergreen Honeysuckle for Town Planting, 107
+    —— Oak for Seaside Planting, 79
+    Exposed Ground, Planting, 72
+
+                    F
+    Faggots, 255
+    False Acacia for Town Planting, 102
+    Felling——Tools used, 43
+    Felted Beech Coccus, 205
+    Fencing, 97
+    —— Plantations, 257
+    —— Tools used, 264
+    Fern-leaved Beech for Ornamental Planting, 118
+    Financial Returns of Planting, 290
+    Firewood, 252
+    _Fitzroya Patagonica_ for Ornamental Planting, 118
+    Flowering Currant for Town Planting, 106
+    —— Trees for Ornamental Planting, 116
+    Forest Area of the World, 280
+    Forest By-Products, 250
+    —— Produce, Utilizing, 250
+    Forestry and the War, 1
+    Formation of Game Coverts, 174
+    —— —— Plantations, 32
+    _Forsythia Viridissima_ for Town Planting, 106
+    Fountain Willow, 121
+    Fruit Trees for Ornamental Planting, 116
+    Fungi on Trees, 212
+    Furze for Hedge Planting, 188
+    —— —— Town Planting, 106
+
+                    G
+    Game Coverts, Formation and Management, 184
+    _Gaultheria Procumbens_ for Carpeting in Shade, 192
+    —— _Shallon_ for Carpeting in Shade, 192
+    —— —— —— Game Coverts, 181
+    Giant Arborvitæ for Economic Planting, 64
+    —— —— —— Seaside Planting, 81
+    Goat Moth, 200
+    —— Willow for Seaside Planting, 78
+    Golden Willow for Ornamental Planting, 117
+    Gorse for Hedge Planting, 188
+    —— —— Seaside Planting, 84
+    Grasses for the Sea-Coast, 86
+    —— —— Woodland Drives, 34
+    Gravelly Soil for Tree Plantation, 131-137
+    Green Tree Box for Game Coverts, 177
+    _Griselinia Littoralis_ for Seaside Planting, 83
+    —— —— —— Town Planting, 105
+    Groundsel Tree for Seaside Planting, 84
+
+                    H
+    Hard-wooded Trees for Economic Planting, 47
+    Hardwoods for Chalky Soil, 130
+    —— —— Clay Soils, 132
+    —— —— Gravelly Soil, 131
+    —— —— Ironstone Soils, 133
+    —— —— Reclaimed Peat Bog, 129
+    Hawthorn Seed, 12
+    Hazel Nuts, 12
+    Heather for the Shade, 192
+    Heaven, Tree of, for Town Planting, 101
+    Hedges as Fences, 185
+    —— Formation of, 184
+    —— Management, 184
+    —— Ornamental, 188
+    —— Planting, 186
+    —— Pruning, 189
+    Hedgerow and Field Planting, 110
+    Hedging Tools used, 185
+    Height of Trees, Measuring, 271
+    Hoary Alder for Seaside Planting, 78
+    Holly as Timber, 240
+    —— Berries, 12
+    —— Fly, 204
+    —— for Game Coverts, 181
+    —— —— Hedge Planting, 188
+    —— —— Seaside Planting, 84
+    Home Nursery, 24
+    —— —— Spring Work, 28
+    —— —— Summer Work, 30
+    —— —— Autumn Work, 30
+    —— —— Winter Work, 30
+    Honeysuckle for Town Planting, 107
+    Hornbeam as Timber, 241
+    —— for Exposed Planting, 70
+    —— —— Hedge Planting, 113, 167
+    —— —— Seaside Planting, 80
+    —— —— Town Planting, 104
+    Horse Chestnut as Timber, 241
+    —— —— for Town Planting, 104
+    —— —— Seeds, 12
+    Hot and Dry Soils, Shrubs for, 134
+    How to Prune, 157
+    Huntingdon Willow for Seaside Planting, 77
+    _Hypericum Calycinum_ for Seaside Planting, 84
+
+                    I
+    Imperial Alder for Ornamental Planting, 117
+    Index, 295
+    Indian Bean for Town Planting, 102
+    Insects and Diseases Injurious to Forest Trees, 193
+    Introduction, ix
+    Ironstone Soil for Plantations, 133, 138
+    Italian Poplar for Town Planting, 101
+    Ivy for Carpeting in Shade, 191
+    —— —— Town Planting, 107
+
+                    J
+    Japanese Cryptomeria for Ornamental Planting, 118
+    _Jasminum Nudiflorum_ for Town Planting, 108
+    Juneberry for Ornamental Planting, 118
+    Juniper, Savin for towns, 109
+
+                    K
+    Kentucky Coffee-Tree for Town Planting, 106
+    Kilmarnock Willow, 121
+    Kiln Burning Charcoal, 231
+
+                    L
+    Laburnum, Common, for Seaside Planting, 84
+    —— Moth, 202
+    —— Scotch, for Seaside Planting, 84
+    Lackey Moth, 200
+    Land Sale on the Gwydyr Estate, 287
+    Larch Aphis, 197
+    —— Canker, 213
+    —— Cones, 12
+    —— Disease, Cause and Remedy, 213
+    —— for Economic Planting, 57
+    —— —— Exposed Planting, 71
+    —— —— Hedge Planting, 114
+    —— Miner, 195
+    —— Sawfly, 198
+    —— Timber, 241
+    Large-Fruited Cypress for Seaside Planting, 82
+    Laurel Spurge for Carpeting in Shade, 192
+    Laurustinus for Game Coverts, 179
+    —— —— Hedge Planting, 188
+    —— —— Seaside Planting, 83
+    —— —— Town Planting, 107
+    Leaf-Shedding Fungus, 218
+    Levelling, 38
+    _Leycesteria Formosa_ for Town Planting, 106
+    _Ligustrum Coriaceum_ for Town Planting, 105
+    —— _Ovalifolium_ for Seaside Planting, 84
+    Lilacs for Seaside Planting, 84
+    —— —— Town Planting, 84
+    Lime as Timber, 241
+    —— for Hedge Planting, 113
+    —— —— Town Planting, 103
+    Litter of Dried Leaves, 251
+    Lombardy Poplar for Hedge Planting, 112
+    —— —— —— Town Planting, 101
+    London Plane for Town Planting, 98
+    Lymegrass for Seaside Planting, 84
+
+                    M
+    Magnolias for Ornamental Planting, 118
+    —— for Town Planting, 101
+    _Mahonia Aquifolia_ for Game Coverts, 180
+    Maidenhair Tree for Town Planting, 100
+    Manna Ash for Ornamental Planting, 118
+    Manufacture of Charcoal, 226
+    Manure for Home Nursery, 26
+    Maple as Timber, 241
+    —— for Seaside Planting, 79
+    Maram for Seaside Planting, 84
+    Measuring Height of Trees, 272
+    Measuring Standing Timber, 270
+    Mezereon Laurel for Carpeting in Shade, 192
+    Minor Products of Forest Waste, 256
+    Mountain Ash for Exposed Planting, 70
+    —— —— —— Seaside Planting, 78
+    —— —— —— Town Planting, 104
+    —— —— Seed, 12
+    Mulberry for Town Planting, 102
+
+                    N
+    Norway Maple for Seaside Planting, 76
+    —— Spruce for Economic Planting, 64
+    Notch Planting, 44
+    Nursery, Formation and Management, 24
+    —— Home, its Formation and Management, 24
+    —— Plan of, 27
+    —— Tools used in, 29
+    —— Work for the Seasons, 28
+
+                    O
+    Oak as Timber, 241
+    —— Evergreen for Seaside Planting, 79
+    —— for Economic Planting, 47
+    —— —— Exposed Planting,  71
+    —— —— Seaside Planting, 79
+    —— —— Roller Moth, 204
+    —— Seed, 13
+    _Olearia Hastii_, 105
+    _—— Macrodonta_, 105
+    Oriental Plane for Town Planting, 98
+    Ornamental Planting, 116
+    —— Weeping Trees, 121
+    _Osmanthus Ilicifolius_ for Town Planting, 105
+
+                    P
+    Paper=Pulp, 251
+    Peat Soil, 129
+    Periwinkles for Carpeting in Shade, 191
+    _Phillyrea Vilmoriniana_ for Town Planting, 106
+    _Picia Sitchensis_, 59
+    Pine Beetle, 193
+    —— for Economic Planting, 59
+    —— —— Exposed Planting, 70
+    —— —— Ornamental Planting, 121
+    —— —— Seaside Planting, 81
+    —— Sawfly, 196
+    —— Shoot Moth, 195
+    —— Weevil, 194
+    _Pinus Insignis_, 82
+    _—— Montana_ for Seaside Planting, 81-85
+    _—— Macrocarpa_ Seed, 14
+    _—— Sabiniana_ Seed, 14
+    _—— Stropus_, 11
+    Pitch, 251
+    Pitting, 40
+    Plane for Town Planting, 99
+    —— Tree in Regent’s Park, 99
+    Plantations, Formation and Cost, 32
+    —— Hedges, 184
+    Planting, 41
+    —— Advantages of Tree, 293
+    —— Exposed Ground, 68
+    —— Financial Returns of, 290
+    —— Hedges, 184
+    —— Iron, 45
+    —— Ironstone Soils, 133
+    —— Notch, 44
+    —— Ornamental, 121
+    —— Osiers, 243
+    —— Tools used for, 43
+    _Polyporus Sulphureus_, 219
+    _—— Squamosus_, 216
+    Poplar as Timber, 241
+    —— for Economic Planting, 57
+    —— Town Planting, 101
+    _Populus Canadensis_ for Seaside Planting, 78
+    _—— Alba_ for Seaside Planting, 78
+    _—— Nigra_ for Seaside Planting, 78
+    Portugal Laurel for Seaside Planting, 84
+    Preface, vii
+    Preparation of Ground for Town Planting, 92
+    —— —— —— Hedges, 184
+    Prices of Contract Work, 277
+    —— of Timber per ton, 239
+    —— —— —— per cubic foot, 238
+    —— —— Forest Produce, 237
+    Prince Albert’s Fir for Ornamental Planting, 118
+    Privet for Game Coverts, 178
+    —— —— Hedge Planting, 188
+    Propagating Trees and Shrubs, 15
+    —— by Cuttings, 19
+    —— —— Grafting, 22
+    —— from Budding, 23
+    —— —— Layers, 21
+    —— —— Seed, 15
+    Prune, How and When to, 157
+    Pruning Bad Effects of, 152
+    —— Dead Wood, 155
+    —— Hedges, 152
+    —— Live Branches, 154
+    —— Shrubs, 157
+    —— Tools used in, 153
+    —— Trees, 151
+    Purple Willow for Ornamental Planting, 117
+    Pyrus for Ornamental Planting, 118
+
+                    Q
+    Quick Hedges, 186
+
+                    R
+    Red-Rot Fungus, 217
+    Red Spider, 201
+    _Retinospora_ for Town Planting, 109
+    _Rhamnus Frangula_ for Charcoal, 233
+    _Rhododendron Ponticum_ for Game Coverts, 180
+    _Rhytisma Punctata_, 216
+    _Rosa Rugosa_ for Hedge Planting, 188
+    _—— Rubiginosa_ for Hedge Planting, 188
+    Rowan Tree for Town Planting, 104
+    _Ruscus Aculeatus_ for Seaside Planting, 84
+
+                    S
+    St. John’s Wort for Carpeting in Shade, 191
+    —— —— —— —— Game Coverts, 182
+    Scotch Elm for Exposed Planting, 70
+    —— —— —— Seaside Planting, 79
+    —— Fir as Timber, 242
+    —— —— for Hedge Planting, 113
+    —— Laburnum for Seaside Planting, 84
+    —— Pine for Economic Planting, 62
+    —— —— —— Exposed Planting, 70
+    —— —— —— Ornamental Planting, 118
+    —— —— —— Seaside Planting, 82
+    Sea Buckthorn for Seaside Planting, 82
+    Seaside Planting, 73
+    —— —— Hardwoods for, 76
+    —— —— Shrubs for, 82
+    —— —— List of Trees for, 85
+    Seed, Best Depth for Germinating, 17
+    —— Collecting and Harvesting, 8
+    —— of Various Trees contained in a Bushel, 10
+    —— Required to plant 100 sq. ft., 18
+    —— Tree, number in a lb., 10
+    Selecting Tree Seeds, 9
+    Shade-loving Shrubs, 191
+    Shrubs for Carpeting in Shade, 191
+    Shrubs for Hot and Dry Soils, 134
+    —— —— the Sea-Coast, 82-86
+    —— —— Town Planting, 105-107
+    Silver Fir as Timber, 242
+    —— —— for Economic Planting, 64
+    —— —— Seed, 13
+    Sitka Spruce for Economic Planting, 59
+    _Skimmia Japonica_ for Town Planting, 106
+    Slate Fences for Plantations, 258
+    Slit Planting, 44
+    Snowberry for Seaside Planting, 83
+    _Snowy Mespilus_ for Town Planting, 106
+    Soil for Home Nursery, 26
+    _Sophora Japonica_ for Town Planting, 104
+    Spanish Broom for Seaside Planting, 84
+    —— Chestnut as Timber, 51
+    —— —— for Economic Planting, 51
+    —— —— Seed, 12
+    —— Silver Fir for Ornamental Planting, 118
+    Spider, Red, 201
+    _Spirea Adiantifola_ for Seaside Planting, 83
+    Spring Work in Home Nursery, 28
+    Spruce Fir as Timber, 242
+    —— for Economic Planting, 59
+    —— —— Ornamental Planting, 118
+    —— Gall Aphis, 198
+    Spurge Laurel for Carpeting in Shade, 192
+    —— —— —— Town Planting, 106
+    Stag’s Horn Sumach for Town Planting, 106
+    Staking Trees, 119
+    Standing Timber Measuring, 270
+    Stone Walls for Fencing Plantations, 257
+    Strawberry Trees for Town Planting, 106
+    —— —— for Seaside, 84
+    Summer Work in Home Nursery, 30
+    Sweet-Bay for Seaside Planting, 84
+    —— Briar for Hedge Planting, 188
+    —— Chestnut for Economic Planting, 51
+    Sycamore as Timber, 242
+    —— for Economic Planting, 51
+    —— —— Exposed Planting, 70
+    —— —— Hedge Planting, 112
+    —— —— Seaside Planting, 76
+    —— —— Town Planting, 104
+    —— Fungus, 216
+
+                    T
+    Tamarisk for Seaside Planting, 76-82
+    _Tamarix Gallica_ for Seaside Planting, 82
+    _—— Germanica_ for Seaside Planting, 82
+    Tansy-leaved Thorn for Town Planting, 105
+    Tar, 251
+    _Taxodium Distichum_ for Town Planting, 109
+    Thinning Plantations, 141
+    —— —— Rules for, 149
+    Thorn Fly, 202
+    —— for Hedge Planting, 186
+    Thorns for Ornamental Planting, 118
+    —— —— Seaside Planting, 83
+    —— —— Town Planting, 105
+    _Thujopsis Dolabrata_ for Town Planting, 109
+    Timber, British, and Some of Its Uses, 240
+    —— Measuring, 288
+    —— Prices, 237
+    Tools used in Forestry, 43
+    Town Planting, 87-109
+    —— —— Trees for, 98
+    Transplanting Seedlings, 18
+    —— Large Trees, 139
+    —— Machine, Faulkner’s, 140
+    —— Specimen Trees, 118
+    Tree Groundsel for Seaside Planting, 84
+    —— Guards, 265
+    —— Mallow for Seaside Planting, 83
+    Tree of Heaven for Town Planting, 101
+    —— Planting, Advantages of, 293
+    —— —— Financial Returns of, 290
+    —— Pruning in Economic Forestry, 151
+    —— Purslane for Seaside Planting, 83
+    Trees and Shrubs, Propagating, 15
+    —— best adapted for Various Soils, 128
+    —— for Chalky or Calcareous Soils, 130
+    —— —— Clay Soils, 132
+    —— —— Economic Planting, 47
+    —— —— Exposed Planting, 68
+    —— —— Gravelly and Sandy Soils, 131
+    —— —— Hedge Planting, 110
+    —— —— Hedgerow and Field, 110
+    —— —— Ironstone Soils, 133
+    —— —— —— and Coal Soils, 133
+    —— —— Ornamental Planting, 121
+    —— —— Peaty Soils 129
+    —— —— Seaside Planting, 85
+    —— —— Town Planting, 98
+    Trumpet Honeysuckle for Town Planting, 107
+    Tulip Tree for Town Plantations, 102
+    Turf Dykes for Plantations, 269
+    Turkey Oak for Seaside Planting, 79
+    Turpentine, 250
+
+                    U
+    Umbrella Pine for Ornamental Planting, 118
+    Underwood, 170
+    Uses of Charcoal, 232
+    Utilizing Waste Forest Produce, 250
+
+                    V
+    Value of Woods for Charcoal Making, 231
+    —— —— Reclaimed Peat Bog, 129
+    Venetian Sumach for Town Planting, 106
+    _Vinca Major_ for Seaside Planting, 84
+    —— _Minor_ for Seaside Planting, 84
+    Vine for Town Planting, 108
+    Virginia Creeper for Town Planting, 107
+
+                    W
+    Walnut as Timber, 242
+    —— for Town Planting, 104
+    —— Seed, 13
+    Waste Forest Produce, Utilizing, 250
+    Water for Home Nursery, 26
+    Watering Trees, 97
+    Wayfaring Tree for Town Planting, 106
+    Weeping Ash for Town Planting, 104
+    —— Trees for Ornamental Planting, 121
+    Weymouth Pine for Economic Planting, 60
+    —— Pine Seeds, 11
+    When to Prune, 157
+    White Beam Tree for Town Planting, 102
+    —— Fruited Mulberry for Town Planting, 102
+    —— Rot Fungus, 218
+    Wild Cherry for Exposed Planting, 71
+    Willow Beetle, 197
+    —— Culture, 243
+    —— for Economic Planting, 54
+    —— —— Ornamental Planting, 117
+    —— —— Seaside Planting, 78
+    —— —— Timber, 242
+    —— —— Town Planting, 104
+    —— Kilmarnock, 121
+    —— Ringlet, 121
+    Willows for Basket-Making, 243
+    —— Profits of Culture, 248
+    —— Rules for Culture, 247
+    Winged Elm for the Seaside, 77
+    Winter Moth, 210
+    —— Work in Home Nursery, 30
+    Wire Fences for Plantations, 263
+    Wireworms, 208
+    Witch’s Broom or Willow, 210
+    Wood Fences for Plantations, 262
+    —— Leopard Moth, 203
+    Woods for Charcoal Making, 231
+
+                    Y
+    Yew as Timber, 242
+    —— for Game Coverts, 181
+    —— —— Hedge Planting, 188
+    —— Seed, 13
+
+Butler & Tanner Frome and London
+
+
+
+*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 76876 ***
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+<body>
+<div style='text-align:center'>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 76876 ***</div>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<h1>WEBSTER’S<br> PRACTICAL FORESTRY</h1>
+
+<p class="f120">A POPULAR HANDBOOK ON<br>THE REARING AND GROWTH OF TREES<br>
+FOR PROFIT OR ORNAMENT</p>
+
+<p class="f120 spa2"><span class="smcap">By</span> A. D. WEBSTER</p>
+
+<p class="center"><i>Author of<br>
+“Hardy Ornamental Flowering Trees and Shrubs” (3 Editions),<br>
+“Foresters’ Diary” (15 Editions), “Hardy Coniferous Trees”<br>
+(2 Editions), “Town Planting,” “Tree Wounds and Diseases,”<br>
+“British Timber and Timber-Producing Trees,”<br>etc., etc.</i></p>
+
+<p class="f110 spa2">FIFTH EDITION<br>ENLARGED AND REVISED</p>
+<hr class="r10">
+<p class="center">LONDON<br>WILLIAM RIDER &amp; SON, LIMITED<br>
+CATHEDRAL HOUSE, PATERNOSTER ROW, E.C. 4<br>1917</p>
+
+<hr class="r10">
+<p class="center">TO MY WIFE<br>THE FIFTH EDITION OF “PRACTICAL FORESTRY”<br>
+IS DEDICATED</p>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_vii"></a>[Pg vii]</span></p>
+<p class="f120"><b>PREFACE TO FIFTH EDITION</b></p>
+</div>
+
+<p>To the Author at least, it is gratifying to know that four editions
+of <i>Practical Forestry</i> have been sold out, and that a fifth is
+urgently called for; no other work on British Forestry having achieved
+a like popularity.</p>
+
+<p>The whole has now been completely revised and several important
+chapters added, particularly with reference to Timber and the War,
+British Timber and Timber Trees, Afforesting Waste Lands, and The
+Education of Foresters, on both of which latter questions the Author
+had the honour of giving evidence before the Departmental Committee on
+Forestry of the Board of Agriculture.</p>
+
+<p class="author">A. D. WEBSTER.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Regent’s Park</span>,<br>
+<span class="ws2"><i>June, 1917</i>.</span></p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_viii"></a>[Pg viii]</span></p>
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_ix"></a>[Pg ix]</span></p>
+<p class="f120"><b>INTRODUCTION TO FIFTH EDITION</b></p>
+</div>
+
+<p>In my long experience of British Forestry, which, in a practical way,
+has extended over a period of forty years, I have become more and more
+convinced that in order to place it on a systematic and sound economic
+footing, State aid and the afforesting of large areas of comparatively
+waste lands are first necessities.</p>
+
+<p>For the past thirty years I have not failed to urge upon the State,
+as well as private owners of suitable land, the pressing necessity of
+afforestation; and though in this matter a start has been made, yet
+this can only be looked upon as a faint, half-hearted attempt quite
+unworthy of our country and the vast interests at stake. As early as
+1883, I drew attention to this matter in <i>Woods and Forests</i>, and
+at later periods in most of the leading journals and papers of the day;
+while in my evidence given before the Select Committee on Forestry, and
+in a paper contributed by special request to the Board of Agriculture,
+I went fully into the question, and pointed out what a boon to the
+unemployed, and how great a saving to the country would be effected by
+a well-organized scheme of tree planting.</p>
+
+<p>Years ago I urged the Government to take up the question of the Larch
+disease, the ravages of which I then described as being little short
+of a national calamity. To the Highland and Agricultural Society
+of Scotland, and the Royal Scottish Arboricultural Society, I have
+contributed twenty-three papers on different topics connected with
+forestry, for which special medals have been awarded, while my
+<i>Practical Forestry</i> has now passed into a fifth edition.</p>
+
+<p>In connection with the afforesting of waste lands, I have travelled over
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_x"></a>[Pg x]</span>
+the greater part of the United Kingdom and have examined much of the
+ground that could be set aside for this purpose, including the peat
+bogs of Ireland; while at altitudes up to 1,100 ft. I have formed
+plantations on the bare and wind-swept hillsides of Wales and Scotland,
+which to-day are proving not only a boon to the farmers in the way of
+the shelter they afford, but also a considerable source of profit to
+the owners.</p>
+
+<p>The above investigations, combined with the examination of and reports
+on several of the largest woodland properties in this country, made
+at the request of the owners, have given me a wide insight into the
+forestry problem generally, but particularly with reference to our
+requirements in the near future, in view of the fact that the United
+Kingdom is by far the largest timber-importing country in the world.</p>
+
+<p class="author">A. D. W.</p>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_xi"></a>[Pg xi]</span></p>
+<p class="f150"><b>CONTENTS</b></p>
+</div>
+
+<table class="spb1">
+   <tbody><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td>
+      <td class="tdr fs_80 smcap">PAGE</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdc fs_110" colspan="2"><b>CHAPTER I</b></td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl smcap">Forestry and the War</td>
+      <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_1">&nbsp;1</a></td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdc fs_110" colspan="2">&nbsp;<br><b>CHAPTER II</b></td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl smcap">Collecting and Storing Tree Seeds</td>
+      <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_8">&nbsp;8</a></td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdc fs_110" colspan="2">&nbsp;<br><b>CHAPTER III</b></td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl smcap">Propagating Trees and Shrubs</td>
+      <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_15">15</a></td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdc fs_110" colspan="2">&nbsp;<br><b>CHAPTER IV</b></td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl smcap">The Home Nursery: its Formation and Management</td>
+      <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_24">24</a></td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdc fs_110" colspan="2">&nbsp;<br><b>CHAPTER V</b></td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl smcap">Formation of Plantations</td>
+      <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_32">32</a></td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdc fs_110" colspan="2">&nbsp;<br><b>CHAPTER VI</b></td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl smcap">Trees for Economic Planting</td>
+      <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_47">47</a></td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdc fs_110" colspan="2">&nbsp;<br><b>CHAPTER VII</b></td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl smcap">Planting Exposed Ground</td>
+      <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_68">68</a></td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdc fs_110" colspan="2">&nbsp;<br><b>CHAPTER VIII</b></td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl smcap">Seaside Planting
+                 <span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_xii"></a>[Pg xii]</span></td>
+      <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_73">73</a></td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdc fs_110" colspan="2">&nbsp;<br><b>CHAPTER IX</b></td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl smcap">Town Planting, and the Trees and Shrubs that</td>
+      <td class="tdr">&nbsp;</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl_ws2 smcap">are Best Adapted for Withstanding Smoke</td>
+      <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_87">87</a></td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdc fs_110" colspan="2">&nbsp;<br><b>CHAPTER X</b></td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl smcap">Trees Suitable for Hedgerow and Field Planting</td>
+      <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_110">110</a></td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdc fs_110" colspan="2">&nbsp;<br><b>CHAPTER XI</b></td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl smcap">Ornamental Planting</td>
+      <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_116">116</a></td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdc fs_110" colspan="2">&nbsp;<br><b>CHAPTER XII</b></td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl smcap">Trees best Adapted for Various Soils</td>
+      <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_128">128</a></td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdc fs_110" colspan="2">&nbsp;<br><b>CHAPTER XIII</b></td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl smcap">Transplanting Large Trees</td>
+      <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_139">139</a></td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdc fs_110" colspan="2">&nbsp;<br><b>CHAPTER XIV</b></td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl smcap">Thinning Plantations</td>
+      <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_141">141</a></td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdc fs_110" colspan="2">&nbsp;<br><b>CHAPTER XV</b></td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl smcap">Tree-Pruning in Economic Forestry</td>
+      <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_151">151</a></td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdc fs_110" colspan="2">&nbsp;<br><b>CHAPTER XVI</b></td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl smcap">Bracing and Repairing Trees</td>
+      <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_159">159</a></td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdc fs_110" colspan="2">&nbsp;<br><b>CHAPTER XVII</b></td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl smcap">Coppice and Underwood</td>
+      <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_170">170</a></td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdc fs_110" colspan="2">&nbsp;<br><b>CHAPTER XVIII</b></td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl smcap">Game Coverts: their Formation and Management</td>
+      <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_174">174</a></td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdc fs_110" colspan="2">&nbsp;<br><b>CHAPTER XIX</b></td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl smcap">Hedges: their Formation and Management
+              <span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_xiii"></a>[Pg xiii]</span></td>
+      <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_184">184</a></td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdc fs_110" colspan="2">&nbsp;<br><b>CHAPTER XX</b></td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl smcap">Shrubs for Shady Situations</td>
+      <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_191">191</a></td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdc fs_110" colspan="2">&nbsp;<br><b>CHAPTER XXI</b></td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl smcap">Insect Enemies of Trees</td>
+      <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_193">193</a></td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdc fs_110" colspan="2">&nbsp;<br><b>CHAPTER XXII</b></td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl smcap">Fungus Growth on Trees</td>
+      <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_212">212</a></td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdc fs_110" colspan="2">&nbsp;<br><b>CHAPTER XXIII</b></td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl smcap">Barking Oak</td>
+      <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_220">220</a></td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdc fs_110" colspan="2">&nbsp;<br><b>CHAPTER XXIV</b></td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl smcap">The Manufacture of Charcoal</td>
+      <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_226">226</a></td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdc fs_110" colspan="2">&nbsp;<br><b>CHAPTER XXV</b></td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl smcap">Prices of Home-grown Timber</td>
+      <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_237">237</a></td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdc fs_110" colspan="2">&nbsp;<br><b>CHAPTER XXVI</b></td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl smcap">British-Grown Timber and some of its Uses</td>
+      <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_240">240</a></td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdc fs_110" colspan="2">&nbsp;<br><b>CHAPTER XXVII</b></td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl smcap">Willows for Basket-Making</td>
+      <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_243">243</a></td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdc fs_110" colspan="2">&nbsp;<br><b>CHAPTER XXVIII</b></td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl smcap">Utilizing Waste Forest Produce</td>
+      <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_250">250</a></td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdc fs_110" colspan="2">&nbsp;<br><b>CHAPTER XXIX</b></td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl smcap">Fencing Plantations</td>
+      <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_257">257</a></td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdc fs_110" colspan="2">&nbsp;<br><b>CHAPTER XXX</b></td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl smcap">Timber Measuring
+              <span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_xiv"></a>[Pg xiv]</span></td>
+      <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_268">268</a></td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdc fs_110" colspan="2">&nbsp;<br><b>CHAPTER XXXI</b></td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl smcap">Blasting and Burning Tree Roots</td>
+      <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_273">273</a></td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdc fs_110" colspan="2">&nbsp;<br><b>CHAPTER XXXII</b></td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl smcap">Prices of Contract or Piecework</td>
+      <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_277">277</a></td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdc fs_110" colspan="2">&nbsp;<br><b>CHAPTER XXXIII</b></td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl smcap">Forest Area of the World</td>
+      <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_280">280</a></td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdc fs_110" colspan="2">&nbsp;<br><b>CHAPTER XXXIV</b></td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl smcap">Afforesting Waste Lands and the Financial</td>
+      <td class="tdr">&nbsp;</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl_ws2 smcap">Returns Therefrom</td>
+      <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_282">282</a></td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl smcap">Index</td>
+      <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_295">295</a></td>
+   </tr>
+ </tbody>
+</table>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_xv"></a>[Pg xv]</span></p>
+<p class="f150"><b>LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS</b></p>
+</div>
+
+<table class="spb1">
+   <tbody><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td>
+      <td class="tdr fs_80 smcap">PAGE</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">Arrangement of Plantations</td>
+      <td class="tdr"><a href ="#I_033">33</a></td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">Band and Connecting-Rod</td>
+      <td class="tdr"><a href ="#I_166">166</a></td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">Barking Tools</td>
+      <td class="tdr"><a href ="#I_222">222</a></td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">Beam Tree in London</td>
+      <td class="tdr"><a href ="#I_103">103</a></td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">Beech Tree</td>
+      <td class="tdr"><a href ="#I_050">50</a></td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">Blasting and Burning Tree Roots</td>
+      <td class="tdr"><a href ="#I_273">273</a></td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">Bracing a Tree</td>
+      <td class="tdr"><a href ="#I_165">165</a></td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">Cricket Bat Willow</td>
+      <td class="tdr"><a href ="#I_055">55</a></td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">Elm Tree Destroyer</td>
+      <td class="tdr"><a href ="#I_199">199</a></td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">Faulkner’s Transplanting Machine</td>
+      <td class="tdr"><a href ="#I_140">140</a></td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">Felling Tools</td>
+      <td class="tdr"><a href ="#I_143">143</a></td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">Goat Moth</td>
+      <td class="tdr"><a href ="#I_201">201</a></td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">Hedging Tools</td>
+      <td class="tdr"><a href ="#I_185">185</a></td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">Larch Canker</td>
+      <td class="tdr"><a href ="#I_213">213</a></td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">Measuring the Height of Trees</td>
+      <td class="tdr"><a href ="#I_271">271</a></td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">Method of Levelling</td>
+      <td class="tdr"><a href ="#FIG_1">39</a></td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">Oak Fences</td>
+      <td class="tdr"><a href ="#I_262">262</a></td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">Plan of Nursery</td>
+      <td class="tdr"><a href ="#I_027">27</a></td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">Plane Tree in Regent’s Park</td>
+      <td class="tdr"><a href ="#I_099">99</a></td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl"><i>Polyporus Sulphureus</i></td>
+      <td class="tdr"><a href ="#I_219">219</a></td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl"><i>Polyporus Squamosus</i></td>
+      <td class="tdr"><a href ="#I_216">216</a></td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">Pruning Tools</td>
+      <td class="tdr"><a href ="#I_153">153</a>
+               <span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_xvi"></a>[Pg xvi]</span></td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">Pruning, Bad effects of</td>
+      <td class="tdr"><a href ="#I_155">155</a></td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">Rustic Wooden Fence, Strong Mortised Fence,</td>
+      <td class="tdr">&nbsp;</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl_ws2">Strong Paling Fence</td>
+      <td class="tdr"><a href ="#I_262">262</a></td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">Sawn Wooden Fence</td>
+      <td class="tdr"><a href ="#I_261">261</a></td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">Section of Charcoal Pit</td>
+      <td class="tdr"><a href ="#I_229">229</a></td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">Savin Juniper as a Town Shrub</td>
+      <td class="tdr"><a href ="#I_108">108</a></td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">Slate Fences</td>
+      <td class="tdr"><a href ="#I_259">259</a></td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">Spirit-Level</td>
+      <td class="tdr"><a href ="#FIG_1">39</a></td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">Stone and Wire Fence</td>
+      <td class="tdr"><a href ="#I_257">257</a></td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">Tools used in Planting</td>
+      <td class="tdr"><a href ="#I_043">43</a></td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">Tools used in Draining</td>
+      <td class="tdr"><a href ="#I_037">37</a></td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">Tools required in Nursery</td>
+      <td class="tdr"><a href ="#I_029">29</a></td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">Tools for Fencing</td>
+      <td class="tdr"><a href ="#I_264">264</a></td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">Tree Guards</td>
+      <td class="tdr"><a href ="#I_266">266</a></td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">Weymouth Pine at Gwydyr Castle</td>
+      <td class="tdr"><a href ="#I_061">61</a></td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">Wire Fence with Wooden Posts</td>
+      <td class="tdr"><a href ="#I_263">263</a></td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">Willow Beetle</td>
+      <td class="tdr"><a href ="#I_197">197</a></td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">Wood Leopard Moth</td>
+      <td class="tdr"><a href ="#I_203">203</a></td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">Witch’s Broom on Willow</td>
+      <td class="tdr"><a href ="#I_209">209</a>, <a href ="#I_210">210</a></td>
+   </tr>
+ </tbody>
+</table>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_1"></a>[Pg 1]</span></p>
+
+<p class="f150"><b>WEBSTER’S PRACTICAL FORESTRY</b></p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<h2 class="nobreak">CHAPTER I<br>
+<span class="h_subtitle">FORESTRY AND THE WAR</span></h2>
+</div>
+
+<p>During the war, and for long afterwards, there is bound to be a dearth
+of foreign timber, with the result that our home supplies will be taxed
+to the utmost. This, indeed, is already the case, and never before in
+the history of our country has the demand for British-grown timber been
+greater or prices higher than at the present time.</p>
+
+<p>Plantations in England and Scotland are being cut down wholesale by
+the Government, while felling on private estates is going on with such
+rapidity that in a couple of years at most there is bound to be a
+dearth of all home-grown timber, and of pitwood in particular.</p>
+
+<p>In the aggregate, our supplies are by no means great, the total area at
+present under woodlands being only a little over three million acres,
+to which, however, must be added the amount of field and hedgerow
+timber—a by no means inconsiderable quantity. Of Plantation timber
+much is, however, of very inferior quality and only suitable for rough
+fencing and mining purposes, and this applies generally to that grown
+throughout England, Wales and Ireland. In Scotland, however, there are
+large areas of coniferous woods that were planted for purely economic
+purposes which will yield a certain amount of valuable timber for
+pit-props and other immediate requirements. The felling of Scotch,
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_2"></a>[Pg 2]</span>
+Spruce, and coniferous trees will, however, be a blessing in disguise,
+for of late years both demand and price for this particular class
+of timber have been by no means great and have hardly warranted the
+owners of vacant land in undertaking the much-needed extension of our
+woodlands. Larch, on the other hand, is scarce and always in demand at
+a highly remunerative price, as also are Ash, Oak and Beech of large
+size and good quality.</p>
+
+<p>It is useless to go into the question of how long our home supplies
+of timber will last, this depending largely on the volume of foreign
+importations and the duration of the war, but, judging from present
+demands, three years will find our plantations in a more or less
+depleted condition. The main question we have to consider and decide,
+without delay, is how our cut-over plantations are to be replaced by
+the replanting of exhausted woodlands and afforesting some of the waste
+lands of our country.</p>
+
+<p>Continental experience has demonstrated that, from a commercial point
+of view at least, State-owned forests are preferable to such as are
+owned either by public bodies or by private individuals. The resources
+and continuity of a nation will always make the State the best
+custodian of forest property; indeed, only the State can acquire the
+necessary land on the most favourable terms, and in sufficient quantity
+for the purposes of extensive afforestation. Private individuals—or,
+indeed, public bodies—labour under many disadvantages in this respect,
+not the least being the long period required—in most cases from fifty
+to sixty years—before the money expended in planting can be even
+partially recovered.</p>
+
+<p>Contrary to the conditions obtaining in the raising of agricultural
+crops, long periods have to elapse before the forestry harvest can be
+reaped. It will be obvious, therefore, that extensive tree planting
+is quite beyond the power of the private individual unassisted. It
+is a State business, in which systematic methods of cultivation, and
+large wooded areas are first necessities; and, unfortunately, in this
+country commercial forestry is but little understood—in fact, it may
+be described as an unknown industry.
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_3"></a>[Pg 3]</span></p>
+
+<p>Extensive plantations of from a thousand to several thousand acres
+each, in compact blocks, are required, for it is only in dealing with
+such areas that the planting, tending, thinning, and conversion of the
+timber can be most economically and profitably carried out. From the
+purely economic point of view, the many small plantations dotted over
+the face of our country are worse than useless, though exceptions might
+be noted, especially in Scotland, where a few woods are planted and
+managed on a commercial basis.</p>
+
+<p>With compact blocks of forest 2,000 to 4,000 acres in extent, and
+with timber crops of mainly the same species in each, a continuity of
+supplies could be guaranteed, which under existing circumstances is
+quite out of the question. In many outlying districts all over the
+country that are far removed from road and rail it is difficult—in
+some cases impossible—to dispose of the usually small amount of timber
+that is periodically cut down; but were large quantities of the same
+kind and a continuity of supply ensured, merchants would be tempted
+to make special transit and other arrangements, as well as to offer a
+remunerative price for the timber, while railway companies would no
+doubt provide cheaper facilities for its transport.</p>
+
+<p>More than once I have been asked by owners of woodlands to recommend
+buyers of good Larch, Ash, and other timber, the demand for which far
+exceeds the supply; but after negotiating have invariably been told
+by the merchants that the quantity offered was too small to allow of
+special facilities for delivery being provided, the timber being far
+removed from road and rail, but that if a specified number of trees
+could be guaranteed annually for a number of years they were quite
+prepared to buy. Such cases occurred in the South and West of Ireland,
+and in remote parts of Wales and Scotland. These, then, are cases in
+which a continuity of supply—such as would be quite possible if an
+extensive scheme of afforesting was carried out—would ensure speedy
+sales at fair rates in places where at present it is difficult, if
+not impossible, to dispose of the small quantities of timber, even at
+ruinously low prices.
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_4"></a>[Pg 4]</span></p>
+
+<p>The question, then, before the nation is: How, and by whom, is
+afforestation to be carried out on a scale commensurate with our
+necessities as by far the largest timber-importing country in the
+world?—larger, indeed, than all the countries of Europe put together.
+In answer, and without the slightest hesitation, I would say that the
+State should acquire and plant suitable lands at the rate of 40,000
+acres annually for a period of twenty-five years, or 1,000,000 in all.</p>
+
+<p>When we consider that the total area of woodlands in this country is
+only a little in excess of 3,071,000 acres, that fully 17,000,000 acres
+of waste lands exist, and that we annually import over 10,000,000
+tons of timber at a cost of about £25,000,000, the necessity for an
+increased area of woodlands, so that a portion at least of this vast
+sum may be kept at home, will be apparent to all, the more so as a
+dearth of timber is imminent and outside supplies are being rigidly
+conserved, while our home demands are ever on the increase.</p>
+
+<p>In order to carry out my proposed scheme of planting a million acres
+during the next five years, at the rate of 200,000 acres annually,
+profitable and healthy employment would at once be found for several
+thousand workmen. The question of transporting, housing and otherwise
+dealing with these workmen has been brought forward as the most serious
+drawback to the scheme, but, personally, having had to deal with such
+cases I can see no insuperable difficulty in the undertaking. Surely,
+if our railway and water companies, as also private landowners, can
+deal with hundreds of men in remote mountain districts that are far
+removed from road and rail, the Government could make the necessary
+arrangements for the various bodies of workmen that would be employed
+for afforesting purposes. Nor must tree planting be considered as a
+new departure for unemployed labour, as in the formation of a large
+plantation on a dreary exposed hillside in Wales, the whole of the
+work, including clearing the ground of rough surface growth, draining,
+pitting and planting, was most successfully carried out by detachments
+of the unemployed.
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_5"></a>[Pg 5]</span></p>
+
+<p>The general physique of Army and Navy men and the discipline and hard
+work to which they have been subjected during the war will render them
+peculiarly suitable for carrying out the various operations connected
+with the formation of plantations. Convalescent soldiers and sailors
+could also find healthy employment in the various lighter tasks which
+go hand in hand with afforestation, such as clearing the ground of
+rough growing vegetation and lifting and distributing the young trees.</p>
+
+<p>Several suggestions have been made for providing employment for our
+returned soldiers and sailors, but much of this proposed work is, so to
+speak, invented for the purpose, and would probably never be seriously
+considered except for the exigencies of the case. Now I am quite of
+opinion that afforesting waste lands offers a sensible system of
+employment, for it is now generally admitted that a largely increased
+area of our woodlands is an imperative and pressing necessity, and what
+is of equal importance, the undertaking, if wisely entered upon, would
+not only increase the value of such lands fourfold but form the nucleus
+of an ever-increasing revenue of the State.</p>
+
+<p>But this is not all, for apart altogether from the question of
+immediate labour, what an industry would be opened up in years to come
+by the planting of waste grounds! In the first instance there would
+arise the necessity for clearing, fencing, draining, and planting the
+ground, subsequently the tending of the plantations in various ways
+would give employment. Thinning would commence about the tenth year,
+after which the erection of sawmills and the conversion of the timber
+would open a vast and ever-increasing industry, providing highly
+remunerative work to thousands of the unemployed.</p>
+
+<p>There are other ways in connection with forestry in which the
+unemployed could be usefully and profitably set to work, such as in
+preparing osier beds, planting dogwood for gunpowder charcoal, and in
+the formation and stocking of tree nurseries, the produce of which
+could with advantage be used in the formation of plantations. Osiers
+for basket-making, charcoal for gunpowder and heating purposes, and
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_6"></a>[Pg 6]</span>
+seedling plants for afforestation will all be greatly in demand after
+the war when foreign supplies will not be forthcoming.</p>
+
+<p>Regarding the most desirable centres at which to commence planting
+operations, I would suggest those counties where the greatest areas of
+waste lands exist, and where, in addition, advantages are offered in
+the matter of cheap land purchase, as well as in a demand for and easy
+removal of the produce. Thus we have:—</p>
+
+<table class="spb1">
+   <tbody><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">England</td>
+      <td class="tdl_ws1">Yorkshire and Northumberland with 1,010,924 acres.</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">Scotland</td>
+      <td class="tdl_ws1">Inverness and Argyleshire with 3,087,312 acres.</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">Wales</td>
+      <td class="tdl_ws1">Breconshire and Merionethshire with 461,320 acres.</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">Ireland</td>
+      <td class="tdl_ws1">Donegal and Kerry with 657,337 acres</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td>
+      <td class="tdl_ws2">(exclusive of 172,436 acres of bogland).</td>
+   </tr>
+ </tbody>
+</table>
+
+<p>From these figures it will be seen that in case of necessity we could
+get all the ground required for this afforesting scheme in two of the
+counties of England and Scotland, or in three of Wales and Ireland.</p>
+
+<p>The cost of procuring suitable land for afforesting purposes need
+not be considered as any obstacle to the scheme. From extensive
+inquiries made the price on an average would not be greater than £2
+per acre. Through the kindness of the agent on the Gwydyr Estate, in
+Carnarvonshire, I have been allowed to look over the sale contracts on
+several of the properties, and from these I find that 7,412 acres were
+disposed of at an average price of £2 2<i>s.</i> 3<i>d.</i> per acre.
+The ground was excellent for the production of timber, as the Larch on
+adjoining lands clearly evidenced. Again, the Crown recently purchased
+12,500 acres in Scotland at the modest rental of £2 per acre. Many
+other instances could be quoted, but the above suffice to show that
+land in every way suitable for the production of high-grade timber can
+be bought at probably less than £2 per acre.
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_7"></a>[Pg 7]</span></p>
+
+<p>The cost of forming plantations has been very carefully considered, and
+for all practical purposes may be put down at £5 per acre, taking the
+British Isles as a whole.</p>
+
+<p>Regarding financial returns from tree planting, there is overwhelming
+proof that land worth only from 1<i>s.</i> to 3<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i> per
+acre has been made to realise as much as 20<i>s.</i> per acre for fifty
+or sixty years, with a final crop worth from £50 to £75 per acre.</p>
+
+<p>Taking all the above points into consideration—the price of land,
+the cost of planting and the financial returns—it will amply repay
+the State to plant up uncultivated and waste lands. There should
+be no loss of time in setting about this work if we are to provide
+suitable employment for our returned soldiers and sailors and avoid the
+threatened timber famine which, according to well-informed quarters, is
+fast approaching.</p>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_8"></a>[Pg 8]</span></p>
+<h2 class="nobreak">CHAPTER II<br>
+<span class="h_subtitle">COLLECTING AND STORING TREE SEEDS</span></h2>
+</div>
+
+<p>Owing to the war there is little doubt that for several years to come
+adequate supplies of seeds and young forest trees will not be available
+from their usual sources on the Continent. Vast quantities of both are
+annually sent to this country from Germany alone, while from other
+parts of the Continent coniferous seeds in particular are largely
+imported—in fact, we are almost wholly dependent for both seeds and
+seedlings on foreign supplies.</p>
+
+<p>Under these circumstances, it behoves the owners of woodlands in every
+part of the country to collect seeds, particularly of such trees
+as our plantations are mainly composed of. After these have been
+properly harvested, they should be stored away in suitable places till
+seed-sowing time in the spring. To some extent this will be a new
+forest industry, though for long, the seeds both of Scotch Pine and
+various hard-wooded trees, particularly the Oak, Ash and Elm, have been
+annually collected on various estates throughout the country, and the
+young plants raised from such stock have given every satisfaction when
+planted out permanently.</p>
+
+<p>For several reasons, however, we cannot compete with foreigners either
+in the production of seeds or in raising young forest stock. For some
+years to come, owing to the uncertainty of supplies from abroad, both
+seeds and seedlings are bound to be scarce and expensive.</p>
+
+<p>In the past, far too little attention has been bestowed on the
+collecting and harvesting of the seeds of trees and shrubs, the result,
+in not a few cases, being weak and unhealthy plants and an uneven and
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_9"></a>[Pg 9]</span>
+irregular crop. The best seeds, it should be remembered, are those
+collected from healthy trees in the prime of life, and grown under
+conditions favourable to their perfect development. An unhealthy tree
+will often bear a heavy crop of seed, but although the inducements to
+collect such are great, they should be discarded, those from the most
+robust specimens in the prime of life being chosen in preference.</p>
+
+<p>Regarding the best way of collecting tree seeds little need be said,
+the exigencies of the case determining the best method to be adopted.
+The seeds of not a few trees may be collected as they fall, and this
+is especially the case with those of the Oak, Beech, Elm, etc., all of
+which may be swept into heaps and gathered in quantity from beneath
+desirable trees.</p>
+
+<p>In the case of the various Coniferæ this method of seed collecting
+will not answer—indeed, in the majority of instances, the seed
+should be gathered, or rather picked, from the trees just before they
+became fully ripe, as in falling they get loose from the cone-scales
+and are lost. When collecting the cones of coniferous trees, a long,
+light hooked staff with which to draw the branches towards one can
+conveniently be used to procure an abundant supply. A bag or satchel
+should also be in possession of the seed collector, into which may be
+put such kinds of cones as fall readily apart, as the seeds from these
+are easily lost. Sometimes, as in the case of rare seeds, and when only
+a few cones are borne near the top of the tree, the seed collector
+must have recourse to climbing; but, in such cases, in order to avoid
+injury to the bark, he should be provided with a pair of elastic shoes
+or slippers. Great care is required in the collection of such seeds as
+those of <i>Abies nobilis</i> and <i>A. nordmanniana</i>, the cones,
+when fully ripe, falling to pieces on the slightest touch. This,
+however, applies equally to almost every species of Abies, whereas,
+with the Pines and Spruces, the cones remain intact for an almost
+indefinite period of time, even though the seeds may have fallen out on
+becoming ripe.</p>
+
+<p>The proper harvesting of tree seeds rarely, except in the case of
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_10"></a>[Pg 10]</span>
+experienced nurserymen, receives sufficient attention, although this
+operation should be as carefully attended to as in the case of the
+seeds of any other form of crop. After being collected, the seeds
+of all trees, unless such as are mixed with sand for the purpose of
+rotting, should be thinly and evenly spread out in a sunny spot, until
+thoroughly dry. They may then be deposited in a cool, airy place,
+and in thin layers, until wanted for sowing. An occasional turning
+is all-important and should never be neglected. The smaller and less
+common seeds may, for convenience sake, be hung up in calico bags, but
+they, too, should be occasionally examined to prevent dampness and
+heating.</p>
+
+<p>The number of plants of various kinds that may be expected from
+a bushel of seed of average quality varies very much, and may be
+approximately given as follows: Horse Chestnut, 2,500; Oak, 6,000 to
+8,000; Spanish Chestnut, about 3,000; Walnut, 5,000; Norway Maple,
+12,000; Sycamore, about 12,000; Ash, 14,000; Beech, 10,000; Elm, 1,000;
+Birch, fully 16,000; Holly, 17,000; Scotch Fir, 9,000. To 1 lb. of
+seed: Spruce Fir, about 9,000; Larch, 3,000; and the Cluster Pine,
+Silver Fir, and some others, from about 500 upwards.</p>
+
+<p>For convenience in regulating orders for sowing, the following table
+will show at a glance the approximate and relative number of seeds
+of the various commonly cultivated forest trees contained in 1 lb.
+weight:—</p>
+
+<table class="spb1">
+   <tbody><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">Abies nobilis</td>
+      <td class="tdc_wsp">about</td>
+      <td class="tdr">19,400</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">Abies nordmanniana &nbsp;</td>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+      <td class="tdr">10,000</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">Ash</td>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+      <td class="tdr">6,800</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">Beech</td>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+      <td class="tdr">2,700</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">Douglas Fir</td>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+      <td class="tdr">95,200</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">Horse Chestnut</td>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+      <td class="tdr">36</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">Hornbeam</td>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+      <td class="tdr">9,968</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">Larch</td>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+      <td class="tdr">65,000</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">Lawson’s Cypress</td>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+      <td class="tdr">131,400</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">Lebanon Cedar</td>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+      <td class="tdr">10,800</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">Norway Maple</td>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+      <td class="tdr">4,600</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">Oak</td>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+      <td class="tdr">100</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">Pinus Austriaca</td>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+      <td class="tdr">35,000</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">Pinus Laricio</td>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+      <td class="tdr">43,000
+              <span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_11"></a>[Pg 11]</span></td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">Pinus Pinaster</td>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+      <td class="tdr">12,000</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">Pinus Sylvestris</td>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+      <td class="tdr">75,000</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">Spruce</td>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+      <td class="tdr">64,500</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">Silver Fir</td>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+      <td class="tdr">14,960</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">Sycamore</td>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+      <td class="tdr">4,624</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">Walnut</td>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+      <td class="tdr">36</td>
+   </tr>
+ </tbody>
+</table>
+
+<p>These figures must only be taken as approximate, the seed of various
+trees of the same species seeming to vary in the number to the pound
+in a marked degree. The results of careful analysis of one or two
+kinds may be cited as examples. In one case the number of seeds in 1
+lb. weight of Scotch Fir was 69,600, while in another it had increased
+to 90,600; and in the Larch the numbers were 33,900 and 68,000. These
+differences are, however, mainly due to the individual seeds being
+weightier in one case than in another, probably owing to the age and
+health of the tree from which they were collected, the situation and
+exposure to which it was subjected, etc. However, for all nursery
+purposes the above figures may be accepted as a fair standard.</p>
+
+<p>The time of collecting and the after-management of the different
+forest seeds vary so much that a brief description of those kinds most
+commonly planted will be found useful:—</p>
+
+<p><b>Alder</b> seed should be gathered from the trees in October and sown
+in spring, say May.</p>
+
+<p><b>Ash</b> seeds are ripe in October, when they should be collected and
+kept in moist sand during the winter, and sown in March.</p>
+
+<p><b>Austrian</b>, <b>Corsican</b> and <b>Weymouth Pine</b> seeds are
+treated in every respect like those of Scotch Fir, varying the kiln
+heat according to the looseness of the cone-bracts.</p>
+
+<p><a href ="#I_050"><b>Beech</b></a> seeds are collected in October and November,
+placed in sand, and sown in April. The young plants are readily affected by
+frost, and the seed should, therefore, not be sown earlier than the
+time mentioned.</p>
+
+<p><b>Birch</b> seed must be collected from the trees just before it
+becomes ripe in August, otherwise it is scattered broadcast and lost
+for cultivation. March is the time for sowing.
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_12"></a>[Pg 12]</span></p>
+
+<p><b>Cupressus Lawsoniana</b> seed is usually ready for collecting in
+October, but should not be sown before the first week in April.</p>
+
+<p><b>Douglas Fir</b> seed is, in most cases, readily removed from
+well-ripened cones by threshing or by pulling the cone to pieces,
+but, in some instances, particularly where the quantity is large,
+kiln-drying is resorted to. The seeds are ripe in December and should
+be gently watered and sown in May.</p>
+
+<p><b>Elm</b> seeds are ripe in June, when they may either be sown at
+once, or dried and kept in stock for planting in March and April.</p>
+
+<p><b>Hawthorn</b> seed, or berries, may be sown when collected, or the
+outer coating rotted off by keeping them during the winter in moist
+sand.</p>
+
+<p><b>Hazel</b> nuts may be collected in autumn and sown at once, or kept
+till spring.</p>
+
+<p><b>Holly</b> berries require to be placed in sand for about eighteen
+months so as to rot off the fleshy outer coating, and may be sown in
+March. The mixture of sand and berries, which should be about in equal
+proportions, must be turned frequently. They are usually sown with the
+sand in which they have been lying.</p>
+
+<p><b>Horse</b> and <b>Spanish Chestnut</b> seeds may be taken together,
+the method of collecting and sowing being very similar in both cases.
+They are ripe by the middle of October, and may either be sown at once
+or kept till spring. One seed to 4 square in. will be close enough.</p>
+
+<p><b>Larch</b> cones, when ripe, are of a rather bright brown colour and
+require to be collected from the trees. This should not, however, be
+done till spring, though occasionally they are gathered in December.
+They part with the seeds far more readily than those of the Scotch Fir,
+and consequently require less heat when in the kiln.</p>
+
+<p><b>Maple</b> seeds are ready for collecting about October, and should
+not be sown till the beginning of April.</p>
+
+<p><b>Mountain Ash</b>, indeed, all the Pyrus family and others of a like
+kind, require the berries to be placed in sand, and when the outer fleshy
+coating has rotted away they may be sown either in autumn or spring.
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_13"></a>[Pg 13]</span></p>
+
+<p><b>Oak.</b>—The acorns may be gathered or swept from the ground in
+November, and either sown at once or stored away in a cool, dry place
+till Spring. One acorn to every 4 square in. will be ample in the
+seed-bed. Sow in spring or autumn.</p>
+
+<p><b>Scotch Fir</b> cones are better not collected till early in January,
+and the time may even be extended till March. When quite ripe they have
+changed from bluish-green to a light, grey colour. As the cones part
+tardily with the seeds, artificial means have to be resorted to, the
+cones being placed thinly over a kiln heated to a temperature of from
+75° to 112°. They should be turned every third hour, and after about
+thirty hours the kiln should be cooled down and the cones extracted
+as quickly as possible. By beating with a flail the seeds are readily
+removed from the cones, but it is best to do this before the cones have
+cooled down or immediately they are removed from the kiln. The seeds
+are then swept together and collected, and stored away until wanted
+for sowing. When not required for sowing at once, the seeds should
+be thinly spread out on the floor and slightly moistened with water
+from a fine rose watering-can. They should then be turned about until
+perfectly dry before being stored away.</p>
+
+<p><b>Silver Fir</b> seed does not require much, if any, artificial
+heat to cause it to part from the cone. By placing the cones in the
+sunshine, and heating and turning freely, the seeds come out without
+much trouble. In all cases, however, wherever possible, it is wise
+policy to dispense with artificial heat or kiln-drying as, unless this
+is carried out most carefully, the vitality of the seeds is greatly
+impaired thereby.</p>
+
+<p><b>Sycamore</b> seeds are ready for gathering in October, but should
+not be sown till the end of March or beginning of April.</p>
+
+<p><b>Walnuts</b> are collected, when ripe, in autumn, and sown in late
+spring.</p>
+
+<p><b>Yew</b> seeds are usually washed of the pulpy matter before being sown.
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_14"></a>[Pg 14]</span></p>
+
+<p>In the case of large seeds, such as those of <b>Araucaria
+imbricata</b>, <b>Pinus sabiniana</b>, and <b>P. macrocarpa</b>, the
+best way is to cut the cones to pieces and carefully remove the seeds.
+This operation should be performed with great care, so that the hard
+seed coating may not be injured.</p>
+
+<p>With conifers in general I have invariably found it the best plan to
+allow the seed to remain in the cones until wanted for sowing. By
+keeping the cones in a cool, dry place, and occasionally turning them
+over, there need be little fear but that the seeds will turn out well.</p>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_15"></a>[Pg 15]</span></p>
+<h2 class="nobreak">CHAPTER III<br>
+<span class="h_subtitle">PROPAGATING TREES AND SHRUBS</span></h2>
+</div>
+
+<p>There are several methods of propagating trees and shrubs: such as by
+seed-sowing, from cuttings or layers, and by budding and grafting.</p>
+
+<p><b>From Seed.</b>—This natural process of reproduction is that most
+commonly adopted where large numbers of trees are required—indeed,
+certain species, particularly of the Coniferæ, cannot successfully be
+raised in any other way. The preparation of the seed-beds is a point
+that deserves far more attention than it usually receives, and that
+not only on economic grounds, but in view of the general appearance of
+the nursery borders as well. To tumble the seeds indiscriminately into
+the ground as if they had fallen in showers from the trees is highly
+objectionable; and just as censurable is the too-oft-repeated practice
+of sowing these in rough, cloddy, and ill-prepared ground.</p>
+
+<p>Systematic arrangement in the laying out of the beds, as to the number
+and requirements of the future seedlings, should also be attended to.</p>
+
+<p>The ground intended for seed-beds should be trenched or deeply dug up;
+but this operation would, for the mellowing and cleaning of the soil,
+be better performed the autumn before than at the time of sowing down.</p>
+
+<p>In any case, just before sowing, the ground should be carefully turned
+over, all hard clods being broken down, and large stones raked off,
+the surface soil to the depth of 3 in. or 4 in. being made as fine as
+possible. Dry weather must be chosen for the formation of seed-beds, as
+also, indeed, for the sowing of the seeds. The beds are marked off and
+prepared as follows:—A light, strong line is stretched along the ground
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_16"></a>[Pg 16]</span>
+at, say, 3 ft. from the boundary fence or path, and, after being fixed
+at each end, the first alley, or path, is marked out by treading the
+soil alongside of the line. The length of the bed thus marked off on
+one side is quite immaterial, but the width is of great importance, and
+should never exceed 4 ft.; 3 ft. 6 in. is nearer the mark.</p>
+
+<p>Adjoining this first line, a bed the above width is marked off with
+a peg or stake at each end, the line reset and a second alley marked
+off. The alley, or path, between each couple of beds need not exceed
+15 in. in width, this being for the sake of convenience in sowing,
+weeding, watering, shading, and otherwise attending to the bed, and
+its occupants. Outside this follows a second bed, and so on, until
+the desired number has been formed. Some persons raise the seed-beds
+a little above the level of the paths, but, except in very retentive
+or damp soils, this is not to be recommended. The beds should in
+no instance, however, be below the level of the paths. There are
+two methods employed in opening up and preparing the beds for the
+reception of the seeds either of which, if carefully gone about, is
+well suited for the exigencies of the case. My own way has always
+been to level and smooth the surface of the bed with a small-toothed
+rake, and after sowing the seeds to cover lightly with fine soil and
+ashes carefully sifted over the bed by means of a small-meshed riddle.
+This plan has many advantages, not the least important being the
+covering of the seeds to an equal depth, and the employing of only the
+finest class of soil. The other method is by using what is termed a
+“cuffing-board”—that is, a board about 8 in. wide, placed on a handle,
+which is inserted in the centre, towards the back, the handle being
+fully 5 ft. long. A skilled person is required to use this tool, who
+stands in the alley, first on one side of the bed, and then on the
+other, pushing or drawing towards him from the surface of the bed a
+thin coating of soil along its full length and from about two-thirds of
+its surface.</p>
+
+<p>As to the amount or depth of soil taken off, this is regulated by the
+particular kind of seed to be sown, as well as the nature of the soil.
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_17"></a>[Pg 17]</span></p>
+
+<p>The next matter, the depth at which the seed should be sown, is one
+of great importance. Usually seeds are sown unnecessarily deep. In
+the majority of cases a safe guide is to place the seed, of whatever
+kind it may be, about three diameters below the surface of the soil.
+The conditions most favourable to germination are moderate dampness,
+abundance of air, and a temperature of about 45°. In order to ensure
+these conditions, the depth at which the seeds are placed will be
+seen to be of the greatest moment. Generally speaking, the less seeds
+are covered, consistently with their receiving a sufficient supply of
+moisture, the better, and but for their destruction by birds, many
+of the smaller seeds would vegetate just as well if cast upon the
+ground-surface, and pressed in, as by being covered with soil. The
+following interesting experiments with Scotch fir seeds have been made:—</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+<p>“Those buried one-fifth of an inch came up first, but were
+subsequently less vigorous—they soon, however, acquired vigour;</p>
+
+<p>“Those covered from one-third to one-half of an inch came up more
+slowly, but evenly and strong;</p>
+
+<p>“Those buried from two-thirds of an inch to one inch came up in
+deficient numbers; and</p>
+
+<p>“Those buried from one to two inches never showed any signs of
+germination.”</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>These statements are equally applicable to the sowing of seeds in
+general but especially if their relative size and the hardness of their
+covering are taken into account.</p>
+
+<p>Immediately after the bed is prepared the seed should be sown, the
+amount used varying according to quality, which latter may readily be
+tested by examining the embryos of a dozen seeds picked up at random
+from the heap. To ascertain whether seeds are good, the simplest way
+is to cut the sheath open with a sharp penknife, when the kernel ought
+to completely fill the entire coating or shell. Small seeds might be
+crushed by the nail, and if good, will leave traces of moisture or
+emit an odour of turpentine. Another method is to place, one after the
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_18"></a>[Pg 18]</span>
+other, say a dozen seeds taken at haphazard from the heap, on a red-hot
+iron. If good they will turn about with a cracking report; but if
+otherwise, combustion is slow and smoke is given off.</p>
+
+<p>Seed may, however, be considered good if the germinating test gives,
+say, 70 per cent.</p>
+
+<p>The quantity of seed to be sown on a given area will depend mainly on
+the quality and particular species.</p>
+
+<p>When sown broadcast, about a pound weight of larch, and full half a
+pound of Scotch, is allowed per 100 square ft. of seed-bed.</p>
+
+<p>Generally, however, drill sowing is resorted to, and in this case the
+following may be considered as about an average of the quantity used
+per 100 square ft.:</p>
+
+<table class="spb1">
+   <tbody><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">Alder</td>
+      <td class="tdr">7¾</td>
+      <td class="tdc_wsp">ozs.</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">Ash</td>
+      <td class="tdr">5 &#8199;</td>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">Austrian Pine&emsp;&nbsp;</td>
+      <td class="tdr">4¼</td>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">Birch</td>
+      <td class="tdr">6½</td>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">Elm</td>
+      <td class="tdr">3½</td>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">Hornbeam</td>
+      <td class="tdr">2¾</td>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">Larch</td>
+      <td class="tdr">7½</td>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">Maple</td>
+      <td class="tdr">5 &#8199;</td>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">Scotch fir</td>
+      <td class="tdr">2¾</td>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">Silver &nbsp; ”</td>
+      <td class="tdr">13 &#8199;</td>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">Spruce &nbsp;”</td>
+      <td class="tdr">3½</td>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+   </tr>
+ </tbody>
+</table>
+
+<p>Sometimes a small quantity of guano or other manure is sprinkled over
+the seeds, after which they are gently pressed down with a light
+roller, and the soil, which was temporarily deposited along the margin
+of the bed, replaced by the “cuffing-board” or riddle. When seeds are
+sown early, and with care, on well-prepared ground, watering is seldom
+necessary; but still, with small seeds and in very dry ground, an
+occasional sprinkling the last thing at night is highly beneficial.
+Great care is, however, necessary to ensure the soil being thoroughly
+moistened. Protection from mice and birds must be afforded in some such
+manner as by coating the seeds with red lead; and an occasional shading
+of the bed in very warm weather might be advocated. There are not a few
+kinds of seeds, such as those with a hard covering, that it is almost
+imperative to steep in water before sowing. Larch seed, in particular,
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_19"></a>[Pg 19]</span>
+can be soaked for a week without fear or harm, and many leguminous
+seeds for two or three days with great advantage. Some seeds do not
+come up until the second year, such as the ash, pyrus, thorn, etc., and
+in these cases it is but a waste of ground to sow them as collected.
+They should be mixed with sand, as before directed, and stored away for
+a year before being sown.</p>
+
+<p>It should also be remembered that, as a rule, the sooner seeds are sown
+after being collected, the stronger will be the young plants.</p>
+
+<p>Soon after germination, hand weeding must be commenced, and this may
+most successfully be performed after a shower of rain, as the young
+plants then suffer less from loosening of the soil, consequent on
+pulling out the weeds, than would be the case in dry and warm weather.</p>
+
+<p>The above method of raising plants from seeds will be found suitable in
+most cases, but in respect of choice or half-hardy trees the shelter
+afforded by a frame is usually provided. In this case the seeds are
+sown in pots or shallow boxes, according to quantity, and placed in an
+unheated frame.</p>
+
+<p>The best time for seed-sowing is from the first to the fifteenth of
+April.</p>
+
+<p>Transplanting the young seedlings may be taken in hand usually after
+the first year, but no hard and fast line can be laid down, so much
+depending on the season and rate of growth of the young plants. The
+experienced eye can always tell when seedlings should be lined out. The
+best time for this operation is after the spring frosts are at an end,
+for, if planted out in the autumn, the frost is apt to lift the tiny
+seedlings wholesale from the ground.</p>
+
+<p>After this they should be transplanted at least every second year until
+planted out permanently.</p>
+
+<p><b>By Cuttings.</b>—Propagating trees and shrubs from cuttings is
+at once a simple and inexpensive way of getting up a stock of such
+kinds as may be increased in that way. The best months are August and
+September, at which time the temperature of the earth and air are
+equal, and roots are most readily emitted.
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_20"></a>[Pg 20]</span></p>
+
+<p>Choose a sheltered and partially shady border for the insertion of the
+cuttings, and be sure that the soil is not stiff and water-logged, but
+fine, rather inclined to sandy, and moderately dry. It should be well
+forked over and cleaned of weeds, large stones being also removed.</p>
+
+<p>The cuttings may be made of the present year’s growth, with a small
+portion—“heel” it is generally termed—of the old wood, and cut clean
+across beneath where a bud or shoot has protruded. Until a sufficient
+quantity has been made, they should be stuck loosely in a heap of sand
+or soil, and in the shade. Cuttings should be taken from the sunny side
+of a tree or shrub.</p>
+
+<p>In planting the cuttings, stretch a garden line along the previously
+prepared ground, and, having removed a trench about 6 in. deep, by
+cutting in a perpendicular manner with a spade along the front of the
+line, proceed to place the cuttings not too closely together, and
+leaning somewhat backwards in the trench cut out. This being done, it
+is always well, so as to hasten the formation of roots, to sprinkle a
+small quantity of sand or grit along at the base of the cuttings, at
+the same time regulating these as to their distances apart and upward
+inclination, the remaining portion of the trench being filled up with
+the soil formerly removed. Firm tramping is one of the chief points to
+be observed, as cuttings will not take at all quickly in loose soil.
+The line should then be moved forwards about 12 in. and the same method
+of procedure followed until the whole of the cuttings are inserted. For
+such shrubs as the common and Portugal laurel, privet, box, euonymus,
+laurestinus, aucuba, etc., the above method will be found the quickest
+and best for raising young plants from cuttings. It should be stated
+that cuttings taken from the sunny side of a tree or shrub always root
+more freely, and turn out a greater number of plants, than such as have
+been cut from the shady side—indeed, this point should be carefully
+borne in mind and acted upon. Conifers, such as the various species of
+Cupressus, Juniperus, the Wellingtonia, etc., are also readily raised
+from cuttings inserted in the ground out of doors. It is, however, well
+to put such cuttings in boxes, so that they have the advantage of being
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_21"></a>[Pg 21]</span>
+placed in an unheated frame, this greatly enhancing the speedy
+formation of roots. Two or three large frames are always useful in
+the nursery for the reception of choice cuttings, seeds, etc., and
+if boxes, say, 24 in. by 14 in. by 5 in., are made just to suit the
+dimensions of the frames, a great number of young plants, cuttings, and
+seeds of the less common kinds will find a beneficial protection. The
+boxes should be made of stout wood, and have six holes bored in the
+bottom of each, so that the excess water may readily pass away. Before
+planting these, fill each with a mixture of half sand, half soil,
+broken finely down, the cuttings being inserted in small holes made by
+a sharp-pointed stick. A thin coating of sand placed on the surface
+will greatly facilitate the process of rooting. Cuttings of coniferous
+trees should have 2 in. of ripened wood attached to them, and be
+inserted 4 in. deep in the ground; while, for most others, the cuttings
+may be 8 in. long, 3 in. being inserted in the soil.</p>
+
+<p><b>From Layers.</b>—For increasing game coverts, shrubberies, or some
+of those trees and shrubs that cannot well and speedily be raised from
+cuttings or seed, layering will be found a convenient and cheap method.
+There are several other advantages too, as no protection of any kind
+is necessary, and the risk of loss is reduced to a minimum. It is,
+however, generally resorted to as a means of increasing such plants as
+cannot readily be raised from cuttings, and applies with greatest force
+to the rhododendrons and azaleas, the magnolias, coniferæ of various
+kinds, and several species of our hardy deciduous trees.</p>
+
+<p>The operation of layering is very simple, and consists merely in
+bending down the outer branch of a tree or shrub and bringing it in
+contact with the soil, it being there held in position by means of
+a hooked peg. Before fastening the layer with the peg, it is well,
+however, to remove a portion of the bark from that part of the layer
+that is to be brought in contact with the ground, this arresting the
+flow of sap and hastening the formation of roots. The soil beneath the
+tree or shrub should be first loosened, and, if found hard and stiff, a
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_22"></a>[Pg 22]</span>
+small quantity of sand and leaf soil might with advantage be added.
+The same principle is carried out in all kinds of layering, but the
+position of the plant will alter the method of bending over and
+bringing in contact with the soil. In the case of layering coniferæ it
+is not only necessary to bend over and peg down the branch, but, so as
+to form a leader and assist in gaining an upright position, it should
+also be tied or staked in a vertical position. Generally speaking,
+trees and shrubs require two years before the branches that are layered
+are sufficiently well rooted to be removed from the parent, but a few
+kinds require nearly double that time before they can be severed with
+safety. A good plan is, after the second or third year, to cut through
+the layered branch behind the point that is brought in contact with the
+ground, and to let it remain in position for another year. It may then,
+except in a very few cases, be lifted and lined out with others in the
+nursery border, the object being to get it into a good habit of growth
+before being finally planted out.</p>
+
+<p>Most varieties of trees and shrubs can readily be increased by layering
+the side branches in the way above described, and it is a good plan to
+cover over with a spadeful of earth that part of the branch brought in
+contact with the ground.</p>
+
+<p><b>By Grafting.</b>—This may best be described as a makeshift method
+of increasing trees and shrubs. It has only a few advantages, and many
+disadvantages, as is well known to every one on a large estate who goes
+in for collections of the less common kinds of trees and shrubs.</p>
+
+<p>If a plant cannot be increased conveniently by any of the above methods
+grafting may be resorted to, but the work should only be entrusted
+to those who have great practical knowledge of the art, and who have
+paid particular attention to the evils attending injudicious grafting.
+Some of the errors in grafting may be cited as follows: Working on too
+tall stocks whereby an unnatural appearance and continual source of
+danger in windy weather are brought about; grafting small scions on
+large stocks, and grafting evergreen on deciduous species—all of which
+have tended, in a marked degree, to lower the art in the opinion of
+horticulturists generally.
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_23"></a>[Pg 23]</span></p>
+
+<p>The grafting of conifers may be performed at one of two seasons: either
+early in spring or about the month of August. Two-year-old stock are
+mostly to be preferred, so that the stock and scion may be of as near
+a size as possible. Several methods of grafting are adopted, but that
+generally practised is what is known as “side grafting.” This consists
+in making a clean cut in the stem, downwards, for about an inch in
+length. A transverse cut is made at the termination of this first cut,
+whereby a piece of the bark wood is removed from the side of the stock.
