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diff --git a/76876-0.txt b/76876-0.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..68653f2 --- /dev/null +++ b/76876-0.txt @@ -0,0 +1,10561 @@ + +*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 76876 *** + + + + + +Transcriber’s Notes: + + Underscores “_” before and after a word or phrase indicate _italics_ + in the original text. + Equal signs “=” before and after a word or phrase indicate =bold= + in the original text. + Small capitals have been converted to SOLID capitals. + Illustrations have been moved so they do not break up paragraphs. + Deprecated spellings have been preserved. + Typographical and punctuation errors have been silently corrected. + + + + + WEBSTER’S PRACTICAL FORESTRY + + A POPULAR HANDBOOK ON + THE REARING AND GROWTH OF TREES + FOR PROFIT OR ORNAMENT + + BY A. D. WEBSTER + + _Author of + “Hardy Ornamental Flowering Trees and Shrubs” (3 Editions), + “Foresters’ Diary” (15 Editions), “Hardy Coniferous Trees” + (2 Editions), “Town Planting,” “Tree Wounds and Diseases,” + “British Timber and Timber-Producing Trees,” + etc., etc._ + + FIFTH EDITION + ENLARGED AND REVISED + + LONDON + WILLIAM RIDER & SON, LIMITED + CATHEDRAL HOUSE, PATERNOSTER ROW, E.C. 4 + 1917 + + TO MY WIFE + THE FIFTH EDITION OF “PRACTICAL FORESTRY” + IS DEDICATED + + + + +PREFACE TO FIFTH EDITION + + +To the Author at least, it is gratifying to know that four editions of +_Practical Forestry_ have been sold out, and that a fifth is urgently +called for; no other work on British Forestry having achieved a like +popularity. + +The whole has now been completely revised and several important +chapters added, particularly with reference to Timber and the War, +British Timber and Timber Trees, Afforesting Waste Lands, and The +Education of Foresters, on both of which latter questions the Author +had the honour of giving evidence before the Departmental Committee on +Forestry of the Board of Agriculture. + + A. D. WEBSTER. + + REGENT’S PARK, + _June, 1917_. + + + + +INTRODUCTION TO FIFTH EDITION + + +In my long experience of British Forestry, which, in a practical way, +has extended over a period of forty years, I have become more and more +convinced that in order to place it on a systematic and sound economic +footing, State aid and the afforesting of large areas of comparatively +waste lands are first necessities. + +For the past thirty years I have not failed to urge upon the State, +as well as private owners of suitable land, the pressing necessity of +afforestation; and though in this matter a start has been made, yet +this can only be looked upon as a faint, half-hearted attempt quite +unworthy of our country and the vast interests at stake. As early as +1883, I drew attention to this matter in _Woods and Forests_, and at +later periods in most of the leading journals and papers of the day; +while in my evidence given before the Select Committee on Forestry, and +in a paper contributed by special request to the Board of Agriculture, +I went fully into the question, and pointed out what a boon to the +unemployed, and how great a saving to the country would be effected by +a well-organized scheme of tree planting. + +Years ago I urged the Government to take up the question of the Larch +disease, the ravages of which I then described as being little short +of a national calamity. To the Highland and Agricultural Society +of Scotland, and the Royal Scottish Arboricultural Society, I have +contributed twenty-three papers on different topics connected with +forestry, for which special medals have been awarded, while my +_Practical Forestry_ has now passed into a fifth edition. + +In connection with the afforesting of waste lands, I have travelled +over the greater part of the United Kingdom and have examined much +of the ground that could be set aside for this purpose, including the +peat bogs of Ireland; while at altitudes up to 1,100 ft. I have formed +plantations on the bare and wind-swept hillsides of Wales and Scotland, +which to-day are proving not only a boon to the farmers in the way of +the shelter they afford, but also a considerable source of profit to +the owners. + +The above investigations, combined with the examination of and reports +on several of the largest woodland properties in this country, made +at the request of the owners, have given me a wide insight into the +forestry problem generally, but particularly with reference to our +requirements in the near future, in view of the fact that the United +Kingdom is by far the largest timber-importing country in the world. + + A. D. W. + + + + +CONTENTS + + + CHAPTER I PAGE + FORESTRY AND THE WAR 1 + + CHAPTER II + COLLECTING AND STORING TREE SEEDS 8 + + CHAPTER III + PROPAGATING TREES AND SHRUBS 15 + + CHAPTER IV + THE HOME NURSERY: ITS FORMATION AND MANAGEMENT 24 + + CHAPTER V + FORMATION OF PLANTATIONS 32 + + CHAPTER VI + TREES FOR ECONOMIC PLANTING 47 + + CHAPTER VII + PLANTING EXPOSED GROUND 68 + + CHAPTER VIII + SEASIDE PLANTING 73 + + CHAPTER IX + TOWN PLANTING, AND THE TREES AND SHRUBS THAT ARE + BEST ADAPTED FOR WITHSTANDING SMOKE 87 + + CHAPTER X + TREES SUITABLE FOR HEDGEROW AND FIELD PLANTING 110 + + CHAPTER XI + ORNAMENTAL PLANTING 116 + + CHAPTER XII + TREES BEST ADAPTED FOR VARIOUS SOILS 128 + + CHAPTER XIII + TRANSPLANTING LARGE TREES 139 + + CHAPTER XIV + THINNING PLANTATIONS 141 + + CHAPTER XV + TREE-PRUNING IN ECONOMIC FORESTRY 151 + + CHAPTER XVI + BRACING AND REPAIRING TREES 159 + + CHAPTER XVII + COPPICE AND UNDERWOOD 170 + + CHAPTER XVIII + GAME COVERTS: THEIR FORMATION AND MANAGEMENT 174 + + CHAPTER XIX + HEDGES: THEIR FORMATION AND MANAGEMENT 184 + + CHAPTER XX + SHRUBS FOR SHADY SITUATIONS 191 + + CHAPTER XXI + INSECT ENEMIES OF TREES 193 + + CHAPTER XXII + FUNGUS GROWTH ON TREES 212 + + CHAPTER XXIII + BARKING OAK 220 + + CHAPTER XXIV + THE MANUFACTURE OF CHARCOAL 226 + + CHAPTER XXV + PRICES OF HOME-GROWN TIMBER 237 + + CHAPTER XXVI + BRITISH-GROWN TIMBER AND SOME OF ITS USES 240 + + CHAPTER XXVII + WILLOWS FOR BASKET-MAKING 243 + + CHAPTER XXVIII + UTILIZING WASTE FOREST PRODUCE 250 + + CHAPTER XXIX + FENCING PLANTATIONS 257 + + CHAPTER XXX + TIMBER MEASURING 268 + + CHAPTER XXXI + BLASTING AND BURNING TREE ROOTS 273 + + CHAPTER XXXII + PRICES OF CONTRACT OR PIECEWORK 277 + + CHAPTER XXXIII + FOREST AREA OF THE WORLD 280 + + CHAPTER XXXIV + AFFORESTING WASTE LANDS AND THE FINANCIAL RETURNS + THEREFROM 282 + + INDEX 295 + + + + +LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS + + + PAGE + Arrangement of Plantations 33 + Band and Connecting-Rod 166 + Barking Tools 222 + Beam Tree in London 103 + Beech Tree 50 + Blasting and Burning Tree Roots 273 + Bracing a Tree 165 + Cricket Bat Willow 55 + Elm Tree Destroyer 199 + Faulkner’s Transplanting Machine 140 + Felling Tools 143 + Goat Moth 201 + Hedging Tools 185 + Larch Canker 213 + Measuring the Height of Trees 271 + Method of Levelling 39 + Oak Fences 262 + Plan of Nursery 27 + Plane Tree in Regent’s Park 99 + _Polyporus Sulphureus_ 219 + _Polyporus Squamosus_ 216 + Pruning Tools 153 + Pruning, Bad effects of 155 + Rustic Wooden Fence, Strong Mortised Fence, + Strong Paling Fence 262 + Sawn Wooden Fence 261 + Section of Charcoal Pit 229 + Savin Juniper as a Town Shrub 108 + Slate Fences 259 + Spirit-Level 39 + Stone and Wire Fence 257 + Tools used in Planting 43 + Tools used in Draining 37 + Tools required in Nursery 29 + Tools for Fencing 264 + Tree Guards 266 + Weymouth Pine at Gwydyr Castle 61 + Wire Fence with Wooden Posts 263 + Willow Beetle 197 + Wood Leopard Moth 203 + Witch’s Broom on Willow 209, 210 + + + + +WEBSTER’S PRACTICAL FORESTRY + + + + +CHAPTER I + +FORESTRY AND THE WAR + + +During the war, and for long afterwards, there is bound to be a dearth +of foreign timber, with the result that our home supplies will be taxed +to the utmost. This, indeed, is already the case, and never before in +the history of our country has the demand for British-grown timber been +greater or prices higher than at the present time. + +Plantations in England and Scotland are being cut down wholesale by +the Government, while felling on private estates is going on with such +rapidity that in a couple of years at most there is bound to be a +dearth of all home-grown timber, and of pitwood in particular. + +In the aggregate, our supplies are by no means great, the total area at +present under woodlands being only a little over three million acres, +to which, however, must be added the amount of field and hedgerow +timber—a by no means inconsiderable quantity. Of Plantation timber +much is, however, of very inferior quality and only suitable for rough +fencing and mining purposes, and this applies generally to that grown +throughout England, Wales and Ireland. In Scotland, however, there are +large areas of coniferous woods that were planted for purely economic +purposes which will yield a certain amount of valuable timber for +pit-props and other immediate requirements. The felling of Scotch, +Spruce, and coniferous trees will, however, be a blessing in disguise, +for of late years both demand and price for this particular class +of timber have been by no means great and have hardly warranted the +owners of vacant land in undertaking the much-needed extension of our +woodlands. Larch, on the other hand, is scarce and always in demand at +a highly remunerative price, as also are Ash, Oak and Beech of large +size and good quality. + +It is useless to go into the question of how long our home supplies +of timber will last, this depending largely on the volume of foreign +importations and the duration of the war, but, judging from present +demands, three years will find our plantations in a more or less +depleted condition. The main question we have to consider and decide, +without delay, is how our cut-over plantations are to be replaced by +the replanting of exhausted woodlands and afforesting some of the waste +lands of our country. + +Continental experience has demonstrated that, from a commercial point +of view at least, State-owned forests are preferable to such as are +owned either by public bodies or by private individuals. The resources +and continuity of a nation will always make the State the best +custodian of forest property; indeed, only the State can acquire the +necessary land on the most favourable terms, and in sufficient quantity +for the purposes of extensive afforestation. Private individuals—or, +indeed, public bodies—labour under many disadvantages in this respect, +not the least being the long period required—in most cases from fifty +to sixty years—before the money expended in planting can be even +partially recovered. + +Contrary to the conditions obtaining in the raising of agricultural +crops, long periods have to elapse before the forestry harvest can be +reaped. It will be obvious, therefore, that extensive tree planting +is quite beyond the power of the private individual unassisted. It +is a State business, in which systematic methods of cultivation, and +large wooded areas are first necessities; and, unfortunately, in this +country commercial forestry is but little understood—in fact, it may be +described as an unknown industry. + +Extensive plantations of from a thousand to several thousand acres +each, in compact blocks, are required, for it is only in dealing with +such areas that the planting, tending, thinning, and conversion of the +timber can be most economically and profitably carried out. From the +purely economic point of view, the many small plantations dotted over +the face of our country are worse than useless, though exceptions might +be noted, especially in Scotland, where a few woods are planted and +managed on a commercial basis. + +With compact blocks of forest 2,000 to 4,000 acres in extent, and +with timber crops of mainly the same species in each, a continuity of +supplies could be guaranteed, which under existing circumstances is +quite out of the question. In many outlying districts all over the +country that are far removed from road and rail it is difficult—in +some cases impossible—to dispose of the usually small amount of timber +that is periodically cut down; but were large quantities of the same +kind and a continuity of supply ensured, merchants would be tempted +to make special transit and other arrangements, as well as to offer a +remunerative price for the timber, while railway companies would no +doubt provide cheaper facilities for its transport. + +More than once I have been asked by owners of woodlands to recommend +buyers of good Larch, Ash, and other timber, the demand for which far +exceeds the supply; but after negotiating have invariably been told +by the merchants that the quantity offered was too small to allow of +special facilities for delivery being provided, the timber being far +removed from road and rail, but that if a specified number of trees +could be guaranteed annually for a number of years they were quite +prepared to buy. Such cases occurred in the South and West of Ireland, +and in remote parts of Wales and Scotland. These, then, are cases in +which a continuity of supply—such as would be quite possible if an +extensive scheme of afforesting was carried out—would ensure speedy +sales at fair rates in places where at present it is difficult, if +not impossible, to dispose of the small quantities of timber, even at +ruinously low prices. + +The question, then, before the nation is: How, and by whom, is +afforestation to be carried out on a scale commensurate with our +necessities as by far the largest timber-importing country in the +world?—larger, indeed, than all the countries of Europe put together. +In answer, and without the slightest hesitation, I would say that the +State should acquire and plant suitable lands at the rate of 40,000 +acres annually for a period of twenty-five years, or 1,000,000 in all. + +When we consider that the total area of woodlands in this country is +only a little in excess of 3,071,000 acres, that fully 17,000,000 acres +of waste lands exist, and that we annually import over 10,000,000 +tons of timber at a cost of about £25,000,000, the necessity for an +increased area of woodlands, so that a portion at least of this vast +sum may be kept at home, will be apparent to all, the more so as a +dearth of timber is imminent and outside supplies are being rigidly +conserved, while our home demands are ever on the increase. + +In order to carry out my proposed scheme of planting a million acres +during the next five years, at the rate of 200,000 acres annually, +profitable and healthy employment would at once be found for several +thousand workmen. The question of transporting, housing and otherwise +dealing with these workmen has been brought forward as the most serious +drawback to the scheme, but, personally, having had to deal with such +cases I can see no insuperable difficulty in the undertaking. Surely, +if our railway and water companies, as also private landowners, can +deal with hundreds of men in remote mountain districts that are far +removed from road and rail, the Government could make the necessary +arrangements for the various bodies of workmen that would be employed +for afforesting purposes. Nor must tree planting be considered as a +new departure for unemployed labour, as in the formation of a large +plantation on a dreary exposed hillside in Wales, the whole of the +work, including clearing the ground of rough surface growth, draining, +pitting and planting, was most successfully carried out by detachments +of the unemployed. + +The general physique of Army and Navy men and the discipline and hard +work to which they have been subjected during the war will render them +peculiarly suitable for carrying out the various operations connected +with the formation of plantations. Convalescent soldiers and sailors +could also find healthy employment in the various lighter tasks which +go hand in hand with afforestation, such as clearing the ground of +rough growing vegetation and lifting and distributing the young trees. + +Several suggestions have been made for providing employment for our +returned soldiers and sailors, but much of this proposed work is, so to +speak, invented for the purpose, and would probably never be seriously +considered except for the exigencies of the case. Now I am quite of +opinion that afforesting waste lands offers a sensible system of +employment, for it is now generally admitted that a largely increased +area of our woodlands is an imperative and pressing necessity, and what +is of equal importance, the undertaking, if wisely entered upon, would +not only increase the value of such lands fourfold but form the nucleus +of an ever-increasing revenue of the State. + +But this is not all, for apart altogether from the question of +immediate labour, what an industry would be opened up in years to come +by the planting of waste grounds! In the first instance there would +arise the necessity for clearing, fencing, draining, and planting the +ground, subsequently the tending of the plantations in various ways +would give employment. Thinning would commence about the tenth year, +after which the erection of sawmills and the conversion of the timber +would open a vast and ever-increasing industry, providing highly +remunerative work to thousands of the unemployed. + +There are other ways in connection with forestry in which the +unemployed could be usefully and profitably set to work, such as in +preparing osier beds, planting dogwood for gunpowder charcoal, and in +the formation and stocking of tree nurseries, the produce of which +could with advantage be used in the formation of plantations. Osiers +for basket-making, charcoal for gunpowder and heating purposes, and +seedling plants for afforestation will all be greatly in demand after +the war when foreign supplies will not be forthcoming. + +Regarding the most desirable centres at which to commence planting +operations, I would suggest those counties where the greatest areas of +waste lands exist, and where, in addition, advantages are offered in +the matter of cheap land purchase, as well as in a demand for and easy +removal of the produce. Thus we have:— + + England Yorkshire and Northumberland with 1,010,924 acres. + Scotland Inverness and Argyleshire with 3,087,312 acres. + Wales Breconshire and Merionethshire with 461,320 acres. + Ireland Donegal and Kerry with 657,337 acres + (exclusive of 172,436 acres of bogland). + +From these figures it will be seen that in case of necessity we could +get all the ground required for this afforesting scheme in two of the +counties of England and Scotland, or in three of Wales and Ireland. + +The cost of procuring suitable land for afforesting purposes need +not be considered as any obstacle to the scheme. From extensive +inquiries made the price on an average would not be greater than £2 +per acre. Through the kindness of the agent on the Gwydyr Estate, in +Carnarvonshire, I have been allowed to look over the sale contracts on +several of the properties, and from these I find that 7,412 acres were +disposed of at an average price of £2 2_s._ 3_d._ per acre. The ground +was excellent for the production of timber, as the Larch on adjoining +lands clearly evidenced. Again, the Crown recently purchased 12,500 +acres in Scotland at the modest rental of £2 per acre. Many other +instances could be quoted, but the above suffice to show that land +in every way suitable for the production of high-grade timber can be +bought at probably less than £2 per acre. + +The cost of forming plantations has been very carefully considered, and +for all practical purposes may be put down at £5 per acre, taking the +British Isles as a whole. + +Regarding financial returns from tree planting, there is overwhelming +proof that land worth only from 1_s._ to 3_s._ 6_d._ per acre has been +made to realise as much as 20_s._ per acre for fifty or sixty years, +with a final crop worth from £50 to £75 per acre. + +Taking all the above points into consideration—the price of land, +the cost of planting and the financial returns—it will amply repay +the State to plant up uncultivated and waste lands. There should +be no loss of time in setting about this work if we are to provide +suitable employment for our returned soldiers and sailors and avoid the +threatened timber famine which, according to well-informed quarters, is +fast approaching. + + + + +CHAPTER II + +COLLECTING AND STORING TREE SEEDS + + +Owing to the war there is little doubt that for several years to come +adequate supplies of seeds and young forest trees will not be available +from their usual sources on the Continent. Vast quantities of both are +annually sent to this country from Germany alone, while from other +parts of the Continent coniferous seeds in particular are largely +imported—in fact, we are almost wholly dependent for both seeds and +seedlings on foreign supplies. + +Under these circumstances, it behoves the owners of woodlands in every +part of the country to collect seeds, particularly of such trees +as our plantations are mainly composed of. After these have been +properly harvested, they should be stored away in suitable places till +seed-sowing time in the spring. To some extent this will be a new +forest industry, though for long, the seeds both of Scotch Pine and +various hard-wooded trees, particularly the Oak, Ash and Elm, have been +annually collected on various estates throughout the country, and the +young plants raised from such stock have given every satisfaction when +planted out permanently. + +For several reasons, however, we cannot compete with foreigners either +in the production of seeds or in raising young forest stock. For some +years to come, owing to the uncertainty of supplies from abroad, both +seeds and seedlings are bound to be scarce and expensive. + +In the past, far too little attention has been bestowed on the +collecting and harvesting of the seeds of trees and shrubs, the result, +in not a few cases, being weak and unhealthy plants and an uneven and +irregular crop. The best seeds, it should be remembered, are those +collected from healthy trees in the prime of life, and grown under +conditions favourable to their perfect development. An unhealthy tree +will often bear a heavy crop of seed, but although the inducements to +collect such are great, they should be discarded, those from the most +robust specimens in the prime of life being chosen in preference. + +Regarding the best way of collecting tree seeds little need be said, +the exigencies of the case determining the best method to be adopted. +The seeds of not a few trees may be collected as they fall, and this +is especially the case with those of the Oak, Beech, Elm, etc., all of +which may be swept into heaps and gathered in quantity from beneath +desirable trees. + +In the case of the various Coniferæ this method of seed collecting +will not answer—indeed, in the majority of instances, the seed should +be gathered, or rather picked, from the trees just before they became +fully ripe, as in falling they get loose from the cone-scales and +are lost. When collecting the cones of coniferous trees, a long, +light hooked staff with which to draw the branches towards one can +conveniently be used to procure an abundant supply. A bag or satchel +should also be in possession of the seed collector, into which may be +put such kinds of cones as fall readily apart, as the seeds from these +are easily lost. Sometimes, as in the case of rare seeds, and when only +a few cones are borne near the top of the tree, the seed collector +must have recourse to climbing; but, in such cases, in order to avoid +injury to the bark, he should be provided with a pair of elastic shoes +or slippers. Great care is required in the collection of such seeds as +those of _Abies nobilis_ and _A. nordmanniana_, the cones, when fully +ripe, falling to pieces on the slightest touch. This, however, applies +equally to almost every species of Abies, whereas, with the Pines and +Spruces, the cones remain intact for an almost indefinite period of +time, even though the seeds may have fallen out on becoming ripe. + +The proper harvesting of tree seeds rarely, except in the case of +experienced nurserymen, receives sufficient attention, although this +operation should be as carefully attended to as in the case of the +seeds of any other form of crop. After being collected, the seeds +of all trees, unless such as are mixed with sand for the purpose of +rotting, should be thinly and evenly spread out in a sunny spot, until +thoroughly dry. They may then be deposited in a cool, airy place, +and in thin layers, until wanted for sowing. An occasional turning +is all-important and should never be neglected. The smaller and less +common seeds may, for convenience sake, be hung up in calico bags, but +they, too, should be occasionally examined to prevent dampness and +heating. + +The number of plants of various kinds that may be expected from +a bushel of seed of average quality varies very much, and may be +approximately given as follows: Horse Chestnut, 2,500; Oak, 6,000 to +8,000; Spanish Chestnut, about 3,000; Walnut, 5,000; Norway Maple, +12,000; Sycamore, about 12,000; Ash, 14,000; Beech, 10,000; Elm, 1,000; +Birch, fully 16,000; Holly, 17,000; Scotch Fir, 9,000. To 1 lb. of +seed: Spruce Fir, about 9,000; Larch, 3,000; and the Cluster Pine, +Silver Fir, and some others, from about 500 upwards. + +For convenience in regulating orders for sowing, the following table +will show at a glance the approximate and relative number of seeds of +the various commonly cultivated forest trees contained in 1 lb. weight:— + + Abies nobilis about 19,400 + Abies nordmanniana ” 10,000 + Ash ” 6,800 + Beech ” 2,700 + Douglas Fir ” 95,200 + Horse Chestnut ” 36 + Hornbeam ” 9,968 + Larch ” 65,000 + Lawson’s Cypress ” 131,400 + Lebanon Cedar ” 10,800 + Norway Maple ” 4,600 + Oak ” 100 + Pinus Austriaca ” 35,000 + Pinus Laricio ” 43,000 + Pinus Pinaster ” 12,000 + Pinus Sylvestris ” 75,000 + Spruce ” 64,500 + Silver Fir ” 14,960 + Sycamore ” 4,624 + Walnut ” 36 + +These figures must only be taken as approximate, the seed of various +trees of the same species seeming to vary in the number to the pound +in a marked degree. The results of careful analysis of one or two +kinds may be cited as examples. In one case the number of seeds in 1 +lb. weight of Scotch Fir was 69,600, while in another it had increased +to 90,600; and in the Larch the numbers were 33,900 and 68,000. These +differences are, however, mainly due to the individual seeds being +weightier in one case than in another, probably owing to the age and +health of the tree from which they were collected, the situation and +exposure to which it was subjected, etc. However, for all nursery +purposes the above figures may be accepted as a fair standard. + +The time of collecting and the after-management of the different +forest seeds vary so much that a brief description of those kinds most +commonly planted will be found useful:— + +=Alder= seed should be gathered from the trees in October and sown in +spring, say May. + +=Ash= seeds are ripe in October, when they should be collected and kept +in moist sand during the winter, and sown in March. + +=Austrian=, =Corsican= and =Weymouth Pine= seeds are treated in every +respect like those of Scotch Fir, varying the kiln heat according to +the looseness of the cone-bracts. + +=Beech= seeds are collected in October and November, placed in sand, +and sown in April. The young plants are readily affected by frost, and +the seed should, therefore, not be sown earlier than the time mentioned. + +=Birch= seed must be collected from the trees just before it becomes +ripe in August, otherwise it is scattered broadcast and lost for +cultivation. March is the time for sowing. + +=Cupressus Lawsoniana= seed is usually ready for collecting in October, +but should not be sown before the first week in April. + +=Douglas Fir= seed is, in most cases, readily removed from well-ripened +cones by threshing or by pulling the cone to pieces, but, in some +instances, particularly where the quantity is large, kiln-drying is +resorted to. The seeds are ripe in December and should be gently +watered and sown in May. + +=Elm= seeds are ripe in June, when they may either be sown at once, or +dried and kept in stock for planting in March and April. + +=Hawthorn= seed, or berries, may be sown when collected, or the outer +coating rotted off by keeping them during the winter in moist sand. + +=Hazel= nuts may be collected in autumn and sown at once, or kept till +spring. + +=Holly= berries require to be placed in sand for about eighteen months +so as to rot off the fleshy outer coating, and may be sown in March. +The mixture of sand and berries, which should be about in equal +proportions, must be turned frequently. They are usually sown with the +sand in which they have been lying. + +=Horse= and =Spanish Chestnut= seeds may be taken together, the method +of collecting and sowing being very similar in both cases. They are +ripe by the middle of October, and may either be sown at once or kept +till spring. One seed to 4 square in. will be close enough. + +=Larch= cones, when ripe, are of a rather bright brown colour and +require to be collected from the trees. This should not, however, be +done till spring, though occasionally they are gathered in December. +They part with the seeds far more readily than those of the Scotch Fir, +and consequently require less heat when in the kiln. + +=Maple= seeds are ready for collecting about October, and should not be +sown till the beginning of April. + +=Mountain Ash=, indeed, all the Pyrus family and others of a like kind, +require the berries to be placed in sand, and when the outer fleshy +coating has rotted away they may be sown either in autumn or spring. + +=Oak.