+The scion is next prepared by being cut off square at the end, and one
+side of the wood shaved off for about an equal length to the cut on the
+stock. Place the scion in the notch made on the stock, and be careful
+that the barks, on one side at least, come neatly together, for on this
+hangs the whole fate of successful grafting. The scion should, indeed,
+be made to fit as nearly as possible and replace the wedge cut from the
+stock. Tie firmly and carefully with bast matting, and cover over with
+prepared clay or grafting wax. Another method consists in making an
+incision obliquely in the stock, the scion being so prepared that one
+side of it forms a sharp edge, in order that it may be readily inserted
+therein, the bark of the scion and stock coming neatly together. Tie
+with matting as before directed, and cover over with clay or grafting
+wax. Inarching, or grafting by approach, consists in bringing the scion
+into union with the stock without detaching it from its own stem, and
+the separation is not made until the new connection has been formed.</p>
+
+<p><b>Budding.</b>—This is usually performed in July, and in the case of
+certain shrubs has been found useful. The bud should, in addition to
+its strip of bark, have a portion of the cambium attached, as unless
+this be present to unite with the cambium of the stock the operation
+will fail.</p>
+
+<p>The bark of the stock is cut into a <span class="fs_120"><b>T</b></span> shape, opened with the
+end of the budding knife, and the bud slipped neatly in. Bast matting
+will serve for tying, until a junction takes place, which is usually
+effected in five or six weeks.</p>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_24"></a>[Pg 24]</span></p>
+<h2 class="nobreak">CHAPTER IV<br>
+<span class="h_subtitle">THE HOME NURSERY:<br> ITS FORMATION AND MANAGEMENT</span></h2>
+</div>
+
+<p>In the course of my experience on large estates where planting has
+been extensively engaged in, few things have been more particularly
+impressed upon me than the importance of having a well-managed and
+well-stocked home nursery, where the propagating and raising of
+trees and shrubs required for forest and ornamental planting may be
+taken in hand. The numerous advantages of a home nursery, especially
+where planting is extensively carried out, are now so well known and
+appreciated by every proprietor of large estates that comment on this
+subject seems almost unnecessary.</p>
+
+<p>Where ornamental planting, the formation of woods and plantations, game
+coverts, or hedging is performed on an extensive scale, the convenience
+of a home nursery cannot be over-valued, the plants being at hand when
+wanted, of the size and in the quantity required, and known to be well
+rooted, sturdy, and free from disease.</p>
+
+<p>The advantages in these cases are too well known to require comment,
+and plants, more especially those of a large size, sent from even a
+short distance by either road or rail, cannot be expected to succeed
+equally with those raised and planted on the same day. The extra soil,
+or ball, with which large plants can be removed for a short distance is
+also much in their favour, but it is next to impossible to retain this
+where packing and transit have to be resorted to.</p>
+
+<p>It is well known that too sudden a change from rich, well-sheltered
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_25"></a>[Pg 25]</span>
+nursery borders to bare, exposed hillsides often proves fatal to
+young plants; and, when we consider that few public nurseries are at
+a greater elevation than about 500 ft., the necessity of proprietors
+rearing their own stock, whose plantations are, perhaps, upwards of
+1,000 ft. above sea-level, will the more readily be seen. There are
+certain difficulties to contend with in planting high-lying ground,
+more especially if the soil is poor and thin, and the situation
+exposed, and in these cases the advantage of using hardy plants that
+have frequently been transplanted in a well-chosen home nursery at
+a fair altitude is very noticeable, especially when contrasted with
+others that have been grown under more favourable circumstances and
+in a sheltered position. Some plants seem better adapted than others
+for this removal, but in the majority of cases the shock sustained by
+transferring from low-lying ground to that at a great elevation is only
+too apparent, and one from which the plants seldom recover. The same
+holds good in the case of seaside and town planting.</p>
+
+<p>Of late years in particular, a good deal of comment has taken place
+as to the necessity of rearing trees from seed sown on the site of
+the future plantation, and although the suggestion has many points in
+its favour, still artificial planting is better adapted to the wants
+of our country, and is not at all likely to be superseded by natural
+reproduction, which is more fitted for countries differently situated
+from our own.</p>
+
+<p>The nursery treatment of plants is, therefore, sure to remain a
+prominent feature of British forestry, and this being the case, the
+soil and situation, as well as the most successful treatment of these,
+with a view to producing plants suitable for the positions they are
+intended to occupy, will require due consideration. This will vary much
+according to the situation of the estate and ground to be planted. In
+choosing the site of a home nursery, a great deal will depend on the
+general elevation and exposure of the estate. The situation should
+neither be too much exposed nor yet too sheltered, and should have a
+southern or western aspect; for, although too sudden a change from
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_26"></a>[Pg 26]</span>
+sheltered to exposed ground often proves fatal to young trees, this
+should not altogether form a criterion for rearing them in situations
+unfavourable to the development of strong, healthy plants. The soil
+should be good, friable loam, on an open, porous subsoil; but the
+quality of ground required for different seedlings is so diversified
+that it is next to impossible to suit all within the small bounds
+required for a home nursery.</p>
+
+<p>As water is indispensable where seedlings are raised, as well as for
+numerous other purposes in the nursery, it is well to have provision
+made for a continuous supply, either by a stream running through the
+ground, or in close contiguity to it, or by having a pipe laid on from
+the main water-supply.</p>
+
+<p>From six acres to ten or even fifteen acres will be found sufficient
+nursery ground for most estates, but it is always advisable to add
+a little more than is really required, so that the brakes may not
+be all under forest trees at the same time, but undergo, when found
+necessary, a course of green crops, which will not only enrich, but
+clean, the ground and leave it in good condition for replanting with
+seedling forest plants, bearing in mind that farmyard manure should
+always be applied first to the green crop, and never directly to the
+plants themselves. When a plot has become impoverished by repeated
+croppings of forest trees, a heavy coating of well-decomposed farmyard
+manure should be applied, and the ground planted with potatoes, or sown
+down with turnips. This has an almost magical effect in improving,
+regenerating, and cleaning the ground, and leaving it in the best
+possible condition for receiving a crop of forest plants. Land intended
+for nursery ground should be thoroughly trenched to the full depth of
+the soil, taking care, at the same time, that the best soil is kept
+within a reasonable distance of the surface, and, where necessary,
+heavily manured or enriched by the addition of lime, vegetable soil, or
+loam as the case may be.</p>
+
+<p>In laying out the ground into brakes it will be found convenient to
+have these either square or rectangular in shape and, if possible,
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_27"></a>[Pg 27]</span>
+parallel with each other. The brakes should be of different sizes, and
+divided from each other by walks or hedges, but the fewer of the latter
+the better. It is well for convenience sake to have a border, say from
+12-15 ft. wide, running around the nursery, which may be stocked with
+such trees and shrubs as are only limited in demand. A narrow border
+like this is of great value, too, for planting out seedling stock of
+the less common kinds, for the insertion of cuttings of the rarer
+shrubs, as well as for any odds and ends that may be collected.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+  <img id="I_027" src="images/i_027.jpg" alt="" width="500" height="611" >
+  <p class="f110">PLAN OF NURSERY.</p>
+  <p class="center">Roadway, 9 ft. wide; Paths, 4 ft. wide; Border, 12 ft. wide.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_28"></a>[Pg 28]</span>
+The site chosen for the seed-beds should be naturally sheltered, or
+failing this, such artificial shelter as is found necessary should be
+provided, as exposure of the young plants to cold, cutting winds causes
+them to become stunted and bark-bound. There should be a few cold
+frames for raising choice seeds and cuttings, but, as a rule, the less
+glass the better. In stocking the home nursery, it is always preferable
+to buy young plants of the kinds most needed, as also a few older
+specimens of such kinds as it may be deemed advisable to propagate
+from layers or by cuttings. Seedlings of many trees and shrubs can be
+procured from plantations on the estate, and when such are grown on,
+and carefully transplanted for two, three, or four years in the nursery
+borders, they soon form stout, bushy, and well-rooted specimens of the
+greatest value for forest-planting. This is a good and comparatively
+inexpensive way of getting up a stock of many trees and shrubs, but
+particularly such as are reproduced plentifully in a wild state. In the
+management of a home nursery the amount of care and attention required
+is certainly great; but any trouble, as well as expense, connected with
+starting and keeping it in good condition afterwards will be amply
+repaid by the increased value and superiority of the stock obtained.</p>
+
+<p>In the working of the home nursery no hard and fast lines can be laid
+down, the nature of the season having much to do with the time at which
+the various operations may be taken in hand. A wet spring retards
+seed-sowing, a damp summer the killing-out of weeds and cleaning of the
+ground, and early autumn frosts transplanting.</p>
+
+<p>For the various seasons the nursery-work might, however, be sketched as
+follows:—</p>
+
+<p><b>Spring.</b>—By February, all trenching, digging, manuring,
+top-dressing, and such-like work should be completed. Larch and
+thorn should be planted at once, as they start early into growth,
+following up with the various kinds of hardwoods and pines. Layers
+should be planted out and trees for grafting and budding made ready.
+Collect larch and pine cones, and when quite dry store away in a cool,
+airy place, until wanted for sowing. During March and April general
+grafting may be taken in hand. Ornamental coniferæ may be pruned and
+transplanted, and towards the middle of April plants from the seed-beds
+may safely be lined out in a sheltered part of the nursery. Tree seeds
+of all kinds should be collected as opportunity offers. In February
+sow yew, holly and thorn; in March, birch, beech and alder; in April,
+larch, silver fir, Scotch, Austrian and Corsican pines; and seeds of
+the less hardy coniferæ may be sown in pans or boxes and placed in a cool
+frame. General nursery-work should be finished up by the end of April.
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_29"></a>[Pg 29]</span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+  <img id="I_029" src="images/i_029.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="396" >
+  <p class="f110">TOOLS REQUIRED IN NURSERY.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_30"></a>[Pg 30]</span>
+<b>Summer.</b>—The keeping down of weeds, watering and shading
+seed-beds, and turning over and mixing of compost-heaps will be the
+principal work for the months of May, June and July. Hollies should be
+planted out in May, and seedlings of the same kind lined out in the
+nursery borders.</p>
+
+<p>Elm seeds may be collected as they ripen, and some of these sown in
+well-pulverized beds in June.</p>
+
+<p><b>Autumn.</b>—Weeds will still require attention, particularly in
+seed-beds, and amongst young trees that have been recently planted out.
+General transplanting of shrubs, particularly evergreens, may now go
+on, and seedlings be lined out. Cuttings should be inserted in light
+sandy soil by the middle of August, or when the temperature of the
+earth and air is most nearly equal.</p>
+
+<p>Trim nursery fences, cut grass, clean walks and roads, and attend
+generally to neatness and order. Look over the brakes of pines, and
+remove and burn such as are attacked by any of the various insect and
+fungus pests to which they are liable. The seeds of ash, hornbeam, yew
+and thorn should be collected and placed in barrels with about an equal
+bulk of sand, to hasten the decomposition of the outer coating.</p>
+
+<p><b>Winter.</b>—The early winter months will be a busy time in the
+nursery, the lifting and dispatching of trees for forest-planting being
+one of the principal operations—at least, so long as the weather
+remains mild and open. As time permits, two and three year old plants
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_31"></a>[Pg 31]</span>
+should be lined out, well-rooted cuttings lifted and transplanted, and
+layers from old stools carefully cut away and placed in the borders for
+a year or two before being finally planted out. Turn manure-heaps, and
+add a small quantity of fresh lime to hasten general decomposition, to
+sweeten the soil, and deprive the seeds of weeds of their germinative
+properties.</p>
+
+<p>Sloe, holly, and similar berries may be collected as they ripen, and
+stored in the usual way.</p>
+
+<p>In November and December, horse chestnut, oak and hazel may be sown in
+well-pulverized beds of good, rich soil. Ash and hornbeam are sometimes
+sown in January.</p>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_32"></a>[Pg 32]</span></p>
+<h2 class="nobreak">CHAPTER V<br>
+<span class="h_subtitle">FORMATION OF PLANTATIONS</span></h2>
+</div>
+
+<p><b>Laying out the Boundary.</b>—Before commencing actual planting
+operations several preliminaries must be attended to. These will
+include (1) laying out the boundary, (2) clearing the ground of
+rough-growing vegetation, (3) drainage where necessary, (4) fencing,
+and (5) laying out such roads as may be necessary for the efficient
+working of the plantation. For the benefit of the trees, for shelter
+purposes, and for the general appearance of the landscape, it would
+be well were more attention paid to the laying out of the sites for
+new plantations. In many cases, however, there is no choice in the
+matter, the proprietor saying, Here is a field that is of no great
+value for agricultural purposes, plant it up. But in the case of
+hillside or moorland planting the matter is usually different, the
+choice of ground, size of plantation, and method of planting being left
+entirely in the hands of the forester. Many considerations will tend to
+determine the position of boundaries—bounds of property, proximity to
+roads, public paths, and the existence or future probabilities of modes
+of transit, all being more or less significant factors.</p>
+
+<p>First, however, it is advisable to take into consideration when
+planting hillside or moorland, the shelter to be afforded to cultivated
+land in the neighbourhood, but a combination of this with the
+aforementioned considerations will be all-important.</p>
+
+<p>The form of the outline must also be laid out with due regard to the
+prevailing wind, and should always present a convex side towards it, as
+it is obvious that on striking such a curve the force of the wind would
+be divided and expend itself in two opposite directions, thereby losing
+much of its destructive power. Blending one curve with another should
+be strictly observed, and continuous straight lines should be avoided,
+not only for appearance sake, but as it is well known that the most
+destructive force of the wind concentrates on such outlines.
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_33"></a>[Pg 33]</span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+  <img id="I_033" src="images/i_033a.jpg" alt="" width="500" height="375" >
+  <p class="f110">HILLSIDE WITH PLANTING ARTISTICALLY ARRANGED</p>
+  <img src="images/i_033b.jpg" alt="" width="500" height="338" >
+  <p class="f110">SAME HILLSIDE WITH STIFFLY ARRANGED PLANTATION</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_34"></a>[Pg 34]</span>
+<b>Woodland Roads.</b>—These are necessary for access to the wood
+when thinning, the removal of timber and firewood, and for sporting
+purposes. They should either be pegged out or formed before planting
+operations have been commenced, and need neither be of an elaborate
+character nor attended with great expense in construction. According
+to the area of the plantation, so should the roads be arranged, and a
+considerable saving is effected by laying out the roads and leaving
+them unplanted. Usually they are made 30 ft. wide, and only require to
+have the surface equalised and any stagnant moisture removed by drainage.</p>
+
+<p>It is a good plan, so as at all times to keep the drives in a passable,
+dry condition, to cut a ditch along each side of the ride, parallel to
+it, and, say, 18 in. wide by 15 in. deep. The soil so removed will come
+in for filling up inequalities on the road surface. Steep roads should
+be avoided by following, in quickly sloping woodlands, the curve of
+the ground., For sowing down woodland drives, bridle-paths, etc., the
+following mixture of grass seeds is to be recommended:—</p>
+
+<table class="spb1">
+   <tbody><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td>
+      <td class="tdr"><b>lbs.</b></td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">Timothy grass, hard fescue, tall fescue, and</td>
+      <td class="tdr">&nbsp;</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl_ws2">meadow foxtail, 2 lbs. each</td>
+      <td class="tdr">8</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">Smooth stalked meadow and rough cocksfoot,</td>
+      <td class="tdr">&nbsp;</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl_ws2">4 lbs. each</td>
+      <td class="tdr">8</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">Rough stalked meadow and sweet-scented vernal,</td>
+      <td class="tdr">&nbsp;</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl_ws2">4 lbs. each</td>
+      <td class="tdr">8</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">Wood meadow grass</td>
+      <td class="tdr bb">8</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdr_ws1">Total</td>
+      <td class="tdr">32</td>
+   </tr>
+ </tbody>
+</table>
+
+<p>In sowing down gravelly or sandy rides, I have found the Lyme or
+sand grass—<i>Elymus arenarius</i>—and the Sea Matweed—<i>Psamma
+arenaria</i>—to answer well, the seeds of each being sown in equal
+proportions.
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_35"></a>[Pg 35]</span></p>
+
+<p>Before sowing down woodland rides the soil should be well consolidated,
+and all surface inequalities levelled.</p>
+
+<p><b>Fencing.</b>—Local circumstances will often determine the mode
+of fencing new plantations. Where stones are abundant these may be
+utilized in the formation of walls, while in districts where slate
+abounds excellent fences of this kind may be erected at a cheap cost.</p>
+
+<p>Turf walls and ditches are sometimes formed as plantation boundaries,
+but unless carefully looked after they are rarely very successful.</p>
+
+<p>Stone and turf walls are now, however, almost entirely superseded by
+iron fencing, it being not only readily conveyed to any desired point,
+but quickly erected and moderately cheap.</p>
+
+<p>To recommend any particular system of wire fencing would, for various
+reasons, be out of place, for amongst the numerous kinds now offered
+almost any desired pattern can be obtained.</p>
+
+<p>In any case the fence need not exceed 3 ft. 6 in. in height, with
+seven-strand wires, two No. 6 and five No. 7; and, as this is placed
+in position at so much per mile by the makers, it is always well, so
+as to avoid bad erection and keep down expense, to have it so put up.
+Where an abundance of larch timber is growing on the estate, it would,
+perhaps, be unwise to employ iron, but in the majority of cases it will
+be found cheapest in the end to have the fences erected wholly of iron
+and wire.</p>
+
+<p>The straining-posts should be of sound, well-seasoned larch or oak, and
+7 ft. long by 6 in. square, or if round 7 in. in diameter.</p>
+
+<p>The intermediate posts are usually of larch, 5½ ft. long by 3½ in., by
+3 in., or if round, not less than 3½ in. diameter at small end.</p>
+
+<p>The straining-posts are placed in the ground at 150 yards apart, with
+an additional strong post at every angle or curve that occurs in the
+line of fence. The intermediate posts are pointed and driven into the
+ground along the line of fence at 6 ft. apart.
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_36"></a>[Pg 36]</span></p>
+
+<p>In order to make a fence proof against the inroads of sheep and cattle
+not less than six wires should be erected, and galvanized strand wire
+is preferable. The total height of the fence need not exceed 3 ft. 6 in.,
+and the top wires should be placed farther apart than those lower down.</p>
+
+<p>In tightening the wires a straining machine is usually employed, but
+brackets for the same purpose are preferable, these being attached to
+the straining-posts.</p>
+
+<p>They are of particular value, as the wire can be tightened or slackened
+at will.</p>
+
+<p>The posts should be rounded on the top or sawn with a slant, so that
+the rain may run off.</p>
+
+<p><b>Draining the Ground.</b>—Efficient drainage must be considered as
+one of the most important operations in the formation of a plantation.
+Every portion of the ground may not, probably, require to be drained,
+but where it is at all surcharged with moisture the removal of such
+will be a step in the right direction if the future welfare of the
+trees is a point of first importance. In commencing draining the
+position of the main outlet must first be determined, and in doing so
+every fall of the ground should be taken advantage of. It is quite
+impossible to lay down rules as to the number, sizes, and distances
+apart of the various drains, these being points that can only be
+satisfactorily settled on the spot, and when the nature of the soil,
+lie of the ground, and amount of rainfall to be carried off are
+determined. In most cases, however, the main drains should be from 2
+ft. 6 in. to fully 3 ft. wide at the top or surface, from 10 in. to 12
+in. wide at the bottom, and about 3 ft. deep. The minor drains may be
+less in proportion to the mains, and are usually 2 ft. deep, 2½ ft.
+wide at top, and the width of the draining spade at bottom.</p>
+
+<p>According to the nature of the ground so will the distances at which
+the drains should be cut vary, but in most cases from 15 ft. to 30 ft.,
+sometimes even less, and sometimes considerably more. The minor drains
+should never run at right angles to the main, but at about 45°, which
+will prevent the mouths becoming choked up when there is a rush of
+water in the main. The soil removed from the drains should be evenly
+spread out over the ground-surface.
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_37"></a>[Pg 37]</span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+  <img id="I_037" src="images/i_037.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="383" >
+  <p class="f110">TOOLS USED IN DRAINING</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_38"></a>[Pg 38]</span>
+<b>Levelling.</b>—In the carrying out of drainage operations in
+connexion with the formation of new plantations, but particularly where
+the land is nearly level, one of the most necessary implements is the
+spirit-level or theodolite. There are many other operations, as well
+as in connexion with draining, where the level and the knowledge of
+its working are all-important for the forester. Thus in the formation
+of roads and paths, levelling of ground inequalities, lake and pond
+forming, etc., the level will be found an almost indispensable
+instrument—in fact, it cannot well be done without.</p>
+
+<p>Of levelling instruments there are various descriptions, but the
+simplest of any is the ordinary spirit-level, it being cheap, easily
+carried about in the pocket, and when erected on a temporary staff
+will fall in with most requirements in connexion with general forest
+work. The illustration (<a href="#FIG_1">Fig. 1</a>) will give a good
+idea of the simple instrument. When in use the spirit-level is fixed
+in a frame of brass, the whole being screwed into a staff or support,
+<i>e</i>. The brass screw, <i>d</i>, serves to adjust the level as required.</p>
+
+<p>There are two eyesights, <i>a</i> and <i>b</i>, the latter being a
+square opening, with a fine hair wire crossing it in the middle.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+  <img id="FIG_1" src="images/i_039a.jpg" alt="" width="500" height="548" >
+  <p class="f110">FIG. 1. SPIRIT-LEVEL.</p>
+  <img id="FIG_2" src="images/i_039b.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="119" >
+  <p class="f110">FIG. 2. METHOD OF LEVELLING.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The relative heights of a series of points are obtained by means of
+their vertical distances from others which, on the supposition of
+the earth being a sphere, are equally distant from its centre, and
+these, which are called level-points, must be found by an instrument
+constructed for the purpose—spirit-level, theodolite, etc. Generally
+choice is made of any convenient stations, <i>a, b, c, d</i>, on the
+line of operation (<a href="#FIG_2">see Fig. 2</a>), and the distances between
+them are determined by actual ad-measurement. The instrument is then set up and
+adjusted at, or near, the middle of the interval between every two such
+points in succession. When the level thus placed, as at <i>f</i>, has
+been rendered horizontal by means of the adjusting screw, an assistant
+at each of the stations <i>a</i> and <i>b</i>, holding what is called a
+station-staff in a vertical position, moves an index along the staff,
+up or down, as dictated by the observer of the level, till it coincides
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_39"></a>[Pg 39]</span>
+with the intersecting wire as seen in the eyesight or telescope. The
+points thus determined on the stave are represented by <i>e</i> and
+<i>g</i>, and these are termed level-points, or points equally distant
+from the centre of the earth. Therefore the heights <i>a, e</i>, and
+<i>b, g</i>, being read on the graduated staves, the difference between
+them will give the relative heights of the ground at <i>a</i> and
+<i>b</i>. Similar processes are repeated with respect to the points
+<i>b</i> and <i>c</i>, and <i>c</i> and <i>d</i>, the instrument being
+placed at <i>i</i> and <i>m</i>, midway between them. Usually the
+heights <i>b g, c l</i> and <i>d n</i> are inserted in a column headed
+“Foresights,” and the heights <i>a e, b h</i>, <i>c k</i> and <i>d n</i>
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_40"></a>[Pg 40]</span>
+in a collateral column headed “Backsights.” The difference
+between the sums of the numbers in these two columns will be equal to
+the height of one extremity (<i>a</i>) of the line, above the other
+(<i>d</i>). When a number of levels have to be taken in succession,
+it will be found a saving of time to use the surveyor’s level or
+theodolite instead of the ordinary spirit-level illustrated.</p>
+
+<p>With regard to the use of the instrument as shown in <a href="#FIG_1">Fig. 1</a>,
+it may be necessary to state that the height of the eyesight <i>b</i> from the
+ground must be deducted from the point observed. As an example: if the
+object-pole or staff be marked in feet or inches, and the hair wire in
+taking a sight strike the same at, say, 8 ft., then, if the eyesight be
+4 ft. from the ground, the difference of level between the two stations
+(instrument and station) will be 4 ft., that is, there will be 4 ft.
+of a fall from the spirit-level station to that of the station where
+the staff was placed. On the other hand, should the hair wire strike
+the object-pole at, say, 2 ft. from the ground, these 2 ft. must be
+deducted from the height of the eyesight, which, as we have said, was 4
+ft., then the ground at the station-pole must be 2 ft. higher than that
+at the spirit-level.</p>
+
+<p><b>Clearing the Ground.</b>—Coarse-growing herbage, which often
+includes heath, gorse, and rough grasses, that would interfere with
+planting operations, should be removed, but not indiscriminately, as it
+may prove of inestimable value under certain conditions. On exposed and
+high-lying ground, the heath and grasses will prove of great advantage
+to the young trees, and usually they are not too luxuriant or apt to
+cause damage at high altitudes. Where, however, the growth of such
+shrubs or grasses would be detrimental to the young trees, by all means
+have them removed. The best way is either to cut them over or grub
+out by the root, and burn on the ground. During a continuance of dry
+weather it may be possible to burn without either cutting or uprooting,
+but, generally speaking, removal of the roots is to be encouraged.</p>
+
+<p><b>Pitting.</b>—The advantages of pitting over any method of planting
+cannot be questioned, and this is particularly the case with ground
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_41"></a>[Pg 41]</span>
+that has hitherto been uncultivated. Compared with notch planting,
+this system is, no doubt, more expensive, but that the future benefits
+to the plants are greatly enhanced is admitted by all practical
+arboriculturists.</p>
+
+<p>It is not, however, to be inferred that, though pitting is preferable,
+notching is to be abandoned, for there are many precipitous, rocky
+places where it would be the only practice feasible, and plants so
+inserted have often succeeded admirably.</p>
+
+<p>The pits should in all cases be opened for some time before
+planting—indeed, in unfavourable soils and situations, it is a good
+practice to have such work performed in autumn and the plants inserted
+the following spring. By so doing, the earth that has been removed from
+the pits will lie fully exposed to the mellowing influences of frost
+and sunshine, so that when the time for replacing it comes round, it
+will be in the best possible condition for applying to the roots of the
+young trees.</p>
+
+<p>The pits in uncultivated lands should be made circular, about 18 in. in
+diameter and fully 12 in. deep, and the sides and bottom well loosened
+up with a pick. In loose or recently cultivated soil the pits may be
+much smaller. Take off the surface turf in halves, placing these on one
+side of the pit, and the soil on the other, for ease and convenience in
+planting. When the ground slopes quickly the soil removed from the pits
+should, so as to facilitate quick replacing, be deposited on the higher side.</p>
+
+<p><b>Planting.</b>—This may be successfully carried out during all open
+weather from about the end of September to the beginning of April, but,
+generally speaking, autumn planting is to be recommended. There are
+several exceptions however: such as when we have to deal with peat bog,
+water-logged soil, exposed hillsides, or land by the sea-coast. Where
+the newly-inserted plants have to cope with prolonged storms, such as
+we get on hillsides or by the sea, or contend with very uncongenial
+soils, it is always a wise policy to defer planting until spring, or
+just when the trees are about to make a start to growth, as they, with
+their freshness and vigour undiminished by the change from the nursery
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_42"></a>[Pg 42]</span>
+border to the more trying surroundings just referred to, are more
+likely to take hold at once and succeed.</p>
+
+<p>The battering and swaying that autumn planted trees receive when
+exposed to the hurricanes of our hillsides or seaside sites so enfeeble
+them that, in spring, when growth should commence, the majority will be
+found to be in a very unsatisfactory state, whereas, by inserting in
+spring, when growth will soon be at its full activity, the chances of
+succeeding are greatly enhanced. In peat bog the antiseptic properties
+of the soil act dangerously on the roots of young trees if allowed
+to remain therein for some time before active growth has commenced.
+However, with the exceptions cited, tree planting throughout the
+British Isles generally should be taken in hand as soon as the leaves
+of the hardwood species have fallen, which usually takes place about
+the second or third week of October, much depending on the particular
+season. Lift the plants very carefully from the nursery brakes, and
+do not, on any account, tolerate the too-often-enacted practice of
+tearing the trees from the ground, and before they have been properly
+loosened on both sides of the lines with a fork. To lift nursery stock
+properly—and the extra expense incurred in so doing is money well
+spent—a trench should be thrown out along each side of the line and
+the soil undermined from beneath the roots, so that the plants can be
+lifted without tearing or straining the tender rootlets. It is not
+important, if the plants are inserted soon after being lifted, that
+soil should accompany each, the roots being plentiful and unmutilated
+making up for the want of this. Where, however, the plants have not
+to be conveyed far from the home nursery to the plantation there is
+no need to remove much of the soil, for if left intact the young tree
+is far more likely to start away freely into growth than if this was
+shaken clean off.
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_43"></a>[Pg 43]</span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+  <img id="I_043" src="images/i_043.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="396" >
+  <p class="f110">TOOLS USED IN PLANTING</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_44"></a>[Pg 44]</span>
+Immediate planting after being lifted is to be strongly recommended,
+the evil of allowing plants to lie about exposed to wind and weather
+being well known. Should it, however, not be convenient to plant at
+once, the nursery-stock should be stood closely together, and some damp
+straw, leaves, or soil heaped around the roots of the outer or exposed
+specimens in the lot. In any case, the roots must never be allowed to
+become dry and parched, or be subjected to frosty winds, as these act
+most perniciously, and soon destroy the tender fibres and render them
+almost useless for the purpose intended.</p>
+
+<p>In planting, spread the roots to their full extent in the pits,
+avoiding all cramping and bending, placing the largest to the most
+exposed side, and cover with earth, the finest soil being placed next
+the roots, and the rougher and grassy on the top. Placing the turf in
+the bottom of the pit, cutting it well up with the spade, putting a
+little earth on the top of this, and then planting the trees, has its
+advantages, the rotting turf acting as manure by the time the roots
+have got down to it.</p>
+
+<p><b>Slit or Notch Planting.</b>—This is done by simply cutting the
+sod or surface by two strokes of the spade, and to the depth of about
+5 in.: thus <span class="fs_120"><b>L</b></span> or <span class="fs_120"><b>T</b></span>.
+With the first stroke the spade is inserted in the ground in an almost
+perpendicular manner; it is then withdrawn and inserted at right angles
+to the first notch and at the end of it, and by pressing down the
+handle of the spade the turf is opened up, the plant being inserted
+from the blade of the spade towards the further end; the spade is then
+carefully withdrawn and the turf trampled so as to cause the notches
+to close completely. This latter should be strictly attended to, as
+should the notch be left partially open, the plant will suffer from
+the admission of an undue quantity of air. The operation requires two
+persons—a man to open the notch, and a boy to insert the plant. It is
+chiefly employed in bare and hilly ground, and large tracts of ground
+in Scotland have been very successfully operated upon in this way. With
+the notch system there are advantages and disadvantages. In the first
+instance, we have reduced cost, expedition, and firm insertion; whilst
+in the second small plants only can be used, the soil remains unbroken,
+and the root system presents an unnatural position.</p>
+
+<p>The plants used with the notch system should not exceed 9 in. in height.
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_45"></a>[Pg 45]</span></p>
+
+<p><b>The Planting-iron</b> has been found of great value for inserting
+small forest trees in rocky ground, where it would be almost impossible
+to do so in any other way. It is 17 in. long, weighs 3 lbs., and can be
+conveniently used with one hand.</p>
+
+<p>Holding the “iron” slackly, the planter strikes it into the ground with
+a force sufficient to drive the sharp, heart-pointed blade in about 3
+in. or 4 in. By pressing it down and towards the planter, with a slight
+twist to the right, the left corner of the turf is opened up, the plant
+being carefully inserted with all the roots beneath the ground. The
+iron is then withdrawn, and the loosened turf made firm by tramping.</p>
+
+<p>Only a small plant should be inserted with the planting-iron, and great
+care taken to insure the soil and turf being firmly pressed around the
+stem of the young tree.</p>
+
+<p><b>Planting Trees too deep.</b>—Fully 50 per cent. of the deaths
+amongst newly-planted trees may be directly attributed to the
+pernicious practice of too deep planting. Cases come before us
+frequently where, owing to burying the roots of the trees and shrubs at
+too great a depth in the soil, they have either died out or gradually
+become unhealthy owing to strangulation and want of air. It is a
+mistaken idea that by placing the roots at an excessive depth in the
+soil the young tree will be better enabled to withstand wind, and so
+remain in an erect position. Most workmen quite ignore the original
+mark on the tree stem as to the depth it stood whilst in the nursery,
+and go to an opposite extreme by covering up both root and stem to an
+unnecessary depth. Large trees suffer quite as much from being planted
+too deep as those of smaller growth. Quite recently we were asked to
+look at a large number of lime trees about 16 ft. in height that had
+been planted for several years without a sign of upward growth. The
+reason for this was not hard to discover, for on unearthing one of
+the trees it was found that the roots were covered with fully 2 ft.
+in depth of soil. The trees in question had never budged an inch, and
+were from year to year gradually on the decline owing to the ruinous
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_46"></a>[Pg 46]</span>
+practice of too deep planting. No better guide as to the depth at which
+a tree should be planted can be had than the distinct mark on the stem
+showing the depth at which it stood whilst under nursery management. In
+order to keep newly-planted trees from being damaged by rocking with
+the wind, and to preserve them in an upright position, firm trampling
+is all that is required. In very exposed situations it may sometimes
+be found necessary to place a small piece of turf against the stem on
+the opposite side from which it is leaning, and to make this firm by
+means of the foot. Staking, at least in the case of small transplants,
+is never necessary, though in the case of larger trees and where the
+situation is exposed, light poles thrust into the ground to which
+the stems are made fast may be found necessary. Of course, it is a
+mistake to allow trees to rock about in the wind to such an extent
+that the roots become strained and barked, and holes worked around the
+stems, but this can readily be prevented by periodical examinations of
+the newly-planted trees. Stones should never be placed in the holes
+referred to, as they damage the roots, a piece of stiff turf or heavy
+soil being far preferable. With a large experience of tree planting I
+find that the general tendency is to plant too deep—an evil that it
+is hoped these notes will be the means of remedying, in some cases at least.</p>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_47"></a>[Pg 47]</span></p>
+<h2 class="nobreak">CHAPTER VI<br>
+<span class="h_subtitle">TREES FOR ECONOMIC PLANTING</span></h2>
+</div>
+
+<p>From a commercial point of view the best trees to plant are such as
+will produce the largest volume of the most valuable timber in the
+shortest space of time.</p>
+
+<p>Amongst the several hundred species of trees that are cultivated in
+this country it is a remarkable fact that less than twenty can be
+recommended for profitable planting. Of course many others are valuable
+as shade and shelter producers, but from a strictly economic point of
+view, that is to say where the value of the timber is a point of first
+consideration, only about ten hard-wooded and eight coniferous species
+can be included in the list.</p>
+
+<p>Amongst hardwoods we have the oak, ash, beech, sycamore, elm, Spanish
+chestnut, willow, poplar, alder and birch; while coniferous trees would
+include the larch, Scotch and Corsican pines, common and Sitka spruce,
+silver and Douglas firs, and possibly the giant Arborvitæ and
+<a href ="#I_061">Weymouth pine</a>.</p>
+
+<p>The <b>Oak</b>.—Than the timber of the oak none other produced in
+this country is more lasting or valuable—indeed, in few other trees
+are the qualities of strength and durability, hardness and elasticity
+combined to such an extent. As might be expected, however, the value of
+oak timber is greatly influenced by soil, that produced on deep, heavy
+loam or clay lands being of superior quality. The colour of the wood
+also varies greatly with age from a dark grey to a deep rich brown and
+even green. Brown oak, which is almost confined to the Midland counties
+of England, is considered to be wood in the first stage of decay, and
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_48"></a>[Pg 48]</span>
+attacked by a fungus, and is generally associated with trees that are
+long past their prime and whose larger limbs have become hollowed and
+unhealthy. The finest examples I have seen of brown oak were produced
+at Ampthill in Bedfordshire, and on the Welbeck Estate in Notts. The
+beautiful vivid green colour assumed by oak timber under certain
+conditions is due to the action of the fungus <i>Peziza æruginosa</i>.
+As this colouring matter in the timber is quite permanent and cannot be
+destroyed, wood so affected is eagerly bought up by the makers of fancy
+furniture. Unhealthy or dead trees in damp shady positions are most
+often attacked by the fungus, and we have known timber of the oak when
+left lying about in the woodlands to assume this colour. Owing to the
+scarcity and value of green oak timber experiments have been undertaken
+to produce the colouring by artificial means, but as far as we are
+aware the results were not satisfactory. The best examples of green oak
+timber that we have seen were produced in Kent, and in the North of
+Ireland.</p>
+
+<p>The <b>Ash</b>.—When viewed in a purely economic sense the ash must,
+next to the oak, be considered as our most valuable forest tree. The
+massive, deeply fluted, or cylindrical trunk, the weighty swelling
+branches, and the usually pendant masses of the freshest pea-green
+foliage, all combine to render this tree one of the most majestic for
+ornamental planting, but particularly so when associated with others
+that are of a darker shade of green. The ash is indigenous to Europe,
+Northern Africa, and North America, while throughout the British Isles
+it is widely dispersed.</p>
+
+<p>It thrives tolerably well in most soils and situations, but the finest
+timber is produced in fairly sheltered sites, and where the soil is
+rich and open or freely interspersed with loose rock or stones. In
+order to produce clean, springy timber, such as is in request for the
+making of tool-handles, aeroplanes and agricultural implements, the ash
+should be planted thickly in order to induce straight stems that are
+for the greater part destitute of branches. For black, peaty soils,
+or that of a dampish, loamy character the sapling ash is peculiarly
+suited, in which, after being cut over, it will reproduce itself
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_49"></a>[Pg 49]</span>
+freely. At from thirty to forty years’ growth the ash is most valuable
+for handle wood and for agricultural implements.</p>
+
+<p>The timber is hard, heavy, and flexible, and though rapidly grown it is
+tough and elastic above that of any other tree grown in this country,
+hence its universal employment for machinery and other special purposes
+where great strength, combined with yielding powers, are points of
+first consideration. Few timbers become useful at such an early age
+as does the ash. At from four to six years’ growth it is fit for
+walking sticks, for spade handles at ten years, while after that age
+the uses to which it is applied are very numerous and diverse. For the
+cartwright, the agricultural implement maker, carpenter, cooper and
+turner, it is of special value. No timber has been found to equal it
+for the making of oars, pulleys, blocks, ladders, hoops, and crates.
+Owing to its sawing without splintering it is used for milkpails,
+kitchen tables, staircases, and similar purposes, while when of large
+size it is greatly in demand for furniture making.</p>
+
+<p>For smoking herrings ash wood has a certain local demand. Potash is
+procured from the ashes of the branches, and the bark has a special
+value in the tanning of nets.</p>
+
+<p>The <a href ="#I_050"><b>Beech</b></a>.—For profitable planting the beech is one
+of our most valuable trees, while it has the extra recommendations that it grows
+rapidly, succeeds well in the shade, and reproduces itself freely.</p>
+
+<p>The finest beech timber is produced on chalky or deep sandy soils,
+the former being preferable as may be instanced by the comparatively
+high price obtained for that grown on the Chiltern Hills and chalky
+formations of parts of Kent and Herts. The growth of the beech is rapid
+and it attains its prime at from sixty to seventy years, after which
+age the timber often becomes black at the heart and accompanied by
+rottenness and shakes which render it almost useless for constructive
+purposes. It is better suited for indoor than outdoor use and is
+extensively used in the making of Windsor chairs, for millwright and
+engineering purposes, for the handles of carpenters’ tools, for bobbins and,
+when clean and of large size, for the calendar machines of cloth manufactures.
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_50"></a>[Pg 50]</span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+  <img id="I_050" src="images/i_050.jpg" alt="" width="400" height="520" >
+  <p class="f110">STANDARD BEECH TREE</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Growing on comparatively poor soils where other species will not
+produce profitable timber the beech is particularly valuable on account
+of its reproducing itself freely from seed and withstanding a greater
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_51"></a>[Pg 51]</span>
+amount of shade than perhaps any other species. It associates well with
+the oak under cultivation.</p>
+
+<p>The <b>Sycamore</b> for profitable planting can be recommended owing to
+the high price which can be obtained for timber of large size, though
+even when of thirty years’ growth it finds a ready market for bobbin
+making and other turnery purposes.</p>
+
+<p>The most suitable soil for the sycamore is a dry sandy loam or even
+deep sand. The tree is peculiarly suitable for planting in exposed or
+seaside situations and also for standing alone as a field or hedgerow
+tree. The timber is white, smooth and free from grain. It is used for
+curtain rings, churns, butter prints, backs of violins, founders’
+patterns, cutting boards, and in the making of wooden vessels and
+furniture. For calendar machines it is especially valuable.</p>
+
+<p>The <b>Sweet</b> or <b>Spanish Chestnut</b> is largely cultivated for
+the value of the timber it produces. It thrives best on deep gravelly
+soil or on granite or sandstone with a dry subsoil, and with a southern
+or western exposure. The timber is of excellent quality and lasts well
+either in water or above or below ground. It is often substituted for
+that of the oak, and is extensively employed for mill timber, bridges,
+fencing of all kinds, posts, stakes, casks, and for hop poles.</p>
+
+<p>The Spanish Chestnut is a tree of rapid growth and when the timber is
+of fair size it finds a ready market, though at a lower figure than
+that of the oak.</p>
+
+<p>Unfortunately the timber produced on certain soils and situations is
+much reduced in value owing to cup shake.</p>
+
+<p><b>Elm</b>, both English and Scotch, are extensively planted for the
+value of timber produced.</p>
+
+<p>The timber of the English elm is of a rich brown colour, hard, tough
+and usually twisted in the grain. Owing to the strength of its
+lateral fibre the timber is much in request for making blocks for
+ship’s riggings, while it furnishes naves for wheels, coffin boards,
+furniture, pumps, piles, and is employed largely by the wheelwright.
+For using under water it is the best wood cultivated in this country.
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_52"></a>[Pg 52]</span></p>
+
+<p>The wood of the Scotch or Wych elm is considered to be more valuable
+than that of the English species, and is used for similar purposes and
+also as a substitute for ash. It is very liable to become rotten at the
+core.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Alder and its Uses.</b>—Whether viewed from a strictly
+commercial standpoint, for its justly recognized capacity for thriving
+luxuriantly where few other trees could exist, or for its ornamental
+qualities, the common alder will be found to rank high among British
+forest trees. It usually attains to a height of from 50 ft. to 60 ft.,
+with a stout, well branched trunk that is more or less gnarled and
+fluted. The branches have an upward inclination, and are well clothed
+with roundly wedge-shaped leaves that are of a deep, dark green colour.
+With age the bark usually assumes a dark brown, or almost black,
+colour. The alder is found in all parts of Europe, North Africa, and
+from Asia to Japan. For planting in wet, even swampy, situations,
+where only a very limited number of trees could eke out an existence,
+the alder is of particular value, and it is in such situations that
+it attains to the largest size and produces the greatest quantity
+of timber. Even in situations where the poplar and willow find a
+difficulty in battling with the excessive and stagnant moisture the
+alder thrives luxuriantly and reproduces itself freely from seed. As an
+ornamental tree the alder is not much in request, although the stately
+habit and ample deep-green foliage render it of value in that respect.
+The fine old specimens by the river and stream sides at Esher Place
+in Surrey, have a beauty that is quite their own, and it is in such
+tranquil situations that the tree is seen to perfection—the beauty of
+form and picturesque appearance causing it to be unrivalled in river
+and lake scenery. The tree is readily propagated and comparatively
+cheap in consequence, grows rapidly after becoming established, and is
+not subject to disease or premature decay.</p>
+
+<p>Though soft, the timber of the alder is in much request, and in
+consequence numerous wants are supplied by it. It is very durable
+under water, and for this reason is largely employed for piles, bridge
+foundations, water pipes, and for lining the banks of rapid running
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_53"></a>[Pg 53]</span>
+streams and rivers. The celebrated bridge of the Rialto, at Venice,
+was, according to Evelyn, built on piles of alder wood, while the city
+of Ravenna was stated to have likewise been built on piles of the same
+wood. For herring barrel staves the wood is also in request, as it
+is for mill bobbins and turnery work. In cabinet work and for cheap
+furniture alder wood is largely used, while as it does not readily
+split, boards for the bottoms of carts and wheelbarrows are frequently
+made of the same wood.</p>
+
+<p>The beautiful pale pink colour which the timber permanently retains
+causes knotty planks to be in great demand for veneering purposes.</p>
+
+<p>In Wales, and throughout the Midland counties, large quantities of
+alder timber are consumed in the making of clog soles, which, after
+being roughly formed in the woodlands where the trees have been felled,
+are sent by rail to several of the Lancashire towns to be finished off.
+Throughout Ireland—chiefly the north—large numbers of clog soles,
+made of alder, are annually employed in the manufacture of cheap boots;
+indeed, in many parts the making of clogs is quite an industry.</p>
+
+<p>The bark of the alder is used in tanning leather, though in much
+smaller quantities at present than was the case half a century ago,
+when oak bark fetched as much as £10 a ton, and when none of the
+chemicals that are now so commonly employed were offered in the market.
+Excellent gunpowder is made of the wood, said to be second only in
+quality to that prepared from the dogwood. The young shoots, according
+to the peculiar way in which they are prepared, are employed in dyeing
+red, brown, yellow, and black.</p>
+
+<p>Alder is generally in good demand at all stages of its growth, and
+is seldom grown to very large dimensions. For the clogger, turner,
+or charcoal burner it is of greatest value up to about thirty years’
+growth, while by cutting it over at that age a second crop springs
+rapidly from the stools.</p>
+
+<p>The <b>Birch</b>.—It is hardly necessary to speak of the hardiness of
+the birch, for no other native tree, not even the Scotch pine, ascends
+to such elevations in Britain. The higher the tree ascends the more
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_54"></a>[Pg 54]</span>
+shrub-like it becomes, until on very exposed rocky sites at great
+altitudes it hardly exceeds a yard in height.</p>
+
+<p>As regards soil, the birch is by no means particular, for we find it
+succeeding well even on that of a poor rocky or gravelly character.
+The largest individual specimens always, however, occur at not too
+high an altitude, and on soil of a light, loamy nature, an abundance
+of moisture being still further favourable to quick development.
+For planting on exposed ground for shelter-giving purposes, but
+particularly where the soil is thin and poor, the birch is a most
+valuable tree. Its growth is fairly rapid, and it does not suffer to
+any appreciable extent either from insect or fungoid attacks. As a
+coppice tree it is also valuable.</p>
+
+<p>The timber of the birch, though of little value for general estate
+purposes, is largely employed in the arts and manufactures. It is
+much used for thread bobbins, turnery work, shoe pegs, hoops, and
+fish barrels, while it makes excellent firewood, and yields superior
+charcoal for smelting purposes. In Wales large quantities of birch wood
+are cut into clog soles, while the sabots used by the French peasantry
+are also made of that wood. When of large size and good figure,
+furniture and veneers are made of the wood, and on the Continent
+felloes for carriage wheels. Brooms and switches are made of the
+smaller branches or sprays, while the bark is used for tanning, and an
+oil expressed from it is employed in the preparation of the well-known
+and fragrant Russian leather.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+  <img id="I_055" src="images/i_055.jpg" alt="" width="400" height="486" >
+  <p class="f110">STEM OF THE TRUE “CRICKET BAT” WILLOW<br>
+          (<i>Salix cærulea</i>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The <b>White</b> or <b>Huntingdon Willow</b> (<i>Salix
+alba</i>).—Whether for ornament or utility the White or Huntingdon
+Willow must be considered as one of our most valuable trees. The
+timber sells readily at all prices up to 10<i>s</i>. per cubic foot, and
+when it is considered that the tree will succeed in dampish ground where
+most other species decline to grow, and that it is of rapid growth,
+attaining maturity in less than forty years, its value in economic
+planting will be recognized. At the outset it may be well to point out
+that the wood of the particular willow from which the best class of
+cricket bats are manufactured sells at a higher rate than any other
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_55"></a>[Pg 55]</span>
+timber that is cultivated in this country. There are many kinds of
+willows found growing throughout the British Isles, but one alone
+produces the particular class of wood from which first-class bats are
+turned out. Until quite lately the timber of the White or Huntingdon
+Willow (<i>Salix alba</i>) was largely used in the making of cricket
+bats, but it has been found that a cross between that species and
+the crack willow (<i>S. fragilis</i>), and named <i>S. cærulea</i>,
+produces by far the best wood for the manufacture of high-grade cricket
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_56"></a>[Pg 56]</span>
+bats. In the trade the “Cricket Bat Willow,” as it is now known
+throughout England, is popularly designated as the close-barked willow
+in order to readily distinguish it from the open-barked or crack
+willow. Confusion generally exists in determining the various forms of
+willow, but in <i>S. cærulea</i> the branches incline upwards; indeed,
+the tree has a semi-fastigiate form of growth, and the branches also
+have an upward tendency. The bark is a dark grey, with long, straight,
+narrow fissures closely arranged and from which the term “close-barked”
+is derived. The leaves are of a bluish tint or covered with bluish-grey
+hairs beneath and long and narrow in shape, while an unerring point
+of difference between the hybrid and other willows is that the tree
+produces only female flowers. It may be well to mention in connexion
+with the crack willow that the bark fissures are far more rugged and
+placed farther apart than is the case with the true cricket bat willow,
+<i>S. cærulea</i>. The great importance of recognizing and growing for
+purely economic purposes the true variety will be apparent when it is
+mentioned that makers of cricket bats will have nothing to do with any
+but the true “close-barked” tree, and the English bat-maker is keen to
+recognize the characteristics of the timber he requires, and will not
+stick at paying exorbitant prices for trees of the right kind.</p>
+
+<p>As showing the value in England of the timber of the true bat-making
+willow, it might be mentioned that in many instances that have come
+under my notice as much as 16<i>s.</i> per cubit ft., or six times
+the price of the best oak, has been paid for trees of the true <i>S.
+cærulea</i>. A single tree growing in London lately sold at £10,
+and in Hertfordshire eleven trees fetched the handsome sum of £81,
+while £20 was refused for four trees growing in a wood in Essex. Such
+prices are, however, exceptional, though on a visit to two of the
+largest bat-making establishments in the metropolis I was told that
+for several years past the average price paid for willow worked out at
+6<i>s.</i> per cubit foot. A well-known grower tells us that if planted
+in suitable soil a “set” or cutting, which usually costs 1<i>s.</i>
+6<i>d.</i>, will in fifteen years be worth about £6.
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_57"></a>[Pg 57]</span></p>
+
+<p>The home of the true bat-making willow is in the Eastern English
+counties, and it is there that the manufacturer goes when wishing
+to purchase the most valuable timber for his special work. The
+propagation of the bat-making willow is simple, either by rooted
+cuttings or “sets,” the latter being the best and cheapest method.
+“Sets” are usually from 12 to 20 ft. long, with a basal diameter of,
+say, 3 ins., the best being got from pollarded trees, and straight,
+clean, branchless shoots are preferable. They should be stripped of
+all side branches for about three-fourths of their length and only
+cut in spring. By placing these sets together in a ditch or pond for
+about a month rootlets will be emitted, when they may be planted in
+previously prepared holes, which are formed by driving an iron rod or
+stake in the ground for a distance of, say, 2½ ft.</p>
+
+<p>The <b>Poplar</b>.—Several species of poplar are valuable for the
+timber they produce, as also for their rapidity of growth and
+succeeding in low-lying, damp ground. When clean grown and of large
+size the timber sells readily at prices which vary from 1<i>s</i>. to
+1<i>s</i>. 6<i>d</i>. per ft.</p>
+
+<p>Probably the most valuable species is the white poplar (<i>Populus
+alba</i>), though the black Italian (<i>P. monilifera</i>) produces
+excellent timber for which there is generally a demand.</p>
+
+<p>From a purely commercial point of view the above hard-wooded trees are
+the only kinds that can be recommended for planting in this country.
+The timber of the lime, hornbeam, walnut and one or two others at times
+sells at a fair price, but the small quantity offered shows that they
+have not been considered worthy of attention where the economic value
+of the plantations was being considered.</p>
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">Coniferous Trees</span></h3>
+
+<p>Amongst the many conifers that have been introduced to this country
+during the last century very few can be recommended as suitable for
+profitable planting. The following, so far as is known, are the only
+species to be recommended:—</p>
+
+<p>The <b>Larch</b> (<i>Larix europæa</i>).—Both for and against the
+larch much has been written and said, particularly of late years; but,
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_58"></a>[Pg 58]</span>
+however much has been said in commendation of it, there can be no doubt
+that to overstate its value as a timber tree in the economy of British
+forestry would be a task of some difficulty. When we combine its great,
+almost peculiar, aptitude to suit itself to nearly all conditions of
+soils, altitudes, and diversities of climate, its long-established
+value as a timber tree, rapidity of growth and ease of culture, it
+is clear that no other tree cultivated in this country can be ranked
+on a par with the larch. Unfortunately, however, of late years the
+larch has suffered much from disease, the predisposing causes of which
+may mainly be attributed to the variableness of our spring weather,
+and the rapidly degenerating state of the tree—the latter chiefly
+brought about by an injudicious selection of seed. By far too little
+attention has been paid to this important matter, the result being
+that weakness and tenderness have got into the constitution of the
+tree, and it is thus unable to withstand even a few degrees of frost.
+So weakened, blight, fungus, and ulceration find a footing, and thus
+the fell disease is generated about which so much has been said and
+written of late years. In my own opinion, strengthened by careful
+investigation and research, induced tenderness in the constitution of
+the larch is the primary cause of disease, cold winds and frost being
+the destructive agents, and ulceration the direct consequence.</p>
+
+<p>Injury to the roots of the larch in transplanting is attended with most
+injurious results. In corroboration of this, it may be stated that
+natural or self-sown trees are, in this country, almost exempt from
+disease.</p>
+
+<p>The variableness of our spring weather is, no doubt, one of the
+predisposing causes of disease, for although no degree of cold
+experienced in this country can injure the tree when leafless, yet few
+are more sensitive when in young foliage.</p>
+
+<p>The durability of the wood of the larch is well known, and this
+peculiarity is even noticeable when of only a few years’ growth. As
+compared with Scotch and spruce firs, the wood of the larch is about
+twice as durable—a fence of the latter cut at from twenty to thirty
+years’ growth lasted from seventeen to twenty years, while that of the
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_59"></a>[Pg 59]</span>
+spruce lasts about eleven years, and the Scotch seven years. This
+refers especially to rails, not to posts, which decay in about half
+that time. For mining and railway purposes the durability of larch wood
+makes it much sought after, this being further enhanced by its extreme
+lightness, the weight of a cubic foot when seasoned being only 34 lbs.
+It takes a beautiful polish, works with great freedom, and, when fully
+seasoned, is not at all liable to twist or warp.</p>
+
+<p>Substitutes for the larch have often been recommended, but, in the true
+sense of the word, there are practically none, although, doubtless,
+some of those whose claims have been set forth might to a certain
+extent reflect one or more of its valuable qualities.</p>
+
+<p><b>Sitka or Silver Spruce</b> (<i>Picea Sitchensis</i>).—From a purely
+commercial point of view the Sitka or Silver Spruce is probably the
+most valuable of any of the family to which it belongs. It is a tree
+of noble growth in this country, several specimens being well over 100
+ft. in height and with boles that girth fully 10 ft. at a yard from the
+ground, these dimensions being attained in seventy-five years. When
+used as a standard, the tree is one of great beauty, the stiff and
+rather irregularly disposed branches being thickly beset with vivid
+bluish-green foliage that is silvery on the under side. It delights in
+a cool, moist loam and not too exposed situation, but when grown on
+gravel or any warm soil the foliage is distinctly meagre and affected
+by red spider. The timber, which is remarkably light for its bulk,
+strong and flexible, is of great value in the making of aeroplanes, and
+special logs find a ready market at highly remunerative prices in the
+London market.</p>
+
+<p>The <b>Corsican Pine</b> (<i>Pinus laricio</i>).—This is, undoubtedly,
+one of the best all-round conifers that has found its way into the
+British Isles. It is of very rapid growth, and well suited for
+planting, even in the most exposed and wind-swept situations; a
+non-fastidious subject as to soil, and a valuable timber-producer.</p>
+
+<p>As to its adaptability for withstanding long-continued cold blasts at
+high altitudes, ample evidence can be adduced on many an English and
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_60"></a>[Pg 60]</span>
+Scotch estate where the pine has been introduced into the woodlands in
+such quantity as in certain places to form the ultimate or standing
+crop. In North Wales, on one of the Snowdon range of hills, I have
+planted the Corsican pine in great quantity. The plantation was, for
+the greater part, fully exposed to the dreaded south-westerly wind,
+which at times blows hard and long, and sweeps the hillsides with
+terrific fury; yet, under such conditions, the Corsican pine has done
+remarkably well—in fact, proved itself to be well suited for planting
+at high altitudes on our English hillsides. Even at the highest point
+of the woodlands in question, this pine has thriven in a manner that
+is quite surprising, and thrown its stoutest branches out into the
+very teeth of the blast, and that where hardly a hardwood tree could
+survive, and even the Scotch fir shrank from the cold and almost
+unceasing storms. Other notable instances of how well the Corsican does
+on exposed ground and high altitudes might be pointed out—such as at
+Blair Athol, in Perthshire, at 700 ft., where it is thriving amazingly;
+and again in Yorkshire, one of the most barren and wind-swept of
+English counties, where in parts, it grows with a luxuriance that is
+almost unparalleled in any other part of Britain. The timber produced
+by the Corsican pine in this country is strong, tough, elastic, very
+resinous, and easily worked; this is speaking of trees of fully fifty
+years’ growth. It thrives well on gravelly soil, some of the largest
+specimens of the tree in this country growing along the margin of a
+disused gravel-pit.</p>
+
+<p>It may be said that the Corsican pine is perfectly hardy, peculiarly
+well suited for planting in exposed situations, a rapid and valuable
+timber-producer, a tree that is cheaply and easily raised from seed,
+and one of the most non-exacting conifers as regards choice of
+soil that could be named—all qualities of the highest value in a
+timber-producing tree and a combination that is rarely found in any
+other species.</p>
+
+<p>In France extensive plantations of the Corsican have been formed, while
+it has also been introduced extensively into the State forests by the
+Prussian Government.
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_61"></a>[Pg 61]</span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+  <img id="I_061" src="images/i_061.jpg" alt="" width="300" height="519" >
+  <p class="f110">THE WEYMOUTH PINE<br> AT GWYDYR CASTLE</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_62"></a>[Pg 62]</span>
+The <a href ="#I_061"><b>Weymouth Pine</b></a> (<i>P. Strobus</i>), whether viewed
+in an ornamental or economic aspect, must be considered as another of the
+most valuable pines that have been introduced into this country. Admit,
+we must, that in certain situations the cultivation of this handsome
+tree has been attended with no very promising results; but then it
+should be remembered that, like most other trees, the Weymouth pine
+has its likes and dislikes of soil, as well, indeed, as of aspect
+and altitude. That it has succeeded well, and produced an unusually
+large quantity of clean and firm wood in various parts of the country
+cannot be denied; but then in such places its peculiar wants have
+been attended to. At Gwydyr Castle, in North Wales, the tree succeeds
+admirably, specimens fully 90 ft. in height, straight as arrows,
+branchless for three-fourths their length, and fully 8 ft. in girth
+at breast-high, being not uncommon. The soil is rocky debris, largely
+intermixed with vegetable refuse, fairly moist at all times, but
+without stagnant moisture.</p>
+
+<p>On the western borders of Ross-shire, at Strathkyle, where the
+altitudes vary from 100 ft. to 1,200 ft., the Weymouth pine is making
+rapid progress. We do not wish it to be inferred that the Weymouth
+pine alone is suitable for planting at high altitudes and on exposed
+situations; but that it will grow rapidly and produce useful timber
+in partially-sheltered districts has been proved by those who have
+paid particular attention to the value of the more recently introduced
+conifers as profitable timber-producers in this country.</p>
+
+<p>A comparison of the wood produced by the Weymouth pine in this country
+with that sent to the late Colonial and Indian Exhibition showed but
+slight differences, and nothing more than could naturally be expected
+between a mature and an only partially-developed tree.</p>
+
+<p>The <b>Scotch Pine</b> (<i>P. sylvestris</i>) must on no account
+be omitted from our list; as, especially for planting in exposed
+situations where few other trees could succeed, it is one of the best.
+Probably the principal reason why this tree has not been more generally
+cultivated, is on account of the low-priced timber it produces, for,
+of late years, it has been difficult, except in certain favoured
+districts, to get rid of it at a remunerative price. With the war,
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_63"></a>[Pg 63]</span>
+matters are quite different. The finest quality of Scotch pine timber,
+such as that produced in some of the northern Scottish counties, no
+doubt, is even now fairly remunerative; but, generally speaking, that
+grown throughout Southern Scotland, England as a whole, and also
+Ireland, is of so inferior a quality as hardly to fetch a remunerative
+price. No doubt, however, this pine will continue to be largely planted
+wherever shelter and ornament are of first importance: and rightly so,
+for few others are so well able to withstand cold, cutting blasts at
+high altitudes.</p>
+
+<p>The <b>Douglas Fir</b> (<i>Pseudotsuga Douglasii</i>) is, in certain
+situations, a valuable timber-producing tree—indeed, as regards the
+actual production of timber in a given time, it is, perhaps, ahead
+of any other tree grown in this country. From measurements we have
+taken, the actual production of timber during fifty years was 240 ft.,
+or nearly 5 ft. per year for half a century. In a plantation of the
+Douglas fir in Wales, planted twenty-two years, we found the average
+dimensions to be as follows: Height, 76 ft.; girth of stem at 24 ft., 4
+ft.; cubic contents, fully 50 ft. The timber produced in this country
+is of excellent quality, being light but strong, works very readily,
+has a pleasant yellowish tinge, and takes on a good polish. That the
+Douglas fir is a tree that is eminently adapted for cultivation in
+this country is already well known; but to grow it in anything like a
+satisfactory way it must be planted in sheltered hollows, for extensive
+experience has long ago proved to us that it is ill-adapted for braving
+the storm, even at a few feet above the sea-level. Long ago we strongly
+advocated the forming of plantations of <i>P. Douglasii</i> alone, or
+with some other tree of about equally rapid growth, for, when mixed up
+with the general run of our forest trees, the leader, on overtopping
+those of its neighbours, soon gets broken over, or otherwise presents
+an almost branchless, whip-handle-like appearance. We do not wish to
+say one word against this our favourite fir: but the truth must be
+told, and our own experience, gained principally on a low-lying seaside
+estate, where the tree was annually planted by the thousand, is that
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_64"></a>[Pg 64]</span>
+<i>P. Douglasii</i> must occupy a sheltered situation if either
+ornament or utility be considered as points of first importance.</p>
+
+<p>The <b>Giant Arborvitæ</b> (<i>Thuja gigantea</i>) is fast coming to
+the front as a British timber tree, and has already, at the hands of
+far-seeing planters, received a fair amount of attention. After a fair
+and impartial trial on our part, we have found it to be perfectly
+hardy, even at high altitudes, a fast grower and rapid timber-producer,
+a non-fastidious subject as regards the quality of soil in which it is
+planted, and one of the most easily managed and most accommodating of
+trees. The quality of timber produced in this country is such as to
+warrant us in speaking highly of it, it being of a desirable yellow
+colour, fine-grained, easily worked, remarkably durable, and light in
+proportion to its bulk. From the measurements of fully twenty-four
+specimens scattered over an English park, we have found that the
+average annual rate of growth is 22 in., but even this is exceeded by
+young trees.</p>
+
+<p>The <b>Norway Spruce</b> (<i>Picea excelsa</i>).—Whether as a hardy,
+shelter-giving tree, or for the quantity of fairly good timber it
+produces, the common or Norway spruce must ever rank high in the list
+of useful trees that have been found suitable for culture in the
+British Isles. That it is a tree in every sense of the word admirably
+suited for extensive planting is acknowledged by all, as it luxuriates
+at high altitudes, and where fully exposed to our worst winds, and at
+the same time produces a great quantity of timber that has been found
+of excellent quality, well suited for general constructive purposes.
+As a shelter tree few others can equal the spruce, and when planted
+along the outskirts of exposed plantations the amount of warmth and
+protection it affords is quite surprising.</p>
+
+<p>The <b>Silver Fir</b> (<i>Abies pectinata</i>) is another of those
+trees that have of late years fallen into disrepute, mainly owing to
+the increased importation of foreign timber. That it is an excellent
+and highly remunerative tree is unquestionable, and the very fact of
+its thriving luxuriantly on soils where the larch declines to grow should
+make it, in this country at least, of great value as a forest tree.
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_65"></a>[Pg 65]</span></p>
+
+<p>With the most satisfactory results has the timber been used for railway
+sleepers—in fact four sleepers laid experimentally have stood the wear
+and tear quite as well as those of Baltic timber, alongside of which
+they were placed. For roofing purposes the wood has likewise attained
+great fame, as it is found to stand vicissitudes of dry and damp
+alternately better than almost any other home-grown timber.</p>
+
+<p>The coniferous trees just treated of are about the only kinds that can
+be recommended for profitable planting in this country.</p>
+
+<p>The Atlantic Cedar and Japanese Larch might be added to the list,
+but present experience will not justify us in bringing any of these
+prominently to notice.</p>
+
+<p>Twenty-five years ago, at the instigation of the then Earl of Derby,
+the writer formed several plantations on the Holwood Estate in Kent.
+At the outset it may be well to state that these plantations were not
+formed with the object of producing valuable timber, but rather for the
+ornamentation and privacy of the newly-acquired property. The trees
+used were the Scotch, Corsican, Austrian and <a href ="#I_061">Weymouth pines</a>,
+Douglas fir, the larch, and several species of hardwoods. As all have succeeded
+well under exactly similar conditions, the following notes as to the
+rate of growth and production of timber, both of which are unusually
+great, during a period of twenty-five years may be instructive.</p>
+
+<p>Previously to being planted the land, which may best be described as a
+hungry loam on a gravelly subsoil and sheltered, was let out for rough
+grazing and the cultivation of strawberries and other fruit.</p>
+
+<p>The cost per acre of forming these plantations was:—</p>
+
+<table class="spb1">
+   <tbody><tr class="fs_120">
+      <td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td>
+      <td class="tdc_wsp"><b>£</b></td>
+      <td class="tdc_wsp"><b><i>s.</i></b></td>
+      <td class="tdc_wsp"><b><i>d.</i></b></td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">Pitting, 2,722 at 1<i>s.</i> per 100&emsp;&nbsp;</td>
+      <td class="tdc">1</td>
+      <td class="tdc">7</td>
+      <td class="tdc">2</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">Planting</td>
+      <td class="tdc">1</td>
+      <td class="tdc">1</td>
+      <td class="tdc">0</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">Trees, at 40<i>s.</i> per 1,000</td>
+      <td class="tdc bb">5</td>
+      <td class="tdc bb">8</td>
+      <td class="tdc bb">0</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl"></td>
+      <td class="tdc">£7&#8199;</td>
+      <td class="tdc">16</td>
+      <td class="tdc">2</td>
+   </tr>
+ </tbody>
+</table>
+
+<p>This price may appear both high and low, but in connexion with the
+former it should be explained that the coniferous trees when planted
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_66"></a>[Pg 66]</span>
+were about 16 in. high, the others about 3 ft., all being placed 4
+ft. apart. Owing to the land having recently been under cultivation
+and labour at that time being cheap in the district, the opening of
+pits was carried out by contract at quite a nominal rate, the size of
+each being 12 in. square and 9 in. deep. After being planted the trees
+required little attention for the first six years, at which period they
+averaged 8 ft. in height, and the shade occasioned by the branch spread
+had killed out most of the grassy undergrowth.</p>
+
+<p>As the plantations were primarily intended for ornament and shelter,
+the retention of the lower branches of the trees, at least along the
+margin, was imperative, and in order to ensure this, early thinning was
+engaged in and carried out at regular intervals up to the present time,
+always bearing in mind to allow the boundary trees plenty of room for
+branch development, those inwards, in order to induce clean growth,
+being left much closer on the ground. Though in the latter case the
+volume of timber produced is comparatively less than along the margins,
+yet it is of greater value owing to the trees being straight and
+clean-stemmed, the only exception being the Corsican pine which, even
+when isolated, has little inclination to form stout side branches.</p>
+
+<p>The soil being light and resting on gravel was peculiarly suited for
+the growth of the pines, none of which suffered from disease or insect
+attack, though the Weymouth had occasional patches of the aphis with
+which it is usually attacked around London. The larch was practically
+free from canker.</p>
+
+<p>During recent thinning operations a good opportunity was afforded of
+taking the actual measurements when felled of the various species of
+trees, these being as follows:—</p>
+
+<table class="spb1">
+   <tbody><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">Austrian</td>
+      <td class="tdl_wsp">pine,</td>
+      <td class="tdl_wsp">average</td>
+      <td class="tdl_wsp">height,</td>
+      <td class="tdr">&nbsp; 46 ft.;</td>
+      <td class="tdl_wsp">cubic</td>
+      <td class="tdl_wsp">contents,</td>
+      <td class="tdr">9 ft.</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">Corsican</td>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+      <td class="tdr">51 ft.;</td>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+      <td class="tdr">&nbsp; 11 ft.</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">Scotch</td>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+      <td class="tdr">45 ft.;</td>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+      <td class="tdr">8 ft.</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">Weymouth</td>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+      <td class="tdr">42 ft.;</td>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+      <td class="tdr">6 ft.</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">Larch</td>
+      <td class="tdc">&nbsp;</td>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+      <td class="tdr">47 ft.;</td>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+      <td class="tdr">8 ft.</td>
+   </tr>
+ </tbody>
+</table>
+
+<p>It will thus be seen that the Corsican pine has surpassed all the
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_67"></a>[Pg 67]</span>
+others both in height and in the quantity of timber produced; and in
+viewing the plantations from a distance the leaders of the Corsican
+pines soar quite 6 ft. above those of their neighbours. The Austrian
+comes next in the quantity of timber produced, but not in height; and
+the larch and Scotch are of about equal size, the Weymouth being equal
+to the latter in height but not in bulk of stem. But the larch beats
+all in value of timber, for, while that of the various species of pine
+was difficult to sell at a remunerative figure, the larch wood was
+readily disposed of at a fair valuation.</p>
+
+<p>My experience is that timber merchants fight shy of purchasing any of
+the pine family excepting the Scotch. This may be owing to prejudice or
+want of knowledge as to the value of timber produced by the Corsican
+and Weymouth; but whatever the cause, the fact remains that the timber
+of both these species is difficult to dispose of at any but firewood
+rates. That of the Scotch being better known finds a ready market
+at about half the price of larch, which latter, after all, is the
+most useful and profitable of any coniferous tree cultivated in this
+country, and one for which the demand always exceeds the supply.</p>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_68"></a>[Pg 68]</span></p>
+<h2 class="nobreak">CHAPTER VII<br>
+<span class="h_subtitle">PLANTING EXPOSED GROUND</span></h2>
+</div>
+
+<p>As the majority of plantations for purely economic purposes are formed
+on the wind-swept moor or hillside, the successful management of these
+is a matter of considerable importance.</p>
+
+<p>There are many difficulties to encounter in planting high-lying and
+exposed ground that one would never have to think about in low-lying
+and sheltered situations. Planting, for instance, should not be
+commenced until February or March, as, by deferring it till that time,
+the newly-inserted plants will be fresh and vigorous, and ready for an
+immediate start in growth, which would not be the case if they had been
+put out in autumn and subjected during winter to the inevitable wind
+shaking that is always to be reckoned with on exposed ground.</p>
+
+<p>The choice of trees, too, for planting on wind-swept ground is a matter
+of far more moment than is generally supposed, for that there are
+certain species of trees peculiarly suitable for withstanding prolonged
+storms is well known to those who have had to do with the forming of
+woods and plantations at high altitudes. The size of trees planted has
+also much to do with the after success of the woods, and it may be
+well at the outset to say that these should not exceed about 12 in. in
+height on the most favoured sites to about from 6 in. to 9 in. on the
+more exposed grounds. They should also be properly prepared by frequent
+careful transplanting for the situations they are intended to occupy,
+as it can hardly be expected that a young and immature tree can, after
+being brought from a probably sheltered lowland nursery—as nine-tenths
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_69"></a>[Pg 69]</span>
+of those in this country are—to a high piece of ground, where at
+times the wind blows with terrific fury, and where one can scarcely
+stand upright, have sufficient stamina to stand against such odds and
+difference as must and do exist between the two points at present under
+consideration.</p>
+
+<p>Sometimes it is well to trench over a piece of ground on
+partially-exposed land, and insert therein for a couple of years before
+the proposed plantation is to be formed, the young trees intended for
+planting out. This has a wonderful effect in hardening and inuring
+them to severe cold and a wind-swept situation. By forming a nursery
+of young trees by the sea-coast, I have known great success attend the
+formation of woods and plantations in maritime situations, and like
+results are sure to attend the planting out of trees in any uncongenial
+and unfavourable situation.</p>
+
+<p>About the trees to be planted, being such as are sufficiently hardy
+to withstand prolonged storms, we will now say a few words. In the
+outer line—or, rather lines—the Scotch, Austrian, and Corsican Pines
+(<i>Pinus sylvestris</i>, <i>P. austriaca</i>, and <i>P. laricio</i>)
+are of first value, since they are able to stand against the storms
+of the hillside and produce a great amount of shelter to other less
+hardy kinds. It is often only necessary to make a wind-barrier, as it
+were—that is, to plant well-tried evergreen kinds, from which shelter
+can be obtained next the most windy position, then to follow up with
+other kinds that are second hardy in nature, and so on inwards; while,
+in the very centre of the plantation, almost any kind of tree can be
+used.</p>
+
+<p>The <b>Austrian Pine</b> has been successfully planted at high
+altitudes, and in the most exposed situations, and on the Continent
+it has proved itself of great value for breezy sites and maritime
+situations.</p>
+
+<p>The State forests are composed of not a few Austrian pines, and they
+are greatly valued for the shelter and warmth they afford to other less
+hardy kinds of trees. The best results are to be obtained if planted
+when young, for when removed at a greater age, with roots large and
+rampant of growth, it is with great difficulty that they can be got to
+keep upright. Unfortunately the timber is of no special value.
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_70"></a>[Pg 70]</span></p>
+
+<p>The <b>Corsican Pine</b> is equally as good as the latter for using
+where winds are of common occurrence, proving stout and strong, rooting
+well, and presenting a broad surface of hardy evergreen foliage to the
+blast. It is a good timber-producer, and, being well fitted for growing
+in patches close together, will yet be largely used for forest work in
+this country.</p>
+
+<p>About the <b>Scotch Pine</b> it is, perhaps, needless to speak, for
+every one who has travelled in Scotland, particularly in the more
+exposed northern parts, must have made himself acquainted with the
+capabilities of this valuable native tree. It can grow and flourish
+almost anywhere—on pure gravel, on the rocky mountain-slope, or by the
+rushing brookside, and in all these positions it seems to feel quite
+happy and contented, as the beautiful silvery glaucous foliage, the
+upright, rampant growth, and the cheery cinnamon or terra-cotta bark
+clearly indicate.</p>
+
+<p>With these three excellent storm-resisting trees for an outer barrier
+almost any kind of planting can be engaged in, for the shelter they
+afford is amply sufficient to start away into rapid growth even our
+only second-class hardy kinds of trees. The <b>Sycamore</b> is a good
+tree for planting where the storms blow loud and long, being able to
+withstand in a very commendable way the first brunt of the hillside
+winds. It is also a good timber-producer, the wood at all times being
+easily disposed of, and at a very remunerative price.</p>
+
+<p>The <b>Elder</b> and <b>Mountain Ash</b> are other valuable
+small-growing trees for planting on exposed ground, both flourishing
+apace even in very high and exposed woodlands.</p>
+
+<p>In the <b>Scotch</b> or <b>Mountain Elm</b> (<i>Ulmus montana</i>)
+we have a first-class tree for planting as shelter, while the
+<b>Alder</b>, <b>Willows</b> of various kinds, and the <b>Hornbeam</b>
+should all receive attention in the formation of woodlands on exposed
+and storm-swept sites.</p>
+
+<p>The <b>American Winged Elm</b> (<i>Ulmus alata</i>) has few equals for
+withstanding long-continued storms at high altitudes, for it sends out
+its cork-covered branches without fear of harm into the very teeth of
+the blast. I have noticed how well suited this elm is for planting on
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_71"></a>[Pg 71]</span>
+exposed, high-lying ground by the few examples that occur at
+considerable elevations in some of the screen-belts that have been
+formed on the flanks of the Snowdon range of hills, where the tree looks
+quite as healthy and happy as at lower elevations in a sheltered park.</p>
+
+<p>The <b>Larch</b>, be it remembered, is a good tree for planting on
+exposed ground, for, though it gets twisted about and untidy of
+appearance, it has a wonderful recuperative nature, and will succeed
+well even when planted on the margins of exposed woodlands. By taking
+advantage of natural tree or shrub growth when forming plantations at
+high altitudes much good may be brought about. A young tree planted
+to the leeward of a clump of gorse, broom, juniper, or birch has a
+much better chance of succeeding than another planted where it has no
+shelter from the worst winds of the particular district. These wild
+clumps of natural shrubs should be encouraged in every way, for they
+will not only give a great amount of shelter, but help to thicken up
+the plantations as well. In exposed woodlands it is a good plan to
+plant up the margins with such hardy wild shrubs as the gorse, broom,
+thorn, juniper, blackthorn, etc., all of which will afford a great
+amount of shelter to the young plants when newly inserted, and help
+them to start away freely.</p>
+
+<p>The <a href ="#I_050"><b>Common Beech</b></a> is a good all-round tree for
+planting in exposed sites, but especially where the soil is poor, or, in other
+words, composed principally of chalk or gravel. Some of the highest
+grounds in several of the English counties are occupied by thriving
+beech plantations, these acting as landmarks for many miles around, as
+notably at Knockholt and on the Chiltern Hills.</p>
+
+<p>The <b>Oak</b> and <b>Ash</b> should both find places in high-lying and
+exposed woodlands, for, although they cannot be planted successfully
+along the margins, yet they thrive well where a little shelter is
+afforded, and where the soil is fairly deep and rich.</p>
+
+<p>The <b>Birch</b> cannot be passed by in any list of trees for planting
+in exposed places; it thrives well at high altitudes, and where only a
+small quantity of soil overlies the rock.</p>
+
+<p>The <b>Wild</b> and <b>Bird Cherries</b> (<i>Cerasus vulgaris</i> and
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_72"></a>[Pg 72]</span>
+<i>C. Padus</i>) are excellent ornamental trees for exposed grounds,
+where they grow to a large size and flower freely. They can both
+subsist where but a small depth of soil is present.</p>
+
+<p><b>Preparation of the Ground and Planting.</b>—As regards the pits for
+planting, these should be well prepared—that is, the soil loosened
+up and made free for the roots to run in, which will greatly help
+the trees to become quickly established—a point of great importance
+on exposed ground. The top turf may be chopped up and placed in the
+bottom of the pit, this serving, when decomposed, as manure to the
+roots, and assisting to promote vigorous growth. In planting, place the
+best-rooted sides of the trees to the windward or most exposed site,
+and do not cover with the soil to a greater depth than that in which
+the plant stood whilst in the nursery border. On very exposed sites,
+and where the soil is thin, notch planting and inserting with the
+planting iron are to be recommended.</p>
+
+<p>It will be well, at stated intervals, to examine young plantations
+formed on high-lying and exposed ground, to see that the plants do not
+get shaken about with the wind and holes formed around the stems. This
+latter is highly injurious to the welfare of the plants, as the air
+passing down the stem side causes the roots to get dry to an inordinate
+degree.</p>
+
+<p>Wind-swaying, where these holes have been formed around the stem, is
+also hurtful, as the tender roots get strained and barked, and ill
+fitted for maintaining a healthy condition of the young trees. The
+holes formed by swaying of the stems should be filled up with fine
+soil—not stones, as is sometimes the case—and a small piece of stiff,
+grassy turf tramped firmly against the stem on the side opposite that
+from which the worst winds may be expected.</p>
+
+<p>Should rank vegetation, which, is, however, rarely met with at high
+altitudes and on exposed ground, interfere with the growth of the young
+trees, it would be well to have such cut over and either burned or
+spread evenly over the ground.</p>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_73"></a>[Pg 73]</span></p>
+<h2 class="nobreak">CHAPTER VIII<br>
+<span class="h_subtitle">SEASIDE PLANTING</span></h2>
+</div>
+
+<p>Few persons other than those who have actually been engaged in the
+work have the remotest idea of the difficulties to be encountered
+in the formation of belts and plantations on exposed and wind-swept
+seaside ground. To plant young trees around many parts of the coast of
+the British Isles, particularly where wide stretches of open seaboard
+are to be dealt with, without first erecting a shelter-screen of
+some kind or other, is useless work, and only productive of the most
+unsatisfactory results.</p>
+
+<p>That there are not a few districts, however, where such a preliminary
+would be needless is well known, all that is required in certain
+instances being, first of all, to prepare the ground, and secondly, to
+suit the trees to the soil and situation, seeing that some varieties
+succeed better than others in certain soils and sites.</p>
+
+<p>From experience I have found out how useless it is to plant in a
+haphazard way, at least, on the more exposed seaboards along the west
+coast, whereas, by careful manipulation, I have been successful in
+getting up shelter where before it was deemed almost an impossibility.
+The chief consideration in seaside planting is unquestionably shelter,
+be it only of a temporary kind, for it may be noticed anywhere along
+our coast that, wherever the direct force of the hurricane is broken,
+there trees and shrubs are growing best. Another evil—a great one,
+too—with which the planter has to contend is the injurious effect
+on trees, but more particularly on evergreen shrubs, of the saline
+particles which are driven and deposited with such force on the leaves
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_74"></a>[Pg 74]</span>
+and branches as in many instances to give them the appearance of having
+been scorched or cut over when in full vigour by an untimely frost.
+Wind-shaking, although a minor evil, must also be carefully guarded
+against, so that at the outset it is well to have the trees, except
+such as are of dwarf size, securely staked and tied, so as to obviate
+the dire results occasioned to the roots of newly-planted trees when
+the stems are allowed to rock to and fro with the wind.</p>
+
+<p>Before commencing planting operations on the sandy and exposed
+sea-coast, the preliminary step is to erect a barrier of some kind,
+which will intercept the violence of the wind, and act as a screen
+or shelter to the young plants. For this purpose various kinds of
+erections are equally suitable, but that usually adopted, especially
+where loose sand alone is present, is a strong paling fence thatched
+with brushwood. The posts should if possible be 6 ft. above ground and
+about 12 ft. apart, the paling-rails, two in number, being securely
+nailed to these at 2 ft. and 5 ft. from the ground; against this are
+placed spruce or gorse trimmings, these being 6 ft. long if possible,
+in an upright manner, and firmly tied to the crossbars by means of
+binding wire or strong tarred rope. This may best be described as a
+dead fence, but it is, nevertheless, quite as valuable for the purpose
+required as a perfectly developed living hedge. By means of this a
+great advantage is gained and a favourable start for the newly-planted
+trees is secured. Then, compared with a stone wall, or, in fact, a
+wall of any kind, this screen-fence is greatly superior, the wind
+being broken up in passing through it, and, what is of as much value,
+also relieved of its saline particles, at least to a very considerable
+extent.</p>
+
+<p>Where the shore is almost destitute of sand, and where certain kinds of
+vegetation subsist, I find it to be a capital plan to substitute for
+the dead fence just described that composed of turf and earth.</p>
+
+<p>The raised mound should be not less than 5 ft. in height, and of
+sufficient width at top to allow of the planting of a double line of
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_75"></a>[Pg 75]</span>
+such plants as have been found most suitable for the wind-swept
+maritime situation in which they are to be used. For this purpose
+few plants equal, and certainly none surpass, the Sea Buckthorn
+(<i>Hippophæ rhamnoides</i>), Tamarisk (<i>Tamarix gallica</i>),
+the common elder, hazel, whitethorn, and at least three species of
+willow—<i>Salix Caprea</i>, <i>S. helix</i>, and <i>S. alba</i>.
+Immediately behind this screen, pits of not less than 2 ft. in diameter
+and about 18 in. in depth may be formed, and it will be all the better
+if some time is allowed to elapse before they are planted. The bottom
+and side of each pit should, where found necessary, be loosed with a
+pick, and if the soil is found to be of very inferior quality, it will
+be well, more especially where such can be readily obtained, to add a
+spadeful or two from some adjoining field.</p>
+
+<p>Planting should not be commenced before March or April, an early start
+at growth being much in favour of young trees that have recently been
+transferred to the sea-coast. The plants to be used should not exceed,
+say, 12 to 15 in. in height, but of strong growth in proportion to
+their size, and supplied with an abundance of fibrous roots. Lanky,
+ill-grown, and coddled plants have but a poor chance of succeeding
+under such adverse circumstances.</p>
+
+<p>In planting, keep the strongest roots seaward, and do not place the
+trees at a greater depth in the soil than that at which they stood
+whilst in the nursery border. The failure to use this precaution is
+a mistake, and is productive of anything but favourable results.
+Immediately behind this raised mound of turf, or the dead fence of
+branches above described, the best trees for withstanding the first
+brunt of the sea-breeze are the sycamore, elm, elder, and willow
+amongst hardwoods, and the Austrian and cluster pines (<i>Pinus
+austriaca</i> and <i>P. Pinaster</i>), to which might be added <i>P.
+laricio</i>, <i>P. sylvestris</i>, and <i>P. montana</i>, amongst
+conifers. These are all well-tried subjects, and may be relied upon as
+peculiarly suited for doing battle with hard-blowing and long-continued
+storms on the sea-coast.</p>
+
+<p>Regarding the merits of the cluster pine for seaside planting, it would
+be almost superfluous for me to speak; while the elm and sycamore send
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_76"></a>[Pg 76]</span>
+out their stout branches into the very teeth of the blast, and are
+known as peculiarly well suited for such situations.</p>
+
+<p>The following list includes such trees and shrubs as have, from long
+experience, been found well suited for planting on cold and wind-swept
+shores, and the trees are arranged according to their value in this respect.</p>
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">Hardwoods</span></h3>
+
+<p>The <b>Sycamore</b> (<i>Acer Pseudo-platanus</i>) is, without doubt,
+the most valuable hard-wooded tree of timber size that I have come
+across for planting in exposed seaside situations. It succeeds well,
+even at highwater mark, the stout, twiggy branches being thrown out
+into the very face of the blast. Even during winter, and in a leafless
+state, the amount of shelter afforded by this tree is quite surprising.
+Taking everything into consideration—its great hardihood, and
+suitability to various soils and situations, I consider the sycamore
+the most valuable of any deciduous tree that I have yet tried for
+seaside planting.</p>
+
+<p>The <b>Elder</b> (<i>Sambucus nigra</i>) is, amongst small-growing
+trees, the best for planting in exposed seaside districts. Its powers
+of endurance are even greater than those of the sycamore, although
+the amount of shelter it affords is by no means so great. Where its
+branches are constantly exposed to the saline-laden breeze, and its
+roots amongst almost pure sand, it grows and thrives in a manner that
+is quite surprising. With the greatest advantages have I used the elder
+as a wind-break on some of the most exposed and desolate coasts of
+the British Isles. Even where grown as a single specimen, it seems to
+disregard the angry blast and saline particles with which it is almost
+constantly pelted—a fact that may be verified, in not one, but several
+stations along the coast. Then, what tree is of readier culture than
+the elder, succeeds better in poor, sandy soils, or spreads about to an
+equal extent?</p>
+
+<p>The <b>Norway Maple</b> (<i>Acer platanoides</i>) stands the first
+brunt of the sea-breeze in a most commendable way—indeed, it may be
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_77"></a>[Pg 77]</span>
+recommended as one of the most hardy and valuable trees for the purpose
+under consideration that could be named. On the western coast of
+England, and in a very exposed and wind-swept district, I have used it
+with the greatest success in the formation of plantations, as it is
+of rapid growth and soon forms an excellent shelter to the other less
+hardy kinds of trees. It is by no means particular as to soil, but
+succeeds all the better if this is fairly rich.</p>
+
+<p>The <b>Winged Elm</b> (<i>Ulmus alata</i>).—From a long experience
+of this, at present, little-known tree, I have every confidence in
+recommending it as one of the most valuable trees for planting in
+cold, wind-tortured, and maritime districts that have yet found their
+way into this country. Where many of our hardiest trees are bent and
+shrinking from the blast, this elm stands nobly out, and seems to defy
+both winds and storm.</p>
+
+<p>The <b>Huntingdon Willow</b> (<i>Salix alba</i>) and <b>Bedford
+Willow</b> (<i>S. Russelliana</i>), but particularly the former, are
+excellent trees for windy shores. In many places along the coast
+the Huntingdon willow may be seen in a most flourishing and happy
+condition, and that, too, where the surroundings are the reverse of
+favourable. It is a tree of quick growth, and will succeed well in any
+class of soil if it be not too damp. In one instance that came under
+my notice, the trees were planted on a promontory overhanging the sea
+and in such a situation that they were almost constantly subjected to
+rough-blowing winds coming in from the Irish Sea, and yet they have
+grown with the greatest freedom, and to-day look as healthy and happy
+as if planted in some sheltered inland situation.</p>
+
+<p>The <a href ="#I_103"><b>Beam Tree</b></a> (<i>Pyrus Aria</i>) is another
+excellent small-growing tree for planting in sites where, from cold saline
+blasts, few others could eke out even a miserable existence.</p>
+
+<p>On the limestone cliffs of the Great Orme’s Head this handsome and
+hardy tree grows in a most surprising way—indeed, with the exception
+of one or two species of willow, I question very much whether any other
+tree could exist under the trying circumstances. The hard and leathery
+leaves seem as if specially constructed for bearing storms, and, being
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_78"></a>[Pg 78]</span>
+plentifully produced, render a great amount of shelter to other trees.</p>
+
+<p>The <b>Goat Willow</b> (<i>Salix Caprea</i>), for planting in almost
+pure sand on the sea-coast, is a most valuable small-growing tree, and
+it is so hardy that, without the least risk of harm, it may be planted
+at great altitudes, and in very exposed situations. In several of the
+maritime plantations that I have formed, this willow was used with
+remarkable success in the outer line or screen.</p>
+
+<p>The <b>Aspen</b> (<i>Populus tremula</i>) is an excellent shore-tree,
+one that can withstand a great amount of rough usage, and as hardy
+and fast-growing a subject as could well be desired. In the formation
+of several exposed seaside woods on the west coast of England I
+planted the aspen largely, and, I may add, the results have been most
+satisfactory.</p>
+
+<p><b>P. canadensis</b>, <b>P. alba</b>, and <b>P. nigra</b> are likewise
+worthy of extended culture, for they succeed well by the seaside. They
+all stand the breeze from the sea, are perfectly hardy, and afford a
+great amount of shelter.</p>
+
+<p>The <b>Mountain Ash</b> (<i>Pyrus Aucuparia</i>).—Although valueless,
+or nearly so, for the quantity of timber it produces, yet, as a hardy,
+free-growing tree, the mountain ash, or rowan tree, merits attention
+from planters of exposed seaside land. All along the coast of Great
+Britain this pretty tree may be found growing luxuriantly, and in such
+situations affording a great amount of shelter to other less hardy
+kinds of trees and shrubs. It may be planted without fear of harm,
+down even to highwater mark, and where the soil is of the poorest
+description. It is thus one of the most useful of trees for planting as
+shelter along the roughest and most wind-tortured parts of the coast.</p>
+
+<p>The <b>Hoary Alder</b> (<i>Alnus incana</i>) and the <b>Common
+Alder</b> (<i>A. glutinosa</i>) can hardly be excelled for planting
+in wet portions of cold, wind-swept ground, and in the vicinity of
+the sea. Both trees grow with the greatest freedom, and are perfectly
+hardy, standing the first brunt of the saline blasts in a most
+commendable and praiseworthy manner.
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_79"></a>[Pg 79]</span></p>
+
+<p>I have found it to be a good plan where shelter is wanted on bare
+coast-tracts, if the quality of soil be at all suitable, to plant the
+alders pretty closely, and when they have attained to 15 ft. or 20 ft.
+in height, to cut every alternate one over at ground level. By so doing
+a number of stout shoots are thrown out early in the following spring,
+which, as they grow with great rapidity, soon fill up the blanks
+occasioned by cutting over the young trees.</p>
+
+<p>After these have had several years’ growth the remaining half of the
+original crop should be cut over, and when all have started from the
+stools a first-class shelter is obtained. Of course, damp portions of
+the ground should be selected on which to plant the alder.</p>
+
+<p>The <b>English Maple</b> (<i>Acer campestre</i>) can well hold its own
+as a tree for planting on exposed seaside grounds. It is one of the
+hardiest trees with which I am acquainted, growing on exposed hillsides
+and at considerable elevations in a way that seems to attract the
+attention of every one.</p>
+
+<p>Hedges or fringe fences of the native maple have succeeded amazingly
+in several maritime woods in which it was planted, and in places, too,
+where the wind blew loud and long.</p>
+
+<p>The <b>Scotch Elm</b> (<i>Ulmus montana</i>) comes next on the list of
+such trees as I would recommend for the purpose under consideration.
+It affords plenty of shelter, as it grows freely from the root-stock,
+sending up numerous suckers, and is so hardy and proof against damage
+from storms that it may safely be planted in wind-swept districts by
+the seaside.</p>
+
+<p><b>Birch</b> (<i>Betula alba</i>) and <b>Ash</b> (<i>Fraxinus
+excelsior</i>) are other trees that repeated experiments have proved to
+be well suited for withstanding the ocean’s blast and for planting in
+poor, rocky soils.</p>
+
+<p>The <b>Turkey Oak</b> (<i>Quercus Cerris</i>), with just a small amount
+of shelter, will be found a most valuable tree for planting within the
+influence of the sea. It thrives well in very poor soils, and when in
+full leaf is capable of affording a great amount of shelter.</p>
+
+<p>The <b>Evergreen Oak</b> (<i>Q. Ilex</i>) has proved itself to be
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_80"></a>[Pg 80]</span>
+peculiarly fitted for planting as shelter in exposed and maritime
+districts. In the formation of seaside plantations, but particularly
+where, from the frequency and force of the storms, few trees can
+succeed, I have planted the evergreen oak with the greatest success.</p>
+
+<p>The trees just treated of have no equals, among such as have yet been
+introduced, for withstanding cold seaside winds, a trial of many other
+varieties only resulting in proving their unfitness for planting in
+such situations. Two or three others, such as the <b>English Oak</b>,
+<b>Hornbeam</b>, <b>Beech</b> and <b>English Elm</b>, might be added to
+the list, but they can only be recommended for planting where at least
+partial shelter is afforded.</p>
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">Coniferæ</span></h3>
+
+<p>Foremost amongst these I must, from long personal experience and a fair
+trial of several kinds under exactly similar conditions in every way,
+place the <b>Austrian Pine</b> (<i>Pinus austriaca</i>). It grows with
+unusual freedom, and affords a greater amount of shelter than any other
+tree with which I am at present acquainted.</p>
+
+<p>That it will succeed equally well with the <i>P. Pinaster</i> when
+subjected to the sea-breeze, I am now fully convinced, while the amount
+of shelter it affords, and rapidity of growth, place it far ahead of
+that species for the purpose we are now considering. It may not succeed
+so well as the Pinaster when planted in pure sand, on the sea-coast,
+and this is the only point that can be adduced in favour of the latter
+species over <i>P. austriaca</i>.</p>
+
+<p>In forming many large woods along the coast of Northern England I used
+the Austrian pine in preference to several others, and happily, too,
+for it has succeeded in a surprising manner, trees of ten years’ growth
+being fully 13 ft. in height, and nearly as much in diameter of branch
+spread. With such a screen as that afforded by the hardy Austrian, many
+half-tender trees can be planted farther inland; and this is the method
+of procedure that I have found to be most successful in getting up
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_81"></a>[Pg 81]</span>
+shelter along bare and fully exposed parts of the shores of Western
+England and Scotland.</p>
+
+<p>The <b>Cluster Pine</b> (<i>P. Pinaster</i>) and its smaller-growing
+variety <i>P. maritima</i> have a world-wide reputation for their
+suitability for planting on exposed seaside tracts of ground. That
+they are of great value for planting on sandy wastes is a fact that
+cannot be gainsaid—indeed, few other trees could succeed or eke out
+an existence in pure sand and where the roots come in contact with the
+salt water. A great drawback to this pine is its long tap-root and
+want of fibrous roots; it transplants with difficulty, but this, as
+in various other species of pine, may be greatly obviated by careful
+nursery management.</p>
+
+<p>In my own opinion the typical tree is hardly equal to the variety
+<i>maritima</i> either for shelter or withstanding the sea-breeze. The
+variety, too, is, if anything, the most valuable for shelter-giving, it
+having a much greater inclination to retain the lower branches intact.</p>
+
+<p>The <b>Corsican Pine</b> (<i>P. laricio</i>) quite equals the Austrian
+in its powers of withstanding long-continued and cold winds. That it
+does not succeed so well on the sea-coast is a fact of which, from
+repeated experiments, I am fully aware. The Corsican pine, too, is a
+valuable timber-producer—a fact that is well worthy of consideration
+in extensive planting.</p>
+
+<p>In the <b>Giant Arborvitæ</b> (<i>Thuja gigantea</i>) we have another
+excellent addition to the list of trees that have been found suitable
+for planting on exposed maritime grounds. It grows with great rapidity,
+and I have never found even a solitary example of this tree having been
+uprooted or injured during the most severe storms. On the sea-coast of
+Wales I have used the giant arborvitæ largely in the formation of woods
+and plantations, and with great success. It transplants well, even when
+of large size, and is readily propagated.</p>
+
+<p><b>Pinus montana</b> may also be recommended for afforesting tracts
+of ground by the sea-coast. It is a tree of undoubted hardihood,
+withstanding cold and cutting winds in a worthy manner.
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_82"></a>[Pg 82]</span></p>
+
+<p>The <b>Scotch Pine</b> (<i>P. sylvestris</i>), though by no means equal
+to the above for planting by the seaside, must on no account be omitted
+from our list, for it is a hardy, fast-growing specimen, and one that
+can do battle with very severe and long-lasting storms. It should not
+be planted where it will meet the first brunt of the storm, but given
+a little shelter, such as that afforded by the above-named kinds. The
+varieties of pine just named may all be relied upon as peculiarly well
+fitted for the purpose under consideration.</p>
+
+<p>The <b>Large-fruited Cypress</b> (<i>Cupressus macrocarpa</i>)
+and <b>Pinus insignis</b> might be added to the list, both being
+well suited for maritime planting—inland, however, they cannot be
+relied upon. <i>Pinus insignis</i> grows with unabated vigour on the
+wind-swept coast of the Isle of Anglesey, and stands the breeze in a
+most surprising and praiseworthy manner.</p>
+
+<p>The <b>Atlantic Cedar</b> (<i>Cedrus atlantica</i>) and <b>Swiss Stone
+Pine</b> (<i>Pinus Cembra</i>) do fairly well as seaside trees.</p>
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">Shrubs</span></h3>
+
+<p>The <b>Sea Buckthorn</b> (<i>Hippophea rhamnoides</i>) is
+unquestionably the best all-round shrub for planting as a shelter
+by the sea-coast with which we are acquainted. To see it in several
+districts of Scotland, growing amongst almost pure sand, and where
+constantly exposed to fierce blasts, shows how valuable a shrub it is
+for exposed maritime situations. For affording shelter it is one of the
+best shrubs that I know of, the unusually twiggy branches sifting and
+dividing up the wind in a most remarkable manner.</p>
+
+<p><b>Tamarix gallica</b> and <b>T. germanica</b> are two excellent
+seaside shrubs, and such as are well suited for planting on exposed
+places. They grow with great freedom, transplant well, and are readily
+propagated. Even in pure sand they seem quite at home, growing freely,
+and producing a rich abundance of their showy flowers. In very exposed
+parts of the coast, and when fully open to direct sea-blasts, we have
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_83"></a>[Pg 83]</span>
+frequently seen the tamarisk fully a dozen feet in height, and nearly
+as much in branch-spread. Though little known <i>T. germanica</i> is a
+most valuable seaside shrub, about 6 ft. in height, with small leaves,
+and spikes of conspicuous red flowers.</p>
+
+<p>The <b>Box Thorn</b> (<i>Lycium europæum</i>) may be introduced without
+fear of harm to the seaside woods, for it is not only perfectly hardy
+in such situations, but it bears constant exposure to wind as well as
+any shrub I know of. Hedges of this plant have been formed in many
+maritime parts of England and Wales, the only support being a few
+stakes driven in here and there along the line of fence. It will grow
+in pure sand, and when lashed by the waves.</p>
+
+<p>The <b>Snowberry</b> (<i>Symphoricarpus racemosus</i>) comes next
+on the list of shrubs that have been found suitable for the purpose
+under consideration. It is a plant of extraordinary hardihood, one that
+increases rapidly from the root-stock and affords a fair amount of shelter.</p>
+
+<p>The <b>Tree Mallow</b> (<i>Lavatera arborea</i>) can hardly be
+surpassed for shore planting, where it frequently attains to a height
+of 10 ft. It has been found of great utility in some of the islands
+along the coast of Scotland.</p>
+
+<p><b>Spirea Adiantifolia</b> is a fitting companion for the latter,
+growing and flowering very freely in wind-swept gardens along the
+Scottish coast.</p>
+
+<p><b>Griselinia littoralis</b> has stood a severe test as to its
+capability for withstanding cold winds blowing in from the sea.</p>
+
+<p>The <b>Dogwood</b> (<i>Cornus sanguinea</i>) and <b>Flowering
+Currant</b> (<i>Ribes sanguineum</i>) are, likewise, excellent seaside
+shrubs, of perfect hardihood and readily propagated.</p>
+
+<p>The <b>Tree Purslane</b> (<i>Atriplex halimus</i>) is also a really
+valuable shrub that is totally indifferent to the salt spray, and from
+its dwarf, evergreen nature, and silvery-scaly leaves, is also more or
+less ornamental. It does not seem to mind either wind blowing direct
+from the sea, or whether the soil in which it is planted is of only
+moderate quality.</p>
+
+<p>The <b>Laurustinus</b> (<i>Viburnum tinus</i>).—Where the situation is
+not too exposed, this is a most valuable and ornamental shrub.
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_84"></a>[Pg 84]</span></p>
+
+<p><b>Lilac</b> of various species are well adapted for planting by the
+seaside, the two kinds most to be recommended being the <b>Common</b>
+and <b>Persian</b> (<i>Syringa vulgaris</i> and <i>S. Persica</i>).</p>
+
+<p>The <b>Spanish Broom</b> (<i>Spartium junceum</i>) has been used with
+the greatest success all along the coast, being perfectly hardy, and an
+excellent subject for cold, draughty positions.</p>
+
+<p>The <b>Tree Groundsel</b> (<i>Baccharis halimifolia</i>) is not only
+a shrub of great beauty, but one that is perfectly hardy, and well
+adapted for planting by the seaside. It will thrive in almost pure
+sand, but it is all the better for a poor gravelly loam, and seems to
+delight in the ozone of the seaside atmosphere.</p>
+
+<p>Both the <b>Portugal Laurel</b> (<i>Prunus lusitanica</i>) and
+<b>Sweet-Bay</b> (<i>Laurus nobilis</i>) are valuable evergreen shrubs
+for seaside planting. From their large size and compact habit, they
+afford a great amount of shelter.</p>
+
+<p>The <b>Common Holly</b> (<i>Ilex aquifolium</i>) and its golden
+form both do well at the seaside, and this may also be said of the
+<b>Common</b> and <b>Scotch Laburnums</b>. They may be used with best
+advantage where the direct force of the blast is broken up.</p>
+
+<p>The <b>Common Gorse</b> (<i>Ulex europæus</i>) and the <b>Broom</b>
+(<i>Cytisus scoparius</i>) should on no account be omitted from our
+list of shrubs that are valuable for maritime wastes where the wind
+exerts its full power.</p>
+
+<p>The above shrubs include the principal of such as can be recommended
+for planting along the sea-coast, but where good shelter is afforded by
+the trees named in this chapter, a few others might be recommended for
+trial. These include the <b>Strawberry Tree</b> (<i>Arbutus unedo</i>),
+<b>Euonymus japonicus</b>, <b>Berberis Darwinii</b>, <b>Ligustrum
+Ovalifolium</b>, <b>Daphne Mezereon</b>, and <b>D. laureola</b>,
+<b>Ruscus aculeatus</b>, <b>Hypericum calycinum</b>, <b>Vinca major</b>
+and <b>V. minor</b>, and several kinds of thorn.</p>
+
+<p>The <b>Maram</b>, or <b>Sea Matweed</b> (<i>Psamma arenaria</i>) is
+one of the most useful grasses with which I am acquainted for binding
+shifting sands on the sea-coast. Not only so, but by using it as a
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_85"></a>[Pg 85]</span>
+pioneer, the amount of shelter it affords renders other more difficult
+subjects by no means hard to cultivate. It usually attains to a height
+of from 2 ft. to 2½ ft., much depending on the situation, whether
+partially sheltered or fully exposed. The root-stock creeps widely,
+some specimens that have been followed up in the sand being of the
+amazing length of 35 yards. Amongst loose and drifting sand the running
+roots find what is most suitable for the welfare of the plant, and
+it is astonishing with what persistency they bind in an unusually
+short space of time these shifting hills of almost dust-dry sand. In
+planting, place the plants in parallel lines, about 16 in. apart, and
+at a distance of 12 in. from each other. Large plants may be subdivided
+to almost any extent. A garden line is stretched along the ground, a
+notch 10 in. deep taken out, the grass inserted therein and filled with
+sand, and afterwards firmly trodden. That the sea matweed is a most
+useful plant for fast gaining a footing on sandy tracts of sea-coast,
+and thus allowing of following up with the shelter-giving trees, cannot
+be disputed.</p>
+
+<p>The <b>Lymegrass</b> (<i>Elymus arenarius</i>) is also valuable for
+growing in almost pure sand on the sea-coast.</p>
+
+<p>It is of tall, elegant growth, and is readily increased from root
+divisions.</p>
+
+<p>The following trees and shrubs, alphabetically arranged, are
+recommended for seaside planting:—</p>
+
+<p class="center spa1"><b><span class="smcap">Trees for the Sea-coast.</span></b></p>
+
+<table class="spb1">
+   <tbody><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">Acer campestre</td>
+      <td class="tdl_ws2">Pinus Pinaster maritima</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">&nbsp; —— creticum</td>
+      <td class="tdl_ws2">Populus canadensis</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">&nbsp; —— Pseudo-platanus</td>
+      <td class="tdl_ws2">&nbsp; —— nigra</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">Alnus glutinosa</td>
+      <td class="tdl_ws2">—— nigra</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">&nbsp; —— incana</td>
+      <td class="tdl_ws2">Pyrus Aucuparia</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">Betula alba</td>
+      <td class="tdl_ws2">&nbsp; —— Aria</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">Carpinus betulus</td>
+      <td class="tdl_ws2">Quercus Ilex</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">Cedrus atlantica</td>
+      <td class="tdl_ws2">&nbsp; —— Robur</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">Cupressus macrocarpa</td>
+      <td class="tdl_ws2">Salix alba</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">Fagus sylvatica</td>
+      <td class="tdl_ws2">&nbsp; —— Caprea</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">Fraxinus excelsior</td>
+      <td class="tdl_ws2">&nbsp; —— Forsteriana</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">Pinus austriaca</td>
+      <td class="tdl_ws2">&nbsp; —— Russelliana</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">&nbsp; —— laricio</td>
+      <td class="tdl_ws2">Thuja gigantea</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">&nbsp; —— montana</td>
+      <td class="tdl_ws2">Ulmus alata</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">&nbsp; —— Pinaster</td>
+      <td class="tdl_ws2">&nbsp; —— campestris</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td>
+      <td class="tdl_ws2">&nbsp; —— montana</td>
+   </tr>
+ </tbody>
+</table>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_86"></a>[Pg 86]</span></p>
+
+<p class="center spa1"><b><span class="smcap">Shrubs for the Sea-coast.</span></b></p>
+
+<table class="spb1">
+   <tbody><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">Atriplex halimus</td>
+      <td class="tdl_ws2">Lavatera arborea</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">Aucuba japonica</td>
+      <td class="tdl_ws2">Lycium europæum</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">Cerasus lusitanica</td>
+      <td class="tdl_ws2">Rhamnus frangula</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">&nbsp; —— Padus</td>
+      <td class="tdl_ws2">Ribes sanguineum</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">Cytisus Laburnum</td>
+      <td class="tdl_ws2">Rosa spinosissima</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">&nbsp; —— scoparius</td>
+      <td class="tdl_ws2">Shepherdia argentea</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">Euonymus japonicus</td>
+      <td class="tdl_ws2">Spirea adiantifolia</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">&nbsp; —— europæus</td>
+      <td class="tdl_ws2">Syringa persica</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">Fabiana imbricata</td>
+      <td class="tdl_ws2">&nbsp; —— vulgaris</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">Griselinia littoralis</td>
+      <td class="tdl_ws2">Symphoricarpus racemosus</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">Hippophæ rhamnoides</td>
+      <td class="tdl_ws2">Tamarix gallica</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">Ilex Aquifolium</td>
+      <td class="tdl_ws2">&nbsp; —— germanica</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">&nbsp; —— Aquifolium aurea</td>
+      <td class="tdl_ws2">Ulex Europæus</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">Laurus nobilis</td>
+      <td class="tdl_ws2">Viburnum tinus</td>
+   </tr>
+ </tbody>
+</table>
+
+<p class="center spa1"><b><span class="smcap">Grasses.</span></b></p>
+
+<p class="center spa1">Elymus arenarius<br>Psamma arenaria</p>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_87"></a>[Pg 87]</span></p>
+<h2 class="nobreak">CHAPTER IX<br>
+<span class="h_subtitle">TOWN PLANTING,<br> <span class="fs_80">AND THE TREES AND SHRUBS THAT<br>
+                ARE BEST ADAPTED FOR SMOKY LOCALITIES</span></span></h2>
+</div>
+
+<p>Probably no work connected with horticulture requires more judgment
+and good management than the planting of trees and shrubs in urban
+districts. The materials and soil of which streets and town gardens
+are usually formed are ill-fitted for maintaining a healthy condition
+in trees and shrubs for any length of time. This fact, coupled with
+the impurities of the atmosphere in densely populated centres, has to
+be constantly borne in mind. In more favourable districts all that is
+necessary is to open a pit of sufficient size to contain the roots of
+the tree or shrub to be planted; but in towns the soil, often as hard
+as iron and composed mainly of refuse building materials, contains
+but little plant food. For many years past careful observations have
+been made, not only in London, but in Glasgow, Liverpool, Manchester,
+Warrington and Dublin, as to which trees and shrubs succeed best in the
+smoky localities of each town, and it is mainly by tabulating these
+different experiences that satisfactory information on the subject
+has been obtained. Coal smoke from the chimneys in the larger and
+more crowded centres of industry is no doubt bad enough, but, when we
+have to contend with an atmosphere that is largely impregnated with
+the outcome from chemical, gas, or iron works, the difficulties to be
+encountered are correspondingly increased.</p>
+
+<p>The injurious effects of smoke have become much more pronounced during
+the past century, and Sir William Richmond, R.A., told the annual
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_88"></a>[Pg 88]</span>
+meeting of the Coal Smoke Abatement Society that Westminster Abbey
+had suffered from more rapid decay in the last hundred years than in
+all the previous centuries of its existence. The chief cause of the
+destruction of the stonework has been shown to be the presence in the
+air of sulphur acids: the stone is converted into sulphate of lime; in
+the process of its formation this disintegrates the stone by expansion.
+The connexion between smoke and stone decay appears to lie in the
+action of invisible gases emitted from the smoke particles.</p>
+
+<p>If stonework suffers so at the hands of smoke and sulphuric and other
+acids, what, it may be asked, must the effect be on the foliage
+of trees and shrubs—particularly such as are planted in the most
+smoke-infested parts of our great towns and cities? When compared with
+Continental cities—Paris, Brussels or Berlin—where tree-culture is
+carried out most successfully, the atmosphere of British towns is
+impregnated to a far greater extent with noxious fumes. Dry low-lying
+and confined areas, particularly where excessive heat and atmospheric
+impurities are present, are decidedly the worst, while open and
+high-lying districts, though in the centre of a town, offer fewer
+difficulties.</p>
+
+<p>That certain trees and shrubs succeed best in particular towns is
+a well known fact, and the smoke-proof <a href ="#I_099">London Plane</a> is
+by no means the best tree for some of the colliery districts; in Sheffield,
+for instance, its place is largely taken by the Canadian Poplar.
+In Manchester, the Lime would appear to thrive best, after which
+the Elder, Thorn and <a href ="#I_099">Plane</a> succeed in the order named.
+The variegated-leaved Sycamore and the horse chestnut are favourites where
+the smoke from collieries is most offensive. But many such cases
+could be pointed out, and even in the case of bedding plants certain
+species succeed best in particular localities. In the gardens about
+the Royal Mint, where they are exposed to the deleterious fumes from
+gold-refining works, Fuchsias do remarkably well; indeed, the dwarf
+edging variety, Golden Treasure, thrives so well that advantage has
+been taken of the fact to propagate some of the stock that is annually
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_89"></a>[Pg 89]</span>
+required for one of the London parks from cuttings taken at the Mint.
+In the East End of London the Creeping Jenny (<i>Lysimachia</i>)
+thrives well as a window plant, while in the chemically impure
+atmosphere of Lambeth one of the Veronicas is the favourite plant
+for indoor culture. The St. John’s Worts (<i>Hypericum</i>) do not
+as a rule thrive well in London; yet around the Tate Gallery, which
+is only divided by the river from the Lambeth pottery district—the
+worst in the metropolis for atmospheric impurities—one species at
+least flourishes amazingly, and has produced flowers in abundance
+for many years past; while at St. Paul’s Churchyard, the lesser
+Periwinkle (<i>Vinca minor</i>) has become quite established and runs
+about freely. In Chancery Lane, at the Record Office, the common Ivy,
+Bladder Senna, and Yucca do best. In other parts of London, too,
+well known varieties of Campanula are largely grown as pot plants.
+It is a somewhat strange fact, too, that some varieties of trees and
+shrubs succeed better than the type species in smoky localities, as
+witness the <a href ="#I_099">London Plane</a> (a variety of <i>Platanus orientalis</i>),
+variegated-leaved Sycamore, fastigiate Poplar, two varieties of
+Pyrus, Weeping Elm, Weeping Ash, and several varieties of Acacia,
+notably <i>Robinia pseudo-acacia inermis</i> and <i>R. pseudo-acacia
+Bessoniana</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Similarly, amongst shrubs, we have the dwarf Holly, golden variegated
+Euonymus, golden Privet, Ribes, double-flowered Gorse, <i>Euonymus
+radicans variegata</i>, and others. With Grasses, too, some curious
+experiences might be related. At the British Museum the Yarrow
+completely ousted the Grasses from the plots in front of that building,
+and in the moat of the Tower of London several Grasses that succeed
+in less smoky parts of the metropolis quickly die out. Near the main
+entrance to the Tower of London, and close to Billingsgate Fish Market,
+considerable difficulty was experienced in getting the <a href ="#I_099">Plane trees</a>
+established; though in the matter of soil, and choice of strong sturdy
+specimens, every possible care was taken. At last it was found that
+the drip from the fish carts was the cause of the evil, and a remedy
+was quickly found. In another garden, where dust, smoke, and soot are
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_90"></a>[Pg 90]</span>
+plentiful, the Bladder Campion (<i>Silene inflata</i>), <i>Saponaria
+officinalis</i>, the common Marigold, and Rye Grass seem positively
+to revel. In situations almost constantly subjected to the sulphurous
+fumes of the railway engines near Camden Town, and in the poorest
+of soils, <i>Poa annua</i> would appear to be quite at home. The
+chemical fumes from the pottery works at Lambeth are well known to act
+injuriously on vegetation generally, but the Mulberry, Fig, Sycamore,
+Turkey and Evergreen Oaks thrive as well there as they do in any
+part of the metropolis. The fumes given off from many of our city
+manufactories act most perniciously on vegetation generally—a fact
+that was brought to my notice by the behaviour of some of our most
+valuable smoke-resisting trees and shrubs planted in the graveyard
+at St. Giles-in-the-Fields. Meeting the gardener there I remarked on
+the wretched condition of the trees and shrubs generally, his quick
+reply being, “Well! with Crosse &amp; Blackwell’s on the one side, and
+Nixey’s Black Lead Works on the other, it’s a wonder there’s a living
+plant left!” Here the common Fig and Black Poplar seemed better able
+to withstand the atmospheric conditions than either the <a href ="#I_099">London Plane</a>
+or Acacia. With the largely increased use of coal gas for cooking
+purposes, improved grates, and the better combustion of fuel, the
+atmosphere of certain districts of London, has, however, become much
+less smoky than was the case a few years ago, and in consequence
+vegetation generally succeeds better. This is especially the case
+in some of the low-lying districts adjoining the Thames where the
+“slot” system of providing gas for cooking purposes has caused a great
+decrease in the consumption of coke and coal, with a corresponding
+reduction of the attending evils of smoke and soot. In one of the
+poorest parishes many of the inhabitants have taken advantage of the
+facilities offered by the Gas Company in the matter of cooking by
+means of gas provided by the “slot” system, which, in comparison with
+coal, has been found not only cheaper, but cleaner and handier to
+use. According to a competent authority the smoke nuisance has, in
+consequence, greatly abated, and with the purer air, the cultivation of
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_91"></a>[Pg 91]</span>
+window and other plants, as well as of trees and shrubs, has been to
+some extent simplified. The electrification of the Underground Railway
+has also had a beneficial effect on vegetation. Although we cannot
+prevent fog, which is an atmospheric condition, yet much can be done to
+prevent it being a dirty fog, and during the past five years much has
+been done in that direction. Better roads with less dust also assist
+largely in keeping the atmosphere of London in a pure condition.</p>
+
+<p>With the rage for coniferous trees which was at its height about half a
+century ago, it is not surprising that several species of Cypress and
+Cedar, the stately Pines and Arbor vitæs, as also the Araucaria and
+Junipers, found their way into our town gardens and squares. Hosts of
+evergreens, too, from almost every part of the world were introduced
+into London, but few have been able to survive the smoky and otherwise
+impure atmosphere of the great metropolis.</p>
+
+<p>Deciduous trees and shrubs, both flowering and ornamental-leaved,
+should certainly be regarded as the <i>sine qua non</i> of the London
+planter. Amongst evergreen trees few are suitable for town planting,
+and, though a limited number of evergreen shrubs may succeed for a
+time, yet the list of deciduous species is far more extensive. We have
+only to take notice of such evergreens as the Holly, Rhododendron,
+Laurel and all the conifers, with probably one exception, to find
+how useless it is to plant them in expectation that they will give
+satisfaction. This is not hard to account for, as in winter, when the
+fires are all alight and smoke and soot the order of the day, the
+leaves of evergreens are fully developed and in the best possible
+condition for reaping the attending disadvantages. With deciduous
+species the case is quite different, for these are, so to speak, asleep
+when the deadly smoke and vapours are most abundant in our towns and
+cities. I am quite aware that one occasionally sees evergreen shrubs
+and trees in a fairly thriving condition; but it should be remembered
+that in the majority of such cases they were planted when conditions
+were much more favourable than at present.
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_92"></a>[Pg 92]</span></p>
+
+<p>It is, perhaps, to be regretted that evergreen shrubs do not succeed
+better in smoky localities, being planted principally for their
+refreshing colour in winter; but if our atmospheric conditions utterly
+preclude the use of such, then it is folly to throw away money on
+useless planting, and the winter aspect of deciduous trees and shrubs
+is infinitely preferable to that of unhealthy evergreens. The bursting
+into leaf of the deciduous tree or shrub is not shared to a like extent
+by evergreens, which lack that delightful changeableness and the
+interest that is attached to spring growth.</p>
+
+<p>It is difficult to define accurately the boundaries of a town or
+the worst smoke-infested areas, as far as tree and shrub growth is
+concerned. In London, for instance, certain trees and shrubs which
+positively refuse to live in the heart of the city do fairly well
+in the suburbs, while still further out, where the atmosphere is
+comparatively pure, they may thrive in quite a satisfactory way. These
+thriving and non-thriving areas are sometimes very sharply defined,
+and this has given rise to a false idea regarding certain trees and
+shrubs that will rarely succeed in the more smoky parts when compared
+with the same species which are found to do well in the outer suburbs.
+High-lying and fairly open parts of a town are also far more conducive
+to plant growth generally than those that are close and confined. In
+town planting there is, however, no necessity for the almost monotonous
+repetition of such trees as the <a href ="#I_099">Plane</a> and Lime, or amongst
+shrubs, of the Privet and Lilac, for there are many others that will do almost
+equally well, and that are quite as ornamental. Probably the fact that
+such are not well known would form an excuse for their absence, and
+it is to be hoped that at least one object to be accomplished by the
+writing of this book will be a greater interest in, and wider knowledge
+of, the various species of trees, shrubs, and plants generally that from
+long experience have been found suitable for planting in the town garden.</p>
+
+<p><b>Preparation of the Ground.</b>—Generally speaking, the materials
+with which roadways are made are not only unsuitable for tree
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_93"></a>[Pg 93]</span>
+cultivation, but positively destructive to vegetation of almost every
+description. This also applies to our squares, terraces, and open
+grounds around houses, the soil of which is little other than refuse
+building materials, and mainly composed of broken bricks and stones,
+gravel, old mortar, iron, wood and shavings. In such a medium it is
+perfectly useless to look for that healthy and vigorous growth which
+is so essential in street trees, that are still further handicapped
+by having to do battle above ground with the impurities of a town
+atmosphere.</p>
+
+<p>Having for a number of years had to plant trees and shrubs in
+many parts of London, it was found that in nearly every instance
+substituting good soil for that found naturally was a first necessity.
+Many failures in street planting from this neglect of providing
+suitable soil could be pointed out, the result being that a section
+of the public has become tired of the subject in consequence of the
+initial expense and subsequent failures. Too often, also, the important
+operations of preparing the ground and planting the trees are left in
+the hands of the surveyor or builder, who has little or no knowledge
+to fit him for the work, the operation being carried out by labourers
+who are also entirely ignorant of what is required or the conditions
+necessary for successful tree and shrub culture. The consequence is
+that failure is almost certain, and the trees which were strong and
+healthy when planted gradually become unhealthy and ultimately succumb
+to a combination of circumstances which were brought about by the
+ignorance of the operators.</p>
+
+<p>Another source of failure in street planting is the generally pent-up
+condition of the roots, for in several cases that have come under our
+notice lately the planter seemed to think that it was quite enough to
+cut a small hole in the pavement or street of sufficient size to hold
+the roots of the tree to be inserted. Were the soil free, as we find
+in a field, this system might answer; but where the roadway is hard as
+iron and composed mainly of clinkers and gravel, the case is totally
+different. Another fruitful source of failure in street planting is
+placing the pavement in too close proximity to the stem of the tree,
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_94"></a>[Pg 94]</span>
+and numerous instances could be pointed out where even old and
+established specimens have suffered irreparable damage in consequence
+of having the paving brought up too close to the stems.</p>
+
+<p>The roots should always be allowed plenty of breathing room, and
+to affect this a good-sized space should be railed off around each
+tree and no pavement laid within it. Gratings may be placed on the
+surface of the ground around the tree, should circumstances compel
+such a course. By adopting either plan, a double benefit to the trees
+is brought about by allowing free access of water to the roots and
+preventing an accumulation of noxious gases in the soil, as would ensue
+if the flagstone or pavements were used.</p>
+
+<p>Where street trees are to be planted, the ground-surface should
+in every instance be thoroughly broken up for a space of not less
+than 8 ft. square, and to a depth of, say, 4 ft., the inferior soil
+removed and replaced by that of good quality, preferably of a loamy
+description, or loam and leaf soil in about equal proportions. Before
+placing the fresh soil in position, the sides and bottom of each pit
+should be thoroughly loosened with a pick or fork. By undermining the
+sides of each pit, a much larger and freer root run will be provided,
+and this will not necessitate so much of the street or pavement being
+torn up as if the pits were of equal width at the top and bottom. We
+have found, in London at least, that the addition of a small quantity
+of leaf soil to the loam is highly beneficial to the growth of trees
+by retaining dampness and encouraging root spread. The newly added
+soil should be firmly trampled in the pit before planting is engaged
+in. Sometimes, where the original soil is not of too inferior quality,
+a small proportion has been mixed with the loam and leaf soil, but,
+speaking generally, this course cannot be adopted.</p>
+
+<p>In squares and gardens where shrub planting is to be engaged in, a
+general renovation of the soil is also imperative, and this can best
+be done by thoroughly trenching the soil to a depth of, say, 4 ft. and
+adding a large proportion of fresh loam or other soil. Deep trenching
+and thoroughly breaking up and loosening the soil is a most important
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_95"></a>[Pg 95]</span>
+factor in town planting, and should never be neglected. Manure is
+sometimes added to the soil, but it is objectionable from several
+points of view, and, if used at all, should be thoroughly decomposed
+and incorporated in small quantity. Good loam and leaf soil is
+infinitely preferable, and, where necessary, sandy soil makes a good
+addition. A little fresh lime added to the soil has been found most
+beneficial in town planting, and in old and exhausted borders, where
+the soil has become tainted with chemical impurities, the value of
+lime or chalk as a cleansing agent is not sufficiently appreciated. Of
+course, where so-called American shrubs are to be planted—which is,
+however, rarely attempted in London—neither chalk nor lime should be
+added to the soil. This question of soil is so important that no one
+planting street trees or shrubs can afford to ignore it, and while the
+extra cost in providing it is but little, the advantages gained are great.</p>
+
+<p><b>Preparing the Trees and Planting.</b>—Trees intended for planting
+in towns, and especially alongside streets and footpaths, should be
+specially prepared in the matter of transplanting and pruning. As tree
+guards are a necessity in protecting trees by the sides of streets,
+the trees must have their stems free of branches; therefore the buds
+and branches on the stems need to be removed for a distance of 6 or
+7 ft., whilst surplus leading shoots and ungainly branches should at
+the same time receive attention in pruning. The tree also needs to be
+frequently transplanted in order that an abundance of fibrous roots
+may be produced, and every effort made to produce healthy, vigorous
+specimens suitable for the uncongenial surroundings of their permanent
+quarters. In street planting it is advisable to use trees that are from
+12 to 14 ft. in height; and if these, for some years previously to
+their final shift, have been specially prepared in the way of frequent
+transplanting and careful pruning, little fear for their future
+welfare need be entertained. Autumn or early spring planting is to be
+recommended, the former time being in most cases preferable. As little
+time as possible should be allowed to elapse between the lifting of the
+tree in the nursery and its being transplanted in the new position.
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_96"></a>[Pg 96]</span>
+Spread the roots out to their full extent around the stem and avoid
+planting too deeply; the nursery mark on the stem serves as the best
+guide as to the depth at which to plant. Planting too deeply under
+the mistaken idea that doing so will secure the tree in the ground is
+a fruitful source of decay and ultimate death of many street trees
+planted in the metropolis, and it is not uncommon to see whole avenues
+of trees that have made little or no progress for many years owing to
+this cause. After a tree has been placed in an upright position on
+the prepared site and the roots properly disposed, the soil should be
+filled in and trampled firmly both amongst and over the roots. It may
+be well to warn planters against the pernicious practice of allowing
+leaves, packing materials, or grassy turf to come in contact with the
+roots of newly-planted trees. In dry situations a saucer-shaped hollow
+may be left around the stem of the newly-planted tree, while mulching
+applied during dry and warm summers is to be recommended. The planting
+of shrubs should be carried out with as much care as is used in the
+case of trees. It is preferable to trench land in which shrubs are to
+be planted rather than to make a separate pit for each shrub.</p>
+
+<p>Street trees should be carefully matched—that is, those of similar
+height and shape used in the same street. Too often this principle
+is not observed, as in a new street near the Strand, where some
+of the specimens are about 10 ft. high, others, 15 ft. and 20 ft.
+high—forming a very irregular, badly matched row. Many newly-planted
+town trees are destitute of leading shoots and have ungainly side
+branches—faults that should never be permitted when choosing specimens
+for such an important purpose. In choosing trees for street planting,
+the following rules should be observed:—</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+<p>1. Stout, healthy, well-rooted and recently transplanted trees should
+alone be chosen.</p>
+
+<p>2. They should, for the same street, be of nearly equal height and
+branch spread.</p>
+
+<p>3. Straight-stemmed trees, with stout leading shoots, are to be
+preferred.</p>
+
+<p>4. The height should range from, say, 12 ft. to 14 ft. or over, and the
+strength of stem should be proportionate to the height.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_97"></a>[Pg 97]</span></p>
+
+<p>5. Trees with wand-like, crooked, or cankered stems should be avoided
+in street planting.</p>
+
+<p>6. They should be beautiful, shade-giving, and easy of culture.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><b>Fencing and Staking.</b>—In order to prevent damage, newly-planted
+trees should be fenced and staked at once. Of fences or guards
+there are many kinds: they are made of wood, wire or iron. The iron
+tree guard has many advantages over those of wood or expanded metal,
+and, being made in two sections, it can be readily placed in position
+after the tree has been planted. For trees from 12 to 14 ft. high the
+guards need not exceed, say, 7 ft. in height, and preference should be
+given to those in which the uprights are bent outwards at the top; for
+this not only lessens the risk of interference with the branches, but
+is pleasing in appearance. Sometimes it may not be considered necessary
+to protect town trees, particularly such as are growing in side
+streets, or in squares, but in every case firm staking is necessary in
+order to prevent damage from wind.</p>
+
+<p>Wooden tree guards consist of about half a dozen poles or uprights,
+about 7 ft. long, joined together around the tree trunk by means of
+wire. When compared with those of iron, they have, however, several
+disadvantages; for they may be climbed with ease and they do not last
+long. Where it is found sufficient to stake the trees without having
+recourse to guards, ash poles, from 2 in. to 3 in. in diameter, and 10
+ft. high, should be driven firmly into the ground as close to the stem
+as possible. The tree should be tied with specially prepared tar rope,
+which should be crossed between the stem and stake to prevent damage
+by chafing. From time to time it will be necessary to see that the
+band of string does not become too tight. On rare occasions only is it
+necessary to stake shrubs, but this is sometimes advisable in exposed
+positions or in the case of shrubs of unusually large size.
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_98"></a>[Pg 98]</span></p>
+
+<p><b>Watering and After-Management.</b>—For a few years after being
+planted, trees and shrubs will require a certain amount of attention
+in the matter of watering and mulching during the prolonged heat
+and drought, and also in preventing the evils attending excessive
+wind-swaying owing to the stakes and moorings becoming defective.</p>
+
+<p>The goat and wood leopard moth, as also numerous kinds of caterpillars,
+attack newly-planted town trees, particularly the various species of
+Pyrus, Thorn, Willow and Poplar. The former tunnel into the main stem
+and render it so weak at the point attacked that it readily breaks
+across during windy weather, while the caterpillars feed on the
+foliage and greatly impair the health of the trees attacked. Spraying,
+hand-picking and shaking are to be recommended in the case of the
+caterpillars, while, to combat the goat and leopard moth, a small
+quantity of cyanide of potassium can be inserted in the mouth of the
+tunnel in order to dislodge or kill the insect.</p>
+
+<p>Watering should preferably be performed in the evening, the ground
+around the roots being thoroughly soaked, while mulching with
+freshly-mown grass or old straw will prevent the too rapid evaporation
+of the moisture. In extreme cases binding the stem with a hay rope is
+to be recommended. In order to prevent straining of the roots and bark
+chafing, the moorings of trees should receive a periodical examination.</p>
+
+<p>The following trees and shrubs are to be recommended for town planting:—</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+  <img id="I_099" src="images/i_099.jpg" alt="" width="400" height="555" >
+  <p class="f110">PLANE TREE IN REGENT’S PARK</p>
+</div>
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">Trees</span></h3>
+
+<p>The <b>Oriental</b> or <a href ="#I_099"><b>Common London Plane</b></a>
+(<i>Platanus orientalis acerifolia</i>).—This variety of the oriental plane
+stands first in the category of select town trees. Not only does it grow
+vigorously in towns, but it is peculiarly well adapted for withstanding
+smoke and other impurities of the atmosphere. Repeated experiments have
+clearly proved that in London this tree flourishes better than any
+other, and a visit to the Thames Embankment and several of the urban
+districts will substantiate the statement; while the fine old tree
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_99"></a>[Pg 99]</span>
+which still exists in Cheapside, and the equally beautiful specimen
+which has hardly room for perfect development in the Court of
+Stationers’ Hall, Ludgate Hill, afford other examples of how well
+suited this handsome tree is for doing battle with the adverse
+conditions peculiar to the great metropolis. As a diversity of opinion
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_100"></a>[Pg 100]</span>
+has existed about which variety of plane it is that grows with such
+vigour in and around London, it may be stated that, on a careful
+examination of a large number of specimens, the variety <i>P.O.
+acerifolia</i> was found not only more commonly distributed, but,
+likewise, better suited for town planting than the typical <i>P.
+orientalis</i>. This valuable variety is readily distinguished from the
+normal plant by the less deeply divided leaves, and from the American
+plane (<i>P. occidentalis</i>), with which it is sometimes confounded,
+by the many fruit “balls” which are attached to each peduncle, the
+fertile catkins of <i>P. occidentalis</i> being, for the greater part,
+produced singly.</p>
+
+<p>But not only for its value as a town tree is the oriental plane much
+sought after, but the giant proportions to which it attains, coupled
+with the handsome, finely-cut leaves and easy habit of growth, render
+it one of our most desirable ornamental trees. Further, it is of the
+easiest culture, succeeding extremely well in soils of very opposite
+qualities. Taking everything into consideration, we question whether
+any other of our forest trees is equal in value to the plane for
+purposes of town planting.</p>
+
+<p>The <b>Maidenhair Tree</b> (<i>Ginkgo biloba</i>).—The maidenhair or
+ginkgo tree is one of the most valuable that can be planted in the
+impure atmosphere of a town garden. Few trees can compare with the
+one in question for withstanding the deleterious effects produced on
+vegetation generally by coming in too close contact with the impurities
+of our great centres of industry. The ample delicate-green foliage
+betrays—even late in the season, and when about to be cast off—little
+evidence of the fierce struggle that must almost constantly go on
+between vegetation and the smoke and filth of our towns and cities.
+That the thick, leathery leaves and strong constitution of the tree
+play an important part in keeping it free from disease is clearly
+evident, while the annual renewal of the leaves enables it to cast off
+the sooty nodules which work such havoc on the tender foliage of most
+evergreen trees.</p>
+
+<p>At several places in and around the great metropolis—and in places,
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_101"></a>[Pg 101]</span>
+too, where one is almost stifled with the fumes from chimneys—this
+tree may be seen in almost as fresh a condition as those in the open
+country.</p>
+
+<p>The <b>Ailanthus</b> or <b>Tree of Heaven</b> (<i>Ailanthus
+glandulosa</i>) may be seen in a very flourishing condition in many
+of the largest centres of industry in Southern England. It has been
+largely planted in many Continental cities, and has proved itself one
+of the few trees that is capable of withstanding the impurities of a
+town atmosphere.</p>
+
+<p>The <b>Black Italian Poplar</b> (<i>Populus monilifera</i>).—Next to
+the plane amongst forest trees I consider the black Italian Poplar
+to be the most valuable for planting in smoky towns. As a proof of
+this there are to be seen numerous fine specimens of this tree in a
+flourishing condition, and clothed with the most healthy foliage,
+in some of our large cities—to wit, London, Glasgow, Liverpool and
+Manchester.</p>
+
+<p>The <b>Canadian Poplar</b> (<i>P. canadensis</i>), and its variety,
+<i>P.C. nova</i>, are excellent trees for planting in smoky localities.
+The former succeeds admirably in the very centre of Sheffield, in
+the old parish churchyard, where for hundreds of yards around not a
+particle of living vegetation is to be seen. The variety <i>nova</i> is
+a very superior tree for street planting, it being far more ornamental,
+and of more rapid growth than the black Italian poplar, and equally
+noticeable for retaining a healthy and flourishing condition under the
+adverse circumstances connected with a town atmosphere.</p>
+
+<p>The <b>Abele Poplar</b> (<i>P. alba</i>) grows with great freedom when
+subjected to smoke and foul air. In the very heart of our largest towns
+it may be seen flourishing in a manner that is almost incredible.</p>
+
+<p>The <b>Lombardy Poplar</b> (<i>P. fastigiata</i>) is another tree that
+has been planted with some success in and around many of our largest
+cities, but it cannot equal any of the foregoing for withstanding the
+baneful effects of a tainted atmosphere. In the outskirts of towns,
+where air is purer than amid chimneys pouring forth their volumes of
+smoke, the Lombardy poplar succeeds fairly well, and imparts an air of
+grandeur that could hardly otherwise be obtained.</p>
+
+<p>The <b>Cucumber Tree</b> (<i>Magnolia acuminata</i>).—Few planters are
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_102"></a>[Pg 102]</span>
+aware of how valuable this tree is for withstanding the germs and soot
+of large towns. Experiments have, however, resulted in this highly
+ornamental tree being added to the list.</p>
+
+<p>The <b>Tulip Tree</b> (<i>Liriodendron tulipifera</i>).—Excellent
+examples are not wanting of how valuable a tree this is for towns
+and streets. It seems to have a wonderful recuperative power, for,
+scorched, blackened, and encrusted as may appear the falling foliage,
+yet in the following spring it again puts forth a garb of the freshest
+and richest greenery. The remarkable four-lobed, truncate leaves render
+the tree almost without an equal for ornamental planting, while its
+undoubted smoke-resisting qualities place it high in the rank among
+town trees.</p>
+
+<p>The <b>Indian Bean</b> (<i>Catalpa bignonioides</i>).—For various
+reasons this fast-growing tree is to be recommended for planting in
+smoky localities. It grows with great vigour in many smoky centres
+of industry, is a tree of handsome proportions, and, when fully
+established, flowers freely.</p>
+
+<p>A valuable trait in the character of the Indian bean is that should
+accident befall it, and the stem get injured, numerous strong suckers
+are produced, which, as they grow with great rapidity, soon take the
+place of the original.</p>
+
+<p>The <b>Common Mulberry</b> (<i>Morus nigra</i>) and the
+<b>white-fruited Mulberry</b> (<i>M. alba</i>) may be seen growing
+satisfactorily in several of the old gardens and nurseries of the
+metropolis, where they are now buried alive, as might be said, in
+stones and mortar. That they are excellent town trees will be admitted
+by every one who sees the fine specimens in Liverpool and Manchester.</p>
+
+<p>The <b>Honey Locust</b> (<i>Gleditschia triacanthos</i>) is a very
+suitable subject for planting in smoky localities. In many of the worst
+smoke-infested parts of London and Manchester are seen goodly specimens
+of this handsome tree—not poor, miserable trees, but, from their great
+size, wealth of foliage, and general appearance, betokening perfect
+health amid their rather adverse surroundings.</p>
+
+<p>The <b>False Acacia</b> (<i>Robinia Pseudo-acacia</i>).—Almost by the
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_103"></a>[Pg 103]</span>
+hundred can the false acacia be seen in London and many other English
+towns, thus proving that it is one of the most valuable trees that we
+possess for withstanding the injurious effects of an impure atmosphere.</p>
+
+<p>What renders this acacia of greatest value as a town tree is that
+it retains its rich verdure till well on in autumn. The varieties
+known as <b>Decaisneana</b>, <b>inermis</b>, <b>microphylla</b>,
+<b>macrophylla</b>, <b>sophoræfolia</b>, and the upright-habited are
+most to be desired.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+  <img id="I_103" src="images/i_103.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="433" >
+  <p class="f110">THE BEAM TREE IN LONDON</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The <b>White Beam Tree</b> (<i>Pyrus Aria</i>).—In many of the
+confined spaces in Glasgow the white beam tree grows luxuriously, and
+produces annually great quantities of its brightly-tinted berries.</p>
+
+<p>The <b>Lime</b> (<i>Tilia europæa</i>).—Where the situation is not too
+confined, and where soot and smoke do not abound, the lime may, and
+does, succeed; but in the worst parts of the metropolis it soon shows
+signs of distress, the tops of the branches dying off, and the whole
+tree sooner or later showing the fierce struggle it has to endure with
+smoke and fumes. As an avenue tree in the more airy and pure parts of a
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_104"></a>[Pg 104]</span>
+town, the lime has certainly few equals, its general contour and the
+pleasing shade it affords being points of special recommendation.</p>
+
+<p>The <b>Sycamore</b> (<i>Acer pseudo-platanus</i>).—This tree may be
+classed as amongst the most useful for planting in smoky towns.</p>
+
+<p>In Warrington, where the noxious emanations from alkali and other
+chemical works are most disastrous in their effects on vegetation, the
+sycamore is one of the few trees that grow satisfactorily. Being a
+rapid and strong grower, it is thus seen to be, for a certain time at
+least, unaffected by its inimical surroundings. The variegated variety
+would seem from recent experiments to be preferable, and better adapted
+for smoky localities than the normal form.</p>
+
+<p>The <b>Weeping Ash</b> (<i>Fraxinus excelsior pendula</i>) would seem
+to be superior to the common ash for planting in towns. It thrives
+satisfactorily in many of our largest centres of industry—to wit,
+London, Liverpool, Glasgow and Manchester.</p>
+
+<p>The <b>Horse Chestnut</b> (<i>Æsculus hippocastanum</i>) may be seen
+in a fairly satisfactory way in many town parks, but only where it is
+not exposed to smoke and soot to any great extent. In confined spaces
+both it and the <b>English Elm</b> (<i>Ulmus campestris</i>) soon
+show signs of distress, the points of the branches gradually becoming
+unhealthy, and the trees dying off prematurely. Taking everything into
+consideration, neither of these trees can be recommended for planting
+in smoky districts. The <b>Birch</b>, <b>Walnut</b>, <b>Hornbeam</b>,
+and one or two kinds of <b>Willow</b> will succeed in the less smoky
+parts of a town; but they are not to be recommended for planting where
+the air is constantly impregnated with soot and dust.</p>
+
+<p>The <b>Mountain Ash</b>, or <b>Rowan Tree</b> (<i>Pyrus aucuparia</i>)
+and <b>Bird Cherry</b> (<i>Cerasus Padus</i>) are both good town trees,
+and excellent examples of both may be seen in the back streets and
+slums of London.</p>
+
+<p><b>Sophora japonica</b> is well worthy of recommendation as a tree that
+is admirably suited for planting in towns. It is of large and rapid
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_105"></a>[Pg 105]</span>
+growth, with elegant dark green pinnate leaves. Being a native of China
+and Japan, it may not be perfectly hardy in the northern portions
+of the British Isles, but it succeeds well in Southern England, and
+thrives admirably in the most smoke-infested parts of London.</p>
+
+<p><b>Thorns</b> of various kinds succeed well in towns, but they must not
+be recommended for the most smoky and confined localities.</p>
+
+<p>The <b>Tansy-leaved Thorn</b> (<i>Cratægus tanacetifolia</i>) is an
+excellent member of the family for town planting.</p>
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">Shrubs</span></h3>
+
+<p>Of these there is rather a long list of kinds that are suitable for
+planting in smoky localities.</p>
+
+<p>Evidently deciduous species possess an advantage over evergreen kinds
+in the total annual renewal of their leaves, and hence it follows that,
+as with trees, deciduous shrubs should have the preference.</p>
+
+<p>The following list includes only such kinds as have been proved
+suitable for town planting:—</p>
+
+<p><b>Osmanthus ilicifolius</b> is one of the handsomest of evergreen
+shrubs, and also one of the few that succeed, in a satisfactory way,
+when subjected to the impurities of a town atmosphere. In the smokiest
+districts of both London and Liverpool it is unquestionably the best
+all-round shrub.</p>
+
+<p><b>Ligustrum coriaceum</b> is a fitting companion to the last, so
+far, at least, as its powers of withstanding the effects of an impure
+atmosphere are concerned. Being an evergreen, it is peculiarly well
+suited for planting in the town garden, where it grows with great
+freedom.</p>
+
+<p><b>Olearia Hastii</b> and <b>O. macrodonta</b> are excellent shrubs for
+the London garden.</p>
+
+<p><b>Aucuba japonica.</b>—This well-known evergreen shrub is of great
+value for planting in urban districts, it being able to do battle with
+a more than ordinary amount of atmospheric impurities. For this reason
+it has been largely planted in town squares and gardens, in the most
+crowded and densely populated parts.
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_106"></a>[Pg 106]</span></p>
+
+<p><b>Griselinia littoralis.</b>—Although a little-known evergreen, this
+is well suited for town planting, experiments having proved it to be
+a most valuable addition to the limited number of shrubs suitable for
+such a place.</p>
+
+<p><b>Hibiscus Syriacus</b> is one of the few shrubs that can successfully
+battle with an impure atmosphere. It is a shrub which town residents
+should plant freely if they have a bit of ground that they want to look
+pretty.</p>
+
+<p>The <b>Warfaring Tree</b> (<i>Viburnum lantana</i>) does not receive
+that amount of attention to which on its merits it is entitled. It
+succeeds well in some of the most filthy and smoky districts of our
+largest cities.</p>
+
+<p>The <b>Venetian Sumach</b> (<i>Rhus cotinus</i>) is a much-neglected
+shrub, but for general usefulness it can hardly be surpassed. It is
+peculiarly suitable for planting in cities.</p>
+
+<p>The <b>Stag’s Horn Sumach</b> (<i>Rhus typhina</i>) must, on no
+account, be omitted, as it is a shrub of curious appearance and one
+that thrives well in soot and dirt.</p>
+
+<p><b>Leycesteria formosa</b> is a capital town plant; this may also be
+said of the <b>Flowering Currant</b> (<i>Ribes sanguineum</i>)—indeed,
+too much praise can hardly be bestowed on these shrubs for planting in
+the town garden and shrubbery.</p>
+
+<p><b>Skimmia japonica</b> and the <b>Snowy Mespilus</b> (<i>Amelanchier
+Botryapium</i>), too, succeed well in smoke-infested districts; and the
+various kinds of Lilac—particularly the Common and Persian—have few
+equals as town shrubs.</p>
+
+<p>In the <b>Kentucky Coffee-Tree</b> (<i>Gymnocladus canadensis</i>) and
+<b>Bladder Senna</b> (<i>Colutea arborescens</i>) will be found two
+most useful shrubs for the town garden.</p>
+
+<p><b>Phillyrea Vilmoriniana</b>, <b>Forsythia viridissima</b>, and the
+<b>Strawberry Tree</b> (<i>Arbutus unedo</i>) are all more or less
+suitable for town planting where the atmospheric conditions are not too
+seriously affected by smoke and dust.</p>
+
+<p>The <b>Double Furse</b> (<i>Ulex europæus florepleno</i>) is one of our
+handsomest flowering-shrubs, and a good addition to the list of such as
+are suitable for planting in town gardens and squares.</p>
+
+<p>The <b>Spurge Laurel</b> (<i>Daphne laureola</i>) grows freely in many
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_107"></a>[Pg 107]</span>
+a town garden—indeed, it is no uncommon thing to see large and
+well-balanced specimens where smoke and filth are the order of the day.</p>
+
+<p><b>Cotoneasters</b> of various kinds succeed well as town plants. Those
+to be particularly noted are <i>C. frigida</i>, <i>C. Simonsii</i>, and
+<i>C. vulgaris</i>.</p>
+
+<p><b>Euonymus japonicus</b> is another excellent shrub, being almost
+smoke-defying.</p>
+
+<p>The double-flowered forms of <b>Prunus sinensis</b> and the equally
+ornamental <b>P. triloba</b> all succeed well as town plants; while the
+<b>Almonds</b> are quite as good.</p>
+
+<p><b>Koelreuteria paniculata</b>, the <b>Laurustinus</b> (<i>Viburnum
+tinus</i>), <b>Weigelia rosea</b>, <b>W. amabilis</b>, <b>Deutzia
+scabra</b>, the common <b>Green Box</b>, <b>Gum Cistus</b> (<i>C.
+ladaniferus</i>), <b>Mahonia aquifolia</b>, <b>M. Bealii</b>, and <b>M.
+japonica</b> are all more or less suitable for town gardens, but not
+for those in the most smoke-infested parts. The <b>Japan Quince</b>
+(<i>Cydonia japonica</i>), <b>Hypericum Nepalense</b>, and <b>Euonymus
+radicans</b> all do well when subjected to the town atmosphere.</p>
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">Climbers</span></h3>
+
+<p>Of shrubs suitable for covering walls, trellises, and arbours, and
+able to resist the dire influences of smoke and soot, there are a few
+valuable and well-tried kinds.</p>
+
+<p>The <b>Virginian Creeper</b> (<i>Ampelopsis hederacea</i>) has few
+equals as a town plant, thriving successfully in the midst of our
+busiest centres of industry. Many instances could be pointed out in
+which this handsome climber grows with the greatest freedom in the most
+impure and smoke-laden atmosphere.</p>
+
+<p>The <b>Common Ivy</b> (<i>Hedera helix</i>) is, perhaps, the most
+valuable of all climbing plants for using in smoke-infested localities.
+In some of the courts near Ludgate Hill, a district of London that is
+by no means free from smoke and dust, the ivy climbs houses to a height
+of 60 ft., and surprises one by its fresh appearance in such localities.</p>
+
+<p>The <b>Evergreen</b>, or <b>Trumpet</b>, <b>Honeysuckle</b>
+(<i>Lonicera sempervirens</i>) is another shrub of great merit for town
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_108"></a>[Pg 108]</span>
+planting, as it thrives well in confined spaces, and where the
+atmosphere is very impure.</p>
+
+<p><b>Cratægus Pyracantha</b> is a most valuable wall shrub for the town
+garden. It is of free growth, stands smoke well, and is one of the
+handsomest berry-bearing plants in cultivation.</p>
+
+<p><b>Jasminum nudiflorum</b> needs little description, as it is one of
+our handsomest wall-plants. For smoky districts it is invaluable,
+blooming freely when flowers are scarce, and seeming to heed but little
+the impurities of a town atmosphere.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+  <img id="I_108" src="images/i_108.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="430" >
+  <p class="f110">THE SAVIN, OR JUNIPER,<br> AS A TOWN SHRUB</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The <b>Vine</b> (<i>Vitis vinifera</i>) must not be omitted from our
+list, it being an excellent plant for withstanding soot, smoke, dust
+and heat.</p>
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">Coniferous Trees</span></h3>
+
+<p>Few of these, if any, succeed in a satisfactory way, when constantly
+subjected to the impurities of a town atmosphere.
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_109"></a>[Pg 109]</span></p>
+
+<p>Where the conditions are at all favourable the <b>Austrian Pine</b>
+(<i>Pinus austriaca</i>), <b>Thyiopsis Dolabrata</b>, <b>Toxodium
+distichum</b>, and <b>Cupressus Lawsoniana</b> do fairly well, but they
+are not to be recommended for general town planting.</p>
+
+<p><b>Retinospora plumosa aurea</b> has stood for many years in one of
+the most smoky districts of Glasgow, and at present looks almost as
+well as it did when brought from the country, while the <b>Savin</b>
+(<i>Juniperus Sabina</i>) may generally be relied upon.</p>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_110"></a>[Pg 110]</span></p>
+<h2 class="nobreak">CHAPTER X<br>
+<span class="h_subtitle">TREES SUITABLE FOR HEDGEROW<br> AND FIELD PLANTING</span></h2>
+</div>
+
+<p>The well-founded complaint that hedgerow and field trees harbour
+birds to the serious destruction of the grain crops is largely
+counterbalanced by their ornamental appearance and the shelter they
+afford both to man and beast.</p>
+
+<p>In proceeding to consider the trees that are most suitable for hedgerow
+and field planting four important points must be kept in view. (1) That
+the spread of branches is, comparatively speaking, small in proportion
+to the tree’s height; (2) that the roots have a downward tendency, or
+do not ramify to too great an extent; (3) that the tree is well adapted
+for exposed situations and standing singly; and (4) that the timber
+value is such as to compensate in some degree for the cost of planting
+and after-management in the matter of pruning and fencing. Although we
+rarely find all these qualities concentrated in one tree, still, with
+careful choice and good after-management, much may be done to produce
+the desired effect, even in trees of a partially opposite character.</p>
+
+<p>That the wrong class of timber is often planted in our hedgerows and
+fields is painfully apparent to every one who has paid attention to
+the subject—trees of wide-spreading habit both in root and branch
+occupying positions and doing irreparable damage, where others of less
+obtrusive nature could with advantage have been selected to take their
+place. Timely and judicious pruning is of the utmost importance in
+the production of hedgerow timber: but to be productive of the best
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_111"></a>[Pg 111]</span>
+results, the work must be attended to early, and prosecuted at
+intervals, as by skilfully shortening the branches from time to time,
+the spread of root is also checked, thereby securing a double benefit
+to the farmer and the land.</p>
+
+<p>The <b>Cornish Elm</b> (<i>Ulmus cornubiense</i>), unfortunately, is
+far too seldom seen either as a standard or in our woodlands, for
+which the propagator is greatly to blame, there not being offered
+anything like a sufficient quantity to meet the demand. As a park or
+hedgerow tree this distinct and well-marked variety of the elm has
+much to recommend it—such as a narrow branch-spread in proportion to
+the height, suitability for exposed situations, and the very decided
+ornamental character it imparts to the landscape when properly placed.</p>
+
+<p>The principal advantages of this tree for hedgerow or field planting
+are that no pruning is required to keep the branches in bounds, that
+the spread of branches is very small in proportion to the tree’s
+height, and that the roots do not approach too near the surface, or
+ramify to any great extent, so as to become injurious to crops in their
+immediate vicinity.</p>
+
+<p>The <b>English Elm</b> (<i>Ulmus campestris</i>) is another tree of
+value for hedgerow planting, and is, perhaps, more commonly used for
+that purpose than any other. Like the Cornish variety, though in very
+much less degree, it has an upward inclination, the ramification of
+its branches being narrow in proportion to its height, while as an
+ornamental tree and valuable timber-producer it is held in high esteem.</p>
+
+<p>As a shelter tree it is of great value, and as the branches,
+particularly the lower, seldom spread to a great extent, the injury
+caused to the adjoining crop is usually not very serious.</p>
+
+<p>The <b>British Oak</b> (<i>Quercus Robur</i>) is of about equal value
+with the elm for hedgerow planting—indeed by careful manipulation it
+is even superior to that tree, being, perhaps, less injurious to the
+herbage beneath it, and the roots having a greater downward tendency.
+As an ornamental tree and valuable timber-producer the oak requires no
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_112"></a>[Pg 112]</span>
+praise from us, these qualities having been recognised from the
+earliest date.</p>
+
+<p>It bears pruning with impunity, so that all ungainly or far-spreading
+branches can be cut back or foreshortened at pleasure; while those near
+the ground, which in any way interfere with the fence or crop, can, by
+judicious management, be altogether removed. Several of the fastigiate
+forms of the oak are equally, if not better, suited for hedgerow
+planting.</p>
+
+<p>The <b>Lombardy Poplar</b> (<i>Populus fastigiata</i>).—Although of
+but little value as a timber-producer, yet, as an ornamental tree of
+singular habit and appearance, the Lombardy poplar is almost unique
+amongst our hardy deciduous trees.</p>
+
+<p>When planted in judiciously-arranged clumps in the corners of
+fields, or hedgerows, this poplar produces a most pleasing effect
+in the landscape: and, being of close, fastigiate growth, it is not
+in the least injurious to crops in its immediate vicinity. No tree
+is, however, more readily misplaced than the one in question; and
+in planting it is well to avoid the prevalent mistake of placing in
+lines, squares, round or oval forms, or even in single specimens, these
+methods being highly objectionable and devoid of good taste—that is,
+if we desire to preserve in the landscape a natural appearance.</p>
+
+<p>The <b>Sycamore</b> (<i>Acer pseudo-platanus</i>), as a standard tree,
+either in field or fence, is worthy of attention, not only for its
+well-known ornamental character, but also on account of the great value
+of the wood produced, as it is in this latter respect, perhaps, second
+to none. As a farmer’s tree it is, also, not one of the worst; for,
+although the branches incline to spread, still, by careful manipulation
+in the way of pruning, this may be corrected without doing injury
+to too great an extent to the ornamental qualities of the tree. For
+imparting both shade and shelter to farm stock the sycamore may be used
+with the best advantage. Few trees produce such valuable timber when
+grown singly or in clumps in the corners of fields and paddocks as the
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_113"></a>[Pg 113]</span>
+sycamore, and no other repays so fully the damage it occasions to
+fences and the surrounding ground.</p>
+
+<p>The <b>Hornbeam</b> (<i>Carpinus betulus</i>), for exposed situations
+and poor soils, has few, if any, equals. The roots do not run near
+the surface, but, like those of the oak, derive sustenance at a
+considerable distance from it, and this quality, combined with its
+somewhat upright inclination of growth and hardy nature, renders it
+well adapted for hedgerow or field planting, where shelter combined
+with effect is required.</p>
+
+<p>The <b>Lime</b> (<i>Tilia Europæa</i>), although one of our most
+ornamental trees, can hardly be recommended as suitable for situations
+in which the underlying herbage is at stake. For this latter reason
+alone, however, can it be omitted from our list, and, as it bears
+pruning well, does not to any great extent impoverish the adjoining
+ground. It is at all times a pleasing object in the landscape, and it
+will therefore be seen that the evil done by shade is in a great degree
+compensated for.</p>
+
+<p>Amongst coniferous trees, if we except the <b>Larch</b> and <b>Scotch
+Fir</b>, few are at all suitable for the end in question. The larch is
+a much-neglected fence and park tree, this being attributable to an
+erroneous impression that it is of too stiff and cold an appearance,
+either for standing singly or giving effect to the landscape.
+Nothing can, however, be farther from the facts, as when placed so
+that its fine form is seen to advantage, few deciduous trees are
+more picturesque than the larch, or offer a better contrast to the
+ordinary run of our forest trees. It also occasions less damage to
+the undergrowing herbage than most trees, while, at the same time,
+it enriches the soil to a great extent by the annual shedding of its
+leaves.</p>
+
+<p>The <b>Scotch Fir</b>, especially for shelter-giving purposes, has much
+to recommend it for being extensively planted as stock-shelter in the
+corners of exposed fields.</p>
+
+<p>As it usually rises to a great height without branches, it cannot be
+considered as extremely injurious to its surroundings, although the
+shallow-running roots can hardly be spoken of as non-injurious to the greensward.