=—The acorns may be gathered or swept from the ground in November, +and either sown at once or stored away in a cool, dry place till +Spring. One acorn to every 4 square in. will be ample in the seed-bed. +Sow in spring or autumn. + +=Scotch Fir= cones are better not collected till early in January, and +the time may even be extended till March. When quite ripe they have +changed from bluish-green to a light, grey colour. As the cones part +tardily with the seeds, artificial means have to be resorted to, the +cones being placed thinly over a kiln heated to a temperature of from +75° to 112°. They should be turned every third hour, and after about +thirty hours the kiln should be cooled down and the cones extracted +as quickly as possible. By beating with a flail the seeds are readily +removed from the cones, but it is best to do this before the cones have +cooled down or immediately they are removed from the kiln. The seeds +are then swept together and collected, and stored away until wanted +for sowing. When not required for sowing at once, the seeds should +be thinly spread out on the floor and slightly moistened with water +from a fine rose watering-can. They should then be turned about until +perfectly dry before being stored away. + +=Silver Fir= seed does not require much, if any, artificial heat to +cause it to part from the cone. By placing the cones in the sunshine, +and heating and turning freely, the seeds come out without much +trouble. In all cases, however, wherever possible, it is wise policy to +dispense with artificial heat or kiln-drying as, unless this is carried +out most carefully, the vitality of the seeds is greatly impaired +thereby. + +=Sycamore= seeds are ready for gathering in October, but should not be +sown till the end of March or beginning of April. + +=Walnuts= are collected, when ripe, in autumn, and sown in late spring. + +=Yew= seeds are usually washed of the pulpy matter before being sown. + +In the case of large seeds, such as those of =Araucaria imbricata=, +=Pinus sabiniana=, and =P. macrocarpa=, the best way is to cut the +cones to pieces and carefully remove the seeds. This operation should +be performed with great care, so that the hard seed coating may not be +injured. + +With conifers in general I have invariably found it the best plan to +allow the seed to remain in the cones until wanted for sowing. By +keeping the cones in a cool, dry place, and occasionally turning them +over, there need be little fear but that the seeds will turn out well. + + + + +CHAPTER III + +PROPAGATING TREES AND SHRUBS + + +There are several methods of propagating trees and shrubs: such as by +seed-sowing, from cuttings or layers, and by budding and grafting. + +=From Seed.=—This natural process of reproduction is that most commonly +adopted where large numbers of trees are required—indeed, certain +species, particularly of the Coniferæ, cannot successfully be raised +in any other way. The preparation of the seed-beds is a point that +deserves far more attention than it usually receives, and that not +only on economic grounds, but in view of the general appearance of the +nursery borders as well. To tumble the seeds indiscriminately into +the ground as if they had fallen in showers from the trees is highly +objectionable; and just as censurable is the too-oft-repeated practice +of sowing these in rough, cloddy, and ill-prepared ground. + +Systematic arrangement in the laying out of the beds, as to the number +and requirements of the future seedlings, should also be attended to. + +The ground intended for seed-beds should be trenched or deeply dug up; +but this operation would, for the mellowing and cleaning of the soil, +be better performed the autumn before than at the time of sowing down. + +In any case, just before sowing, the ground should be carefully turned +over, all hard clods being broken down, and large stones raked off, +the surface soil to the depth of 3 in. or 4 in. being made as fine as +possible. Dry weather must be chosen for the formation of seed-beds, +as also, indeed, for the sowing of the seeds. The beds are marked off +and prepared as follows:—A light, strong line is stretched along the +ground at, say, 3 ft. from the boundary fence or path, and, after +being fixed at each end, the first alley, or path, is marked out by +treading the soil alongside of the line. The length of the bed thus +marked off on one side is quite immaterial, but the width is of great +importance, and should never exceed 4 ft.; 3 ft. 6 in. is nearer the +mark. + +Adjoining this first line, a bed the above width is marked off with +a peg or stake at each end, the line reset and a second alley marked +off. The alley, or path, between each couple of beds need not exceed +15 in. in width, this being for the sake of convenience in sowing, +weeding, watering, shading, and otherwise attending to the bed, and +its occupants. Outside this follows a second bed, and so on, until +the desired number has been formed. Some persons raise the seed-beds +a little above the level of the paths, but, except in very retentive +or damp soils, this is not to be recommended. The beds should in +no instance, however, be below the level of the paths. There are +two methods employed in opening up and preparing the beds for the +reception of the seeds either of which, if carefully gone about, is +well suited for the exigencies of the case. My own way has always +been to level and smooth the surface of the bed with a small-toothed +rake, and after sowing the seeds to cover lightly with fine soil and +ashes carefully sifted over the bed by means of a small-meshed riddle. +This plan has many advantages, not the least important being the +covering of the seeds to an equal depth, and the employing of only the +finest class of soil. The other method is by using what is termed a +“cuffing-board”—that is, a board about 8 in. wide, placed on a handle, +which is inserted in the centre, towards the back, the handle being +fully 5 ft. long. A skilled person is required to use this tool, who +stands in the alley, first on one side of the bed, and then on the +other, pushing or drawing towards him from the surface of the bed a +thin coating of soil along its full length and from about two-thirds of +its surface. + +As to the amount or depth of soil taken off, this is regulated by the +particular kind of seed to be sown, as well as the nature of the soil. + +The next matter, the depth at which the seed should be sown, is one +of great importance. Usually seeds are sown unnecessarily deep. In +the majority of cases a safe guide is to place the seed, of whatever +kind it may be, about three diameters below the surface of the soil. +The conditions most favourable to germination are moderate dampness, +abundance of air, and a temperature of about 45°. In order to ensure +these conditions, the depth at which the seeds are placed will be +seen to be of the greatest moment. Generally speaking, the less seeds +are covered, consistently with their receiving a sufficient supply of +moisture, the better, and but for their destruction by birds, many +of the smaller seeds would vegetate just as well if cast upon the +ground-surface, and pressed in, as by being covered with soil. The +following interesting experiments with Scotch fir seeds have been made:— + + “Those buried one-fifth of an inch came up first, + but were subsequently less vigorous—they soon, + however, acquired vigour; + + “Those covered from one-third to one-half of an inch + came up more slowly, but evenly and strong; + + “Those buried from two-thirds of an inch to one inch + came up in deficient numbers; and + + “Those buried from one to two inches never showed any + signs of germination.” + +These statements are equally applicable to the sowing of seeds in +general but especially if their relative size and the hardness of their +covering are taken into account. + +Immediately after the bed is prepared the seed should be sown, the +amount used varying according to quality, which latter may readily be +tested by examining the embryos of a dozen seeds picked up at random +from the heap. To ascertain whether seeds are good, the simplest way +is to cut the sheath open with a sharp penknife, when the kernel ought +to completely fill the entire coating or shell. Small seeds might be +crushed by the nail, and if good, will leave traces of moisture or +emit an odour of turpentine. Another method is to place, one after +the other, say a dozen seeds taken at haphazard from the heap, on a +red-hot iron. If good they will turn about with a cracking report; but +if otherwise, combustion is slow and smoke is given off. + +Seed may, however, be considered good if the germinating test gives, +say, 70 per cent. + +The quantity of seed to be sown on a given area will depend mainly on +the quality and particular species. + +When sown broadcast, about a pound weight of larch, and full half a +pound of Scotch, is allowed per 100 square ft. of seed-bed. + +Generally, however, drill sowing is resorted to, and in this case the +following may be considered as about an average of the quantity used +per 100 square ft.: + + Alder 7¾ ozs. + Ash 5 ” + Austrian Pine 4¼ ” + Birch 6½ ” + Elm 3½ ” + Hornbeam 2¾ ” + Larch 7½ ” + Maple 5 ” + Scotch fir 2¾ ” + Silver ” 13 ” + Spruce ” 3½ ” + +Sometimes a small quantity of guano or other manure is sprinkled over +the seeds, after which they are gently pressed down with a light +roller, and the soil, which was temporarily deposited along the margin +of the bed, replaced by the “cuffing-board” or riddle. When seeds are +sown early, and with care, on well-prepared ground, watering is seldom +necessary; but still, with small seeds and in very dry ground, an +occasional sprinkling the last thing at night is highly beneficial. +Great care is, however, necessary to ensure the soil being thoroughly +moistened. Protection from mice and birds must be afforded in some such +manner as by coating the seeds with red lead; and an occasional shading +of the bed in very warm weather might be advocated. There are not a few +kinds of seeds, such as those with a hard covering, that it is almost +imperative to steep in water before sowing. Larch seed, in particular, +can be soaked for a week without fear or harm, and many leguminous +seeds for two or three days with great advantage. Some seeds do not +come up until the second year, such as the ash, pyrus, thorn, etc., and +in these cases it is but a waste of ground to sow them as collected. +They should be mixed with sand, as before directed, and stored away for +a year before being sown. + +It should also be remembered that, as a rule, the sooner seeds are sown +after being collected, the stronger will be the young plants. + +Soon after germination, hand weeding must be commenced, and this may +most successfully be performed after a shower of rain, as the young +plants then suffer less from loosening of the soil, consequent on +pulling out the weeds, than would be the case in dry and warm weather. + +The above method of raising plants from seeds will be found suitable in +most cases, but in respect of choice or half-hardy trees the shelter +afforded by a frame is usually provided. In this case the seeds are +sown in pots or shallow boxes, according to quantity, and placed in an +unheated frame. + +The best time for seed-sowing is from the first to the fifteenth of +April. + +Transplanting the young seedlings may be taken in hand usually after +the first year, but no hard and fast line can be laid down, so much +depending on the season and rate of growth of the young plants. The +experienced eye can always tell when seedlings should be lined out. The +best time for this operation is after the spring frosts are at an end, +for, if planted out in the autumn, the frost is apt to lift the tiny +seedlings wholesale from the ground. + +After this they should be transplanted at least every second year until +planted out permanently. + +=By Cuttings.=—Propagating trees and shrubs from cuttings is at once a +simple and inexpensive way of getting up a stock of such kinds as may +be increased in that way. The best months are August and September, at +which time the temperature of the earth and air are equal, and roots +are most readily emitted. + +Choose a sheltered and partially shady border for the insertion of the +cuttings, and be sure that the soil is not stiff and water-logged, but +fine, rather inclined to sandy, and moderately dry. It should be well +forked over and cleaned of weeds, large stones being also removed. + +The cuttings may be made of the present year’s growth, with a small +portion—“heel” it is generally termed—of the old wood, and cut clean +across beneath where a bud or shoot has protruded. Until a sufficient +quantity has been made, they should be stuck loosely in a heap of sand +or soil, and in the shade. Cuttings should be taken from the sunny side +of a tree or shrub. + +In planting the cuttings, stretch a garden line along the previously +prepared ground, and, having removed a trench about 6 in. deep, by +cutting in a perpendicular manner with a spade along the front of the +line, proceed to place the cuttings not too closely together, and +leaning somewhat backwards in the trench cut out. This being done, it +is always well, so as to hasten the formation of roots, to sprinkle a +small quantity of sand or grit along at the base of the cuttings, at +the same time regulating these as to their distances apart and upward +inclination, the remaining portion of the trench being filled up with +the soil formerly removed. Firm tramping is one of the chief points to +be observed, as cuttings will not take at all quickly in loose soil. +The line should then be moved forwards about 12 in. and the same method +of procedure followed until the whole of the cuttings are inserted. For +such shrubs as the common and Portugal laurel, privet, box, euonymus, +laurestinus, aucuba, etc., the above method will be found the quickest +and best for raising young plants from cuttings. It should be stated +that cuttings taken from the sunny side of a tree or shrub always root +more freely, and turn out a greater number of plants, than such as have +been cut from the shady side—indeed, this point should be carefully +borne in mind and acted upon. Conifers, such as the various species of +Cupressus, Juniperus, the Wellingtonia, etc., are also readily raised +from cuttings inserted in the ground out of doors. It is, however, +well to put such cuttings in boxes, so that they have the advantage of +being placed in an unheated frame, this greatly enhancing the speedy +formation of roots. Two or three large frames are always useful in +the nursery for the reception of choice cuttings, seeds, etc., and +if boxes, say, 24 in. by 14 in. by 5 in., are made just to suit the +dimensions of the frames, a great number of young plants, cuttings, and +seeds of the less common kinds will find a beneficial protection. The +boxes should be made of stout wood, and have six holes bored in the +bottom of each, so that the excess water may readily pass away. Before +planting these, fill each with a mixture of half sand, half soil, +broken finely down, the cuttings being inserted in small holes made by +a sharp-pointed stick. A thin coating of sand placed on the surface +will greatly facilitate the process of rooting. Cuttings of coniferous +trees should have 2 in. of ripened wood attached to them, and be +inserted 4 in. deep in the ground; while, for most others, the cuttings +may be 8 in. long, 3 in. being inserted in the soil. + +=From Layers.=—For increasing game coverts, shrubberies, or some of +those trees and shrubs that cannot well and speedily be raised from +cuttings or seed, layering will be found a convenient and cheap method. +There are several other advantages too, as no protection of any kind +is necessary, and the risk of loss is reduced to a minimum. It is, +however, generally resorted to as a means of increasing such plants as +cannot readily be raised from cuttings, and applies with greatest force +to the rhododendrons and azaleas, the magnolias, coniferæ of various +kinds, and several species of our hardy deciduous trees. + +The operation of layering is very simple, and consists merely in +bending down the outer branch of a tree or shrub and bringing it in +contact with the soil, it being there held in position by means of +a hooked peg. Before fastening the layer with the peg, it is well, +however, to remove a portion of the bark from that part of the layer +that is to be brought in contact with the ground, this arresting the +flow of sap and hastening the formation of roots. The soil beneath +the tree or shrub should be first loosened, and, if found hard and +stiff, a small quantity of sand and leaf soil might with advantage be +added. The same principle is carried out in all kinds of layering, but +the position of the plant will alter the method of bending over and +bringing in contact with the soil. In the case of layering coniferæ it +is not only necessary to bend over and peg down the branch, but, so as +to form a leader and assist in gaining an upright position, it should +also be tied or staked in a vertical position. Generally speaking, +trees and shrubs require two years before the branches that are layered +are sufficiently well rooted to be removed from the parent, but a few +kinds require nearly double that time before they can be severed with +safety. A good plan is, after the second or third year, to cut through +the layered branch behind the point that is brought in contact with the +ground, and to let it remain in position for another year. It may then, +except in a very few cases, be lifted and lined out with others in the +nursery border, the object being to get it into a good habit of growth +before being finally planted out. + +Most varieties of trees and shrubs can readily be increased by layering +the side branches in the way above described, and it is a good plan to +cover over with a spadeful of earth that part of the branch brought in +contact with the ground. + +=By Grafting.=—This may best be described as a makeshift method of +increasing trees and shrubs. It has only a few advantages, and many +disadvantages, as is well known to every one on a large estate who goes +in for collections of the less common kinds of trees and shrubs. + +If a plant cannot be increased conveniently by any of the above methods +grafting may be resorted to, but the work should only be entrusted +to those who have great practical knowledge of the art, and who have +paid particular attention to the evils attending injudicious grafting. +Some of the errors in grafting may be cited as follows: Working on too +tall stocks whereby an unnatural appearance and continual source of +danger in windy weather are brought about; grafting small scions on +large stocks, and grafting evergreen on deciduous species—all of which +have tended, in a marked degree, to lower the art in the opinion of +horticulturists generally. + +The grafting of conifers may be performed at one of two seasons: either +early in spring or about the month of August. Two-year-old stock are +mostly to be preferred, so that the stock and scion may be of as near +a size as possible. Several methods of grafting are adopted, but that +generally practised is what is known as “side grafting.” This consists +in making a clean cut in the stem, downwards, for about an inch in +length. A transverse cut is made at the termination of this first cut, +whereby a piece of the bark wood is removed from the side of the stock. +The scion is next prepared by being cut off square at the end, and one +side of the wood shaved off for about an equal length to the cut on the +stock. Place the scion in the notch made on the stock, and be careful +that the barks, on one side at least, come neatly together, for on this +hangs the whole fate of successful grafting. The scion should, indeed, +be made to fit as nearly as possible and replace the wedge cut from the +stock. Tie firmly and carefully with bast matting, and cover over with +prepared clay or grafting wax. Another method consists in making an +incision obliquely in the stock, the scion being so prepared that one +side of it forms a sharp edge, in order that it may be readily inserted +therein, the bark of the scion and stock coming neatly together. Tie +with matting as before directed, and cover over with clay or grafting +wax. Inarching, or grafting by approach, consists in bringing the scion +into union with the stock without detaching it from its own stem, and +the separation is not made until the new connection has been formed. + +=Budding.=—This is usually performed in July, and in the case of +certain shrubs has been found useful. The bud should, in addition to +its strip of bark, have a portion of the cambium attached, as unless +this be present to unite with the cambium of the stock the operation +will fail. + +The bark of the stock is cut into a =T= shape, opened with the end +of the budding knife, and the bud slipped neatly in. Bast matting +will serve for tying, until a junction takes place, which is usually +effected in five or six weeks. + + + + +CHAPTER IV + +THE HOME NURSERY: ITS FORMATION AND MANAGEMENT + + +In the course of my experience on large estates where planting has +been extensively engaged in, few things have been more particularly +impressed upon me than the importance of having a well-managed and +well-stocked home nursery, where the propagating and raising of +trees and shrubs required for forest and ornamental planting may be +taken in hand. The numerous advantages of a home nursery, especially +where planting is extensively carried out, are now so well known and +appreciated by every proprietor of large estates that comment on this +subject seems almost unnecessary. + +Where ornamental planting, the formation of woods and plantations, game +coverts, or hedging is performed on an extensive scale, the convenience +of a home nursery cannot be over-valued, the plants being at hand when +wanted, of the size and in the quantity required, and known to be well +rooted, sturdy, and free from disease. + +The advantages in these cases are too well known to require comment, +and plants, more especially those of a large size, sent from even a +short distance by either road or rail, cannot be expected to succeed +equally with those raised and planted on the same day. The extra soil, +or ball, with which large plants can be removed for a short distance is +also much in their favour, but it is next to impossible to retain this +where packing and transit have to be resorted to. + +It is well known that too sudden a change from rich, well-sheltered +nursery borders to bare, exposed hillsides often proves fatal to +young plants; and, when we consider that few public nurseries are at +a greater elevation than about 500 ft., the necessity of proprietors +rearing their own stock, whose plantations are, perhaps, upwards of +1,000 ft. above sea-level, will the more readily be seen. There are +certain difficulties to contend with in planting high-lying ground, +more especially if the soil is poor and thin, and the situation +exposed, and in these cases the advantage of using hardy plants that +have frequently been transplanted in a well-chosen home nursery at +a fair altitude is very noticeable, especially when contrasted with +others that have been grown under more favourable circumstances and +in a sheltered position. Some plants seem better adapted than others +for this removal, but in the majority of cases the shock sustained by +transferring from low-lying ground to that at a great elevation is only +too apparent, and one from which the plants seldom recover. The same +holds good in the case of seaside and town planting. + +Of late years in particular, a good deal of comment has taken place +as to the necessity of rearing trees from seed sown on the site of +the future plantation, and although the suggestion has many points in +its favour, still artificial planting is better adapted to the wants +of our country, and is not at all likely to be superseded by natural +reproduction, which is more fitted for countries differently situated +from our own. + +The nursery treatment of plants is, therefore, sure to remain a +prominent feature of British forestry, and this being the case, the +soil and situation, as well as the most successful treatment of these, +with a view to producing plants suitable for the positions they are +intended to occupy, will require due consideration. This will vary much +according to the situation of the estate and ground to be planted. In +choosing the site of a home nursery, a great deal will depend on the +general elevation and exposure of the estate. The situation should +neither be too much exposed nor yet too sheltered, and should have a +southern or western aspect; for, although too sudden a change from +sheltered to exposed ground often proves fatal to young trees, this +should not altogether form a criterion for rearing them in situations +unfavourable to the development of strong, healthy plants. The soil +should be good, friable loam, on an open, porous subsoil; but the +quality of ground required for different seedlings is so diversified +that it is next to impossible to suit all within the small bounds +required for a home nursery. + +As water is indispensable where seedlings are raised, as well as for +numerous other purposes in the nursery, it is well to have provision +made for a continuous supply, either by a stream running through the +ground, or in close contiguity to it, or by having a pipe laid on from +the main water-supply. + +From six acres to ten or even fifteen acres will be found sufficient +nursery ground for most estates, but it is always advisable to add +a little more than is really required, so that the brakes may not +be all under forest trees at the same time, but undergo, when found +necessary, a course of green crops, which will not only enrich, but +clean, the ground and leave it in good condition for replanting with +seedling forest plants, bearing in mind that farmyard manure should +always be applied first to the green crop, and never directly to the +plants themselves. When a plot has become impoverished by repeated +croppings of forest trees, a heavy coating of well-decomposed farmyard +manure should be applied, and the ground planted with potatoes, or sown +down with turnips. This has an almost magical effect in improving, +regenerating, and cleaning the ground, and leaving it in the best +possible condition for receiving a crop of forest plants. Land intended +for nursery ground should be thoroughly trenched to the full depth of +the soil, taking care, at the same time, that the best soil is kept +within a reasonable distance of the surface, and, where necessary, +heavily manured or enriched by the addition of lime, vegetable soil, or +loam as the case may be. + +In laying out the ground into brakes it will be found convenient to +have these either square or rectangular in shape and, if possible, +parallel with each other. The brakes should be of different sizes, and +divided from each other by walks or hedges, but the fewer of the latter +the better. It is well for convenience sake to have a border, say from +12-15 ft. wide, running around the nursery, which may be stocked with +such trees and shrubs as are only limited in demand. A narrow border +like this is of great value, too, for planting out seedling stock of +the less common kinds, for the insertion of cuttings of the rarer +shrubs, as well as for any odds and ends that may be collected. + +[Illustration: PLAN OF NURSERY. + +Roadway, 9 ft. wide; Paths, 4 ft. wide; Border, 12 ft. wide.] + +The site chosen for the seed-beds should be naturally sheltered, or +failing this, such artificial shelter as is found necessary should be +provided, as exposure of the young plants to cold, cutting winds causes +them to become stunted and bark-bound. There should be a few cold +frames for raising choice seeds and cuttings, but, as a rule, the less +glass the better. In stocking the home nursery, it is always preferable +to buy young plants of the kinds most needed, as also a few older +specimens of such kinds as it may be deemed advisable to propagate +from layers or by cuttings. Seedlings of many trees and shrubs can be +procured from plantations on the estate, and when such are grown on, +and carefully transplanted for two, three, or four years in the nursery +borders, they soon form stout, bushy, and well-rooted specimens of the +greatest value for forest-planting. This is a good and comparatively +inexpensive way of getting up a stock of many trees and shrubs, but +particularly such as are reproduced plentifully in a wild state. In the +management of a home nursery the amount of care and attention required +is certainly great; but any trouble, as well as expense, connected with +starting and keeping it in good condition afterwards will be amply +repaid by the increased value and superiority of the stock obtained. + +In the working of the home nursery no hard and fast lines can be laid +down, the nature of the season having much to do with the time at which +the various operations may be taken in hand. A wet spring retards +seed-sowing, a damp summer the killing-out of weeds and cleaning of the +ground, and early autumn frosts transplanting. + +For the various seasons the nursery-work might, however, be sketched as +follows:— + +=Spring.