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_114"></a>[Pg 114]</span></p>
+
+<p><b>Planting and Fencing.</b>—Whether for planting in the hedgerow or
+singly in the fields, good, strong, well-rooted specimens should always
+be used—indeed, it is well when a home nursery is on the estate to
+have these specially prepared, by frequent transplantings for a few
+years previous to their final planting out. The nursery management will
+require both care and experience, so that trees with strong, fibrous
+roots equally distributed around the stem may be produced; lanky,
+ill-grown, and ill-rooted plants having but a poor chance of succeeding
+under the circumstances. From 10 ft. to 14 ft. will be found the most
+suitable size for the purpose under consideration. The pits for their
+reception should be opened of sufficient size to admit the roots
+without cramping or bending, the bottom and sides being made loose
+and free with a pick—it will be all the better if the pits have been
+opened for some time previously to planting, the winter frosts having a
+beneficial effect in clearing and pulverizing the soil.</p>
+
+<p>This is, however, seldom convenient, as, if in the field, they become
+filled in, and trampled on by cattle, while gaps in the fences
+occasioned by these cannot well remain open for any length of time.</p>
+
+<p>The better plan—at least, we have found it so—is to open the pits,
+plant the trees, and have these fenced in on the same day, as by
+this method no part of the work has ever to be done a second time,
+everything being finished up as the work proceeds. In planting, be
+careful to spread the roots out in an even manner around the stem, as,
+by so doing, the tree is not only more firmly fixed in the ground, but
+is enabled to collect food from all quarters.</p>
+
+<p>Fencing should follow up at once the work of planting, as, if the young
+trees are allowed to remain unprotected for any length of time, they
+get injured by the farm stock. The fences may be of any desired kind,
+but, as they are only required for a few years, a simple erection made
+of small larch poles about 8 ft. long, driven firmly into the ground in
+a circle around the tree, say, 18 in. from the stem, and made fast to
+hoops of wood at top, and half-way up, will be found sufficient. Wooden
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_115"></a>[Pg 115]</span>
+erections are, perhaps, preferable to those made of iron for fencing
+hedgerow trees, as they seldom require renewing, for by the time the
+fence has decayed the trees will, in most cases, be out of harm’s way.</p>
+
+<p>For shelter and shade clumps in fields probably the best trees to use
+are the oak and sycamore, the value of timber produced being also a
+valuable asset.</p>
+
+<p><b>Pruning and After-Management.</b>—For at least the first ten years
+after planting, careful and regular pruning of hedgerow and field
+timber should in all cases be attended to, bearing in mind that timely
+attention in this way will alone obviate the necessity for heavy
+prunings at any future stage of the tree’s growth.</p>
+
+<p>Early and judicious pruning is necessary to the trees in question;
+for it is well known that if branches are allowed to ramify at will,
+greater injury to the underlying herbage must be committed than where
+timely pruning and shortening of all straggling branches has been
+attended to.</p>
+
+<p>Early summer pruning, say, in the month of June, is to be recommended,
+as at that time, owing to the active circulation of the sap, the wounds
+heal up much more quickly than when the operation is performed at any
+other season of the year. The pruning should be performed by a person
+who is thoroughly conversant with the work, haphazard cutting and
+hewing, by an inexperienced hand, and at any season, being injurious.
+If the young trees have been well attended to in the matter of pruning
+whilst in the nursery border, little or no attention will afterwards be
+required—at least for a number of years.</p>
+
+<p>The main object in pruning both hedgerow and field trees is to develop
+a valuable main stem which is only to diverge into branches at a given
+height from the ground, and to prevent the overgrowth of straggling
+branches farther up, so as to maintain a symmetrical and rather
+fastigiate head.</p>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_116"></a>[Pg 116]</span></p>
+<h2 class="nobreak">CHAPTER XI<br>
+<span class="h_subtitle">ORNAMENTAL PLANTING</span></h2>
+</div>
+
+<p>As the beauty and picturesqueness of an estate are so dependent on the
+disposition of its single trees, groups and plantations, the forester
+should never lose sight of the fact, even when dealing with plantations
+that are mainly intended for the value of the timber produced.</p>
+
+<p>In ornamental planting one of the principal things to bear in mind
+is to allow sufficient space for each of the permanent standards
+to develop its true and natural character. Instead, therefore, of
+planting indiscriminately and in a sort of haphazard way, have a fixed
+idea, and only plant on a regular and well-matured plan. Should the
+individual standards be considered stiff or unsightly for the first
+few years, a good plan is to fill up the spaces between them with
+small-growing trees and shrubs, these being removed subsequently as
+necessity demands, but always before damage to the permanent specimens
+has been brought about by too close contact. The habit of the tree or
+shrub, and the size to which it will ultimately attain are points that
+should never be lost sight of in ornamental planting. Far too often
+the mistake is made of planting specimen trees too near roads and
+buildings, or, quite as bad, too close to each other. This is a most
+unfortunate mistake, as it sooner or later necessitates the sacrifice
+of specimens when their full beauty is probably developed, or when they
+can least be spared.</p>
+
+<p>In the case of both hard-wooded and coniferous, the latter in
+particular, the trees are planted when young and small, and ample room
+is supposed to be given to them; but, as they grow up and near perfect
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_117"></a>[Pg 117]</span>
+development, the spread of branches soon points out that a great
+mistake has been made in the space of ground allotted, and that the
+ultimate size to which the particular specimen would attain had never,
+at the time of planting, been duly considered. There is little left
+then to be done but either to put up with crowded and ill-formed
+specimens, or to attempt their removal to more suitable quarters. The
+latter, in the case of trees that have been left undisturbed for many
+years, and when tap and side roots have been sent down to a great
+depth for safe anchorage, is quite out of the question, the only
+remaining way out of the evil being to sacrifice the specimen by having
+it stubbed out and removed. In any case, in the event of one tree
+encroaching too closely on another, no time should be lost in deciding
+which is to be removed, for, if they crowd into and interfere with each
+other, the branches on that side will get thin and die off, and the
+tree will thus lose the uniformity of appearance on which its whole
+beauty depends. Should crowding of specimen trees be permitted for even
+a few years, partial disfiguration of the trees will have been brought
+about, and it will take years of careful management to restore them to
+their original beauty.</p>
+
+<p>In order to plant with any degree of certainty as to future results,
+it is absolutely necessary to become first of all well acquainted with
+the nature and habit of every tree planted, as also the properties and
+peculiarities of the various soils, and aspect and position of the
+ground to be planted.</p>
+
+<p>Probably no other branch of forestry requires sound judgment and
+correct ideas to such an extent as the laying out of parks and grounds,
+or, in other words, landscape and ornamental planting—and this
+knowledge can only be attained by perseverance, investigation, and
+study.</p>
+
+<p>In selecting sites for the various trees, it will be well to bear in
+mind that certain species are better suited than others for planting
+in exposed places, for using in particular soils, and for inserting in
+either dry or damp ground.</p>
+
+<p>By the lake or pond side the <b>Deciduous Cypress</b> (<i>Taxodium
+distichum</i>), the <b>Bhoton Pine</b> (<i>Pinus excelsa</i>), the
+beautiful cut-leaved <b>Imperial Alder</b> (<i>Alnus glutinosa
+imperialis</i>), the <b>Golden</b> and <b>Purple Willows</b> may all be
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_118"></a>[Pg 118]</span>
+planted with the best chances of success; whereas none of these would
+thrive well on dry or sandy soils. Should chalk or calcareous soil crop
+up, we have good subjects in the <b>Fern-leaved Beech</b> (<i>Fagus
+sylvatica asplenifolia</i>), the <b>Cephalonian</b> and <b>Spanish
+Silver Firs</b> (<i>Abies cephalonica</i> and <i>A. Pinsapo</i>) and
+many of the <b>Pyrus</b> family; while, where only a small quantity of
+loam overlies the gravel, the <b>Scotch</b> and <b>Cluster Pines</b>
+(<i>Pinus sylvestris</i> and <i>P. Pinaster</i>), the pretty and
+far from common <b>Manna Ash</b> (<i>Fraxinus Ornus</i>), and many
+others may be successfully planted. In good, rich soil, and where the
+position is fairly sheltered, there are no end of ornamental trees,
+both hard-wooded and coniferous, that may be planted. Some of the
+<b>Magnolias</b>, but particularly <i>Magnolia stellata</i>, <i>M.
+acuminata</i>, and <i>M. Umbrella</i> should find a place, while the
+<b>Juneberry</b> (<i>Amelanchier canadensis</i>), the <b>Cornelian
+Cherry</b> (<i>Cornus Mas</i>), and various <b>Thorns</b> should not be
+neglected. In exposed places plant clumps of the <b>Corsican</b> and
+<b>Austrian Pines</b> (<i>Pinus laricio</i> and <i>P. austriaca</i>),
+following up with the hardy <b>Spruces</b> and <b>Cypresses</b>.
+Such dainty conifers as the <b>Japanese Cryptomeria</b> (<i>C.
+japonica</i>), the <b>Elegant Cryptomeria</b> (<i>C. elegans</i>),
+<b>Fitzroya patagonica</b>, <b>Prince Albert’s Fir</b> (<i>Tsuga
+Mertensiana</i>,) and <b>Umbrella Pine</b> (<i>Sciadopitys
+verticillata</i>) must have cosy corners and good soil to show their
+beauty to perfection.</p>
+
+<p><b>Pitting and Planting.</b>—The pits for the reception of ornamental
+trees should be well formed: that is to say, should be made of
+sufficiently large size for the specimens to be planted—indeed, it is
+always preferable to dig out pits of a greater size than are required,
+thus allowing of a quantity of broken-up soil being placed beneath and
+around the roots. In any case, have the bottom and side of each pit
+thoroughly broken up, and should the soil be found to be of inferior
+quality, it is best to substitute that of a more desirable kind such as
+is known to be suitable for the wants of the particular specimen. In
+removing large specimen trees great care should be exercised—first,
+that the roots are uninjured, or if at all, in a very small degree;
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_119"></a>[Pg 119]</span>
+second, that a good ball of earth is attached; and, third, that
+replanting is delayed as short a time as possible. Have the pit, for
+the reception of the tree, dug out and prepared before the specimen is
+lifted. Lift carefully by undermining the roots, and digging out a deep
+trench at a reasonable distance from the stems, the distance from the
+stem to be regulated by the root spread, size of the specimen, etc. In
+order to avoid falling apart, the ball of earth should be bound with a
+strong mat or tarpaulin, the ends being made fast around the stem.</p>
+
+<p>A stout low-wheeled truck has been found a most convenient appliance
+for removing the specimen; but in the case of large and heavy trees the
+common timber wheels, or janker, may be found of great service. The
+truck to which we refer should be specially made, and should be of the
+following dimensions: length, 5 ft.; width, 3 ft.; on wheels 1 ft. 3
+in. in diameter, these being placed so as to be below the level of the
+body, thus avoiding contact with the load when that is either longer
+or broader than the specified dimensions. The framework should be of
+stout oak, and the bottom 3 in. thick boarding. The timber wheels, or
+janker, being an adjunct of forest appliances, is always at hand, and
+does away with the necessity of procuring any of the elaborate and
+costly carriages usually recommended for transplanting large trees and
+shrubs. The tree being placed in the pit opened for its reception, the
+roots should be spread out and the soil replaced and trampled firmly,
+and afterwards well watered.</p>
+
+<p><b>Staking the Trees.</b>—Next to careful planting and watering a
+matter of the most vital importance—but one that, unfortunately, is
+too often lost sight of—is the efficient staking or otherwise securing
+of large transplanted trees. The great strain and consequent damage to
+the roots of large transplants when allowed to rock about with every
+gust of wind is not only highly injurious, but, viewing the matter from
+a point of neatness, few things in forestry have a more unsightly or
+neglected appearance than trees almost blown over by the wind. Various
+are the methods usually adopted in staking and tying newly-transplanted
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_120"></a>[Pg 120]</span>
+trees. As no hard and fast lines can be laid down, as a rule, the
+size of the trees and the exposure of the positions in which they are
+planted must determine the method of procedure to be adopted. It may
+be that when growing in a low-lying, sheltered valley, trees of even
+8 or 10 ft. in height may be perfectly safe without stake or tie of
+any kind, whereas others of similar or even smaller size, growing in
+an open position and exposed to the prevailing winds of the district,
+will require a mooring of the most secure description, and adjusted in
+the most efficient manner. For trees and shrubs up to 6 ft. in height,
+a strong, sharp-pointed stake should be driven firmly into the ground,
+within about 9 in. of the main stem, and on the most exposed side. The
+stake should be fully 7 ft. long, and driven, not perpendicularly, but
+with the head slightly inclined from the tree, and in the direction
+from which the prevailing winds usually blow. A strong ligature of some
+kind, such as tarred rope or thick matting, is then placed round the
+stem of the tree requiring support, at about 4 ft. from the ground, and
+made fast to the stake at a similar height.</p>
+
+<p>By crossing the tie between the tree and stake, a more efficient job
+results, as there is then less room for the tree to work in when
+rocking with the wind. It will thus be seen that the nearer to the
+stem of the tree the stake is placed, the greater will be the power of
+resistance.</p>
+
+<p>When the trees and shrubs are from 8 ft. in height and upwards, but
+especially in the case of evergreen species, stronger moorings than
+those just described will have to be employed, and the following plan
+we have found suitable for almost any emergency. A strong band of
+leather, or several strands of tarred rope, are placed loosely around
+the stem of the tree to be staked, and at, say, three-quarters of its
+height. Three wires—ordinary fencing wire does well—are then joined
+to this collar, two on the most exposed side and one on the other, and
+made fast to stout stakes driven firmly into the ground, at a distance
+from the main stem proportionate to the tree’s height. In the case of
+very large trees, or those that have been reinstated from a fallen
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_121"></a>[Pg 121]</span>
+position, double wires are used in a manner similar to that just
+described, the collar, however, being unusually strong. The advantages
+of double wires are extra strength, and the fact that they admit of
+being twisted at any time to the tightness required.</p>
+
+<p>The above may be considered the two principal ways of staking large
+transplants, but occasionally cases will crop up in which it may be
+necessary to resort to other methods, but such are peculiar cases, and
+must be dealt with in a peculiar manner.</p>
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">Cut-Leaved, Weeping and<br> Fastigiate Trees</span></h3>
+
+<p>These have their own place in landscape gardening, and when placed
+in the hands of a skilful planter are capable of producing the most
+beautiful and pleasing effects. The majority are graceful in outline,
+distinct and impressive in appearance; in fact, possess all those
+qualities which render them specially valuable for the embellishment
+of park or garden. Great care is, however, necessary in planting these
+trees, for if not used with the greatest discretion, the good effects
+they are so capable of producing in the hands of a trained planter are
+destroyed.</p>
+
+<p><b>Weeping Trees.</b>—Both picturesque and beautiful is a
+well-developed specimen of the Weeping Beech, and particularly so when
+associated with trees of a light and airy appearance, for the general
+character of the tree is somewhat massive and lumpy. Being of large
+growth, the Weeping Beech wants plenty of room for development. There
+is also a desirable weeping form of the purple Beech.</p>
+
+<p>The Kilmarnock Weeping Willow (<i>Salix caprea pendula</i>) is one of
+the most popular and widely cultivated of weeping trees. It originated
+near Ayr, in Scotland, and was so named to distinguish it from two
+other well-known varieties, the common Weeping Willow and the American
+Weeping Willow—two desirable forms for waterside planting. In the
+American Fountain Willow we have another excellent weeping tree,
+while the ringed-leaved Willow (<i>S. Babylonica annularis</i> or
+<i>crispa</i>) is one of the most curious and picturesque of the whole group.
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_122"></a>[Pg 122]</span></p>
+
+<p>Amongst the Birches are at least two desirable weeping forms in the
+cut-leaved (<i>Betula pendula Youngi</i>), Young’s weeping Birch, and
+the weeping white Birch (<i>B. alba pendula</i>), both of which are
+admirably adapted for lawns, even where space is restricted. The Birch
+will thrive on poor, light soil, and is, therefore, peculiarly suitable
+for planting in gravelly or rocky formations.</p>
+
+<p>The distinct habit of the Weeping Mountain Ash, or Rowan tree, has made
+it a favourite in the embellishment of small grounds, and the wealth
+of conspicuous fruit produces a telling effect, especially if the tree
+is backed up by darker foliaged trees or shrubs. There are other forms
+of Pyrus well worthy of attention, such as the pendulous Siberian Crab
+(<i>P. prunifolia pendula</i>) and <i>Salicifolia pendula</i>, the
+latter in particular being a distinct and graceful small-growing tree.
+The Weeping Mulberry (<i>Morus alba pendula</i>) is occasionally seen
+in good form when it is a desirable acquisition, so is the Weeping
+Laburnum (<i>L. vulgare pendulum</i>) and the curious and scarce
+<i>Gleditschia triacanthos excelsa pendula</i>. In the silver-leaved
+Weeping Holly we have one of the best of evergreens for confined
+situations; and <i>Cornus florida pendula</i> is a strikingly beautiful
+tree in which the weeping habit is decidedly pronounced.</p>
+
+<p>Among Weeping Elms some varieties are most pronounced, but there are
+several others all equally worthy of culture. Of the English Elm,
+probably the best is <i>Ulmus campestris Petersii pendula</i>, while
+of the Mountain or Scotch, that known as <i>U. montana pendula</i> is
+the most desirable. Weeping thorns are by no means common, but they are
+probably the most natural and graceful of all drooping trees of modern
+growth. In the flower garden at Regent’s Park is growing a beautiful
+specimen of this tree.</p>
+
+<p>Perhaps the most common of weeping trees is the Weeping Ash
+(<i>Fraxinus excelsior pendula</i>), and its strong, vigorous growth
+causes it to be employed where others would not succeed. Even in smoky
+localities it is quite at home, as many fine old trees throughout
+London clearly prove that the deleterious effects of an impure
+atmosphere have but little effect on its hardy constitution. It is one
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_123"></a>[Pg 123]</span>
+of the best of weeping trees for forming an arbour, and as a distinctly
+ornamental specimen for the park or large lawn it has few equals.</p>
+
+<p>Amongst coniferous trees we have several distinct and beautiful
+pendulous trees or shrubs, such as <i>Abies excelsa inverta</i> and the
+well-known and much appreciated <i>A. Smithian</i> or <i>morinda</i>.
+The pendulous Hemlock spruce (<i>A. Canadensis pendula</i>) is one of
+the prettiest and most natural in appearance of all weeping trees.</p>
+
+<p>There are several distinct and beautiful forms of the Cypress,
+particularly <i>C. Lawsoniana gracilis pendula</i> and <i>C. Lawsoniana
+alba pendula</i>. The Weeping Chinese Juniper (<i>Juniperus Chinensis
+pendula</i>) and <i>Virginiana pendula</i> are well worthy of attention
+where this particular class of trees or shrubs is in request. Than the
+weeping form of the common Larch, perhaps no tree is more beautiful,
+the feathery pea-green foliage being distinct from that of every other
+tree.</p>
+
+<p><b>Cut-leaved Trees.</b>—Of the Maples we have several cut-leaved
+forms, such as the beautiful <i>Acer palmatum laciniatum</i> and
+<i>dissectum</i>, while of the Norway Maple, the variety known as
+<i>Platanoides dissectum</i> is particularly valuable on account of the
+freely divided and beautifully coloured leaves.</p>
+
+<p>In the cut-leaved Birch (<i>Betula alba laciniatum pendula</i>), we
+have at once one of the most graceful and distinct of hardy trees.
+Not only are the leaves cut up and divided, but the weeping sprays of
+foliage, owing to the fine, whipcord-like branchlets, produce a most
+beautiful and graceful effect. In addition, this Birch is a tree of
+neat, clean growth, and will succeed in a satisfactory way even on poor
+gravelly soils and upland situations.</p>
+
+<p>Amongst the Beam trees (<i>Pyrus</i>) we find several good cut-leaved
+forms, such as <i>pinnatifida</i> and <i>salicifolia</i>, both highly
+desirable medium-sized trees and valuable for woodland margins or
+steep, undulating grounds. Numerous forms of the Oak have appeared with
+incised leaves, such as <i>Quercus dentata</i> and the fern-leaved
+variety of the Turkey Oak (<i>Quercus Cerris asplenifolia</i>),
+a decidedly beautiful and worthy form. Of the English Oak (<i>Q. Robur</i>)
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_124"></a>[Pg 124]</span>
+we have at least two good cut-leaved forms in <i>Pedunculata
+asplenifolia</i> and <i>pectinata</i>. There are other varieties of the
+Oak in which the foliage differs considerably from that of the species
+in being much more freely divided.</p>
+
+<p><i>Rhus glabra laciniata</i> has become widely known of late years on
+account of its neatly divided foliage and as being a good town shrub.
+The leaves are of a delicate pea-green and the flowers inconspicuous
+and succeeded by feathery lawns.</p>
+
+<p>The common Alder has at least two forms that are much sought
+after for dampish ground by the pond or lake side, in <i>Alnus
+glutinosa laciniata</i> and its well-marked and distinct variety
+<i>imperialis</i>. Both attain to a goodly size, and when suitably
+placed where the abundant, rich green, deeply divided leaves can be
+readily seen, are distinctly valuable for contrast and waterside effect.</p>
+
+<p>The incised or cut-leaved Hornbeam (<i>Carpinus Betulus incisa</i>)
+is rarely seen, but it is of so distinct a type that its inclusion
+in this list is considered desirable. In this case the almost entire
+beech-like leaf is finely divided and the whole tree presents a
+comparatively light and airy appearance. Of the common Hawthorn there
+is a specially elegant cut-leaved form in that named <i>laciniata</i>,
+but its distinctive characteristics are best revealed when planted in
+conjunction with the species.</p>
+
+<p>Several of the Vine family are rendered highly ornamental for covering
+walls and pergolas by reason of their beautifully coloured and divided
+leaves. <i>Vitis heterophylla dissecta</i> is one of the best in
+this way, but others of the less-incised forms are well worthy of
+attention. <i>V. vinifera purpurea</i> has much to recommend it as
+an ornamental-leaved variety, and is specially suitable for covering
+mounds of earth, stones or tree stumps.</p>
+
+<p>We must not omit to include the cut or fern-leaved variety of the Lime
+(<i>Tilia platyphillos laciniata</i>), which for neat habit of growth
+and distinct character from the species merits special attention. The
+cut-leaved Japan Maples are exceedingly beautiful, but their slow
+growth and difficult propagation will always be against extensive
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_125"></a>[Pg 125]</span>
+planting, and render them rare and expensive. Other interesting
+cut-leaved trees are the willow-leaved Ash, laurel-leaved Willow,
+scarlet Oak, Maidenhair tree, and that most beautiful of all, the
+fern-leaved form of the golden Elder.</p>
+
+<p>Though somewhat stiff of outline the cut-leaved Horse Chestnut
+(<i>Æsculus</i>), in the form known as laciniatum, is not to be
+despised, and affords a striking contrast to the species.</p>
+
+<p>The fern-leaved Beech (<i>Fagus sylvatica asplenifolia</i>) is probably
+the most commonly distributed of cut-leaved trees, and rightly so,
+for it is certainly one of the most beautiful and distinct of the
+type. <i>F. sylvatica quercifolia</i>, the Oak-leaved, is also worthy
+of attention, but cannot compare with the former in point of beauty.
+Even of the common Walnut (<i>Juglans Regia</i>) there is a cut-leaved
+variety, which is distinct and worthy of culture as an ornamental tree.
+It is named <i>laciniata</i> and is fairly common.</p>
+
+<p>Of the numerous varieties of the Sweet or Spanish Chestnut, the most
+desirable is that which bears the rather cumbrous name of <i>Castanea
+vesca heterophylla dissecta</i>. It is one of the most beautiful of
+hardy trees, in which the long, narrow leaves of the upper parts of the
+branches droop in a graceful manner and render it so much sought after
+in ornamental gardening.</p>
+
+<p><b>Fastigiate Trees.</b>—The Lombardy Poplar (<i>Populus
+fastigiata</i>) is at once one of the most conspicuous and picturesque
+of tapering trees. Though it can hardly be described as a beautiful
+tree, yet for landscape effect the tall, spiry, column-like appearance
+renders the Lombardy Poplar of particular value for certain well-chosen
+positions in our parks and grounds. In the neighbourhood of a town or
+country village it produces an effect almost akin to architectural
+embellishment, while in flat or low-lying districts, and particularly
+near water, it is most at home and probably looks best. It also
+associates kindly with old ruins and has a pleasing effect when rising
+out of pointed-headed Cypresses or Yews, but in all cases it is a tree
+that should be used sparingly and with extreme caution. Forming avenues
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_126"></a>[Pg 126]</span>
+or lines of the tree is not good taste, while planting single specimens
+in open situations should be avoided.</p>
+
+<p>Of the Poplars there are several upright-growing varieties in addition
+to the Lombardy, such as the beautiful <i>P. alba Bolleana</i>, a
+desirable fast-growing tree with a character of its own.</p>
+
+<p>The Oak, too, has its decidedly upright form in <i>Quercus pedunculata
+fastigiata</i>, which in old parks is a fairly common tree. A decidedly
+beautiful small-growing tree is the upright form of the dwarf Acacia
+(<i>Robinia Pseudo-acacia inermis fastigiata</i>) which for confined
+spaces and wealth of delightful pea-green foliage is a valuable
+small-growing variety.</p>
+
+<p>The Elms are not wanting in upright-growing forms, both the English and
+Scotch being represented, the former in <i>Dampieri aurea</i>, and the
+latter in <i>Montana fastigiata</i>. A beautiful and distinct tree of
+upright habit will be found in the fastigiate variety of the Tulip tree
+(<i>Liriodendron tulipifera fastigiata</i>).</p>
+
+<p><i>Cupressus sempervirens</i>, in many parts of England, but
+particularly by the coast, forms a beautiful tapering evergreen tree
+with the darkest-green foliage. For clump planting it is particularly
+desirable, but it is not quite hardy in some parts of the country.
+Another coniferous tree of naturally erect growth is the red or
+Virginian Cedar (<i>Juniperus Virginiana</i>), which in sheltered sites
+is a most desirable member of the family. Two other Junipers are of
+decidedly strict growth, <i>J. drupacea</i> and <i>J. thurifera</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The Irish Juniper (<i>Juniperus hibernica</i>) originated in Ireland,
+most probably as a chance seedling. It is a most desirable shrub, and
+on account of its singular habit of growing in a compact, slender
+and graceful column, has proved itself a most valuable evergreen for
+almost any position, but particularly where geometrical gardening is
+carried out. The silvery glaucous hue of the thickly produced foliage
+is extremely beautiful. The nearly allied but much smaller growing
+<i>J. hibernica compressa</i> forms a compact slender pyramid of
+bright-tinted foliage and is an excellent plant for rockwork or small gardens.
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_127"></a>[Pg 127]</span></p>
+
+<p>Amongst the Cypresses are several upright-growing forms, probably the
+best, and certainly the most widely distributed, being Lawson’s erect
+Cypress (<i>Cupressus Lawsoniana erecta viridis</i>), of dense, erect
+habit and with vivid green foliage. <i>Cupressus macrocorpa lutea</i>,
+raised by Messrs. Dicksons, of Chester, has a decidedly neat and
+upright habit of growth, while the distinct golden tint of the foliage
+renders it a desirable acquisition for ornamental planting.</p>
+
+<p>Than the Irish Yew (<i>Taxus baccata fastigiata</i>) with its dark
+sombre foliage and neat columnar outline, few evergreens are more
+conspicuous and effective. This favourite and far-distributed variety
+originated at Florence Court, in Ireland, a century and a quarter ago.</p>
+
+<p><i>Cupressus macrocarpa fastigiata</i> is a well-marked variety in
+which the branches closely press to the main stem. The foliage is
+of the brightest green, and the long whip-cord-like shoots with
+the conspicuous reddish back, impart a peculiar grace to healthy
+specimens. <i>C. torulosa</i>, for planting where space is confined,
+is a decided acquisition, the easy though columnar habit of growth,
+slender branchlets and bright glaucous foliage being all points of
+recommendation.</p>
+
+<p>The upright form of the Birch (<i>Betula alba fastigiata</i>) has a
+peculiarity of habit that, associated with the slender weeping shoots,
+is highly ornamental; while <i>Cornus stricta</i> and the upright
+variety of our common Hawthorn have both points of recommendation.</p>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_128"></a>[Pg 128]</span></p>
+
+<h2 class="nobreak">CHAPTER XII<br>
+<span class="h_subtitle">TREES BEST ADAPTED FOR VARIOUS SOILS</span></h2>
+</div>
+
+<p>There is, perhaps, no soil so bad and barren that it may not be
+rendered either profitable or ornamental by judicious planting; but,
+as might be expected, there is often a great want of knowledge as to
+the proper kind of trees to be chosen to suit a particular soil. In
+looking over a large extent of woodland one will often be struck with
+the great disproportion in size of the individual trees of a species;
+but it will generally be noticed that where the largest and healthiest
+occur the tree is usually growing upon its own soil, and is found to be
+flourishing at the expense of all around it. Thus the finest oaks will
+be found where the soil is deep and loamy, resting on clay; beech, and
+the Austrian pine (<i>Pinus austriaca</i>) upon a calcareous gravel,
+resting on a bed of chalk; ash and elm on a dampish, loamy gravel;
+birch in a light, black loam, with a gravelly substratum; Spanish
+chestnut, in a good loamy or gravelly soil, not too damp; the Scotch
+and Corsican pines (<i>P. sylvestris</i> and <i>P. laricio</i>) at
+fairly high altitudes, and in gravelly, well-drained soils; and the
+Cluster and Aleppo pines (<i>P. Pinaster</i> and <i>P. halepensis</i>),
+in almost pure sand on the sea-coast. Some trees grow rapidly for a
+few years in almost any soil, but where the soil is unsuitable they
+generally show signs of distress after a time, make little or no
+progress, and ultimately become stunted and ill-grown. Should the
+soil be very unfavourable, they die outright. Instances of this are,
+unfortunately, far too common wherever one travels over the country,
+owing to trees of a kind that are utterly unfitted for the particular
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_129"></a>[Pg 129]</span>
+class of soil being planted in a haphazard kind of way, without any
+consideration of their individual requirements. For all practical
+purposes with reference to tree-culture, soils, generally speaking, may
+be divided into six distinct classes—peaty, chalky or limey, gravelly,
+clayey, loamy, and such as contain ironstone, coal, etc.</p>
+
+<p>(1) <b>Peat.</b>—Few trees will succeed well on an unreclaimed peat
+bog, but, where draining and soiling have been attended to at the
+outset, the number that grow and produce a fair amount of valuable
+timber is almost without limit among our generally cultivated species.
+Among conifers that have proved themselves suitable for bog planting
+are the larch, Scotch pine, and common and black spruces (<i>Picea
+excelsa</i> and <i>P. nigra</i>). The larch grows rapidly, and is
+less subject to disease on peaty than any other soil—indeed, up to
+a few years ago, I cannot remember having seen a trace of any of the
+diseases which have rendered the life of the tree so precarious of late
+years in this country. In thinning a larch plantation of fully sixty
+years’ growth I found the trees felled to be perfectly healthy, and
+of exceptional quality, with, on an average, 72 ft. of wood in each.
+The subsoil in this case was clay, and the bog, previous to being
+planted, had been cut over for fuel. The Scotch pine grows almost as
+freely as the larch—the average in over fifty trees measured being
+about an eighth less—under similar conditions. Natural reproduction
+of the Scotch pine goes on so rapidly that it must be considered one
+of the very best trees for planting on peat bog. The spruces are
+excellent trees for planting on reclaimed peat bog, where they produce
+a fair amount of timber and afford excellent shelter to other trees.
+Of hardwoods, the beech is one of the best for bog planting, as it
+grows rapidly and produces a large amount of clean timber. The alder
+grows luxuriously on peaty soils, and shows no traces of disease or
+canker. Another excellent bog tree is the Gean or Wild Cherry, and this
+may likewise be said of the holly. Ash and oak are not generally of
+large size, nor are they always healthy on peat bog, even when it has
+received a great amount of attention in the way of reclaiming. Birch,
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_130"></a>[Pg 130]</span>
+lime and poplar of various kinds are all suited for planting on
+well-drained bog.</p>
+
+<p>Among coniferous trees, a large number are well suited for planting in
+reclaimed peat bog. By way of experiment I have planted specimens of
+various kinds in newly-formed plantations, and in nearly every case
+the trees have grown well, particularly when partially sheltered.
+<i>Cupressus macrocarpa</i> is one of the best, and not one whit behind
+it are <i>C. Lawsoniana</i> and <i>C. goveniana</i>. <i>Wellingtonia
+gigantea</i> and <i>Sequoia sempervirens</i> have done well, while
+<i>Pinus laricio</i> and <i>P. austriaca</i> grow freely. I find that
+the majority of the recently introduced conifers do well on prepared
+peat bog—that is, where a quantity of loam has been incorporated with
+the bog and all superfluous moisture drained away.</p>
+
+<p>(2) <b>Chalky Soils.</b>—The beech is peculiarly well suited for
+planting in chalk districts, for it will grow and produce a large
+quantity of excellent timber where but a few inches of loam overlie the
+chalk. It is a fact that, in Southern England particularly, in order to
+find where the chalk beds lie, one has only to be guided by the line
+traced out by the largest and most luxuriant beeches.</p>
+
+<p>The beech will grow freely enough on almost pure chalk, but it
+certainly flourishes best where loam, say, from 1 ft. to 3 ft. in
+depth, overlies the chalk, or is incorporated with it, as on the
+Chiltern Hills.</p>
+
+<p>The Norway maple (<i>Acer platanoides</i>) revels in a chalky soil, and
+so does <i>A. colchicum rubrum</i>. These are both handsome, hardy,
+large-growing trees, and well suited for extensive forest-planting
+under certain conditions of soil. White poplar (<i>Populus alba</i>)
+is an excellent tree for planting in chalky districts—indeed, it is
+surprising to see to what an immense size it attains on almost pure chalk.</p>
+
+<p>Other poplars that do almost equally well on the chalk formation
+are <i>P. monilifera</i> and <i>P. canadensis</i>, both excellent,
+free-growing trees. Elms, particularly the Huntingdon and the American,
+grow rapidly, and attain to a large size, where but a small quantity
+of loam is present in the chalk. The wych elm grows freely in chalky
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_131"></a>[Pg 131]</span>
+districts, and this may also be said of the common and silver-leaved
+lime. False acacia (<i>Robinia Pseud-acacia</i>) is an excellent tree
+for chalky soils, and there attains to a greater size than in even the
+richest of loams. The alder and birch also thrive with vigour on chalky
+soils. Indeed, most trees which in a state of nature grow in damp or
+marshy soils, are well suited for planting where chalk is the component
+of the main soil, and this is explained as follows:—Chalk, although
+sufficiently porous to allow water to percolate through it, has, like
+all other calcareous matter, a strong attraction for water, and acts
+like a sponge in holding it in considerable quantity for a very long
+time. Among the conifers that are suitable for chalky soils the Spanish
+fir (<i>Abies Pinsapo</i>) is one of the best. In the chalky districts
+of Southern England it thrives with unusual luxuriance. The Mount Enos
+fir (<i>Abies cephalonica</i>) is, likewise, well adapted for growing
+in chalky districts. Of evergreen trees that succeed well on chalk the
+number is well known to be limited, and it is important that two such
+beautiful conifers as the Spanish and Mount Enos firs should there find
+their most congenial home.</p>
+
+<p>Both the Scotch and <a href ="#I_061">Weymouth</a> pines (<i>Pinus sylvestris</i>
+and <i>P. Strobus</i>) are well suited for planting on chalk, and many fine
+examples of both may be seen on the chalky reefs of Kent and Surrey.</p>
+
+<p>The common Yew grows freely where hardly a particle of soil overlies
+the chalk formation.</p>
+
+<p>The Giant Arborvitæ (<i>Thuja gigantea</i>) is peculiarly suitable for
+planting in chalky soils: and the Lebanon Cedar (<i>Cedrus Libani</i>)
+is never found in greater perfection than when growing in the chalk
+with a fair depth of loam atop.</p>
+
+<p><i>Wellingtonia gigantea</i> also does well.</p>
+
+<p>(3) <b>Gravelly and Sandy Soils.</b>—The Corsican pine is an excellent
+tree for planting on gravelly soils, and some of the largest and finest
+specimens in this country are growing in a disused gravel-pit, and this
+may also be said of the Douglas fir (<i>Pseudothuga Douglasii</i>).</p>
+
+<p>The Scotch pine is well known to be one of the best conifers for
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_132"></a>[Pg 132]</span>
+planting in gravelly soils, where it reproduces itself in great
+numbers, when the conditions of growth are at all favourable.</p>
+
+<p><i>Pinus Pinaster</i>, the cluster pine, is, perhaps, one of the most
+valuable conifers for planting either in gravelly or sandy soils. The
+great value of the tree in reclaiming sandy tracts, both at home and
+abroad, has been so often described that further reference here is
+not required. The Aleppo pine is a good companion to the Pinaster,
+and grows with great freedom in a sandy or gravelly soil, within the
+influence of the sea. Gravelly soil also suits the <a href ="#I_061">Weymouth pine</a>,
+on which it produces a fair quantity of very resinous timber. Both the
+beech and oak produce a large volume of timber on poor gravelly and
+sandy soils.</p>
+
+<p>(4) <b>Clay Soils.</b>—The soil here referred to is genuine clay,
+devoid of stones, and without a particle of sand or loam in it.</p>
+
+<p>It occurred on the slopes, and for some considerable distance along the
+sides of one of the park roads on an estate in England.</p>
+
+<p>This is recorded simply to show what species of trees are best able
+to succeed when planted in pure clay. The pits, in this case, it may
+be well to mention, were dug and the soil thrown loosely up for a
+month previous to planting, but no soil was added to the stiff clay.
+Nearly one hundred kinds of trees and shrubs were used, but out of all
+these not more than eight are doing well, the others having gradually
+died out, or become so rusty and miserable looking that their removal
+was compulsory. First among the trees that have succeeded is the
+giant arborvitæ (<i>Thuja gigantea</i>), which seems to revel in what
+is generally considered the most unkindly of soils. <i>Cryptomeria
+japonica</i> has also done well, but the trees of this kind, though
+bushy and well-furnished, have grown at a comparatively slow rate.</p>
+
+<p><i>Cupressus macrocarpa</i> also has done fairly well: the growth
+certainly has not been rapid, but for all that the general appearance
+of the trees is the reverse of what one might expect from the
+unfavourable nature of the soil. The Indian Cedar (<i>Cedrus
+Deodara</i>) we have found to be peculiarly well suited for planting in
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_133"></a>[Pg 133]</span>
+clayey soils, the bright silvery tint that is so characteristic of this
+cedar when well grown being discernible in the clay-grown specimens.
+<i>Pinus austriaca</i> has, in a few instances, done well, the foliage
+being ample and of the usual dark yew-green. Amongst shrubs the
+double-flowered gorse (<i>Ulex Europæus</i>, fl. pl.) has done best
+of any—indeed, it has grown and increased freely, and would seem to
+be quite as much at home as in its natural element—a dry, gravelly
+bank. These may be considered as the trees that have succeeded best in
+stiff, clayey soil. Few of the pine tribe did well, and this may also
+be said of the spruces, cypresses, yews, junipers, arbutus, dogwood,
+cotoneaster, hollies, and others planted.</p>
+
+<p>It is, of course, far from advisable to plant trees or shrubs in such
+unkindly soil without first adding other of better quality; but it is
+of great value to know that there are a few trees and shrubs that will
+thrive almost in defiance of the stubborn and unkindly nature of a
+stiff clay soil.</p>
+
+<p>(5) <b>Ironstone Soils.</b>—The particular class of soil to which I
+refer, and which in several districts occurs in plenty, is on the coal
+and ironstone formation, where the top soil is usually shallow, and the
+subsoil consists of a loose, yellowish rag that is largely impregnated
+with iron. In most places but a very small quantity of soil exists, and
+that is of the poorest description, varying in depth according to the
+lie of the measure. The Spanish Chestnut is one of the very best trees
+for this soil, growing with freedom, and producing a fair amount of
+good timber, while its appearance indicates perfect health.</p>
+
+<p>Birch and beech do well, although neither of them attains to a large
+size. The latter reproduces itself freely from seeds, and soon spreads
+wherever a footing can be got. Sycamore grows freely, particularly
+where the pan is broken up, and produces a small quantity of good
+timber. Another tree that seems perfectly at home on the coal and
+ironstone is the wild cherry, for there it grows to a fair size,
+flowers freely, and produces excellent timber. Larch cannot be
+recommended for this soil, but in places where a small quantity of
+loam overlies the coal and ironstone it grows with great freedom for a
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_134"></a>[Pg 134]</span>
+number of years, and the timber, if cut early, is of good quality. The
+common spruce soon dies out, although it may grow freely enough for a
+number of years after being planted, and wear a healthy appearance.
+Oak and ash do fairly well, but they rarely attain to a large size or
+produce first-class timber. Rhododendrons almost revel in this soil,
+and some of the largest and healthiest are growing with their roots in
+close contact with the coal and ironstone.</p>
+
+<p><b>Shrubs for Hot and Dry Soils.</b>—The Bladder Senna (<i>Colutea
+arborescens</i>) is one of the most useful of shrubs for planting
+in poor, hot, dry soils, and not only will it succeed and flower
+well in these, but it is equally valuable for using where the air is
+chemically impure, and for that reason has few equals for the town
+or city shrubbery. <i>C. cruenta</i> is also valuable in a similar
+way. The Sea Purslane (<i>Atriplex halimus</i>) is another valuable
+shrub for planting in hot and dry situations as is <i>Caragana
+arborescens</i>, the native Barberry (<i>Berberis vulgaris</i>), many
+forms of Genista and Cytisus, <i>Spartium junceum</i>, and the double
+flowering Gorse. Another excellent shrub is the Box Thorn or Tea Tree
+(<i>Lycium Europæum</i>) which is useful for covering an arid hot bank,
+several species of Cotoneaster, particularly <i>C. horizontalis</i>
+and <i>C. microphylla</i>, and the neat and curious <i>Muchlenbeckia
+complexa</i>. Helianthemums also do well, so does the Venetian
+Sumach (<i>Rhus cotinus</i>), and several varieties of bramble, but
+especially the double pink flowering form. The Rest Harrow (<i>Ononis
+arvensis</i>), a native shrubby plant of great floral beauty, also does
+well; while the little known <i>Celastris articulatus</i> should not
+be neglected in hot and dry situations. Other good shrubs for hot dry
+banks are <i>Potentilla fruticosa</i>, the Tamarisk and <i>Juniperus
+tamariscifolia</i>.</p>
+
+<p><b>Concluding Remarks.</b>—In conclusion, it may be pointed out that
+it is only by a careful selection of soil that we may expect tree
+planting to be successful, and I have no hesitation in saying that many
+failures can be clearly traced to errors of judgment in the selection
+of trees for planting on particular soils. The subject is a wide and
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_135"></a>[Pg 135]</span>
+complicated one, and it must be admitted that very perplexing
+diversities occur with the same kinds of trees on what, to all
+appearance, is the same class of soil. There are, of course, other
+considerations beyond the soil itself which must be taken into account,
+such as aspect, elevation, and whether the ground is inland or on the
+coast.</p>
+
+<p>With reference to some of the newer conifers it must be admitted that
+soil and situation have a wonderful influence on their successful
+culture, and this applies in particular to such kinds as are not
+perfectly hardy and liable to injury by unseasonable frost. The too
+common practice of selecting warm and sheltered spots for such is, in
+the main, to be condemned.</p>
+
+<p>It may be said that <i>Abies cephalonica</i> and <i>A. Pinsapo</i> are
+not worth growing, and in many places they are not, but when planted on
+limestone or chalk they are highly ornamental.</p>
+
+<p>The same holds good in the case of <i>Tsuga Mertensiana</i>, <i>Picea
+Sitchensis</i>, and <i>P. excelsa</i>, which are rarely seen in good
+form except on soil of a peaty description.</p>
+
+<p>Every one at all interested in trees and shrubs knows that there are
+certain kinds which in a state of Nature are only found growing in a
+peaty soil, mixed it may be more or less with sand, and any attempt
+to cultivate them in other soils is productive of very unsatisfactory
+results.</p>
+
+<p>Who would ever think of planting the so-called American or peat plants,
+Cape Heaths, etc., amongst gravel or chalk, or Rhododendrons where lime
+is present in the soil? And these facts show us that there is something
+in the composition of certain soils only suitable for the requirements
+of a certain class of plants.</p>
+
+<p>Another curious fact is this, that when growing on certain soils the
+timber of one species of tree is found to be far more durable than in
+others.</p>
+
+<p>Deep loamy soil and soft peat produce timber that is usually of a
+second-rate description, being deficient in firmness.</p>
+
+<p>By studying the geological strata of a district much useful information
+may be learnt regarding the trees best suited for planting.
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_136"></a>[Pg 136]</span></p>
+
+<p>The following alphabetical table will serve to show at a
+glance the trees that have been found best suited for planting
+in the class of soil under which they are enumerated:—</p>
+
+<p class="f110 spa1"><b><span class="smcap">Reclaimed Peat Bog.</span></b></p>
+
+<p class="f110"><i>Hardwoods.</i></p>
+
+<table class="spb1">
+   <tbody><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">Alnus glutinosa</td>
+      <td class="tdl_ws2">Populus alba</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">&nbsp; —— &nbsp; —— imperialis</td>
+      <td class="tdl_ws2">&nbsp; —— balsamifera</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">&nbsp; —— &nbsp; —— laciniata</td>
+      <td class="tdl_ws2">&nbsp; —— canadensis</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">Betula alba</td>
+      <td class="tdl_ws2">Quercus Robur, and vars.</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">Cerasus Padus</td>
+      <td class="tdl_ws2">Salix fragilis</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">&nbsp; —— vulgaris</td>
+      <td class="tdl_ws2">Tilia europeæ</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">Fagus sylvatica</td>
+      <td class="tdl_ws2">Ulmus alata</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">&nbsp; —— &nbsp; —— purpurea</td>
+      <td class="tdl_ws2">&nbsp; —— montana</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdc fs_110" colspan="2">&nbsp;<br><i>Conifers.</i></td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">Abies concolor</td>
+      <td class="tdl_ws2">Larix Kæmpferi</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">&nbsp; —— bracteata</td>
+      <td class="tdl_ws2">Pinus austriaca</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">&nbsp; —— nobilis</td>
+      <td class="tdl_ws2">&nbsp; —— excelsa</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">&nbsp; —— Nordmanniana</td>
+      <td class="tdl_ws2">&nbsp; —— laricio</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">Cedrus Deodara</td>
+      <td class="tdl_ws2">&nbsp; —— sylvestris</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">Cryptomeria japonica</td>
+      <td class="tdl_ws2">Retinospora ericoides</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">Cupressus Goveniana</td>
+      <td class="tdl_ws2">&nbsp; —— plumosa</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">&nbsp; —— Lawsoniana</td>
+      <td class="tdl_ws2">&nbsp; —— &nbsp; —— aurea</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">&nbsp; —— macrocarpa</td>
+      <td class="tdl_ws2">Taxus baccata</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">Juniperus chinensis</td>
+      <td class="tdl_ws2">Thuja gigantea</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">&nbsp; —— recurva</td>
+      <td class="tdl_ws2">&nbsp; —— occidentalis</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">&nbsp; —— Sabina</td>
+      <td class="tdl_ws2">Thujopsis borealis</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">Larix europeæ</td>
+      <td class="tdl_ws2">Wellingtonia gigantea</td>
+   </tr>
+ </tbody>
+</table>
+
+<p class="f110 spa2"><b><span class="smcap">Chalky or Calcareous.</span></b></p>
+
+<p class="f110"><i>Hardwoods.</i></p>
+
+<table class="spb1">
+   <tbody><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">Acer colchicum rubrum</td>
+      <td class="tdl_ws2">Cerasus Padus</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">&nbsp; —— dasycarpum</td>
+      <td class="tdl_ws2">Cratægus (nearly all)</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">&nbsp; —— Negundo</td>
+      <td class="tdl_ws2">Cytisus Laburnum</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">&nbsp; —— platanoides</td>
+      <td class="tdl_ws2">Fagus sylvatica</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">&nbsp; —— Pseudo-platanus</td>
+      <td class="tdl_ws2">&nbsp; —— &nbsp; —— purpurea</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">Æsculus Hippocastanum</td>
+      <td class="tdl_ws2">Fraxinus excelsior</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">&nbsp; —— rubicunda</td>
+      <td class="tdl_ws2">&nbsp; —— Ornus</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">Alnus glutinosa, and vars.</td>
+      <td class="tdl_ws2">Gleditschia sinensis</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">Amelanchier Botryapium</td>
+      <td class="tdl_ws2">&nbsp; —— triacanthos</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">Amygdalus communis</td>
+      <td class="tdl_ws2">Koelreuteria paniculata</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">Betula alba</td>
+      <td class="tdl_ws2">Populus alba</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">Castanea vesca</td>
+      <td class="tdl_ws2">&nbsp; —— balsamifera</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">Catalpa bignonioides</td>
+      <td class="tdl_ws2">&nbsp; —— canadensis
+              <span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_137"></a>[Pg 137]</span></td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">Populus monilifera</td>
+      <td class="tdl_ws2">Quercus Turneri</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">&nbsp; —— tremula</td>
+      <td class="tdl_ws2">Robinia Pseud-acacia, and vars.</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">Pyrus Aria</td>
+      <td class="tdl_ws2">Salix alba</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">&nbsp; —— Aucuparia</td>
+      <td class="tdl_ws2">Tilia argentea</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">&nbsp; —— Malus floribunda</td>
+      <td class="tdl_ws2">&nbsp; —— europeæ</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">&nbsp; —— spectabilis</td>
+      <td class="tdl_ws2">Ulmus alata</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">Quercus Ilex</td>
+      <td class="tdl_ws2">&nbsp; —— glabra</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">&nbsp; —— Mirebecki</td>
+      <td class="tdl_ws2">&nbsp; —— montana</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">&nbsp; —— rubra</td>
+      <td class="tdl_ws2">Virgilia lutea</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdc fs_110" colspan="2">&nbsp;<br><i>Conifers.</i></td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">Abies Amabilis</td>
+      <td class="tdl_ws2">Pinus austriaca</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">&nbsp; —— magnifica</td>
+      <td class="tdl_ws2">&nbsp; —— Cembra</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">&nbsp; —— nobilis</td>
+      <td class="tdl_ws2">&nbsp; —— excelsa</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">&nbsp; —— Nordmanniana</td>
+      <td class="tdl_ws2">&nbsp; —— laricio</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">&nbsp; —— Pinsapo</td>
+      <td class="tdl_ws2">&nbsp; —— Pinaster</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">&nbsp; —— Webbiana</td>
+      <td class="tdl_ws2">&nbsp; —— Strobus</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">Cedrus atlantica</td>
+      <td class="tdl_ws2">&nbsp; —— sylvestris</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">&nbsp; —— Deodara</td>
+      <td class="tdl_ws2">&nbsp; —— tuberculata</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">&nbsp; —— Libani</td>
+      <td class="tdl_ws2">Retinospora ericoides</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">Cupressus Lawsoniana</td>
+      <td class="tdl_ws2">&nbsp; —— filicoides</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">&nbsp; —— macrocarpa</td>
+      <td class="tdl_ws2">&nbsp; —— plumosa</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">Juniperus chinensis</td>
+      <td class="tdl_ws2">&nbsp; —— &nbsp; —— aurea</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">&nbsp; —— communis</td>
+      <td class="tdl_ws2">Salisburia adiantifolia</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">&nbsp; —— Sabina</td>
+      <td class="tdl_ws2">Taxus baccata, and vars.</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">&nbsp; —— &nbsp; —— tamariscifolia</td>
+      <td class="tdl_ws2">Thuja gigantea</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">Larix europeæ</td>
+      <td class="tdl_ws2">&nbsp; —— Lobbii</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">&nbsp; —— Kæmpferi</td>
+      <td class="tdl_ws2">&nbsp; —— occidentalis</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">&nbsp; —— leptolepis</td>
+      <td class="tdl_ws2">&nbsp; —— Warreana</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">Picea excelsa</td>
+      <td class="tdl_ws2">Thujopsis borealis</td>
+   </tr>
+ </tbody>
+</table>
+
+<p class="f110 spa2"><b><span class="smcap">Gravelly and Sandy.</span></b></p>
+
+<p class="f110"><i>Hardwoods.</i></p>
+
+<table class="spb1">
+   <tbody><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">Alianthus glandulosa</td>
+      <td class="tdl_ws2">Morus nigra</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">Alnus cordata</td>
+      <td class="tdl_ws2">Platanus occidentalis</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">Betula alba</td>
+      <td class="tdl_ws2">Populus Bolleana</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">Carpinus betulus</td>
+      <td class="tdl_ws2">Quercus Robur, and vars.</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">Fagus sylvatica</td>
+      <td class="tdl_ws2">&nbsp; —— suber</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">&nbsp; —— &nbsp; —— purpurea</td>
+      <td class="tdl_ws2">Robinia Pseud-acacia</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">Fraxinus Ornus</td>
+      <td class="tdl_ws2">Sambucus nigra</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">Gleditschia horrida</td>
+      <td class="tdl_ws2">Tilia europeæ</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">Ilex, many vars.</td>
+      <td class="tdl_ws2">Ulmus alata</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">Juglans cinerea</td>
+      <td class="tdl_ws2">&nbsp; —— campestris</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">&nbsp; —— nigra</td>
+      <td class="tdl_ws2">&nbsp; —— montana</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">Magnolia acuminata</td>
+      <td class="tdl_ws2">Virgilia lutea
+             <span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_138"></a>[Pg 138]</span></td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdc fs_110" colspan="2">&nbsp;<br><i>Conifers.</i></td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">Juniperus communis</td>
+      <td class="tdl_ws2">Pinus Pinaster</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">&nbsp; —— Sabina</td>
+      <td class="tdl_ws2">&nbsp; —— pumilio</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">Pinus austriaca</td>
+      <td class="tdl_ws2">&nbsp; —— sylvestris</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">&nbsp; —— halepensis</td>
+      <td class="tdl_ws2">Taxus baccata</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">&nbsp; —— laricio</td>
+      <td class="tdl_ws2">Thuja gigantea</td>
+   </tr>
+ </tbody>
+</table>
+
+<p class="f110 spa2"><b><span class="smcap">Clay.</span></b></p>
+
+<table class="spb1">
+   <tbody><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">Carpinus betulus</td>
+      <td class="tdl_ws2">Quercus Ilex</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">Castanea vesca</td>
+      <td class="tdl_ws2">&nbsp; —— pannonica</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">Cryptomeria elegans</td>
+      <td class="tdl_ws2">&nbsp; —— Robur</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">&nbsp; —— japonica</td>
+      <td class="tdl_ws2">Thuja gigantea</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">Gleditschia triacanthos</td>
+      <td class="tdl_ws2">&nbsp; —— Lobbii</td>
+   </tr>
+ </tbody>
+</table>
+
+<p class="f110 spa2"><b><span class="smcap">Ironstone and Coal.</span></b></p>
+
+<table class="spb1">
+   <tbody><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">Acer Pseudo-platanus</td>
+      <td class="tdl_ws2">Larix europeæ</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">Betula alba</td>
+      <td class="tdl_ws2">&nbsp; —— &nbsp; —— pendula</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">Castanea vesca</td>
+      <td class="tdl_ws2">Pinus Cembra</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">Cerasus Padus</td>
+      <td class="tdl_ws2">&nbsp; —— Montana</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">Cupressus Lawsoniana</td>
+      <td class="tdl_ws2">Quercus Robur</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">Fraxinus excelsior</td>
+      <td class="tdl_ws2">Thuja gigantea</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">Juniperus communis</td>
+      <td class="tdl_ws2">Ulmus montana</td>
+   </tr>
+ </tbody>
+</table>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_139"></a>[Pg 139]</span></p>
+<h2 class="nobreak">CHAPTER XIII<br>
+<span class="h_subtitle">TRANSPLANTING LARGE TREES</span></h2>
+</div>
+
+<p>Where immediate effect is required, the transplanting of large trees
+and shrubs will be an operation of considerable importance, and though
+it is fraught with both trouble and expense, the results obtained have
+led to an increased adoption of the system during recent years.</p>
+
+<p>There is hardly a limit to the size or weight of the tree to be removed
+when the operator is provided with suitable appliances, and success has
+crowned the effort of several recent operations of this nature in our
+Royal and other parks. Of late years several appliances for removing
+large and weighty trees and shrubs have been placed on the market;
+amongst these one of the best is certainly that made and patented by
+Messrs. Faulkners Ltd. Its principal recommendations are simplicity
+of structure, the ease with which it may be worked, and lightness,
+combined with such strength that even the weightiest tree can be
+removed. But not only is this tree-lifter valuable where transplanting
+is being engaged in, for in removing large tree roots, logs of timber,
+blocks of stone, and heavy materials generally, it has been found most
+useful.</p>
+
+<p>The <a href="#I_140">apparatus</a> is made somewhat in the form of a four-wheeled
+lorry, having a steel frame only. The frame at the back is made movable to
+admit of the apparatus being placed so that the tree to be moved stands
+in the centre of the machine. Two stout planks with guide rails are
+laid across the trench, and the machine is backed on to these. The
+machine is constructed with four iron rollers, lying along over the
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_140"></a>[Pg 140]</span>
+side frame and parallel with the frame. Around the rollers a chain is
+wound, the loose end being fastened to the planking which has been
+placed under the ball of earth containing the roots of the tree.
+The rollers are worked with a specially made screw-gear, which is
+self-sustaining, and can be moved to draw up or lower at will.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+  <img id="I_140" src="images/i_140.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="506" >
+  <p class="f110">FAULKNER’S TRANSPLANTING MACHINE.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The illustration given clearly shows the apparatus with the tree being
+lifted for transportation. Barron’s transplanting machine is also well
+known, and with this much valuable work in the removal of large and
+heavy trees and shrubs has been accomplished.</p>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_141"></a>[Pg 141]</span></p>
+<h2 class="nobreak">CHAPTER XIV<br>
+<span class="h_subtitle">THINNING PLANTATIONS</span></h2>
+</div>
+
+<p>In the successful rearing of timber trees for profit there is, perhaps,
+no other branch of more importance than a good knowledge of the art of
+thinning, and, at the same time, one on which so great a diversity of
+opinion exists.</p>
+
+<p>Thinning plantations, be they old or young, must always be subject to
+great modification, according to the nature of the trees and soil, or
+ultimate design of the plantation being operated upon, and is a matter
+requiring great tact, forethought, and discrimination, and this can
+only be acquired by long experience and by those having a good insight
+into the peculiarities and properties of our forest trees.</p>
+
+<p>The same rule as regards thinning will not apply to, say, fir,
+hardwood, and mixed plantations; and far less will it hold good in the
+case of an ornamental and a profitable wood. No universal rule can,
+however, be laid down for thinning, but general principles can be given
+that will be sufficient for the guidance of those who have to undertake
+such work.</p>
+
+<p>In thinning any plantation two important points are to be borne in
+mind—first, cut away all diseased, dead and dying trees; second,
+study the relationship of trees and soil, and act accordingly. To be
+more explicit, we might say that in the first case, the removal of
+all dead and dying trees is a necessity, and that being done, one can
+proceed with the disposal of the standards to be left. In the second
+case, by suiting the trees to the soil, at least as far as possible,
+great benefit results, and an instance of this that came under our own
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_142"></a>[Pg 142]</span>
+observation lately will be given as an example. A plantation 130 acres
+in extent was composed of oak, larch and Spanish chestnut, placed
+at regular distances apart throughout the whole extent of the wood.
+Now, the soil was gravelly for a considerable distance down, and,
+consequently, fairly well suited for the chestnut, but just the reverse
+for the larch, which, on such a soil, generally becomes “pumped,” or
+rotten at the core. In thinning this particular plantation, it would
+have been very unwise to cut away the chestnut and the oak and leave
+the larch, and this had happened to some extent before the proper
+system of management and adaptability of soil to tree was thought
+of. Larch may look healthy enough, and show but small indications of
+disease, even when growing on gravel up to twenty or thirty years of
+age, so that it is with difficulty that the inexperienced become aware
+of the pending doom that usually awaits this tree when planted on
+such a soil. This example is merely given to point out how carefully
+thinning should be gone about, and that in all cases it is a wise
+policy to study soil in relation to the future crop of timber before an
+axe is laid to the tree.</p>
+
+<p>At the outset of these remarks on thinning plantations it should be
+distinctly borne in mind that there are two chief objects for which
+trees may be grown, each requiring a special mode of management, in
+order that the best results may be obtained.</p>
+
+<p>The first is their management in a purely economical sense or with a
+view to profit; the second, their management with a view to ornament.
+There is also a third object that is well worthy of consideration,
+and that is the growing of timber in one and the same wood, both for
+ornament and utility combined, and this is very frequently the case
+with home woodlands that are visible from roads and drives, with strips
+bounding parks or pleasure-grounds, and on small properties.</p>
+
+<p>To produce ornamental trees of natural appearance is by no means
+difficult, as by allowing the individual specimens ample room for
+branch development, the desired effect is gradually brought about. Far
+greater difficulty, however, attends the production of the greatest
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_143"></a>[Pg 143]</span>
+quantity of the most valuable trees on a given space of ground. Here
+many questions of the greatest moment, on which difference of opinion
+exists, crop up: such as at what age thinning should be commenced, to
+what extent should it be engaged in, what time should elapse between
+each thinning, and which trees should be removed.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+  <img id="I_143" src="images/i_143.jpg" alt="" width="400" height="575" >
+  <p class="f110">FELLING TOOLS.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Any one at all interested in the management of our woods and plantations
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_144"></a>[Pg 144]</span>
+must have noticed that trees having an abundance of room and light
+on all sides make comparatively short and thick trunks that are
+well furnished with branches; whereas such as are grown up in a
+circumscribed space and amongst others are tall and straight, with
+clean, well-formed stems destitute of branches for the greater part
+of their height. All species, or nearly all, are governed by the same
+laws, that is to say, those that have the least room laterally within
+certain prescribed limits, which will be described hereafter, produce
+the tallest, cleanest and straightest trunks, and vice versa.</p>
+
+<p>The influence of light has not, in this country at least, been
+sufficiently taken into account in the rearing of timber, but it has
+everything to do in directing the growth of trees, and should be
+reckoned as a most important factor by the forester. Thus, if it be
+allowed in excess, as when the trees stand far apart, the growth of
+lateral shoots and large branches will be greatly induced, the result
+being short and thick boles, that are rough and knotty, and ill-adapted
+for constructive purposes. On the other hand, by keeping the trees
+thick on the ground, light is, to a greater or less extent, excluded,
+and the trees grow tall, straight and branchless for the greater part
+of their height, and are of the greatest economic value. But here
+another and very important question crops up. To what extent in a wood,
+managed solely for the value of the timber it produces, will it be
+profitable to thin? In dealing with this, two distinct bearings should
+be kept in mind—the first, that too small a quantity of branches and
+consequently of leaves, must, to a greater or less extent, check the
+growth of the trees, and so diminish the production of timber; and,
+second, that by having too large a quantity, the value of the timber
+is greatly reduced in consequence, and the number of trees to the acre
+much diminished as well.</p>
+
+<p>There is, therefore, a medium between these two, by adopting which,
+the greatest quantity of the most valuable timber will be produced;
+although, at the same time, it is astonishing, when looked at from
+a physiological point of view, what a small quantity of foliage is
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_145"></a>[Pg 145]</span>
+required to keep a plantation tree in a healthy, growing condition,
+and to produce a trunk of useful dimensions. This may, however, be
+explained by the fact that the almost entire absence of large limbs and
+branches, which in some cases would amount to one-fifth the total bulk
+of the tree, renders the amount of sap, and consequently of leaves,
+required proportionately less, the nutriment being mainly elaborated in
+the building of the trunk.</p>
+
+<p>Independent altogether of the forests of northern Europe, Canada,
+etc., which have grown up naturally, examples might be given in our
+own country—the native Fir forests in the Highlands of Scotland, the
+valuable Beech woods on the Chiltern Hills, and a few Larch plantations
+in Yorkshire and Bedfordshire—where trees averaging 70 ft. in height,
+growing at from 4 to 6 yards apart, and with only a tuft of foliage
+atop, may be seen. It is only, however, by long and careful study and
+attention to different trees at different stages of their growth that
+any idea can be formed of the amount of branches and foliage required
+for preparing the sap that will be necessary for the profitable yearly
+increase of the trunk until maturity is arrived at.</p>
+
+<p>The questions now to be dealt with in growing timber for purely
+economical purposes are: (1) At what age should thinning be commenced?
+(2) To what extent should it be engaged in? (3) What time should elapse
+between each thinning? And (4) Which trees should be removed?</p>
+
+<p>At the outset, it may be well to mention, that in so far as any of
+the above questions are concerned, no hard and fast line can be laid
+down as to the universal management of plantations, each tract of
+wood, and even different parts of the same wood, according to the
+particular species of tree, quality of soil, altitude, and exposure,
+being dealt with on its own peculiar footing. Many serious mistakes
+have been committed, and irreparable damage done, by treating every
+plantation alike and according to the rule-of-thumb method. Upon the
+manner in which thinning is performed, much of the ultimate success
+of a plantation will depend, and it is a matter requiring great tact,
+forethought, and discrimination, which can only be acquired by long
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_146"></a>[Pg 146]</span>
+experience, and an intimate knowledge of trees and their surroundings.</p>
+
+<p>The quality as well as quantity of timber produced should be carefully
+considered in the management of every plantation. In dealing with the
+following questions regarding thinning, it may be well to state that
+the average plantation will alone form the basis of remarks.</p>
+
+<p><b>1. At what age should thinning be commenced?</b>—The necessity of
+thinning, few practical arboriculturists will care to deny, and that
+whether the plantation be composed of coniferous or hard-wooded trees.
+It is the abuse of the practice that, in this country at least, is so
+to be condemned, and I entirely dissent from those who consider that
+a coniferous plantation should be left to Nature, or, in other words,
+should thin itself. The argument that the natural forests of America,
+the source from which we derive the finest and best quality of timber,
+thinned themselves, is often quoted; but it should also be remembered
+that the conditions of such forests are widely different from those
+of our own, and that the waste of timber is immense, great quantities
+being destroyed in procuring what is required. Although, however,
+we cannot adopt all the details of Nature’s practice, we can and we
+should admit the correctness of the principle on which she acts, and by
+studying this we learn much, and it is by acquiring a knowledge of her
+economy, and where and when to apply assistance, that the point of the
+whole argument rests. Natural regeneration, unless it be in a limited
+number of cases, and particularly with our least valuable classes of
+timber, is never, in this country, likely to supersede artificial
+planting, and it has been conclusively proved in the Forest of Dean,
+that with our most valuable timber-producing tree, the Oak, the latter
+system is most to be encouraged.</p>
+
+<p>No thinning of young trees should take place until a complete ground
+shade has been established; and it is most important for the welfare of
+the plantation, that a complete overhead foliage covering be brought
+about at as early a date as possible after planting. At what age this
+may take place will depend mainly on the size of the plants used and the
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_147"></a>[Pg 147]</span>
+distance apart at which they were inserted in the ground, and to a
+lesser extent on the quality of soil and other considerations. At a
+short period after a complete leaf canopy has been established, the
+individual trees begin to press against each other, and later on a
+struggle for existence commences, the stronger specimens gaining
+the supremacy over the weaker. Here it must be borne in mind that
+hard-wooded trees require proportionately more room for their healthy
+development than coniferous kinds, while length and clearness of
+stem, produced by a due proportion of shade, is an object of prime
+importance. It might, as some suppose, do little harm, to let the
+struggle for existence go on unchecked, but there can be no question
+that for several reasons it is wise policy to allow the stronger trees
+every chance of succeeding, and to cut away the weaker. The object
+should be to provide for the trees left standing that amount of room or
+growing space best suited for bringing about the particular conditions
+aimed at, and in thinning, it must be the aim of the forester to arrive
+at the happy mean—neither over nor underdoing the work, the former in
+particular. But while overcrowding is not to be tolerated, the danger
+of suddenly exposing the trees to currents of air, to which they have
+hitherto been unaccustomed, must be carefully guarded against, and it
+should be distinctly borne in mind that to thin trees in an abrupt
+manner is one of the greatest mistakes that it is possible to make.</p>
+
+<p>Statistics compiled from a healthy Larch plantation, growing on fair
+soil, and in a moderately sheltered position in southern England, will
+now be given, from which a good idea can be formed as to the age and
+size when thinning should be commenced. The trees when planted were 2
+ft. high, and pitted at 3 ft. apart. In four years the outer branches
+began to touch each other, and in six years from time of planting the
+average height of trees was 7 ft. 10 in. and the shade occasioned had
+killed out most of the grassy undergrowth. At this period of growth,
+the disproportion in the size of the trees was, as is usually the case,
+considerable, and left no doubt about which to remove when the first
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_148"></a>[Pg 148]</span>
+thinning took place. Two years afterwards, or in eight years from time
+of planting, thinning was first engaged in, the taller trees at that
+time averaging nearly 11 ft. in height, but many of the suppressed and
+weakly were little more than half that size. Another thinning took
+place during the twelfth year, and in 1911 the trees average 40 ft. in
+height and were standing at a distance of 9 ft. apart. The plantation
+referred to is on the Earl of Derby’s property of Holwood, in Kent.</p>
+
+<p><b>2. To what extent should thinning be engaged in?</b>—In following
+up the latter case, the tallest and healthiest trees were reserved; all
+distorted, sickly, and stunted specimens being removed; but in the case
+of two or more proportionately small trees growing in close proximity,
+the most promising was left, and the others cut away, thus avoiding
+gaps in the plantation. At the first thinning it will be found quite
+impossible to leave the trees anything like regular over the ground,
+although this should be studied as much as possible, and bare spaces
+are to be carefully guarded against. With the vigorous growth of the
+trees, and the interlacing of branches previous to the first thinning,
+no great openings will require to be made, and nothing more than will
+be canopied over during the next two years.</p>
+
+<p><b>3. What time should elapse between each thinning?</b>—This can
+only be correctly decided after a careful inspection of the particular
+wood. Generally speaking, after the first thinning, when the trees were
+eight years old, the lower branches gradually began to give way, and
+as the trees increased in height, this became more and more apparent,
+and formed a good guide as to the time which should elapse before the
+second thinning might profitably be engaged in. The intervals between
+the various thinnings should for the first thirty years in the case
+of Larch—and, indeed, most other trees—be comparatively short,
+but become longer with advance of age; but heavy thinnings must be
+carefully avoided, especially if the best class of coniferous timber is
+to be produced.
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_149"></a>[Pg 149]</span></p>
+
+<p>A well-managed Larch plantation of twenty years’ growth should have
+the trees branchless for about one-half of their height, which is, of
+course, brought about by crowding, and at forty years three-fourths of
+the trunk should be clear of branches.</p>
+
+<p>I have purposely abstained from giving the number of feet apart at
+which trees ought to stand at various stages of their growth, and the
+number of thinnings they require, as being likely to prove misleading.</p>
+
+<p><b>4. The question as to which trees should be removed</b> need cause
+little or no anxiety, as the dead, dying, diseased, and badly-formed
+will naturally receive first attention.</p>
+
+<p>In thinning, the following short rules should be observed:—</p>
+
+<p>1. Thin not at all until the undergrowing vegetation has been
+completely killed out by the overhead foliage, the golden rule of
+sylviculture being to keep the sunshine off the ground until near the
+end of the tree’s career.</p>
+
+<p>2. Thinning should be performed in such a manner as not to reduce the
+value of the crop, but so as to tend to the production of the greatest
+quantity of the most valuable timber in the shortest possible space of
+time.</p>
+
+<p>3. By thinning allow of sufficient light and air to prevent the trees
+becoming drawn up and lanky, but avoid too much space, which induces
+the growth of side branches and detracts from the value of the timber.</p>
+
+<p>4. Keep up the number of trees to the highest possible pitch until they
+are tall, straight and clean, and thin gradually.</p>
+
+<p>5. The danger of suddenly exposing the trees to currents of cold air to
+which they have hitherto been unaccustomed must be carefully guarded
+against and it is a serious mistake to thin in an abrupt or unequal
+manner.</p>
+
+<p>6. In thinning remove all dead and dying trees first, then the
+distorted and stunted, the best grown and healthiest being preserved
+for the permanent crop.</p>
+
+<p>7. Hard-wooded trees require proportionately more space for development
+than conifers, and the annual rings in the timber of the latter should
+be narrow in proportion to those of the former, good quality of
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_150"></a>[Pg 150]</span>
+hard-wooded timber being indicated by broad annual rings, but with
+coniferous wood the reverse is the case.</p>
+
+<p>8. Thinning should be commenced at the central or most sheltered point
+of a plantation, or section of same, so that the outer intact boundary
+may continue to form a barrier to cold winds, which might prove
+injurious to trees that had hitherto stood in close order.</p>
+
+<p>9. In economic forestry, timber trees should be cut down when they have
+arrived at maturity or have ceased to grow. With coniferous trees this
+generally occurs at from seventy to ninety years; but with hardwoods,
+excepting the ash and chestnut, which are of most value, say, up to
+fifty years’ growth, the period may be greatly extended.</p>
+
+<p>10. Thinning is usually performed in autumn and early winter, but
+it may be well to remember that at the latter period the lowest
+percentage of moisture (about 47 per cent.) is present, and the timber
+consequently of the greatest value for constructive purposes.</p>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_151"></a>[Pg 151]</span></p>
+<h2 class="nobreak">CHAPTER XV<br>
+<span class="h_subtitle">TREE-PRUNING IN ECONOMIC FORESTRY</span></h2>
+</div>
+
+<p>Where trees are grown for profit, they will, if properly managed, prune
+themselves, and where for ornament the natural outline is far better
+than any of the contortions and symmetrical shapes that have been
+recommended by various writers on the subject.</p>
+
+<p>A broken or dead branch may be removed, a rival leading shoot cut away,
+or an ungainly or dangerous limb amputated, but here all pruning should
+cease, the practice being wholly wrong and unreasonable, and without
+one recommendation to be adduced in its favour. In an economic way the
+finest plantations of either coniferous or hard-wooded trees in this
+country are those where the individual specimens are growing so thickly
+together that the branches are killed outright for fully one-half
+of their height. Here the stems will be straight and clean, and the
+timber when converted free from the knots and warping that are so
+characteristic either of standard specimens or such as have been grown
+too thinly on the ground.</p>
+
+<p>Every one knows that an Oak growing alone or along the margins of
+a wood is in nine cases out of ten branched almost to the ground,
+and the bole in consequence rough and ill-fitted for any particular
+constructive purpose, and the same may be said of every other tree,
+be it hard-wooded or coniferous. Larch and Scotch Fir trees growing
+along the margins of plantations are rough and knotty, and sell at a
+considerably lower figure compared with those further in, where the
+branches have been killed back gradually as the trees increased in size.
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_152"></a>[Pg 152]</span></p>
+
+<p>The same thing is markedly the case in young woods of ash, oak and
+chestnut, where they have been grown sufficiently thick on the ground
+to kill off the lower branches, and also to cause the trees to rise
+straight, clean and tapering. It is a well-known fact, too, that the
+timber of trees so grown is far more elastic and realizes a much higher
+price than that of the same age grown under conditions where pruning
+might have been a necessity. A case of this kind came under my own
+notice only a short time ago in which one-half of a plantation of
+hard-wooded trees realized fully one-fourth more than the remaining
+half. It came about in this way. Both ends and a large patch in the
+centre of the wood had been thinned out severely for the purpose
+of planting game covert. The trees, standing thinly on the ground,
+branched out and soon covered the open spaces where underwood had been
+planted. In thinning the whole plantation the trees on these particular
+parts were very rough and knotty, and bore no comparison to those where
+they had been left moderately thick on the ground, in consequence
+of which the boles were straight, clean and tapering. This case is
+specially noteworthy, inasmuch as the trees over the whole area were
+growing under exactly similar conditions as to soil, shelter, etc., and
+were of the same age and species.</p>
+
+<p>Great and irreparable damage has been done to woods and plantations in
+this country by too heavy thinnings, by commencing the thinnings at too
+early a period, and by adopting the book method of leaving the trees
+at measured distances apart and a stated number to the acre according
+to the age of the plantation. Such rules can never be expected to work
+satisfactorily, the size of trees depending so much on the character
+of the soil, exposure of the woodland, and other peculiarities of the
+particular district in which they are planted.
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_153"></a>[Pg 153]</span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+  <img id="I_153" src="images/i_153.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="396" >
+  <p class="f110">PRUNING TOOLS</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_154"></a>[Pg 154]</span>
+Timely and judicious thinning should never be neglected, but it is the
+over-thinning, whereby branches and knotty trunks are produced and
+the supposed need for pruning follows, that I wish to deprecate and
+entirely dissent from. Grow your timber trees so thickly on the ground
+that the stems are induced to become straight, clean and branchless for
+the greater part of their height, and on no account admit sufficient
+light and air to cause the lower branches to be retained intact, or, in
+other words, at all times retain an unbroken leaf canopy. The necessity
+for pruning will then be entirely done away with, and a more valuable
+class of timber produced. The losses sustained through injudicious
+planting and the unnecessary and ruinous practice of pruning have taught
+a lesson that is fraught with good for the tree planter of the future.</p>
+
+<p><b>When Pruning is Admissible.</b>—There are a few cases, however,
+where pruning is quite justifiable, and where the abuse of a system
+should furnish no argument against its legitimate use. Hedgerow and
+field timber, for the sake of the live fences, the grass, or the grain
+crop in the vicinity, may require attention in the way of judicious
+pruning.</p>
+
+<p>Again, pruning is sometimes a necessity where standard trees are grown
+in conjunction with coppice wood, as by shortening the lower branches
+the undergrowth in consequence becomes much improved. In the case
+of town trees, too, where it is necessary to restrict the spread of
+branches, pruning is resorted to, as also with old and heavy-headed
+elms and other trees in our parks and public gardens.</p>
+
+<p><b>Pruning Live Branches.</b>—In and around London, as well as many
+other large centres of industry, the hacking and hewing—pruning we
+cannot call it—to which trees are subjected is barbarous in the
+extreme, and calls for the strongest denunciation. To annually prune
+and elbow in such noble forest trees as the lime and plane, in order
+that the restricted growth may render them suitable for the cramped
+positions in which they have been unwisely planted, is little short
+of vandalism. The lime and plane, perhaps, suffer most in this way,
+for as soon as they have overgrown the allotted space an annual system
+of pruning back the branches is resorted to, the result being great
+mop-headed protuberances at the points where amputation took place,
+which not only rob the tree of its graceful natural appearance, but
+render it susceptible to disease and insect pests. There is no need to
+specialize cases where this most objectionable system is carried out,
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_155"></a>[Pg 155]</span>
+for a walk around our squares and gardens will unfortunately reveal
+how prevalent is the maltreatment of trees in the way of pruning.