=—By February, all trenching, digging, manuring, top-dressing, +and such-like work should be completed. Larch and thorn should be +planted at once, as they start early into growth, following up with +the various kinds of hardwoods and pines. Layers should be planted +out and trees for grafting and budding made ready. Collect larch and +pine cones, and when quite dry store away in a cool, airy place, until +wanted for sowing. During March and April general grafting may be +taken in hand. Ornamental coniferæ may be pruned and transplanted, and +towards the middle of April plants from the seed-beds may safely be +lined out in a sheltered part of the nursery. Tree seeds of all kinds +should be collected as opportunity offers. In February sow yew, holly +and thorn; in March, birch, beech and alder; in April, larch, silver +fir, Scotch, Austrian and Corsican pines; and seeds of the less hardy +coniferæ may be sown in pans or boxes and placed in a cool frame. +General nursery-work should be finished up by the end of April. + +[Illustration: TOOLS REQUIRED IN NURSERY.] + +=Summer.=—The keeping down of weeds, watering and shading seed-beds, +and turning over and mixing of compost-heaps will be the principal work +for the months of May, June and July. Hollies should be planted out in +May, and seedlings of the same kind lined out in the nursery borders. + +Elm seeds may be collected as they ripen, and some of these sown in +well-pulverized beds in June. + +=Autumn.=—Weeds will still require attention, particularly in +seed-beds, and amongst young trees that have been recently planted out. +General transplanting of shrubs, particularly evergreens, may now go +on, and seedlings be lined out. Cuttings should be inserted in light +sandy soil by the middle of August, or when the temperature of the +earth and air is most nearly equal. + +Trim nursery fences, cut grass, clean walks and roads, and attend +generally to neatness and order. Look over the brakes of pines, and +remove and burn such as are attacked by any of the various insect and +fungus pests to which they are liable. The seeds of ash, hornbeam, yew +and thorn should be collected and placed in barrels with about an equal +bulk of sand, to hasten the decomposition of the outer coating. + +=Winter.=—The early winter months will be a busy time in the nursery, +the lifting and dispatching of trees for forest-planting being one of +the principal operations—at least, so long as the weather remains mild +and open. As time permits, two and three year old plants should be +lined out, well-rooted cuttings lifted and transplanted, and layers +from old stools carefully cut away and placed in the borders for a +year or two before being finally planted out. Turn manure-heaps, and +add a small quantity of fresh lime to hasten general decomposition, to +sweeten the soil, and deprive the seeds of weeds of their germinative +properties. + +Sloe, holly, and similar berries may be collected as they ripen, and +stored in the usual way. + +In November and December, horse chestnut, oak and hazel may be sown in +well-pulverized beds of good, rich soil. Ash and hornbeam are sometimes +sown in January. + + + + +CHAPTER V + +FORMATION OF PLANTATIONS + + +=Laying out the Boundary.=—Before commencing actual planting operations +several preliminaries must be attended to. These will include (1) +laying out the boundary, (2) clearing the ground of rough-growing +vegetation, (3) drainage where necessary, (4) fencing, and (5) laying +out such roads as may be necessary for the efficient working of the +plantation. For the benefit of the trees, for shelter purposes, and for +the general appearance of the landscape, it would be well were more +attention paid to the laying out of the sites for new plantations. In +many cases, however, there is no choice in the matter, the proprietor +saying, Here is a field that is of no great value for agricultural +purposes, plant it up. But in the case of hillside or moorland planting +the matter is usually different, the choice of ground, size of +plantation, and method of planting being left entirely in the hands of +the forester. Many considerations will tend to determine the position +of boundaries—bounds of property, proximity to roads, public paths, and +the existence or future probabilities of modes of transit, all being +more or less significant factors. + +First, however, it is advisable to take into consideration when +planting hillside or moorland, the shelter to be afforded to cultivated +land in the neighbourhood, but a combination of this with the +aforementioned considerations will be all-important. + +The form of the outline must also be laid out with due regard to the +prevailing wind, and should always present a convex side towards it, as +it is obvious that on striking such a curve the force of the wind would +be divided and expend itself in two opposite directions, thereby losing +much of its destructive power. Blending one curve with another should +be strictly observed, and continuous straight lines should be avoided, +not only for appearance sake, but as it is well known that the most +destructive force of the wind concentrates on such outlines. + +[Illustration: HILLSIDE WITH PLANTING ARTISTICALLY ARRANGED] + +[Illustration: SAME HILLSIDE WITH STIFFLY ARRANGED PLANTATION] + +=Woodland Roads.=—These are necessary for access to the wood when +thinning, the removal of timber and firewood, and for sporting +purposes. They should either be pegged out or formed before planting +operations have been commenced, and need neither be of an elaborate +character nor attended with great expense in construction. According +to the area of the plantation, so should the roads be arranged, and a +considerable saving is effected by laying out the roads and leaving +them unplanted. Usually they are made 30 ft. wide, and only require +to have the surface equalised and any stagnant moisture removed by +drainage. + +It is a good plan, so as at all times to keep the drives in a passable, +dry condition, to cut a ditch along each side of the ride, parallel to +it, and, say, 18 in. wide by 15 in. deep. The soil so removed will come +in for filling up inequalities on the road surface. Steep roads should +be avoided by following, in quickly sloping woodlands, the curve of +the ground., For sowing down woodland drives, bridle-paths, etc., the +following mixture of grass seeds is to be recommended:— + + lbs. + Timothy grass, hard fescue, tall fescue, and + meadow foxtail, 2 lbs. each 8 + Smooth stalked meadow and rough cocksfoot, + 4 lbs. each 8 + Rough stalked meadow and sweet-scented vernal, + 4 lbs. each 8 + Wood meadow grass 8 + ———— + Total 32 + +In sowing down gravelly or sandy rides, I have found the Lyme or sand +grass—_Elymus arenarius_—and the Sea Matweed—_Psamma arenaria_—to +answer well, the seeds of each being sown in equal proportions. + +Before sowing down woodland rides the soil should be well consolidated, +and all surface inequalities levelled. + +=Fencing.=—Local circumstances will often determine the mode of fencing +new plantations. Where stones are abundant these may be utilized in the +formation of walls, while in districts where slate abounds excellent +fences of this kind may be erected at a cheap cost. + +Turf walls and ditches are sometimes formed as plantation boundaries, +but unless carefully looked after they are rarely very successful. + +Stone and turf walls are now, however, almost entirely superseded by +iron fencing, it being not only readily conveyed to any desired point, +but quickly erected and moderately cheap. + +To recommend any particular system of wire fencing would, for various +reasons, be out of place, for amongst the numerous kinds now offered +almost any desired pattern can be obtained. + +In any case the fence need not exceed 3 ft. 6 in. in height, with +seven-strand wires, two No. 6 and five No. 7; and, as this is placed +in position at so much per mile by the makers, it is always well, so +as to avoid bad erection and keep down expense, to have it so put up. +Where an abundance of larch timber is growing on the estate, it would, +perhaps, be unwise to employ iron, but in the majority of cases it will +be found cheapest in the end to have the fences erected wholly of iron +and wire. + +The straining-posts should be of sound, well-seasoned larch or oak, and +7 ft. long by 6 in. square, or if round 7 in. in diameter. + +The intermediate posts are usually of larch, 5½ ft. long by 3½ in., by +3 in., or if round, not less than 3½ in. diameter at small end. + +The straining-posts are placed in the ground at 150 yards apart, with +an additional strong post at every angle or curve that occurs in the +line of fence. The intermediate posts are pointed and driven into the +ground along the line of fence at 6 ft. apart. + +In order to make a fence proof against the inroads of sheep and cattle +not less than six wires should be erected, and galvanized strand wire +is preferable. The total height of the fence need not exceed 3 ft. 6 +in., and the top wires should be placed farther apart than those lower +down. + +In tightening the wires a straining machine is usually employed, but +brackets for the same purpose are preferable, these being attached to +the straining-posts. + +They are of particular value, as the wire can be tightened or slackened +at will. + +The posts should be rounded on the top or sawn with a slant, so that +the rain may run off. + +=Draining the Ground.=—Efficient drainage must be considered as one of +the most important operations in the formation of a plantation. Every +portion of the ground may not, probably, require to be drained, but +where it is at all surcharged with moisture the removal of such will be +a step in the right direction if the future welfare of the trees is a +point of first importance. In commencing draining the position of the +main outlet must first be determined, and in doing so every fall of +the ground should be taken advantage of. It is quite impossible to lay +down rules as to the number, sizes, and distances apart of the various +drains, these being points that can only be satisfactorily settled +on the spot, and when the nature of the soil, lie of the ground, and +amount of rainfall to be carried off are determined. In most cases, +however, the main drains should be from 2 ft. 6 in. to fully 3 ft. wide +at the top or surface, from 10 in. to 12 in. wide at the bottom, and +about 3 ft. deep. The minor drains may be less in proportion to the +mains, and are usually 2 ft. deep, 2½ ft. wide at top, and the width of +the draining spade at bottom. + +According to the nature of the ground so will the distances at which +the drains should be cut vary, but in most cases from 15 ft. to 30 ft., +sometimes even less, and sometimes considerably more. The minor drains +should never run at right angles to the main, but at about 45°, which +will prevent the mouths becoming choked up when there is a rush of +water in the main. The soil removed from the drains should be evenly +spread out over the ground-surface. + +[Illustration: TOOLS USED IN DRAINING] + +=Levelling.=—In the carrying out of drainage operations in connexion +with the formation of new plantations, but particularly where the +land is nearly level, one of the most necessary implements is the +spirit-level or theodolite. There are many other operations, as well +as in connexion with draining, where the level and the knowledge of +its working are all-important for the forester. Thus in the formation +of roads and paths, levelling of ground inequalities, lake and pond +forming, etc., the level will be found an almost indispensable +instrument—in fact, it cannot well be done without. + +Of levelling instruments there are various descriptions, but the +simplest of any is the ordinary spirit-level, it being cheap, easily +carried about in the pocket, and when erected on a temporary staff +will fall in with most requirements in connexion with general forest +work. The illustration (Fig. 1) will give a good idea of the simple +instrument. When in use the spirit-level is fixed in a frame of brass, +the whole being screwed into a staff or support, _e_. The brass screw, +_d_, serves to adjust the level as required. + +There are two eyesights, _a_ and _b_, the latter being a square +opening, with a fine hair wire crossing it in the middle. + +[Illustration: FIG. 1. SPIRIT-LEVEL.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 2. METHOD OF LEVELLING.] + +The relative heights of a series of points are obtained by means of +their vertical distances from others which, on the supposition of +the earth being a sphere, are equally distant from its centre, and +these, which are called level-points, must be found by an instrument +constructed for the purpose—spirit-level, theodolite, etc. Generally +choice is made of any convenient stations, _a, b, c, d_, on the line of +operation (see Fig. 2), and the distances between them are determined +by actual ad-measurement. The instrument is then set up and adjusted +at, or near, the middle of the interval between every two such points +in succession. When the level thus placed, as at _f_, has been rendered +horizontal by means of the adjusting screw, an assistant at each of +the stations _a_ and _b_, holding what is called a station-staff in +a vertical position, moves an index along the staff, up or down, as +dictated by the observer of the level, till it coincides with the +intersecting wire as seen in the eyesight or telescope. The points +thus determined on the stave are represented by _e_ and _g_, and these +are termed level-points, or points equally distant from the centre of +the earth. Therefore the heights _a, e_, and _b, g_, being read on the +graduated staves, the difference between them will give the relative +heights of the ground at _a_ and _b_. Similar processes are repeated +with respect to the points _b_ and _c_, and _c_ and _d_, the instrument +being placed at _i_ and _m_, midway between them. Usually the heights +_b g, c l_ and _d n_ are inserted in a column headed “Foresights,” and +the heights _a e, b h_, _c k_ and _d n_ in a collateral column headed +“Backsights.” The difference between the sums of the numbers in these +two columns will be equal to the height of one extremity (_a_) of the +line, above the other (_d_). When a number of levels have to be taken +in succession, it will be found a saving of time to use the surveyor’s +level or theodolite instead of the ordinary spirit-level illustrated. + +With regard to the use of the instrument as shown in Fig. 1, it may +be necessary to state that the height of the eyesight _b_ from the +ground must be deducted from the point observed. As an example: if the +object-pole or staff be marked in feet or inches, and the hair wire in +taking a sight strike the same at, say, 8 ft., then, if the eyesight be +4 ft. from the ground, the difference of level between the two stations +(instrument and station) will be 4 ft., that is, there will be 4 ft. +of a fall from the spirit-level station to that of the station where +the staff was placed. On the other hand, should the hair wire strike +the object-pole at, say, 2 ft. from the ground, these 2 ft. must be +deducted from the height of the eyesight, which, as we have said, was 4 +ft., then the ground at the station-pole must be 2 ft. higher than that +at the spirit-level. + +=Clearing the Ground.=—Coarse-growing herbage, which often includes +heath, gorse, and rough grasses, that would interfere with planting +operations, should be removed, but not indiscriminately, as it may +prove of inestimable value under certain conditions. On exposed and +high-lying ground, the heath and grasses will prove of great advantage +to the young trees, and usually they are not too luxuriant or apt to +cause damage at high altitudes. Where, however, the growth of such +shrubs or grasses would be detrimental to the young trees, by all means +have them removed. The best way is either to cut them over or grub +out by the root, and burn on the ground. During a continuance of dry +weather it may be possible to burn without either cutting or uprooting, +but, generally speaking, removal of the roots is to be encouraged. + +=Pitting.=—The advantages of pitting over any method of planting +cannot be questioned, and this is particularly the case with ground +that has hitherto been uncultivated. Compared with notch planting, +this system is, no doubt, more expensive, but that the future benefits +to the plants are greatly enhanced is admitted by all practical +arboriculturists. + +It is not, however, to be inferred that, though pitting is preferable, +notching is to be abandoned, for there are many precipitous, rocky +places where it would be the only practice feasible, and plants so +inserted have often succeeded admirably. + +The pits should in all cases be opened for some time before +planting—indeed, in unfavourable soils and situations, it is a good +practice to have such work performed in autumn and the plants inserted +the following spring. By so doing, the earth that has been removed from +the pits will lie fully exposed to the mellowing influences of frost +and sunshine, so that when the time for replacing it comes round, it +will be in the best possible condition for applying to the roots of the +young trees. + +The pits in uncultivated lands should be made circular, about 18 in. in +diameter and fully 12 in. deep, and the sides and bottom well loosened +up with a pick. In loose or recently cultivated soil the pits may be +much smaller. Take off the surface turf in halves, placing these on one +side of the pit, and the soil on the other, for ease and convenience in +planting. When the ground slopes quickly the soil removed from the pits +should, so as to facilitate quick replacing, be deposited on the higher +side. + +=Planting.=—This may be successfully carried out during all open +weather from about the end of September to the beginning of April, but, +generally speaking, autumn planting is to be recommended. There are +several exceptions however: such as when we have to deal with peat bog, +water-logged soil, exposed hillsides, or land by the sea-coast. Where +the newly-inserted plants have to cope with prolonged storms, such as +we get on hillsides or by the sea, or contend with very uncongenial +soils, it is always a wise policy to defer planting until spring, or +just when the trees are about to make a start to growth, as they, with +their freshness and vigour undiminished by the change from the nursery +border to the more trying surroundings just referred to, are more +likely to take hold at once and succeed. + +The battering and swaying that autumn planted trees receive when +exposed to the hurricanes of our hillsides or seaside sites so enfeeble +them that, in spring, when growth should commence, the majority will be +found to be in a very unsatisfactory state, whereas, by inserting in +spring, when growth will soon be at its full activity, the chances of +succeeding are greatly enhanced. In peat bog the antiseptic properties +of the soil act dangerously on the roots of young trees if allowed +to remain therein for some time before active growth has commenced. +However, with the exceptions cited, tree planting throughout the +British Isles generally should be taken in hand as soon as the leaves +of the hardwood species have fallen, which usually takes place about +the second or third week of October, much depending on the particular +season. Lift the plants very carefully from the nursery brakes, and +do not, on any account, tolerate the too-often-enacted practice of +tearing the trees from the ground, and before they have been properly +loosened on both sides of the lines with a fork. To lift nursery stock +properly—and the extra expense incurred in so doing is money well +spent—a trench should be thrown out along each side of the line and +the soil undermined from beneath the roots, so that the plants can be +lifted without tearing or straining the tender rootlets. It is not +important, if the plants are inserted soon after being lifted, that +soil should accompany each, the roots being plentiful and unmutilated +making up for the want of this. Where, however, the plants have not +to be conveyed far from the home nursery to the plantation there is +no need to remove much of the soil, for if left intact the young tree +is far more likely to start away freely into growth than if this was +shaken clean off. + +[Illustration: TOOLS USED IN PLANTING] + +Immediate planting after being lifted is to be strongly recommended, +the evil of allowing plants to lie about exposed to wind and weather +being well known. Should it, however, not be convenient to plant at +once, the nursery-stock should be stood closely together, and some damp +straw, leaves, or soil heaped around the roots of the outer or exposed +specimens in the lot. In any case, the roots must never be allowed to +become dry and parched, or be subjected to frosty winds, as these act +most perniciously, and soon destroy the tender fibres and render them +almost useless for the purpose intended. + +In planting, spread the roots to their full extent in the pits, +avoiding all cramping and bending, placing the largest to the most +exposed side, and cover with earth, the finest soil being placed next +the roots, and the rougher and grassy on the top. Placing the turf in +the bottom of the pit, cutting it well up with the spade, putting a +little earth on the top of this, and then planting the trees, has its +advantages, the rotting turf acting as manure by the time the roots +have got down to it. + +=Slit or Notch Planting.=—This is done by simply cutting the sod or +surface by two strokes of the spade, and to the depth of about 5 in.: +thus =L= or =T=. With the first stroke the spade is inserted in the +ground in an almost perpendicular manner; it is then withdrawn and +inserted at right angles to the first notch and at the end of it, and +by pressing down the handle of the spade the turf is opened up, the +plant being inserted from the blade of the spade towards the further +end; the spade is then carefully withdrawn and the turf trampled so +as to cause the notches to close completely. This latter should be +strictly attended to, as should the notch be left partially open, the +plant will suffer from the admission of an undue quantity of air. The +operation requires two persons—a man to open the notch, and a boy to +insert the plant. It is chiefly employed in bare and hilly ground, and +large tracts of ground in Scotland have been very successfully operated +upon in this way. With the notch system there are advantages and +disadvantages. In the first instance, we have reduced cost, expedition, +and firm insertion; whilst in the second small plants only can be used, +the soil remains unbroken, and the root system presents an unnatural +position. + +The plants used with the notch system should not exceed 9 in. in +height. + +=The Planting-iron= has been found of great value for inserting small +forest trees in rocky ground, where it would be almost impossible to +do so in any other way. It is 17 in. long, weighs 3 lbs., and can be +conveniently used with one hand. + +Holding the “iron” slackly, the planter strikes it into the ground with +a force sufficient to drive the sharp, heart-pointed blade in about 3 +in. or 4 in. By pressing it down and towards the planter, with a slight +twist to the right, the left corner of the turf is opened up, the plant +being carefully inserted with all the roots beneath the ground. The +iron is then withdrawn, and the loosened turf made firm by tramping. + +Only a small plant should be inserted with the planting-iron, and great +care taken to insure the soil and turf being firmly pressed around the +stem of the young tree. + +=Planting Trees too deep.