+There might be some excuse for planting our noblest forest trees
+in cramped and unsuitable positions were there no other species of
+smaller growth that would take their place, but the Pyrus, Cratægus,
+dwarf Acacia, Mulberry, Catalpa and Sumach surely give us sufficient
+scope for choosing trees of restricted growth for confined positions
+and so do away with the barbarous system of pruning which the use of
+large-growing species necessitates.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+  <img id="I_155" src="images/i_155.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="498" >
+  <p class="f110">BAD EFFECTS OF PRUNING</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Even in the case of dwarf avenues and screens it is quite unnecessary
+to use such large-growing trees as the lime and plane where pruning
+must oft be resorted to, for an avenue or screen of thorn or mulberry,
+the <a href ="#I_103">beam tree</a> or mountain ash would be more suitable,
+and in the end far more natural and artistic in appearance.</p>
+
+<p>To sum up in a few words, my contention is that no tree should be
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_156"></a>[Pg 156]</span>
+planted in a position where, in order to keep it within due bounds, a
+systematic clipping and pruning has to be resorted to.</p>
+
+<p><b>Pruning Dead Wood.</b>—Opinions differ greatly as to whether or
+not dead branches should be removed from park and woodland trees. It
+is, however, mainly a matter of taste, and a point on which two of the
+largest owners of woodlands in this country hold distinctly opposite
+opinions, though at the same time it cannot be denied that the careful
+removal of all dead and dying wood from a tree is highly beneficial.
+Pruning should, however, only be extended to such trees as are in a
+fairly healthy condition, with well-developed heads, and containing
+only a moderate quantity of dead wood, there being many fine old
+specimens that would be rendered unsightly in the extreme and receive
+no benefit from removal of the dead and dying timber, but this has
+direct reference to trees standing singly throughout the park, and not
+to specimens in the woodland.</p>
+
+<p>In many of our parks and woodlands at the present time there exists
+an undue quantity of dead and dying wood, which may be attributed
+to natural decay, the quality of the soil, and in some instances to
+long-standing neglect in the matter of non-attention to wounds which
+have been caused by wind-broken limbs and branches. Such trees would
+be greatly improved, both in health and appearance, by judicious
+removal of the dead branches and attention to old wounds in order to
+prevent the ingress of water, the decay of many branches being directly
+attributable to this cause. That an undue quantity of dead wood will
+induce injurious insect pests, such as the goat and wood leopard moths,
+which attack healthy trees, is well known, and was exemplified in one
+of our London parks recently where numerous young thorns and various
+species of Pyrus were injured by the latter. In removing dead branches
+cut them well back into the living wood in order to induce fresh growth
+at the point where amputation takes place. The removal of large dead
+limbs from old specimen trees is an operation that requires a great
+amount of skill, and should only be entrusted to those who have had
+practical experience of pruning in its various phases. As before stated,
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_157"></a>[Pg 157]</span>
+the removal of dead wood is merely a matter of sentiment, though of its
+practical utility there can be no doubt, and in all cases where the
+stag-headed trees are conspicuous, the removal of the dead wood is to
+be recommended.</p>
+
+<p><b>Pruning Shrubs.</b>—Generally speaking, shrubs are pruned with
+little or no consideration as to whether they will be benefited by the
+operation. While symmetry and regularity of outline are to be admired
+in a shrub, these qualities should never be gained at the expense of
+natural grace and production of flowers. The judicious pruner will,
+therefore, aim at preserving the peculiar habit of each shrub as far as
+possible, while interfering but little with the production of flowers.
+The various species of Deutzia, Forsythia, Philadelphus and Weigela
+flower on the wood of the previous year’s growth; therefore such shrubs
+should be pruned immediately after the flowering season—say in June,
+but never in spring or winter—at least, if the production of flowers
+is to be taken into account. Again, the various species of Syringa,
+Spiræa, Lonicera and Hibiscus may safely be pruned during winter, the
+flowers being produced on the young wood; while <i>Hydrangea paniculata
+grandiflora</i> must be severely pruned in early spring, for only by so
+doing will the greatest wealth of flowers be produced. <i>Chimonanthus
+fragrans</i> should be pruned in February; while the various species
+of Ceanothus should not be touched till all danger of frost is past.
+<i>Kerria japonica</i> should be pruned in autumn, when old wood may be
+cut away.</p>
+
+<p>All pruning operations should be carefully carried out with a sharp
+knife and not with the pruning shears, the point of amputation being
+always close to an eye or bud. Too severe pruning should be avoided,
+a judicious thinning out of the branches being far preferable to
+indiscriminate shearing and cutting back.</p>
+
+<p><b>How and when to Prune.</b>—The latter part of May or beginning
+of June is undoubtedly the best season for pruning the majority of
+hard-wooded trees, as during that time the motion of the sap is most
+vigorous, and in consequence the wounds caused by amputation heal most
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_158"></a>[Pg 158]</span>
+quickly. There are a few exceptions—the birch, sycamore and
+maple—where, on account of profuse bleeding, pruning had best be
+postponed till after full foliage has been attained.</p>
+
+<p>Much mischief has been done by the pruning knife, and still more by the
+handbill and saw when placed in the hands of inexperienced workmen—a
+fact that is apparent to any interested person who visits various parts
+of the country.</p>
+
+<p>When conducted with care, on sound principles, the effect of pruning
+on the class of timber referred to is highly beneficial, whereas, when
+done in a haphazard way and by an inexperienced hand, it is often
+attended with great danger and grave results.</p>
+
+<p>In cutting or foreshortening small branches, a sharp pocket-knife will
+be found most convenient, but when large limbs have to be removed the
+pruning saw should be brought into request. The branch to be removed,
+especially if of large size and weighty, should first be cut through at
+any convenient distance from the main stem, thus preventing splitting
+and tearing of the bark, after which the stump may be neatly sawn
+through as close to the bole of the tree as possible. Undercutting by a
+few draughts of the saw will here also go far in preventing tearing of
+the wood and bark. So as to render the saw-cut smooth and prevent water
+lodging on the surface, the face and edge should be neatly dressed with
+an adze or sharp pruning knife, and then painted with tar. When cutting
+over an upright-growing branch, such as in pollarding trees, etc.,
+never cut on the horizontal, but always in a sloping direction, so that
+the rain may pass off quickly.</p>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_159"></a>[Pg 159]</span></p>
+<h2 class="nobreak">CHAPTER XVI<br>
+<span class="h_subtitle">BRACING AND REPAIRING TREES</span></h2>
+</div>
+
+<p>Though occasionally resorted to in olden times, particularly in the
+case of orchard trees, it is only of late years that the systematic
+treatment of tree wounds and diseases has been generally adopted. Even
+at the present time, the filling of hollow trunks, bracing of heavy and
+diseased branches and attention to insect and fungoid pests are rarely
+engaged in and but imperfectly understood.</p>
+
+<p>When the value of old trees in an ornamental or utilitarian sense is
+taken into account, it is remarkable what a small amount of attention
+they receive when subjected to accident or disease. As a general rule,
+cavities or hollows in a tree stem, if left to themselves, gradually
+increase in size until the ascending sap is entirely cut off, when the
+crumbling stem either falls to pieces or is broken over by the wind. A
+branch requires to be braced or strengthened when from its weight and
+shape it is likely to get wrenched from the main stem during stormy
+weather and so injure the tree or man its natural beauty.</p>
+
+<p>Both insect and fungoid pests do a considerable amount of damage to
+trees, both young and old, but as special chapters are devoted to their
+depredations they need only receive a passing notice here.</p>
+
+<p><b>Hollow Trunks and their Treatment.</b>—However desirable it may
+be to repair hollow trunks, yet a great deal of discrimination is
+necessary in deciding which trees should be operated upon, especially
+in the case of such as are reduced to mere shells and are not likely to
+derive any benefit commensurate with the labour and cost of materials
+involved in bracing and filling.
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_160"></a>[Pg 160]</span></p>
+
+<p>Young, healthy, vigorous growing trees, that have become damaged or
+diseased, should in the majority of instances be attended to; but in
+the case of old specimens on which a great amount of labour and money
+would necessarily have to be expended, several important bearings must
+be considered before works of repair are taken in hand. Historic and
+valuable trees, those occupying prominent positions on a lawn or park,
+town trees where vegetation is scarce, and such as are not too old and
+fragile, may be dealt with within certain bounds, but to doctor all
+diseased and hollow trees on the most approved principle in such places
+as Epping Forest or Burnham Beeches would be highly imprudent, whether
+in view of the little benefit which in many instances would accrue by
+so doing or of the great expense involved in such an operation.</p>
+
+<p>The filling, too, must be adapted to circumstances, and to deal with
+the entire trunk of a hollow tree is in most cases quite out of the
+question, both from the point of utility and expense. Short-lived
+trees, such as the Alder, Birch and Poplar, or such as are liable
+to sudden attacks of insect and fungoid pests, and those that are
+unfavourably situated in mining and chemical areas, should be scantily
+dealt with, but the practical woodman will see at a glance which trees
+are best worthy of his attention and treatment.</p>
+
+<p>Probably the simplest, and certainly the cheapest method of dealing
+with diseased and hollow trunks is to clean out thoroughly all dead
+and decaying matter, the interior being scraped and swept with a
+rough brush, so that the loose rotting wood and bark is removed. When
+quite dry, the interior of the trunk should be painted with one, or
+preferably with two coats of creosote or carbolineum, and filled up
+with a composition of one part of Portland cement to three of clean
+gravel and sand, the surface coating at the orifice containing the
+largest quantity of cement. A coat of coal tar on top of the dry
+creosote goes far in making the concrete adhere firmly to the wood.</p>
+
+<p>When a fairly healthy tree is being operated upon, and when the bark is
+likely to grow over the exposed surface, the concrete should only be
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_161"></a>[Pg 161]</span>
+brought up on a level with the underside of the living bark; in other
+words, the cambium should be left free for expansion. Sometimes,
+brickbats, broken small, are used instead of gravel, but for various
+reasons concrete is preferable. The concrete surface may be prevented
+from cracking by applying annually a coat of paint, which, for
+appearance sake, may be of a similar colour to that of the bark of the
+tree.</p>
+
+<p>In the case of a large tree in which the trunk is quite hollow, usually
+with a basal and top opening, the amount of cement required to fill the
+cavity precludes the possibility of it being employed on the score of
+economy, but where the hollow only extends for a comparatively short
+distance upwards and inwards the composition is to be recommended. When
+a large amount of material is required to fill a hollow stem, clean
+bricks broken to about the size of a golf ball may be used, but they
+must be packed firmly and the surface, wherever it comes in contact
+with the weather, glazed over with cement in order to effectually shut
+out dampness. Asphalt has of late years been employed in the filling of
+hollow stems, and is to be recommended on account of its elasticity and
+lasting properties.</p>
+
+<p>Sometimes, the interior of a large, hollow tree stem is strengthened
+by crossbeams of timber, any holes which extend to the outside being
+carefully covered with sheet lead or zinc so as to prevent the ingress
+of water. A sheet of lead or zinc is, however, only a superficial
+remedy and should be dispensed with where filling the cavity is at all
+practicable. Lead, in some cases, is preferable to zinc for covering
+wounds in trees, as it fits into position more readily and is easily fixed.</p>
+
+<p>The treatment of hollow stems without filling the cavity is in certain
+instances quite permissible, and can be carried out at a comparatively
+small cost. Broadly speaking, this method consists in cleaning out all
+decayed and decaying matter, painting the interior with carbolineum or
+tar, and, where possible, bracing the trunk from the interior by means
+of stout crossbars of wood and covering surface holes with lead, zinc
+or sheet copper. When a tree trunk is hollow from top to bottom this
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_162"></a>[Pg 162]</span>
+method is to be recommended, and stout struts placed within the cavity
+at various of the weaker points will go far towards preserving many
+an aged specimen. When the cavity in a hollow stem is so large that
+a person can enter it, the work of either filling with a suitable
+composition or supporting with wooden struts is greatly simplified.</p>
+
+<p>Recent experiments have proved the value of a mixture of sawdust and
+asphalt for filling cavities. It is particularly valuable in cases
+where concrete is too rigid and unyielding, such as in dealing with
+trunks and branches that are apt to be swayed about in stormy weather.
+The materials are dry sawdust, that of Oak, Chestnut and Beech being
+preferable, and solid asphalt derived from the refining of petroleum,
+which is at present in use for filling the interstices of street
+pavements in various parts of the metropolis.</p>
+
+<p>For filling cavities in heavy, swaying branches, one part of asphalt
+to four of clean, dry sawdust will form a mixture that is non-rigid
+and yields with the motion of the branch in which it is inserted.
+In dealing with the trunk, which is more rigid and less affected in
+stormy weather, a larger quantity of sawdust should be used. The
+filling is made by stirring dry sawdust into boiling asphalt until
+the desired consistency is reached, and before the composition has
+cooled, it should be inserted in the previously prepared cavity. As in
+cement filling, the preparation of cavities to be filled with sawdust
+and asphalt should be carefully attended to, the decayed wood and
+all soft and rotten material being removed, and the interior surface
+rendered sterile by an application of carbolineum or kerosene. For
+wound dressings, gas tar and liquid asphalt is to be recommended, this
+combination forming a more continuous and elastic covering than is the
+case when tar or paint alone is used.</p>
+
+<p>Where the cavity is small and, as is often the case, filled with water
+and decayed and decaying vegetable matter, the following course is
+recommended:—When only a few inches deep, the water can usually be got
+rid of by mopping it out with a sponge attached to a convenient handle,
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_163"></a>[Pg 163]</span>
+but when the hole is too deep for this method the water may be
+extracted by tapping, that is by boring a hole with an auger through
+the trunk to the bottom of the hole. A half-inch auger will suffice,
+and the correct spot to bore can usually be ascertained by measuring
+the depth of the hole. After the water has been removed the cavity
+must be thoroughly cleared of all decaying tissue and accumulated
+vegetable matter, and in order that this may be done effectually, it
+may sometimes be necessary to enlarge the opening so that a suitable
+tool can be inserted.</p>
+
+<p>When the cavity has become quite dry—a matter of considerable
+importance—it should be treated with creosote or carbolineum and
+afterwards filled with concrete in the proportion of one part of cement
+to four of clean gravel. Ram the concrete firm so that the cavity is
+perfectly filled, and finish off at the orifice with pure cement in
+such a way that the cambium may be induced to form a growth over the
+edge of the filling.</p>
+
+<p>A cheap but temporary method of dealing with small hollows and cavities
+in fruit and other trees, is to fill these with a mixture of clay and
+cow-dung in the proportion of two of the former to one of the latter.
+Knead well and apply when in the consistency of putty, cleaning and
+disinfecting the hollows before filling.</p>
+
+<p><b>Supporting Heavy and Diseased Branches.</b>—A limb requires to be
+braced or strengthened when from its weight and shape it is likely to
+get wrenched from the main stem during stormy weather, when the weight
+of the minor branches and foliage is too great for the strength of the
+limb, when the wood of the tree is unusually brittle, when trunk or
+limb is decayed, and when, from accident, the tree has become one-sided
+and lost its natural appearance.</p>
+
+<p>Forked trees often require staying, as also do such as have suddenly
+become exposed to storms to which they have hitherto been unaccustomed.
+But probably in the matter of bracing and strengthening, the most
+important of all trees are those in our public parks and such as are
+contiguous to or overshadow dwelling-houses. Park trees should receive
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_164"></a>[Pg 164]</span>
+special attention in the way of making sure that limbs are secure and
+not likely to cause injury to visitors; while in the case of heavy
+branches hanging over dwelling-houses these should be carefully and
+periodically examined and made secure whenever it is found necessary.
+Should there be any doubt as to whether a limb is insecure and
+dangerous, a decision should be made in favour of bracing or reducing
+the weight by pruning.</p>
+
+<p>Unwieldy and heavy limbs are most commonly to be found on isolated
+trees, or such as have had plenty of room for the perfect development
+of stem and branch. As the loss of one or more of the larger branches
+often mars the ornamental appearance of a specimen tree, every
+reasonable means should be employed to prevent such a disfigurement.
+By reducing the weight of a branch by pruning, or by giving support to
+any that are heavy and diseased by means of wires, chains or light iron
+bands and connecting-rods, the trouble may be averted. In all cases
+the object should be to unite the branches in such a way that they
+may offer the greatest amount of resistance to the storm, and at the
+same time be neither conspicuous nor clumsy in appearance owing to the
+operation.</p>
+
+<p>Chains, though often used, probably owing to their being readily
+obtainable and cheap, are for various reasons to be avoided, the flat
+iron band lined with leather or rubber being preferable, more readily
+adjusted, and less likely to cut into the bark and wood. The bands,
+which can be made by any blacksmith, are usually 2½ in. wide, and
+of the shape of the branch to be encircled, each being in two parts to
+facilitate fixing and to allow of slackening at any future time should
+the necessity arise. The band is made of a larger size than the branch
+to be encircled, so as to allow of the insertion of a leather or rubber
+collar between it and the wood, the purpose of the packing being to
+prevent undue friction and chafing of the bark owing to the movement of
+the tree. The bands, whether placed around two opposite branches or the
+main stem and a branch, are connected together by a light iron rod and,
+according to the strain, may be from one-half to three-quarters of an
+inch in diameter. This rod, like the bands, is divided into two parts,
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_165"></a>[Pg 165]</span>
+which are connected by a swivel and screw for convenience in loosening
+or tightening.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+  <img id="I_165" src="images/i_165.jpg" alt="" width="400" height="554" >
+  <p class="f110">BRACING A TREE</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Great care is necessary in choosing the point at which a band should be
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_166"></a>[Pg 166]</span>
+placed, and in deciding which branches or branch and stem should be
+joined together, so that the greatest resistance may be obtained and in
+order that the one may act as a support to the other. The shape of the
+tree and disposition of the stem and branches can alone be the guides
+in this matter. In comparison with the use of a chain, the advantages
+of this method of supporting heavy branches are principally ease of
+fixing, greater rigidity, less friction, adaptability for loosening or
+tightening as may be required, and better results.</p>
+
+<p>Accurate measurements as to the size and shape of the limb to be
+operated upon must be taken and the girdling hoops made accordingly.
+The best way to take these is to ascend the tree, and, after deciding
+as to the points where bracing is to take place, encircle each branch
+with a strip of hoop-iron, which will not only give the size but shape
+of the particular limb, a most important point where neatness is
+studied and after-chafing of the bark and wood is to be avoided.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+  <img id="I_166" src="images/i_166.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="388" >
+  <p class="f110">BAND AND CONNECTING-ROD</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>In the case of old trees, or such as are not likely to greatly increase
+in size, the bands need not be much larger than the actual size of the
+branches to which they are to be affixed, but where the tree is young
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_167"></a>[Pg 167]</span>
+and vigorous, room for expansion should be provided. Fixing the
+bands and connecting-rods is readily accomplished either by the use
+of ladders or by climbing the trunk and slinging the portions into
+position by means of ropes. The exigencies of each case will point out
+the best means of carrying out the work, as also the height at which
+the supports can most effectively be placed. When damaged or diseased
+branches are being dealt with, great care is necessary to ensure that
+the bands are placed in such positions that the greatest leverage
+against wind is afforded, and so as to minimize the risk of the branch
+being broken across at the weakened point during stormy weather.</p>
+
+<p>Frequently, where the main trunk divides into two or more portions near
+ground level, it will be found that a split or crack has been caused by
+the swaying of the divided stems. In such cases the split between the
+stems should be carefully cleaned out, treated with an antiseptic and
+filled with asphalt. The limbs should then be braced together by means
+of a band and connecting-rod, and, as the asphalt becomes set, the
+brace may be tightened up as may be found necessary.</p>
+
+<p>Rarely is it found necessary to place a band around the stem of a
+tree to prevent splitting. Where, however, appearances point to the
+likelihood of this taking place, as in the case of forked trees,
+especially when the stem divides abruptly into two or three heavy
+limbs, it is a wise precaution to encircle the bole with a wide band
+of iron. This band should be placed at such a height that the greatest
+possible resistance to splitting of the stem is afforded. Such bands
+are usually proportionate to the strain of the stem to which they are
+to act as support. A band of leather or rubber between the iron and
+bark of the tree to allow for expansion of the stem is necessary.</p>
+
+<p>Supporting tree branches by chains is not to be recommended, for the
+simple reason that, however carefully they may be adjusted, friction
+and chafing of the bark and wood is sooner or later bound to ensue.
+Connecting the <a href ="#I_166">flat iron bands</a>, already referred to, by means
+of chains or strand wire, is, however, not so open to objection nor attended with
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_168"></a>[Pg 168]</span>
+such ill effects as is the case when the chain or wire is placed
+in direct contact with the branch, for even with the most careful
+adjusting and packing, the uneven surface of a chain, with its saw-like
+action during stormy weather, soon renders the belting useless for the
+purpose intended, and both bark and wood suffer in consequence.</p>
+
+<p>Occasionally we see holes bored through the live branch or trunk in
+order to fix the binding rod or chain—a most reprehensible practice
+that, fortunately, has few supporters amongst those who have even had a
+cursory knowledge of trees and their growth.</p>
+
+<p>It is, however, generally admitted that there are several disadvantages
+connected with bracing trees with iron rods that pass through holes
+bored in the trunk or branch. However carefully this operation may be
+performed, there are grave risks from insect and fungoid attacks in
+holes that have been made in living wood, as the friction caused by the
+movement of the tree renders healing of the wound quite problematical.
+Further, the movement of an embedded iron rod is not only apt to cause
+friction with the wood but the strain must often be in an opposite
+direction to that which was intended, this increasing with the diameter
+of the stem or branch.</p>
+
+<p>Another untidy, slipshod and most objectionable method of staying a
+tree is by using wire as a band around the trunk. This certainly has
+the virtue of cheapness, but in so far as efficiency is concerned, and
+especially in the case of old trees, it is to be deprecated.</p>
+
+<p>In the repairing and strengthening of tree limbs it should consistently
+be borne in mind that any girdle or band that either partially or
+wholly constricts the growth of a branch defeats its own object
+by preventing the uninterrupted flow of sap and impairing the
+strength of the limb. With care in forming the band and a proper
+method of adjusting it, there is no reason why the desired object
+of strengthening a stem or branch may not be attained. On the other
+hand, a badly formed, narrow band, too tightly applied and without the
+requisite packing, may in a short space of time be productive of the
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_169"></a>[Pg 169]</span>
+most unsatisfactory results, particularly in the case of young and
+fast-growing trees. The main point is that the bands should be fixed
+in such a way that friction to the bark is avoided and the flow of sap
+uninterrupted. Unfortunately in the past this has not in all cases
+been carefully provided against, with the result that the bands,
+owing to their being too small, gradually became embedded in the wood
+and, by injuring the cambium and preventing the flow of sap, defeated
+the object for which they were intended. For fuller information on
+doctoring trees, the reader is referred to my book on <i>Tree Wounds
+and Diseases</i>.</p>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_170"></a>[Pg 170]</span></p>
+<h2 class="nobreak">CHAPTER XVII<br>
+<span class="h_subtitle">COPPICE AND UNDERWOOD:<br>
+<span class="fs_90">THE MANAGEMENT OF COPPICE WOOD</span></span></h2>
+</div>
+
+<p>Although coppice wood has deteriorated considerably in value during
+late years, yet in certain districts and on suitable soils its
+cultivation is still to be recommended. Unfortunately, however, the
+uses to which coppice wood are in the main applied are much localized,
+and this, with the bulky nature of the commodity, will to a very
+considerable extent restrict its sale to the localities in which it is
+used. Thus in parts of Kent and Sussex hop poles find a ready market,
+pea and bean stakes in the gardening districts around London, crate
+wood in the neighbourhood of potteries, willow and ash in basket-making
+localities, and faggot wood wherever kilns abound, or in the environs
+of populous districts generally. It will, therefore, be seen that next
+to the question of soil probably the most important is that of local
+demand, so that in forming a coppice plantation only such underwood
+should be used as there is a demand for in the particular district.
+Foreign importations and preferential carriage rates have also dealt
+hardly with the profitable cultivation of coppice wood. Coppice wood
+may either be grown alone or in company with large standard trees, but
+the latter must at all times be kept sufficiently thin, so as not to
+overshadow and kill out the undergrowth. There are advantages, too, in
+employing standards for the protection they afford to the young shoots
+in spring, as also in the amount realized for the periodical thinnings
+to which they may be subjected. For this purpose the oak is to be
+recommended, but such wide-spreading trees as the ash, elm and beech,
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_171"></a>[Pg 171]</span>
+which produce so dense a shade as to kill out or seriously injure
+all vegetation that might spring up beneath them, are to be avoided.
+Generally where the health and vigour of the coppice wood are points
+of first consideration, it will not be advisable to allow the standard
+trees to occupy altogether more than about one-fifth of the wooded
+area; and even then the lower branches should be pruned off, so that
+the effects of shade will be mitigated as much as possible. As to the
+woods which coppice most freely, the ash, oak and hazel occupy the
+first rank, at least in a profitable sense, the elm, willow, beech,
+birch, hornbeam, alder and sycamore occupying a second, but, as before
+stated, the nature of the soil, and less so the altitude and exposure,
+have everything to do with the particular species that will succeed
+best. Thus ash will do well where the soil is moist and loamy, the
+Spanish chestnut in sandy or gravelly districts, for rich plains and
+hollows the oak will be most remunerative, the alder and willow in
+marshy ground, and where bare and exposed, the birch, hazel, beech and
+hornbeam will succeed best.</p>
+
+<p>The preparation of the land and planting for coppice are similar in all
+respects to that adopted for the growing of an ordinary timber crop.
+Where the ground is too wet, draining should be judiciously engaged
+in, while trenching, although expensive at first, is amply compensated
+for in the increased growth and vigour of the underwood. The pits for
+planting may be made from 3½ ft. to 4 ft. apart, and, if the ground
+was previously trenched, of sufficient size to hold the roots without
+undue cramping. It is always well to keep the stools tolerably close
+together, as the shoots take a more erect habit and are straighter
+and more valuable than when allowed too much space and side room. Two
+years after being planted, or at the end of the second autumn, the
+young trees, excepting such as it may be thought advisable to leave as
+standards, should be cut over near ground level. This cutting is a most
+important operation, and should only be performed by skilled workmen,
+with tools of the best description well sharpened. The cut should be
+clean and directed upwards, all splitting of the stems and tearing of
+the bark being assiduously guarded against as conducive to decay and
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_172"></a>[Pg 172]</span>
+early death to the stools. After four years’ growth the shoots should
+be thinned out, leaving, say, four on each stool, and these preferably
+the strongest, the work being carried out at any time from November to
+the end of March, but not during frosty weather.</p>
+
+<p>Upon the kind of wood grown and uses for which it is designed will
+depend very much the length of rotation pursued, for while osiers might
+profitably be cut at the end of the second year, ash, oak and chestnut
+would not usually, even on the best quality of soil, be felled sooner
+than from ten to twelve years, and the poorer classes of coppice wood,
+especially on light soil, at from twelve to sixteen years. It should
+be remembered, however, that the duration of the stool is usually
+proportionate to the length of the rotation adopted, and with good
+management on fair soil the best class of coppice wood has a duration
+of nearly a century. In felling the coppice wood it is always advisable
+to cut as near the ground level as possible, the shoots sent up having
+the advantage of rooting in the ground and so extending the area of
+the stool. The system of allowing the stools, by careless cutting, to
+rise in some instances several feet from the ground is contrary to the
+methods adopted under the best management. A sharp billhook should be
+used for all smaller shoots, a light well-ground axe for those from 3
+to, say, 6 inches in diameter, and the cross-cut saw for all over that
+size.</p>
+
+<p>The coppice wood is usually sorted out after being cut down, the best
+poles being laid aside for the use of the hop grower, the next size for
+pit props, or fencing according to the demand of the moment, and so on
+until every pole has been sorted according to the use for which it may
+be intended, the lop and branches being bound into faggots for fire or
+oven-lighting.</p>
+
+<p>The following are the various uses to which underwood is applied:
+hoops, hurdles, crate rods, pea stakes, spars for thatching, withes for
+faggot-tying, sheep cages, hop poles, brooms, broom handles, skewers
+for butchers, chisel handles, plant stakes, whip handles, gunpowder
+wood and faggots.</p>
+
+<p>Profits will vary from 15<i>s.</i> to 25<i>s.</i> per acre, exclusive of
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_173"></a>[Pg 173]</span>
+the standards which are left, and the crop, according to age and
+quality, will realize from £5 per acre downwards.</p>
+
+<p>Great care is necessary to avoid damage to the stools when removing
+the fall, which is not usually done until just before the young buds
+are shooting out, and consequently at the time when injury is most
+easily brought about. The trampling of horses and passage of wheels
+are most injurious, while the browsing of cattle should be carefully
+guarded against. Good roads are always a great advantage in a coppice
+plantation, and to these as much of the produce as possible should be
+carried for loading, thus avoiding damage to the stools.</p>
+
+<p>Although the growth of coppice wood has its disadvantages, particularly
+in park scenery, yet it is valuable in this way, that should the crop
+from local circumstances not be found remunerative, the plantation can
+at any time be converted into a standing wood by allowing the best and
+strongest shoots from the stools to form the permanent crop.</p>
+
+<p>The approximate cost of forming a coppice wood per acre is as follows:—</p>
+
+<table class="spb1">
+   <tbody><tr class="fs_120">
+      <td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td>
+      <td class="tdc_wsp"><b>£</b></td>
+      <td class="tdc_wsp"><b><i>s.</i></b></td>
+      <td class="tdc_wsp"><b><i>d.</i></b></td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">Trenching at 2<i>s.</i> per rod</td>
+      <td class="tdc">16</td>
+      <td class="tdc">0</td>
+      <td class="tdc">0</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">5,000 trees at 35<i>s.</i> per 1,000&emsp;&nbsp;</td>
+      <td class="tdr_wsp">8</td>
+      <td class="tdc">15</td>
+      <td class="tdc">0</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">Pitting and planting</td>
+      <td class="tdr_wsp bb">2</td>
+      <td class="tdc bb">5</td>
+      <td class="tdc bb">0</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td>
+      <td class="tdc">£27</td>
+      <td class="tdc">0</td>
+      <td class="tdc">0</td>
+   </tr>
+ </tbody>
+</table>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_174"></a>[Pg 174]</span></p>
+<h2 class="nobreak">CHAPTER XVIII<br>
+<span class="h_subtitle">THE FORMATION AND MANAGEMENT<br> OF GAME COVERTS</span></h2>
+</div>
+
+<p>When we consider that on not a few estates in this country the value
+of the plantations as game coverts is wellnigh of as much importance
+as that of the timber produced, it will be readily seen that the
+successful formation and management of these is a matter of no small
+moment to those entrusted with the work. That game-rearing and economic
+forestry can be advantageously carried on in the same woods is,
+however, a contention we by no means feel inclined to uphold, and from
+which, being apart from the subject matter of the chapter, we will for
+the present stand aloof.</p>
+
+<p>Game coverts may be divided into two kinds, natural and
+artificial—natural when the woods are kept sufficiently thin to admit
+of the free growth of bramble, bracken or other native vegetation;
+and artificial when the planting of such shrubs as are suitable for
+underwood is resorted to.</p>
+
+<p>Natural game coverts, which, by most sportsmen, are considered superior
+to those artificially formed, can only exist where the plantations are
+kept well and regularly thinned, so as to admit abundance of both light
+and air—the two principal requisites for the successful growth of
+natural underwood. Generally speaking, the formation of natural coverts
+has seldom to be helped, although occasionally it is found necessary
+to assist Nature by the sowing of such seeds as those of gorse, broom,
+etc., in the thinner and more open portions of the woodlands. This may,
+however, be considered an exception to the rule, as where the woods are
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_175"></a>[Pg 175]</span>
+kept sufficiently thin, spontaneous undergrowth is usually pretty
+abundant, and requires neither care nor management, beyond preventing
+its too free incursions along the margins of roads and shooting drives.
+Where, however, bare patches do occur, the sowing of seed may be relied
+upon as not only a speedy but most effectual method of increasing
+the cover. Where seeds are intended to be sown, the soil should be
+dug over, and all hard clods or lumps broken down, and the whole
+made smooth and fine with a rake. The seeds may be sown in spring,
+and afterwards covered over with hardwood branches as a preservative
+against the depredations of small birds and game.</p>
+
+<p>The best natural game coverts are those composed of bramble, gorse,
+heath, hazel, holly, blackthorn, elder, blackberry, bracken or the
+stronger growing grasses, these being arranged according to merit, and
+each possessing some peculiar feature, specially recommending it for
+planting in certain soils, altitudes or situations.</p>
+
+<p>In the formation of artificial game coverts, when not only shelter and
+protection for game are required, but ornamental effect as well, the
+judicious grouping of the different shrubs should never be lost sight
+of, more especially when the coverts are within the park or policy
+grounds, and visible from drives and roads. Formality and stiffness are
+so often the characteristics of the present style of shrub planting,
+that in many cases our woodlands seem utterly destitute of that variety
+of outline and contrast of light and shade so essential to picturesque
+beauty. In planting evergreen shrubs for the two-fold purpose of covert
+and ornament, the best method is to plant each variety in separate
+groups or clumps. No hard and fast lines can be laid down as to the
+distribution or number of plants to be used in the clumps, which, to a
+great extent, must depend on the size and shape of the ground as well
+as taste of the operator. The clumps should, however, be placed at
+irregular distances apart, be irregular in size and outline, and with
+from forty or fifty to one hundred plants in each—bearing in mind that
+game of all kinds delight in small patches of shrubs with abundance of
+open space around each, but detest in a most marked manner continuous
+masses or jungles of underwood.
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_176"></a>[Pg 176]</span></p>
+
+<p>In selecting sites for the various groups, be careful to choose the
+most open positions, avoiding as much as possible planting immediately
+under the spread of trees; and, if practicable, so arrange that in
+viewing the wood from any point, the eye may not pass along a straight
+bare unplanted space, but become arrested by the various clumps in
+passing to the farther side.</p>
+
+<p>Having arranged the positions of the various clumps, the pits should
+be opened of a size, and at a distance apart suitable for the plants
+intended to be used, taking care that they are sufficiently large to
+avoid cramping or bending of the roots, which in all cases should be
+spread out to their full extent. In making the pits, it is well to
+thoroughly loosen the soil in the bottom and sides with a pick, so as
+to give the tender rootlets a free course when starting into growth
+in spring. Should the soil be found of inferior quality, a few loads
+of leaf-mould, road-scrapings or loam from an adjoining field will be
+found to work wonders in the way of giving the plants a start, and also
+in producing a strong, healthy growth. Drainage should also have been
+attended to previous to opening the pits, and all stagnant water or
+superfluous moisture removed by the formation of open ditches.</p>
+
+<p>In giving a list of the best evergreen shrubs for covert purposes, I
+would call attention particularly to the merits of laurel, box, privet,
+laurustinus, rhododendron, holly and yew, as these have been very
+extensively used for underwood, and with the best possible results.
+As to which of the above shrubs should receive pre-eminence as an
+ornamental covert plant I cannot decide, each having some peculiar
+merit rendering it valuable in its own particular place. We will for
+the present, however, consider all alike in this respect, and briefly
+describe the value of each separately, beginning with the laurel.</p>
+
+<p>The <b>Common</b> and <b>Colchic</b> laurels are amongst our best
+shrubs for underwood, and should be planted extensively; they are of
+free growth, bear cutting and pruning well, and thrive under the shade
+and drip of other trees. For covert planting the Colchic is perhaps
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_177"></a>[Pg 177]</span>
+preferable to the normal form, as it is of a more dense and procumbent
+habit, perfectly hardy, and less liable to injury from hares and
+rabbits. The common laurel requires frequent and heavy pruning to keep
+it in bounds, as, if allowed to ramble at will, it soon becomes bare
+near the ground, and useless either as game covert or ornament. Some
+years ago we layered a great number of this plant that had through
+neglect become useless for the purpose intended, many being from 12
+ft. to over 20 ft. in height, with simply a tuft of foliage near the
+top. In layering, the stems were sawn half through near the ground, to
+assist in bending, and laid flat on their sides, a couple of stout pegs
+being driven alongside, the crooked heads of which served to keep the
+plants in their procumbent position. A spadeful of soil was then placed
+on the top of each peg to assist the layer in rooting. The result at
+the present time is everything that could be desired, each stem having
+thrown up quantities of young shoots, and thus formed a jungle of
+underwood, which year by year will increase in value.</p>
+
+<p>In planting the laurel for covert avoid overcrowding, as, being of
+quick growth, the plants, even although placed at a considerable
+distance apart, soon unite and form a continuous undergrowth. No rule
+can be laid down as to the distance which should be allowed between
+individual plants, this depending entirely on their size, as well
+as on the quality of the soil in which they are to be planted. We
+not unfrequently plant double thick, either for immediate effect, or
+to produce covert at once, and when the plants begin to encroach on
+each other every alternate one is removed, thus giving the remaining
+plants ample room for developing side branches and thereby inducing a
+dwarf-spreading habit. Having a tendency, especially when confined,
+to increase more in height than width, the laurel, after a few years’
+growth, should have all the leading and straggling upper branches
+cut over, by which not only will the under shoots be increased but
+the plants will be prevented from running up into tall, branchless
+specimens.</p>
+
+<p>The <b>Green Tree Box</b> (<i>Buxus sempervirens</i>) forms a very
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_178"></a>[Pg 178]</span>
+pretty as well as desirable covert plant, and thrives well beneath
+the shade of deciduous trees. It is also of slow, dense growth, and
+well adapted for planting in various soils and situations, although
+preferring a light loam and a shady position. Another recommendation is
+its immunity from the attacks of game, hares and rabbits having such
+an aversion to this plant that even during the most severe weather
+I cannot remember having seen it badly injured. Few plants suffer
+more from overcrowding than the box, and for this reason it should be
+planted at wide distances apart, the plants soon getting top-heavy and
+falling over of their own accord. Where the plants are not of large
+size, and immediate effect or covert is required, they may be planted
+pretty close, and in a few years, when encroaching on each other, every
+alternate one may be removed. It is well adapted for transplanting,
+the almost solid mass of matted roots holding the ball of earth firmly
+together, thus rendering the plant one of our easiest as well as safest
+to remove.</p>
+
+<p>The box would seem at one time to have been more abundant in our own
+land than it now is; thus, Boxley in Kent, Boxwell in Gloucestershire,
+and Boxhill in Surrey, were named from the quantity of this plant which
+was formerly found in their neighbourhoods.</p>
+
+<p><b>Privet</b>, as a covert plant, has its advantages and disadvantages.
+On the one hand it is cheap, easily grown, and not at all fastidious
+about soil. When planted amongst trees, however, it generally assumes
+a loose, straggling habit, and as the shade increases it usually dies
+out altogether. Where the plantations are well thinned and regularly
+kept so, privet, if a little care and trouble be expended on its
+cultivation, will succeed and form capital underwood. In planting
+privet the greatest care is necessary to prevent its being overdone.
+Close planting is always productive of the most unsatisfactory results,
+not only as regards the health of the plants, but management of the
+woods as well. Instead of filling up the whole ground, as is not
+unfrequently done, plant in small clumps, and these at wide distances
+apart, as this will not only allow the privet to grow more healthy and
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_179"></a>[Pg 179]</span>
+compact but also admit of space for pruning and layering—two
+necessaries for the successful cultivation of privet as underwood.</p>
+
+<p>The layering of privet, which is a simple and inexpensive though
+effectual method of increase, is performed as follows:—Cut off all the
+branches, except those intended for layering, which are then laid flat
+on the ground equidistant around the main stem or root and kept fast
+by hooked pegs driven firmly down. A spadeful or two of soil should
+then be placed on the top of each peg, which will partly exclude air
+and hasten the formation of roots. The pegs may be made of any refuse
+branches—hard wood, such as ash or oak, being preferable—about 10
+ins. in length, one end being hooked for holding the branches in
+position, and the other sharply pointed for ease in driving. As several
+forms of privet have crept into circulation of late, it is well to be
+sure that none but the true evergreen are used in the formation of game
+coverts. The oval-leaved privet, though a most desirable evergreen
+plant and well suited for ornamental hedges, is from its too luxuriant
+growth and upright form hardly to be commended for underwood; at least,
+its merits in this respect are inferior to those of the common form.</p>
+
+<p><b>Aucuba Japonica</b> and the <b>Laurustinus</b> are two of our
+handsomest evergreen shrubs, but, unlike those already described, they
+will not succeed in the densest shade. In open places or along woodland
+drives they thrive well, and are excellent for variety and contrast.
+The laurustinus cannot, however, be considered as perfectly hardy in
+this country, for even in maritime situations where the air is to
+some extent ameliorated, it suffers severely from frost, and during
+severe winters it is even killed completely to the ground. It, however,
+springs very freely from the root, and in a few years quite regains its
+original size and luxuriance. From their bushy, well-furnished habit
+of growth both the above plants are excellent as game covert, more
+especially around the outskirts of woods and plantations. They should
+be allowed plenty of room for development of both root and branch,
+though they may, when necessary, be pruned with the greatest advantage.
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_180"></a>[Pg 180]</span></p>
+
+<p><b>Mahonia aquifolia</b>, <b>Berberis Darwinii</b> and <b>B.
+Stenophylla</b> are frequently recommended as covert plants and for
+using in similar situations to those favoured by the laurel and box.
+Along the margins of plantations or in very open places they may and
+do succeed, but from practical experience of these plants we find them
+next to useless as underwood in shady positions. Where many thousands
+of covert plants are used annually, we have entirely discarded them
+from use except in the most open situations. These plants are highly
+ornamental, both in foliage and flower; produce berries which are much
+sought after by game, are quite hardy, and not at all fastidious about
+soil—qualities which specially recommend them for extensive use in
+positions at all suited for their growth.</p>
+
+<p>The barberry, more especially when planted out in rich soil, and
+when at all confined, is apt to lose the compact, branchy nature so
+recognizable a feature of the plant when allowed ample room in the
+nursery border, and to assume a more upright habit of growth, which is
+anything but desirable in underwood generally. To check this and keep
+the plant in bounds, frequent light prunings will have to be resorted
+to, and this had best be effected during dull, damp weather, as the
+barberry is not a good subject for the pruning shears. Neither the
+barberry nor mahonia are adapted for planting in very high or exposed
+situations—at least where such has been tried the results have been
+anything but satisfactory, the plants soon presenting a miserable,
+half-starved appearance.</p>
+
+<p>Both plants are readily propagated—the mahonia, when planted in
+loose soil and an open situation, soon covering a considerable space
+of ground, the running roots being especially active under such
+circumstances.</p>
+
+<p><b>Rhododendron ponticum</b>, although useful in an ornamental point
+of view, cannot be considered a first-class plant for game shelter. It
+has, however, several good qualities which recommend it for underwood,
+such as ease of culture, dwarf-spreading habit, and immunity from the
+attacks of game—indeed, in this latter respect, it is not equalled by
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_181"></a>[Pg 181]</span>
+any other plant, if we except one or two species of Daphne. It is
+seldom resorted to by pheasants, the bottom being not only damp, but
+such a tangled mass of branches that it forms anything but pleasant
+quarters for game. For ornamental effect along the outskirts of
+plantations, the rhododendron is invaluable, and is by no means so
+fastidious about soil as is generally supposed, peat being not at all
+essential to its growth and successful cultivation. Few plants can be
+made to increase in like proportion with the rhododendron, and for
+this reason it should be planted in small patches; and when it is
+desirable to increase the cover, the outer branches may be pegged down
+or layered. This plant also bears pruning with impunity, so that old
+plants that have, through neglect, become lank and straggling, may
+without fear or risk be layered or pruned in with advantage.</p>
+
+<p>The <b>Common Yew</b> and <b>Holly</b> cannot be too extensively used
+in the formation of game coverts, both being unrivalled for beauty and
+hardiness. They thrive in a great variety of soils, and beneath the
+densest shade of our woodland trees. In planting the yew it is well,
+however, to bear in mind that its branches are highly deleterious to
+farm stock that may browse upon them, and for this reason it should
+never be planted along the outskirts of a wood, or in any position to
+which such have access.</p>
+
+<p>The <b>St. John’s Wort</b>, as a low-spreading shrub, is unsurpassed,
+and thrives best in a light sandy or peaty soil. It is readily
+propagated by division of the roots; and when planted out in small
+patches a foot or two apart, the creeping stems soon cover a
+considerable surface of ground, and form a dense evergreen mass,
+covered in summer with bright golden flowers.</p>
+
+<p><b>Gaultheria Shallon</b>, another plant of creeping habit, is,
+notwithstanding its many good qualities, seldom planted to any extent
+in our woodlands; but this may, to some extent at least, be accounted
+for by the high price of the plants, and the small size of those
+purchaseable from our nurserymen. Like most other North American
+plants, the Gaultheria prefers a rather damp, peaty soil, and is one of
+the few shrubs found to thrive in pine plantations. The berries, which
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_182"></a>[Pg 182]</span>
+are borne in great abundance, are greedily devoured by pheasants, and
+in their native country are not unfrequently used as food.</p>
+
+<p>The <b>Butcher’s Broom</b> is a fine glaucous green shrub densely
+covered with sharp, prickly, leaves and invaluable for planting in
+shady places—indeed, in such positions it seems to be quite at home.
+There it flowers and fruits freely beneath half-standard rhododendrons
+where few other plants could exist, far less succeed. The twigs of this
+shrub were formerly used by butchers for sweeping their blocks; hence
+the English name.</p>
+
+<p>Some of the above plants, notably the <b>St. John’s Wort</b> and
+<b>Gaultheria</b>, may be considered as carpet plants, which, in
+contradistinction to general underwood, may be classed as evergreens,
+which, from their low, procumbent mode of growth, are scarcely in the
+true sense of the word suited for game coverts. To clearly define
+the difference would, however, be no easy matter, and, even were it
+possible to do so, would in the end be productive of but little good,
+as the habits of different plants vary so much that what is used in
+one place for carpeting purposes might in another and more favourable
+situation be equally valuable for game covert. A good example of
+this will be found in the St. John’s Wort, which, when planted out
+and allowed to ramble at will amongst bramble, privet, etc., forms a
+capital covert; whereas, when used in open, airy situations—such as
+alongside shrubbery walks—it soon forms a dense evergreen carpet, of
+so compact a growth as to be almost impenetrable even to ground game.</p>
+
+<p>In addition to the above-named plants, the following are well
+adapted for giving shelter to game:—Dogwood, Hazel, Elder, Arbutus,
+Cotoneaster of sorts, Juniper of sorts, <i>Pernettya mucronata</i>,
+<i>Rubus nutkanus</i>, <i>Taxus adpressa</i>, <i>Photinia
+serrulata</i>, <i>Kalmia latifolia</i>, <i>Garrya elliptica</i>, etc.
+These should be planted out in small groups—the more valuable kinds
+in the most conspicuous position, such as alongside or within view of
+woodland drives and shooting-roads.</p>
+
+<p><b>Protection from Rabbits</b>, etc.—It may seem somewhat absurd
+to speak of planting coverts, and then to protect them from the
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_183"></a>[Pg 183]</span>
+depredations of game; but that this is highly necessary for the first
+two years, at least, is well known to all planters. Few of the shrubs
+treated of in this paper are exempt from the attacks of hares and
+rabbits, more especially when in a young state and newly transferred
+from the nursery; and for this reason it is always found necessary to
+protect them in some way or other until fairly started into growth
+and beyond the reach of game. For this purpose wire netting is the
+cheapest and most effectual preservative with which I am acquainted.
+The netting should be about 4 ft. in height, not more than 1½ in. mesh,
+and inserted in the ground 4 in., to prevent rabbits from working
+underneath. It may be fixed to posts driven firmly into the ground at
+a distance of 5 ft. apart along the line of fence. This precaution
+against the depredations of game may not be necessary for all the clumps,
+but it is especially so for those of laurustinus, barberry, and laurel.</p>
+
+<p>For the first two or three years after planting, the shrubs should be
+kept free of grass and weeds, as this will encourage the plants to
+start into growth more quickly and thrive much better than they can do
+if the ground is impoverished and light and air excluded by weeds.</p>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_184"></a>[Pg 184]</span></p>
+<h2 class="nobreak">CHAPTER XIX<br>
+<span class="h_subtitle">HEDGES:<br>
+<span class="fs_90">THEIR FORMATION AND MANAGEMENT</span></span></h2>
+</div>
+
+<p>Strictly speaking, hedges are divided into two kinds—useful and
+ornamental—the former being employed for keeping farm stock in bounds,
+and the latter in the subdivision of private gardens and for lawn and
+park purposes generally. Where the fences are intended purely for
+protective purposes the thorn, beech, hornbeam or holly are the plants
+usually employed, while for ornamental garden subdivisions almost any
+shrub may be used, the choice of which will lie with the operator.</p>
+
+<p>Amongst all the trees and shrubs that have been found suitable for
+the climate of Britain, none equals the common whitethorn, or Quick,
+for hedge-formation, where strength and shelter are points of first
+consideration. The beech and hornbeam certainly can thrive better on
+exposed and high-lying ground and where the soil is poor and thin, but
+neither forms so durable a protection against farm stock as the thorn.</p>
+
+<p>When properly treated the thorn is a fast grower, and as a fence plant
+it is ornamental, smooth, stubborn, and long lived. It is also not at
+all subject to disease, and is very readily propagated. Few soils come
+amiss to the thorn—that is, if they are not overcharged with moisture,
+but it delights in a rich hazelly loam.</p>
+
+<p>(1) <b>Plantation Hedges—Preparation of the Ground and
+Planting.</b>—Thorough preparation of the ground where live fences are
+formed should take precedence of all other operations—indeed, nothing
+can repay the planter more satisfactorily than the previous suiting of
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_185"></a>[Pg 185]</span>
+the land, in the way of draining and trenching, to the plants intended
+to be inserted.</p>
+
+<p>In all cases we have found it well to have the ground along the line
+of fence trenched to a depth of 2 ft., and about 3 ft. in width, and
+a quantity of manure incorporated at the same time. If this can be
+done some months before planting the thorns or other fence plants, so
+much the better, as it gives time for the loosely upturned soil to get
+mellowed and sweetened, as also for the manure to get well decomposed.
+In all cases it may not be necessary to apply manure, but, where the
+soil is at all poor, the addition of a quantity of well-rotted manure
+has a wonderful effect in stimulating the quick into active and strong
+growth. The vigorous and rapid growth of a hedge, when the soil has
+been well worked and manured, is remarkable, and in all cases the
+labour and outlay expended on the fence is amply repaid.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+  <img id="I_185" src="images/i_185.jpg" alt="" width="500" height="439" >
+  <p class="f110">HEDGING TOOLS</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_186"></a>[Pg 186]</span>
+It is well to plant rather above than below the general ground level,
+so that in trenching the soil a slight mound should be raised along
+the intended line of fence, which will not only materially assist in
+keeping the plants from excessive moisture, but aid in the cleaning and
+general management of the hedge. Where superfluous moisture is present
+in the soil the hedge-and-ditch system is to be recommended, which
+consists in digging out a ditch parallel with the line on which it is
+intended to place the fence. It should be 3 ft. deep, 5 ft. wide at
+top, and 1 ft. at bottom, and the soil removed in so doing is thrown
+upon that side where the hedge is to be planted, thus forming a mound,
+or rather ridge, on which the plants are to be placed.</p>
+
+<p>In wet soils such a ditch is indispensable, but, under ordinary
+circumstances, it is to be condemned, and for the simple reasons that
+it is expensive and rather against than in favour of the free growth of
+the fence.</p>
+
+<p><b>Thorn or Quick.</b>—The best time to plant the whitethorn is just
+after the fall of the leaf in autumn; but the operation is usually
+extended from that time until early spring, though in the latter case
+perhaps with less satisfactory results.</p>
+
+<p>In selecting the plants a great amount of care is necessary, as also in
+the lifting and after-planting. Four-year-old plants are best suited
+for hedge-formation, and they should be stout of growth and well
+rooted. The size of the plants is of more importance than the age, and
+those with stems as thick as one’s finger are to be preferred to others
+of greater height, but lank and small of stem. Frequent transplanting
+while in the nursery border should have been paid attention to, as
+then the roots are bushy and fibrous and well suited for planting out
+permanently.</p>
+
+<p>Great damage is frequently done to thorn plants by careless lifting,
+and, worse still, by bundling the plants in lots ready for the planter.
+This should never be tolerated, as it is quite evident that when tied
+up in bundles and covered over with soil, the plants in the centre of
+each bundle get dust-dry and fall a prey to the searching winds of spring.
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_187"></a>[Pg 187]</span></p>
+
+<p>Plants should in all cases, where it is possible, be lifted and
+replanted within the week, but, much better still—and this is readily
+effected where a home nursery is on the estate—on the same or the
+following day.</p>
+
+<p>In planting, stretch a line along the centre of the prepared ground,
+and close to the line take out a perpendicular trench with the spade of
+sufficient size to allow of the roots of the plants being spread out
+to their full extent. From 6 in. to 8 in. will be found a convenient
+distance apart to place the thorns, and they should not be planted
+deeper than they stood whilst in the nursery border, which will readily
+be seen by the mark on the stems. A small quantity of fine soil should
+now be placed next the roots, and this firmly trodden, the remainder
+of the soil being added afterwards. Dibbling the plants is sometimes
+recommended, but, in our own opinion, it is a dangerous practice and to
+be avoided, the roots necessarily being thus confined to small space
+and placed in an unnatural position. Planting in single line is in most
+cases preferable to inserting in double line, as it is by the former
+method that the strongest and most durable fences have been formed.
+Some planters cut back the young thorns to within 2 in. of the ground,
+and the practice, although not readily reconciled with physiological
+principles, is to be recommended. It is unquestionable that headed-back
+thorns shoot out with greater vigour, and become thicker, than such
+as have been left untouched, but the fact that they are then greedily
+devoured by ground game has somewhat caused the practice to fall into
+disuse, at least where game is abundant and the cost of fencing cannot
+be entertained.</p>
+
+<p>The <b>Beech</b>, as a hedge-plant, must not be despised, being a
+rapid grower on most soils, and soon forming a very valuable fence. In
+rich soils it retains a great proportion of its leaves during winter,
+and is, therefore, an excellent shelter-plant. It, however, lacks the
+rigidity of the thorn, and for that reason is not very suitable for
+planting where farm stock have access. It may be planted in a manner
+similar to that recommended for the thorn, only the individual plants
+should stand farther apart.
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_188"></a>[Pg 188]</span></p>
+
+<p>The <b>Hornbeam</b> makes a good live fence, and will grow readily in
+any fairly good soil and not too exposed ground. It may be treated
+similarly to the beech.</p>
+
+<p><b>Privet</b>—both the common and oval-leaved—have been largely
+used, either alone or with other plants, in the formation of hedges,
+for which they are peculiarly suitable. They, however, want stiffness,
+so as to be able to cope with farm stock, and for this reason are
+principally used in ornamental garden subdivisions.</p>
+
+<p><b>Gorse or Furze.</b>—Strikingly beautiful as well as useful hedges
+may be formed of gorse. It is well adapted for planting on light dry or
+sandy soils, or on the top of a dyke or sunk fence.</p>
+
+<p>Seed sowing is to be recommended in the formation of gorse fences,
+and after preparing and well working the soil, 1 lb. of seed to every
+100 lineal yards will be found sufficient for sowing down. It should
+be remembered that in order to keep the fence full and bushy, pruning
+should take place immediately after flowering and before seeds are produced.</p>
+
+<p>Cutting over the hedge at ground level every third year will be very
+beneficial to this fence.</p>
+
+<p>(2) <b>Ornamental Hedges—Holly.</b>—This makes an excellent
+ornamental fence, and it is occasionally though rarely used for
+plantation purposes. The ground should be thoroughly prepared, and,
+if necessary, enriched by a dressing of strong loam, and the plants
+inserted in May. The holly can be planted when of almost any height, if
+previous transplanting was attended to.</p>
+
+<p><b>Yew.</b>—For purposes similar to the latter, the yew is generally
+in use. It may be planted at any time, but should be kept well watered
+until it has become established.</p>
+
+<p><b>Laurustinus.</b>—As a flowering hedge for garden or lawn purposes
+few shrubs are of greater value than the laurustinus, particularly in
+maritime districts. In severe winters it suffers considerably, though
+generally fresh growths are sent up from the root-stock. Pruning should
+be carefully done, so that the flowering shoots are not cut away.</p>
+
+<p><b>Box.</b>—Very neat and serviceable garden fences are made of this
+shrub. It grows freely and stands pruning well.</p>
+
+<p><b>Rosa rugosa</b> and <b>R. rubiginosa</b> (Sweet Briar).—Both these
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_189"></a>[Pg 189]</span>
+species of rose have come greatly into favour for garden subdivisions,
+for which they are peculiarly suitable. They make charming hedges, are
+of easy growth, and stand pruning with impunity. Of course, where they
+are wanted to flower great care in pruning is necessary.</p>
+
+<p><b>Laurel.</b>—Both the common and Colchic laurels make fairly good
+hedges, but they are apt to get gappy by portions dying out. This can,
+however, easily be remedied by filling up with others instead. They
+bear trimming well.</p>
+
+<p><b>Aucuba japonica</b> forms a useful and ornamental hedge, stands
+pruning well, and lasts for a long time.</p>
+
+<p><b>Berberis Darwinii</b> and <b>B. stenophylla</b> are both highly
+ornamental hedge shrubs, and when not pruned too severely flower with
+great freedom. Shortening the long shoots with a pocket-knife is best.</p>
+
+<p><b>Cleaning and Pruning.</b>—An annual cleaning of the ground
+alongside hedges must never be neglected, as weeds rob the soil of its
+nourishment, choke the young plants, and to a great extent prevent the
+free access of rain to the roots of the hedge plants. The common hoe
+is, for this purpose, to be recommended, and any weeds that cannot
+be got at around the stems must be removed by the hand. Ivy, elder
+and honeysuckle should all be treated as weeds, for they are highly
+injurious to hedges, be these young or old.</p>
+
+<p>Very little, if any, pruning or switching should be done till the third
+year after the fence has been formed, and then only the longer twigs
+cut back, so as to get by degrees a general uniformity of shape. The
+switching-knife is alone to be recommended for pruning fences, shears
+never making a clean cut, and pressing and loosening the bark at the
+point where amputation took place. A well-sharpened switching-knife in
+the hands of a dexterous hedger turns out beautiful and commendable work.</p>
+
+<p>Unless it be an annual cleaning and trimming, a well-formed hedge
+should require but little attention for many years. Should it,
+however, when old, begin to show signs of distress and become gappy,
+a top-dressing of rich farmyard manure will go a great way towards
+throwing fresh energy into the plants. This should be applied in winter,
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_190"></a>[Pg 190]</span>
+and lightly forked in the following spring, and before growth has
+commenced. Should gaps occur by reason of deaths in the old plants
+these should be removed, and others of young growth substituted, the
+soil at the same time being dug out and other fresh from a field or
+roadside used instead. Great care should be exercised that the roots of
+living plants are not injured whilst removing the dead and substituting
+the live specimens. Specially-prepared plants and such as are unusually
+stout and bushy should alone be used in hedge-repairing.</p>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_191"></a>[Pg 191]</span></p>
+<h2 class="nobreak">CHAPTER XX<br>
+<span class="h_subtitle">SHRUBS FOR SHADY SITUATIONS</span></h2>
+</div>
+
+<p>The list of procumbent or carpeting shrubs that have been found to
+succeed when planted beneath the shade and drip of forest trees is by
+no means a long one, and as the clothing of such bare places is often
+a point of the greatest importance, particularly in park or ornamental
+grounds, the following notes may prove useful. By careful manipulation
+much may be done to carpet such places with suitable shrubs, but the
+task in some instances is by no means an easy one, and must be set
+about in a common-sense and practical way. Evidently deciduous trees
+have an advantage over evergreen kinds in that with the extra light and
+greater amount of surface dampness undergrowth succeeds better beneath
+their shade.</p>
+
+<p>The <b>common Ivy</b> is probably the best evergreen carpet for shade
+planting with which we are acquainted. It runs about and roots freely,
+soon covering a large space of ground with its neat, deep-green
+foliage. Propagation is brought about either by means of cuttings or
+suckers, and is simple and inexpensive.</p>
+
+<p>The <b>Periwinkles</b> (<i>Vinca major</i> and <i>V. minor</i>) are
+well adapted for planting beneath our larger trees, where, unless
+the shade is very dense, they succeed admirably, soon forming large
+breadths of evergreen carpet and producing their deep blue flowers in
+abundance. They are readily increased by layering or subdivision, and
+when once established soon spread about unheeded.</p>
+
+<p>The <b>St. John’s Wort</b> (<i>Hypericum calycinum</i>) can confidently
+be recommended for planting as a ground covering beneath our larger
+trees. It increases readily, and if occasionally cut over, shoots out
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_192"></a>[Pg 192]</span>
+all the more freely and thickly. For the showy yellow flowers it is
+also a desirable shrubby plant.</p>
+
+<p>The <b>Mezereon</b> and <b>Spurge Laurel</b> (<i>Daphne Mezereum</i>
+and <i>D. Laureola</i>) are excellent, medium-sized shrubs for planting
+in shady positions, where they not only succeed well, but flower
+freely. They are both increased by layering.</p>
+
+<p><b>Euonymus Radicans Variegata</b> is a useful, procumbent shrub for
+planting in the shade, and succeeds well in smoky localities.</p>
+
+<p>The <b>Butcher’s Broom</b> (<i>Ruscus aculeatus</i>) grows with great
+freedom beneath the densest shade of our forest trees, and being an
+evergreen is to be recommended for such situations.</p>
+
+<p><b>Gaultheria Shallon</b> and <b>G. Procumbens</b> may also be
+recommended for planting where the shade is not too dense; they both
+flower and fruit freely, and are of neat procumbent growth.</p>
+
+<p>Amongst taller growing subjects for planting in the shade, mention
+may be made of the holly and yew, both of which thrive beneath
+the shade and drip of forest trees and where they often assume a
+dwarf, procumbent habit of growth. Two at least of the recent shrubs
+introduced from China have just claims to be included in the list of
+suitable species for planting in the shade. These are <i>Sarcoccos
+humile</i> and <i>S. ruscifolia</i>. They are of particularly neat
+growth, with persistent leaves and bear yellowish-white flowers.</p>
+
+<p>The <b>Common Ling</b> or <b>Heather</b>, <b>Blackberry</b>, and
+<b>Andromeda Catesbœi</b> all succeed well in the shade of trees,
+particularly if the soil be inclined to peat.</p>
+
+<p>It frequently happens that the soil beneath large trees is thoroughly
+exhausted, and that the small, fibrous rootlets are so abundant as
+to render planting almost impossible. Under such conditions it is
+advisable to first gently loosen the soil, without disturbing the
+larger roots, and add a top-dressing of, say, three or four inches of
+good friable loam. This, thoroughly incorporated with the existing
+soil, will give the young plants a start and allow of their becoming
+strong and established before the encroaching roots rob the ground of
+its nourishment.</p>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_193"></a>[Pg 193]</span></p>
+<h2 class="nobreak">CHAPTER XXI<br>
+<span class="h_subtitle">INSECT ENEMIES OF TREES</span></h2>
+</div>
+
+<p>Whether viewed from a commercial or sylvicultural point of view, the
+widespread damage caused to timber from insect attacks can scarcely
+be overrated. The depredations in various parts of our own country,
+particularly in young plantations, are bad enough, but when compared
+with those of Europe and America they appear insignificant. In France
+and Germany whole woods have been wiped out by insect pests, while the
+Government of Bavaria were mulcted in something like £100,000 by the
+destruction of its spruce forests. The United States fares no better,
+for we find that over a period of ten years the amount of timber killed
+and reduced in value was calculated at fully £10,000,000. The coffee
+plantations of Ceylon suffered much from the attacks of a fungus, and
+we could go on multiplying cases. In our own country the ravages of the
+pine beetle and of the larch disease have caused incalculable damage;
+indeed, in the latter case there is hardly a plantation of larch where
+the presence of the fell disease cannot be distinctly traced, while the
+pine beetle has ruined whole plantations both in England and Scotland.
+Though the adult bark and wood-boring beetles do a great amount of
+damage, yet that inflicted by the caterpillar or grub from the egg
+is greater still, and in the case of fungi we have a typical example of
+their destructive properties in the case of the well-known larch disease.</p>
+
+<p>The <b>Pine Beetle</b> (<i>Myelophilus {Hylurgus</i>} <i>piniperda</i>)
+is a dreaded enemy to not a few species of Pinus, but particularly
+<i>P. sylvestris</i>, <i>P. laricio</i>, <i>P. austriaca</i> and <i>P.
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_194"></a>[Pg 194]</span>
+Strobus</i>. The injury done by this beetle consists in its destruction
+of the leading shoots of the tree it attacks. It enters by boring a
+hole into the side of the shoot until it reaches the pith, after which
+its course is directed upwards, and an exit made at the terminal bud.
+This tunnelling of the shoot so weakens it that frequently during
+stormy weather it is broken across at the point where the beetle
+entered. Not only are unhealthy trees attacked by the pine beetle,
+but young and robust-growing specimens frequently fall a prey to its
+insidious depredations.</p>
+
+<p>June, July and August are the months when it is most commonly found.</p>
+
+<p>The only remedy is to collect and burn the affected shoots—work that
+requires to be done with the utmost care to prevent the escape of the
+wary insect. Burning all brushwood in plantations is a great preventive.</p>
+
+<p>The <b>Pine Weevil</b> (<i>Curculio</i> {<i>Hylobius</i>}
+<i>Abietis</i>) is another destructive insect, which differs from
+the former in waging its attacks against the buds of the leaders and
+branches, as also by eating patches of the bark here and there on the
+stems and branches. The various species of Abies suffer most, but the
+pines are occasionally attacked as well. It is always most destructive
+in young plantations growing on the margins of old woods, and equally
+bad amongst trees that have been planted on the site of a former pine
+plantation.</p>
+
+<p>The beetle is about half an inch long, and nearly black. One remedy,
+probably the best, is to place fresh pieces of pine bark on the ground,
+beneath the infested trees. By shaking the trees and examining the
+traps the following morning, many may be destroyed.</p>
+
+<p><b>Bostrichus typographus</b> is another pest of our woodlands, and
+may frequently be seen, like fine white wool, spreading over the stem
+and branches of the silver and other firs. It spreads with terrible
+rapidity, first appearing in small patches here and there on the bole,
+and particularly on the under sides of the branches. The tree infested
+soon becomes unhealthy, and frequently dies off prematurely. Trees
+growing in low-lying, heavy ground would seem to fall a first prey to
+this insect.</p>
+
+<p><b>Bostrichus laricis</b> is nearly allied to the former, but its
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_195"></a>[Pg 195]</span>
+devastations, which are, however, not very deadly, are principally
+confined to the larch. It is usually known as the “larch blight.”</p>
+
+<p>The <b>Pine Shoot Moths</b> (<i>Retinia buoliana</i> and <i>R.
+turionella</i>) would seem to be more numerous in this country than
+is generally supposed. Quite lately I visited a large plantation of
+young Scotch fir, the terminal buds of which were greatly injured by
+the caterpillars of this elaborately-coloured moth. The moth lays its
+eggs at the base of the buds, and into these the caterpillars enter by
+hollowing out the centre, thus destroying their vitality and causing
+them to take on a withered appearance and to feel soft and empty to
+the touch. Trees infested by this insect resemble greatly in their
+stunted shoots and exudation of resin such as have become a prey to
+the Pine beetle (<i>Myelophilus piniperda</i>), only in the latter
+case it is the fresh young shoot and not the bud that is attacked.
+The <i>Retinia</i> would seem, from all my notes and observations, to
+be most abundant in what might be termed neglected fir plantations,
+that is, where the trees have suffered from overcrowding, or from
+unfavourable conditions as to soil, etc., and particularly when the
+wood is composed entirely of one species. There is no method of dealing
+with large infested areas, for the attacked trees have repeatedly been
+cut over and removed without any seeming diminution in the numbers
+of the insect. One experiment with a small infested corner has been
+rewarded with good results, viz. the lighting of a fire to windward,
+and causing the smoke of coal tar to pass over the infected area. This
+might be worth trying in the case of fruit trees infested by particular
+insects.</p>
+
+<p>The <b>Larch Miner</b> (<i>Coleophora laricella</i>).—Few, other than
+those specially interested in tree diseases, have the remotest idea
+that the yellow, withered appearance of many of our English larch
+plantations is due to the larvæ of the above tiny moth. It usually
+attacks young trees, say, from five to twenty years old, and although
+it may not kill them out, yet the repeated onslaughts year after year
+tend to keep the trees in an unhealthy condition, and so render them
+liable to other and more deadly diseases.
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_196"></a>[Pg 196]</span></p>
+
+<p>Unfortunately the attacks of the larch miner are by no means confined,
+as is usually supposed, to trees growing under unfavourable conditions,
+for I have this season noticed in an unusually healthy, fast-growing
+plantation in Sussex that almost every tree was more or less affected.
+Certainly in another large extent of larch in Gloucestershire which I
+examined lately, where nine-tenths of the trees were being ruined by
+the <i>Peziza</i>, the larch miner was very abundant; but, I think,
+that young trees, whatever may be their state of health, suffer alike,
+although where hard-wooded trees form a portion of the crop the larch
+certainly suffers less than when grown in pure woods. The moth lays its
+eggs at the end of June on the needles of the larch; the caterpillar
+mining into and feeding upon the interior of the needle causes it to
+turn faded and yellow. It lives in the tube thus formed during the
+winter, changing to a pupa, and ultimately to a moth. It is a most
+difficult matter in the case of this insect, as, indeed, of all others
+that are fairly abundant, to suggest a remedy, and I have looked
+over and examined larch plantations that are differently situated in
+many respects to find out under what condition the attacks are most
+persistent, but with little or no success—healthy and unhealthy,
+native or Tyrolese, faring alike when grown as a pure crop.</p>
+
+<p>Where the larches are intermixed with hard-wooded trees—sycamore, oak
+and beech—the attacks are certainly less frequent, as I have noticed
+in a number of cases. Trees growing at high altitudes do not seem to
+suffer less than those only a few feet above sea-level, and this point
+I have paid particular attention to.</p>
+
+<p>Whether the wounds caused by this insect will serve as a nidus for
+the spores of <i>Peziza Willkommii</i> has yet to be determined, but
+special importance should be attached to all larch-feeding insects, and
+their depredations minimized to as great an extent as possible.</p>
+
+<p>The <b>Pine Sawfly</b> (<i>Lophyrus Pini</i>).—Fortunately, this
+insect is not abundant in the British Isles, though on the Continent
+the damage it does in the pine forests is by no means inconsiderable.
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_197"></a>[Pg 197]</span>
+The insect may readily be recognized by its wide, flattish body, and
+usually dark appearance. Having attained to full size in the trees,
+they form cocoons among the foliage or on the stems, and remain in
+this condition until the following spring, when, in April or May,
+the perfect insects make their appearance. The male is considerably
+smaller than the female, while the full-grown caterpillar, which is of
+a greenish-yellow colour, with a row of black spots on either side,
+is about an inch long. The remedial measures are not at all easy,
+especially when a large number of trees are attacked, but single
+specimens may be entirely cleared by shaking the caterpillars into a
+sheet placed beneath the tree.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+  <img id="I_197" src="images/i_197.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="338" >
+  <p class="f110">(<i>a</i>) <span class="allsmcap">WILLOW BEETLE</span><br>
+          (<i>Phyllodecta vulgatissima</i>),<br> <span class="allsmcap">AND</span>
+          (<i>b</i>) <span class="allsmcap">ITS LARVA</span>.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The <b>Larch Aphis</b> (<i>Adelgis laricis</i>) and <b>Giant Sirex</b>
+(<i>Sirex gigas</i>) are both, more or less, harmful to the larch. The
+latter is a formidable and splendid insect, which is, however, not very
+abundant in this country.</p>
+
+<p>Generally felled trees, or such as are somewhat sickly, are chosen by
+the female in which to lay her eggs. These are deposited beneath the
+bark by means of the powerful ovipositor, and in course of time the
+whitish cylindrical maggots make an appearance, and with their strong
+jaws form large borings in the affected tree.</p>
+
+<p>Cutting down and burning infested trees is the only practical remedy.</p>
+
+<p>The <a href ="#I_197"><b>Willow Beetle</b></a> (<i>Phyllodecta vulgatissima</i>)
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_198"></a>[Pg 198]</span>
+causes considerable damage to osier plantations, and would appear to be
+greatly on the increase of late years. Much damage has been done to
+osier holts in various parts of the country, and in northern Ireland
+the ravages of this beetle were particularly noticeable during the past
+five years. The insect, which is metallic green or blue in colour,
+passes the winter in the adult state, at which time it may be found
+amongst refuse of the osier beds, such as the heaps of bark, and also
+at the base of old stools and beneath stones or other shelter. The
+larvæ have a tough yellowish cuticle with conspicuous brown bristles,
+the head and prothorax being black and hard. The eggs are laid on the
+undersides of the leaves in spring, and when the larvæ are hatched they
+feed on the leaves, eating holes quite through to the upper surface.
+Burning all rubbish in the osier beds is to be recommended, and
+spraying with Paris green or lead arsenate has been found useful.</p>
+
+<p>The <b>Larch Sawfly</b> (<i>Nematus Erichsonii</i>).—This is a species
+of sawfly the larvæ of which bear considerable resemblance to those
+of the caterpillar of the pine sawfly, and also to that of the better
+known gooseberry caterpillar. The larvæ are about three-quarters of
+an inch long, and possess twenty feet. From July to August they feed
+on the leaves of the larch, and a plantation that has been attacked
+presents a partially leafless condition with quantities of the brown
+cylindrical cocoon cases lying amongst the grass beneath the trees.
+There have been several notable instances in which larch plantations
+have suffered severely from the attacks of this insect, and in northern
+England, particularly Cumberland, whole areas of plantation have been
+attacked. Burning all brushwood and grass beneath the trees in infected
+plantations is probably the best means of lessening the numbers of this
+dread insect in our larch plantations.</p>
+
+<p>The <b>Spruce Gall Aphis</b> (<i>Chermes abietis</i>).—This is a
+common insect, and one that renders many fine young spruce trees very
+unsightly by reason of the cone-like excrescences that are formed by
+the action of the insect on the shoots of the infested specimen. The
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_199"></a>[Pg 199]</span>
+formation of this excrescence is brought about by the female aphis
+piercing with her beak, or sucker, one of the buds, and drawing off the
+sap, the consequence being an unusual growth at that part.</p>
+
+<p>When the young larvæ appear, they also, by piercing the gall, extract
+the juices, and the gall enlarging soon causes the larvæ to become
+embedded at the bases of the leaves, which, by this time, have become
+curiously malformed. The insects are scarcely one-tenth of an inch long.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+  <img id="I_199" src="images/i_199.jpg" alt="" width="500" height="523" >
+  <p class="f110">ELM TREE DESTROYER</p>
+</div>
+
+<ul class="index">
+<li class="isub3">A. Entrance of Parent Tube.</li>
+<li class="isub3">B. Insect in Tube.</li>
+<li class="isub3">C. An imperfect Tube arrested from want of nourishment.</li>
+<li class="isub3">D. Scolytus Destructor. Natural size.</li>
+<li class="isub3">E. Lateral Tubes with Larvæ, some changing to the Pupa state.</li>
+</ul>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_200"></a>[Pg 200]</span>
+The only remedy is to collect the cone-like excrescences and have them
+destroyed, except in the case of badly infested trees, which should be
+cut down and burned.</p>
+
+<p>The <a href ="#I_199"><b>Elm Tree Destroyer</b></a> (<i>Scolytus destructor</i>)
+is about one-fifth of an inch long, stout and cylindrical, and usually confines
+its depredations to the elm.</p>
+
+<p>In the beginning of June this beetle bores into the inner bark, where
+it forms galleries, along the margins of which are laid the eggs.
+Cutting down and burning badly-attacked trees is the best remedy,
+but promoting exuberant health of the infested specimens by means of
+enriching the soil has been attended with promising results.</p>
+
+<p>The <a href ="#I_201"><b>Goat Moth</b></a> (<i>Cossus ligniperda</i>) is most
+frequently found on the willow, oak, lime and other trees. Being not only one of
+our largest native moths, but also one of the most destructive, its
+ravages are much dreaded, the holes or tunnels made by the moth being
+of large size—large enough to admit the little finger. Filling up the
+tunnels with a mixture of soot, lime and cow manure is an excellent
+remedy.</p>
+
+<p>The <b>Lackey Moth</b> (<i>Clisiocampa neustria</i>), so called from
+the gay colours of the caterpillar, is another destructive woodland
+pest, eating wholesale the leaves of the oak, elm, beech, poplar and
+most fruit trees.</p>
+
+<p>In April and May the caterpillars are hatched, when the leaves are
+just unfolding. They form a nest or web of silken hairs, generally
+amongst the smaller branches, in which they live during the day,
+sallying forth in the evening to feed on the tender foliage. Being very
+plentiful, they are usually difficult to deal with, but hand-picking
+and destroying the cocoons are the only practicable methods of meeting
+the evil.</p>
+
+<p>The <b>Winter Moth</b> (<i>Cheimatobia brumata</i>) and the <b>Lime
+Looper Moth</b> (<i>Hybernia defolaria</i>).—The caterpillars of both
+these moths are very destructive to the leaves of elms, limes and
+willows, but particularly to the buds of the apple tree.</p>
+
+<p>When full grown they descend to the ground, where they cover themselves
+and become chrysalides, from which the moths appear from October to December.
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_201"></a>[Pg 201]</span></p>
+
+<p>Being almost wingless, it is by no means difficult to prevent their
+ascending the trees by painting a band of any sticky substance around
+the stems of the trees that it is expected they might attempt to crawl up.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+  <img id="I_201" src="images/i_201a.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="186" >
+  <p class="f110">A. Larva of the Cossus Ligniperda, three years old,<br>
+                  ready to change into the Chrysalis state.</p>
+  <img src="images/i_201b.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="414" >
+</div>
+
+   <ul class="index">
+   <li class="isub3">A. Cossus Moth.</li>
+   <li class="isub3">B. Chrysalis from which the perfect Insect has escaped.</li>
+   <li class="isub3">C. Cluster of Eggs.</li>
+   <li class="isub3">D. Magnified Ovum.</li>
+</ul>
+<p class="f110">THE GOAT MOTH</p>
+
+<p>The <b>Red Spider</b> (<i>Tetranychus</i>).—In hot and dry summers
+trees suffer much from this member of the mite family. Limes and
+poplars, as also many other trees, are greatly injured, the foliage
+turning to a russety brown colour, and falling off long before the
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_202"></a>[Pg 202]</span>
+usual time. There are several remedies, such as fumigating and spraying
+with a solution of soft soap, but none of these are applicable to a
+plantation of trees, or even a single specimen of large size.</p>
+
+<p>The <b>Thorn Fly</b> (<i>Aphis Cratægi</i>) attacks whole hedges or
+brakes of Quick, especially those in the nursery border; as a rule, the
+younger and more healthy plants first fall a prey to its depredations.</p>
+
+<p>Sponging with tobacco water, or almost any of the prescribed solutions
+will rapidly exterminate the fly; but such work is laborious when a
+large brake or long hedge of the thorn has to be gone over.</p>
+
+<p>The <b>Cockchafer</b> (<i>Melolontha vulgaris</i>) is usually pretty
+abundant, and does most damage by eating the leaves of the sycamore,
+beech, oak, cherry and many other trees. It will also eat the roots of
+most young trees, but those of pine in particular.</p>
+
+<p>The insect is about 1¼ in. long, and of a chestnut-brown colour on the
+upper part of the body, while the head and some other parts of the body
+are of a bronzy green, and thickly covered with yellowish-white hairs.</p>
+
+<p>In April and May the eggs are laid in a hole in the ground about 5 in.
+deep, and the grubs are hatched in July. They are of a dirty-white
+colour and much wrinkled. In this state, however, they do but little
+harm; but, after having changed their skins and remained in a torpid
+state during winter, come to the surface in spring and eat the roots
+of almost any plant that comes in their way. They again burrow deeper
+at the approach of winter, coming to the surface again in spring,
+and, when full grown, are about 1½ in. long, and almost ½ in. in
+diameter. The perfect insects do not live more than about twelve days,
+and are easily known by their heavy, awkward flight towards the evening.</p>
+
+<p>The <b>Laburnum Moth</b> (<i>Cemiostoma laburnella</i>) is fairly
+abundant—in England, at least; and, in some instances, every leaf of
+a tree has been eaten almost wholesale by the caterpillars of this
+pretty moth. The insect is about one-eighth of an inch in length, and
+three-tenths of an inch across the fully expanded wing. It is of a
+silvery-white colour.</p>
+
+<p>The greenish-grey caterpillars are about ¼ in. long.
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_203"></a>[Pg 203]</span></p>
+
+<p>By burning the attacked leaves great numbers of the caterpillars may
+be destroyed, while, by shaking the trees in May and August, the moths
+will fly out, and may be caught in a butterfly net.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+  <img id="I_203" src="images/i_203.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="555" >
+  <p class="f110">WOOD LEOPARD MOTH<br>(<i>Zeuzera æsculi</i>)</p>
+  <p class="center">(Very destructive to trees, particularly around London)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><a href ="#I_203"><b>Wood Leopard Moth</b></a> (<i>Zeuzera æsculi</i>).—The
+caterpillar of this beautiful moth is very destructive to the beech, ash,
+birch, elm, walnut, privet, etc., which it bores into, eating and living on
+the wood. Usually young trees or the branches of old specimens are
+attacked, and the tunnelling is confined in the former either to the
+pithy centre or the soft wood near the bark. The moths appear about
+mid-July, and the female, by piercing the bark with her powerful
+ovipositors, deposits her eggs, one in each hole. Three years are
+required for the caterpillar to arrive at maturity when it is nearly
+2 in. long. Both in form and colour the leopard moth is particularly
+elegant, the head and thorax being covered with a thick white pile, the
+body with a black down, fringed with white at each joint. The wings are
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_204"></a>[Pg 204]</span>
+white with yellowish-brown veins, a row of rounded bluish spots running
+between every two.</p>
+
+<p>By stuffing a piece of tow in gas tar, or placing cyanide of potassium
+in the hole and closing the aperture, the caterpillar may be
+overpowered and destroyed.</p>
+
+<p>A bent wire has often been successfully used in dislodging the
+caterpillar.</p>
+
+<p>The <b>Holly Fly</b> (<i>Phytomyza aquifolia</i>).—The foliage of
+the holly is frequently very much disfigured by the grubs of the
+holly fly, which burrow beneath the upper skin of the leaves, feeding
+on the internal substance. This imparts a blistered and discoloured
+appearance, which, in the case of ornamental varieties, is anything but
+desirable. Probably no great damage to the infested trees is brought
+about, but the wholesale destruction of the leaves, as is often the
+case, cannot but weaken the plant.</p>
+
+<p>In May and June the flies make their appearance, and lay their eggs
+beneath the upper skin of the leaf, from which the grubs, about
+one-fifth of an inch long, are hatched. These work their way beneath
+the skin of the leaves, forming small tracks of a more or less circular
+shape, thus causing the large and unsightly blisters. They quit the
+leaves about March, by making small holes in the skin of the leaf, and
+afterwards become chrysalides. The fly is small and inconspicuous.</p>
+
+<p>Picking off and destroying affected leaves, or crushing the grub by
+pinching the blisters are the only ways of lessening the attacks.</p>
+
+<p>The <b>Oak Leaf Roller Moth</b> (<i>Tortrix viridana</i>).—The
+widespread destruction caused to oak-woods in almost every part of the
+country by the caterpillars of this little moth would seem to be on the
+increase from year to year. But it is not the oak alone that suffers,
+for numbers of the hornbeam and beech are in an equally pitiable
+condition. Having closely watched this insect for several years, mainly
+with the view of striving to keep it in check or devise some means of
+destruction, I have come to the conclusion that a few individual trees
+may, at considerable expense, be rid of the pest, but in the case of
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_205"></a>[Pg 205]</span>
+whole woodlands artificial treatment is quite out of the question.
+Many observers are under the impression that the caterpillar is
+most abundant where the trees grow closest together, and when we
+consider that both wind and rain destroy numbers of these, the fact of
+isolated trees, which, consequently, are most exposed to storms, being
+comparatively free from attack is not to be wondered at. So far as we
+know at present, the only way to diminish in any appreciable degree
+the numbers of this insect is by encouraging as much as possible its
+enemies.</p>
+
+<p>The rook, jackdaw, starling, thrush and sparrow help immensely in
+destroying the caterpillars, and the occupants of a rookery will
+frequently in a few hours clear the pest from the trees over a
+considerable area of woodland. The same has been noted with regard to
+the starling, and I have frequently seen the trees over an infested
+area almost black with this particular bird when in the act of feeding
+on the caterpillars.</p>
+
+<p>In support of this recommendation it may be stated that insects are far
+less numerous in the forests of St. Germain, Senart and Fontainebleau
+than in the Bois de Boulogne, where, of course, small birds are scarcer.</p>
+
+<p>Sometimes with the oak leaf roller moth its excessive number proves
+the means of its extinction, the foliage being devoured before the
+caterpillars are fully fed; while, as is usual at the season of attack,
+parasitic flies and ichneumons destroy them wholesale, and a box of
+caterpillars sent to me the other day revealed the fact that each one
+had succumbed to the attacks of one of these enemies.</p>
+
+<p>The life history of this moth is full of interest, and the curious
+manner in which it rolls up the leaves is well worthy of study.</p>
+
+<p>The <b>Felted Beech Coccus</b> (<i>Cryptococcus Fagi</i>).—Judging
+from the numerous specimens of the beech coccus that are being
+forwarded to me for identification, and the inquiries as to how this
+insect pest may be dealt with, its presence in almost every part of the
+country is indicated. It was only in 1862 that Dr. Balfour reported
+the presence of this coccus in Scotland, and I remember well how the
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_206"></a>[Pg 206]</span>
+beautiful beech hedges on the Penicuik Estate, Mid-Lothian, were
+ravaged by the insect in 1875. In Germany, however, the beech coccus
+was noticed as early as 1849. It is probable that the beech coccus also
+extends to the Weymouth pine, as at Keston, Lord Derby’s estate in
+Kent, several of these trees were badly affected with an insect that
+appeared to me identical with this pest, and other instances of the
+Weymouth pine being similarly attacked have been recorded. Since the
+appearance of the insect in Scotland it has spread southwards rapidly,
+but it is only of late years that its ravages have been felt severely,
+and that owners of woodlands have been driven to do everything in their
+power to combat its injurious effects. I think I have nowhere seen
+the insect so abundant as on the Burnham beeches, which I visited in
+company with several members of the Royal Horticultural Society at the
+request of the Lord Mayor and the Corporation of the City of London.
+Here, speaking broadly, all the trees are affected in a greater or less
+degree, independent altogether of the age or health of the trees.</p>
+
+<p>Amongst the beautiful beech woods of Hertfordshire, where the timber
+produced commands a higher price than that from any other station
+in Britain excepting the Chiltern Hills, the trees are suffering
+severely. After a careful inspection of many beech woods, I am at a
+loss to account for the spread of this insect. Usually, in the case
+of injurious forest insects, the presence of dead and dying wood and
+the general health of the plantations have much to do with the attack,
+but this would not appear to be the cause in the case of the beech
+coccus. Even old and diseased trees do not appear to suffer more than
+the young and healthy specimens, and at Burnham some of the youngest
+and fastest growing specimens were by far the worst affected, appearing
+in parts as if coated with drifted snow. Neither would soil appear to
+have anything to do with the spread of the insect, as on chalky, sandy
+and loamy soils, as well as on shale rock, the trees are all more or
+less affected. I cannot say that unhealthy trees are more liable to be
+attacked than vigorous ones, for I have observed diseased trees to be
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_207"></a>[Pg 207]</span>
+sometimes quite free from the coccus, whilst healthy specimens in the
+immediate neighbourhood were badly infested. This was particularly
+noticeable on some park trees on two estates that I visited lately; in
+each instance the majestic boles rose to a height of fully 90 ft. and
+contained about 100 cubic ft. of wood. At one time I had an idea that
+beech trees when grown too thickly were most liable to be attacked,
+but more extensive observations have disproved the hypothesis. By some
+it has been suggested that the drainage of ground on which the beech
+is growing will facilitate the spread of the insect by bringing about
+an unhealthy state of the trees. To some extent this has been noticed
+at Burnham, and particularly in Gloucestershire, where a lake had been
+formed contiguous to a beech plantation. In another instance that came
+under my notice the burrowing of rabbits to an unusual extent was
+blamed for the appearance of the insect and the gradual death of the
+trees, the soil in this case being sand and gravel. It is a strange
+fact, too, that a badly infested tree may be standing amongst others
+that are perfectly free from the attack. Under a magnifying glass the
+insect appears of a yellowish colour, irregularly globular in shape,
+and almost transparent. It is thickly covered over by a secretion
+from the body, which looks like fine waxen-white threads or cotton
+wool, which effectually screens the insect from observation. With its
+proboscis it sucks up the juices, which are readily reached through
+the thin, smooth bark. When badly attacked, the foliage becomes meagre
+and has a burnt appearance, then the tips of the branches, and finally
+whole branches die off. Afterwards the bark becomes dry and cracks,
+usually longitudinally, falling off in flakes with the death of the
+tree. The timber of trees that have been killed by the coccus is
+dry, short-grained, and by no means comparable with that of healthy
+specimens. From whatever cause, the presence of the insect in our
+plantations is much to be deplored, and already many fine old trees
+in different parts of the country have succumbed to the attack. It is
+a curious fact that certain trees fall victims to the attack of this
+insect very rapidly, often in the short space of two years, while
+others of equal age and vigour, and, as far as can be seen, similarly
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_208"></a>[Pg 208]</span>
+situated, live for many years. Fully grown trees are, in my opinion,
+more liable to be killed quickly than younger specimens.</p>
+
+<p>As regards remedies, these can only conveniently be applied to
+single specimens and are scarcely practicable on a large scale. That
+success has, however, attended the application of certain remedies I
+am quite convinced, for several valuable ornamental trees on a lawn
+in Buckinghamshire that were badly affected by the pest are now,
+twelve months after being treated, quite free from the insect, and do
+not appear to have suffered in consequence. In this case the remedy
+was simple, and consisted merely in scrubbing the tree stems where
+affected with a stiff brush dipped in an emulsion of soft soap, this
+being rubbed well into all crevices of the bark. Only one application
+was given, but as the trees were nearly 100 ft. high with many large
+limbs, which also showed the presence of the coccus, the work took a
+considerable time. However, the results well repaid the expense of
+labour. Another excellent remedy is to mix together equal portions of
+paraffin and soft soap, and when required for use add twenty times
+their bulk of hot water, stirring all well together. This may be
+applied either with a scrubbing brush or syringed on to the affected
+parts. Other measures of a more drastic nature have been found to
+be beneficial, but those given are probably the simplest and best.
+Three or four handfuls of lime to a bucket of water is an excellent
+application, the only drawback being the unpleasant colour imparted to
+the trees. This is a simple remedy, and may be applied with a painter’s
+or scrubbing brush. It has saved many trees on an estate near London.</p>
+
+<p><b>Wireworms.</b>—These occasionally do a great deal of damage in
+beds of seedling trees, particularly conifers, and in some instances
+they attack and destroy the seeds before germination. In the case of
+young conifers they are gnawed completely through just above or at the
+ground level, the beds in many instances being strewn with the cut-over
+plants. <i>Abies nobilis</i> and <i>A. Nordmanniana</i> suffer to a
+great extent, and I have frequently been at my wit’s end to put a stop
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_209"></a>[Pg 209]</span>
+to the repeated depredations. In the case of a newly-formed nursery or
+freshly-made-up seed-beds the attack of the wireworm is always most
+pronounced. In the case of fresh nursery ground, paring off and burning
+a couple of inches of the top soil in the autumn has been attended with
+excellent results, as has also dressing the ground with gas lime. When
+seedlings are attacked, hand-picking, with the use of sliced carrots,
+mangold or potatoes, varied with pieces of oilcake as a bait, are to be
+recommended. Dressing the seeds with red lead is very advantageous to
+prevent birds and mice from attacking freshly-sown quantities. Injury
+from wireworm is not likely to cause any serious consequences after the
+first year’s growth of the plants, especially if the ground has been
+kept clean and free from weeds during the egg-laying season in June.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+  <img id="I_209" src="images/i_209.jpg" alt="" width="500" height="461" >
+  <p class="f110">WITCH’S BROOM ON THE WILLOW<br> (SUMMER APPEARANCE)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The above are only a few of the many insects that injure our forest
+trees; but those treated of are the most familiar to the forester, and
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_210"></a>[Pg 210]</span>
+those whose attacks he has most frequently to wage war against. Willow
+trees all over London are suffering severely from attacks of a mite
+insect. It is known as the “<a href ="#I_209">Witch’s Broom</a>” on the
+Willow (<i>Eriophyes triradiatus</i>).</p>
+
+<p>Remedial measures are frequently of little avail, more particularly
+when a whole wood or plantation is attacked; but with single specimens
+the numbers may readily be lessened by the methods suggested.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+  <img id="I_210" src="images/i_210.jpg" alt="" width="400" height="603" >
+  <p class="f110">WITCH’S BROOM ON THE WILLOW<br> (WINTER ASPECT)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Keeping the woodlands free of dead and dying trees and branches is a
+preventive of insect attacks that should never be neglected.
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_211"></a>[Pg 211]</span></p>
+
+<p>As showing the injury that can be inflicted on our forest trees by some
+of these insect pests, the following cases may be mentioned:—</p>
+
+<p>During fifteen years (between 1853-68) the spruce in East Prussia,
+Poland and Russia was killed over an area of 7,000 square German miles;
+while in the Bavarian forests, the loss to the Revenue in one year was
+£40,000.</p>
+
+<p>In both cases the destructive insect <i>Liparis monacha</i> was the
+cause of injury.</p>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_212"></a>[Pg 212]</span></p>
+<h2 class="nobreak">CHAPTER XXII<br>
+<span class="h_subtitle">FUNGUS GROWTH ON TREES</span></h2>
+</div>
+
+<p>Some fungi attack living wood, some dead, and some both; and, while the
+majority are found growing on the stem, others attack the twigs, leaves
+or root. They are of all sizes, from the almost microscopical to the
+beefsteak fungus, which often exceeds a couple of feet in diameter.
+Some are jelly-like in consistency, others leathery or almost woody
+in texture; and while certain kinds spring up and disappear in a few
+days, others remain intact on the tree stem for several years. In
+shape, too, they vary considerably, from the curious Jew’s ear fungus,
+which greatly resembles the human organ, to the giant puff-ball, that
+sometimes measures four feet in circumference. Then the cup-shaped
+and parasol fungi are appropriately named, while the flat, shelf-like
+arrangement of a species that frequents the oak and elm has interested
+many a casual observer. Excepting perhaps green, they are found of
+almost all colours from dull brown to the brightest crimson, while
+beautifully spotted and mottled kinds are not uncommon.</p>
+
+<p>Healthy trees growing under normal conditions are little affected by
+fungi, whereas such as are predisposed to infection, by unsuitable
+soil, excessive drought or dampness, injury by accident or
+otherwise—in fact, those in a weakened condition however brought
+about—are, of course, far more liable to attacks. Though certain
+species of fungi only attack dead and decomposing wood, and are,
+therefore, the consequence and not the cause of disease, there are
+others, fortunately fewer in number, that attack healthy living trees
+and are the direct cause of disease and death. The prevention and
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_213"></a>[Pg 213]</span>
+extermination of fungus pests is by no means an easy matter, but by
+keeping the woods free from dead and dying trees and branches, and by
+giving immediate attention to outbreaks of the malady, much harm may be
+averted.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+  <img id="I_213" src="images/i_213.jpg" alt="" width="400" height="536" >
+  <p class="f110">LARCH CANKER</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>In the following notes, only the most serious cases are dealt with, or,
+in other words, such fungi referred to as are commonly met with and
+cause most damage to our woodland trees.</p>
+
+<p><b>Larch Disease.</b>—In all probability the larch disease or
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_214"></a>[Pg 214]</span>
+<a href ="#I_213">larch canker</a> owes its origin to the minute spores formed
+in the fructification of the now well-known fungus—<i>Peziza Willkommii</i>.
+It has been pretty conclusively proved that these spores can only find
+a footing where the rind of the bark has become in some way injured,
+such as might be occasioned by the puncture of an insect, by wind,
+frost or from many other causes. The spores send down their germ tubes
+into the cambium, between the bark and the wood, where the moisture
+and nourishment afforded causes rapid development of the fungus. This
+soon spreads to the cells of the wood, and the annual layers either
+entirely cease to grow, or become disorganized and crippled in growth,
+causing a hollow appearance of the stem at the point of attack. The
+surrounding bark, by its attempts to heal over the wound, causes a
+thickened or burly appearance of the trunk, thus imparting to affected
+trees the cankered, swollen and distorted look that is so distinguished
+a characteristic.</p>
+
+<p>The disease appears in this country on the larch, both common and
+Tyrolese, at all stages of growth up to thirty years, but rarely after
+that age. I have examined a plantation of only four years’ growth sadly
+infested by the <i>Peziza</i> whereas, in other cases, the trees may be
+fully twenty years old before being attacked.</p>
+
+<p><b>Cause.</b>—Under what conditions of growth the larch is most
+susceptible to the <i>Peziza</i> is still a matter of vague
+uncertainty, but there can be little doubt that an enfeebled
+constitution, as fully explained in the article on the larch “Trees for
+Economic Planting”, aided by our peculiarly erratic climate, has much
+to answer for. The variableness of our spring weather is, no doubt, one
+of the predisposing causes of disease, for, although no degree of frost
+experienced in this country can injure the tree when leafless, yet few
+are more sensitive when in young foliage.</p>
+
+<p>Bearing on the subject of the larch disease, I have communications
+from almost every part of the country, and have personally visited
+and examined many of the worst infested plantations, particularly in
+England and Wales. Soil, if we exclude peaty, would seem to have little
+or nothing to do with encouraging the disease, as I have found it
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_215"></a>[Pg 215]</span>
+equally virulent on dry, sandy and heavy damp soils, but worse on
+chalk. Curiously enough, the disease is hardly known in the peat bogs
+of Ireland, and there the rainfall is excessive. It is equally strange
+that it first made its appearance in the Eastern and drier parts of
+England, and gradually proceeded to the more humid West. I have,
+however, noticed it in certain low-lying still, and damp portions of
+some woodlands, and where frosts would be most prevalent, but such
+cases are not general.</p>
+
+<p><b>Remedy.</b>—Several remedies have been more or less successfully
+tried with a view to getting rid of the disease on trees, such as by
+cutting and scraping out the injured portions, and applying a suitable
+dressing; but such remedies, although suited for single specimens,
+cannot be applied to a whole area of infested trees.</p>
+
+<p>Under exceptionally favourable conditions, I have found the larch to
+outgrow the disease, though the cankered, swollen stems are never
+afterwards of great value for constructive purposes. Prevention in the
+present case is undoubtedly the best measure, for when once it has made
+headway, the larch disease is most difficult to cope with. By planting
+only sound, healthy trees, with uninjured roots in the most suitable
+soils and situations, and retaining these in as healthy a condition as
+possible, can we guard against attacks of the disease. Hardwoods mixed
+with the larch are to be recommended.</p>
+
+<p><a href ="#I_216"><i>Polyporus squamosus</i></a> attacks the elm and
+other hard-wooded trees and rapidly brings about decay. It is one of
+our commonest species on diseased trees.</p>
+
+<p>The <b>Sycamore Fungus</b> (<i>Rhytisma acerinum</i>).—Every one
+interested in trees must be familiar with the conspicuous black,
+pitch-like spots which so mar the appearance of sycamore leaves. These
+are due to the above-named fungus which, appearing as small yellowish
+spots on the undersides of the leaves towards the end of June,
+gradually increase in size and intensity of colour until they attain
+to fully half an inch in diameter and are inky black, with a margin of
+dirty yellow. The attacked portion of the leaf becomes wrinkled and
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_216"></a>[Pg 216]</span>
+much thickened in texture, while all the affected foliage drops
+off prematurely. After lying on the ground during the winter, the
+thread-like spores are produced in large quantities at the time when
+the foliage of the sycamore is appearing in May and June. The sycamore
+is not the only tree affected by this fungus, for the Norway Maple and
+our native <i>Acer campestre</i> are equally liable to attack, and have
+in some instances suffered very severely from this cause. The fungus
+is becoming more plentiful, and it disfigures the maple and sycamore
+leaves to a wide extent.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+  <img id="I_216" src="images/i_216.jpg" alt="" width="500" height="499" >
+  <p class="f110">POLYPORUS SQUAMOSUS<br> (ON ELM TREE)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Rhytisma punctata</i> may at once be distinguished from the above
+species by the many small black spots studded thickly together, which
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_217"></a>[Pg 217]</span>
+combine to form the large conspicuous blotches for which affected trees
+are remarkable. Both species are sometimes found on the same leaf. As
+the attacks of this fungus continue from year to year, and cause almost
+every leaf to drop off prematurely, the health of the trees is greatly
+impaired, and they become an easy prey to the still more destructive
+coral spot fungus, <i>Nectria cinnabarina</i>. By burning the leaves
+affected with <i>Rhytisma</i> before the spores are liberated in
+spring, the spread of the fungus is prevented in a simple and effective
+manner. The sycamore fungus is very plentiful on trees around London.</p>
+
+<p>The canker of hard-wooded trees is brought about by one of the Nectria
+(<i>N. ditissima</i>), and is very common in every part of the country,
+affecting the oak, beech, ash, sycamore and fruit trees generally. The
+ash perhaps suffers most, the timber turning black and being quite
+unfitted for structural purposes. It is strictly parasitical, growing
+on wounded portions of the stem and branch, and spreads with great
+rapidity, attacking trees of all ages. We have known the trees in a
+plantation of ash to be quite destroyed by this canker, which attacks
+most freely those growing on wet, sour land. This should be a warning
+to planters to avoid such soil.</p>
+
+<p>The <b>Red-rot Fungus</b> (<i>Fomes annosus</i> or <i>Trametes
+radiciperda</i>) attacks the roots of several species of pine,
+particularly the Scotch, Corsican and Weymouth, as also the Spruce
+and Silver Fir. It is probably the most destructive of the family,
+attacking living roots and spreading rapidly from tree to tree. The
+trees, when affected, quickly turn sickly and die, the wood becoming
+spongy and of a brownish colour, with distinct black spots. The only
+remedy is to take out affected trees and burn them root and branch,
+replanting the ground with beech or elm. Though one of the most
+destructive fungi in coniferous woodlands, its attacks are by no means
+confined to these alone, since it is found on the roots of several
+hard-wooded species, such as the filbert, hazel, birch and beech. Quite
+recently a nut plantation in Kent suffered severely from the attacks of
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_218"></a>[Pg 218]</span>
+this fungus, whole lines of trees being killed outright before the
+cause was detected. It spreads quickly underground from tree to tree,
+and unless eradicated, as it may easily be by uprooting affected trees
+and carefully destroying the mycelium, much damage may result.</p>
+
+<p>The <b>White-rot Fungus</b> (<i>Fomes igniarius</i>) is usually found
+on hard-wooded trees, and takes possession of wounds that may have been
+occasioned by the accidental breaking of a branch or stem injury. Oak
+trees suffer most from the attacks of this fungus, which is often as
+large as a foot across, and of a brownish colour. It is named igniarius
+on account of the inner surface being used as tinder, when prepared
+with saltpetre, especially in the old days of flint and steel. By
+removing the fungus and attending to the wound by cleaning away all
+dead and dying matter, and coating with tar, much benefit will ensue.</p>
+
+<p>The <b>Leaf-shedding Fungus</b> or <b>Pine-leaf Scurf</b>
+(<i>Lophodermium pinastre</i>) is a well-known and widely distributed
+species, and is usually found on the Scotch and Austrian Pines. The
+leaves, when attacked, wither suddenly and fall off, the fungus
+being most prevalent after unusually dry weather, or in early spring
+succeeded by a frosty winter. It occurs both as a saprophyte on dead
+pine leaves and a parasite on the living foliage. We have been most
+successful in combating the attacks and preventing the spread of the
+pest by spraying the affected parts with “Bordeaux mixture.” Young
+trees under ten years of age are most commonly attacked, and when this
+occurs in the nursery borders, the plants should be rooted out and
+burned. On several Scottish and English estates, thousands of Scotch
+Pines have been killed out by the attacks of the leaf-shedding fungus.</p>
+
+<p>One of the commonest fungi on old stumps is <b>Agaricus melleus</b>. It
+has no particular host, being found alike on coniferous and hard-wooded
+trees, and on both root and stem. Known as the honey fungus, and
+edible, this toadstool is about three inches in diameter, and of a
+yellowish-brown or rusty colour. It spreads with great rapidity both in
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_219"></a>[Pg 219]</span>
+the soil and between the bark and wood of the affected tree. The only
+remedy is digging out and destroying the fungus, and, in the case of
+healthy young trees, collecting and burning the mycelium.</p>
+
+<p>Next to the larch canker, one of the most destructive diseases of
+forest trees is caused by attacks of the <b>Bladder-rust</b> or
+<b>Cluster-cup</b> (<i>Peridermium piniacicola</i>). It is a wound
+fungus and attacks almost every species of pine, the Scotch in
+particular, especially when the trees are growing on light, poor
+soils. Young trees up to, say, twenty years old are most commonly
+attacked by this fungus, which appears like blisters, emitting bright
+reddish-coloured spores. Rooting up and burning all affected trees is
+the best remedy.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+  <img id="I_219" src="images/i_219.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="478" >
+  <p class="f110">POLYPORUS SULPHUREUS<br> (ON WHITE POPLAR)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><a href ="#I_219"><i>Polyporus sulphureus</i></a> attacks many species
+of trees—yew, poplar, etc.</p>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_220"></a>[Pg 220]</span></p>
+<h2 class="nobreak">CHAPTER XXIII<br>
+<span class="h_subtitle">BARKING OAK</span></h2>
+</div>
+
+<p>Previous to the war the price of oak bark—about £2 10<i>s.</i> per
+ton—rendered it questionable whether from a purely financial point of
+view the operations of stripping and harvesting should be undertaken.
+Now, however, with bark at fully three times that figure, the operation
+is to be recommended.</p>
+
+<p>The period of bark-stripping and harvesting is one of the most anxious
+seasons of the year with the forester, as the quality of the bark is
+so largely dependent upon the weather during the time that intervenes
+between the stripping and stacking, or delivery, and not less so
+upon the carrying out of the work at the proper time, to secure easy
+and expeditious peeling. In most cases the time when the bud is just
+expanding into leaf is that which gives the greatest weight of bark of
+the best quality, with the smallest amount of labour. By deferring the
+work, even for a few days, there is often a loss in weight amounting to
+as much as 10 per cent., and a great deterioration in quality.</p>
+
+<p>Even in the most favoured situations it is seldom that the season
+for stripping extends beyond twenty-eight days. The advantages of
+early stripping are so well known that any comment on the subject is
+unnecessary; suffice it to say that, immediately the bark commences to
+“run” freely, no time should be lost in making a start, and the work
+should be prosecuted with vigour and dispatch until completed.</p>
+
+<p>The proper time to commence barking cannot, however, be fixed with any
+amount of certainty, much depending on the season, whether early or
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_221"></a>[Pg 221]</span>
+late, as well as on the district of the country in which the operation
+is to be performed. During ordinary seasons, and in most parts of
+England, bark-stripping commences during the third week in April and
+continues for about a month, or until such time as the trees are
+in full leafage, whereas in some parts of Scotland, especially the
+north, the operation is frequently nearly a month later. No mistake
+can, however, arise as to the right time to start barking in any
+locality, as in all cases the period when the bud is first bursting
+into leaf will be found the proper time for felling to insure easy
+stripping and the best quality of bark. As the season of bark-stripping
+is, therefore, of short duration, every preparation should be made
+beforehand—trees marked and numbered, tools in readiness, and squads
+arranged—so that an early start may be made, as, by deferring the work
+beyond the time stated above, there is not only a perceptible loss in
+weight, but considerable deterioration in the quality of bark as well.</p>
+
+<p>Elaborate directions regarding the arrangements of squads and tools
+to be used are unnecessary, as almost every district has its own
+peculiarities in this way. The tools generally in use are heavy axes
+and the cross-cut saw for felling, hand-bills and saws for pruning,
+peeling-irons or chisels for removing the bark, scrapers for removing
+moss, and light wooden mallets for beating refractory bark or such as
+cannot be removed by the peeling-irons alone.</p>
+
+<p>Previously to felling the trees a man or stout lad is sent before,
+who removes the bark from the root upwards for a distance of 2 ft. or
+3 ft.; this not only prevents its being injured when laying in and
+felling the tree, but is convenient for after-stripping as well. When
+the stools are intended for reproduction great care is necessary to
+avoid tearing or loosening the bark from the roots. After being thus
+prepared the trees are felled in the usual manner, those under 6 in. in
+diameter being cut with the axe; above that size it is found an economy
+of time and timber to fell with the cross-cut saw. Following in the
+rear of the cutters should be a squad of men, to clear the trunk and
+larger limbs of all branches down to 1 in. in diameter, leaving the
+limbs to be peeled as part of the tree.
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_222"></a>[Pg 222]</span></p>
+
+<p>Heavy timber and large branches are usually peeled where they fall,
+but it will be found convenient to have the smaller trees and branches
+carried out to some open space adjoining the stacking ground, and
+peeled while one end is supported by means of two forked sticks placed
+against each other. When the bark of small branches cannot readily be
+removed by the peeling-iron, a smooth and flat stone is brought into
+use, beside which the peeler sits, and with one hand holds the branch
+on the stone, moving it along from one end to the other, at the same
+time applying the mallet with the other hand until the bark becomes
+loosened from the wood. Here it may be well to issue a caution against
+a too frequent use of the mallet, which should never be brought into
+request when the bark can be otherwise removed from the wood, as all
+hammering and beating not only diminishes the quality of tannin, but
+has a tendency to blacken the fleshy part of the bark and cause rapid
+decay in a bad season. The body, or trunk bark, is removed in lengths
+of from 30 in. to 36 in., and in as large pieces as possible.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+  <img id="I_222" src="images/i_222.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="443" >
+  <p class="f110">BARKING TOOLS</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_223"></a>[Pg 223]</span>
+A dry, open and airy situation, convenient to the work, but without
+the wood, should be selected on which to harvest the bark, and rather
+than this should be done in a sheltered, humid spot, the bark should be
+carted to some distance off. The drying racks, or ranges, may be fully
+2 ft. high, drooping somewhat to one side, and formed of forked sticks
+driven firmly in the ground, while stout rods are placed transversely
+upon these. It should also be so arranged as that not only may the
+rain be thrown off, but so that the ends of the bark may be facing the
+prevailing wind, thereby insuring a current of air through and beneath
+the mass. After being carted or carried to the drying-ground, the
+small bark is spread out loosely on the stage to a depth of about 6
+in., and thatched or covered over with the larger pieces as a means of
+protection against rain. Each day’s bark should be cleared up, and put
+on the range the same evening, and oftener, if found necessary, during
+damp showery weather, keeping the white or fleshy part downwards and
+using the larger pieces as covers to run off the rain.</p>
+
+<p>During favourable weather the bark will be ready for stacking in about
+a fortnight from the time it was placed on the stage, but should
+close damp weather intervene, it may be found necessary to turn the
+bark occasionally, thus adding to the length of time required for
+harvesting. It should, however, be remembered that the less turning
+the bark receives after being placed on the stage the better will the
+quality be. Well-seasoned bark has the fleshy side of a creamy colour,
+whereas such as has been exposed to the sun or rain is of a dull brown,
+and is wanting in tannin matter, and consequently of inferior value.</p>
+
+<p>As soon as the bark is thoroughly dry and ready for stacking, which
+may readily be ascertained by its breaking freely across rather than
+bending or yielding to pressure, it should be secured in a shed,
+ricked, or delivered to the tanner.</p>
+
+<p>In stacking bark the rick should not be made too wide—say about 9
+ft.—but well hearted, so that the side pieces may have a good fall or
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_224"></a>[Pg 224]</span>
+declivity outwards to throw off the rain. The rick may be of any
+length, according to the quantity of bark on hand, and of a height
+proportionate to the width. The largest pieces of bark should be
+reserved for thatching the rick, the whole being covered over by a
+tarpaulin or waterproof cloth of some kind. In most cases the bark is
+chipped previously to being sold, but as this necessitates having a
+large shed at command, the system is not generally adopted. There are,
+however, several advantages accruing from this method, not the least
+of which is that the bark may be chopped up as it is removed from
+the drying-stands, thus saving the expense of stacking. Chopping the
+bark can also be done by the workmen during wet weather, and when not
+otherwise engaged.</p>
+
+<p>In computing the quantity of bark before stripping, we have found the
+following data fairly reliable:—</p>
+
+<p>1. A well-balanced tree with a good head will yield about 6 cwt. of
+bark for every ton of measurable timber, if branches down to an inch in
+diameter are peeled.</p>
+
+<p>2. Hedgerow trees usually yield about a ton of bark to every three tons
+of timber.</p>
+
+<p>3. Trees growing in close woodland are usually thin barked, the yield
+being about a ton of bark to every 4½ tons of timber.</p>
+
+<p>4. Oak poles will average five tons of timber to a ton of bark.</p>
+
+<p>Tall, clean stems, as are produced when the poles are grown thickly
+together, with small heads, give the smallest yield in proportion
+to the quantity of timber, and short stems with spreading heads the
+largest.</p>
+
+<p>The cost of production is as follows:—</p>
+
+<table class="spb1">
+   <tbody><tr class="fs_120">
+      <td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td>
+      <td class="tdc_wsp"><b>£</b></td>
+      <td class="tdc_wsp"><b><i>s.</i></b></td>
+      <td class="tdc_wsp"><b><i>d.</i></b></td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">Labour, peeling and harvesting</td>
+      <td class="tdc">1</td>
+      <td class="tdc">10</td>
+      <td class="tdc">0</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">Cartage to railway station, including loading</td>
+      <td class="tdc">&nbsp;</td>
+      <td class="tdc">&nbsp;</td>
+      <td class="tdc">&nbsp;</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl_ws2">(this is the average from six districts)</td>
+      <td class="tdc">0</td>
+      <td class="tdc">7</td>
+      <td class="tdc">6</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">Loss on four months’ delay in selling the timber,</td>
+      <td class="tdc">&nbsp;</td>
+      <td class="tdc">&nbsp;</td>
+      <td class="tdc">&nbsp;</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl_ws2">which, but for the bark, would have been</td>
+      <td class="tdc">&nbsp;</td>
+      <td class="tdc">&nbsp;</td>
+      <td class="tdc">&nbsp;</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl_ws2">felled in winter at 5 per cent.</td>
+      <td class="tdc">0</td>
+      <td class="tdc">5</td>
+      <td class="tdc">0</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">Customary terms of payment, less 2½ per cent.</td>
+      <td class="tdc">0</td>
+      <td class="tdc">2</td>
+      <td class="tdc">0</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">Superintendence, etc.</td>
+      <td class="tdc bb">0</td>
+      <td class="tdc bb">1</td>
+      <td class="tdc bb">6</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td>
+      <td class="tdc">£2&#8199;</td>
+      <td class="tdc">6</td>
+      <td class="tdc">0</td>
+   </tr>
+ </tbody>
+</table>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_225"></a>[Pg 225]</span>
+It has been carefully estimated that there is a loss of fully 12 per
+cent. of wood, caused by felling the oak during the barking season. In
+other words, the proportion of sap wood to the whole tree is about 14
+per cent., which, for the majority of purposes to which oak timber is
+applied, is rendered by the peeling of little or no value.</p>
+
+<p>We may say, however, that 2 per cent. can be profitably utilized, which
+still leaves us with a considerable loss on the whole tree.</p>
+
+<p>The average price of the best oak is 2<i>s.</i> per ft., 12 per cent.
+of which is as nearly as possible 3<i>d.</i> per ft., or £1 17<i>s.</i>
+6<i>d.</i> per ton of bark to 150 ft. of wood.</p>
+
+<p>This, with the £2 6<i>s.</i> per ton cost of production, brings the
+total to £4 3<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i>, leaving a considerable balance on
+the wrong side at pre-war prices.</p>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_226"></a>[Pg 226]</span></p>
+<h2 class="nobreak">CHAPTER XXIV<br>
+<span class="h_subtitle">THE MANUFACTURE OF CHARCOAL</span></h2>
+</div>
+
+<p>Amongst dead or dying industries of our woodlands that have been
+revived by the war, none is at present receiving a greater share of
+attention than the manufacture of charcoal.</p>
+
+<p>There was a time, and not so long ago, when the merry voice and ring of
+the charcoal burner’s axe were familiar sounds in some of the Kentish
+and other forests of Southern England; but keen foreign competition,
+aided by preferential carriage rates, have caused this time-honoured
+industry to slip from our hands; indeed, it was almost forgotten
+till again called into existence for the battlefields of France and
+Flanders. The trenches must be warmed without apprising the enemy of
+the existence of our men, and in order to do this and prevent soaring
+signals of smoke, the tent brazier is filled with glowing charcoal.</p>
+
+<p>Except, perhaps, in Kent and Surrey and the English Lake district,
+where small quantities of charcoal are annually produced for the hop
+kilns and iron smelting, charcoal burning is a thing of the past.
+The expert charcoal burner is now a difficult man to find, and an
+independent, highly-paid workman when you have found him. Successive
+members of the same family in Kent have been known to follow the
+occupation of charcoal burning for fully a century and a half, and it
+is distinctly a skilled industry, and confined to few.</p>
+
+<p>Usually the men work in threes, and, having selected a piece of ground
+sheltered from the prevailing winds and in a position to which easy
+access with wood can be obtained, a rough hut is erected for the
+accommodation of these nocturnal workmen. Water, sand or sawdust and
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_227"></a>[Pg 227]</span>
+turf are other requisites that must be provided as the work proceeds. A
+couple of large tarpaulins and half a dozen straw-covered hurdles are
+other necessities.</p>
+
+<p>From the point of economy in carting the wood to the kilns it may seem
+that shifting the position of burning from one part of the woodland to
+another is to be recommended. Such is, however, not the case, as the
+hard, dry, ash-covered site, where charring has already been carried
+out, has its advantages, and the cost of transferring the workmen’s hut
+and tools from one position to another must also be considered.</p>
+
+<p>Several methods, largely dependent on the quantity and quality of
+charcoal to be obtained, are adopted, but in order to procure that of
+the best description the following system, which has been successfully
+carried out on a large estate for the past hundred years at least, is
+recommended. The timber carted to the charcoal yard consists of all
+kinds of hardwoods, preferably not under two inches in diameter.</p>
+
+<p>Firewood and rough, unsaleable timber, as also inferior grades of heavy
+coppice wood, are mainly utilized for the production of charcoal.
+The wood is sawn into pieces about 2 ft. long, this being the most
+convenient size for building the kiln, and these again split if
+required to some 4 in. to the side, and when a sufficient quantity for
+two pits has been cut up, the building of these is proceeded with. It
+has been found economical to burn two pits at the same time, as both
+can be attended to as conveniently as one, and it is unnecessary for
+the men to sit up at night to watch each separately. The charcoal pits,
+one of which is shown in the accompanying sketch, are made of a broadly
+conical shape, 21 ft. in diameter and about 9 ft. high, and the mode of
+construction is as follows:—</p>
+
+<p>A strong stake is driven firmly into the ground and left protruding
+about a foot. Around this are placed small pieces of dry ash of equal
+length, and standing as close to the upright stake as possible; around
+this another layer is placed in the same manner, and this is continued
+until a circle 5 ft. in diameter is obtained. A circle 1 ft. in
+diameter, and having the top of the stake previously driven into the
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_228"></a>[Pg 228]</span>
+ground as centre, is next made by placing the wood horizontally on the
+upright pieces and side by side, the ends of each piece being placed at
+the circumference of the circle already made, and directed towards its
+centre. Layer upon layer is built in this manner until the pit is of
+the required height, the wood used here being dry pieces of ash 2 ft.
+in length, but split rather smaller than the ordinary pieces. A sort
+of chimney is thus formed, by means of which the pit is fired. Outside
+the core the wood is placed on end and reclining inwards, this being
+continued until the pits are of the required size. When the building
+is completed the pits are covered with newly cut turf, the grassy side
+placed innermost, beginning at the base and working towards the top,
+each line of turf overlapping the previous one by a few inches. The
+circular hole or chimney is left open for firing. Before turfing the
+top half of each pit it is carefully examined, and any crevices between
+the wood packed full of small pieces of turf and sawdust to exclude
+the air. The turfs are cut about 1 ft. in width, and of any convenient
+length. The quantity required for two pits of the dimensions stated is
+seven loads.</p>
+
+<p>When the pit is satisfactorily covered it is fired by dropping a
+couple of shovelfuls of burning wood and some dry pieces of pine or
+ash into the opening left at the top; the top turf is then put on,
+which effectually shuts up the chimney, and the process of charring
+commences. The smoke is first seen issuing from the lower half of each
+pit, where the chinks were not packed with sawdust, and ultimately it
+escapes from the whole surface.</p>
+
+<p>Constant attention is required day and night during the period of
+burning, especially should the weather be stormy, as the wind, by
+striking on a particular part of the pit, causes that side to burn more
+rapidly, and fall in. When this occurs the hole must at once be filled
+in with rough logs, which had been set aside for the purpose when
+splitting the wood, and re-covered with turf.</p>
+
+<p>When the weather is mild the pits burn uniformly, require but little
+attention, and produce the finest charcoal. The time required for
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_229"></a>[Pg 229]</span>
+burning will vary with the size of the pit, quality of wood, method
+of covering, and meteorological conditions. From six to seven days
+are usually required for pits of the above dimensions, but smaller
+kilns only covered with grass, fern and a little soil may be ready for
+uncovering in from two to four days. Long experience has, however,
+proved that by the slower process of charring the best charcoal is
+produced, but the cost is higher. By covering the pits with grass and
+fern, as is often done, a considerable saving is no doubt effected,
+but where turf is available there can be no question as to its value
+over the former, and on the boundaries of most woodlands it is readily
+procurable at the cost of cutting. As the charring proceeds the turf
+gradually disappears until only a slight covering of burnt earth
+remains. When the pits have burned out and become cool, it is found
+that they are reduced to rather less than half their original size.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+  <img id="I_229" src="images/i_229.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="354" >
+  <p class="f110">SECTION OF CHARCOAL PIT</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The charcoal is extracted by means of a specially constructed rake
+resembling a light drag, but having much finer teeth, which, after it
+has become quite cold, is stored in a shed until required for use.</p>
+
+<p>The very finest charcoal, superior to what is generally sold, is
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_230"></a>[Pg 230]</span>
+produced by this method. The expenses connected with making it are,
+however, a little heavier than usual, owing to the slower system of
+charring, the use of larger wood, and the extra cost of covering with
+turf. As to the cost of producing charcoal by the above method, this
+will vary greatly, much depending on the distance the wood has to be
+carted and on the cost of labour in the particular district.</p>
+
+<p>The price paid to the charcoal burners is 7<i>d.</i> per bushel, or
+about four guineas per ton, which may seem high, but when we consider
+that it is specialized work that is confined to few and attended
+with grave risks and discomfort, the amount earned is not excessive.
+It should also be remembered that, previous to lighting the kilns,
+sufficient rough, not corded, wood has to be sawn and split and
+the pits carefully built and covered, not to speak of the constant
+attention required, both day and night, wet or dry, for from three
+to seven days, during charring process. The usual price for burning
+charcoal when the wood is corded is 35<i>s.</i> per ton.</p>
+
+<p>Fresh-felled wood is rarely converted into charcoal, the greater
+portion of that used being thinnings of the previous season. The
+proportion of wood to charcoal varies greatly, much depending on the
+size, quality, and maturity of timber. Having had occasion to purchase
+charcoal lately, I found the price, retail, to be 2<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i>
+per bushel, or in quantities of not less than a ton, £14, for that of
+fair quality.</p>
+
+<p>From about the twelfth century onwards Scotland, where wood was
+abundant, produced annually a large quantity of charcoal iron; and in
+1660 the Navy Commissioners nominated John Evelyn to investigate the
+then denudation of forests owing to the manufacture of charcoal for
+iron smelting, and the following quaint extract from his report will
+be interesting:—“Nature has thought fit to produce this wasting ore
+more plentifully in woodlands than any other point, and to enrich our
+forests to their own destruction—a deep execration of iron mills and
+ironmasters also.” The Lorn Works, in Argyllshire, were started in
+1753, and annually consumed upwards of 3,000 tons of lump charcoal.</p>
+
+<p>The Sussex and Kentish forests at one time supported many of the
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_231"></a>[Pg 231]</span>
+familiar charcoal burners, and right brawny and thrifty were these
+denizens of the woodland with their rustic wooden huts and piles of
+rifted firewood, but the industry was almost a thing of the past till
+again called into active existence by the exigencies of the war.</p>
+
+<p><b>Kiln burning.</b>—The kiln is made of brick, one course being
+sufficient, if bands of iron be added to strengthen the brickwork. It
+is usually conical in shape, 24 ft. in diameter, with an equal height,
+and holds about forty cords of wood. The wall of the kiln is carried
+up nearly straight for about 6 ft., when it is gradually drawn in and
+made a blunt cone shape. A plate of iron is fastened on the top in the
+manner of a stone to an arch. Three-inch hoop-iron bands, about an
+eighth of an inch thick, are placed around the kiln and drawn together
+by means of screw-bolts and nuts. At the base, and near the top, are
+double sheet-iron doors, by which it is filled with wood or emptied
+of charcoal. The time required to fill, burn and empty is about three
+weeks. Pit-burning, for estate purposes, is, however, most commonly
+pursued, and has this advantage—that the charcoal can be made at any
+place where timber is being felled, without extra expense, save that of
+the cartage of the charcoal, whereas in using the kiln or retort the
+wood must, in most cases, be conveyed to the place where it is erected.</p>
+
+<p><b>Comparative Value of Woods for Charcoal making.</b>—Amongst
+home-grown timber, oak, ash, and beech are generally preferred for
+charcoal making, but the following table will show pretty correctly the
+proportionate relative values of the various descriptions of wood for
+gunpowder charcoal:—</p>
+
+<table class="spb1">
+   <tbody><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td>
+      <td class="tdc_wsp">Per Cent.</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">Rhamnus frangula contains</td>
+      <td class="tdr_wsp">27</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">Laburnum</td>
+      <td class="tdr_wsp">25</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">Boxwood</td>
+      <td class="tdr_wsp">24</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">Sweet Chestnut</td>
+      <td class="tdr_wsp">23</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">Oak</td>
+      <td class="tdr_wsp">22</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">Holly</td>
+      <td class="tdr_wsp">20</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">Walnut</td>
+      <td class="tdr_wsp">20</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">Beech</td>
+      <td class="tdr_wsp">19</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">Sycamore</td>
+      <td class="tdr_wsp">19</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">Elm</td>
+      <td class="tdr_wsp">19
+              <span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_232"></a>[Pg 232]</span></td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">Willow</td>
+      <td class="tdr_wsp">18</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">Poplar</td>
+      <td class="tdr_wsp">18</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">Birch</td>
+      <td class="tdr_wsp">17</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">Alder</td>
+      <td class="tdr_wsp">17</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">Ash</td>
+      <td class="tdr_wsp">17</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">Hazel</td>
+      <td class="tdr_wsp">17</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">Mountain Ash</td>
+      <td class="tdr_wsp">17</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">Scotch fir</td>
+      <td class="tdr_wsp">16</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">Larch</td>
+      <td class="tdr_wsp">16</td>
+   </tr>
+ </tbody>
+</table>
+
+<p><b>Uses of Charcoal.</b>—The uses of charcoal for estate purposes are
+very numerous, for horticultural, agricultural and other departments.
+From remote antiquity charcoal has been used as a fuel, and for many
+purposes it is still unsurpassed. It is by far the cleanest solid fuel
+known; it burns steadily, gives out a great amount of heat, and lasts
+well. On account of its smokelessness it is invaluable for cookery, and
+it is also admirably suited for use in green-house and other stoves.
+It is not adopted for heating apartments on account of the poisonous
+gas (carbonic oxide) produced in its combustion, and the danger,
+most apparent when the charcoal is burnt in an open chauffer, is not
+obviated by using it in a stove, as carbonic oxide has the power of
+diffusing through red-hot iron.</p>
+
+<p>In gardening, charcoal is largely used for potting purposes, for vine
+borders, and for flower beds; and in the form of dust it is the best
+material for packing bulbs for transmission to a distance.</p>
+
+<p>Perhaps the most important of the uses to which charcoal can be put
+about a house or estate is that depending on its extraordinary power
+of absorbing gases. It is a perfect deodorant, a preservative of food
+and all animal substances and a valuable disinfectant. The gases most
+readily absorbed by charcoal are those which are most prejudicial to
+health and most frequently produced by putrefactive changes.</p>
+
+<p>In the pores of the charcoal they are destroyed by union with the
+oxygen condensed from the air. The fact of its being absolutely
+non-poisonous and perfectly odourless puts it before all other
+disinfectants.
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_233"></a>[Pg 233]</span></p>
+
+<p><b>“Dogwood” for Gunpowder Charcoal.</b>—The alder buckthorn,
+berry-bearing or black alder (<i>Rhamnus frangula</i>) is a native
+shrub that is fairly plentiful in Southern England, though rare in
+Scotland and Ireland. Confusion sometimes arises from the same popular
+name being applied to widely different species of plants, and this,
+unfortunately, is the case with the shrub in question. What is known
+among gunpowder manufacturers as dogwood is in reality the present
+shrub (<i>Rhamnus</i>), which, however, is quite distinct from the
+true dogwood (<i>Cornus</i>) and belongs to an entirely different
+family. To those who contemplate growing charcoal wood for the making
+of explosives, this distinction is of the utmost importance, as I have
+seen <i>Cornus sanguinea</i> cultivated for the making of gunpowder.</p>
+
+<p>The alder buckthorn is perfectly hardy, growing freely even in the
+North of Scotland, where it ripens its seeds. It is usually found as an
+erect-growing bush from 8 ft. to 10 ft. in height, though in suitable
+situations in Southern England specimens fully 20 ft. high, with stems
+6 in. in diameter, are to be met with. The bright green leaves are
+oval in shape and vary, according to conditions of growth, from 2 in.
+to 3 in. in length, while the flowers are of a dull yellowish green
+and are succeeded by dark purple berries each about the size of a pea.
+From a very early date the alder buckthorn has been cultivated, though
+not extensively, in this country for charcoal making, and the price,
+upwards of £15 per ton, that is paid for the wood, shows that the
+growing of this shrub is a profitable undertaking. At one time large
+quantities of the wood were produced in Sussex and other counties, the
+selling price being £14 per ton when peeled and tied in bundles.</p>
+
+<p>The cultivation of the alder buckthorn is nearly similar to that of the
+osier for basket-making, and the produce is dealt with and disposed of
+in like manner. For soil any good loam inclined to be dampish will suit
+it well, and an open, but not wind-swept, situation should be chosen
+for its cultivation. The land intended for growing the alder buckthorn
+should be trenched the winter before planting, and a top-dressing of
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_234"></a>[Pg 234]</span>
+leaf soil or thoroughly decomposed manure, the former preferably, will
+greatly assist the growth of the young plants and prevent too speedy
+evaporation of moisture from the soil. Young plants are not offered
+in quantity in our nursery catalogues, and in order to obtain a stock
+sufficient to form a plantation, seed-sowing or layering old plants
+must be resorted to. Fortunately, by either method the plant is readily
+obtained in quantity, and as the seeds are produced in fair abundance
+and ripen freely this method of getting up a stock is to be recommended.</p>
+
+<p>The berries, after being collected in the early winter, are treated
+much as we treat those of the yew and holly. They are mixed with sand
+in order to separate the seed and fleshy covering, and the whole
+is sown during early spring in previously prepared beds. The seed
+beds may be prepared in any shady situation out of doors, the soil
+being largely composed of light sandy loam mixed with finely riddled
+leaf-mould. Sometimes the seeds are sown in boxes and placed in a cool
+frame, but we have found cultivation out of doors more satisfactory.
+When two years old, the seedlings should be transplanted into lines
+18 in. apart and 9 in. from plant to plant. Here they may remain for
+another two years, after which they should be planted out permanently
+and headed back the following season. Rather thick final planting is
+to be recommended, as the shrub being of upright growth, requires
+comparatively small room for development, and the best wands are
+produced by a close order of growth, say 5 ft. from plant to plant.</p>
+
+<p>Layering does not produce such upright-habited shrubs as those grown
+from seed, and the yield of wood per acre under exactly similar
+conditions of growth is greatly in favour of seedlings.</p>
+
+<p>After planting, the ground should be kept free from rough-growing seeds
+for the first two years, the crop being cut at from six to seven years’
+growth, when the wands are from 1½ in. to 2 in. diameter at butt end.
+Cutting and bundling is usually done by contract, but, as with the
+osier, it is imperative that the crop be cut over near ground level and
+short “stumps” without “spurs” encouraged.
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_235"></a>[Pg 235]</span></p>
+
+<p>As in the case of ordinary coppice wood, the buckthorn for charcoal
+making may be cut every sixth or seventh year, the straightest shoots
+when sorted in about 5 ft. lengths being tied in bundles which are
+about a yard in girth. The buckthorn being a gross feeder, manuring the
+land after the removal of a crop has been found advantageous.</p>
+
+<p>Although largely imported from Holland, and other parts of the
+Continent, home-grown wood is preferred, as it produces a much
+superior charcoal for the manufacture of explosives. Unfortunately,
+however, home supplies are so limited that foreign wood is imported
+in considerable quantity, and as there was a scarcity before the war,
+the probabilities are that, with our greatly increased consumption of
+charcoal explosives, a dearth of suitable wood is now being felt.</p>
+
+<p>With the present small remuneration attaching to the cultivation of
+coppice or underwood, which under ordinary circumstances does not
+exceed £4 per acre, the cultivation of the alder buckthorn is to be
+recommended, particularly as the price is at least quadrupled. The
+cultivation of this is quite simple, while the quality of soil required
+need not be better than that which produces a crop of chestnut or
+hazel. In cultivating the alder buckthorn for charcoal purposes the
+following rules should be observed:—</p>
+
+<p>1. It will not succeed satisfactorily in sandy, poor or water-logged
+soils; rich, well-manured loam being preferred.</p>
+
+<p>2. The ground should either be trenched or ploughed and cleared of all
+rough-growing weeds the winter before planting.</p>
+
+<p>3. Plant seedlings or layers in the spring in lines about 5 ft. apart
+and the same distance from plant to plant.</p>
+
+<p>4. An annual clearance of weeds and loosening of the soil between the
+rows of plants is recommended where a heavy crop is expected.</p>
+
+<p>5. Induce the growth of stout clean shoots by liberal feeding and clean
+cultivation.</p>
+
+<p>6. Cut the shoots close to the ground so as to prevent the formation of
+long spurs and minimize the number of off-shoots. Clean cutting with a
+sharp tool is imperative.
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_236"></a>[Pg 236]</span></p>
+
+<p>7. After the removal of a crop, stirring and enriching the soil is to
+be recommended.</p>
+
+<p>8. Though found mixed with undershrubs and in the shade of trees when
+in a wild state, yet the greatest quantity of the most valuable wood
+for charcoal making is produced in open situations.</p>
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_237"></a>[Pg 237]</span></p>
+<h2 class="nobreak">CHAPTER XXV<br>
+<span class="h_subtitle">PRICES OF HOME-GROWN TIMBER</span></h2>
+</div>
+
+<p>These vary so much in different parts of the country that it is
+almost impossible to give a list that would apply generally to the
+British Isles. Local demand and the situation of the plantations where
+the timber is to be sold have to be considered, while the quantity
+available and quality of the particular timber are also important
+factors in determining the price.</p>
+
+<p>In many instances woods and plantations are far removed from road and
+rail, consequently the cost of delivering to the consuming centre
+is proportionately high, while in the vicinity of coal mines or
+manufacturing towns almost every class of timber will find a ready and
+profitable market. Then the quality of the timber (its reputation, we
+might almost say) is a powerful factor in assessing its value, as will
+be seen in the case of oak produced in Surrey and Sussex, or beech from
+the chalky districts of Kent and Hertfordshire. No timber merchant
+thinks twice as to whether he should, on account of quality, purchase
+oaks at Rockingham, Ashridge, Welbeck or other well-known centres, and
+so it is with the beech timber on the Chiltern Hills, at the Chenies,
+in Hertfordshire, or with Scotch pine from the famous Aberdeenshire
+plantations.</p>
+
+<p>But there is another factor that frequently affects the price of good
+timber, and that is, that in inaccessible positions the quantity
+offered is too small. This has been the case with excellent larch
+timber in Ireland, where the quantity offered was not sufficient to
+induce the timber merchant to lay down plant and arrange for delivery
+to the nearest railway or port. There are other causes of a minor nature
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_238"></a>[Pg 238]</span>
+that greatly affect the price of home-grown timber, and it is a curious
+fact that in adjoining counties, sometimes even in the same county, the
+prices of various timbers vary several pence per cubic foot. With all
+woodland products the same is the case, and locality and local demand
+determine the price of faggots, firewood and other commodities.</p>
+
+<p>Previous to the war, the following were the average prices of
+home-grown timber, felled and lying in the wood; also of other woodland
+produce. The prices at present are generally much higher.</p>
+
+<table class="spb1">
+   <tbody><tr class="fs_120">
+      <td class="tdc_wsp">&nbsp;</td>
+      <td class="tdc_wsp">&nbsp;</td>
+      <td class="tdc_wsp"><b><i>s.</i></b></td>
+      <td class="tdc_wsp"><b><i>d.</i></b></td>
+      <td class="tdc_wsp">&nbsp;</td>
+      <td class="tdc_wsp"><b><i>s.</i></b></td>
+      <td class="tdc_wsp"><b><i>d.</i></b></td>
+      <td class="tdc_wsp">&nbsp;</td>
+      <td class="tdc_wsp">&nbsp;</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">Ash</td>
+      <td class="tdc_wsp">from</td>
+      <td class="tdc">1</td>
+      <td class="tdc">6</td>
+      <td class="tdc">to</td>
+      <td class="tdc">2</td>
+      <td class="tdc">6</td>
+      <td class="tdc_wsp">per</td>
+      <td class="tdc">cubic foot.</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">Alder</td>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+      <td class="tdc">0</td>
+      <td class="tdc">7</td>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+      <td class="tdc">0</td>
+      <td class="tdc">10</td>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">Beech</td>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+      <td class="tdc">0</td>
+      <td class="tdc">10</td>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+      <td class="tdc">1</td>
+      <td class="tdc">4</td>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">Birch</td>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+      <td class="tdc">0</td>
+      <td class="tdc">7</td>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+      <td class="tdc">0</td>
+      <td class="tdc">10</td>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">Chestnut (Spanish)</td>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+      <td class="tdc">1</td>
+      <td class="tdc">3</td>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+      <td class="tdc">1</td>
+      <td class="tdc">6</td>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl_ws2">”&emsp;&nbsp; (Horse)</td>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+      <td class="tdc">0</td>
+      <td class="tdc">8</td>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+      <td class="tdc" colspan="2">——</td>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">Cherry</td>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+      <td class="tdc">0</td>
+      <td class="tdc">9</td>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+      <td class="tdc">1</td>
+      <td class="tdc">2</td>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">Elm</td>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+      <td class="tdc">0</td>
+      <td class="tdc">7</td>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+      <td class="tdc">1</td>
+      <td class="tdc">6</td>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">Larch</td>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+      <td class="tdc">0</td>
+      <td class="tdc">10</td>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+      <td class="tdc">1</td>
+      <td class="tdc">4</td>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">Lime</td>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+      <td class="tdc">0</td>
+      <td class="tdc">10</td>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+      <td class="tdc">1</td>
+      <td class="tdc">6</td>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">Oak</td>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+      <td class="tdc">1</td>
+      <td class="tdc">3</td>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+      <td class="tdc">2</td>
+      <td class="tdc">6</td>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">Oak, brown</td>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+      <td class="tdc">3</td>
+      <td class="tdc">6</td>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+      <td class="tdc">10</td>
+      <td class="tdc">6</td>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl_ws2" colspan="9">(but these trees are usually sold at so much for each)</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">Poplar</td>
+      <td class="tdc">from</td>
+      <td class="tdc">0</td>
+      <td class="tdc">9</td>
+      <td class="tdc">to</td>
+      <td class="tdc">1</td>
+      <td class="tdc">6</td>
+      <td class="tdc">per</td>
+      <td class="tdc">cubic foot.</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">Scotch Pine</td>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+      <td class="tdc">0</td>
+      <td class="tdc">5</td>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+      <td class="tdc">0</td>
+      <td class="tdc">10</td>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">Spruce Fir</td>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+      <td class="tdc">0</td>
+      <td class="tdc">5</td>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+      <td class="tdc">0</td>
+      <td class="tdc">9</td>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">Willow</td>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+      <td class="tdc">1</td>
+      <td class="tdc">6</td>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+      <td class="tdc">10</td>
+      <td class="tdc">6</td>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">Walnut</td>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+      <td class="tdc">1</td>
+      <td class="tdc">0</td>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+      <td class="tdc">2</td>
+      <td class="tdc">6</td>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">Sycamore</td>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+      <td class="tdc">1</td>
+      <td class="tdc">3</td>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+      <td class="tdc">2</td>
+      <td class="tdc">6</td>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">Firewood</td>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+      <td class="tdc">5</td>
+      <td class="tdc">0</td>
+      <td class="tdl_wsp" colspan="5">per cart load.</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl_ws2">”</td>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+      <td class="tdc">12</td>
+      <td class="tdc">0</td>
+      <td class="tdc">to</td>
+      <td class="tdc">16</td>
+      <td class="tdc">0</td>
+      <td class="tdc">per</td>
+      <td class="tdl">cord.</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">Faggots (large)</td>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+      <td class="tdc">14</td>
+      <td class="tdc">0</td>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+      <td class="tdc">21</td>
+      <td class="tdc">0</td>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+      <td class="tdl">100</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl_ws2">”&emsp;(small)</td>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+      <td class="tdc">2</td>
+      <td class="tdc">6</td>
+      <td class="tdl" colspan="5">per 100.</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">Oak bark</td>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+      <td class="tdc">52</td>
+      <td class="tdc">0</td>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+      <td class="tdl" colspan="4">ton.</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">Charcoal</td>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+      <td class="tdc">1</td>
+      <td class="tdc">0</td>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+      <td class="tdl" colspan="4">bushel.</td>
+   </tr>
+ </tbody>
+</table>
+
+<p>Since the war commenced several kinds of timber have increased greatly
+in value, notably ash, poplar, Scotch pine and spruce fir. For the
+latter as much as 1<i>s.</i> 4<i>d.</i> per cubic foot was obtained in
+Bucks, while in several cases first-class ash timber realized upwards
+of 4<i>s.</i> per cubic foot.</p>
+
+<p>Pitwood, also, has increased in price.
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_239"></a>[Pg 239]</span></p>
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">Prices of Timber Per Ton Weight</span></h3>
+
+<p>In several parts of the country, particularly Ireland, timber is
+regularly sold by weight and the following prices were realized
+previous to the war:—</p>
+
+<table class="spb1">
+   <tbody><tr class="fs_120">
+      <td class="tdc_wsp">&nbsp;</td>
+      <td class="tdc_wsp"><b><i>s.</i></b></td>
+      <td class="tdc_wsp"><b><i>d.</i></b></td>
+      <td class="tdc_wsp">&nbsp;</td>
+      <td class="tdc_wsp"><b><i>s.</i></b></td>
+      <td class="tdc_wsp"><b><i>d.</i></b></td>
+      <td class="tdc_wsp">&nbsp;</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">Ash and sycamore</td>
+      <td class="tdc" colspan="2">——</td>
+      <td class="tdc">&nbsp;</td>
+      <td class="tdc">18</td>
+      <td class="tdc">0</td>
+      <td class="tdl">per ton.</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">Beech</td>
+      <td class="tdc">5</td>
+      <td class="tdc">0</td>
+      <td class="tdc">to</td>
+      <td class="tdc">10</td>
+      <td class="tdc">0</td>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">Larch</td>
+      <td class="tdc">12</td>
+      <td class="tdc">0</td>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+      <td class="tdc">20</td>
+      <td class="tdc">0</td>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">Scotch pine, spruce and silver fir</td>
+      <td class="tdc" colspan="2">——</td>
+      <td class="tdc">&nbsp;</td>
+      <td class="tdc">&#8199;8</td>
+      <td class="tdc">0</td>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">Spruce</td>
+      <td class="tdc">&#8199;8</td>
+      <td class="tdc">0</td>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+      <td class="tdc">10</td>
+      <td class="tdc">0</td>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">Oak</td>
+      <td class="tdc" colspan="2">——</td>
+      <td class="tdc">&nbsp;</td>
+      <td class="tdc">15</td>
+      <td class="tdc">0</td>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">Elm and beech</td>
+      <td class="tdc" colspan="2">——</td>
+      <td class="tdc">&nbsp;</td>
+      <td class="tdc">10</td>
+      <td class="tdc">0</td>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">Hardwoods of pitwood size</td>
+      <td class="tdc" colspan="2">——</td>
+      <td class="tdc">&nbsp;</td>
+      <td class="tdc">&#8199;6</td>
+      <td class="tdc">0</td>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">Larch poles and pitwood (Wales)</td>
+      <td class="tdc">&#8199;9</td>
+      <td class="tdc">0</td>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+      <td class="tdc">10</td>
+      <td class="tdc">0</td>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+   </tr>
+ </tbody>
+</table>
+
+<p>That the heavy importation of foreign woods has had a prejudicial
+influence on the value of home-grown timbers is realized by all those
+who are engaged in the trade. The depreciation in price has, however,
+been so gradual that it is difficult to realize this unless by
+comparing the prices of to-day with those of, say, a hundred years ago.
+Several of these comparisons clearly indicate that oak, at least, has
+become much reduced in value, less so ash and elm, and the following
+list of prices obtained in 1807 for timber on two estates in Hants will
+serve to show that for trees of equal size the price to-day is far
+behind that of a century ago.</p>
+
+<table class="spb1">
+   <tbody><tr class="fs_120">
+      <td class="tdc" colspan="4">&nbsp;</td>
+      <td class="tdc_wsp"><b><i>s.</i></b></td>
+      <td class="tdc_wsp"><b><i>d.</i></b></td>
+      <td class="tdc_wsp">&nbsp;</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">Oak</td>
+      <td class="tdl">averaging</td>
+      <td class="tdc">&#8199;9</td>
+      <td class="tdl_wsp">cubic feet</td>
+      <td class="tdc">4</td>
+      <td class="tdc">0</td>
+      <td class="tdl_wsp">per foot.</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">Ash</td>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+      <td class="tdc">&#8199;7</td>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+      <td class="tdc">2</td>
+      <td class="tdc">3</td>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">Elm</td>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+      <td class="tdc_wsp">22</td>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+      <td class="tdc">1</td>
+      <td class="tdc">9</td>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">Beech</td>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+      <td class="tdc">14</td>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+      <td class="tdc">1</td>
+      <td class="tdc">6</td>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">Sycamore</td>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+      <td class="tdc">19</td>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+      <td class="tdc">1</td>
+      <td class="tdc">3</td>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">Fir</td>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+      <td class="tdc">11</td>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+      <td class="tdc">1</td>
+      <td class="tdc">3</td>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+   </tr>
+ </tbody>
+</table>
+
+<p>On another estate trees of about the same size brought: oak,
+4<i>s.</i>; ash, 1<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i>; elm, etc., 1<i>s.</i>; beech,
+1<i>s.</i>; and firs, 1<i>s.</i> per cubic foot. When the small size
+of the individual trees is taken into account, and even admitting
+that only the best portion of each trunk was measured, the prices, as
+compared with those of to-day, are exceedingly high, particularly for
+oak, ash and fir.</p>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_240"></a>[Pg 240]</span></p>
+<h2 class="nobreak">CHAPTER XXVI<br>
+<span class="h_subtitle">BRITISH TIMBER AND<br> SOME OF ITS USES</span></h2>
+</div>
+
+<p>The following are a few of the many uses to which home-grown timber is
+applied:—</p>
+
+<p><b>Alder</b> is used extensively for clog soles, barrel staves, mill
+bobbins, and occasionally in furniture making. It makes excellent
+charcoal for cooking and heating, as well as that used in the
+manufacture of gunpowder.</p>
+
+<p>The wood of the <b>Apple</b>, <b>Cherry</b> and <b>Pear tree</b>, when
+of large size, is used for cabinet purposes, and stained in imitation
+of other woods. For veneers, golf clubs, bowls, etc., these woods are
+of value, as also for weaving shuttles.</p>
+
+<p><b>Ash</b> timber is largely used by agricultural implement makers on
+account of its possessing great elasticity and bearing considerable
+cross-strain. It is the best wood for shafts of all kinds, for tool
+handles and wooden rakes, and is largely used by furniture makers.</p>
+
+<p><b>Beech</b> wood is the chief constituent of cane-bottomed chairs,
+and is largely employed for the handles of joiners’, carpenters’ and
+other wood-workers’ tools. For gunstocks, saddle-trees for heavy
+harness, wheel-felloes and bobbins it is also largely employed. When
+of large size and clean growth, it is used for calendar machines, and
+for engineering purposes in spinning and bleaching districts. It makes
+excellent charcoal.</p>
+
+<p><b>Birch</b> wood is largely used for turnery work, thread bobbins,
+clog soles, shoe pegs, furniture, hatters’ blocks; it is also used in
+the manufacture of brushes and in toy making.</p>
+
+<p><b>Chestnut</b> (Spanish) timber more nearly approaches that of oak
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_241"></a>[Pg 241]</span>
+than any other species, and when stained is not only substituted for
+it, but for the walnut as well. For piano sides it is largely used, as
+also for rafters in open-roof churches, for furniture and cabinet work,
+ship fittings, sign-boards, and post and rail fencing.</p>
+
+<p><b>Elm</b> wood is extensively used for the boarding and flooring of
+carts and wagons, in coffin making, for the framework and foundations
+of bridges, for naves for wheels, and for the keels of boats and ships.
+It makes strong furniture, and is often substituted for ash in making
+agricultural implements.</p>
+
+<p><b>Holly</b> is used by mathematical instrument makers, for fancy
+turnery and inlaid work. It is often sold as ebony when “ebonized.”</p>
+
+<p><b>Hornbeam</b> timber for cogs in mill gearing is well known, also in
+“bushing” for sawmill rollers, and for skittle pins.</p>
+
+<p><b>Horse Chestnut.</b>—The timber is largely used for packing boxes,
+moulding patterns for castings, cutting boards, manufacture of brushes,
+and occasionally for covering temporary buildings.</p>
+
+<p><b>Larch.</b>—The wood of this tree is largely used for fencing, boat
+building, permanent staging, and pitwood.</p>
+
+<p><b>Lime.</b>—The wood is white and very fine of grain, and used for
+carved work, sounding boards for musical instruments, wagon brakes,
+packing boxes, toys, domestic utensils, and for shoemakers’ and
+saddlers’ cutting boards. Charcoal for gunpowder is made from this wood.</p>
+
+<p><b>Maple</b> is employed in the turning of bowls, for toys, and
+“bird’s-eye” maple for furniture.</p>
+
+<p><b>Oak</b> has long been associated with our national defence as the
+chief element in shipbuilding, but although iron and steel have to
+a great extent taken its place, yet for barges and small boats the
+timber is still largely used. Wagons for railway mineral traffic are
+largely made of oak, while the builder finds in it his best material
+for the strong frames of domes, spires and roofs of public buildings.
+It is also used for the bottoms of carts and wagons, cartwheel spokes,
+fencing, furniture making, railway “spraggs,” charcoal, etc.</p>
+
+<p><b>Poplar</b> wood is woolly and tenacious, and for this reason is used
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_242"></a>[Pg 242]</span>
+for the bottoms of stone carts and barrows. It is well adapted for
+making packing cases, railway brakes, weather boarding, and for
+purposes where lightness is of greater importance than durability. The
+Abele, or white Poplar, produces perhaps the most valuable timber of
+any of the numerous species.</p>
+
+<p><b>Scotch Spruce</b> and <b>Silver Fir</b> may all be classed under
+the same heading, being of about equal value and applicable to
+similar purposes, viz., for sleepers and pitwood, boarding under
+slates, headings for barrels, soap boxes, temporary fencing, also for
+conversion into planking for lead works, and for all erections of a
+temporary kind.</p>
+
+<p><b>Sycamore</b> timber is peculiarly white and smooth and free from
+grain, which makes it very valuable. It is used for curtain rings,
+churns, butter prints, for the backs of violins, for founders’ patterns
+and cutting boards, and in the making of wooden vessels and furniture.
+For calendar machines and in cotton and jute factories it is much employed.</p>
+
+<p><b>Walnut</b> timber is much in demand for gun and rifle stocks, for
+the best class of furniture, and for veneering purposes.</p>
+
+<p><b>Willow</b> is famous for the production of the best class of cricket
+bats and for artificial limbs and crutches. It also makes good charcoal.</p>
+
+<p><b>Yew</b> wood is valuable when employed for veneering.</p>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_243"></a>[Pg 243]</span></p>
+<h2 class="nobreak">CHAPTER XXVII<br>
+<span class="h_subtitle">WILLOWS FOR BASKET-MAKING</span></h2>
+</div>
+
+<p>Previous to the war, preferential railway and boat rates, aided by keen
+foreign competition, wellnigh rendered the time-honoured industry of
+basket-making a thing of the past in this country. The best classes
+of osiers, cleaned and ready for manipulation, were delivered to our
+principal markets from Continental sources at so low a price that
+competition on our part was almost out of the question. There are
+still, however, a few stations, such as those in Bedfordshire, the fen
+districts of Lincoln and Cambridge, and along certain reaches of the
+Thames, where willow culture is engaged in, though not in the same
+energetic way as was the case some half a century ago.</p>
+
+<p>About 7,000 acres, producing roughly 20,000 tons of osiers, are
+cultivated in this country at the present time, many small plantations
+having been grubbed out and the land laid down in other crops during
+the past five and twenty years.</p>
+
+<p>This falling off is much to be regretted, as the sorting and harvesting
+of osiers and basket-making gave light and remunerative employment
+to a large number of residents, both young and old, of the districts
+in which the willow-beds were situated. Land that was damp and could
+not well be brought under other cultivation without the expense of
+drainage, gave a good return under a crop of osiers. Taking everything
+into consideration, and judging from talks that I have had recently
+with those who are interested in the osier industry, the formation
+of willow-beds, under the plea that considerable profits attend the
+undertaking, is not to be recommended. No doubt in some favoured
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_244"></a>[Pg 244]</span>
+districts where carriage is reduced to a minimum and local demand
+is considerable, osier cultivation gives a fair return for capital
+invested; but until we can get back the once lucrative trade in
+baskets for fruit and other similar commodities from the hands of our
+Continental rivals, profits of any magnitude are quite precluded.</p>
+
+<p>There is little doubt that on soil which is unsuited for farming
+purposes willow culture can be made fairly profitable, but it is a
+mistake to suppose that any marshy piece of stiff ground will grow
+osiers, or that the planting and tending are matters of small import.
+Quite the reverse is the case. The willow will not thrive for long
+in water-logged soils, though periodical inundations, particularly
+during winter and early spring, are highly beneficial. In addition,
+the soil must be well worked, the cutting of rods carefully and
+systematically carried out, and the clearing of the ground must receive
+strict attention, else deterioration of the crop will quickly ensue.