=—Fully 50 per cent. of the deaths amongst +newly-planted trees may be directly attributed to the pernicious +practice of too deep planting. Cases come before us frequently where, +owing to burying the roots of the trees and shrubs at too great a depth +in the soil, they have either died out or gradually become unhealthy +owing to strangulation and want of air. It is a mistaken idea that by +placing the roots at an excessive depth in the soil the young tree +will be better enabled to withstand wind, and so remain in an erect +position. Most workmen quite ignore the original mark on the tree stem +as to the depth it stood whilst in the nursery, and go to an opposite +extreme by covering up both root and stem to an unnecessary depth. +Large trees suffer quite as much from being planted too deep as those +of smaller growth. Quite recently we were asked to look at a large +number of lime trees about 16 ft. in height that had been planted for +several years without a sign of upward growth. The reason for this +was not hard to discover, for on unearthing one of the trees it was +found that the roots were covered with fully 2 ft. in depth of soil. +The trees in question had never budged an inch, and were from year to +year gradually on the decline owing to the ruinous practice of too +deep planting. No better guide as to the depth at which a tree should +be planted can be had than the distinct mark on the stem showing the +depth at which it stood whilst under nursery management. In order +to keep newly-planted trees from being damaged by rocking with the +wind, and to preserve them in an upright position, firm trampling is +all that is required. In very exposed situations it may sometimes be +found necessary to place a small piece of turf against the stem on +the opposite side from which it is leaning, and to make this firm by +means of the foot. Staking, at least in the case of small transplants, +is never necessary, though in the case of larger trees and where the +situation is exposed, light poles thrust into the ground to which +the stems are made fast may be found necessary. Of course, it is a +mistake to allow trees to rock about in the wind to such an extent +that the roots become strained and barked, and holes worked around the +stems, but this can readily be prevented by periodical examinations of +the newly-planted trees. Stones should never be placed in the holes +referred to, as they damage the roots, a piece of stiff turf or heavy +soil being far preferable. With a large experience of tree planting I +find that the general tendency is to plant too deep—an evil that it +is hoped these notes will be the means of remedying, in some cases at +least. + + + + +CHAPTER VI + +TREES FOR ECONOMIC PLANTING + + +From a commercial point of view the best trees to plant are such as +will produce the largest volume of the most valuable timber in the +shortest space of time. + +Amongst the several hundred species of trees that are cultivated in +this country it is a remarkable fact that less than twenty can be +recommended for profitable planting. Of course many others are valuable +as shade and shelter producers, but from a strictly economic point of +view, that is to say where the value of the timber is a point of first +consideration, only about ten hard-wooded and eight coniferous species +can be included in the list. + +Amongst hardwoods we have the oak, ash, beech, sycamore, elm, Spanish +chestnut, willow, poplar, alder and birch; while coniferous trees would +include the larch, Scotch and Corsican pines, common and Sitka spruce, +silver and Douglas firs, and possibly the giant Arborvitæ and Weymouth +pine. + +The =Oak=.—Than the timber of the oak none other produced in this +country is more lasting or valuable—indeed, in few other trees are the +qualities of strength and durability, hardness and elasticity combined +to such an extent. As might be expected, however, the value of oak +timber is greatly influenced by soil, that produced on deep, heavy loam +or clay lands being of superior quality. The colour of the wood also +varies greatly with age from a dark grey to a deep rich brown and even +green. Brown oak, which is almost confined to the Midland counties of +England, is considered to be wood in the first stage of decay, and +attacked by a fungus, and is generally associated with trees that are +long past their prime and whose larger limbs have become hollowed and +unhealthy. The finest examples I have seen of brown oak were produced +at Ampthill in Bedfordshire, and on the Welbeck Estate in Notts. The +beautiful vivid green colour assumed by oak timber under certain +conditions is due to the action of the fungus _Peziza æruginosa_. As +this colouring matter in the timber is quite permanent and cannot be +destroyed, wood so affected is eagerly bought up by the makers of fancy +furniture. Unhealthy or dead trees in damp shady positions are most +often attacked by the fungus, and we have known timber of the oak when +left lying about in the woodlands to assume this colour. Owing to the +scarcity and value of green oak timber experiments have been undertaken +to produce the colouring by artificial means, but as far as we are +aware the results were not satisfactory. The best examples of green oak +timber that we have seen were produced in Kent, and in the North of +Ireland. + +The =Ash=.—When viewed in a purely economic sense the ash must, next to +the oak, be considered as our most valuable forest tree. The massive, +deeply fluted, or cylindrical trunk, the weighty swelling branches, +and the usually pendant masses of the freshest pea-green foliage, all +combine to render this tree one of the most majestic for ornamental +planting, but particularly so when associated with others that are of +a darker shade of green. The ash is indigenous to Europe, Northern +Africa, and North America, while throughout the British Isles it is +widely dispersed. + +It thrives tolerably well in most soils and situations, but the finest +timber is produced in fairly sheltered sites, and where the soil is +rich and open or freely interspersed with loose rock or stones. In +order to produce clean, springy timber, such as is in request for the +making of tool-handles, aeroplanes and agricultural implements, the ash +should be planted thickly in order to induce straight stems that are +for the greater part destitute of branches. For black, peaty soils, +or that of a dampish, loamy character the sapling ash is peculiarly +suited, in which, after being cut over, it will reproduce itself +freely. At from thirty to forty years’ growth the ash is most valuable +for handle wood and for agricultural implements. + +The timber is hard, heavy, and flexible, and though rapidly grown it is +tough and elastic above that of any other tree grown in this country, +hence its universal employment for machinery and other special purposes +where great strength, combined with yielding powers, are points of +first consideration. Few timbers become useful at such an early age +as does the ash. At from four to six years’ growth it is fit for +walking sticks, for spade handles at ten years, while after that age +the uses to which it is applied are very numerous and diverse. For the +cartwright, the agricultural implement maker, carpenter, cooper and +turner, it is of special value. No timber has been found to equal it +for the making of oars, pulleys, blocks, ladders, hoops, and crates. +Owing to its sawing without splintering it is used for milkpails, +kitchen tables, staircases, and similar purposes, while when of large +size it is greatly in demand for furniture making. + +For smoking herrings ash wood has a certain local demand. Potash is +procured from the ashes of the branches, and the bark has a special +value in the tanning of nets. + +The =Beech=.—For profitable planting the beech is one of our most +valuable trees, while it has the extra recommendations that it grows +rapidly, succeeds well in the shade, and reproduces itself freely. + +The finest beech timber is produced on chalky or deep sandy soils, +the former being preferable as may be instanced by the comparatively +high price obtained for that grown on the Chiltern Hills and chalky +formations of parts of Kent and Herts. The growth of the beech is rapid +and it attains its prime at from sixty to seventy years, after which +age the timber often becomes black at the heart and accompanied by +rottenness and shakes which render it almost useless for constructive +purposes. It is better suited for indoor than outdoor use and is +extensively used in the making of Windsor chairs, for millwright and +engineering purposes, for the handles of carpenters’ tools, for bobbins +and, when clean and of large size, for the calendar machines of cloth +manufactures. + +[Illustration: STANDARD BEECH TREE] + +Growing on comparatively poor soils where other species will not +produce profitable timber the beech is particularly valuable on account +of its reproducing itself freely from seed and withstanding a greater +amount of shade than perhaps any other species. It associates well with +the oak under cultivation. + +The =Sycamore= for profitable planting can be recommended owing to the +high price which can be obtained for timber of large size, though even +when of thirty years’ growth it finds a ready market for bobbin making +and other turnery purposes. + +The most suitable soil for the sycamore is a dry sandy loam or even +deep sand. The tree is peculiarly suitable for planting in exposed or +seaside situations and also for standing alone as a field or hedgerow +tree. The timber is white, smooth and free from grain. It is used for +curtain rings, churns, butter prints, backs of violins, founders’ +patterns, cutting boards, and in the making of wooden vessels and +furniture. For calendar machines it is especially valuable. + +The =Sweet= or =Spanish Chestnut= is largely cultivated for the value +of the timber it produces. It thrives best on deep gravelly soil or on +granite or sandstone with a dry subsoil, and with a southern or western +exposure. The timber is of excellent quality and lasts well either in +water or above or below ground. It is often substituted for that of the +oak, and is extensively employed for mill timber, bridges, fencing of +all kinds, posts, stakes, casks, and for hop poles. + +The Spanish Chestnut is a tree of rapid growth and when the timber is +of fair size it finds a ready market, though at a lower figure than +that of the oak. + +Unfortunately the timber produced on certain soils and situations is +much reduced in value owing to cup shake. + +=Elm=, both English and Scotch, are extensively planted for the value +of timber produced. + +The timber of the English elm is of a rich brown colour, hard, tough +and usually twisted in the grain. Owing to the strength of its +lateral fibre the timber is much in request for making blocks for +ship’s riggings, while it furnishes naves for wheels, coffin boards, +furniture, pumps, piles, and is employed largely by the wheelwright. +For using under water it is the best wood cultivated in this country. + +The wood of the Scotch or Wych elm is considered to be more valuable +than that of the English species, and is used for similar purposes and +also as a substitute for ash. It is very liable to become rotten at the +core. + +=The Alder and its Uses.=—Whether viewed from a strictly commercial +standpoint, for its justly recognized capacity for thriving luxuriantly +where few other trees could exist, or for its ornamental qualities, the +common alder will be found to rank high among British forest trees. It +usually attains to a height of from 50 ft. to 60 ft., with a stout, +well branched trunk that is more or less gnarled and fluted. The +branches have an upward inclination, and are well clothed with roundly +wedge-shaped leaves that are of a deep, dark green colour. With age the +bark usually assumes a dark brown, or almost black, colour. The alder +is found in all parts of Europe, North Africa, and from Asia to Japan. +For planting in wet, even swampy, situations, where only a very limited +number of trees could eke out an existence, the alder is of particular +value, and it is in such situations that it attains to the largest size +and produces the greatest quantity of timber. Even in situations where +the poplar and willow find a difficulty in battling with the excessive +and stagnant moisture the alder thrives luxuriantly and reproduces +itself freely from seed. As an ornamental tree the alder is not much +in request, although the stately habit and ample deep-green foliage +render it of value in that respect. The fine old specimens by the river +and stream sides at Esher Place in Surrey, have a beauty that is quite +their own, and it is in such tranquil situations that the tree is seen +to perfection—the beauty of form and picturesque appearance causing +it to be unrivalled in river and lake scenery. The tree is readily +propagated and comparatively cheap in consequence, grows rapidly after +becoming established, and is not subject to disease or premature decay. + +Though soft, the timber of the alder is in much request, and in +consequence numerous wants are supplied by it. It is very durable +under water, and for this reason is largely employed for piles, bridge +foundations, water pipes, and for lining the banks of rapid running +streams and rivers. The celebrated bridge of the Rialto, at Venice, +was, according to Evelyn, built on piles of alder wood, while the city +of Ravenna was stated to have likewise been built on piles of the same +wood. For herring barrel staves the wood is also in request, as it +is for mill bobbins and turnery work. In cabinet work and for cheap +furniture alder wood is largely used, while as it does not readily +split, boards for the bottoms of carts and wheelbarrows are frequently +made of the same wood. + +The beautiful pale pink colour which the timber permanently retains +causes knotty planks to be in great demand for veneering purposes. + +In Wales, and throughout the Midland counties, large quantities of +alder timber are consumed in the making of clog soles, which, after +being roughly formed in the woodlands where the trees have been felled, +are sent by rail to several of the Lancashire towns to be finished off. +Throughout Ireland—chiefly the north—large numbers of clog soles, made +of alder, are annually employed in the manufacture of cheap boots; +indeed, in many parts the making of clogs is quite an industry. + +The bark of the alder is used in tanning leather, though in much +smaller quantities at present than was the case half a century ago, +when oak bark fetched as much as £10 a ton, and when none of the +chemicals that are now so commonly employed were offered in the market. +Excellent gunpowder is made of the wood, said to be second only in +quality to that prepared from the dogwood. The young shoots, according +to the peculiar way in which they are prepared, are employed in dyeing +red, brown, yellow, and black. + +Alder is generally in good demand at all stages of its growth, and +is seldom grown to very large dimensions. For the clogger, turner, +or charcoal burner it is of greatest value up to about thirty years’ +growth, while by cutting it over at that age a second crop springs +rapidly from the stools. + +The =Birch=.—It is hardly necessary to speak of the hardiness of the +birch, for no other native tree, not even the Scotch pine, ascends +to such elevations in Britain. The higher the tree ascends the more +shrub-like it becomes, until on very exposed rocky sites at great +altitudes it hardly exceeds a yard in height. + +As regards soil, the birch is by no means particular, for we find it +succeeding well even on that of a poor rocky or gravelly character. +The largest individual specimens always, however, occur at not too +high an altitude, and on soil of a light, loamy nature, an abundance +of moisture being still further favourable to quick development. +For planting on exposed ground for shelter-giving purposes, but +particularly where the soil is thin and poor, the birch is a most +valuable tree. Its growth is fairly rapid, and it does not suffer to +any appreciable extent either from insect or fungoid attacks. As a +coppice tree it is also valuable. + +The timber of the birch, though of little value for general estate +purposes, is largely employed in the arts and manufactures. It is +much used for thread bobbins, turnery work, shoe pegs, hoops, and +fish barrels, while it makes excellent firewood, and yields superior +charcoal for smelting purposes. In Wales large quantities of birch wood +are cut into clog soles, while the sabots used by the French peasantry +are also made of that wood. When of large size and good figure, +furniture and veneers are made of the wood, and on the Continent +felloes for carriage wheels. Brooms and switches are made of the +smaller branches or sprays, while the bark is used for tanning, and an +oil expressed from it is employed in the preparation of the well-known +and fragrant Russian leather. + +[Illustration: STEM OF THE TRUE “CRICKET BAT” WILLOW (_Salix cærulea_)] + +The =White= or =Huntingdon Willow= (_Salix alba_).—Whether for ornament +or utility the White or Huntingdon Willow must be considered as one of +our most valuable trees. The timber sells readily at all prices up to +10_s_. per cubic foot, and when it is considered that the tree will +succeed in dampish ground where most other species decline to grow, +and that it is of rapid growth, attaining maturity in less than forty +years, its value in economic planting will be recognized. At the outset +it may be well to point out that the wood of the particular willow +from which the best class of cricket bats are manufactured sells at a +higher rate than any other timber that is cultivated in this country. +There are many kinds of willows found growing throughout the British +Isles, but one alone produces the particular class of wood from which +first-class bats are turned out. Until quite lately the timber of the +White or Huntingdon Willow (_Salix alba_) was largely used in the +making of cricket bats, but it has been found that a cross between that +species and the crack willow (_S. fragilis_), and named _S. cærulea_, +produces by far the best wood for the manufacture of high-grade +cricket bats. In the trade the “Cricket Bat Willow,” as it is now +known throughout England, is popularly designated as the close-barked +willow in order to readily distinguish it from the open-barked or crack +willow. Confusion generally exists in determining the various forms +of willow, but in _S. cærulea_ the branches incline upwards; indeed, +the tree has a semi-fastigiate form of growth, and the branches also +have an upward tendency. The bark is a dark grey, with long, straight, +narrow fissures closely arranged and from which the term “close-barked” +is derived. The leaves are of a bluish tint or covered with bluish-grey +hairs beneath and long and narrow in shape, while an unerring point +of difference between the hybrid and other willows is that the tree +produces only female flowers. It may be well to mention in connexion +with the crack willow that the bark fissures are far more rugged and +placed farther apart than is the case with the true cricket bat willow, +_S. cærulea_. The great importance of recognizing and growing for +purely economic purposes the true variety will be apparent when it is +mentioned that makers of cricket bats will have nothing to do with any +but the true “close-barked” tree, and the English bat-maker is keen to +recognize the characteristics of the timber he requires, and will not +stick at paying exorbitant prices for trees of the right kind. + +As showing the value in England of the timber of the true bat-making +willow, it might be mentioned that in many instances that have come +under my notice as much as 16_s._ per cubit ft., or six times the price +of the best oak, has been paid for trees of the true _S. cærulea_. A +single tree growing in London lately sold at £10, and in Hertfordshire +eleven trees fetched the handsome sum of £81, while £20 was refused +for four trees growing in a wood in Essex. Such prices are, however, +exceptional, though on a visit to two of the largest bat-making +establishments in the metropolis I was told that for several years past +the average price paid for willow worked out at 6_s._ per cubit foot. +A well-known grower tells us that if planted in suitable soil a “set” +or cutting, which usually costs 1_s._ 6_d._, will in fifteen years be +worth about £6. + +The home of the true bat-making willow is in the Eastern English +counties, and it is there that the manufacturer goes when wishing to +purchase the most valuable timber for his special work. The propagation +of the bat-making willow is simple, either by rooted cuttings or +“sets,” the latter being the best and cheapest method. “Sets” are +usually from 12 to 20 ft. long, with a basal diameter of, say, 3 +ins., the best being got from pollarded trees, and straight, clean, +branchless shoots are preferable. They should be stripped of all side +branches for about three-fourths of their length and only cut in +spring. By placing these sets together in a ditch or pond for about a +month rootlets will be emitted, when they may be planted in previously +prepared holes, which are formed by driving an iron rod or stake in the +ground for a distance of, say, 2½ ft. + +The =Poplar=.—Several species of poplar are valuable for the timber +they produce, as also for their rapidity of growth and succeeding in +low-lying, damp ground. When clean grown and of large size the timber +sells readily at prices which vary from 1_s_. to 1_s_. 6_d_. per ft. + +Probably the most valuable species is the white poplar (_Populus +alba_), though the black Italian (_P. monilifera_) produces excellent +timber for which there is generally a demand. + +From a purely commercial point of view the above hard-wooded trees are +the only kinds that can be recommended for planting in this country. +The timber of the lime, hornbeam, walnut and one or two others at times +sells at a fair price, but the small quantity offered shows that they +have not been considered worthy of attention where the economic value +of the plantations was being considered. + + +CONIFEROUS TREES + +Amongst the many conifers that have been introduced to this country +during the last century very few can be recommended as suitable for +profitable planting. The following, so far as is known, are the only +species to be recommended:— + +The =Larch= (_Larix europæa_).—Both for and against the larch much +has been written and said, particularly of late years; but, however +much has been said in commendation of it, there can be no doubt that +to overstate its value as a timber tree in the economy of British +forestry would be a task of some difficulty. When we combine its great, +almost peculiar, aptitude to suit itself to nearly all conditions of +soils, altitudes, and diversities of climate, its long-established +value as a timber tree, rapidity of growth and ease of culture, it is +clear that no other tree cultivated in this country can be ranked on +a par with the larch. Unfortunately, however, of late years the larch +has suffered much from disease, the predisposing causes of which may +mainly be attributed to the variableness of our spring weather, and the +rapidly degenerating state of the tree—the latter chiefly brought about +by an injudicious selection of seed. By far too little attention has +been paid to this important matter, the result being that weakness and +tenderness have got into the constitution of the tree, and it is thus +unable to withstand even a few degrees of frost. So weakened, blight, +fungus, and ulceration find a footing, and thus the fell disease is +generated about which so much has been said and written of late years. +In my own opinion, strengthened by careful investigation and research, +induced tenderness in the constitution of the larch is the primary +cause of disease, cold winds and frost being the destructive agents, +and ulceration the direct consequence. + +Injury to the roots of the larch in transplanting is attended with most +injurious results. In corroboration of this, it may be stated that +natural or self-sown trees are, in this country, almost exempt from +disease. + +The variableness of our spring weather is, no doubt, one of the +predisposing causes of disease, for although no degree of cold +experienced in this country can injure the tree when leafless, yet few +are more sensitive when in young foliage. + +The durability of the wood of the larch is well known, and this +peculiarity is even noticeable when of only a few years’ growth. As +compared with Scotch and spruce firs, the wood of the larch is about +twice as durable—a fence of the latter cut at from twenty to thirty +years’ growth lasted from seventeen to twenty years, while that of +the spruce lasts about eleven years, and the Scotch seven years. This +refers especially to rails, not to posts, which decay in about half +that time. For mining and railway purposes the durability of larch wood +makes it much sought after, this being further enhanced by its extreme +lightness, the weight of a cubic foot when seasoned being only 34 lbs. +It takes a beautiful polish, works with great freedom, and, when fully +seasoned, is not at all liable to twist or warp. + +Substitutes for the larch have often been recommended, but, in the true +sense of the word, there are practically none, although, doubtless, +some of those whose claims have been set forth might to a certain +extent reflect one or more of its valuable qualities. + +=Sitka or Silver Spruce= (_Picea Sitchensis_).—From a purely commercial +point of view the Sitka or Silver Spruce is probably the most valuable +of any of the family to which it belongs. It is a tree of noble +growth in this country, several specimens being well over 100 ft. +in height and with boles that girth fully 10 ft. at a yard from the +ground, these dimensions being attained in seventy-five years. When +used as a standard, the tree is one of great beauty, the stiff and +rather irregularly disposed branches being thickly beset with vivid +bluish-green foliage that is silvery on the under side. It delights in +a cool, moist loam and not too exposed situation, but when grown on +gravel or any warm soil the foliage is distinctly meagre and affected +by red spider. The timber, which is remarkably light for its bulk, +strong and flexible, is of great value in the making of aeroplanes, and +special logs find a ready market at highly remunerative prices in the +London market. + +The =Corsican Pine= (_Pinus laricio_).