+Previously to planting the cuttings or sets, the ground should be
+ploughed, harrowed and consolidated, all objectionable weeds being
+destroyed.</p>
+
+<p>For some considerable time to come there is bound to be a dearth of
+willows for basket-making, as our main supplies have come from Germany
+and the Netherlands. Here, then, is a chance for the owners of suitable
+land in this country to set to work at once and revive a time-honoured
+industry by planting up suitable grounds with the most approved kinds
+of willow for basket-making. That the undertaking, if wisely carried
+out, would be a remunerative one is beyond question, and the excellent
+results attained at such places as Leicester and Bedford clearly prove
+that willow culture is a most profitable way of utilizing naturally
+dampish land in any but the most exposed situations.</p>
+
+<p>For the past few years the demand in this country for high-grade
+willows has been greatly in excess of the supply, in fact, hardly
+one-fifth of our requirements are produced at home. Germany, previous
+to the war, exported willows and rods to the value of about £42,000,
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_245"></a>[Pg 245]</span>
+this being an increase in five years of fully one-half; while of
+the manufactured articles in the way of baskets and basket ware her
+total value exceeded £42,000. But as giving some idea of our wants in
+this direction it may be stated that the total value of willow rods
+annually sent to this country from the Continent is in round figures
+about £100,000, and of baskets and basket ware fully £170,000. What a
+contrast with the period in our history when an important export trade
+in willows was done by this country!</p>
+
+<p>The willow working industry is a rapidly expanding one. Owing to the
+increasing demand, the value of peeled willows is gradually on the
+increase, and present prices range from £24 to £38 per ton for those
+of best size and quality. These are in the main exported and used for
+high-class work in the basket trade, rougher unpeeled willows that are
+largely in use for cheap packing hampers and farm purposes bringing
+in a much lower price. Fruit baskets in immense numbers are annually
+imported from the Continent, one firm alone having sent over £150,000;
+while at Leith basket works, which mainly caters for the agricultural
+and fishing industries, thousands of herring baskets alone are sent out
+every month, while the packing hamper department is of great interest
+and a special feature of this enterprising firm.</p>
+
+<p>Previous to the war willow or osier culture was mainly in the hands of
+the French for rods of good quality, the Belgians and Germans supplying
+a cheaper kind probably owing to the quality of soil and inferior
+varieties that are cultivated.</p>
+
+<p>There are not a few persons who consider that in order to cultivate
+willows successfully, any neglected, damp piece of ground, which is
+unsuited for other crops, may be utilized, and the cuttings simply
+stuck in without ground preparation of any kind. This is, however, a
+great mistake, as experience has long ago demonstrated that in order to
+make osier cultivation at all profitable, a low level, and a naturally
+rather moist situation must be chosen, and further, that the soil
+should be deep, well drained and thoroughly prepared.</p>
+
+<p>Thoroughly drain the ground first, then steam-plough or trench the soil
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_246"></a>[Pg 246]</span>
+to a depth of about 18 in., removing carefully all weeds, particularly
+such troublesome kinds as the bindweed, couch grass and dock. It is
+always preferable to take a crop of potatoes first from the land
+intended to be laid down for osier culture, as it not only sweetens
+and enriches the soil, but allows of the eradication of all obnoxious
+weeds. Where, however, it is not practicable to crop the land first
+with potatoes, the soil should be well and roughly broken up and left
+so for a year, or for a winter, at least, before being planted with
+the osiers. The best time to plant is from October to the middle of
+March. The sets, or cuttings, should be about 15 in. long, and formed
+of well-ripened rods, of one year’s growth, and the straightest and
+cleanest portion of the rod only used. Three or four buds should,
+if possible, be on the top end of each set. In planting, insert the
+cuttings from 9 to 12 in. into the ground, leaving 3 in. above soil,
+which forms the stool that bears the future crops.</p>
+
+<p>It is well to exercise great caution while inserting the cuttings,
+as, if the work has been delayed till the sap is rising, the bark
+readily strips away from the wood, and this is very objectionable, as
+the plants in such a state usually die. The sets may be placed about
+15 in. apart, and the rows, which, for convenience, should be lined
+off straight, about 30 in. from each other. Of course, as regards
+distances, these will depend to a great extent on the quality of the
+soil and the particular kind of willow being planted, but the above are
+good average distances.</p>
+
+<p>For basket-making, etc., the best kinds of osiers to use are <i>Salix
+triandra</i> and <i>S. viminalis</i>, but there are others. A good
+basket-willow, be it of whatever kind, should, when green, twist from
+end to end without breaking. It is well to bear in mind that, in order
+to obtain the greatest profits from willow culture, only the very
+best kinds should be planted—indeed, next to preparing the ground, a
+judicious selection should be one of the main considerations. For the
+first year, at least, after being formed, osier beds must be carefully
+attended to in the way of cleaning and weeding. Hoeing will be found
+the most convenient method of getting rid of weeds, but, in the case of
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_247"></a>[Pg 247]</span>
+bindweed, hand-picking around and amongst the sets will be found
+necessary.</p>
+
+<p>Cutting the osiers must be done while the crop is dormant, or not later
+than the middle of February, but not during frost, which will injure
+and kill off parts of the stool. The cutting is done by means of a
+rod-hook, which resembles a miniature sickle; this should always be
+kept sharp, so that the cuts may be made clean. Tie the rods together
+when dry, in bundles of three or four sizes, and either house or stack
+them. It should be borne in mind that rods are easily spoiled by being
+tied up or stacked whilst in a wet state, as they very soon become
+heated, which makes them brittle and utterly valueless for the purpose
+intended. What is known in England as “bolting” is simply taking a
+number of osiers, as nearly of a size as possible, and laying them on
+a twisted wand, at the same time keeping the butts all one way, and
+level, then drawing them tightly together—not, however, to such an
+extent as to injure the bark—with a rope and two levers, and finishing
+off by tying the wand. The wand should be at 14 in. from the butts. A
+bolt of rods should measure 40 in. round the band.</p>
+
+<p>In forming a willow bed, the following short rules should be observed:—</p>
+
+<p>1. Willows will not succeed well in peaty, sandy, or water-logged
+soils; rich, well-drained loam, that can be flooded at will is the most
+suitable.</p>
+
+<p>2. Trench or plough, and thoroughly clean or pulverize the ground
+before planting.</p>
+
+<p>3. Plant only the best kinds, studying soil and market, and avoid a
+mixed crop.</p>
+
+<p>4. From November to March insert the cuttings about nine inches deep,
+avoiding such as are bark-chafed, and tramp firmly.</p>
+
+<p>5. Keep the beds clean and free from weeds.</p>
+
+<p>6. Cut the crop close to the ground; pollard willows soon decay and in
+that state harbour injurious insects.</p>
+
+<p>The following estimate of the approximate cost per acre of osier culture,
+and the returns therefrom for the first three years will be of interest:—
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_248"></a>[Pg 248]</span></p>
+
+<table class="spb1">
+   <tbody><tr>
+      <td class="tdc fs_120" colspan="4"><b><span class="smcap">First Year.</span></b></td>
+   </tr><tr class="fs_120">
+      <td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td>
+      <td class="tdc_wsp"><b>£</b></td>
+      <td class="tdc_wsp"><b><i>s.</i></b></td>
+      <td class="tdc_wsp"><b><i>d.</i></b></td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">Ploughing the ground and planting</td>
+      <td class="tdr_wsp">4</td>
+      <td class="tdr_wsp">10</td>
+      <td class="tdr_wsp">0</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">Hoeing and other attention</td>
+      <td class="tdr_wsp">1</td>
+      <td class="tdr_wsp">5</td>
+      <td class="tdr_wsp">0</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">15,700 willow cuttings (<i>Salix viminalis</i>)</td>
+      <td class="tdr_wsp">10</td>
+      <td class="tdr_wsp">0</td>
+      <td class="tdr_wsp">0</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">Rent, rates, and 5 per cent. interest on capital</td>
+      <td class="tdr_wsp">2</td>
+      <td class="tdr_wsp">12</td>
+      <td class="tdr_wsp">0</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">Harvesting</td>
+      <td class="tdr_wsp bb">0</td>
+      <td class="tdr_wsp bb">18</td>
+      <td class="tdr_wsp bb">0</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td>
+      <td class="tdr_wsp">£19</td>
+      <td class="tdr_wsp">5</td>
+      <td class="tdr_wsp">0</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">Yield first year 3 tons, value</td>
+      <td class="tdr_wsp bb">9</td>
+      <td class="tdr_wsp bb">0</td>
+      <td class="tdr_wsp bb">0</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl_ws1">Loss</td>
+      <td class="tdr_wsp">£10</td>
+      <td class="tdr_wsp">5</td>
+      <td class="tdr_wsp">0</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdc fs_120" colspan="4"><b><span class="smcap">&nbsp;<br>Second Year.</span></b></td>
+   </tr><tr class="fs_120">
+      <td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td>
+      <td class="tdc_wsp"><b>£</b></td>
+      <td class="tdc_wsp"><b><i>s.</i></b></td>
+      <td class="tdc_wsp"><b><i>d.</i></b></td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">Rent, rates and incidentals</td>
+      <td class="tdr_wsp">2</td>
+      <td class="tdr_wsp">10</td>
+      <td class="tdr_wsp">0</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">Hoeing and cleaning</td>
+      <td class="tdr_wsp">1</td>
+      <td class="tdr_wsp">8</td>
+      <td class="tdr_wsp">0</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">Harvesting</td>
+      <td class="tdr_wsp bb">1</td>
+      <td class="tdr_wsp bb">10</td>
+      <td class="tdr_wsp bb">0</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td>
+      <td class="tdr_wsp">£5</td>
+      <td class="tdr_wsp">8</td>
+      <td class="tdr_wsp">0</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">Yield about 5 tons.</td>
+      <td class="tdr_wsp bb">20</td>
+      <td class="tdr_wsp bb">0</td>
+      <td class="tdr_wsp bb">0</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">Profit</td>
+      <td class="tdr_wsp">£15</td>
+      <td class="tdr_wsp">8</td>
+      <td class="tdr_wsp">0</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdc fs_120" colspan="4"><b><span class="smcap">&nbsp;<br>Third and Subsequent Years.</span></b></td>
+
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl" colspan="2">Expenditure £6.<span class="ws6">Yield £24.</span></td>
+      <td class="tdr_wsp" colspan="2">Profit £18.</td>
+   </tr>
+ </tbody>
+</table>
+
+<p>If the ground is properly cultivated and losses made good, the
+plantation should give a yield similar to the third year for fully a
+quarter of a century.</p>
+
+<p>In the low-lying district between Taunton, Bridgwater and Langport, in
+Somerset, willow or osier culture is largely engaged in.</p>
+
+<p>The system generally adopted is that the owner or tenant of the land
+planted to willows keeps the land free from weeds to prevent the
+withies being choked. This entails an outlay of about 25<i>s.</i> per
+acre per annum if properly done. The crops are measured and marked
+out in half-acre lots and sold in October or November. The purchasers
+cut and remove them, and in some cases convert them into baskets,
+basket-chairs, and such like. In other cases the purchasers select and
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_249"></a>[Pg 249]</span>
+bundle the crop in the regulation sizes and sell them to dealers.</p>
+
+<p>The results of some recent sales are as follows: One field of 11½ acres
+realized £132 and the first two half-acres, being remarkably good
+withies, made £19 10<i>s.</i> Three other fields, containing 16 acres
+in all, made £161 10<i>s.</i>; and three others, containing 22½ acres,
+£222 2<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i> The agricultural annual rental value of this
+land when pasture, before it was planted to willows, was under £2 per
+acre.</p>
+
+<p>From the above it will be seen that if prudently entered upon and
+economically carried out the cultivation of willows for basket-making
+is a paying industry, and as for some years to come foreign supplies
+will be barred to our markets, the enterprise should prove highly
+remunerative.</p>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_250"></a>[Pg 250]</span></p>
+<h2 class="nobreak">CHAPTER XXVIII<br>
+<span class="h_subtitle">UTILIZING WASTE FOREST PRODUCE</span></h2>
+</div>
+
+<p>That the production of timber, in common with other trades, has of
+late years been rendered far less remunerative than formerly, owing
+principally to keen foreign competition, is a fact that is now well
+known, even to the most casual observer. In face of this it behoves
+us to ask ourselves the question: Do we utilize to the fullest extent
+the by-products of the forest and woodland, and so diminish waste,
+and, at the same time, add to the general revenue of the forest
+department? By waste produce, or by-products, is meant anything other
+than wood in the condition in which it is generally used, and includes
+bark, charcoal, firewood, house and kiln faggots, tar, wood-spirit,
+turpentine, sawdust, wood-ashes, leaf soil, etc. That much may be done,
+both in economy of production and in utilization of waste produce, is
+well known to those in charge of woods and forests in every part of the
+country. Where the by-products cannot well be utilized in any of the
+above-named ways, it would be better, perhaps, to reduce them to ashes;
+for, by so doing, insect and fungus life are lessened, and a valuable
+manure is obtained, particularly rich in potash, whether for grassland
+or certain farm or garden crops.</p>
+
+<p>The forest by-products of Great Britain and Ireland are, in the main,
+applied in the four following ways:—</p>
+
+<ul class="index">
+<li class="isub3">(1) Firewood.</li>
+<li class="isub3">(2) Charcoal, for heating purposes, etc.</li>
+<li class="isub3">(3) Bark for tanning.</li>
+<li class="isub3">(4) Faggots, for house and kiln purposes.</li>
+</ul>
+
+<p>Although the British forester has usually little or nothing to do with
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_251"></a>[Pg 251]</span>
+what we might term the volatile products of the forest—tar, pitch,
+turpentine, rosin, wood-spirit, acetic acid, etc.—nor, indeed, with
+paper-pulp, it may not be out of place to point out briefly the minor
+uses to which waste timber and by-products generally may be applied.</p>
+
+<p>Tar, which at present is largely imported from the Baltic ports
+and Southern United States, is obtainable principally from three
+species of Pinus: <i>P. palustris</i>, <i>P. Pinaster</i>, and <i>P.
+sylvestris</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Pitch is simply tar deprived of the volatile oils, which is brought
+about by boiling.</p>
+
+<p>Turpentine comes from incisions made in the stems of some of the pines,
+principally <i>Pinus palustris</i>, <i>P. sylvestris</i>, and <i>P. tæda</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The common silver fir (<i>Abies pectinata</i>) produces the famous
+Strasburg turpentine, while the larch is the source of the Venice
+turpentine of commerce.</p>
+
+<p>In New England the whole of the younger sapling pines—stem, branches,
+bark and leaves—are made into pasteboard, while in other countries the
+lime and poplar are converted into paper-pulp of great value. That the
+great and ever-increasing demand for paper of all qualities will cause
+a corresponding demand for the material used in its production cannot
+be doubted, and attention has already been directed to this matter in
+some parts of this country. From the sap of the larch and Scotch firs
+“coniferin” is obtained, while “rubber,” a valuable product for mixing
+with gutta-percha, which is very durable, is got from the bark of the
+common birch by distillation. The value of gorse as a food for horses
+and sheep is well known even in this country, while in Italy poplar
+leaves have long been used as cattle-food, and ground fir-needles in
+Styria for the same purpose.</p>
+
+<p>Dried leaves make excellent litter, and they are valuable as manure.
+Sawdust, though without manurial value, absorbs liquid manure, and is
+thus used as an excellent top-dressing. Leaf-mould is well known for
+its many uses in the garden, as for top-dressing and mixing with other
+poorer soils in the making of composts for planting. These are some
+of the many uses to which the minor by-products of the forest can be
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_252"></a>[Pg 252]</span>
+applied, but, as these hardly come within the scope of the forester,
+special attention will be devoted to the major by-products—firewood,
+charcoal, bark and faggots—with which the British forester is most
+intimately associated.</p>
+
+<p><b>(1) Firewood.</b>—Never, perhaps, was the subject of English
+firewood more worthy of consideration than at the present time,
+when the price of other fuels is excessively high. Many persons
+will maintain that in districts where coal is abundant, it is very
+questionable whether there is any advantage to be obtained from burning
+wood. We have satisfied ourselves that even if wood could be procured
+at less than its present price—firewood price—it is nearly as
+expensive as coal, as sold previous to the war, in most of our large
+towns. No doubt, on many large estates where there is a superfluity
+of unsaleable wood, it would be utter folly not to have it converted
+into firewood, more particularly as such work gives employment to the
+woodmen when the inclemency of the weather puts a stop to general
+outdoor work. But this in itself is no proof that the firewood when
+prepared and ready for the grate is not as expensive as coal; for, when
+the rent of ground on which the wood was grown, and the cost of felling
+and converting it into firewood is taken into account, it will be found
+nearly as costly as household coal of ordinary quality.</p>
+
+<p>What will it cost to prepare a ton of firewood? This is a question
+that is not readily answered, the cost of labour in various parts of
+the country varying so widely. In England, generally speaking, the
+cutting up and stacking of a cord of fairly clean firewood—that is to
+say when large knotty pieces, which require the mallet and wedge for
+their manipulation, are excluded—costs from 5<i>s.</i> to 6<i>s.</i>
+Again, how many cords of wood will make a ton of firewood? This is
+another question that is more readily asked than answered, for the
+difference in weight between equal-sized logs of, say, oak and birch is
+considerable. For all practical purposes, however, we may state that
+about one and a half cords of wood go to the ton of firewood, thus
+making the cost of preparing and housing the latter about 10<i>s.</i>
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_253"></a>[Pg 253]</span>
+The lowest price at which we have sold a ton weight fresh cut was
+8<i>s.</i>, but 10<i>s.</i> is nearer the usual price, or about
+one-half of what is generally obtained for firewood. The cartage of
+this ton of wood cannot be less than 3<i>s.</i> Much depends upon the
+distance it must be carted, no doubt, but it is usually delivered
+within a radius of two miles for the price quoted.</p>
+
+<p>The whole matter, therefore, stands something like this: Lowest cost
+of a ton of wood, 8<i>s.</i>, cutting same into firewood and stacking,
+8<i>s.</i>; cost of delivery, 3<i>s.</i>—total 19<i>s.</i></p>
+
+<p>It will thus be seen that the difference in price between a ton of
+firewood and one of coal is inconsiderable, and every one knows which of
+the two as fuel lasts the longer and imparts the greater amount of heat.</p>
+
+<p>Of course, where the firewood is cut up during wet weather by the
+estate workmen and consumed on the estate, the matter will stand
+somewhat differently, the two principal items, the cost of preparing
+and cutting being considerably diminished. In districts where the
+firewood cannot readily be sold, and would only rot in the woods, it
+is a wise policy to have it cut into firewood, not only for the saving
+effected in the coal bill, but also for preservation of the health of
+the plantations.</p>
+
+<p>In mining districts, or on the outskirts of large towns, there is
+usually little difficulty in getting rid of all surplus wood for firing
+and other purposes, but in thinly-populated, outlying parts of the
+country, where the cost of transit is excessive, the actual difference
+between the price of a ton of coal and one of firewood has to be
+considered.</p>
+
+<p><b>(2) Charcoal.</b>—The following are the chief uses to which
+charcoal is put in this country: the manufacture of gun and blasting
+powders, the heating of hall-stoves, cooking, boiling preserves,
+and the smelting of iron. It is also employed as a filtering and
+deodorizing agent. Further, it occupies an important place in the
+making of black paint, ink, ivory- and lamp-black, and is valuable
+as a horticultural requisite in the packing of bulbs and for potting
+purposes. In the manufacture of gunpowder, for which a highly
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_254"></a>[Pg 254]</span>
+inflammable quality is required, the three principal woods used are
+the so-called dogwood (<i>Rhamnus frangula</i>), the white willow
+(<i>Salix alba</i>), and the common alder (<i>Alnus glutinosa</i>),
+though not infrequently the hazel, chestnut and our native <i>Rhamnus
+catharticus</i> are substituted.</p>
+
+<p>Charcoal produced from the dogwood is, however, preferred to any other,
+as this forms a very explosive powder, used for military small-arms and
+for sporting purposes. For this purpose the dogwood is cut when an inch
+in diameter, and, if possible, when not more than of ten years’ growth.</p>
+
+<p>Although iron cylinders or retorts are more economical in the making of
+charcoal, yet for various reasons the primitive method of pit-burning
+is to be recommended for general estate purposes. The manufacture of
+charcoal in this way having received due attention elsewhere in this
+book, it need not be repeated here. It should be remembered that small
+wood is more profitable for charcoal making than that of a larger
+size, not only because the former requires little or no cutting and
+splitting, but for the main reason that it can be procured at less
+cost, and produces more charcoal, weight for weight. Even at the
+present low price of charcoal—about 1<i>s.</i> per bushel—there is
+a fair profit attached to the making of it, as will be seen from the
+following figures, which may be taken as fairly representative. A cord
+of ordinary mixed wood, which should measure, after being stacked,
+12 ft. long, 3 ft. wide, and 3 ft. high, will usually, when properly
+burned, yield 35 bushels of charcoal, and this, at the low price of
+10<i>d.</i> will realize 29<i>s.</i> 2<i>d.</i> The cost of cutting
+this cord of wood, which is generally performed by contract, will be at
+the least 5<i>s.</i>, and that of burning 7<i>s.</i>; thus leaving a
+clear profit of 17<i>s.</i> 2<i>d.</i> per cord for the wood.</p>
+
+<p>Even roots are made into charcoal, and we have seen whole woods grubbed
+up free of expense, the roots being given in return for the labour; but
+such work is usually performed during the winter, when labour is at a
+discount. Pinewood is not nearly so valuable for charcoal making as
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_255"></a>[Pg 255]</span>
+hardwood, but the former is not infrequently made to realize a profit
+of from 8<i>s.</i> to 10<i>s.</i> per cord of wood.</p>
+
+<p><b>(3) Bark.</b>—In the past, the annual home supply of bark was
+estimated at about 300,000 tons, but, in addition to this some 30,000
+tons were imported from the Continent; but of late years, owing to the
+employment of chemical substitutes, the amount used is much smaller.
+For tanning purposes, oak, and occasionally larch, bark is principally
+in use in this country, though both willow and alder are largely
+used for the same purpose in various countries, more especially in
+Russia. Although not at present a valuable product, a small margin of
+profit, even at the present low price, will accrue through careful
+and judicious management of the bark crop. Of this we are fully
+convinced. It is, perhaps, not so well known as it should be that of
+our two varieties of oak, <i>Quercus Robur pedunculata</i> and <i>Q.
+R. sessiliflora</i>—the former contains 15 and the latter only 13
+per cent. of tannin. The branches, too, down to an inch in diameter,
+contain a relatively higher proportion of tannin than the bark of the stem.</p>
+
+<p>The stripping and harvesting of oak bark having received notice in a
+separate paper, nothing further need be said of these here.</p>
+
+<p><b>(4) Faggots.</b>—These are made of the smaller branches or spray,
+the remains of charcoal wood, etc., and tied into bundles similar in
+size to a sheaf of wheat. They are either left lying on the ground
+or standing upright in threes or fours together for a few days after
+being made, previous to being stacked, as they always are for about
+six months before being used. In thinning a woodland the faggots are
+usually bound up by contract at 4<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i> per hundred,
+except when the wood is exceptionally rough and crooked, when another
+shilling is added. When stacked and dry they realize about 16<i>s.</i>
+per hundred in the wood, thus giving a clear profit of 11<i>s.</i>
+6<i>d.</i>, if we deduct 4<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i>, for binding, per hundred.</p>
+
+<p>In England the demand for these faggots is considerable, they being
+used either for kiln purposes, or, when chopped up into smaller
+bundles, for fire-lighting. These latter are about 9 in. long, and half
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_256"></a>[Pg 256]</span>
+that in diameter, and are bound tightly round the centre with tarred
+rope. Previous to the war they were sold at 3<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i> per hundred.</p>
+
+<p>This is a good and profitable way of getting rid of all superfluous
+spray and branches. Brush or kiln faggots, which are largely used for
+brick-burning, consist of all refuse woodland scrub, and when tied up
+and dry can be sold at from 5<i>s.</i> to 6<i>s.</i> per hundred for
+the brick-kilns. They are made by contract at 2<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i> per
+hundred. By the utilizing of this otherwise waste-product, every twig
+and branch is carefully gathered together, and the woodlands are thus
+kept in a neat and healthy condition.</p>
+
+<p><b>Minor Products.</b>—In addition to firewood, charcoal, faggots,
+etc., which may be considered as the main by-products of the forest and
+woodland, there are other minor products, such as are to be met with
+largely where coppice wood is grown to any extent, which will repay
+the cost of singling out from amongst the above. These may include
+flower-stakes, tool-handles, walking-sticks, barrel-hoops, chisel-rods,
+etc., all of which sell readily in various parts of the country and
+from which considerable profits are realized.</p>
+
+<p>In cutting the coppice wood, the longest and straightest poles are
+selected for hop-stakes, the next size for bean stakes, pea-boughs,
+etc., and so on until every part of the wood is utilized.</p>
+
+<p>Leaf soil, too, sells readily at 5<i>s.</i> per cart load—indeed, near
+large towns the demand for this and peat often exceeds the supply. In
+all cases, however, it may not be a wise policy to remove this valuable
+soil from the woodlands, even at the high price offered.</p>
+
+<p>Half-decayed leaves, too, are much sought after where market gardening
+is largely carried on, being used to form forcing-beds, and to preserve
+plants and roots from severe frost.</p>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_257"></a>[Pg 257]</span></p>
+<h2 class="nobreak">CHAPTER XXIX<br>
+<span class="h_subtitle">FENCING PLANTATIONS</span></h2>
+</div>
+
+<p>Many different methods of fencing are adopted throughout the country,
+each one, no doubt, possessing peculiar advantages according to the
+circumstances in which it may happen to be required.</p>
+
+<p>In hilly districts very efficient fences of stones may be made where
+these are abundant. Turf dykes may be constructed on high-lying grounds
+where stones cannot be readily procured, and iron or wood used wherever
+fancy dictates.</p>
+
+<p>The term “dead fence” may be applied to these in contradistinction to
+“live fence” or hedge, to which a special chapter is devoted.</p>
+
+<p>To describe even a few of the various wood or iron fences erected
+nowadays would be by no means an easy task, but typical examples of
+several kinds will be explained.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+  <img id="I_257" src="images/i_257.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="154" >
+</div>
+
+<p><b>Stone Walls.</b>—These make capital plantation fences, but they are
+at first rather expensive, and unless well built require a good deal
+of attention in the way of repairing breaches. They possess a great
+advantage over most other fences in the amount of shelter afforded to
+the young trees. Two methods of building are usually adopted: firstly,
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_258"></a>[Pg 258]</span>
+where stones are abundant, the entire wall may be of these; and,
+secondly, where only a limited quantity are available, the wall is
+built to a certain height and wires placed atop.</p>
+
+<p>The dry stone wall as this is usually termed, is built without mortar,
+with the exception of the cope-stone, which in all cases should be
+bedded in and pointed with lime.</p>
+
+<p>From 4 ft. to 5 ft. is the usual height, the foundations being from 22
+in. to 24 in. wide, and the wall 14 in. across beneath the cope-stone,
+the latter being about 10 in. high and placed on edge. Great care is
+necessary in building to see that the “throughs” or binding-stones are
+placed in position, as on this depends mainly the efficiency of the
+fence. Where wires are used atop, the wall need only be 3 ft. high,
+22 in. wide at base, and 12 in. under the cope-stone. The latter are
+bedded in mortar, and an extra large stone is placed every 6 ft. for
+receiving the iron standard, to which the wires are attached. Slate
+slabs, where these are readily procured, may be used for the same
+purpose as the iron standards, but they should be built firmly into the
+wall, and reach from the base of the foundation. Two, and sometimes
+three, wires are used atop of the wall.</p>
+
+<p><b>Slate Fences.</b>—These are commonly in use throughout Wales;
+in fact, wherever slate quarries are worked. When well erected and
+of fairly regular sized slates, this fence is certainly not to be
+despised, and it may be considered as practically indestructible. The
+expenses incurred for keeping these fences in repair are also very
+little, as they seldom become damaged, and when an upright chances to
+get broken, another whole one can easily be substituted, and without
+interfering with any other portion of the fence. The size of slate
+pale, or slab, as usually termed, is 5 ft. long, 4 in. to 6 in. wide,
+and about 1 in. in thickness. In erecting the fence a trench is cut
+about 12 in. wide and 8 in. deep, care being taken that the trench is
+cut perpendicular, so as to ensure the pales standing in a similar
+position. These are placed upright in the trench, about 3 in. apart,
+with their flat side close to the perpendicular cut and the soil
+replaced in the trench and made firm with a rammer.
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_259"></a>[Pg 259]</span></p>
+
+<p>A double wire is then tightly interlaced about 3 in. from the top of
+the pales, and given a double twist between each, thereby ensuring
+great stability by uniting the fence and keeping the pales at equal
+distance apart. The straining-posts are also of slate, 6 ft. long, 6
+in. wide, and 3 in. thick.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+  <img id="I_259" src="images/i_259.jpg" alt="" width="400" height="555" >
+  <p class="f110">SLATE FENCES</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_260"></a>[Pg 260]</span>
+<b>Turf Dykes.</b>—These were formerly much used in moorland and
+outlying districts, where stones are not abundant, and where, from
+the nature of the soil and situation, hedges would not succeed. They
+are, at best, troublesome fences to keep in repair, and require some
+adjunct either in the way of wires atop, or, failing this, they must be
+planted with gorse or other suitable shrubs. One advantage is the great
+amount of shelter they afford to the young plants, while they are,
+comparatively speaking, cheap of erection. There are several methods of
+building turf dykes, the best being to cut or pare the turf 3 in. in
+thickness in one or more lengths to suit the width of the dyke, and of
+a convenient breadth: these are laid cross-wise one above the other.
+Both sides of the dyke should be built at once, giving the necessary
+batter as the work proceeds, and the grassy surface of the turf placed
+to the outside. The dyke is usually made 3 ft. in height, 3 ft. wide,
+and drawn gradually in to 12 in. at top. A two-rail fence surmounts the
+dyke, bringing the total height to 4½ ft. or 5 ft. Sometimes a ditch is
+cut alongside the dyke 3 ft. wide, about 2½ ft. deep, and 9 in. wide at
+bottom, so as to prevent the farm stock getting at and damaging it, the
+soil removed being used in forming the fence. By sowing gorse and broom
+seeds on top of the dyke an excellent shelter fence is obtained.</p>
+
+<p><b>Wood Fences.</b>—These are common on almost every estate throughout
+the country, especially such as are well wooded, and, owing to the low
+prices obtainable for home-grown timber, it is well that such should be
+employed as widely as possible. Wooden fences are also much preferred
+by many owners of property to those erected either of stone or iron on
+account of their rustic appearance.</p>
+
+<p>Wooden fences are, therefore, sure to be largely employed when the
+appearance of the property and not too-exacting financial results are
+points of importance.</p>
+
+<p>There are many forms of wooden fences adopted, these varying chiefly
+according to the particular use to which they are applied. The
+following descriptions are of such kinds as are generally in use for
+woods and plantations.</p>
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_261"></a>[Pg 261]</span></p>
+<p>Here it might be well to mention in passing that only matured and
+seasoned timber should be used in fencing, the cost of erection,
+whether the timber be good or inferior, being the same, and every one
+knows which will last the longer.</p>
+
+<p>A good strong fence is erected as follows:—Posts, 5 ft. 9 in. long, 4
+in. broad, and 2½ in. thick; bars or rails, 9 ft. long, by 3½ in. by
+1½ in. Four holes are mortised into the posts for the reception of the
+bars, the ends of which are so formed as to overlap each other tightly.
+The fence is usually 4 ft. high, and so as to strengthen the horizontal
+bars a stake is driven into the ground midway between the larger posts,
+and to this the rails are securely nailed. In some cases the posts are
+not to be mortised, so that the bars require to be attached by nails.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+  <img id="I_261" src="images/i_261.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="364" >
+  <p class="f110">SAWN WOOD FENCE</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>For park clumps, particularly where a substantial and neat fence to
+keep back horses, cattle or deer is required, the following, though
+rather expensive at first, is largely employed. The entire fence is
+made of oak or Spanish chestnut, and is shown on following page.
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_262"></a>[Pg 262]</span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+  <img id="I_262" src="images/i_262a.jpg" alt="" width="500" height="354" >
+  <img src="images/i_262b.jpg" alt="" width="500" height="254" >
+  <img src="images/i_262c.jpg" alt="" width="500" height="334" >
+  <p class="f110">OAK FENCES</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_263"></a>[Pg 263]</span>
+Posts 7 ft. long, 6 in. by 4 in., and run out with the circular saw.
+Rails triangular, about 3½ in. to the side. The uprights are rent from
+oak or chestnut trees of straight grain, and are usually about ³/₁₆ of
+an inch thick, and 5 ft. high. The posts are erected 6 ft. apart, the
+rails being mortised into these, and the rent uprights fastened about
+2 in. apart by patent rose nails to the horizontal rails. A fence of
+this kind, when properly erected, will last for upwards of forty years,
+especially if the butts of the posts are charred before being inserted
+in the ground.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+  <img id="I_263" src="images/i_263.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="392" >
+  <p class="f110">WIRE FENCE WITH WOODEN POSTS</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Rustic fences for small tree clumps may be of almost any design, but
+the following is cheap and easily erected. It is formed of larch posts
+6 ft. long, and about 4½ in. diameter, driven into the ground at 6
+ft. apart. Two flat or rounded rails about 3 in. by 1¼ in. are nailed
+horizontally to these, the lower at 9 in. from the ground and the other
+flush with the tops of the posts, which when driven in are 4 ft. from
+ground level. The uprights are also of larch, split up the centre and
+nailed on the horizontal bars at 2 in. apart. They extend above the top
+rail for 7 in., and are sharply pointed so that they cannot be climbed over.
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_264"></a>[Pg 264]</span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+  <img id="I_264" src="images/i_264.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="471" >
+  <p class="f110">TOOLS FOR FENCING</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><b>Wire Fences.</b>—These may be erected either with iron or wooden
+standards and straining-posts. The form most commonly in use for
+enclosing woods is that with wooden posts and strainers, these being
+made of mature and thoroughly seasoned larch or oak. The strainers are
+7 ft. long and 6 in. square, or, if round, about 7 in. in diameter,
+while the intermediate posts are 5½ ft. long, and 3½ in. by 3 in., or,
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_265"></a>[Pg 265]</span>
+if round, 3½ in. diameter at smallest end. The strainers should be
+fitted into the ground at 150 yards apart, and the posts driven firmly
+at 6 ft. from each other. At every sharp curve along the line of fence
+a stout post, say 5 in. in diameter, should be used. In order to make a
+stout fence proof against cattle and sheep, six wires should be used,
+the two top No. 6, and the others No. 7 gauge, the distances between
+each pair, beginning at the top, being 8, 7, 6, 5½ and 5 in., the lower
+being 5 in. from the ground. Brackets for straining the wires should
+be attached to each of the strainers, these having this advantage over
+the older system of using the straining machine, that the wires can
+be loosened or tightened at will, when repairs are found necessary.
+The tops of the posts should be rounded off or sawn on angle so as to
+prevent the lodgment of water. Iron and wire fences combined are now
+commonly in use, and there are so many excellent systems that it would
+be invidious to recommend one kind more than another.</p>
+
+<p>Iron box fencing, which consists of standards with double pronged
+feet for fixing in the ground and round or flat horizontal bars run
+through them, has been largely used and looks neat, being also, if
+properly erected, very efficient. Wrought-iron hurdles are sometimes
+used for fencing park clumps, and they possess at least this advantage,
+that they can be lifted at any time and re-erected should it be found
+necessary to remove them from one place to another.</p>
+
+<p>Unclimbable iron fencing, usually in hurdles 7 ft. long, are now much
+in use for park fencing, but for general plantation purposes this class
+of fencing is too expensive.</p>
+
+<p><b>Tree Guards.</b>—These may either be erected of wood or iron; the
+former is, however, preferred on most large estates where timber is
+plentiful, and will receive first attention. For large trees whose
+branches sweep the greensward an elaborate structure is required,
+which may take the form of almost any of those described under wooden
+fencing. That entirely formed of oak is to be recommended, or split
+larch for uprights, with oak posts and rails may be considered more
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_266"></a>[Pg 266]</span>
+rustic in appearance. In any case the guard should be sufficiently
+high and wide to prevent cattle and horses reaching over to damage the
+branches.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+  <img id="I_266" src="images/i_266.jpg" alt="" width="400" height="740" >
+  <p class="f110">TREE GUARDS</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>When the trees are destitute of branches for a considerable distance up
+the stem, say 8 ft. or 10 ft., a very neat and efficient guard is made
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_267"></a>[Pg 267]</span>
+as follows:—Procure a number of larch, oak or Spanish chestnut poles,
+7 ft. high, and about 2½ in. diameter at small end. Thread these on
+wires by boring holes in the poles at 2 ft. and 5 ft. from the butt
+end, keeping each couple separate by 3 in-long pieces of the same size
+of pole, also threaded on the wires. These can be formed on the level,
+and when sufficient to embrace the tree have been got together, the
+whole may be lifted up and placed in position closely around the trunk.
+Another method is to bind the poles together with fencing wire, giving
+a double twist between each to keep them at a suitable distance apart.</p>
+
+<p>When a more elaborate fence or guard is required, four posts 7 ft.
+long, 4 in. square, and sawn from crooked oak branches are used. The
+posts are quite straight for 5 ft. in length, the upper 2 ft. being
+inclined outwards, which not only gives the guard a neat appearance,
+but is a great preventive against the encroachments of farm stock. The
+posts are inserted nearly 2 ft. in the ground, and so as to form a
+square around the stem of 4½ ft. to the side, four bars, each 3 in. by
+1 in., are nailed horizontally on the straight portions of the posts,
+and at equal distances apart from where the angle occurs downwards;
+upwards from that three hoop-iron rails are nailed in a similar manner,
+the top one being one inch below the level of the crown of the posts.
+Iron has a light and neat appearance when used for the top bars, but
+wood is often substituted. Another cheap and neat tree guard for using
+with the rarer trees, to which horses and cattle have not access, is
+made as follows:—Pales 3 ft. long, 2 in. wide, by ⅜ in. thick, are
+sawn out and pointed. They are driven into the ground round the tree to
+be protected, the tops sloping outwards and 1½ in. apart. Stout tying
+wire is then interlaced at two heights from the ground.</p>
+
+<p>Oak or chestnut bark placed loosely around clean-stemmed young trees
+will prevent damage by ground game, and is cheap and looks unobtrusive.</p>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_268"></a>[Pg 268]</span></p>
+<h2 class="nobreak">CHAPTER XXX<br>
+<span class="h_subtitle">TIMBER MEASURING</span></h2>
+</div>
+
+<p>To those who are not practically acquainted with the measuring of
+home-grown timber the following brief remarks in elucidation of the
+subject will be useful. It may, however, be well to mention that timber
+measuring is rather a vexed question, some following what is known as
+Hoppus’s system, and others advocating that of Horton. The former being
+that generally in use amongst timber merchants in this country, and
+consequently of greatest value to the forester, the following details
+of this system may prove serviceable.</p>
+
+<p>Regarding the timber-measurer’s equipment it may first be necessary to
+say a few words. This consists of a 66 ft. Chesterman’s tape-line, or
+instead of this a 5 ft. wooden rod, standard girt-strap, or fine cord,
+scribing knife, and bent piece of iron, with eye at end for drawing the
+girt-strap beneath such trees as the arm cannot readily pass under.</p>
+
+<p>For girthing timber a piece of thin whipcord or string is frequently
+used, but as the elasticity of this varies greatly, and has in many
+instances led to dispute, a much fairer plan and one that is liable
+to no abuse is to use the 12 ft. girt-strap, upon which every inch in
+length is reckoned ¼. As the proper quarter-girth can be seen at a
+glance on this strap, its adoption will at once remove any chance of
+trickery, which may be possible in the use of the string and rule.
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_269"></a>[Pg 269]</span></p>
+
+<p>For entering measurements the most convenient book is that 9 in. by
+4 in., with stiff pasteboard covers, ruled with horizontal lines,
+and divided into four vertical columns. To measure proceed as
+follows:—Mark a number with the scribe on the butt end of the tree,
+and enter a similar number in the first column of the book; this will
+not only serve to identify the particular log, but prevent any risk of
+measuring twice. Should the taper throughout the whole length of the
+tree be tolerably gradual, set down the length in the second column
+of the book, opposite the number already entered. At exactly one-half
+of the length of the portion measured, take the girth by passing the
+girt-strap tightly around the stem. Put this down in the third column
+on the same horizontal line as the number and length. Should, however,
+the trunk taper not be fairly uniform throughout the entire length, as
+frequently happens, several measurements may require to be taken.</p>
+
+<p>For example, a tree may be 36 ft. in length, running with regular taper
+for perhaps 12 ft., after which it branches out, reducing the size of
+the remaining part very considerably for, say another 12 ft., where it
+again branches and leaves the last 12 ft. of a relatively small size.
+With such a tree it would be quite impossible to obtain anything like a
+correct measurement by taking only one length and girth. The difficulty
+is, however, readily got over by first measuring the lower 12 ft., then
+the second, and then the third, marking the respective lengths and
+girths in the vertical columns as already described.</p>
+
+<p>The measurement of these trees, so far as the field work is concerned,
+is now completed, the contents of each tree being found by referring
+to “Hoppus’s Measurer”—a book with which every forester should be
+supplied. By squaring the quarter-girth in inches, multiplying by the
+length in feet, and dividing by 144, the same result will be obtained.
+This is, however, a tedious method, especially where large numbers of
+trees have to be dealt with, and should only be adopted when Hoppus is
+not at hand.</p>
+
+<p>By committing to memory the following short table of quarter-girths
+much time in calculating and consulting authorities will be saved.
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_270"></a>[Pg 270]</span></p>
+
+<table class="spb1">
+   <tbody><tr>
+      <td class="tdc" colspan="5">6-inch quarter-girth will give contents equal to  ¼</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td>
+      <td class="tdc">the entire</td>
+      <td class="tdc">length</td>
+      <td class="tdc">in feet.</td>
+      <td class="tdr">&nbsp;</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">&#8199;7</td>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+      <td class="tdr">⅓</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">&#8199;8½</td>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+      <td class="tdr">½</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">10</td>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+      <td class="tdr">⅔</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">12</td>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+      <td class="tdr_wsp">1&nbsp;</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">13</td>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+      <td class="tdr">1¼</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">14¾</td>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+      <td class="tdr">1½</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">16</td>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+      <td class="tdr">1¾</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">17</td>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+      <td class="tdr_wsp">2&nbsp;</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">19</td>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+      <td class="tdr">2½</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">21</td>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+      <td class="tdr_wsp">3&nbsp;</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">22½</td>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+      <td class="tdr">3½</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">24</td>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+      <td class="tdr_wsp">4&nbsp;</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">27</td>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+      <td class="tdr_wsp">5&nbsp;</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">29½</td>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+      <td class="tdr_wsp">6&nbsp;</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">31¾</td>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+      <td class="tdr_wsp">7&nbsp;</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">34</td>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+      <td class="tdr_wsp">8&nbsp;</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">36</td>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+      <td class="tdr_wsp">9&nbsp;</td>
+   </tr>
+ </tbody>
+</table>
+
+<p>The sliding rule is also useful for determining contents.</p>
+
+<p>The proper allowance to be made for bark is half an inch for every
+foot of quarter-girth for oak and elm under 12 in. quarter-girth, and
+an inch for all beyond, but it is quite impossible to fix upon any
+one uniform scale that will meet even the majority of circumstances.
+Trees growing in exposed situations will frequently have bark almost
+double the thickness of those of a similar size in the woodland. My
+plan has been always to allow for the bark of each tree at the time of
+measurement.</p>
+
+<p><b>Measuring Standing Timber.</b>—For this a pliable pole 18 ft.
+long, marked in feet, and the girt-strap already referred to are the
+necessary equipment. In estimating the number of feet of timber upon a
+large area, it is not always necessary to measure each tree separately,
+particularly when the whole situation is composed of one species, and
+the individual trees are about the same age and size, as by multiplying
+the total number of trees by the average content of those selected and
+measured a very just calculation will be arrived at. Great care in
+their selection, and considerable judgment in taking the average will,
+however, be required.
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_271"></a>[Pg 271]</span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+  <img id="I_271" src="images/i_271.jpg" alt="" width="400" height="679" >
+  <p class="f110">MEASURING HEIGHT OF TREES</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_272"></a>[Pg 272]</span>
+When each tree is to be measured separately two assistants will
+be required, one to carry the 18-ft. pole, and the other the
+girting-strap. Sometimes, when the timber is of great height, jointed
+bamboos are used, and a light ladder brought into requisition.</p>
+
+<p>In carrying out the work in this way, the man with the pole declares
+the height of the tree, and the one with the tape the quarter-girth.</p>
+
+<p><b>Measuring the Height of Trees.</b>—There are several methods of
+ascertaining the heights of trees, but the two following are, perhaps,
+the most simple, and the appliances necessary quite inexpensive:—</p>
+
+<p>No 1.—Take three laths, such as bricklayers use for tiling, and nail
+them in the shape of the frame shown; <i>a a</i> must be of equal
+length; <i>a</i> and <i>b</i> being placed on the ground, the eye
+must follow up the larger lath <i>d d</i> until it is in a line with
+<i>e</i>, the top of the tree or object you wish to measure.</p>
+
+<p>The frame must be placed as level with the bottom of the tree as
+possible. Should the ground be very uneven you must give and take
+accordingly.</p>
+
+<p>It will be seen that <i>b</i> to <i>c</i> is the same length as
+<i>c</i> to <i>e</i>, and this gives the height of the tree.</p>
+
+<p>No 2.—Suspend the triangle between the thumb and forefinger of the
+left hand, knuckles down, upon the point <i>a a</i>, allowing it to
+swing freely. The edge <i>b c</i> will then fall perpendicularly, and
+<i>c d</i> will be horizontal. The remaining edge <i>d b</i> will then
+lie at an angle of 45 to the horizon. On this edge are two sights,
+<i>e</i> and <i>f</i>. Look through <i>e</i> until <i>f</i> is aligned
+with the tree-top, advancing or retiring till the sights point exactly
+to it.</p>
+
+<p>Then, if the observer’s feet are level with the tree root, the height
+of the tree is the distance from his feet to the root, plus the height
+of the eye from the ground.</p>
+
+<p>The dendrometer is perhaps the most useful instrument for taking the
+height of a tree and can be procured from some of our nurserymen.</p>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_273"></a>[Pg 273]</span></p>
+<h2 class="nobreak">CHAPTER XXXI<br>
+<span class="h_subtitle">BLASTING AND BURNING TREE ROOTS</span></h2>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+  <img id="I_273" src="images/i_273.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="210" >
+  <p class="f110">BLASTING AND BURNING TREE ROOTS</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Blasting by gunpowder or dynamite is not only the most expeditious
+but also the cheapest method of clearing away tree stumps and large
+logs. In preparing to blast a stump, great care must be exercised to
+bore the hole in the right place and not to use too much explosive.
+For blasting powder the hole should be 1½ in. in diameter, and should
+penetrate to the centre of the stump. It must not be too low down, lest
+the bottom should blow out and the force be expended in shattering the
+ground instead of the stump or log. In selecting the spot to bore for
+the powder, choose the hardest part of the root and ensure an equal
+thickness of wood all round, and even splitting of the log will be the
+result. The following is a good way of putting in the powder:—For
+large stumps of from 2 ft. to 4 ft. in diameter about 3½ in. depth of
+coarse blasting powder should be inserted in a hole 1½ in. in diameter.
+The end of the fuse should be put into the centre of the powder, and
+left protruding for 15 in. outside the hole, which is filled with dry
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_274"></a>[Pg 274]</span>
+sand, consolidated, or packed around the fuse by means of a coarse iron
+wire. The outside end of the fuse should be teased out and lighted with
+a match, and as it will require over a minute for the fire to reach the
+powder, time is given for the operator to find a place of safety.</p>
+
+<p><b>Burning Tree Stumps.</b>—With a 2-in. auger bore a vertical hole
+in the centre of the stump from the top towards the bottom. In the
+side of the stump, near ground level, bore a horizontal hole towards
+the centre, so as to open into the vertical hole, drop some fire down
+the vertical hole, and if the wood is at all dry the draught of air
+entering by the horizontal hole will, like the draught of a chimney,
+maintain the combustion of the fire in the centre, until this slowly
+spreads and ultimately burns away the stump.</p>
+
+<p>Another and equally simple method of destroying stumps of trees is as
+follows:—In autumn bore a hole 2 in. in diameter and 18 in. deep, put
+in 1½ oz. of saltpetre, fill with water, and plug up close. In the
+following spring put in the same hole half a gill of kerosene oil and
+then light. The stump will smoulder away without blazing, down to every
+part of the roots.</p>
+
+<p><b>American Method of Blasting.</b>—At Studley Horticultural College,
+Warwickshire, the American method of blasting was successfully carried
+out and reported upon by Mr. A. P. Long as follows:—</p>
+
+<p>A hole is bored with a long auger or crowbar in a sloping direction
+from one side of the stump to its base, generally from 2½ ft. to 3½ ft.
+deep. The bore-hole is cleaned out, and a number of dynamite cartridges
+inserted, each being firmly pressed home by a wooden rod. A primer
+cartridge containing a detonator is then placed on the top of these,
+and the bore-hole is filled with clay and tightly rammed. The primer
+is either connected directly with a safety fuse, or to a high-tension
+battery, by a cable, and is afterwards fired. As dynamite strikes
+downwards as well as upwards, the effect of the explosion is that the
+roots and stump are all either ejected or loosened, so that they can be
+easily removed by hand.</p>
+
+<p>The American method is less costly and more speedy than the methods
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_275"></a>[Pg 275]</span>
+hitherto used in England in removing stumps. If there is no man on the
+estate qualified to handle explosives, an expert must be employed at
+about £1 per day, besides travelling and hotel expenses. Three men—an
+expert and two labourers—can bore holes and blast thirty sound stumps
+per day easily. If the stumps are hollow in the centre, two or three
+bore holes are necessary for each stump, and in that case twenty
+only can be blasted during the day. Taking the pre-war wages of two
+labourers at 2<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i> each per day, the cost of boring and
+firing averages 2½<i>d.</i> per stump, exclusive of the expert’s fee.
+The expert’s fee increases the cost by about 2<i>s.</i> per stump.</p>
+
+<p>The explosive used is Nobel’s dynamite, in the form of cartridges,
+costing 9½<i>d.</i> per lb. The average quantity used for each stump is
+between 2 lbs. and 3 lbs. (about twenty to thirty cartridges), so that
+the cost of the explosive is not more than 2<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i> per
+stump. The detonators and fuses required only cost a few pence. Summing
+up, the cost per stump is:—</p>
+
+<table class="spb1">
+   <tbody><tr class="fs_120">
+      <td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td>
+      <td class="tdc_wsp"><b><i>s.</i></b></td>
+      <td class="tdc_wsp"><b><i>d.</i></b></td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">Expert’s fee</td>
+      <td class="tdc">2</td>
+      <td class="tdc">0 &#8199;</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">Cost of boring</td>
+      <td class="tdc">0</td>
+      <td class="tdc">2½</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">Cost of explosive</td>
+      <td class="tdc">2</td>
+      <td class="tdc">6 &#8199;</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">Detonators and fuse&emsp;&nbsp;</td>
+      <td class="tdc bb">0</td>
+      <td class="tdc bb">9½</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td>
+      <td class="tdc">5</td>
+      <td class="tdc">6 &#8199;</td>
+   </tr>
+ </tbody>
+</table>
+
+<p>Misfires and partial removal of stump may require fresh borings and
+further charges of explosive, thus increasing the cost. By employing a
+skilled estate hand capable of using explosives instead of an expert,
+the expense, however, is greatly diminished.</p>
+
+<p>By the old method of grubbing and jacking, stumps were removed at
+Studley some time ago at the high cost of about £2 5<i>s.</i> each
+butt, and even then success was only partial. In another case, on an
+estate in Norfolk, where an old pasture was converted into a plantation
+of mixed trees, trenching at the cost of £18 per acre had to be
+resorted to on account of the presence of roots and stumps of old
+trees. In this case it would have been much cheaper to have removed the
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_276"></a>[Pg 276]</span>
+stumps by blasting. The demonstrations at Studley showed that both
+sound and unsound stumps could be successfully blasted, and whole
+trees—an Apple and an Oak—were also uprooted by the same method with
+equal success, using only one bore-hole and about the same charge of
+explosive. The timber of the trees so treated, however, is very much
+split, so that blasting is only advisable when the timber is considered
+of little value.</p>
+
+<p>The particular explosives used are unaffected by damp, and, in
+consequence, the method is applicable in both wet and dry situations.
+Firing the charges was done at the demonstrations mostly by ladies, and
+a photographer was able to get sufficiently near to obtain photographs
+of the effect of the explosion without danger. The principal
+recommendations of this method, therefore, are cheapness, effectiveness
+and safety.</p>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_277"></a>[Pg 277]</span></p>
+<h2 class="nobreak">CHAPTER XXXII<br>
+<span class="h_subtitle">PRICES OF CONTRACT OR PIECEWORK</span></h2>
+</div>
+
+<p>The following prices may be taken as approximating to those paid
+generally throughout the country previous to the war.</p>
+
+<p>It may be well to remember, however, that in districts where unusually
+high or low wages are paid, so in proportion will be the contract
+prices for the various classes of work.</p>
+
+<table class="spb1">
+   <tbody><tr>
+      <td class="tdl" colspan="3">BARKING OAK:</td>
+      <td class="tdc_wsp fs_120"><b><i>s.</i></b></td>
+      <td class="tdc_wsp fs_120"><b><i>d.</i></b></td>
+      <td class="tdc_wsp">&nbsp;</td>
+      <td class="tdc_wsp fs_120"><b><i>s.</i></b></td>
+      <td class="tdc_wsp fs_120"><b><i>d.</i></b></td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl_ws1">Barking</td>
+      <td class="tdl">oak</td>
+      <td class="tdc_wsp">per ton</td>
+      <td class="tdc">21</td>
+      <td class="tdc">0</td>
+      <td class="tdc">&nbsp;</td>
+      <td class="tdc">&nbsp;</td>
+      <td class="tdc">&nbsp;</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl_ws1">Loading</td>
+      <td class="tdl">bark on wagons</td>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+      <td class="tdl_wsp">3</td>
+      <td class="tdc">0</td>
+      <td class="tdc">&nbsp;</td>
+      <td class="tdc">&nbsp;</td>
+      <td class="tdc">&nbsp;</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl_ws1">Barking</td>
+      <td class="tdl">oak per ton of bark</td>
+      <td class="tdc">&nbsp;</td>
+      <td class="tdl_wsp">30</td>
+      <td class="tdc">0</td>
+      <td class="tdc">&nbsp;</td>
+      <td class="tdc">&nbsp;</td>
+      <td class="tdc">&nbsp;</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl_ws1">Chopping</td>
+      <td class="tdl_wsp">bark</td>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+      <td class="tdl_wsp">&#8199;8</td>
+      <td class="tdc">0</td>
+      <td class="tdc">to</td>
+      <td class="tdc">10</td>
+      <td class="tdc">0</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl" colspan="8">&nbsp;<br>COPPICEWOOD:</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl_ws1">&nbsp;Cutting</td>
+      <td class="tdl">out hurdle rods</td>
+      <td class="tdc" colspan="4">per score</td>
+      <td class="tdc">0</td>
+      <td class="tdc">1</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+      <td class="tdl">hurdle stakes</td>
+      <td class="tdc" colspan="4">per dozen</td>
+      <td class="tdc">0</td>
+      <td class="tdc">1</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+      <td class="tdl">rake stems</td>
+      <td class="tdc" colspan="4">”</td>
+      <td class="tdc">0</td>
+      <td class="tdc">1</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+      <td class="tdl">spade stems</td>
+      <td class="tdc" colspan="4">”</td>
+      <td class="tdc">0</td>
+      <td class="tdc">1</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+      <td class="tdl">spick gads</td>
+      <td class="tdc" colspan="4">”</td>
+      <td class="tdc">0</td>
+      <td class="tdc">1</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+      <td class="tdl">dahlia stakes</td>
+      <td class="tdc" colspan="4">”</td>
+      <td class="tdc">0</td>
+      <td class="tdc">1</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+      <td class="tdl">rose stakes</td>
+      <td class="tdc" colspan="4">per two dozen</td>
+      <td class="tdc">0</td>
+      <td class="tdc">1</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+      <td class="tdl">besom handles</td>
+      <td class="tdc" colspan="4">”</td>
+      <td class="tdc">0</td>
+      <td class="tdc">1</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+      <td class="tdl">kidney-bean stakes</td>
+      <td class="tdc" colspan="4">50 in bundle</td>
+      <td class="tdc">0</td>
+      <td class="tdc">2</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+      <td class="tdl">pea stakes</td>
+      <td class="tdc" colspan="4">per bundle</td>
+      <td class="tdc">0</td>
+      <td class="tdc">1</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+      <td class="tdl">birchwood for besoms</td>
+      <td class="tdc" colspan="4">”</td>
+      <td class="tdc">0</td>
+      <td class="tdc">1</td>
+   </tr>
+ </tbody>
+</table>
+
+<table class="spb1">
+   <tbody><tr>
+      <td class="tdl" colspan="4">DRAINING:</td>
+      <td class="tdc_wsp fs_120"><b><i>s.</i></b></td>
+      <td class="tdc_wsp fs_120"><b><i>d.</i></b></td>
+      <td class="tdc_wsp">&nbsp;</td>
+      <td class="tdc_wsp fs_120"><b><i>s.</i></b></td>
+      <td class="tdc_wsp fs_120"><b><i>d.</i></b></td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl_ws1">Pipe</td>
+      <td class="tdl_wsp">draining,</td>
+      <td class="tdl_wsp">mains, 4 ft. 3 in. deep,</td>
+      <td class="tdc" colspan="6">&nbsp;</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl_ws1">&nbsp;</td>
+      <td class="tdl_wsp">&nbsp;</td>
+      <td class="tdl_wsp">4 in. or 6 in. pipes</td>
+      <td class="tdc">per chain</td>
+      <td class="tdc">3</td>
+      <td class="tdc">0</td>
+      <td class="tdc">to</td>
+      <td class="tdc">3</td>
+      <td class="tdc">6</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+      <td class="tdl_wsp">small, 4 ft. deep, 1½ in.</td>
+      <td class="tdc" colspan="6">&nbsp;</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdc">&nbsp;</td>
+      <td class="tdc">&nbsp;</td>
+      <td class="tdl_ws2">to 3 in. pipes</td>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+      <td class="tdc">2</td>
+      <td class="tdc">0</td>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+      <td class="tdc">2</td>
+      <td class="tdc">9</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+      <td class="tdc_wsp">small, 4 ft. deep, 1½ in. pipes</td>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+      <td class="tdc">1</td>
+      <td class="tdc">9</td>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+      <td class="tdc">2</td>
+      <td class="tdc">6
+         <span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_278"></a>[Pg 278]</span></td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl_ws1">Ditches,</td>
+      <td class="tdl_wsp">open,</td>
+      <td class="tdc_wsp">36 in. wide at top, 30 in. deep,</td>
+      <td class="tdc" colspan="6">&nbsp;</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl_ws1">&nbsp;</td>
+      <td class="tdl_wsp">&nbsp;</td>
+      <td class="tdc_wsp">and 9 in. wide at bottom</td>
+      <td class="tdc">per chain </td>
+      <td class="tdc">3</td>
+      <td class="tdc">0</td>
+      <td class="tdc">to</td>
+      <td class="tdc">4</td>
+      <td class="tdc">0</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl_ws1" colspan="3">Scouring out ditto</td>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+      <td class="tdc">0</td>
+      <td class="tdc">9</td>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+      <td class="tdc">1</td>
+      <td class="tdc">0</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl_ws1">Small open</td>
+      <td class="tdl_wsp">ditches,</td>
+      <td class="tdl">15 in. to 18 in.wide at top, </td>
+      <td class="tdc" colspan="6">&nbsp;</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl_ws1">&nbsp;</td>
+      <td class="tdl_wsp">&nbsp;</td>
+      <td class="tdl_wsp">12 in. to 15 in. deep, and 9 in.</td>
+      <td class="tdc" colspan="6">&nbsp;</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl_ws1">&nbsp;</td>
+      <td class="tdl_wsp">&nbsp;</td>
+      <td class="tdl_wsp">wide at bottom</td>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+      <td class="tdc">1</td>
+      <td class="tdc">6</td>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+      <td class="tdc">2</td>
+      <td class="tdc">6</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl_ws1" colspan="3">Scouring out ditto</td>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+      <td class="tdc">0</td>
+      <td class="tdc">6</td>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+      <td class="tdc">0</td>
+      <td class="tdc">9</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl_ws1"></td>
+      <td class="tdl_wsp"></td>
+      <td class="tdc_wsp"></td>
+      <td class="tdc"></td>
+      <td class="tdc"></td>
+      <td class="tdc"></td>
+      <td class="tdc"></td>
+      <td class="tdc"></td>
+      <td class="tdc"></td>
+   </tr>
+ </tbody>
+</table>
+
+<table class="spb1">
+   <tbody><tr>
+      <td class="tdl" colspan="3">FAGGOT-MAKING:</td>
+      <td class="tdc_wsp fs_120"><b><i>s.</i></b></td>
+      <td class="tdc_wsp fs_120"><b><i>d.</i></b></td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl_ws1">Making</td>
+      <td class="tdl_wsp">faggots</td>
+      <td class="tdc_wsp">per 100</td>
+      <td class="tdc">4</td>
+      <td class="tdc">6</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+      <td class="tdl_wsp">oven faggots</td>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+      <td class="tdc">3</td>
+      <td class="tdc">0</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+      <td class="tdl_wsp">faggots for fire-lighting</td>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+      <td class="tdc">1</td>
+      <td class="tdc">3</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl_ws1">Cutting</td>
+      <td class="tdl_wsp">bands for tying faggots<span class="ws5">&nbsp;</span></td>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+      <td class="tdc">0</td>
+      <td class="tdc">4</td>
+   </tr>
+ </tbody>
+</table>
+
+<table class="spb1">
+   <tbody><tr>
+      <td class="tdl" colspan="4">FELLING AND STUBBING TIMBER:</td>
+      <td class="tdc_wsp fs_120"><b><i>s.</i></b></td>
+      <td class="tdc_wsp fs_120"><b><i>d.</i></b></td>
+      <td class="tdc_wsp">&nbsp;</td>
+      <td class="tdc_wsp fs_120"><b><i>s.</i></b></td>
+      <td class="tdc_wsp fs_120"><b><i>d.</i></b></td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl_ws1">Felling</td>
+      <td class="tdl">oak timber</td>
+      <td class="tdc_wsp">per ton</td>
+      <td class="tdc">of 40 ft.</td>
+      <td class="tdc">3</td>
+      <td class="tdc">0</td>
+      <td class="tdc" colspan="3">&nbsp;</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+      <td class="tdl">other hardwoods</td>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+      <td class="tdc">2</td>
+      <td class="tdc">6</td>
+      <td class="tdc" colspan="3">&nbsp;</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+      <td class="tdl">pinewood</td>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+      <td class="tdc">1</td>
+      <td class="tdc">6</td>
+      <td class="tdc">to</td>
+      <td class="tdc">1</td>
+      <td class="tdc">9</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl_ws1">Stubbing</td>
+      <td class="tdl_wsp">out timber</td>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+      <td class="tdc">3</td>
+      <td class="tdc">6</td>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+      <td class="tdc">4</td>
+      <td class="tdc">0</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl_ws1">Cutting</td>
+      <td class="tdl">underwood from 12 to 15 years’ growth</td>
+      <td class="tdc_wsp" colspan="2">per acre</td>
+      <td class="tdc">9</td>
+      <td class="tdc">6</td>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+      <td class="tdc">12</td>
+      <td class="tdc">0</td>
+   </tr>
+ </tbody>
+</table>
+
+<table class="spb1">
+   <tbody><tr>
+      <td class="tdl" colspan="6">FENCING:</td>
+      <td class="tdc_wsp fs_120"><b><i>s.</i></b></td>
+      <td class="tdc_wsp fs_120"><b><i>d.</i></b></td>
+      <td class="tdc_wsp">&nbsp;</td>
+      <td class="tdc_wsp fs_120"><b><i>s.</i></b></td>
+      <td class="tdc_wsp fs_120"><b><i>d.</i></b></td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl_ws1">Setting</td>
+      <td class="tdl_wsp">out and</td>
+      <td class="tdl_wsp">mortising</td>
+      <td class="tdl_wsp">4-holed</td>
+      <td class="tdl_wsp">posts</td>
+      <td class="tdl_wsp">&nbsp; per score</td>
+      <td class="tdc">4</td>
+      <td class="tdc">0</td>
+      <td class="tdc" colspan="3">&nbsp;</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+      <td class="tdl_wsp">3-holed</td>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+      <td class="tdc">3</td>
+      <td class="tdc">0</td>
+      <td class="tdc" colspan="3">&nbsp;</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+      <td class="tdl_wsp">2-holed</td>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+      <td class="tdc">2</td>
+      <td class="tdc">6</td>
+      <td class="tdc" colspan="3">&nbsp;</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+      <td class="tdl_wsp">1-holed</td>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+      <td class="tdc">2</td>
+      <td class="tdc">0</td>
+      <td class="tdc" colspan="3">&nbsp;</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+      <td class="tdl" colspan="2">and cleaving rails</td>
+      <td class="tdc_wsp">&nbsp;</td>
+      <td class="tdc">&nbsp;</td>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+      <td class="tdc">0</td>
+      <td class="tdc">10</td>
+      <td class="tdc" colspan="3">&nbsp;</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+      <td class="tdl_wsp">stakes</td>
+      <td class="tdc">&nbsp;</td>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+      <td class="tdc">0</td>
+      <td class="tdc">6</td>
+      <td class="tdc" colspan="3">&nbsp;</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+      <td class="tdl_wsp">long poles</td>
+      <td class="tdc">&nbsp;</td>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+      <td class="tdc">0</td>
+      <td class="tdc">6</td>
+      <td class="tdc" colspan="3">&nbsp;</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+      <td class="tdl_wsp">short poles</td>
+      <td class="tdc">&nbsp;</td>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+      <td class="tdc">0</td>
+      <td class="tdc">4</td>
+      <td class="tdc" colspan="3">&nbsp;</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl_ws1" colspan="5">Hanging field-gates</td>
+      <td class="tdc">each</td>
+      <td class="tdc">4</td>
+      <td class="tdc">0</td>
+      <td class="tdc">to</td>
+      <td class="tdc">5</td>
+      <td class="tdc">0</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl_ws1" colspan="5">Fixing stile</td>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+      <td class="tdc">2</td>
+      <td class="tdc">0</td>
+      <td class="tdc" colspan="3">&nbsp;</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl_ws1" colspan="5">Preparing posts, rails and pails for tree guards</td>
+      <td class="tdc">per set</td>
+      <td class="tdc">0</td>
+      <td class="tdc">9</td>
+      <td class="tdc" colspan="3">&nbsp;</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl_ws1" colspan="5">Fixing ditto</td>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+      <td class="tdc">2</td>
+      <td class="tdc">0</td>
+      <td class="tdc" colspan="3">&nbsp;</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl_ws1" colspan="5">Six-wire fence larch posts and creosoted</td>
+      <td class="tdc">per chain</td>
+      <td class="tdc">35</td>
+      <td class="tdc">0</td>
+      <td class="tdc">to</td>
+      <td class="tdc">40</td>
+      <td class="tdc">0</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl_ws1" colspan="5">Fixing same</td>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+      <td class="tdc">4</td>
+      <td class="tdc">6</td>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+      <td class="tdc">5</td>
+      <td class="tdc">0
+               <span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_279"></a>[Pg 279]</span></td>
+   </tr>
+ </tbody>
+</table>
+
+<table class="spb1">
+   <tbody><tr>
+      <td class="tdl" colspan="4">FIREWOOD:</td>
+      <td class="tdc" rowspan="6">&nbsp;&emsp;&nbsp;</td>
+      <td class="tdc_wsp fs_120"><b><i>s.</i></b></td>
+      <td class="tdc_wsp fs_120"><b><i>d.</i></b></td>
+      <td class="tdc_wsp">&nbsp;</td>
+      <td class="tdc_wsp fs_120"><b><i>s.</i></b></td>
+      <td class="tdc_wsp fs_120"><b><i>d.</i></b></td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl_ws1">Splitting</td>
+      <td class="tdl_wsp">firewood</td>
+      <td class="tdl_wsp">&nbsp;</td>
+      <td class="tdc_wsp">per cord</td>
+      <td class="tdc">4</td>
+      <td class="tdc">0</td>
+      <td class="tdc">to</td>
+      <td class="tdc">6</td>
+      <td class="tdc">0</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+      <td class="tdl_wsp">for charcoal</td>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+      <td class="tdc">2</td>
+      <td class="tdc">6</td>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+      <td class="tdc">3</td>
+      <td class="tdc">0</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl_ws1" colspan="2">Cutting and stacking</td>
+      <td class="tdl_wsp">cordwood</td>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+      <td class="tdc">2</td>
+      <td class="tdc">0</td>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+      <td class="tdc">3</td>
+      <td class="tdc">0</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl_ws1">Burning</td>
+      <td class="tdl_wsp">charcoal</td>
+      <td class="tdr_wsp">per bushel</td>
+      <td class="tdl">of 20 lbs.</td>
+      <td class="tdc">&nbsp;</td>
+      <td class="tdc">&nbsp;</td>
+      <td class="tdc">&nbsp;</td>
+      <td class="tdc">0</td>
+      <td class="tdc">2</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl_ws1" colspan="3">Loading and spreading soil</td>
+      <td class="tdl_wsp">per load</td>
+      <td class="tdc">0</td>
+      <td class="tdc">5</td>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+      <td class="tdc">0</td>
+      <td class="tdc">6</td>
+   </tr>
+ </tbody>
+</table>
+
+<table class="spb1">
+   <tbody><tr>
+      <td class="tdl" colspan="3">GATE-MAKING:</td>
+      <td class="tdc_wsp fs_120"><b><i>s.</i></b></td>
+      <td class="tdc_wsp fs_120"><b><i>d.</i></b></td>
+      <td class="tdc_wsp">&nbsp;</td>
+      <td class="tdc_wsp fs_120"><b><i>s.</i></b></td>
+      <td class="tdc_wsp fs_120"><b><i>d.</i></b></td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl_ws1" colspan="2">Field gate, oak</td>
+      <td class="tdr_wsp">5-bar</td>
+      <td class="tdc" colspan="3">&nbsp;</td>
+      <td class="tdc">17</td>
+      <td class="tdc">0</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl_ws1" colspan="2">Posts</td>
+      <td class="tdr_wsp">per pair</td>
+      <td class="tdc" colspan="3">&nbsp;</td>
+      <td class="tdc">23</td>
+      <td class="tdc">0</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl_ws1" colspan="2">Iron fastening and ironwork complete</td>
+      <td class="tdr_wsp">&nbsp;</td>
+      <td class="tdc" colspan="3">&nbsp;</td>
+      <td class="tdc">5</td>
+      <td class="tdc">9</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl_ws2" colspan="2">” &nbsp; Fixing</td>
+      <td class="tdr_wsp">&nbsp;</td>
+      <td class="tdc" colspan="3">&nbsp;</td>
+      <td class="tdc">4</td>
+      <td class="tdc">6</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl_ws1" colspan="2">Making 5-bar oak gate</td>
+      <td class="tdc" colspan="4">&nbsp;</td>
+      <td class="tdc">2</td>
+      <td class="tdc">6</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl_ws2" colspan="2">” &nbsp; half gate</td>
+      <td class="tdc" colspan="4">&nbsp;</td>
+      <td class="tdc">1</td>
+      <td class="tdc">9</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl_ws2" colspan="2">” &nbsp; rough wickets</td>
+      <td class="tdc" colspan="4">&nbsp;</td>
+      <td class="tdc">2</td>
+      <td class="tdc">0</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl_ws2" colspan="2">” &nbsp; wrought wickets</td>
+      <td class="tdc" colspan="4">&nbsp;</td>
+      <td class="tdc">3</td>
+      <td class="tdc">0</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl_ws1" colspan="2">Sawing hardwood</td>
+      <td class="tdr_wsp">per 100 ft.</td>
+      <td class="tdc">3</td>
+      <td class="tdc">6</td>
+      <td class="tdc">to</td>
+      <td class="tdc">4</td>
+      <td class="tdc">0</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl_ws2">”</td>
+      <td class="tdl_wsp">softwood</td>
+      <td class="tdc">”&emsp;”</td>
+      <td class="tdc">2</td>
+      <td class="tdc">6</td>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+      <td class="tdc">3</td>
+      <td class="tdc">0</td>
+   </tr>
+ </tbody>
+</table>
+
+<table class="spb1">
+   <tbody><tr>
+      <td class="tdl" colspan="3">HEDGING:</td>
+      <td class="tdc_wsp fs_120"><b><i>s.</i></b></td>
+      <td class="tdc_wsp fs_120"><b><i>d.</i></b></td>
+      <td class="tdc_wsp">&nbsp;</td>
+      <td class="tdc_wsp fs_120"><b><i>s.</i></b></td>
+      <td class="tdc_wsp fs_120"><b><i>d.</i></b></td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl_ws1" colspan="2">Trimming hedges, ordinary size</td>
+      <td class="tdl_wsp">per chain</td>
+      <td class="tdc">0</td>
+      <td class="tdc">9</td>
+      <td class="tdc">to</td>
+      <td class="tdc">1</td>
+      <td class="tdc">6</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl_ws1" colspan="8">Making bank for quick hedge,</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl_ws2" colspan="2"><span class="ws2">digging ditch and planting quick</span></td>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+      <td class="tdc">7</td>
+      <td class="tdc">6</td>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+      <td class="tdc">10</td>
+      <td class="tdc">6</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl_ws2">”</td>
+      <td class="tdl_ws1">&nbsp; hedge, without bank or ditch, trenching</td>
+      <td class="tdl_ws1" colspan="6">&nbsp;</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdc">&nbsp;</td>
+      <td class="tdl_ws1">&nbsp; ground, preparing bed and planting</td>
+      <td class="tdl_wsp">”</td>
+      <td class="tdc">3</td>
+      <td class="tdc">0</td>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+      <td class="tdc">4</td>
+      <td class="tdc">0</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl_ws1" colspan="2">Cleaning young hedges</td>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+      <td class="tdc">0</td>
+      <td class="tdc">8</td>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+      <td class="tdc">0</td>
+      <td class="tdc">9</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl_ws1" colspan="2">Laying hedge and scouring out ditch</td>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+      <td class="tdc">2</td>
+      <td class="tdc">0</td>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+      <td class="tdc">3</td>
+      <td class="tdc">0</td>
+   </tr>
+ </tbody>
+</table>
+
+<table class="spb1">
+   <tbody><tr>
+      <td class="tdl" colspan="3">HURDLE-MAKING:</td>
+      <td class="tdc_wsp fs_120"><b><i>s.</i></b></td>
+      <td class="tdc_wsp fs_120"><b><i>d.</i></b></td>
+      <td class="tdc_wsp">&nbsp;</td>
+      <td class="tdc_wsp fs_120"><b><i>s.</i></b></td>
+      <td class="tdc_wsp fs_120"><b><i>d.</i></b></td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl_ws1">Making</td>
+      <td class="tdl_wsp">hurdles</td>
+      <td class="tdl_wsp">per dozen</td>
+      <td class="tdc">3</td>
+      <td class="tdc">6</td>
+      <td class="tdc">to</td>
+      <td class="tdc">4</td>
+      <td class="tdc">0</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+      <td class="tdl_wsp">cattle hurdles (wattle)</td>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+      <td class="tdc">5</td>
+      <td class="tdc">0</td>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+      <td class="tdc">6</td>
+      <td class="tdc">0</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+      <td class="tdl_wsp">Welsh hurdles, for sheep</td>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+      <td class="tdc">4</td>
+      <td class="tdc">0</td>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+      <td class="tdc">5</td>
+      <td class="tdc">0</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl" colspan="8">&nbsp;<br>PITTING:</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl_ws1">Digging</td>
+      <td class="tdl_wsp">out clay</td>
+      <td class="tdc">per yard</td>
+      <td class="tdc" colspan="3">&nbsp;</td>
+      <td class="tdc">0</td>
+      <td class="tdc">6</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+      <td class="tdl_wsp" colspan="7">holes for tree planting, 15 in.</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl_ws1">&nbsp;</td>
+      <td class="tdl_ws1">&nbsp; in diameter and 15 in. deep&emsp;&nbsp;</td>
+      <td class="tdc">per 100</td>
+      <td class="tdc">1</td>
+      <td class="tdc">6</td>
+      <td class="tdc">to</td>
+      <td class="tdc">2</td>
+      <td class="tdc">6</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl_ws1" colspan="2">Inserting plants</td>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+      <td class="tdc">0</td>
+      <td class="tdc">6</td>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+      <td class="tdc">1</td>
+      <td class="tdc">0</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl_ws1" colspan="2">Notch planting</td>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+      <td class="tdc">2</td>
+      <td class="tdc">0</td>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+      <td class="tdc">3</td>
+      <td class="tdc">0</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl" colspan="8">&nbsp;<br>PREPARING ROAD MATERIAL:</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl_ws1" colspan="2">Quarrying stones</td>
+      <td class="tdc">per yard</td>
+      <td class="tdc">0</td>
+      <td class="tdc">10</td>
+      <td class="tdc">to</td>
+      <td class="tdc">1</td>
+      <td class="tdc">3</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl_ws1" colspan="2">Breaking stones for roads</td>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+      <td class="tdc">0</td>
+      <td class="tdc">8</td>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+      <td class="tdc">1</td>
+      <td class="tdc">0</td>
+   </tr>
+ </tbody>
+</table>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_280"></a>[Pg 280]</span></p>
+<h2 class="nobreak">CHAPTER XXXIII<br>
+<span class="h_subtitle">FOREST AREA OF THE WORLD</span></h2>
+</div>
+
+<p>Exclusive of the forests of China, Corea and parts of Africa and South
+America, for which there are no available data, the forest area of the
+world is approximately 3,800,000,000 acres.</p>
+
+<p>The forests of Europe total upwards of 750,000,000 or, roughly
+speaking, about 31 per cent. of the total land area of the Continent;
+whilst among non-European countries Canada comes first with 799,000,000
+acres, United States, 545,000,000, tropical South America 528,000,000,
+Asiatic Russia 348,000,000, and Central Africa 224,000,000.</p>
+
+<p>Finland is, perhaps, the best wooded country in the world, Bosnia,
+Herzegovina and Sweden coming next, whilst amongst the least wooded
+areas are Great Britain and Portugal, the former including only about 4
+per cent. of the total area of the land.</p>
+
+<p>So far as is at present known the following are the approximate areas
+of woodlands in the various countries of the world:—</p>
+
+<table class="spb1">
+   <tbody><tr class="smcap fs_110">
+      <td class="tdc"><b>Country.</b></td>
+      <td class="tdr"><b>Total Forest Area.</b></td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td>
+      <td class="tdr_ws1">(Acres.)</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">Russia—</td>
+      <td class="tdr_ws1">&nbsp;</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl_ws1">European Russia</td>
+      <td class="tdr_ws1">461,611,000</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl_ws1">Finland</td>
+      <td class="tdr_ws1">52,500,000</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">Austria-Hungary—</td>
+      <td class="tdr_ws1">&nbsp;</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl_ws1">Austria</td>
+      <td class="tdr_ws1">23,996,000</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl_ws1">Hungary</td>
+      <td class="tdr_ws1">18,692,000</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">Croatia and Slavonia</td>
+      <td class="tdr_ws1">3,769,000</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">Bosnia and Herzegovina</td>
+      <td class="tdr_ws1">6,380,000</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">Sweden</td>
+      <td class="tdr_ws1">49,390,000</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">Germany</td>
+      <td class="tdr_ws1">34,990,000</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">France</td>
+      <td class="tdr_ws1">24,021,000
+             <span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_281"></a>[Pg 281]</span></td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">Norway</td>
+      <td class="tdr_ws1">16,848,000</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">Spain</td>
+      <td class="tdr_ws1">16,065,000</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">Italy</td>
+      <td class="tdr_ws1">10,115,000</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">Bulgaria</td>
+      <td class="tdr_ws1">7,603,000</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">Roumania</td>
+      <td class="tdr_ws1">6,367,000</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">British Isles</td>
+      <td class="tdr_ws1">3,071,361</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">Switzerland</td>
+      <td class="tdr_ws1">2,140,000</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">Belgium</td>
+      <td class="tdr_ws1">1,304,000</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">Servia</td>
+      <td class="tdr_ws1">3,865,000</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">Other Countries</td>
+      <td class="tdr_ws1">4,427,000</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td>
+      <td class="tdr_ws1 over">747,154,361</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl" colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">Asiatic Russia</td>
+      <td class="tdr_ws1">348,030,000</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">India</td>
+      <td class="tdr_ws1">149,000,000</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">Ceylon</td>
+      <td class="tdr_ws1">6,763,000</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">Japan</td>
+      <td class="tdr_ws1">57,718,000</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">Philippine Islands</td>
+      <td class="tdr_ws1">49,000,000</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">British Australasia</td>
+      <td class="tdr_ws1">126,720,000</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">Cape Colony, Natal, Swaziland and Transvaal</td>
+      <td class="tdr_ws1">641,000</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">Madagascar</td>
+      <td class="tdr_ws1">25,000,000</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">Barbary States</td>
+      <td class="tdr_ws1">9,527,000</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">Central Africa</td>
+      <td class="tdr_ws1">224,000,000</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">South America (tropical)</td>
+      <td class="tdr_ws1">528,000,000</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">West Indies</td>
+      <td class="tdr_ws1">42,669,000</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">Canada</td>
+      <td class="tdr_ws1">799,360,000</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">Mexico</td>
+      <td class="tdr_ws1">25,000,000</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">Alaska</td>
+      <td class="tdr_ws1">107,000,000</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">United States of America</td>
+      <td class="tdr_ws1">545,000,000</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">Other Countries including the Straits</td>
+      <td class="tdr_ws1">&nbsp;</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">Settlement, Java, etc.</td>
+      <td class="tdr_ws1">6,870,000</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td>
+      <td class="tdr_ws1 over">3,050,298,000</td>
+   </tr>
+ </tbody>
+</table>
+
+<p>The approximate area of woodlands in Great Britain and Ireland are:—</p>
+
+<table class="spb1">
+   <tbody><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td>
+      <td class="tdc">Acres.</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">England</td>
+      <td class="tdr">1,715,473</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">Scotland<span class="ws2">&nbsp;</span></td>
+      <td class="tdr">868,409</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">Wales</td>
+      <td class="tdr">184,361</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">Ireland</td>
+      <td class="tdr bb">303,118</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td>
+      <td class="tdr">3,071,361</td>
+   </tr>
+ </tbody>
+</table>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_282"></a>[Pg 282]</span></p>
+<h2 class="nobreak">CHAPTER XXXIV<br>
+<span class="h_subtitle">AFFORESTING WASTE LANDS AND<br>
+THE FINANCIAL RETURNS THEREFROM</span></h2>
+</div>
+
+<p>Now that the Government is being urged seriously to consider the
+question of afforestation, it may be opportune on my part, as one
+of the earliest writers on the subject, to briefly recall what has
+already been done in this matter, and to offer some remarks on planting
+waste lands, with special reference to cost and the financial returns
+therefrom.</p>
+
+<p>For the past thirty years I have not failed to urge on the State and
+private owners of woodlands the pressing necessity for planting up
+some at least of the waste and unprofitable lands of our country, in
+order to provide a sufficiency of timber for the future and leave us
+less dependent on the supplies that are annually sent us from abroad.