—This is, undoubtedly, one of the +best all-round conifers that has found its way into the British Isles. +It is of very rapid growth, and well suited for planting, even in the +most exposed and wind-swept situations; a non-fastidious subject as to +soil, and a valuable timber-producer. + +As to its adaptability for withstanding long-continued cold blasts at +high altitudes, ample evidence can be adduced on many an English and +Scotch estate where the pine has been introduced into the woodlands in +such quantity as in certain places to form the ultimate or standing +crop. In North Wales, on one of the Snowdon range of hills, I have +planted the Corsican pine in great quantity. The plantation was, for +the greater part, fully exposed to the dreaded south-westerly wind, +which at times blows hard and long, and sweeps the hillsides with +terrific fury; yet, under such conditions, the Corsican pine has done +remarkably well—in fact, proved itself to be well suited for planting +at high altitudes on our English hillsides. Even at the highest point +of the woodlands in question, this pine has thriven in a manner that +is quite surprising, and thrown its stoutest branches out into the +very teeth of the blast, and that where hardly a hardwood tree could +survive, and even the Scotch fir shrank from the cold and almost +unceasing storms. Other notable instances of how well the Corsican does +on exposed ground and high altitudes might be pointed out—such as at +Blair Athol, in Perthshire, at 700 ft., where it is thriving amazingly; +and again in Yorkshire, one of the most barren and wind-swept of +English counties, where in parts, it grows with a luxuriance that is +almost unparalleled in any other part of Britain. The timber produced +by the Corsican pine in this country is strong, tough, elastic, very +resinous, and easily worked; this is speaking of trees of fully fifty +years’ growth. It thrives well on gravelly soil, some of the largest +specimens of the tree in this country growing along the margin of a +disused gravel-pit. + +It may be said that the Corsican pine is perfectly hardy, peculiarly +well suited for planting in exposed situations, a rapid and valuable +timber-producer, a tree that is cheaply and easily raised from +seed, and one of the most non-exacting conifers as regards choice +of soil that could be named—all qualities of the highest value in a +timber-producing tree and a combination that is rarely found in any +other species. + +In France extensive plantations of the Corsican have been formed, while +it has also been introduced extensively into the State forests by the +Prussian Government. + +[Illustration: THE WEYMOUTH PINE AT GWYDYR CASTLE] + +The =Weymouth Pine= (_P. Strobus_), whether viewed in an ornamental or +economic aspect, must be considered as another of the most valuable +pines that have been introduced into this country. Admit, we must, +that in certain situations the cultivation of this handsome tree has +been attended with no very promising results; but then it should be +remembered that, like most other trees, the Weymouth pine has its likes +and dislikes of soil, as well, indeed, as of aspect and altitude. +That it has succeeded well, and produced an unusually large quantity +of clean and firm wood in various parts of the country cannot be +denied; but then in such places its peculiar wants have been attended +to. At Gwydyr Castle, in North Wales, the tree succeeds admirably, +specimens fully 90 ft. in height, straight as arrows, branchless for +three-fourths their length, and fully 8 ft. in girth at breast-high, +being not uncommon. The soil is rocky debris, largely intermixed with +vegetable refuse, fairly moist at all times, but without stagnant +moisture. + +On the western borders of Ross-shire, at Strathkyle, where the +altitudes vary from 100 ft. to 1,200 ft., the Weymouth pine is making +rapid progress. We do not wish it to be inferred that the Weymouth +pine alone is suitable for planting at high altitudes and on exposed +situations; but that it will grow rapidly and produce useful timber +in partially-sheltered districts has been proved by those who have +paid particular attention to the value of the more recently introduced +conifers as profitable timber-producers in this country. + +A comparison of the wood produced by the Weymouth pine in this country +with that sent to the late Colonial and Indian Exhibition showed but +slight differences, and nothing more than could naturally be expected +between a mature and an only partially-developed tree. + +The =Scotch Pine= (_P. sylvestris_) must on no account be omitted from +our list; as, especially for planting in exposed situations where +few other trees could succeed, it is one of the best. Probably the +principal reason why this tree has not been more generally cultivated, +is on account of the low-priced timber it produces, for, of late years, +it has been difficult, except in certain favoured districts, to get +rid of it at a remunerative price. With the war, matters are quite +different. The finest quality of Scotch pine timber, such as that +produced in some of the northern Scottish counties, no doubt, is even +now fairly remunerative; but, generally speaking, that grown throughout +Southern Scotland, England as a whole, and also Ireland, is of so +inferior a quality as hardly to fetch a remunerative price. No doubt, +however, this pine will continue to be largely planted wherever shelter +and ornament are of first importance: and rightly so, for few others +are so well able to withstand cold, cutting blasts at high altitudes. + +The =Douglas Fir= (_Pseudotsuga Douglasii_) is, in certain situations, +a valuable timber-producing tree—indeed, as regards the actual +production of timber in a given time, it is, perhaps, ahead of any +other tree grown in this country. From measurements we have taken, the +actual production of timber during fifty years was 240 ft., or nearly +5 ft. per year for half a century. In a plantation of the Douglas fir +in Wales, planted twenty-two years, we found the average dimensions +to be as follows: Height, 76 ft.; girth of stem at 24 ft., 4 ft.; +cubic contents, fully 50 ft. The timber produced in this country is of +excellent quality, being light but strong, works very readily, has a +pleasant yellowish tinge, and takes on a good polish. That the Douglas +fir is a tree that is eminently adapted for cultivation in this country +is already well known; but to grow it in anything like a satisfactory +way it must be planted in sheltered hollows, for extensive experience +has long ago proved to us that it is ill-adapted for braving the storm, +even at a few feet above the sea-level. Long ago we strongly advocated +the forming of plantations of _P. Douglasii_ alone, or with some +other tree of about equally rapid growth, for, when mixed up with the +general run of our forest trees, the leader, on overtopping those of +its neighbours, soon gets broken over, or otherwise presents an almost +branchless, whip-handle-like appearance. We do not wish to say one word +against this our favourite fir: but the truth must be told, and our own +experience, gained principally on a low-lying seaside estate, where +the tree was annually planted by the thousand, is that _P. Douglasii_ +must occupy a sheltered situation if either ornament or utility be +considered as points of first importance. + +The =Giant Arborvitæ= (_Thuja gigantea_) is fast coming to the front +as a British timber tree, and has already, at the hands of far-seeing +planters, received a fair amount of attention. After a fair and +impartial trial on our part, we have found it to be perfectly hardy, +even at high altitudes, a fast grower and rapid timber-producer, a +non-fastidious subject as regards the quality of soil in which it is +planted, and one of the most easily managed and most accommodating of +trees. The quality of timber produced in this country is such as to +warrant us in speaking highly of it, it being of a desirable yellow +colour, fine-grained, easily worked, remarkably durable, and light in +proportion to its bulk. From the measurements of fully twenty-four +specimens scattered over an English park, we have found that the +average annual rate of growth is 22 in., but even this is exceeded by +young trees. + +The =Norway Spruce= (_Picea excelsa_).—Whether as a hardy, +shelter-giving tree, or for the quantity of fairly good timber it +produces, the common or Norway spruce must ever rank high in the list +of useful trees that have been found suitable for culture in the +British Isles. That it is a tree in every sense of the word admirably +suited for extensive planting is acknowledged by all, as it luxuriates +at high altitudes, and where fully exposed to our worst winds, and at +the same time produces a great quantity of timber that has been found +of excellent quality, well suited for general constructive purposes. +As a shelter tree few others can equal the spruce, and when planted +along the outskirts of exposed plantations the amount of warmth and +protection it affords is quite surprising. + +The =Silver Fir= (_Abies pectinata_) is another of those trees that +have of late years fallen into disrepute, mainly owing to the increased +importation of foreign timber. That it is an excellent and highly +remunerative tree is unquestionable, and the very fact of its thriving +luxuriantly on soils where the larch declines to grow should make it, +in this country at least, of great value as a forest tree. + +With the most satisfactory results has the timber been used for railway +sleepers—in fact four sleepers laid experimentally have stood the wear +and tear quite as well as those of Baltic timber, alongside of which +they were placed. For roofing purposes the wood has likewise attained +great fame, as it is found to stand vicissitudes of dry and damp +alternately better than almost any other home-grown timber. + +The coniferous trees just treated of are about the only kinds that can +be recommended for profitable planting in this country. + +The Atlantic Cedar and Japanese Larch might be added to the list, +but present experience will not justify us in bringing any of these +prominently to notice. + +Twenty-five years ago, at the instigation of the then Earl of Derby, +the writer formed several plantations on the Holwood Estate in Kent. +At the outset it may be well to state that these plantations were not +formed with the object of producing valuable timber, but rather for the +ornamentation and privacy of the newly-acquired property. The trees +used were the Scotch, Corsican, Austrian and Weymouth pines, Douglas +fir, the larch, and several species of hardwoods. As all have succeeded +well under exactly similar conditions, the following notes as to the +rate of growth and production of timber, both of which are unusually +great, during a period of twenty-five years may be instructive. + +Previously to being planted the land, which may best be described as a +hungry loam on a gravelly subsoil and sheltered, was let out for rough +grazing and the cultivation of strawberries and other fruit. + +The cost per acre of forming these plantations was:— + + £ _s._ _d._ + Pitting, 2,722 at 1_s._ per 100 1 7 2 + Planting 1 1 0 + Trees, at 40_s._ per 1,000 5 8 0 + ——————————————— + £7 16 2 + +This price may appear both high and low, but in connexion with the +former it should be explained that the coniferous trees when planted +were about 16 in. high, the others about 3 ft., all being placed 4 +ft. apart. Owing to the land having recently been under cultivation +and labour at that time being cheap in the district, the opening of +pits was carried out by contract at quite a nominal rate, the size of +each being 12 in. square and 9 in. deep. After being planted the trees +required little attention for the first six years, at which period they +averaged 8 ft. in height, and the shade occasioned by the branch spread +had killed out most of the grassy undergrowth. + +As the plantations were primarily intended for ornament and shelter, +the retention of the lower branches of the trees, at least along the +margin, was imperative, and in order to ensure this, early thinning was +engaged in and carried out at regular intervals up to the present time, +always bearing in mind to allow the boundary trees plenty of room for +branch development, those inwards, in order to induce clean growth, +being left much closer on the ground. Though in the latter case the +volume of timber produced is comparatively less than along the margins, +yet it is of greater value owing to the trees being straight and +clean-stemmed, the only exception being the Corsican pine which, even +when isolated, has little inclination to form stout side branches. + +The soil being light and resting on gravel was peculiarly suited for +the growth of the pines, none of which suffered from disease or insect +attack, though the Weymouth had occasional patches of the aphis with +which it is usually attacked around London. The larch was practically +free from canker. + +During recent thinning operations a good opportunity was afforded of +taking the actual measurements when felled of the various species of +trees, these being as follows:— + + Austrian pine, average height, 46 ft.; cubic contents, 9 ft. + Corsican ” ” ” 51 ft.; ” ” 11 ft. + Scotch ” ” ” 45 ft.; ” ” 8 ft. + Weymouth ” ” ” 42 ft.; ” ” 6 ft. + Larch ” ” 47 ft.; ” ” 8 ft. + +It will thus be seen that the Corsican pine has surpassed all the +others both in height and in the quantity of timber produced; and in +viewing the plantations from a distance the leaders of the Corsican +pines soar quite 6 ft. above those of their neighbours. The Austrian +comes next in the quantity of timber produced, but not in height; and +the larch and Scotch are of about equal size, the Weymouth being equal +to the latter in height but not in bulk of stem. But the larch beats +all in value of timber, for, while that of the various species of pine +was difficult to sell at a remunerative figure, the larch wood was +readily disposed of at a fair valuation. + +My experience is that timber merchants fight shy of purchasing any of +the pine family excepting the Scotch. This may be owing to prejudice or +want of knowledge as to the value of timber produced by the Corsican +and Weymouth; but whatever the cause, the fact remains that the timber +of both these species is difficult to dispose of at any but firewood +rates. That of the Scotch being better known finds a ready market +at about half the price of larch, which latter, after all, is the +most useful and profitable of any coniferous tree cultivated in this +country, and one for which the demand always exceeds the supply. + + + + +CHAPTER VII + +PLANTING EXPOSED GROUND + + +As the majority of plantations for purely economic purposes are formed +on the wind-swept moor or hillside, the successful management of these +is a matter of considerable importance. + +There are many difficulties to encounter in planting high-lying and +exposed ground that one would never have to think about in low-lying +and sheltered situations. Planting, for instance, should not be +commenced until February or March, as, by deferring it till that time, +the newly-inserted plants will be fresh and vigorous, and ready for an +immediate start in growth, which would not be the case if they had been +put out in autumn and subjected during winter to the inevitable wind +shaking that is always to be reckoned with on exposed ground. + +The choice of trees, too, for planting on wind-swept ground is a matter +of far more moment than is generally supposed, for that there are +certain species of trees peculiarly suitable for withstanding prolonged +storms is well known to those who have had to do with the forming of +woods and plantations at high altitudes. The size of trees planted has +also much to do with the after success of the woods, and it may be +well at the outset to say that these should not exceed about 12 in. in +height on the most favoured sites to about from 6 in. to 9 in. on the +more exposed grounds. They should also be properly prepared by frequent +careful transplanting for the situations they are intended to occupy, +as it can hardly be expected that a young and immature tree can, after +being brought from a probably sheltered lowland nursery—as nine-tenths +of those in this country are—to a high piece of ground, where at +times the wind blows with terrific fury, and where one can scarcely +stand upright, have sufficient stamina to stand against such odds and +difference as must and do exist between the two points at present under +consideration. + +Sometimes it is well to trench over a piece of ground on +partially-exposed land, and insert therein for a couple of years before +the proposed plantation is to be formed, the young trees intended for +planting out. This has a wonderful effect in hardening and inuring +them to severe cold and a wind-swept situation. By forming a nursery +of young trees by the sea-coast, I have known great success attend the +formation of woods and plantations in maritime situations, and like +results are sure to attend the planting out of trees in any uncongenial +and unfavourable situation. + +About the trees to be planted, being such as are sufficiently hardy +to withstand prolonged storms, we will now say a few words. In the +outer line—or, rather lines—the Scotch, Austrian, and Corsican Pines +(_Pinus sylvestris_, _P. austriaca_, and _P. laricio_) are of first +value, since they are able to stand against the storms of the hillside +and produce a great amount of shelter to other less hardy kinds. It is +often only necessary to make a wind-barrier, as it were—that is, to +plant well-tried evergreen kinds, from which shelter can be obtained +next the most windy position, then to follow up with other kinds that +are second hardy in nature, and so on inwards; while, in the very +centre of the plantation, almost any kind of tree can be used. + +The =Austrian Pine= has been successfully planted at high altitudes, +and in the most exposed situations, and on the Continent it has proved +itself of great value for breezy sites and maritime situations. + +The State forests are composed of not a few Austrian pines, and they +are greatly valued for the shelter and warmth they afford to other less +hardy kinds of trees. The best results are to be obtained if planted +when young, for when removed at a greater age, with roots large and +rampant of growth, it is with great difficulty that they can be got to +keep upright. Unfortunately the timber is of no special value. + +The =Corsican Pine= is equally as good as the latter for using where +winds are of common occurrence, proving stout and strong, rooting well, +and presenting a broad surface of hardy evergreen foliage to the blast. +It is a good timber-producer, and, being well fitted for growing in +patches close together, will yet be largely used for forest work in +this country. + +About the =Scotch Pine= it is, perhaps, needless to speak, for every +one who has travelled in Scotland, particularly in the more exposed +northern parts, must have made himself acquainted with the capabilities +of this valuable native tree. It can grow and flourish almost +anywhere—on pure gravel, on the rocky mountain-slope, or by the rushing +brookside, and in all these positions it seems to feel quite happy and +contented, as the beautiful silvery glaucous foliage, the upright, +rampant growth, and the cheery cinnamon or terra-cotta bark clearly +indicate. + +With these three excellent storm-resisting trees for an outer barrier +almost any kind of planting can be engaged in, for the shelter they +afford is amply sufficient to start away into rapid growth even our +only second-class hardy kinds of trees. The =Sycamore= is a good +tree for planting where the storms blow loud and long, being able to +withstand in a very commendable way the first brunt of the hillside +winds. It is also a good timber-producer, the wood at all times being +easily disposed of, and at a very remunerative price. + +The =Elder= and =Mountain Ash= are other valuable small-growing trees +for planting on exposed ground, both flourishing apace even in very +high and exposed woodlands. + +In the =Scotch= or =Mountain Elm= (_Ulmus montana_) we have a +first-class tree for planting as shelter, while the =Alder=, =Willows= +of various kinds, and the =Hornbeam= should all receive attention in +the formation of woodlands on exposed and storm-swept sites. + +The =American Winged Elm= (_Ulmus alata_) has few equals for +withstanding long-continued storms at high altitudes, for it sends out +its cork-covered branches without fear of harm into the very teeth of +the blast. I have noticed how well suited this elm is for planting +on exposed, high-lying ground by the few examples that occur at +considerable elevations in some of the screen-belts that have been +formed on the flanks of the Snowdon range of hills, where the tree +looks quite as healthy and happy as at lower elevations in a sheltered +park. + +The =Larch=, be it remembered, is a good tree for planting on exposed +ground, for, though it gets twisted about and untidy of appearance, it +has a wonderful recuperative nature, and will succeed well even when +planted on the margins of exposed woodlands. By taking advantage of +natural tree or shrub growth when forming plantations at high altitudes +much good may be brought about. A young tree planted to the leeward of +a clump of gorse, broom, juniper, or birch has a much better chance of +succeeding than another planted where it has no shelter from the worst +winds of the particular district. These wild clumps of natural shrubs +should be encouraged in every way, for they will not only give a great +amount of shelter, but help to thicken up the plantations as well. In +exposed woodlands it is a good plan to plant up the margins with such +hardy wild shrubs as the gorse, broom, thorn, juniper, blackthorn, +etc., all of which will afford a great amount of shelter to the young +plants when newly inserted, and help them to start away freely. + +The =Common Beech= is a good all-round tree for planting in exposed +sites, but especially where the soil is poor, or, in other words, +composed principally of chalk or gravel. Some of the highest grounds +in several of the English counties are occupied by thriving beech +plantations, these acting as landmarks for many miles around, as +notably at Knockholt and on the Chiltern Hills. + +The =Oak= and =Ash= should both find places in high-lying and exposed +woodlands, for, although they cannot be planted successfully along the +margins, yet they thrive well where a little shelter is afforded, and +where the soil is fairly deep and rich. + +The =Birch= cannot be passed by in any list of trees for planting in +exposed places; it thrives well at high altitudes, and where only a +small quantity of soil overlies the rock. + +The =Wild= and =Bird Cherries= (_Cerasus vulgaris_ and _C. Padus_) are +excellent ornamental trees for exposed grounds, where they grow to a +large size and flower freely. They can both subsist where but a small +depth of soil is present. + +=Preparation of the Ground and Planting.=—As regards the pits for +planting, these should be well prepared—that is, the soil loosened +up and made free for the roots to run in, which will greatly help +the trees to become quickly established—a point of great importance +on exposed ground. The top turf may be chopped up and placed in the +bottom of the pit, this serving, when decomposed, as manure to the +roots, and assisting to promote vigorous growth. In planting, place the +best-rooted sides of the trees to the windward or most exposed site, +and do not cover with the soil to a greater depth than that in which +the plant stood whilst in the nursery border. On very exposed sites, +and where the soil is thin, notch planting and inserting with the +planting iron are to be recommended. + +It will be well, at stated intervals, to examine young plantations +formed on high-lying and exposed ground, to see that the plants do not +get shaken about with the wind and holes formed around the stems. This +latter is highly injurious to the welfare of the plants, as the air +passing down the stem side causes the roots to get dry to an inordinate +degree. + +Wind-swaying, where these holes have been formed around the stem, is +also hurtful, as the tender roots get strained and barked, and ill +fitted for maintaining a healthy condition of the young trees. The +holes formed by swaying of the stems should be filled up with fine +soil—not stones, as is sometimes the case—and a small piece of stiff, +grassy turf tramped firmly against the stem on the side opposite that +from which the worst winds may be expected. + +Should rank vegetation, which, is, however, rarely met with at high +altitudes and on exposed ground, interfere with the growth of the young +trees, it would be well to have such cut over and either burned or +spread evenly over the ground. + + + + +CHAPTER VIII + +SEASIDE PLANTING + + +Few persons other than those who have actually been engaged in the +work have the remotest idea of the difficulties to be encountered +in the formation of belts and plantations on exposed and wind-swept +seaside ground. To plant young trees around many parts of the coast of +the British Isles, particularly where wide stretches of open seaboard +are to be dealt with, without first erecting a shelter-screen of +some kind or other, is useless work, and only productive of the most +unsatisfactory results. + +That there are not a few districts, however, where such a preliminary +would be needless is well known, all that is required in certain +instances being, first of all, to prepare the ground, and secondly, to +suit the trees to the soil and situation, seeing that some varieties +succeed better than others in certain soils and sites. + +From experience I have found out how useless it is to plant in a +haphazard way, at least, on the more exposed seaboards along the west +coast, whereas, by careful manipulation, I have been successful in +getting up shelter where before it was deemed almost an impossibility. +The chief consideration in seaside planting is unquestionably shelter, +be it only of a temporary kind, for it may be noticed anywhere along +our coast that, wherever the direct force of the hurricane is broken, +there trees and shrubs are growing best. Another evil—a great one, +too—with which the planter has to contend is the injurious effect +on trees, but more particularly on evergreen shrubs, of the saline +particles which are driven and deposited with such force on the leaves +and branches as in many instances to give them the appearance of having +been scorched or cut over when in full vigour by an untimely frost. +Wind-shaking, although a minor evil, must also be carefully guarded +against, so that at the outset it is well to have the trees, except +such as are of dwarf size, securely staked and tied, so as to obviate +the dire results occasioned to the roots of newly-planted trees when +the stems are allowed to rock to and fro with the wind. + +Before commencing planting operations on the sandy and exposed +sea-coast, the preliminary step is to erect a barrier of some kind, +which will intercept the violence of the wind, and act as a screen +or shelter to the young plants. For this purpose various kinds of +erections are equally suitable, but that usually adopted, especially +where loose sand alone is present, is a strong paling fence thatched +with brushwood. The posts should if possible be 6 ft. above ground and +about 12 ft. apart, the paling-rails, two in number, being securely +nailed to these at 2 ft. and 5 ft. from the ground; against this are +placed spruce or gorse trimmings, these being 6 ft. long if possible, +in an upright manner, and firmly tied to the crossbars by means of +binding wire or strong tarred rope. This may best be described as a +dead fence, but it is, nevertheless, quite as valuable for the purpose +required as a perfectly developed living hedge. By means of this a +great advantage is gained and a favourable start for the newly-planted +trees is secured. Then, compared with a stone wall, or, in fact, a +wall of any kind, this screen-fence is greatly superior, the wind +being broken up in passing through it, and, what is of as much value, +also relieved of its saline particles, at least to a very considerable +extent. + +Where the shore is almost destitute of sand, and where certain kinds of +vegetation subsist, I find it to be a capital plan to substitute for +the dead fence just described that composed of turf and earth. + +The raised mound should be not less than 5 ft. in height, and of +sufficient width at top to allow of the planting of a double line +of such plants as have been found most suitable for the wind-swept +maritime situation in which they are to be used. For this purpose few +plants equal, and certainly none surpass, the Sea Buckthorn (_Hippophæ +rhamnoides_), Tamarisk (_Tamarix gallica_), the common elder, hazel, +whitethorn, and at least three species of willow—_Salix Caprea_, _S. +helix_, and _S. alba_. Immediately behind this screen, pits of not +less than 2 ft. in diameter and about 18 in. in depth may be formed, +and it will be all the better if some time is allowed to elapse before +they are planted. The bottom and side of each pit should, where found +necessary, be loosed with a pick, and if the soil is found to be of +very inferior quality, it will be well, more especially where such can +be readily obtained, to add a spadeful or two from some adjoining field. + +Planting should not be commenced before March or April, an early start +at growth being much in favour of young trees that have recently been +transferred to the sea-coast. The plants to be used should not exceed, +say, 12 to 15 in. in height, but of strong growth in proportion to +their size, and supplied with an abundance of fibrous roots. Lanky, +ill-grown, and coddled plants have but a poor chance of succeeding +under such adverse circumstances. + +In planting, keep the strongest roots seaward, and do not place the +trees at a greater depth in the soil than that at which they stood +whilst in the nursery border. The failure to use this precaution is +a mistake, and is productive of anything but favourable results. +Immediately behind this raised mound of turf, or the dead fence +of branches above described, the best trees for withstanding the +first brunt of the sea-breeze are the sycamore, elm, elder, and +willow amongst hardwoods, and the Austrian and cluster pines (_Pinus +austriaca_ and _P. Pinaster_), to which might be added _P. laricio_, +_P. sylvestris_, and _P. montana_, amongst conifers. These are all +well-tried subjects, and may be relied upon as peculiarly suited +for doing battle with hard-blowing and long-continued storms on the +sea-coast. + +Regarding the merits of the cluster pine for seaside planting, it would +be almost superfluous for me to speak; while the elm and sycamore send +out their stout branches into the very teeth of the blast, and are +known as peculiarly well suited for such situations. + +The following list includes such trees and shrubs as have, from long +experience, been found well suited for planting on cold and wind-swept +shores, and the trees are arranged according to their value in this +respect. + + +HARDWOODS + +The =Sycamore= (_Acer Pseudo-platanus_) is, without doubt, the most +valuable hard-wooded tree of timber size that I have come across for +planting in exposed seaside situations. It succeeds well, even at +highwater mark, the stout, twiggy branches being thrown out into the +very face of the blast. Even during winter, and in a leafless state, +the amount of shelter afforded by this tree is quite surprising. Taking +everything into consideration—its great hardihood, and suitability to +various soils and situations, I consider the sycamore the most valuable +of any deciduous tree that I have yet tried for seaside planting. + +The =Elder= (_Sambucus nigra_) is, amongst small-growing trees, the +best for planting in exposed seaside districts. Its powers of endurance +are even greater than those of the sycamore, although the amount of +shelter it affords is by no means so great. Where its branches are +constantly exposed to the saline-laden breeze, and its roots amongst +almost pure sand, it grows and thrives in a manner that is quite +surprising. With the greatest advantages have I used the elder as a +wind-break on some of the most exposed and desolate coasts of the +British Isles. Even where grown as a single specimen, it seems to +disregard the angry blast and saline particles with which it is almost +constantly pelted—a fact that may be verified, in not one, but several +stations along the coast. Then, what tree is of readier culture than +the elder, succeeds better in poor, sandy soils, or spreads about to an +equal extent? + +The =Norway Maple= (_Acer platanoides_) stands the first brunt of the +sea-breeze in a most commendable way—indeed, it may be recommended +as one of the most hardy and valuable trees for the purpose under +consideration that could be named. On the western coast of England, +and in a very exposed and wind-swept district, I have used it with the +greatest success in the formation of plantations, as it is of rapid +growth and soon forms an excellent shelter to the other less hardy +kinds of trees. It is by no means particular as to soil, but succeeds +all the better if this is fairly rich. + +The =Winged Elm= (_Ulmus alata_).