+As stated elsewhere, when we consider that the total area of woodlands
+in this country is only a little over 3,029,000 acres, that fully
+15,000,000 acres of waste lands exist, and that we annually import
+over 10,000,000 tons of timber, at a cost of about £25,000,000, the
+necessity for an increased area of woodlands, so that a portion at
+least of this vast sum may be kept at home, will be apparent to all,
+and the more so as a dearth of timber is imminent, and outside supplies
+are being rigidly conserved, while our home demands are ever on the
+increase. England being, so to speak, a residential country, the
+retention of a certain amount of heath, mountain and common lands, for
+the purpose of deer forests, grouse moors, game coverts and golfing
+links is imperative, and will considerably reduce the acreage of land
+available for afforesting purposes. But I think that I am well within
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_283"></a>[Pg 283]</span>
+bounds in alloting out of the 15,000,000 acres of waste land 1,000,000
+to afforesting and 14,000,000 to game preserves, deer forests and rough
+pasture.</p>
+
+<p>Having personally explored much of the mountain and heath lands in
+England and Scotland, and some of the vast tracts of bog land in
+Ireland (the latter extending to fully one million acres), I have
+carefully computed that of land up to 1,200 feet altitude, where
+timber would grow perfectly well, about 9,000,000 acres are available
+for afforesting purposes. As far as I have been able to find out, the
+average rental of the ground referred to is a fraction under 3<i>s</i>.
+per acre, and I am quite confident that any land which does not bring in
+at least three times that amount for grazing or agricultural purposes
+would be more profitably employed in carrying a crop of timber.</p>
+
+<p>It is unfortunate that much of these waste lands are private property,
+the owners of which, even could they afford it, have little inclination
+to sink, for a period of say twenty years, the necessary capital
+required to be expended on the formation of woods and plantations.
+Equally unfortunate is it that owing to an injudicious system of
+management many plantations in this country have been wrongly
+formed—in so far as adaptation of soil and trees are concerned, the
+results being that financially speaking the woods are a failure, and
+proprietors in consequence fight shy of further planting operations. I
+have examined and reported on several of such woods in various parts
+of the country, one of the most noticeable being in Nottinghamshire,
+where a large area of ground was planted with a crop of oak, for which
+tree the soil was quite unsuitable, the result being that over the
+whole ground the average production of timber per tree was under 10
+cubic feet in sixty years. When pressing home the question of woodland
+extension I have frequently been confronted by the argument that past
+experience does not warrant further expenditure in that way. That this
+is true cannot be denied, but let us hope that it will be remedied in
+the near future by the better education of our foresters and by greater
+attention being given to the relation of trees and soil.
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_284"></a>[Pg 284]</span></p>
+
+<p>With the wholesale felling of timber for war purposes and the
+disinclination of owners of land to engage in extensive planting
+operations, the question naturally arises: What is the most feasible
+way of overcoming the difficulty?</p>
+
+<p>In answer, and without the slightest hesitation, I would say that
+the State should acquire and plant suitable waste lands at the rate
+of 40,000 acres annually for a period of twenty-five years. Such
+lands could, in England, Scotland and Wales, be gradually and cheaply
+acquired by the State, while in Ireland there are vast tracts of peat
+bog which their owners would willingly hand over to the Government
+at the present time at a small cost per acre. Taking the British
+Isles as a whole, the cost of procuring suitable lands would be at an
+annual rental of about 3<i>s.</i> per acre, or 40<i>s.</i> per acre
+for purchase. On the Gwydyr Estate, Carnarvonshire, 7,412 acres of
+land, described as rough grazing and sheep walk, were lately sold by
+public auction for £15,670, or at the rate of £2 2<i>s.</i> 3<i>d.</i>
+per acre. I have little faith either in the State advancing money to
+landed proprietors towards afforesting, or in municipalities coming
+to the front as planters of woodlands. The State would be the best
+custodian of forest property for the simple reason that the State
+only can readily acquire the needed land in sufficient quantity and
+on the best terms, and I am fully convinced that plantations formed
+under Government supervision will, in an economic sense at least,
+be far more successful than those planted either by private persons
+or public bodies. Again, the continuity of ownership under such a
+scheme, together with the ample resources guaranteed by State control,
+would both largely contribute towards a successful issue in such an
+undertaking.</p>
+
+<p>The difficulty of housing and providing for the workmen employed in
+afforesting out-of-the-way lands has been brought to my notice, but
+from personal experience of similar work in Scotland and Wales I
+anticipate little difficulty in that way. In these cases, where a good
+deal of the work was carried out by contract, the workmen gladly walked
+to and from the adjoining villages each day, often a distance of three
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_285"></a>[Pg 285]</span>
+or four miles, bringing their midday meal with them, which was heated
+or cooked on the ground. Then, as the plantations increase in age
+and size, and sawmills are required, the ever-increasing industry so
+created will cause hamlets to spring up in the wooded regions, just as
+we find is the case in mining and quarrying districts.</p>
+
+<p>After careful computation I have no hesitation in saying that the
+area of plantations in the United Kingdom could at once be doubled
+by the planting of waste lands which at present do not bring in over
+2<i>s.</i> per acre per year of rental, with infinite benefit to the
+country generally and a vast increase in the value of land both to the
+owner and farmer who cultivates it. In the matter of afforesting, a
+grain of practice is worth a ton of theory, and as I have personally
+supervised every operation, from marking out the plantation boundary
+on the exposed hillside, to draining, fencing, planting, thinning and
+disposing of the produce, my opinions on the question are at least
+worthy of consideration.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Approaching Scarcity of Timber.</b>—Than timber no article
+is probably more indispensable to the welfare of a nation, entering
+extensively as it does into almost every trade and industry. For
+England, therefore, with an ever-increasing import, the possibility
+of a dearth of timber must be regarded with the keenest anxiety, more
+particularly as this would entail prohibitive prices and seriously
+cripple the trade of the country. The following table, as reported to
+the Washington Bureau of Manufactures, will show at a glance the annual
+imports of timber of the principal countries of Europe:—</p>
+
+<table class="spb1">
+   <tbody><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">England</td>
+      <td class="tdr">16,342,600</td>
+      <td class="tdc_wsp">cub. yds.</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">Germany</td>
+      <td class="tdr">11,766,667</td>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">France</td>
+      <td class="tdr">8,496,300</td>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">Belgium</td>
+      <td class="tdr">1,897,777</td>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">Italy</td>
+      <td class="tdr">915,148</td>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">Denmark</td>
+      <td class="tdr">849,630</td>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">Spain</td>
+      <td class="tdr">392,222</td>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">Switzerland</td>
+      <td class="tdr">313,778</td>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+   </tr>
+ </tbody>
+</table>
+
+<p>In face of this it is only reasonable to suppose that the Government
+will act promptly in the matter, remembering that no scheme of
+afforesting, however extensive or well ordered, can bring the necessary
+relief for at least forty years after its inception. For all this, and
+in spite of numerous warnings as to the pressing necessity for tree
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_286"></a>[Pg 286]</span>
+planting and the ominous signs of a timber famine, little or nothing
+has been done, save the holding of meetings by the Board of Agriculture
+and the purchase of a few hundred acres of waste land in Scotland.</p>
+
+<p>To sum up briefly, the situation is this:—England’s imports before the
+war rapidly increased from a trifle under 3¼ million loads in 1864 to
+fully 10 million loads in 1906, thus showing an increment of fully 7
+million loads in forty-two years.</p>
+
+<p>Most European countries have large internal supplies of timber, so
+that, by a system of conserving and protective tariffs, the pinch of
+want would not be felt severely for years to come. But not so England,
+which is almost wholly dependent on supplies from abroad.</p>
+
+<p>According to the Secretary of the Agricultural Department of
+Washington, the area of forests in the United States is 700 million
+acres, but even now the States are more or less dependent on Canada,
+and actually receive the entire surplus from that country. But
+regarding the United States, ex-President Roosevelt said: “If the
+present rate of forest destruction is allowed to continue with nothing
+to offset it, a timber famine in the future is inevitable. Remember
+that you can prevent such a famine occurring by wise action taken in
+time; but once the famine occurs there is no possible way of hurrying
+the growth of trees necessary to relieve it.” Again, the late Mr. Lewis
+Miller, who had vast forests both in Sweden and Nova Scotia, told me
+that in twenty-five years neither the United States nor Canada will
+have much timber left, while Sweden and Finland are already played out.
+“I am also of opinion,” he said, “that during the next twenty-five
+years timber will be double its present price, and that it will not
+only pay to plant land valued at 3<i>s.</i> per acre, but that worth
+20<i>s.</i> per acre.” These are no idle words, but the records of
+those who know well what they are talking about; neither are the
+writers in any sense pessimists. With all these warnings from men whose
+business it is to study the question and who are fully qualified to
+advance an opinion, surely it is time that we took up seriously the
+question of afforestation.
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_287"></a>[Pg 287]</span></p>
+
+<p>It may be said by some that the timber of our foreign possessions
+will partly fill up the gap, but this is not the case. Indian timber,
+principally teak, is not in request to any appreciable extent, while
+the great African forests are hardwoods, and as a rule unsuited to our
+wants. The forests of South America are on a par with those of India
+and Africa, while China and Japan, as also Australia, require more
+timber than they possess.</p>
+
+<p><b>Cost of suitable Land for Afforesting.</b>—When in the past the
+question of afforesting has been brought forward, the usual outcry has
+been that suitable land is too expensive to buy. But this argument
+will no longer suffice, for, as I have before pointed out, excellent
+land for the cultivation of high-class timber can be procured in
+considerable quantity at about £2 per acre. Through the kindness of
+Lord Ancaster’s estate agent, I have been allowed to look over the sale
+contracts of several parts of the Gwydyr Estate, in Carnarvonshire,
+and from these I find that 7,412 acres were disposed of, at an average
+price of £2 2<i>s.</i> 3<i>d.</i> per acre. The ground was excellent
+for the production of timber, as the larch on other adjoining lands
+clearly evidenced. Again the Crown recently purchased 12,500 acres in
+Scotland at the modest rental of about £2 per acre. Other instances
+could be quoted, but the above suffice to show that land in every way
+suited for profitable tree planting can be bought at probably less than
+£2 per acre.</p>
+
+<p>It is perhaps unfortunate that many of these waste lands are private
+property, the owners of which, even if they could afford it, have
+little inclination to sink for a period of, say, twenty-five years
+the necessary capital required to be expended on the formation of
+plantations. But all this would be obviated by State ownership of the
+woodlands. Private individuals, or, indeed, public bodies, labour
+under many disadvantages in respect of afforestation, not the least,
+as before stated, being the quarter of a century required before the
+money expended in planting can be even partially recovered, while a
+systematic method of cultivation and large wooded areas are first
+necessities to successful timber culture. It is therefore preferable
+in every way that the Government should take up the question of tree
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_288"></a>[Pg 288]</span>
+planting on a large scale, the necessary land being available at a
+moderate cost per acre.</p>
+
+<p><b>Cost of Forming Plantations.</b>—This will vary greatly with the
+manner in which the work is carried out, the particular district of the
+country, nature of soil and rate of wages paid, as also whether fencing
+and draining have to be engaged in. The difference in cost between
+“notch” and “pit” planting is very considerable, and the fact that
+the former method is almost exclusively adopted on the rough grounds
+throughout Scotland accounts mainly for the smaller first outlay on
+Scottish plantations. Thus at Grantown, Strathspey, the Countess of
+Seafield’s estate, Mr. Thomson, the very capable wood manager, has
+planted during the past forty-seven years upwards of 20,000 acres
+of woodlands, at a cost, including fencing, of rather under £2 per
+acre. In England, however, where, for various reasons, pit planting
+is adopted, and larger plants are used, the cost varies from £5 to £6
+per acre. For all practical purposes, however, the cost of forming
+plantations may be put down at, say, £5 per acre, as an average taken
+from the following figures will show:—</p>
+
+<table class="spb1">
+   <tbody><tr>
+      <td class="tdc fs_120" colspan="8"><b><span class="smcap">England and Wales.</span></b></td>
+   </tr><tr class="fs_120">
+      <td class="tdl" colspan="5">&nbsp;</td>
+      <td class="tdc_wsp"><b>£</b></td>
+      <td class="tdc_wsp"><b><i>s.</i></b></td>
+      <td class="tdc_wsp"><b><i>d.</i></b></td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl" colspan="5">Yorkshire, at 600 ft. altitude, cost of planting</td>
+       <td class="tdc" colspan="3">&nbsp;</td>
+  </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl_ws1" colspan="3">and fencing</td>
+      <td class="tdl_wsp"></td>
+      <td class="tdc">per acre</td>
+      <td class="tdc">4</td>
+      <td class="tdc">18</td>
+      <td class="tdc">9</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">Kent,</td>
+      <td class="tdl_wsp">fencing</td>
+      <td class="tdl_wsp">and</td>
+      <td class="tdl_wsp">planting</td>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+      <td class="tdc">6</td>
+      <td class="tdc">&#8199;3</td>
+      <td class="tdc">0</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">Lincolnshire</td>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+      <td class="tdc">&nbsp;</td>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+      <td class="tdc">8</td>
+      <td class="tdc">&#8199;0</td>
+      <td class="tdc">0</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">Gloucestershire</td>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+      <td class="tdc">&nbsp;</td>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+      <td class="tdc">7</td>
+      <td class="tdc">10</td>
+      <td class="tdc">0</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">Carnarvonshire</td>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+      <td class="tdc">&nbsp;</td>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+      <td class="tdc">5</td>
+      <td class="tdc">&#8199;2</td>
+      <td class="tdc">0</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdc fs_120" colspan="8">&nbsp;<br><b><span class="smcap">Scotland.</span></b></td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl" colspan="5">Inverness-shire, Glengloy Estate, 800 ft. altitude,</td>
+       <td class="tdc" colspan="3">&nbsp;</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl_ws1" colspan="4">cost of fencing and planting</td>
+      <td class="tdc">per acre</td>
+      <td class="tdc">3</td>
+      <td class="tdc">10</td>
+      <td class="tdc">0</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl" colspan="5">Ross-shire, up to 1,200 ft. altitude,</td>
+       <td class="tdc" colspan="3">&nbsp;</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl_ws1" colspan="4">cost of fencing and planting</td>
+      <td class="tdc">per acre</td>
+      <td class="tdc">2</td>
+      <td class="tdc">10</td>
+      <td class="tdc">0</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl" colspan="4">Perthshire (planting only)</td>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+      <td class="tdc">2</td>
+      <td class="tdc">10</td>
+      <td class="tdc">0</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl" colspan="4">Blair Athol, 3,665 acres, fencing and planting</td>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+      <td class="tdc">2</td>
+      <td class="tdc">10</td>
+      <td class="tdc">0</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl" colspan="4">Grantown, Strathspey, fencing and planting</td>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+      <td class="tdc">2</td>
+      <td class="tdc">&#8199;0</td>
+      <td class="tdc">0
+              <span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_289"></a>[Pg 289]</span></td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdc fs_120" colspan="8">&nbsp;<br><b><span class="smcap">Ireland.</span></b></td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl" colspan="4">Wicklow, 700-900 ft. altitude, fencing and planting</td>
+      <td class="tdc_wsp">per acre</td>
+      <td class="tdc">4</td>
+      <td class="tdc">13</td>
+      <td class="tdc">11</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl" colspan="4">Armagh (bogland), fencing and planting</td>
+      <td class="tdc">”</td>
+      <td class="tdc">5</td>
+      <td class="tdc">&#8199;2</td>
+      <td class="tdc">&#8199;0</td>
+   </tr>
+ </tbody>
+</table>
+
+<p>Another instance in Scotland may be recorded, in which 550 acres
+were planted at a cost of £1,178, or at the rate of £2 2<i>s.</i>
+10<i>d.</i> per acre. This included for fencing, £164 18<i>s.</i>
+4<i>d.</i>; drainage, £123 15<i>s.</i>; plants, £520 10<i>s.</i>;
+planting, £368 16<i>s.</i> 8<i>d.</i></p>
+
+<p>In connexion with these figures, it may be reassuring to state that
+in each case a strict account of the expenditure involved had been
+carefully noted, and the returns given are practically correct. The
+average cost, therefore, taking Great Britain as a whole, would be
+about £5 per acre for fencing and planting the ground. The above-named
+plantations, too, were formed on the very class of ground of which we
+have so much lying idle or bringing in only a few shillings rental
+per acre, in various parts of the country. The Ross-shire plantation
+referred to was a bleak and barren moorland which the crofters, who
+used it as a common for their cattle and sheep, refused to rent at
+1<i>s.</i> per acre per annum, while at Strathspey the 20,000 acres
+of land were let out previous to planting at 8<i>d.</i> per acre per
+annum. Vast tracts of the bare hillsides of Wales are only bringing
+in a few shillings of rental per acre. It should be remembered
+that all the above-named plantations were formed on bleak, exposed
+moorlands—the very class of waste lands that I have so strongly
+advocated as being suitable for the woodlands of the future, and of
+which at the present time there are about 15,000,000 acres lying idle
+in various parts of the kingdom. Therefore the cost of planting may
+be considered as or about £5 per acre. This, with £2 5<i>s.</i> for
+cost of purchase and 5<i>s.</i> for incidental expenses, would bring
+the initial total expenditure to £7 10<i>s.</i> per acre. Elsewhere I
+have suggested that 1,000,000 acres should be planted over a period of
+twenty-five years, at the rate of 40,000 acres per year, which would
+entail an outlay of £300,000 annually—a small sum when compared with
+the £25,000,000 expended each year by this country on supplies brought
+from abroad.
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_290"></a>[Pg 290]</span></p>
+
+<p>But there is another point that I should like to touch upon whilst
+dealing with the formation of plantations, and that is that the work
+should only be entrusted to the efficient and practical wood manager,
+who is fully conversant with the whole routine of woodland work. It
+is frequently urged that forestry does not pay, but where this holds
+good, the cause is always traceable to injudicious planting and wrong
+methods of management. No more can we expect the gardener, gamekeeper,
+estate joiner, or even the land agent to undertake economical timber
+culture than we could expect the forester to carry out successfully
+the duties of any of these individuals. Wrongly formed plantations
+are, unfortunately, far too common, in so far, at least, as adaptation
+of soil and trees are concerned, the result being that, financially
+speaking, the woods are a failure, and proprietors, in consequence,
+fight shy of further planting operations. When pressing home the
+question of the extension of plantations, I have more than once been
+confronted by the statement that past experience does not warrant
+further expenditure in that way. That this is true cannot be denied, in
+many instances at least, but, then, as above stated, faulty methods of
+management are alone responsible for the failure.</p>
+
+<p><b>Financial Returns from Tree Planting.</b>—Though it must be
+admitted that, in the majority of cases at least, the financial returns
+cannot be accepted as strictly correct (in most cases they are too
+low), owing to the woods being treated for other than commercial
+purposes, yet in not a few instances, where neither game-rearing nor
+ornamental effect have to be considered, the yield of timber and gross
+returns for a stated number of years are perfectly reliable. Of course,
+where game coverts and underwood, or where the perfect development
+of the trees, as in ornamental plantations, are matters of first
+importance, and require that the individual specimens be scattered
+thinly over the ground, the greatest yield of the best quality of
+timber cannot be expected; but where, as on various Scottish and
+English estates, the trees are grown thickly together and solely for
+their economic value, the case is quite different, as the returns given
+below will attest.
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_291"></a>[Pg 291]</span></p>
+
+<p>One hundred acres of common land were planted from 1852 to 1862.
+Larch was the principal crop, with a few beech, Scotch pine, spruce
+and silver fir. The plantation was thinned at intervals from 1871 to
+1884, the thinnings being sold for close on £500, but many trees were
+used for fencing and estate purposes generally. The whole plantation
+was felled in 1907, and realized fully £4,500, or at the rate of £45
+per acre. The larch on the lower portion averaged 23¼ ft. per tree,
+but on the exposed ground the trees were only about one-third of that
+dimension. This plantation has a northern aspect, and is situated at
+from 800 ft. to 1,300 ft. above sea-level. After allowing for the cost
+of planting and interest on the money expended, the annual return per
+acre comes to about 20<i>s.</i> The adjoining heath-covered lands let
+for about 2<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i> per acre. Again, on the Countess of
+Seafield’s estates, Scotland, on grazing land which formerly brought in
+8<i>d.</i> per acre, Mr. Thomson, the woods manager, tells me that, at
+the age of forty-seven years, Scotch fir realized £40 per acre; while
+in another wood the individual trees brought 24<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i>
+each.</p>
+
+<p>A larch plantation of 208 acres, on a steep hillside, was felled at the
+age of fifty years. The actual returns during that period were: from
+thinnings, £4,500; from final felling, £14,500; or fully £90 per acre.
+The original cost of planting was under £5 per acre, and the value
+of the land at thirty years’ purchase £7 10<i>s.</i> per acre, thus
+leaving a balance of fully £78 per acre at the age of fifty years.</p>
+
+<p>The extensive hillside plantations formed by the late Lord Powerscourt
+in Ireland, those at Glendalough in the same country, formed by the
+Duke of Atholl between Dunkeld and Blair Atholl, those at Glengoy, in
+Aberdeenshire, at Strathkyle in Ross-shire, and at Gwydyr and Penrhyn
+Castle in the Principality of Wales—all of which were formed over
+thirty-five years ago, account of the cost of formation and management
+being strictly kept—these surely afford sufficient evidence not only
+of the profitable returns to be obtained from woodlands, but of the
+feasibility of afforesting mountain lands with vast benefit in the way
+of shelter to the dreary, treeless, and bleak, exposed uplands where the
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_292"></a>[Pg 292]</span>
+planting has been carried out. As far as actual profits are concerned,
+it will be prudent to assume that for the first twenty years no
+return whatever will be derived from hillside plantations, the sales
+of thinnings up to that time barely covering the expense of cutting
+and interest on first cost. From twenty-five to forty years an annual
+return of fully 12<i>s.</i> per acre has in many instances been
+forthcoming, while the value of the standing crop at the latter age
+has been found to vary from £50 to £70 per acre. I do not think that
+these figures would be, generally speaking, too high, as at Balfour,
+in Scotland, the larch at forty-three years’ growth on a hillside were
+valued at 20<i>s.</i> each, while a valuation of 21<i>s.</i> per tree
+was made of larch on the slopes of the Snowdon range of hills, in
+Wales, at the age of forty years. But many similar instances could be
+recorded, and are constantly coming before those who have to do with
+the valuing and felling of timber.</p>
+
+<p>The late Mr. Lewis Miller, who had probably a larger experience of home
+woods than any other person, has given me some valuable and interesting
+information regarding what he has paid per acre for larch in various
+parts of Scotland. In twenty years, between 1870 and 1890, Mr. Miller
+has cut down growing timber to the value of over £250,000. A great many
+of the plantations were fifty years old, and yielded over £50 per acre
+when finally cut down, apart from the value of the thinnings taken out
+of them previously to the time they were cut down. To one proprietor
+in Aberdeenshire he paid £60,000 for plantations about fifty years of
+age, and the price worked out on an average at fully £50 per acre.
+One particular plantation of larch in Aberdeenshire, about seventy
+years old, yielded £150 per acre; another plantation, all larch, about
+forty-four years of age gave over £100 per acre, and these plantations
+were for the most part growing on what was formerly pasture or waste
+land, and cost for planting and fencing from £2 to £2 10<i>s.</i> per
+acre. It will be needless to multiply cases in which poor lands worth
+only from 1<i>s.</i> to 3<i>s.</i> per acre have been made to realize
+by judicious tree planting as much as 20<i>s.</i> per acre for fifty or
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_293"></a>[Pg 293]</span>
+sixty years with a final crop worth from £50 to £75 per acre. All the
+plantations above referred to are excellent object-lessons of the
+possibilities of the British Isles for the production of high-class
+timber if woods are properly planted and managed.</p>
+
+<p><b>Advantages of Tree Planting.</b>—Not only from a strictly financial
+point of view but also from a hygienic sense standpoint, plantations
+are of the utmost importance.</p>
+
+<p>For shelter for farm stock, for improving the agricultural value of
+the lower lying lands, and for the part they play in clothing and
+ornamenting our bare commons and hillsides, their value can hardly
+be over-estimated. Twenty-five years ago I formed a plantation on
+a spur of the Snowdon range of hills, in Wales, where the fierce,
+long-continued and hard-hitting blasts were of almost constant
+occurrence, and the amount of shelter and warmth it now affords to the
+farm stock and lower lying lands would hardly be credited. Previous to
+the formation of this particular plantation, at altitudes varying up to
+600 ft., the adjoining lands were quite incapable of cultivation, but
+now crops are gradually creeping up the hillsides, while the farm stock
+find the much-needed shelter and warmth that they were formerly denied.
+So great has been the benefit of this wood both to man and beast that
+the farmer on whose land it was planted speaks of it as “a Godsend.”
+Other similar cases in Wales might be mentioned, as for instance the
+plantations on the Gwydyr and Penrhyn Estates, and also those near
+Abergele, where the judicious planting up of rocky and almost worthless
+land has converted dreary and inhospitable districts into the most
+fashionable and expensive residential property. In many parts of
+Scotland, particularly Perth, Inverness and Aberdeenshire, equally good
+results have been obtained by judicious tree planting.</p>
+
+<p>Another notable advantage gained by the planting of trees lies in the
+provision of profitable work for the unemployed. As a special chapter
+is devoted to this important subject, it need only be mentioned here.
+It should not be overlooked that excellent results have followed in the
+wake of planting bog lands in Ireland. In 1862 my father formed several
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_294"></a>[Pg 294]</span>
+plantations there, a full account of which will be found in the
+<i>Transactions of the Highland and Agricultural Society of
+Scotland</i> for 1873. I examined these woods and was agreeably
+surprised at the height which the trees had attained, the cubic
+contents of the timber, and the price realized. Incidentally, it
+might be noticed that the ground previously to planting was a dreary,
+heath-clad waste, only suitable for snipe-shooting and the production
+of turf for fuel. Many other instances of the numerous advantages to
+be derived from a well-organized system of tree planting could be
+cited, not the least important being the greater facilities that would
+be afforded for disposing of the timber. In many outlying districts
+all over the country far removed from road and rail, it is difficult
+to get rid of the small amount of timber that is periodically cut
+down, but were larger quantities handled and a continuity of supply
+forthcoming, I feel certain that timber merchants would be prompted to
+make special transit arrangements. More than once I have been asked by
+Irish landowners to recommend buyers of good larch and oak timber, but,
+after negotiation, I have invariably been told by the merchant that the
+quantity offered was far too small to allow of special facilities for
+delivery being provided, since the timber was far away from road and
+rail. They stated, however, that if a specified number of cubic feet
+of good timber could be guaranteed annually for a number of years they
+were quite prepared to buy. The same obstacles to the sale of timber
+have been experienced in Scotland and remote parts of Wales. In these
+cases a continuity of supply, such as would be forthcoming if my scheme
+of afforesting was carried out, would ensure speedy sales at moderate
+prices in places where at present it is difficult, if not impossible,
+to dispose of small quantities except at ruinously low prices.</p>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_295"></a>[Pg 295]</span></p>
+<h2 class="nobreak">INDEX</h2>
+</div>
+
+<ul class="index">
+<li class="isub10 ifrst">A<span class="ws7 fs_80">PAGE</span></li>
+<li class="isub2">Abele Poplar for Town Planting, <a href="#Page_101">101</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">Acacia, False, for Town Planting, <a href="#Page_102">102</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">Advantages of Tree Planting, <a href="#Page_293">293</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">Afforesting Waste Lands, <a href="#Page_282">282</a></li>
+<li class="isub2"><i>Agaricus melleus</i>, <a href="#Page_218">218</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">Ailanthus for Town Planting, <a href="#Page_101">101</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">Alder as Timber, <a href="#Page_240">240</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">—— Common, for Seaside Planting, <a href="#Page_78">78</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">—— for Economic Planting, <a href="#Page_52">52</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">—— —— Exposed Positions, <a href="#Page_52">52</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">—— —— Ornamental Planting, <a href="#Page_117">117</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">—— —— Seaside     ”        <a href="#Page_78">78</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">—— Hoary, for Seaside Planting, <a href="#Page_78">78</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">Almond for Town Planting, <a href="#Page_107">107</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">American Winged Elm for Exposed Planting, <a href="#Page_70">70</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">Andromeda for the Shade, <a href="#Page_192">192</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">Apple as Timber, <a href="#Page_240">240</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">Appliances used in Forestry, <a href="#Page_153">153</a></li>
+<li class="isub2"><i>Araucaria Imbricata</i> Seed, <a href="#Page_14">14</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">Area of Woodlands, <a href="#Page_280">280</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">Arrangement of Plantations, <a href="#Page_33">33</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">Ash as Timber, <a href="#Page_240">240</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">—— for Economic Planting, <a href="#Page_48">48</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">—— —— Exposed      ”  <a href="#Page_71">71</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">—— —— Ornamental   ”  <a href="#Page_132">132</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">—— —— Seaside      ”  <a href="#Page_79">79</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">—— —— Town         ”  <a href="#Page_104">104</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">—— Seed, <a href="#Page_11">11</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">Aspect of Home Nursery, <a href="#Page_26">26</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">Aspen for Seaside Planting, <a href="#Page_78">78</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">Atlantic Cedar for Seaside Planting, <a href="#Page_82">82</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">—— —— for Economic Planting, <a href="#Page_65">65</a></li>
+<li class="isub2"><i>Aucuba Japonica</i> for Town Planting, <a href="#Page_105">105</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">—— —— —— Game Coverts, <a href="#Page_179">179</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">—— —— —— Hedges, <a href="#Page_189">189</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">Austrian Pine for Economic Planting, <a href="#Page_65">65</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">—— —— —— Exposed Planting, <a href="#Page_69">69</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">—— —— —— Ornamental Planting, <a href="#Page_118">118</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">—— —— —— Town Planting, <a href="#Page_108">108</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">—— —— Seed, <a href="#Page_11">11</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">Autumn-tinted Foliage Trees for Ornamental Planting, <a href="#Page_123">123</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">Autumn Work in Home Nursery, <a href="#Page_30">30</a></li>
+
+<li class="isub10 ifrst">B</li>
+<li class="isub2">Bark, <a href="#Page_255">255</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">—— Stripping——Tools used, <a href="#Page_222">222</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">Barking Oak, <a href="#Page_220">220-222</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">Barron’s Transplanting Machine, <a href="#Page_140">140</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">Beam Tree for Seaside Planting, <a href="#Page_77">77</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">—— —— in London, <a href="#Page_103">103</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">Bedford Willow for Seaside Planting, <a href="#Page_85">85</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">Beech Coccus, <a href="#Page_205">205</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">Beech as Timber, <a href="#Page_246">246</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">—— for Economic Planting, <a href="#Page_49">49</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">—— —— Exposed      ”      <a href="#Page_71">71</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">—— —— Hedge        ”     <a href="#Page_187">187</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">—— —— Ornamental   ”     <a href="#Page_188">188</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">—— —— Seaside      ”      <a href="#Page_80">80</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">—— Seed, <a href="#Page_11">11</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">Beetle Pine, <a href="#Page_193">193</a></li>
+<li class="isub2"><i>Berberis Darwinii</i> for Game Coverts, <a href="#Page_180">180</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">—— —— —— Hedge Planting, <a href="#Page_189">189</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">—— —— —— Seaside, <a href="#Page_84">84</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">Bhotan Pine for Ornamental Planting, <a href="#Page_117">117</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">Birch as Timber, <a href="#Page_240">240</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">—— for Economic Planting, <a href="#Page_53">53</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">—— —— Exposed      ”      <a href="#Page_71">71</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">—— —— Ornamental   ”     <a href="#Page_122">122</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">—— —— Seaside      ”      <a href="#Page_79">79</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">—— —— Town         ”     <a href="#Page_104">104</a>
+         <span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_296"></a>[Pg 296]</span></li>
+<li class="isub2">—— Seed, <a href="#Page_11">11</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">Bird Cherry for Exposed Planting, <a href="#Page_71">71</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">—— —— —— Town Planting, <a href="#Page_104">104</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">Black Italian Poplar for Town Planting, <a href="#Page_101">101</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">Blackberry for the Shade, <a href="#Page_192">192</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">Bladder Senna for Town Planting, <a href="#Page_106">106</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">—— Rust or Cluster-Cup, <a href="#Page_219">219</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">Blasting Tree Roots, <a href="#Page_273">273</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">Bog Soils, Trees for, <a href="#Page_136">136</a></li>
+<li class="isub2"><i>Bostrichus Laricis</i>, <a href="#Page_194">194</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">—— <i>Typographus</i>, <a href="#Page_194">194</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">Box for Hedge Planting, <a href="#Page_188">188</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">—— —— Game Covert, <a href="#Page_177">177</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">—— Thorn for Seaside Planting, <a href="#Page_83">83</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">Bracing a Tree, <a href="#Page_159">159</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">Briar for Hedge Planting, <a href="#Page_188">188</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">British Oak for Hedge Planting, <a href="#Page_111">111</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">—— Timber and its Uses, <a href="#Page_240">240</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">Broom for Seaside Planting, <a href="#Page_84">84</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">Buckthorn, Sea, for Seaside Planting, <a href="#Page_82">82</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">Burning Tree Stumps, <a href="#Page_274">274</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">Butcher’s Broom for Game Coverts, <a href="#Page_182">182</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">—— —— —— Carpeting in Shade, <a href="#Page_192">192</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">By-products of the Forest, <a href="#Page_250">250</a></li>
+
+<li class="isub10 ifrst">C</li>
+<li class="isub2">Canadian Poplar for Town Planting, <a href="#Page_101">101</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">Cedar for Seaside Planting, <a href="#Page_82">82</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">Cephalonian Fir for Ornamental Planting, <a href="#Page_118">118</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">Chalky Soil for Tree Planting, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">Charcoal, <a href="#Page_253">253</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">—— Making, <a href="#Page_226">226</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">—— Comparative Value of Wood, <a href="#Page_231">231</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">—— Pit, <a href="#Page_231">231</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">—— Kiln Burning, <a href="#Page_231">231</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">—— Uses of, <a href="#Page_232">232</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">Cherry as Timber, <a href="#Page_240">240</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">—— for Exposed Planting, <a href="#Page_71">71</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">—— —— Ornamental Planting, <a href="#Page_118">118</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">Chestnut as Timber, <a href="#Page_240">240</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">—— for Town Planting, <a href="#Page_104">104</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">—— —— Economic Planting, <a href="#Page_51">51</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">Clay Soil for Tree Plantations, <a href="#Page_138">138</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">Cleaning and Pruning Hedges, <a href="#Page_189">189</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">Climbers for Town Planting, <a href="#Page_107">107</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">Cluster Pine for Planting, <a href="#Page_81">81</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">—— —— —— Ornamental Planting, <a href="#Page_118">118</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">—— —— —— Seaside Planting, <a href="#Page_81">81</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">Cockchafer, <a href="#Page_202">202</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">Colchic Laurel for Hedge Planting, <a href="#Page_189">189</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">Collecting Tree Seeds, <a href="#Page_8">8</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">Common Alder for Seaside Planting, <a href="#Page_78">78</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">—— Gorse for Seaside Planting, <a href="#Page_84">84</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">Common Holly for Seaside Planting, <a href="#Page_84">84</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">—— Ivy for Carpeting in Shade, <a href="#Page_191">191</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">—— —— —— Town Planting, <a href="#Page_107">107</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">—— Laburnum for Seaside Planting, <a href="#Page_84">84</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">—— Laurel for Hedge Planting, <a href="#Page_189">189</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">—— London Plane for Town Planting, <a href="#Page_98">98</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">—— Mulberry for Town Planting, <a href="#Page_102">102</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">Comparative Value of Woods for Charcoal Making, <a href="#Page_231">231</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">Conifers suitable for Chalky Soil, <a href="#Page_131">131</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">—— —— —— Reclaimed Peat Bog, <a href="#Page_129">129</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">—— for Economic Planting, <a href="#Page_57">57</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">—— —— Town Planting, <a href="#Page_108">108</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">—— Seeds, <a href="#Page_9">9</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">—— Seaside, <a href="#Page_80">80</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">Contract Work, Prices of, <a href="#Page_277">277</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">Contents, xi</li>
+<li class="isub2">Coppice Wood Management, <a href="#Page_170">170</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">—— Cost of, <a href="#Page_173">173</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">Cornelian Cherry for Ornamental Planting, <a href="#Page_118">118</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">—— —— —— Hedgerow Planting, <a href="#Page_111">111</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">Corsican Pine for Economic Planting, <a href="#Page_59">59</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">—— —— —— Exposed Planting, <a href="#Page_70">70</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">—— —— —— Ornamental Planting, <a href="#Page_118">118</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">—— —— —— Seaside Planting, <a href="#Page_81">81</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">—— —— Seeds, <a href="#Page_11">11</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">Cost of Forming Plantations, <a href="#Page_287">287-288</a></li>
+<li class="isub2"><i>Cratægus Pyracantha</i> for Town Planting, <a href="#Page_108">108</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">Cricket Bat Willow, <a href="#Page_54">54</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">Cryptomeria for Ornamental Planting, <a href="#Page_118">118</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">Cucumber Tree for Town Planting, <a href="#Page_101">101</a></li>
+<li class="isub2"><i>Cupressus Lawsoniana</i>, Seed of, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>
+               <span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_297"></a>[Pg 297]</span></li>
+<li class="isub2">—— —— for Town Planting, <a href="#Page_109">109</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">Currant, Flowering, for Town Planting, <a href="#Page_106">106</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">Cut-leaved Trees, <a href="#Page_121">121</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">Cutting Osiers, <a href="#Page_247">247</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">Cypress for Ornamental Planting, <a href="#Page_118">118</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">—— —— Seaside Planting, <a href="#Page_82">82</a></li>
+
+<li class="isub10 ifrst">D</li>
+<li class="isub2"><i>Daphne Laureola</i> for Seaside Planting, <a href="#Page_84">84</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">—— <i>Mezereon</i> for Seaside Planting, <a href="#Page_84">84</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">Darwin’s Barberry for Seaside Planting, <a href="#Page_84">84</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">Deciduous Cypress for Ornamental Planting, <a href="#Page_117">117</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">Dedication, v</li>
+<li class="isub2">Dogwood for Seaside Planting, <a href="#Page_83">83</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">—— —— Charcoal, <a href="#Page_232">232</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">Double Furze for Town Planting, <a href="#Page_106">106</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">Douglas Fir for Economic Planting, <a href="#Page_63">63</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">—— —— Seed, <a href="#Page_12">12</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">Draining——Tools used, <a href="#Page_37">37</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">—— and Clearing Ground for Plantations, <a href="#Page_36">36</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">Dried Leaves as Litter, <a href="#Page_251">251</a></li>
+
+<li class="isub10 ifrst">E</li>
+<li class="isub2">Economic Planting, <a href="#Page_47">47</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">—— —— Trees for, <a href="#Page_48">48</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">Elder for Exposed Planting, <a href="#Page_70">70</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">—— —— Seaside Planting, <a href="#Page_76">76</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">Elegant Cryptomeria for Ornamental Planting, <a href="#Page_118">118</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">Elm, as Timber, <a href="#Page_240">240</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">—— English for Hedge Planting, <a href="#Page_111">111</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">—— for Economic Planting, <a href="#Page_51">51</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">—— —— Exposed Planting, <a href="#Page_70">70</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">—— —— Seaside Planting, <a href="#Page_79">79</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">—— —— Town Planting, <a href="#Page_104">104</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">—— Scotch, for Seaside Planting, <a href="#Page_85">85</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">—— Seed, <a href="#Page_12">12</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">—— Tree Destroyer, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>, <a href="#Page_200">200</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">English Elm for Hedge Planting, <a href="#Page_111">111</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">—— Maple for Seaside Planting, <a href="#Page_79">79</a></li>
+<li class="isub2"><i>Euonymus Japonicus</i> for Seaside Planting, <a href="#Page_84">84</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">—— <i>Radicans Variegata</i> for Carpeting in Shade, <a href="#Page_192">192</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">Evergreen Honeysuckle for Town Planting, <a href="#Page_107">107</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">—— Oak for Seaside Planting, <a href="#Page_79">79</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">Exposed Ground, Planting, <a href="#Page_72">72</a></li>
+
+<li class="isub10 ifrst">F</li>
+<li class="isub2">Faggots, <a href="#Page_255">255</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">False Acacia for Town Planting, <a href="#Page_102">102</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">Felling——Tools used, <a href="#Page_43">43</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">Felted Beech Coccus, <a href="#Page_205">205</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">Fencing, <a href="#Page_97">97</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">—— Plantations, <a href="#Page_257">257</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">—— Tools used, <a href="#Page_264">264</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">Fern-leaved Beech for Ornamental Planting, <a href="#Page_118">118</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">Financial Returns of Planting, <a href="#Page_290">290</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">Firewood, <a href="#Page_252">252</a></li>
+<li class="isub2"><i>Fitzroya Patagonica</i> for Ornamental Planting, <a href="#Page_118">118</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">Flowering Currant for Town Planting, <a href="#Page_106">106</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">—— Trees for Ornamental Planting, <a href="#Page_116">116</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">Forest Area of the World, <a href="#Page_280">280</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">Forest By-Products, <a href="#Page_250">250</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">—— Produce, Utilizing, <a href="#Page_250">250</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">Forestry and the War, <a href="#Page_1">1</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">Formation of Game Coverts, <a href="#Page_174">174</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">—— —— Plantations, <a href="#Page_32">32</a></li>
+<li class="isub2"><i>Forsythia Viridissima</i> for Town Planting, <a href="#Page_106">106</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">Fountain Willow, <a href="#Page_121">121</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">Fruit Trees for Ornamental Planting, <a href="#Page_116">116</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">Fungi on Trees, <a href="#Page_212">212</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">Furze for Hedge Planting, <a href="#Page_188">188</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">—— —— Town Planting, <a href="#Page_106">106</a></li>
+
+<li class="isub10 ifrst">G</li>
+<li class="isub2">Game Coverts, Formation and Management, <a href="#Page_184">184</a></li>
+<li class="isub2"><i>Gaultheria Procumbens</i> for Carpeting in Shade, <a href="#Page_192">192</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">—— <i>Shallon</i> for Carpeting in Shade, <a href="#Page_192">192</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">—— —— —— Game Coverts, <a href="#Page_181">181</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">Giant Arborvitæ for Economic Planting, <a href="#Page_64">64</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">—— —— —— Seaside Planting, <a href="#Page_81">81</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">Goat Moth, <a href="#Page_200">200</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">—— Willow for Seaside Planting, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>
+         <span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_298"></a>[Pg 298]</span></li>
+<li class="isub2">Golden Willow for Ornamental Planting, <a href="#Page_117">117</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">Gorse for Hedge Planting, <a href="#Page_188">188</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">—— —— Seaside Planting, <a href="#Page_84">84</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">Grasses for the Sea-Coast, <a href="#Page_86">86</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">—— —— Woodland Drives, <a href="#Page_34">34</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">Gravelly Soil for Tree Plantation, 131-<a href="#Page_137">137</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">Green Tree Box for Game Coverts, <a href="#Page_177">177</a></li>
+<li class="isub2"><i>Griselinia Littoralis</i> for Seaside Planting, <a href="#Page_83">83</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">—— —— —— Town Planting, <a href="#Page_105">105</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">Groundsel Tree for Seaside Planting, <a href="#Page_84">84</a></li>
+
+<li class="isub10 ifrst">H</li>
+<li class="isub2">Hard-wooded Trees for Economic Planting, <a href="#Page_47">47</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">Hardwoods for Chalky Soil, <a href="#Page_130">130</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">—— —— Clay Soils, <a href="#Page_132">132</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">—— —— Gravelly Soil, <a href="#Page_131">131</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">—— —— Ironstone Soils, <a href="#Page_133">133</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">—— —— Reclaimed Peat Bog, <a href="#Page_129">129</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">Hawthorn Seed, <a href="#Page_12">12</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">Hazel Nuts, <a href="#Page_12">12</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">Heather for the Shade, <a href="#Page_192">192</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">Heaven, Tree of, for Town Planting, <a href="#Page_101">101</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">Hedges as Fences, <a href="#Page_185">185</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">—— Formation of, <a href="#Page_184">184</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">—— Management, <a href="#Page_184">184</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">—— Ornamental, <a href="#Page_188">188</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">—— Planting, <a href="#Page_186">186</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">—— Pruning, <a href="#Page_189">189</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">Hedgerow and Field Planting, <a href="#Page_110">110</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">Hedging Tools used, <a href="#Page_185">185</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">Height of Trees, Measuring, <a href="#Page_271">271</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">Hoary Alder for Seaside Planting, <a href="#Page_78">78</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">Holly as Timber, <a href="#Page_240">240</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">—— Berries, <a href="#Page_12">12</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">—— Fly, <a href="#Page_204">204</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">—— for Game Coverts, <a href="#Page_181">181</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">—— —— Hedge Planting, <a href="#Page_188">188</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">—— —— Seaside Planting, <a href="#Page_84">84</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">Home Nursery, <a href="#Page_24">24</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">—— —— Spring Work, <a href="#Page_28">28</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">—— —— Summer Work, <a href="#Page_30">30</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">—— —— Autumn Work, <a href="#Page_30">30</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">—— —— Winter Work, <a href="#Page_30">30</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">Honeysuckle for Town Planting, <a href="#Page_107">107</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">Hornbeam as Timber, <a href="#Page_241">241</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">—— for Exposed Planting, <a href="#Page_70">70</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">—— —— Hedge Planting, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, <a href="#Page_167">167</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">—— —— Seaside Planting, <a href="#Page_80">80</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">—— —— Town Planting, <a href="#Page_104">104</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">Horse Chestnut as Timber, <a href="#Page_241">241</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">—— —— for Town Planting, <a href="#Page_104">104</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">—— —— Seeds, <a href="#Page_12">12</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">Hot and Dry Soils, Shrubs for, <a href="#Page_134">134</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">How to Prune, <a href="#Page_157">157</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">Huntingdon Willow for Seaside Planting, <a href="#Page_77">77</a></li>
+<li class="isub2"><i>Hypericum Calycinum</i> for Seaside Planting, <a href="#Page_84">84</a></li>
+
+<li class="isub10 ifrst">I</li>
+<li class="isub2">Imperial Alder for Ornamental Planting, <a href="#Page_117">117</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">Index, <a href="#Page_295">295</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">Indian Bean for Town Planting, <a href="#Page_102">102</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">Insects and Diseases Injurious to Forest Trees, <a href="#Page_193">193</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">Introduction, ix</li>
+<li class="isub2">Ironstone Soil for Plantations, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">Italian Poplar for Town Planting, <a href="#Page_101">101</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">Ivy for Carpeting in Shade, <a href="#Page_191">191</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">—— —— Town Planting, <a href="#Page_107">107</a></li>
+
+<li class="isub10 ifrst">J</li>
+<li class="isub2">Japanese Cryptomeria for Ornamental Planting, <a href="#Page_118">118</a></li>
+<li class="isub2"><i>Jasminum Nudiflorum</i> for Town Planting, <a href="#Page_108">108</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">Juneberry for Ornamental Planting, <a href="#Page_118">118</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">Juniper, Savin for towns, <a href="#Page_109">109</a></li>
+
+<li class="isub10 ifrst">K</li>
+<li class="isub2">Kentucky Coffee-Tree for Town Planting, <a href="#Page_106">106</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">Kilmarnock Willow, <a href="#Page_121">121</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">Kiln Burning Charcoal, <a href="#Page_231">231</a></li>
+
+<li class="isub10 ifrst">L</li>
+<li class="isub2">Laburnum, Common, for Seaside Planting, <a href="#Page_84">84</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">—— Moth, <a href="#Page_202">202</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">—— Scotch, for Seaside Planting, <a href="#Page_84">84</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">Lackey Moth, <a href="#Page_200">200</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">Land Sale on the Gwydyr Estate, <a href="#Page_287">287</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">Larch Aphis, <a href="#Page_197">197</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">—— Canker, <a href="#Page_213">213</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">—— Cones, <a href="#Page_12">12</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">—— Disease, Cause and Remedy, <a href="#Page_213">213</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">—— for Economic Planting, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>
+            <span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_299"></a>[Pg 299]</span></li>
+<li class="isub2">—— —— Exposed Planting, <a href="#Page_71">71</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">—— —— Hedge Planting, <a href="#Page_114">114</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">—— Miner, <a href="#Page_195">195</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">—— Sawfly, <a href="#Page_198">198</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">—— Timber, <a href="#Page_241">241</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">Large-Fruited Cypress for Seaside Planting, <a href="#Page_82">82</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">Laurel Spurge for Carpeting in Shade, <a href="#Page_192">192</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">Laurustinus for Game Coverts, <a href="#Page_179">179</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">—— —— Hedge Planting, <a href="#Page_188">188</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">—— —— Seaside Planting, <a href="#Page_83">83</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">—— —— Town Planting, <a href="#Page_107">107</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">Leaf-Shedding Fungus, <a href="#Page_218">218</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">Levelling, <a href="#Page_38">38</a></li>
+<li class="isub2"><i>Leycesteria Formosa</i> for Town Planting, <a href="#Page_106">106</a></li>
+<li class="isub2"><i>Ligustrum Coriaceum</i> for Town Planting, <a href="#Page_105">105</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">—— <i>Ovalifolium</i> for Seaside Planting, <a href="#Page_84">84</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">Lilacs for Seaside Planting, <a href="#Page_84">84</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">—— —— Town Planting, <a href="#Page_84">84</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">Lime as Timber, <a href="#Page_241">241</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">—— for Hedge Planting, <a href="#Page_113">113</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">—— —— Town Planting, <a href="#Page_103">103</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">Litter of Dried Leaves, <a href="#Page_251">251</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">Lombardy Poplar for Hedge Planting, <a href="#Page_112">112</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">—— —— —— Town Planting, <a href="#Page_101">101</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">London Plane for Town Planting, <a href="#Page_98">98</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">Lymegrass for Seaside Planting, <a href="#Page_84">84</a></li>
+
+<li class="isub10 ifrst">M</li>
+<li class="isub2">Magnolias for Ornamental Planting, <a href="#Page_118">118</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">—— for Town Planting, <a href="#Page_101">101</a></li>
+<li class="isub2"><i>Mahonia Aquifolia</i> for Game Coverts, <a href="#Page_180">180</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">Maidenhair Tree for Town Planting, <a href="#Page_100">100</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">Manna Ash for Ornamental Planting, <a href="#Page_118">118</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">Manufacture of Charcoal, <a href="#Page_226">226</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">Manure for Home Nursery, <a href="#Page_26">26</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">Maple as Timber, <a href="#Page_241">241</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">—— for Seaside Planting, <a href="#Page_79">79</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">Maram for Seaside Planting, <a href="#Page_84">84</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">Measuring Height of Trees, <a href="#Page_272">272</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">Measuring Standing Timber, <a href="#Page_270">270</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">Mezereon Laurel for Carpeting in Shade, <a href="#Page_192">192</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">Minor Products of Forest Waste, <a href="#Page_256">256</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">Mountain Ash for Exposed Planting, <a href="#Page_70">70</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">—— —— —— Seaside Planting, <a href="#Page_78">78</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">—— —— —— Town Planting, <a href="#Page_104">104</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">—— —— Seed, <a href="#Page_12">12</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">Mulberry for Town Planting, <a href="#Page_102">102</a></li>
+
+<li class="isub10 ifrst">N</li>
+<li class="isub2">Norway Maple for Seaside Planting, <a href="#Page_76">76</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">—— Spruce for Economic Planting, <a href="#Page_64">64</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">Notch Planting, <a href="#Page_44">44</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">Nursery, Formation and Management, <a href="#Page_24">24</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">—— Home, its Formation and Management, <a href="#Page_24">24</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">—— Plan of, <a href="#Page_27">27</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">—— Tools used in, <a href="#Page_29">29</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">—— Work for the Seasons, <a href="#Page_28">28</a></li>
+
+<li class="isub10 ifrst">O</li>
+<li class="isub2">Oak as Timber, <a href="#Page_241">241</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">—— Evergreen for Seaside Planting, <a href="#Page_79">79</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">—— for Economic Planting, <a href="#Page_47">47</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">—— —— Exposed Planting,  <a href="#Page_71">71</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">—— —— Seaside Planting, <a href="#Page_79">79</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">—— —— Roller Moth, <a href="#Page_204">204</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">—— Seed, <a href="#Page_13">13</a></li>
+<li class="isub2"><i>Olearia Hastii</i>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a></li>
+<li class="isub2"><i>—— Macrodonta</i>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">Oriental Plane for Town Planting, <a href="#Page_98">98</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">Ornamental Planting, <a href="#Page_116">116</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">—— Weeping Trees, <a href="#Page_121">121</a></li>
+<li class="isub2"><i>Osmanthus Ilicifolius</i> for Town Planting, <a href="#Page_105">105</a></li>
+
+<li class="isub10 ifrst">P</li>
+<li class="isub2">Paper=Pulp, <a href="#Page_251">251</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">Peat Soil, <a href="#Page_129">129</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">Periwinkles for Carpeting in Shade, <a href="#Page_191">191</a></li>
+<li class="isub2"><i>Phillyrea Vilmoriniana</i> for Town Planting, <a href="#Page_106">106</a></li>
+<li class="isub2"><i>Picia Sitchensis</i>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">Pine Beetle, <a href="#Page_193">193</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">—— for Economic Planting, <a href="#Page_59">59</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">—— —— Exposed Planting, <a href="#Page_70">70</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">—— —— Ornamental Planting, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>
+           <span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_300"></a>[Pg 300]</span></li>
+<li class="isub2">—— —— Seaside Planting, <a href="#Page_81">81</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">—— Sawfly, <a href="#Page_196">196</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">—— Shoot Moth, <a href="#Page_195">195</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">—— Weevil, <a href="#Page_194">194</a></li>
+<li class="isub2"><i>Pinus Insignis</i>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a></li>
+<li class="isub2"><i>—— Montana</i> for Seaside Planting, <a href="#Page_81">81-85</a></li>
+<li class="isub2"><i>—— Macrocarpa</i> Seed, <a href="#Page_14">14</a></li>
+<li class="isub2"><i>—— Sabiniana</i> Seed, <a href="#Page_14">14</a></li>
+<li class="isub2"><i>—— Stropus</i>, <a href="#Page_11">11</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">Pitch, <a href="#Page_251">251</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">Pitting, <a href="#Page_40">40</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">Plane for Town Planting, <a href="#Page_99">99</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">—— Tree in Regent’s Park, <a href="#Page_99">99</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">Plantations, Formation and Cost, <a href="#Page_32">32</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">—— Hedges, <a href="#Page_184">184</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">Planting, <a href="#Page_41">41</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">—— Advantages of Tree, <a href="#Page_293">293</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">—— Exposed Ground, <a href="#Page_68">68</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">—— Financial Returns of, <a href="#Page_290">290</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">—— Hedges, <a href="#Page_184">184</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">—— Iron, <a href="#Page_45">45</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">—— Ironstone Soils, <a href="#Page_133">133</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">—— Notch, <a href="#Page_44">44</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">—— Ornamental, <a href="#Page_121">121</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">—— Osiers, <a href="#Page_243">243</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">—— Tools used for, <a href="#Page_43">43</a></li>
+<li class="isub2"><i>Polyporus Sulphureus</i>, <a href="#Page_219">219</a></li>
+<li class="isub2"><i>—— Squamosus</i>, <a href="#Page_216">216</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">Poplar as Timber, <a href="#Page_241">241</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">—— for Economic Planting, <a href="#Page_57">57</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">—— Town Planting, <a href="#Page_101">101</a></li>
+<li class="isub2"><i>Populus Canadensis</i> for Seaside Planting, <a href="#Page_78">78</a></li>
+<li class="isub2"><i>—— Alba</i> for Seaside Planting, <a href="#Page_78">78</a></li>
+<li class="isub2"><i>—— Nigra</i> for Seaside Planting, <a href="#Page_78">78</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">Portugal Laurel for Seaside Planting, <a href="#Page_84">84</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">Preface, vii</li>
+<li class="isub2">Preparation of Ground for Town Planting, <a href="#Page_92">92</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">—— —— —— Hedges, <a href="#Page_184">184</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">Prices of Contract Work, <a href="#Page_277">277</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">—— of Timber per ton, <a href="#Page_239">239</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">—— —— —— per cubic foot, <a href="#Page_238">238</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">—— —— Forest Produce, <a href="#Page_237">237</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">Prince Albert’s Fir for Ornamental Planting, <a href="#Page_118">118</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">Privet for Game Coverts, <a href="#Page_178">178</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">—— —— Hedge Planting, <a href="#Page_188">188</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">Propagating Trees and Shrubs, <a href="#Page_15">15</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">—— by Cuttings, <a href="#Page_19">19</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">—— —— Grafting, <a href="#Page_22">22</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">—— from Budding, <a href="#Page_23">23</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">—— —— Layers, <a href="#Page_21">21</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">—— —— Seed, <a href="#Page_15">15</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">Prune, How and When to, <a href="#Page_157">157</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">Pruning Bad Effects of, <a href="#Page_152">152</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">—— Dead Wood, <a href="#Page_155">155</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">—— Hedges, <a href="#Page_152">152</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">—— Live Branches, <a href="#Page_154">154</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">—— Shrubs, <a href="#Page_157">157</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">—— Tools used in, <a href="#Page_153">153</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">—— Trees, <a href="#Page_151">151</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">Purple Willow for Ornamental Planting, <a href="#Page_117">117</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">Pyrus for Ornamental Planting, <a href="#Page_118">118</a></li>
+
+<li class="isub10 ifrst">Q</li>
+<li class="isub2">Quick Hedges, <a href="#Page_186">186</a></li>
+
+<li class="isub10 ifrst">R</li>
+<li class="isub2">Red-Rot Fungus, <a href="#Page_217">217</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">Red Spider, <a href="#Page_201">201</a></li>
+<li class="isub2"><i>Retinospora</i> for Town Planting, <a href="#Page_109">109</a></li>
+<li class="isub2"><i>Rhamnus Frangula</i> for Charcoal, <a href="#Page_233">233</a></li>
+<li class="isub2"><i>Rhododendron Ponticum</i> for Game Coverts, <a href="#Page_180">180</a></li>
+<li class="isub2"><i>Rhytisma Punctata</i>, <a href="#Page_216">216</a></li>
+<li class="isub2"><i>Rosa Rugosa</i> for Hedge Planting, <a href="#Page_188">188</a></li>
+<li class="isub2"><i>—— Rubiginosa</i> for Hedge Planting, <a href="#Page_188">188</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">Rowan Tree for Town Planting, <a href="#Page_104">104</a></li>
+<li class="isub2"><i>Ruscus Aculeatus</i> for Seaside Planting, <a href="#Page_84">84</a></li>
+
+<li class="isub10 ifrst">S</li>
+<li class="isub2">St. John’s Wort for Carpeting in Shade, <a href="#Page_191">191</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">—— —— —— —— Game Coverts, <a href="#Page_182">182</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">Scotch Elm for Exposed Planting, <a href="#Page_70">70</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">—— —— —— Seaside Planting, <a href="#Page_79">79</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">—— Fir as Timber, <a href="#Page_242">242</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">—— —— for Hedge Planting, <a href="#Page_113">113</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">—— Laburnum for Seaside Planting, <a href="#Page_84">84</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">—— Pine for Economic Planting, <a href="#Page_62">62</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">—— —— —— Exposed Planting, <a href="#Page_70">70</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">—— —— —— Ornamental Planting, <a href="#Page_118">118</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">—— —— —— Seaside Planting, <a href="#Page_82">82</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">Sea Buckthorn for Seaside Planting, <a href="#Page_82">82</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">Seaside Planting, <a href="#Page_73">73</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">—— —— Hardwoods for, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>
+               <span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_301"></a>[Pg 301]</span></li>
+<li class="isub2">—— —— Shrubs for, <a href="#Page_82">82</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">—— —— List of Trees for, <a href="#Page_85">85</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">Seed, Best Depth for Germinating, <a href="#Page_17">17</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">—— Collecting and Harvesting, <a href="#Page_8">8</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">—— of Various Trees contained in a Bushel, <a href="#Page_10">10</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">—— Required to plant 100 sq. ft., <a href="#Page_18">18</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">—— Tree, number in a lb., <a href="#Page_10">10</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">Selecting Tree Seeds, <a href="#Page_9">9</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">Shade-loving Shrubs, <a href="#Page_191">191</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">Shrubs for Carpeting in Shade, <a href="#Page_191">191</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">Shrubs for Hot and Dry Soils, <a href="#Page_134">134</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">—— —— the Sea-Coast, <a href="#Page_82">82-86</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">—— —— Town Planting, <a href="#Page_105">105-107</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">Silver Fir as Timber, <a href="#Page_242">242</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">—— —— for Economic Planting, <a href="#Page_64">64</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">—— —— Seed, <a href="#Page_13">13</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">Sitka Spruce for Economic Planting, <a href="#Page_59">59</a></li>
+<li class="isub2"><i>Skimmia Japonica</i> for Town Planting, <a href="#Page_106">106</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">Slate Fences for Plantations, <a href="#Page_258">258</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">Slit Planting, <a href="#Page_44">44</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">Snowberry for Seaside Planting, <a href="#Page_83">83</a></li>
+<li class="isub2"><i>Snowy Mespilus</i> for Town Planting, <a href="#Page_106">106</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">Soil for Home Nursery, <a href="#Page_26">26</a></li>
+<li class="isub2"><i>Sophora Japonica</i> for Town Planting, <a href="#Page_104">104</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">Spanish Broom for Seaside Planting, <a href="#Page_84">84</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">—— Chestnut as Timber, <a href="#Page_51">51</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">—— —— for Economic Planting, <a href="#Page_51">51</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">—— —— Seed, <a href="#Page_12">12</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">—— Silver Fir for Ornamental Planting, <a href="#Page_118">118</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">Spider, Red, <a href="#Page_201">201</a></li>
+<li class="isub2"><i>Spirea Adiantifola</i> for Seaside Planting, <a href="#Page_83">83</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">Spring Work in Home Nursery, <a href="#Page_28">28</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">Spruce Fir as Timber, <a href="#Page_242">242</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">—— for Economic Planting, <a href="#Page_59">59</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">—— —— Ornamental Planting, <a href="#Page_118">118</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">—— Gall Aphis, <a href="#Page_198">198</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">Spurge Laurel for Carpeting in Shade, <a href="#Page_192">192</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">—— —— —— Town Planting, <a href="#Page_106">106</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">Stag’s Horn Sumach for Town Planting, <a href="#Page_106">106</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">Staking Trees, <a href="#Page_119">119</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">Standing Timber Measuring, <a href="#Page_270">270</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">Stone Walls for Fencing Plantations, <a href="#Page_257">257</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">Strawberry Trees for Town Planting, <a href="#Page_106">106</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">—— —— for Seaside, <a href="#Page_84">84</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">Summer Work in Home Nursery, <a href="#Page_30">30</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">Sweet-Bay for Seaside Planting, <a href="#Page_84">84</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">—— Briar for Hedge Planting, <a href="#Page_188">188</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">—— Chestnut for Economic Planting, <a href="#Page_51">51</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">Sycamore as Timber, <a href="#Page_242">242</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">—— for Economic Planting, <a href="#Page_51">51</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">—— —— Exposed Planting, <a href="#Page_70">70</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">—— —— Hedge Planting, <a href="#Page_112">112</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">—— —— Seaside Planting, <a href="#Page_76">76</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">—— —— Town Planting, <a href="#Page_104">104</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">—— Fungus, <a href="#Page_216">216</a></li>
+
+<li class="isub10 ifrst">T</li>
+<li class="isub2">Tamarisk for Seaside Planting, <a href="#Page_76">76-82</a></li>
+<li class="isub2"><i>Tamarix Gallica</i> for Seaside Planting, <a href="#Page_82">82</a></li>
+<li class="isub2"><i>—— Germanica</i> for Seaside Planting, <a href="#Page_82">82</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">Tansy-leaved Thorn for Town Planting, <a href="#Page_105">105</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">Tar, <a href="#Page_251">251</a></li>
+<li class="isub2"><i>Taxodium Distichum</i> for Town Planting, <a href="#Page_109">109</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">Thinning Plantations, <a href="#Page_141">141</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">—— —— Rules for, <a href="#Page_149">149</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">Thorn Fly, <a href="#Page_202">202</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">—— for Hedge Planting, <a href="#Page_186">186</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">Thorns for Ornamental Planting, <a href="#Page_118">118</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">—— —— Seaside Planting, <a href="#Page_83">83</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">—— —— Town Planting, <a href="#Page_105">105</a></li>
+<li class="isub2"><i>Thujopsis Dolabrata</i> for Town Planting, <a href="#Page_109">109</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">Timber, British, and Some of Its Uses, <a href="#Page_240">240</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">—— Measuring, <a href="#Page_288">288</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">—— Prices, <a href="#Page_237">237</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">Tools used in Forestry, <a href="#Page_43">43</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">Town Planting, <a href="#Page_87">87-109</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">—— —— Trees for, <a href="#Page_98">98</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">Transplanting Seedlings, <a href="#Page_18">18</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">—— Large Trees, <a href="#Page_139">139</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">—— Machine, Faulkner’s, <a href="#Page_140">140</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">—— Specimen Trees, <a href="#Page_118">118</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">Tree Groundsel for Seaside Planting, <a href="#Page_84">84</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">—— Guards, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>
+        <span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_302"></a>[Pg 302]</span></li>
+<li class="isub2">—— Mallow for Seaside Planting, <a href="#Page_83">83</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">Tree of Heaven for Town Planting, <a href="#Page_101">101</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">—— Planting, Advantages of, <a href="#Page_293">293</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">—— —— Financial Returns of, <a href="#Page_290">290</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">—— Pruning in Economic Forestry, <a href="#Page_151">151</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">—— Purslane for Seaside Planting, <a href="#Page_83">83</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">Trees and Shrubs, Propagating, <a href="#Page_15">15</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">—— best adapted for Various Soils, <a href="#Page_128">128</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">—— for Chalky or Calcareous Soils, <a href="#Page_130">130</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">—— —— Clay Soils, <a href="#Page_132">132</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">—— —— Economic Planting, <a href="#Page_47">47</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">—— —— Exposed Planting, <a href="#Page_68">68</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">—— —— Gravelly and Sandy Soils, <a href="#Page_131">131</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">—— —— Hedge Planting, <a href="#Page_110">110</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">—— —— Hedgerow and Field, <a href="#Page_110">110</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">—— —— Ironstone Soils, <a href="#Page_133">133</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">—— —— —— and Coal Soils, <a href="#Page_133">133</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">—— —— Ornamental Planting, <a href="#Page_121">121</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">—— —— Peaty Soils <a href="#Page_129">129</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">—— —— Seaside Planting, <a href="#Page_85">85</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">—— —— Town Planting, <a href="#Page_98">98</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">Trumpet Honeysuckle for Town Planting, <a href="#Page_107">107</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">Tulip Tree for Town Plantations, <a href="#Page_102">102</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">Turf Dykes for Plantations, <a href="#Page_269">269</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">Turkey Oak for Seaside Planting, <a href="#Page_79">79</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">Turpentine, <a href="#Page_250">250</a></li>
+
+<li class="isub10 ifrst">U</li>
+<li class="isub2">Umbrella Pine for Ornamental Planting, <a href="#Page_118">118</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">Underwood, <a href="#Page_170">170</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">Uses of Charcoal, <a href="#Page_232">232</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">Utilizing Waste Forest Produce, <a href="#Page_250">250</a></li>
+
+<li class="isub10 ifrst">V</li>
+<li class="isub2">Value of Woods for Charcoal Making, <a href="#Page_231">231</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">—— —— Reclaimed Peat Bog, <a href="#Page_129">129</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">Venetian Sumach for Town Planting, <a href="#Page_106">106</a></li>
+<li class="isub2"><i>Vinca Major</i> for Seaside Planting, <a href="#Page_84">84</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">—— <i>Minor</i> for Seaside Planting, <a href="#Page_84">84</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">Vine for Town Planting, <a href="#Page_108">108</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">Virginia Creeper for Town Planting, <a href="#Page_107">107</a></li>
+
+<li class="isub10 ifrst">W</li>
+<li class="isub2">Walnut as Timber, <a href="#Page_242">242</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">—— for Town Planting, <a href="#Page_104">104</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">—— Seed, <a href="#Page_13">13</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">Waste Forest Produce, Utilizing, <a href="#Page_250">250</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">Water for Home Nursery, <a href="#Page_26">26</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">Watering Trees, <a href="#Page_97">97</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">Wayfaring Tree for Town Planting, <a href="#Page_106">106</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">Weeping Ash for Town Planting, <a href="#Page_104">104</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">—— Trees for Ornamental Planting, <a href="#Page_121">121</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">Weymouth Pine for Economic Planting, <a href="#Page_60">60</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">—— Pine Seeds, <a href="#Page_11">11</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">When to Prune, <a href="#Page_157">157</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">White Beam Tree for Town Planting, <a href="#Page_102">102</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">—— Fruited Mulberry for Town Planting, <a href="#Page_102">102</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">—— Rot Fungus, <a href="#Page_218">218</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">Wild Cherry for Exposed Planting, <a href="#Page_71">71</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">Willow Beetle, <a href="#Page_197">197</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">—— Culture, <a href="#Page_243">243</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">—— for Economic Planting, <a href="#Page_54">54</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">—— —— Ornamental Planting, <a href="#Page_117">117</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">—— —— Seaside Planting, <a href="#Page_78">78</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">—— —— Timber, <a href="#Page_242">242</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">—— —— Town Planting, <a href="#Page_104">104</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">—— Kilmarnock, <a href="#Page_121">121</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">—— Ringlet, <a href="#Page_121">121</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">Willows for Basket-Making, <a href="#Page_243">243</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">—— Profits of Culture, <a href="#Page_248">248</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">—— Rules for Culture, <a href="#Page_247">247</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">Winged Elm for the Seaside, <a href="#Page_77">77</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">Winter Moth, <a href="#Page_210">210</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">—— Work in Home Nursery, <a href="#Page_30">30</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">Wire Fences for Plantations, <a href="#Page_263">263</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">Wireworms, <a href="#Page_208">208</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">Witch’s Broom or Willow, <a href="#Page_210">210</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">Wood Fences for Plantations, <a href="#Page_262">262</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">—— Leopard Moth, <a href="#Page_203">203</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">Woods for Charcoal Making, <a href="#Page_231">231</a></li>
+
+<li class="isub10 ifrst">Y</li>
+<li class="isub2">Yew as Timber, <a href="#Page_242">242</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">—— for Game Coverts, <a href="#Page_181">181</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">—— —— Hedge Planting, <a href="#Page_188">188</a></li>
+<li class="isub2">—— Seed, <a href="#Page_13">13</a></li>
+</ul>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+<p class="f120 spa1"><b>Butler &amp; Tanner Frome and London</b></p>
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<div class="transnote bbox spa2">
+<p class="f120 spa1">Transcriber’s Notes:</p>
+<hr class="r10">
+<p>The cover image was created by the transcriber, and is in the public domain.</p>
+<p>New original cover art included with this eBook is granted to the public domain.</p>
+<p>Deprecated spellings or ancient words were not corrected.</p>
+<p>The illustrations have been moved so that they do not break up
+      paragraphs and so that they are next to the text they illustrate.</p>
+<p>Typographical and punctuation errors have been silently corrected.</p>
+</div></div>
+
+<div style='text-align:center'>*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 76876 ***</div>
+</body>
+</html>
+
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@@ -0,0 +1,11 @@
+This eBook, including all associated images, markup, improvements,
+metadata, and any other content or labor, has been confirmed to be
+in the PUBLIC DOMAIN IN THE UNITED STATES.
+
+Procedures for determining public domain status are described in
+the "Copyright How-To" at https://www.gutenberg.org.
+
+No investigation has been made concerning possible copyrights in
+jurisdictions other than the United States. Anyone seeking to utilize
+this eBook outside of the United States should confirm copyright
+status under the laws that apply to them.
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+Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for eBook #76876
+(https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/76876)