—From a long experience of this, at +present, little-known tree, I have every confidence in recommending it +as one of the most valuable trees for planting in cold, wind-tortured, +and maritime districts that have yet found their way into this country. +Where many of our hardiest trees are bent and shrinking from the blast, +this elm stands nobly out, and seems to defy both winds and storm. + +The =Huntingdon Willow= (_Salix alba_) and =Bedford Willow= (_S. +Russelliana_), but particularly the former, are excellent trees for +windy shores. In many places along the coast the Huntingdon willow may +be seen in a most flourishing and happy condition, and that, too, where +the surroundings are the reverse of favourable. It is a tree of quick +growth, and will succeed well in any class of soil if it be not too +damp. In one instance that came under my notice, the trees were planted +on a promontory overhanging the sea and in such a situation that they +were almost constantly subjected to rough-blowing winds coming in from +the Irish Sea, and yet they have grown with the greatest freedom, and +to-day look as healthy and happy as if planted in some sheltered inland +situation. + +The =Beam Tree= (_Pyrus Aria_) is another excellent small-growing tree +for planting in sites where, from cold saline blasts, few others could +eke out even a miserable existence. + +On the limestone cliffs of the Great Orme’s Head this handsome and +hardy tree grows in a most surprising way—indeed, with the exception of +one or two species of willow, I question very much whether any other +tree could exist under the trying circumstances. The hard and leathery +leaves seem as if specially constructed for bearing storms, and, being +plentifully produced, render a great amount of shelter to other trees. + +The =Goat Willow= (_Salix Caprea_), for planting in almost pure sand +on the sea-coast, is a most valuable small-growing tree, and it is so +hardy that, without the least risk of harm, it may be planted at great +altitudes, and in very exposed situations. In several of the maritime +plantations that I have formed, this willow was used with remarkable +success in the outer line or screen. + +The =Aspen= (_Populus tremula_) is an excellent shore-tree, one +that can withstand a great amount of rough usage, and as hardy and +fast-growing a subject as could well be desired. In the formation +of several exposed seaside woods on the west coast of England I +planted the aspen largely, and, I may add, the results have been most +satisfactory. + +=P. canadensis=, =P. alba=, and =P. nigra= are likewise worthy of +extended culture, for they succeed well by the seaside. They all stand +the breeze from the sea, are perfectly hardy, and afford a great amount +of shelter. + +The =Mountain Ash= (_Pyrus Aucuparia_).—Although valueless, or +nearly so, for the quantity of timber it produces, yet, as a hardy, +free-growing tree, the mountain ash, or rowan tree, merits attention +from planters of exposed seaside land. All along the coast of Great +Britain this pretty tree may be found growing luxuriantly, and in such +situations affording a great amount of shelter to other less hardy +kinds of trees and shrubs. It may be planted without fear of harm, +down even to highwater mark, and where the soil is of the poorest +description. It is thus one of the most useful of trees for planting as +shelter along the roughest and most wind-tortured parts of the coast. + +The =Hoary Alder= (_Alnus incana_) and the =Common Alder= (_A. +glutinosa_) can hardly be excelled for planting in wet portions of +cold, wind-swept ground, and in the vicinity of the sea. Both trees +grow with the greatest freedom, and are perfectly hardy, standing the +first brunt of the saline blasts in a most commendable and praiseworthy +manner. + +I have found it to be a good plan where shelter is wanted on bare +coast-tracts, if the quality of soil be at all suitable, to plant the +alders pretty closely, and when they have attained to 15 ft. or 20 ft. +in height, to cut every alternate one over at ground level. By so doing +a number of stout shoots are thrown out early in the following spring, +which, as they grow with great rapidity, soon fill up the blanks +occasioned by cutting over the young trees. + +After these have had several years’ growth the remaining half of the +original crop should be cut over, and when all have started from the +stools a first-class shelter is obtained. Of course, damp portions of +the ground should be selected on which to plant the alder. + +The =English Maple= (_Acer campestre_) can well hold its own as a tree +for planting on exposed seaside grounds. It is one of the hardiest +trees with which I am acquainted, growing on exposed hillsides and at +considerable elevations in a way that seems to attract the attention of +every one. + +Hedges or fringe fences of the native maple have succeeded amazingly +in several maritime woods in which it was planted, and in places, too, +where the wind blew loud and long. + +The =Scotch Elm= (_Ulmus montana_) comes next on the list of such trees +as I would recommend for the purpose under consideration. It affords +plenty of shelter, as it grows freely from the root-stock, sending up +numerous suckers, and is so hardy and proof against damage from storms +that it may safely be planted in wind-swept districts by the seaside. + +=Birch= (_Betula alba_) and =Ash= (_Fraxinus excelsior_) are other +trees that repeated experiments have proved to be well suited for +withstanding the ocean’s blast and for planting in poor, rocky soils. + +The =Turkey Oak= (_Quercus Cerris_), with just a small amount of +shelter, will be found a most valuable tree for planting within the +influence of the sea. It thrives well in very poor soils, and when in +full leaf is capable of affording a great amount of shelter. + +The =Evergreen Oak= (_Q. Ilex_) has proved itself to be peculiarly +fitted for planting as shelter in exposed and maritime districts. In +the formation of seaside plantations, but particularly where, from +the frequency and force of the storms, few trees can succeed, I have +planted the evergreen oak with the greatest success. + +The trees just treated of have no equals, among such as have yet been +introduced, for withstanding cold seaside winds, a trial of many other +varieties only resulting in proving their unfitness for planting in +such situations. Two or three others, such as the =English Oak=, +=Hornbeam=, =Beech= and =English Elm=, might be added to the list, +but they can only be recommended for planting where at least partial +shelter is afforded. + + +CONIFERÆ + +Foremost amongst these I must, from long personal experience and a fair +trial of several kinds under exactly similar conditions in every way, +place the =Austrian Pine= (_Pinus austriaca_). It grows with unusual +freedom, and affords a greater amount of shelter than any other tree +with which I am at present acquainted. + +That it will succeed equally well with the _P. Pinaster_ when subjected +to the sea-breeze, I am now fully convinced, while the amount of +shelter it affords, and rapidity of growth, place it far ahead of that +species for the purpose we are now considering. It may not succeed so +well as the Pinaster when planted in pure sand, on the sea-coast, and +this is the only point that can be adduced in favour of the latter +species over _P. austriaca_. + +In forming many large woods along the coast of Northern England I used +the Austrian pine in preference to several others, and happily, too, +for it has succeeded in a surprising manner, trees of ten years’ growth +being fully 13 ft. in height, and nearly as much in diameter of branch +spread. With such a screen as that afforded by the hardy Austrian, +many half-tender trees can be planted farther inland; and this is the +method of procedure that I have found to be most successful in getting +up shelter along bare and fully exposed parts of the shores of Western +England and Scotland. + +The =Cluster Pine= (_P. Pinaster_) and its smaller-growing variety +_P. maritima_ have a world-wide reputation for their suitability +for planting on exposed seaside tracts of ground. That they are of +great value for planting on sandy wastes is a fact that cannot be +gainsaid—indeed, few other trees could succeed or eke out an existence +in pure sand and where the roots come in contact with the salt water. +A great drawback to this pine is its long tap-root and want of fibrous +roots; it transplants with difficulty, but this, as in various other +species of pine, may be greatly obviated by careful nursery management. + +In my own opinion the typical tree is hardly equal to the variety +_maritima_ either for shelter or withstanding the sea-breeze. The +variety, too, is, if anything, the most valuable for shelter-giving, it +having a much greater inclination to retain the lower branches intact. + +The =Corsican Pine= (_P. laricio_) quite equals the Austrian in its +powers of withstanding long-continued and cold winds. That it does not +succeed so well on the sea-coast is a fact of which, from repeated +experiments, I am fully aware. The Corsican pine, too, is a valuable +timber-producer—a fact that is well worthy of consideration in +extensive planting. + +In the =Giant Arborvitæ= (_Thuja gigantea_) we have another excellent +addition to the list of trees that have been found suitable for +planting on exposed maritime grounds. It grows with great rapidity, and +I have never found even a solitary example of this tree having been +uprooted or injured during the most severe storms. On the sea-coast of +Wales I have used the giant arborvitæ largely in the formation of woods +and plantations, and with great success. It transplants well, even when +of large size, and is readily propagated. + +=Pinus montana= may also be recommended for afforesting tracts +of ground by the sea-coast. It is a tree of undoubted hardihood, +withstanding cold and cutting winds in a worthy manner. + +The =Scotch Pine= (_P. sylvestris_), though by no means equal to the +above for planting by the seaside, must on no account be omitted from +our list, for it is a hardy, fast-growing specimen, and one that can +do battle with very severe and long-lasting storms. It should not be +planted where it will meet the first brunt of the storm, but given a +little shelter, such as that afforded by the above-named kinds. The +varieties of pine just named may all be relied upon as peculiarly well +fitted for the purpose under consideration. + +The =Large-fruited Cypress= (_Cupressus macrocarpa_) and =Pinus +insignis= might be added to the list, both being well suited for +maritime planting—inland, however, they cannot be relied upon. _Pinus +insignis_ grows with unabated vigour on the wind-swept coast of the +Isle of Anglesey, and stands the breeze in a most surprising and +praiseworthy manner. + +The =Atlantic Cedar= (_Cedrus atlantica_) and =Swiss Stone Pine= +(_Pinus Cembra_) do fairly well as seaside trees. + + +SHRUBS + +The =Sea Buckthorn= (_Hippophea rhamnoides_) is unquestionably the +best all-round shrub for planting as a shelter by the sea-coast with +which we are acquainted. To see it in several districts of Scotland, +growing amongst almost pure sand, and where constantly exposed to +fierce blasts, shows how valuable a shrub it is for exposed maritime +situations. For affording shelter it is one of the best shrubs that I +know of, the unusually twiggy branches sifting and dividing up the wind +in a most remarkable manner. + +=Tamarix gallica= and =T. germanica= are two excellent seaside shrubs, +and such as are well suited for planting on exposed places. They grow +with great freedom, transplant well, and are readily propagated. Even +in pure sand they seem quite at home, growing freely, and producing a +rich abundance of their showy flowers. In very exposed parts of the +coast, and when fully open to direct sea-blasts, we have frequently +seen the tamarisk fully a dozen feet in height, and nearly as much in +branch-spread. Though little known _T. germanica_ is a most valuable +seaside shrub, about 6 ft. in height, with small leaves, and spikes of +conspicuous red flowers. + +The =Box Thorn= (_Lycium europæum_) may be introduced without fear of +harm to the seaside woods, for it is not only perfectly hardy in such +situations, but it bears constant exposure to wind as well as any shrub +I know of. Hedges of this plant have been formed in many maritime parts +of England and Wales, the only support being a few stakes driven in +here and there along the line of fence. It will grow in pure sand, and +when lashed by the waves. + +The =Snowberry= (_Symphoricarpus racemosus_) comes next on the +list of shrubs that have been found suitable for the purpose under +consideration. It is a plant of extraordinary hardihood, one that +increases rapidly from the root-stock and affords a fair amount of +shelter. + +The =Tree Mallow= (_Lavatera arborea_) can hardly be surpassed for +shore planting, where it frequently attains to a height of 10 ft. It +has been found of great utility in some of the islands along the coast +of Scotland. + +=Spirea Adiantifolia= is a fitting companion for the latter, growing +and flowering very freely in wind-swept gardens along the Scottish +coast. + +=Griselinia littoralis= has stood a severe test as to its capability +for withstanding cold winds blowing in from the sea. + +The =Dogwood= (_Cornus sanguinea_) and =Flowering Currant= (_Ribes +sanguineum_) are, likewise, excellent seaside shrubs, of perfect +hardihood and readily propagated. + +The =Tree Purslane= (_Atriplex halimus_) is also a really valuable +shrub that is totally indifferent to the salt spray, and from its +dwarf, evergreen nature, and silvery-scaly leaves, is also more or less +ornamental. It does not seem to mind either wind blowing direct from +the sea, or whether the soil in which it is planted is of only moderate +quality. + +The =Laurustinus= (_Viburnum tinus_).—Where the situation is not too +exposed, this is a most valuable and ornamental shrub. + +=Lilac= of various species are well adapted for planting by the +seaside, the two kinds most to be recommended being the =Common= and +=Persian= (_Syringa vulgaris_ and _S. Persica_). + +The =Spanish Broom= (_Spartium junceum_) has been used with the +greatest success all along the coast, being perfectly hardy, and an +excellent subject for cold, draughty positions. + +The =Tree Groundsel= (_Baccharis halimifolia_) is not only a shrub of +great beauty, but one that is perfectly hardy, and well adapted for +planting by the seaside. It will thrive in almost pure sand, but it is +all the better for a poor gravelly loam, and seems to delight in the +ozone of the seaside atmosphere. + +Both the =Portugal Laurel= (_Prunus lusitanica_) and =Sweet-Bay= +(_Laurus nobilis_) are valuable evergreen shrubs for seaside planting. +From their large size and compact habit, they afford a great amount of +shelter. + +The =Common Holly= (_Ilex aquifolium_) and its golden form both do well +at the seaside, and this may also be said of the =Common= and =Scotch +Laburnums=. They may be used with best advantage where the direct force +of the blast is broken up. + +The =Common Gorse= (_Ulex europæus_) and the =Broom= (_Cytisus +scoparius_) should on no account be omitted from our list of shrubs +that are valuable for maritime wastes where the wind exerts its full +power. + +The above shrubs include the principal of such as can be recommended +for planting along the sea-coast, but where good shelter is afforded +by the trees named in this chapter, a few others might be recommended +for trial. These include the =Strawberry Tree= (_Arbutus unedo_), +=Euonymus japonicus=, =Berberis Darwinii=, =Ligustrum Ovalifolium=, +=Daphne Mezereon=, and =D. laureola=, =Ruscus aculeatus=, =Hypericum +calycinum=, =Vinca major= and =V. minor=, and several kinds of thorn. + +The =Maram=, or =Sea Matweed= (_Psamma arenaria_) is one of the most +useful grasses with which I am acquainted for binding shifting sands on +the sea-coast. Not only so, but by using it as a pioneer, the amount +of shelter it affords renders other more difficult subjects by no means +hard to cultivate. It usually attains to a height of from 2 ft. to +2½ ft., much depending on the situation, whether partially sheltered +or fully exposed. The root-stock creeps widely, some specimens that +have been followed up in the sand being of the amazing length of 35 +yards. Amongst loose and drifting sand the running roots find what is +most suitable for the welfare of the plant, and it is astonishing with +what persistency they bind in an unusually short space of time these +shifting hills of almost dust-dry sand. In planting, place the plants +in parallel lines, about 16 in. apart, and at a distance of 12 in. +from each other. Large plants may be subdivided to almost any extent. +A garden line is stretched along the ground, a notch 10 in. deep taken +out, the grass inserted therein and filled with sand, and afterwards +firmly trodden. That the sea matweed is a most useful plant for fast +gaining a footing on sandy tracts of sea-coast, and thus allowing of +following up with the shelter-giving trees, cannot be disputed. + +The =Lymegrass= (_Elymus arenarius_) is also valuable for growing in +almost pure sand on the sea-coast. + +It is of tall, elegant growth, and is readily increased from root +divisions. + +The following trees and shrubs, alphabetically arranged, are +recommended for seaside planting:— + +TREES FOR THE SEA-COAST. + + Acer campestre Pinus Pinaster maritima + —— creticum Populus canadensis + —— Pseudo-platanus —— nigra + Alnus glutinosa —— nigra + —— incana Pyrus Aucuparia + Betula alba —— Aria + Carpinus betulus Quercus Ilex + Cedrus atlantica —— Robur + Cupressus macrocarpa Salix alba + Fagus sylvatica —— Caprea + Fraxinus excelsior —— Forsteriana + Pinus austriaca —— Russelliana + —— laricio Thuja gigantea + —— montana Ulmus alata + —— Pinaster —— campestris + —— montana + +SHRUBS FOR THE SEA-COAST. + + Atriplex halimus Lavatera arborea + Aucuba japonica Lycium europæum + Cerasus lusitanica Rhamnus frangula + —— Padus Ribes sanguineum + Cytisus Laburnum Rosa spinosissima + —— scoparius Shepherdia argentea + Euonymus japonicus Spirea adiantifolia + —— europæus Syringa persica + Fabiana imbricata —— vulgaris + Griselinia littoralis Symphoricarpus racemosus + Hippophæ rhamnoides Tamarix gallica + Ilex Aquifolium —— germanica + —— Aquifolium aurea Ulex Europæus + Laurus nobilis Viburnum tinus + +GRASSES. + + Elymus arenarius + Psamma arenaria + + + + +CHAPTER IX + +TOWN PLANTING, AND THE TREES AND SHRUBS THAT ARE BEST ADAPTED FOR SMOKY +LOCALITIES + + +Probably no work connected with horticulture requires more judgment +and good management than the planting of trees and shrubs in urban +districts. The materials and soil of which streets and town gardens +are usually formed are ill-fitted for maintaining a healthy condition +in trees and shrubs for any length of time. This fact, coupled with +the impurities of the atmosphere in densely populated centres, has to +be constantly borne in mind. In more favourable districts all that is +necessary is to open a pit of sufficient size to contain the roots of +the tree or shrub to be planted; but in towns the soil, often as hard +as iron and composed mainly of refuse building materials, contains +but little plant food. For many years past careful observations have +been made, not only in London, but in Glasgow, Liverpool, Manchester, +Warrington and Dublin, as to which trees and shrubs succeed best in the +smoky localities of each town, and it is mainly by tabulating these +different experiences that satisfactory information on the subject +has been obtained. Coal smoke from the chimneys in the larger and +more crowded centres of industry is no doubt bad enough, but, when we +have to contend with an atmosphere that is largely impregnated with +the outcome from chemical, gas, or iron works, the difficulties to be +encountered are correspondingly increased. + +The injurious effects of smoke have become much more pronounced during +the past century, and Sir William Richmond, R.A., told the annual +meeting of the Coal Smoke Abatement Society that Westminster Abbey +had suffered from more rapid decay in the last hundred years than in +all the previous centuries of its existence. The chief cause of the +destruction of the stonework has been shown to be the presence in the +air of sulphur acids: the stone is converted into sulphate of lime; in +the process of its formation this disintegrates the stone by expansion. +The connexion between smoke and stone decay appears to lie in the +action of invisible gases emitted from the smoke particles. + +If stonework suffers so at the hands of smoke and sulphuric and other +acids, what, it may be asked, must the effect be on the foliage +of trees and shrubs—particularly such as are planted in the most +smoke-infested parts of our great towns and cities? When compared +with Continental cities—Paris, Brussels or Berlin—where tree-culture +is carried out most successfully, the atmosphere of British towns is +impregnated to a far greater extent with noxious fumes. Dry low-lying +and confined areas, particularly where excessive heat and atmospheric +impurities are present, are decidedly the worst, while open and +high-lying districts, though in the centre of a town, offer fewer +difficulties. + +That certain trees and shrubs succeed best in particular towns is +a well known fact, and the smoke-proof London Plane is by no means +the best tree for some of the colliery districts; in Sheffield, +for instance, its place is largely taken by the Canadian Poplar. +In Manchester, the Lime would appear to thrive best, after which +the Elder, Thorn and Plane succeed in the order named. The +variegated-leaved Sycamore and the horse chestnut are favourites where +the smoke from collieries is most offensive. But many such cases +could be pointed out, and even in the case of bedding plants certain +species succeed best in particular localities. In the gardens about +the Royal Mint, where they are exposed to the deleterious fumes from +gold-refining works, Fuchsias do remarkably well; indeed, the dwarf +edging variety, Golden Treasure, thrives so well that advantage has +been taken of the fact to propagate some of the stock that is annually +required for one of the London parks from cuttings taken at the Mint. +In the East End of London the Creeping Jenny (_Lysimachia_) thrives +well as a window plant, while in the chemically impure atmosphere of +Lambeth one of the Veronicas is the favourite plant for indoor culture. +The St. John’s Worts (_Hypericum_) do not as a rule thrive well in +London; yet around the Tate Gallery, which is only divided by the +river from the Lambeth pottery district—the worst in the metropolis +for atmospheric impurities—one species at least flourishes amazingly, +and has produced flowers in abundance for many years past; while at +St. Paul’s Churchyard, the lesser Periwinkle (_Vinca minor_) has +become quite established and runs about freely. In Chancery Lane, at +the Record Office, the common Ivy, Bladder Senna, and Yucca do best. +In other parts of London, too, well known varieties of Campanula are +largely grown as pot plants. It is a somewhat strange fact, too, +that some varieties of trees and shrubs succeed better than the type +species in smoky localities, as witness the London Plane (a variety +of _Platanus orientalis_), variegated-leaved Sycamore, fastigiate +Poplar, two varieties of Pyrus, Weeping Elm, Weeping Ash, and several +varieties of Acacia, notably _Robinia pseudo-acacia inermis_ and _R. +pseudo-acacia Bessoniana_. + +Similarly, amongst shrubs, we have the dwarf Holly, golden variegated +Euonymus, golden Privet, Ribes, double-flowered Gorse, _Euonymus +radicans variegata_, and others. With Grasses, too, some curious +experiences might be related. At the British Museum the Yarrow +completely ousted the Grasses from the plots in front of that building, +and in the moat of the Tower of London several Grasses that succeed +in less smoky parts of the metropolis quickly die out. Near the main +entrance to the Tower of London, and close to Billingsgate Fish Market, +considerable difficulty was experienced in getting the Plane trees +established; though in the matter of soil, and choice of strong sturdy +specimens, every possible care was taken. At last it was found that +the drip from the fish carts was the cause of the evil, and a remedy +was quickly found. In another garden, where dust, smoke, and soot +are plentiful, the Bladder Campion (_Silene inflata_), _Saponaria +officinalis_, the common Marigold, and Rye Grass seem positively to +revel. In situations almost constantly subjected to the sulphurous +fumes of the railway engines near Camden Town, and in the poorest of +soils, _Poa annua_ would appear to be quite at home. The chemical fumes +from the pottery works at Lambeth are well known to act injuriously +on vegetation generally, but the Mulberry, Fig, Sycamore, Turkey and +Evergreen Oaks thrive as well there as they do in any part of the +metropolis. The fumes given off from many of our city manufactories act +most perniciously on vegetation generally—a fact that was brought to my +notice by the behaviour of some of our most valuable smoke-resisting +trees and shrubs planted in the graveyard at St. Giles-in-the-Fields. +Meeting the gardener there I remarked on the wretched condition of the +trees and shrubs generally, his quick reply being, “Well! with Crosse & +Blackwell’s on the one side, and Nixey’s Black Lead Works on the other, +it’s a wonder there’s a living plant left!” Here the common Fig and +Black Poplar seemed better able to withstand the atmospheric conditions +than either the London Plane or Acacia. With the largely increased +use of coal gas for cooking purposes, improved grates, and the better +combustion of fuel, the atmosphere of certain districts of London, +has, however, become much less smoky than was the case a few years +ago, and in consequence vegetation generally succeeds better. This is +especially the case in some of the low-lying districts adjoining the +Thames where the “slot” system of providing gas for cooking purposes +has caused a great decrease in the consumption of coke and coal, with +a corresponding reduction of the attending evils of smoke and soot. +In one of the poorest parishes many of the inhabitants have taken +advantage of the facilities offered by the Gas Company in the matter +of cooking by means of gas provided by the “slot” system, which, in +comparison with coal, has been found not only cheaper, but cleaner +and handier to use. According to a competent authority the smoke +nuisance has, in consequence, greatly abated, and with the purer air, +the cultivation of window and other plants, as well as of trees and +shrubs, has been to some extent simplified. The electrification of the +Underground Railway has also had a beneficial effect on vegetation. +Although we cannot prevent fog, which is an atmospheric condition, yet +much can be done to prevent it being a dirty fog, and during the past +five years much has been done in that direction. Better roads with less +dust also assist largely in keeping the atmosphere of London in a pure +condition. + +With the rage for coniferous trees which was at its height about half a +century ago, it is not surprising that several species of Cypress and +Cedar, the stately Pines and Arbor vitæs, as also the Araucaria and +Junipers, found their way into our town gardens and squares. Hosts of +evergreens, too, from almost every part of the world were introduced +into London, but few have been able to survive the smoky and otherwise +impure atmosphere of the great metropolis. + +Deciduous trees and shrubs, both flowering and ornamental-leaved, +should certainly be regarded as the _sine qua non_ of the London +planter. Amongst evergreen trees few are suitable for town planting, +and, though a limited number of evergreen shrubs may succeed for a +time, yet the list of deciduous species is far more extensive. We have +only to take notice of such evergreens as the Holly, Rhododendron, +Laurel and all the conifers, with probably one exception, to find +how useless it is to plant them in expectation that they will give +satisfaction. This is not hard to account for, as in winter, when the +fires are all alight and smoke and soot the order of the day, the +leaves of evergreens are fully developed and in the best possible +condition for reaping the attending disadvantages. With deciduous +species the case is quite different, for these are, so to speak, asleep +when the deadly smoke and vapours are most abundant in our towns and +cities. I am quite aware that one occasionally sees evergreen shrubs +and trees in a fairly thriving condition; but it should be remembered +that in the majority of such cases they were planted when conditions +were much more favourable than at present. + +It is, perhaps, to be regretted that evergreen shrubs do not succeed +better in smoky localities, being planted principally for their +refreshing colour in winter; but if our atmospheric conditions utterly +preclude the use of such, then it is folly to throw away money on +useless planting, and the winter aspect of deciduous trees and shrubs +is infinitely preferable to that of unhealthy evergreens. The bursting +into leaf of the deciduous tree or shrub is not shared to a like extent +by evergreens, which lack that delightful changeableness and the +interest that is attached to spring growth. + +It is difficult to define accurately the boundaries of a town or +the worst smoke-infested areas, as far as tree and shrub growth is +concerned. In London, for instance, certain trees and shrubs which +positively refuse to live in the heart of the city do fairly well +in the suburbs, while still further out, where the atmosphere is +comparatively pure, they may thrive in quite a satisfactory way. These +thriving and non-thriving areas are sometimes very sharply defined, +and this has given rise to a false idea regarding certain trees and +shrubs that will rarely succeed in the more smoky parts when compared +with the same species which are found to do well in the outer suburbs. +High-lying and fairly open parts of a town are also far more conducive +to plant growth generally than those that are close and confined. In +town planting there is, however, no necessity for the almost monotonous +repetition of such trees as the Plane and Lime, or amongst shrubs, of +the Privet and Lilac, for there are many others that will do almost +equally well, and that are quite as ornamental. Probably the fact that +such are not well known would form an excuse for their absence, and +it is to be hoped that at least one object to be accomplished by the +writing of this book will be a greater interest in, and wider knowledge +of, the various species of trees, shrubs, and plants generally that +from long experience have been found suitable for planting in the town +garden. + +=Preparation of the Ground.=—Generally speaking, the materials with +which roadways are made are not only unsuitable for tree cultivation, +but positively destructive to vegetation of almost every description. +This also applies to our squares, terraces, and open grounds around +houses, the soil of which is little other than refuse building +materials, and mainly composed of broken bricks and stones, gravel, +old mortar, iron, wood and shavings. In such a medium it is perfectly +useless to look for that healthy and vigorous growth which is so +essential in street trees, that are still further handicapped by having +to do battle above ground with the impurities of a town atmosphere. + +Having for a number of years had to plant trees and shrubs in +many parts of London, it was found that in nearly every instance +substituting good soil for that found naturally was a first necessity. +Many failures in street planting from this neglect of providing +suitable soil could be pointed out, the result being that a section +of the public has become tired of the subject in consequence of the +initial expense and subsequent failures. Too often, also, the important +operations of preparing the ground and planting the trees are left in +the hands of the surveyor or builder, who has little or no knowledge +to fit him for the work, the operation being carried out by labourers +who are also entirely ignorant of what is required or the conditions +necessary for successful tree and shrub culture. The consequence is +that failure is almost certain, and the trees which were strong and +healthy when planted gradually become unhealthy and ultimately succumb +to a combination of circumstances which were brought about by the +ignorance of the operators. + +Another source of failure in street planting is the generally pent-up +condition of the roots, for in several cases that have come under our +notice lately the planter seemed to think that it was quite enough to +cut a small hole in the pavement or street of sufficient size to hold +the roots of the tree to be inserted. Were the soil free, as we find +in a field, this system might answer; but where the roadway is hard as +iron and composed mainly of clinkers and gravel, the case is totally +different. Another fruitful source of failure in street planting +is placing the pavement in too close proximity to the stem of the +tree, and numerous instances could be pointed out where even old and +established specimens have suffered irreparable damage in consequence +of having the paving brought up too close to the stems. + +The roots should always be allowed plenty of breathing room, and +to affect this a good-sized space should be railed off around each +tree and no pavement laid within it. Gratings may be placed on the +surface of the ground around the tree, should circumstances compel +such a course. By adopting either plan, a double benefit to the trees +is brought about by allowing free access of water to the roots and +preventing an accumulation of noxious gases in the soil, as would ensue +if the flagstone or pavements were used. + +Where street trees are to be planted, the ground-surface should +in every instance be thoroughly broken up for a space of not less +than 8 ft. square, and to a depth of, say, 4 ft., the inferior soil +removed and replaced by that of good quality, preferably of a loamy +description, or loam and leaf soil in about equal proportions. Before +placing the fresh soil in position, the sides and bottom of each pit +should be thoroughly loosened with a pick or fork. By undermining the +sides of each pit, a much larger and freer root run will be provided, +and this will not necessitate so much of the street or pavement being +torn up as if the pits were of equal width at the top and bottom. We +have found, in London at least, that the addition of a small quantity +of leaf soil to the loam is highly beneficial to the growth of trees +by retaining dampness and encouraging root spread. The newly added +soil should be firmly trampled in the pit before planting is engaged +in. Sometimes, where the original soil is not of too inferior quality, +a small proportion has been mixed with the loam and leaf soil, but, +speaking generally, this course cannot be adopted. + +In squares and gardens where shrub planting is to be engaged in, +a general renovation of the soil is also imperative, and this can +best be done by thoroughly trenching the soil to a depth of, say, 4 +ft. and adding a large proportion of fresh loam or other soil. Deep +trenching and thoroughly breaking up and loosening the soil is a most +important factor in town planting, and should never be neglected. +Manure is sometimes added to the soil, but it is objectionable from +several points of view, and, if used at all, should be thoroughly +decomposed and incorporated in small quantity. Good loam and leaf soil +is infinitely preferable, and, where necessary, sandy soil makes a +good addition. A little fresh lime added to the soil has been found +most beneficial in town planting, and in old and exhausted borders, +where the soil has become tainted with chemical impurities, the value +of lime or chalk as a cleansing agent is not sufficiently appreciated. +Of course, where so-called American shrubs are to be planted—which is, +however, rarely attempted in London—neither chalk nor lime should be +added to the soil. This question of soil is so important that no one +planting street trees or shrubs can afford to ignore it, and while the +extra cost in providing it is but little, the advantages gained are +great. + +=Preparing the Trees and Planting.=—Trees intended for planting in +towns, and especially alongside streets and footpaths, should be +specially prepared in the matter of transplanting and pruning. As tree +guards are a necessity in protecting trees by the sides of streets, +the trees must have their stems free of branches; therefore the buds +and branches on the stems need to be removed for a distance of 6 or +7 ft., whilst surplus leading shoots and ungainly branches should at +the same time receive attention in pruning. The tree also needs to be +frequently transplanted in order that an abundance of fibrous roots +may be produced, and every effort made to produce healthy, vigorous +specimens suitable for the uncongenial surroundings of their permanent +quarters. In street planting it is advisable to use trees that are from +12 to 14 ft. in height; and if these, for some years previously to +their final shift, have been specially prepared in the way of frequent +transplanting and careful pruning, little fear for their future +welfare need be entertained. Autumn or early spring planting is to be +recommended, the former time being in most cases preferable. As little +time as possible should be allowed to elapse between the lifting of the +tree in the nursery and its being transplanted in the new position. +Spread the roots out to their full extent around the stem and avoid +planting too deeply; the nursery mark on the stem serves as the best +guide as to the depth at which to plant. Planting too deeply under +the mistaken idea that doing so will secure the tree in the ground is +a fruitful source of decay and ultimate death of many street trees +planted in the metropolis, and it is not uncommon to see whole avenues +of trees that have made little or no progress for many years owing to +this cause. After a tree has been placed in an upright position on +the prepared site and the roots properly disposed, the soil should be +filled in and trampled firmly both amongst and over the roots. It may +be well to warn planters against the pernicious practice of allowing +leaves, packing materials, or grassy turf to come in contact with the +roots of newly-planted trees. In dry situations a saucer-shaped hollow +may be left around the stem of the newly-planted tree, while mulching +applied during dry and warm summers is to be recommended. The planting +of shrubs should be carried out with as much care as is used in the +case of trees. It is preferable to trench land in which shrubs are to +be planted rather than to make a separate pit for each shrub. + +Street trees should be carefully matched—that is, those of similar +height and shape used in the same street. Too often this principle is +not observed, as in a new street near the Strand, where some of the +specimens are about 10 ft. high, others, 15 ft. and 20 ft. high—forming +a very irregular, badly matched row. Many newly-planted town trees are +destitute of leading shoots and have ungainly side branches—faults that +should never be permitted when choosing specimens for such an important +purpose. In choosing trees for street planting, the following rules +should be observed:— + +1. Stout, healthy, well-rooted and recently transplanted trees should +alone be chosen. + +2. They should, for the same street, be of nearly equal height and +branch spread. + +3. Straight-stemmed trees, with stout leading shoots, are to be +preferred. + +4. The height should range from, say, 12 ft. to 14 ft. or over, and the +strength of stem should be proportionate to the height. + +5. Trees with wand-like, crooked, or cankered stems should be avoided +in street planting. + +6. They should be beautiful, shade-giving, and easy of culture. + +=Fencing and Staking.=—In order to prevent damage, newly-planted trees +should be fenced and staked at once. Of fences or guards there are +many kinds: they are made of wood, wire or iron. The iron tree guard +has many advantages over those of wood or expanded metal, and, being +made in two sections, it can be readily placed in position after the +tree has been planted. For trees from 12 to 14 ft. high the guards +need not exceed, say, 7 ft. in height, and preference should be given +to those in which the uprights are bent outwards at the top; for this +not only lessens the risk of interference with the branches, but is +pleasing in appearance. Sometimes it may not be considered necessary to +protect town trees, particularly such as are growing in side streets, +or in squares, but in every case firm staking is necessary in order to +prevent damage from wind. + +Wooden tree guards consist of about half a dozen poles or uprights, +about 7 ft. long, joined together around the tree trunk by means of +wire. When compared with those of iron, they have, however, several +disadvantages; for they may be climbed with ease and they do not last +long. Where it is found sufficient to stake the trees without having +recourse to guards, ash poles, from 2 in. to 3 in. in diameter, and 10 +ft. high, should be driven firmly into the ground as close to the stem +as possible. The tree should be tied with specially prepared tar rope, +which should be crossed between the stem and stake to prevent damage +by chafing. From time to time it will be necessary to see that the +band of string does not become too tight. On rare occasions only is it +necessary to stake shrubs, but this is sometimes advisable in exposed +positions or in the case of shrubs of unusually large size. + +=Watering and After-Management.=—For a few years after being planted, +trees and shrubs will require a certain amount of attention in the +matter of watering and mulching during the prolonged heat and drought, +and also in preventing the evils attending excessive wind-swaying owing +to the stakes and moorings becoming defective. + +The goat and wood leopard moth, as also numerous kinds of caterpillars, +attack newly-planted town trees, particularly the various species of +Pyrus, Thorn, Willow and Poplar. The former tunnel into the main stem +and render it so weak at the point attacked that it readily breaks +across during windy weather, while the caterpillars feed on the +foliage and greatly impair the health of the trees attacked. Spraying, +hand-picking and shaking are to be recommended in the case of the +caterpillars, while, to combat the goat and leopard moth, a small +quantity of cyanide of potassium can be inserted in the mouth of the +tunnel in order to dislodge or kill the insect. + +Watering should preferably be performed in the evening, the ground +around the roots being thoroughly soaked, while mulching with +freshly-mown grass or old straw will prevent the too rapid evaporation +of the moisture. In extreme cases binding the stem with a hay rope is +to be recommended. In order to prevent straining of the roots and bark +chafing, the moorings of trees should receive a periodical examination. + +The following trees and shrubs are to be recommended for town planting:— + +[Illustration: PLANE TREE IN REGENT’S PARK] + + +TREES + +The =Oriental= or =Common London Plane= (_Platanus orientalis +acerifolia_).—This variety of the oriental plane stands first in the +category of select town trees. Not only does it grow vigorously in +towns, but it is peculiarly well adapted for withstanding smoke and +other impurities of the atmosphere. Repeated experiments have clearly +proved that in London this tree flourishes better than any other, and +a visit to the Thames Embankment and several of the urban districts +will substantiate the statement; while the fine old tree which still +exists in Cheapside, and the equally beautiful specimen which has +hardly room for perfect development in the Court of Stationers’ Hall, +Ludgate Hill, afford other examples of how well suited this handsome +tree is for doing battle with the adverse conditions peculiar to the +great metropolis. As a diversity of opinion has existed about which +variety of plane it is that grows with such vigour in and around +London, it may be stated that, on a careful examination of a large +number of specimens, the variety _P.O. acerifolia_ was found not only +more commonly distributed, but, likewise, better suited for town +planting than the typical _P. orientalis_. This valuable variety is +readily distinguished from the normal plant by the less deeply divided +leaves, and from the American plane (_P. occidentalis_), with which it +is sometimes confounded, by the many fruit “balls” which are attached +to each peduncle, the fertile catkins of _P. occidentalis_ being, for +the greater part, produced singly. + +But not only for its value as a town tree is the oriental plane much +sought after, but the giant proportions to which it attains, coupled +with the handsome, finely-cut leaves and easy habit of growth, render +it one of our most desirable ornamental trees. Further, it is of the +easiest culture, succeeding extremely well in soils of very opposite +qualities. Taking everything into consideration, we question whether +any other of our forest trees is equal in value to the plane for +purposes of town planting. + +The =Maidenhair Tree= (_Ginkgo biloba_).—The maidenhair or ginkgo +tree is one of the most valuable that can be planted in the impure +atmosphere of a town garden. Few trees can compare with the one +in question for withstanding the deleterious effects produced on +vegetation generally by coming in too close contact with the impurities +of our great centres of industry. The ample delicate-green foliage +betrays—even late in the season, and when about to be cast off—little +evidence of the fierce struggle that must almost constantly go on +between vegetation and the smoke and filth of our towns and cities. +That the thick, leathery leaves and strong constitution of the tree +play an important part in keeping it free from disease is clearly +evident, while the annual renewal of the leaves enables it to cast off +the sooty nodules which work such havoc on the tender foliage of most +evergreen trees. + +At several places in and around the great metropolis—and in places, +too, where one is almost stifled with the fumes from chimneys—this tree +may be seen in almost as fresh a condition as those in the open country. + +The =Ailanthus= or =Tree of Heaven= (_Ailanthus glandulosa_) may be +seen in a very flourishing condition in many of the largest centres +of industry in Southern England. It has been largely planted in many +Continental cities, and has proved itself one of the few trees that is +capable of withstanding the impurities of a town atmosphere. + +The =Black Italian Poplar= (_Populus monilifera_).—Next to the plane +amongst forest trees I consider the black Italian Poplar to be the +most valuable for planting in smoky towns. As a proof of this there +are to be seen numerous fine specimens of this tree in a flourishing +condition, and clothed with the most healthy foliage, in some of our +large cities—to wit, London, Glasgow, Liverpool and Manchester. + +The =Canadian Poplar= (_P. canadensis_), and its variety, _P.C. nova_, +are excellent trees for planting in smoky localities. The former +succeeds admirably in the very centre of Sheffield, in the old parish +churchyard, where for hundreds of yards around not a particle of +living vegetation is to be seen. The variety _nova_ is a very superior +tree for street planting, it being far more ornamental, and of more +rapid growth than the black Italian poplar, and equally noticeable +for retaining a healthy and flourishing condition under the adverse +circumstances connected with a town atmosphere. + +The =Abele Poplar= (_P. alba_) grows with great freedom when subjected +to smoke and foul air. In the very heart of our largest towns it may be +seen flourishing in a manner that is almost incredible. + +The =Lombardy Poplar= (_P. fastigiata_) is another tree that has been +planted with some success in and around many of our largest cities, +but it cannot equal any of the foregoing for withstanding the baneful +effects of a tainted atmosphere. In the outskirts of towns, where air +is purer than amid chimneys pouring forth their volumes of smoke, the +Lombardy poplar succeeds fairly well, and imparts an air of grandeur +that could hardly otherwise be obtained. + +The =Cucumber Tree= (_Magnolia acuminata_).—Few planters are aware of +how valuable this tree is for withstanding the germs and soot of large +towns. Experiments have, however, resulted in this highly ornamental +tree being added to the list. + +The =Tulip Tree= (_Liriodendron tulipifera_).—Excellent examples are +not wanting of how valuable a tree this is for towns and streets. +It seems to have a wonderful recuperative power, for, scorched, +blackened, and encrusted as may appear the falling foliage, yet in the +following spring it again puts forth a garb of the freshest and richest +greenery. The remarkable four-lobed, truncate leaves render the tree +almost without an equal for ornamental planting, while its undoubted +smoke-resisting qualities place it high in the rank among town trees. + +The =Indian Bean= (_Catalpa bignonioides_).—For various reasons +this fast-growing tree is to be recommended for planting in smoky +localities. It grows with great vigour in many smoky centres of +industry, is a tree of handsome proportions, and, when fully +established, flowers freely. + +A valuable trait in the character of the Indian bean is that should +accident befall it, and the stem get injured, numerous strong suckers +are produced, which, as they grow with great rapidity, soon take the +place of the original. + +The =Common Mulberry= (_Morus nigra_) and the =white-fruited Mulberry= +(_M. alba_) may be seen growing satisfactorily in several of the old +gardens and nurseries of the metropolis, where they are now buried +alive, as might be said, in stones and mortar. That they are excellent +town trees will be admitted by every one who sees the fine specimens in +Liverpool and Manchester. + +The =Honey Locust= (_Gleditschia triacanthos_) is a very suitable +subject for planting in smoky localities. In many of the worst +smoke-infested parts of London and Manchester are seen goodly specimens +of this handsome tree—not poor, miserable trees, but, from their great +size, wealth of foliage, and general appearance, betokening perfect +health amid their rather adverse surroundings. + +The =False Acacia= (_Robinia Pseudo-acacia_).—Almost by the hundred +can the false acacia be seen in London and many other English towns, +thus proving that it is one of the most valuable trees that we possess +for withstanding the injurious effects of an impure atmosphere. + +What renders this acacia of greatest value as a town tree is that it +retains its rich verdure till well on in autumn. The varieties known as +=Decaisneana=, =inermis=, =microphylla=, =macrophylla=, =sophoræfolia=, +and the upright-habited are most to be desired. + +[Illustration: THE BEAM TREE IN LONDON] + +The =White Beam Tree= (_Pyrus Aria_).—In many of the confined spaces in +Glasgow the white beam tree grows luxuriously, and produces annually +great quantities of its brightly-tinted berries. + +The =Lime= (_Tilia europæa_).—Where the situation is not too confined, +and where soot and smoke do not abound, the lime may, and does, +succeed; but in the worst parts of the metropolis it soon shows signs +of distress, the tops of the branches dying off, and the whole tree +sooner or later showing the fierce struggle it has to endure with smoke +and fumes. As an avenue tree in the more airy and pure parts of a +town, the lime has certainly few equals, its general contour and the +pleasing shade it affords being points of special recommendation. + +The =Sycamore= (_Acer pseudo-platanus_).—This tree may be classed as +amongst the most useful for planting in smoky towns. + +In Warrington, where the noxious emanations from alkali and other +chemical works are most disastrous in their effects on vegetation, the +sycamore is one of the few trees that grow satisfactorily. Being a +rapid and strong grower, it is thus seen to be, for a certain time at +least, unaffected by its inimical surroundings. The variegated variety +would seem from recent experiments to be preferable, and better adapted +for smoky localities than the normal form. + +The =Weeping Ash= (_Fraxinus excelsior pendula_) would seem to +be superior to the common ash for planting in towns. It thrives +satisfactorily in many of our largest centres of industry—to wit, +London, Liverpool, Glasgow and Manchester. + +The =Horse Chestnut= (_Æsculus hippocastanum_) may be seen in a fairly +satisfactory way in many town parks, but only where it is not exposed +to smoke and soot to any great extent. In confined spaces both it and +the =English Elm= (_Ulmus campestris_) soon show signs of distress, +the points of the branches gradually becoming unhealthy, and the trees +dying off prematurely. Taking everything into consideration, neither +of these trees can be recommended for planting in smoky districts. +The =Birch=, =Walnut=, =Hornbeam=, and one or two kinds of =Willow= +will succeed in the less smoky parts of a town; but they are not to be +recommended for planting where the air is constantly impregnated with +soot and dust. + +The =Mountain Ash=, or =Rowan Tree= (_Pyrus aucuparia_) and =Bird +Cherry= (_Cerasus Padus_) are both good town trees, and excellent +examples of both may be seen in the back streets and slums of London. + +=Sophora japonica= is well worthy of recommendation as a tree that +is admirably suited for planting in towns. It is of large and rapid +growth, with elegant dark green pinnate leaves. Being a native of China +and Japan, it may not be perfectly hardy in the northern portions +of the British Isles, but it succeeds well in Southern England, and +thrives admirably in the most smoke-infested parts of London. + +=Thorns= of various kinds succeed well in towns, but they must not be +recommended for the most smoky and confined localities. + +The =Tansy-leaved Thorn= (_Cratægus tanacetifolia_) is an excellent +member of the family for town planting. + + +SHRUBS + +Of these there is rather a long list of kinds that are suitable for +planting in smoky localities. + +Evidently deciduous species possess an advantage over evergreen kinds +in the total annual renewal of their leaves, and hence it follows that, +as with trees, deciduous shrubs should have the preference. + +The following list includes only such kinds as have been proved +suitable for town planting:— + +=Osmanthus ilicifolius= is one of the handsomest of evergreen shrubs, +and also one of the few that succeed, in a satisfactory way, when +subjected to the impurities of a town atmosphere. In the smokiest +districts of both London and Liverpool it is unquestionably the best +all-round shrub. + +=Ligustrum coriaceum= is a fitting companion to the last, so far, +at least, as its powers of withstanding the effects of an impure +atmosphere are concerned. Being an evergreen, it is peculiarly well +suited for planting in the town garden, where it grows with great +freedom. + +=Olearia Hastii= and =O. macrodonta= are excellent shrubs for the +London garden. + +=Aucuba japonica.=—This well-known evergreen shrub is of great value +for planting in urban districts, it being able to do battle with a more +than ordinary amount of atmospheric impurities. For this reason it has +been largely planted in town squares and gardens, in the most crowded +and densely populated parts. + +=Griselinia littoralis.=—Although a little-known evergreen, this is +well suited for town planting, experiments having proved it to be a +most valuable addition to the limited number of shrubs suitable for +such a place. + +=Hibiscus Syriacus= is one of the few shrubs that can successfully +battle with an impure atmosphere. It is a shrub which town residents +should plant freely if they have a bit of ground that they want to look +pretty. + +The =Warfaring Tree= (_Viburnum lantana_) does not receive that amount +of attention to which on its merits it is entitled. It succeeds well in +some of the most filthy and smoky districts of our largest cities. + +The =Venetian Sumach= (_Rhus cotinus_) is a much-neglected shrub, but +for general usefulness it can hardly be surpassed. It is peculiarly +suitable for planting in cities. + +The =Stag’s Horn Sumach= (_Rhus typhina_) must, on no account, be +omitted, as it is a shrub of curious appearance and one that thrives +well in soot and dirt. + +=Leycesteria formosa= is a capital town plant; this may also be said of +the =Flowering Currant= (_Ribes sanguineum_)—indeed, too much praise +can hardly be bestowed on these shrubs for planting in the town garden +and shrubbery. + +=Skimmia japonica= and the =Snowy Mespilus= (_Amelanchier Botryapium_), +too, succeed well in smoke-infested districts; and the various kinds +of Lilac—particularly the Common and Persian—have few equals as town +shrubs. + +In the =Kentucky Coffee-Tree= (_Gymnocladus canadensis_) and =Bladder +Senna= (_Colutea arborescens_) will be found two most useful shrubs for +the town garden. + +=Phillyrea Vilmoriniana=, =Forsythia viridissima=, and the =Strawberry +Tree= (_Arbutus unedo_) are all more or less suitable for town planting +where the atmospheric conditions are not too seriously affected by +smoke and dust. + +The =Double Furse= (_Ulex europæus florepleno_) is one of our +handsomest flowering-shrubs, and a good addition to the list of such as +are suitable for planting in town gardens and squares. + +The =Spurge Laurel= (_Daphne laureola_) grows freely in many a town +garden—indeed, it is no uncommon thing to see large and well-balanced +specimens where smoke and filth are the order of the day. + +=Cotoneasters= of various kinds succeed well as town plants. Those +to be particularly noted are _C. frigida_, _C. Simonsii_, and _C. +vulgaris_. + +=Euonymus japonicus= is another excellent shrub, being almost +smoke-defying. + +The double-flowered forms of =Prunus sinensis= and the equally +ornamental =P. triloba= all succeed well as town plants; while the +=Almonds= are quite as good. + +=Koelreuteria paniculata=, the =Laurustinus= (_Viburnum tinus_), +=Weigelia rosea=, =W. amabilis=, =Deutzia scabra=, the common =Green +Box=, =Gum Cistus= (_C. ladaniferus_), =Mahonia aquifolia=, =M. +Bealii=, and =M. japonica= are all more or less suitable for town +gardens, but not for those in the most smoke-infested parts. The =Japan +Quince= (_Cydonia japonica_), =Hypericum Nepalense=, and =Euonymus +radicans= all do well when subjected to the town atmosphere. + + +CLIMBERS + +Of shrubs suitable for covering walls, trellises, and arbours, and +able to resist the dire influences of smoke and soot, there are a few +valuable and well-tried kinds. + +The =Virginian Creeper= (_Ampelopsis hederacea_) has few equals as +a town plant, thriving successfully in the midst of our busiest +centres of industry. Many instances could be pointed out in which this +handsome climber grows with the greatest freedom in the most impure and +smoke-laden atmosphere. + +The =Common Ivy= (_Hedera helix_) is, perhaps, the most valuable of all +climbing plants for using in smoke-infested localities. In some of the +courts near Ludgate Hill, a district of London that is by no means free +from smoke and dust, the ivy climbs houses to a height of 60 ft., and +surprises one by its fresh appearance in such localities. + +The =Evergreen=, or =Trumpet=, =Honeysuckle= (_Lonicera sempervirens_) +is another shrub of great merit for town planting, as it thrives well +in confined spaces, and where the atmosphere is very impure. + +=Cratægus Pyracantha= is a most valuable wall shrub for the town +garden. It is of free growth, stands smoke well, and is one of the +handsomest berry-bearing plants in cultivation. + +=Jasminum nudiflorum= needs little description, as it is one of our +handsomest wall-plants. For smoky districts it is invaluable, blooming +freely when flowers are scarce, and seeming to heed but little the +impurities of a town atmosphere. + +[Illustration: THE SAVIN, OR JUNIPER, AS A TOWN SHRUB] + +The =Vine= (_Vitis vinifera_) must not be omitted from our list, it +being an excellent plant for withstanding soot, smoke, dust and heat. + + +CONIFEROUS TREES + +Few of these, if any, succeed in a satisfactory way, when constantly +subjected to the impurities of a town atmosphere. + +Where the conditions are at all favourable the =Austrian Pine= +(_Pinus austriaca_), =Thyiopsis Dolabrata=, =Toxodium distichum=, +and =Cupressus Lawsoniana= do fairly well, but they are not to be +recommended for general town planting. + +=Retinospora plumosa aurea= has stood for many years in one of the +most smoky districts of Glasgow, and at present looks almost as well +as it did when brought from the country, while the =Savin= (_Juniperus +Sabina_) may generally be relied upon. + + + + +CHAPTER X + +TREES SUITABLE FOR HEDGEROW AND FIELD PLANTING + + +The well-founded complaint that hedgerow and field trees harbour +birds to the serious destruction of the grain crops is largely +counterbalanced by their ornamental appearance and the shelter they +afford both to man and beast. + +In proceeding to consider the trees that are most suitable for hedgerow +and field planting four important points must be kept in view. (1) That +the spread of branches is, comparatively speaking, small in proportion +to the tree’s height; (2) that the roots have a downward tendency, or +do not ramify to too great an extent; (3) that the tree is well adapted +for exposed situations and standing singly; and (4) that the timber +value is such as to compensate in some degree for the cost of planting +and after-management in the matter of pruning and fencing. Although we +rarely find all these qualities concentrated in one tree, still, with +careful choice and good after-management, much may be done to produce +the desired effect, even in trees of a partially opposite character. + +That the wrong class of timber is often planted in our hedgerows and +fields is painfully apparent to every one who has paid attention to +the subject—trees of wide-spreading habit both in root and branch +occupying positions and doing irreparable damage, where others of +less obtrusive nature could with advantage have been selected to take +their place. Timely and judicious pruning is of the utmost importance +in the production of hedgerow timber: but to be productive of the +best results, the work must be attended to early, and prosecuted at +intervals, as by skilfully shortening the branches from time to time, +the spread of root is also checked, thereby securing a double benefit +to the farmer and the land. + +The =Cornish Elm= (_Ulmus cornubiense_), unfortunately, is far too +seldom seen either as a standard or in our woodlands, for which the +propagator is greatly to blame, there not being offered anything like +a sufficient quantity to meet the demand. As a park or hedgerow tree +this distinct and well-marked variety of the elm has much to recommend +it—such as a narrow branch-spread in proportion to the height, +suitability for exposed situations, and the very decided ornamental +character it imparts to the landscape when properly placed. + +The principal advantages of this tree for hedgerow or field planting +are that no pruning is required to keep the branches in bounds, that +the spread of branches is very small in proportion to the tree’s +height, and that the roots do not approach too near the surface, or +ramify to any great extent, so as to become injurious to crops in their +immediate vicinity. + +The =English Elm= (_Ulmus campestris_) is another tree of value for +hedgerow planting, and is, perhaps, more commonly used for that purpose +than any other. Like the Cornish variety, though in very much less +degree, it has an upward inclination, the ramification of its branches +being narrow in proportion to its height, while as an ornamental tree +and valuable timber-producer it is held in high esteem. + +As a shelter tree it is of great value, and as the branches, +particularly the lower, seldom spread to a great extent, the injury +caused to the adjoining crop is usually not very serious. + +The =British Oak= (_Quercus Robur_) is of about equal value with +the elm for hedgerow planting—indeed by careful manipulation it is +even superior to that tree, being, perhaps, less injurious to the +herbage beneath it, and the roots having a greater downward tendency. +As an ornamental tree and valuable timber-producer the oak requires +no praise from us, these qualities having been recognised from the +earliest date. + +It bears pruning with impunity, so that all ungainly or far-spreading +branches can be cut back or foreshortened at pleasure; while those near +the ground, which in any way interfere with the fence or crop, can, by +judicious management, be altogether removed. Several of the fastigiate +forms of the oak are equally, if not better, suited for hedgerow +planting. + +The =Lombardy Poplar= (_Populus fastigiata_).—Although of but little +value as a timber-producer, yet, as an ornamental tree of singular +habit and appearance, the Lombardy poplar is almost unique amongst our +hardy deciduous trees. + +When planted in judiciously-arranged clumps in the corners of +fields, or hedgerows, this poplar produces a most pleasing effect +in the landscape: and, being of close, fastigiate growth, it is not +in the least injurious to crops in its immediate vicinity. No tree +is, however, more readily misplaced than the one in question; and +in planting it is well to avoid the prevalent mistake of placing in +lines, squares, round or oval forms, or even in single specimens, these +methods being highly objectionable and devoid of good taste—that is, if +we desire to preserve in the landscape a natural appearance. + +The =Sycamore= (_Acer pseudo-platanus_), as a standard tree, either in +field or fence, is worthy of attention, not only for its well-known +ornamental character, but also on account of the great value of the +wood produced, as it is in this latter respect, perhaps, second to +none. As a farmer’s tree it is, also, not one of the worst; for, +although the branches incline to spread, still, by careful manipulation +in the way of pruning, this may be corrected without doing injury +to too great an extent to the ornamental qualities of the tree. For +imparting both shade and shelter to farm stock the sycamore may be used +with the best advantage. Few trees produce such valuable timber when +grown singly or in clumps in the corners of fields and paddocks as +the sycamore, and no other repays so fully the damage it occasions to +fences and the surrounding ground. + +The =Hornbeam= (_Carpinus betulus_), for exposed situations and poor +soils, has few, if any, equals. The roots do not run near the surface, +but, like those of the oak, derive sustenance at a considerable +distance from it, and this quality, combined with its somewhat upright +inclination of growth and hardy nature, renders it well adapted for +hedgerow or field planting, where shelter combined with effect is +required. + +The =Lime= (_Tilia Europæa_), although one of our most ornamental +trees, can hardly be recommended as suitable for situations in which +the underlying herbage is at stake. For this latter reason alone, +however, can it be omitted from our list, and, as it bears pruning +well, does not to any great extent impoverish the adjoining ground. +It is at all times a pleasing object in the landscape, and it will +therefore be seen that the evil done by shade is in a great degree +compensated for. + +Amongst coniferous trees, if we except the =Larch= and =Scotch Fir=, +few are at all suitable for the end in question. The larch is a +much-neglected fence and park tree, this being attributable to an +erroneous impression that it is of too stiff and cold an appearance, +either for standing singly or giving effect to the landscape. +Nothing can, however, be farther from the facts, as when placed so +that its fine form is seen to advantage, few deciduous trees are +more picturesque than the larch, or offer a better contrast to the +ordinary run of our forest trees. It also occasions less damage to +the undergrowing herbage than most trees, while, at the same time, +it enriches the soil to a great extent by the annual shedding of its +leaves. + +The =Scotch Fir=, especially for shelter-giving purposes, has much to +recommend it for being extensively planted as stock-shelter in the +corners of exposed fields. + +As it usually rises to a great height without branches, it cannot be +considered as extremely injurious to its surroundings, although the +shallow-running roots can hardly be spoken of as non-injurious to the +greensward. + +=Planting and Fencing.=—Whether for planting in the hedgerow or singly +in the fields, good, strong, well-rooted specimens should always be +used—indeed, it is well when a home nursery is on the estate to have +these specially prepared, by frequent transplantings for a few years +previous to their final planting out. The nursery management will +require both care and experience, so that trees with strong, fibrous +roots equally distributed around the stem may be produced; lanky, +ill-grown, and ill-rooted plants having but a poor chance of succeeding +under the circumstances. From 10 ft. to 14 ft. will be found the most +suitable size for the purpose under consideration. The pits for their +reception should be opened of sufficient size to admit the roots +without cramping or bending, the bottom and sides being made loose +and free with a pick—it will be all the better if the pits have been +opened for some time previously to planting, the winter frosts having a +beneficial effect in clearing and pulverizing the soil. + +This is, however, seldom convenient, as, if in the field, they become +filled in, and trampled on by cattle, while gaps in the fences +occasioned by these cannot well remain open for any length of time. + +The better plan—at least, we have found it so—is to open the pits, +plant the trees, and have these fenced in on the same day, as by +this method no part of the work has ever to be done a second time, +everything being finished up as the work proceeds. In planting, be +careful to spread the roots out in an even manner around the stem, as, +by so doing, the tree is not only more firmly fixed in the ground, but +is enabled to collect food from all quarters. + +Fencing should follow up at once the work of planting, as, if the young +trees are allowed to remain unprotected for any length of time, they +get injured by the farm stock. The fences may be of any desired kind, +but, as they are only required for a few years, a simple erection made +of small larch poles about 8 ft. long, driven firmly into the ground +in a circle around the tree, say, 18 in. from the stem, and made fast +to hoops of wood at top, and half-way up, will be found sufficient. +Wooden erections are, perhaps, preferable to those made of iron for +fencing hedgerow trees, as they seldom require renewing, for by the +time the fence has decayed the trees will, in most cases, be out of +harm’s way. + +For shelter and shade clumps in fields probably the best trees to use +are the oak and sycamore, the value of timber produced being also a +valuable asset. + +=Pruning and After-Management.=—For at least the first ten years +after planting, careful and regular pruning of hedgerow and field +timber should in all cases be attended to, bearing in mind that timely +attention in this way will alone obviate the necessity for heavy +prunings at any future stage of the tree’s growth. + +Early and judicious pruning is necessary to the trees in question; +for it is well known that if branches are allowed to ramify at will, +greater injury to the underlying herbage must be committed than where +timely pruning and shortening of all straggling branches has been +attended to. + +Early summer pruning, say, in the month of June, is to be recommended, +as at that time, owing to the active circulation of the sap, the wounds +heal up much more quickly than when the operation is performed at any +other season of the year. The pruning should be performed by a person +who is thoroughly conversant with the work, haphazard cutting and +hewing, by an inexperienced hand, and at any season, being injurious. +If the young trees have been well attended to in the matter of pruning +whilst in the nursery border, little or no attention will afterwards be +required—at least for a number of years. + +The main object in pruning both hedgerow and field trees is to develop +a valuable main stem which is only to diverge into branches at a given +height from the ground, and to prevent the overgrowth of straggling +branches farther up, so as to maintain a symmetrical and rather +fastigiate head. + + + + +CHAPTER XI + +ORNAMENTAL PLANTING + + +As the beauty and picturesqueness of an estate are so dependent on the +disposition of its single trees, groups and plantations, the forester +should never lose sight of the fact, even when dealing with plantations +that are mainly intended for the value of the timber produced. + +In ornamental planting one of the principal things to bear in mind +is to allow sufficient space for each of the permanent standards +to develop its true and natural character. Instead, therefore, of +planting indiscriminately and in a sort of haphazard way, have a fixed +idea, and only plant on a regular and well-matured plan. Should the +individual standards be considered stiff or unsightly for the first +few years, a good plan is to fill up the spaces between them with +small-growing trees and shrubs, these being removed subsequently as +necessity demands, but always before damage to the permanent specimens +has been brought about by too close contact. The habit of the tree or +shrub, and the size to which it will ultimately attain are points that +should never be lost sight of in ornamental planting. Far too often +the mistake is made of planting specimen trees too near roads and +buildings, or, quite as bad, too close to each other. This is a most +unfortunate mistake, as it sooner or later necessitates the sacrifice +of specimens when their full beauty is probably developed, or when they +can least be spared. + +In the case of both hard-wooded and coniferous, the latter in +particular, the trees are planted when young and small, and ample +room is supposed to be given to them; but, as they grow up and near +perfect development, the spread of branches soon points out that a +great mistake has been made in the space of ground allotted, and that +the ultimate size to which the particular specimen would attain had +never, at the time of planting, been duly considered. There is little +left then to be done but either to put up with crowded and ill-formed +specimens, or to attempt their removal to more suitable quarters. The +latter, in the case of trees that have been left undisturbed for many +years, and when tap and side roots have been sent down to a great +depth for safe anchorage, is quite out of the question, the only +remaining way out of the evil being to sacrifice the specimen by having +it stubbed out and removed. In any case, in the event of one tree +encroaching too closely on another, no time should be lost in deciding +which is to be removed, for, if they crowd into and interfere with each +other, the branches on that side will get thin and die off, and the +tree will thus lose the uniformity of appearance on which its whole +beauty depends. Should crowding of specimen trees be permitted for even +a few years, partial disfiguration of the trees will have been brought +about, and it will take years of careful management to restore them to +their original beauty. + +In order to plant with any degree of certainty as to future results, +it is absolutely necessary to become first of all well acquainted with +the nature and habit of every tree planted, as also the properties and +peculiarities of the various soils, and aspect and position of the +ground to be planted. + +Probably no other branch of forestry requires sound judgment and +correct ideas to such an extent as the laying out of parks and grounds, +or, in other words, landscape and ornamental planting—and this +knowledge can only be attained by perseverance, investigation, and +study. + +In selecting sites for the various trees, it will be well to bear in +mind that certain species are better suited than others for planting +in exposed places, for using in particular soils, and for inserting in +either dry or damp ground. + +By the lake or pond side the =Deciduous Cypress= (_Taxodium +distichum_), the =Bhoton Pine= (_Pinus excelsa_), the beautiful +cut-leaved =Imperial Alder= (_Alnus glutinosa imperialis_), the +=Golden= and =Purple Willows= may all be planted with the best chances +of success; whereas none of these would thrive well on dry or sandy +soils. Should chalk or calcareous soil crop up, we have good subjects +in the =Fern-leaved Beech= (_Fagus sylvatica asplenifolia_), the +=Cephalonian= and =Spanish Silver Firs= (_Abies cephalonica_ and _A. +Pinsapo_) and many of the =Pyrus= family; while, where only a small +quantity of loam overlies the gravel, the =Scotch= and =Cluster Pines= +(_Pinus sylvestris_ and _P. Pinaster_), the pretty and far from common +=Manna Ash= (_Fraxinus Ornus_), and many others may be successfully +planted. In good, rich soil, and where the position is fairly +sheltered, there are no end of ornamental trees, both hard-wooded +and coniferous, that may be planted. Some of the =Magnolias=, but +particularly _Magnolia stellata_, _M. acuminata_, and _M. Umbrella_ +should find a place, while the =Juneberry= (_Amelanchier canadensis_), +the =Cornelian Cherry= (_Cornus Mas_), and various =Thorns= should +not be neglected. In exposed places plant clumps of the =Corsican= +and =Austrian Pines= (_Pinus laricio_ and _P. austriaca_), following +up with the hardy =Spruces= and =Cypresses=. Such dainty conifers as +the =Japanese Cryptomeria= (_C. japonica_), the =Elegant Cryptomeria= +(_C. elegans_), =Fitzroya patagonica=, =Prince Albert’s Fir= (_Tsuga +Mertensiana_,) and =Umbrella Pine= (_Sciadopitys verticillata_) must +have cosy corners and good soil to show their beauty to perfection. + +=Pitting and Planting.=—The pits for the reception of ornamental trees +should be well formed: that is to say, should be made of sufficiently +large size for the specimens to be planted—indeed, it is always +preferable to dig out pits of a greater size than are required, thus +allowing of a quantity of broken-up soil being placed beneath and +around the roots. In any case, have the bottom and side of each pit +thoroughly broken up, and should the soil be found to be of inferior +quality, it is best to substitute that of a more desirable kind such +as is known to be suitable for the wants of the particular specimen. +In removing large specimen trees great care should be exercised—first, +that the roots are uninjured, or if at all, in a very small degree; +second, that a good ball of earth is attached; and, third, that +replanting is delayed as short a time as possible. Have the pit, for +the reception of the tree, dug out and prepared before the specimen is +lifted. Lift carefully by undermining the roots, and digging out a deep +trench at a reasonable distance from the stems, the distance from the +stem to be regulated by the root spread, size of the specimen, etc. In +order to avoid falling apart, the ball of earth should be bound with a +strong mat or tarpaulin, the ends being made fast around the stem. + +A stout low-wheeled truck has been found a most convenient appliance +for removing the specimen; but in the case of large and heavy trees the +common timber wheels, or janker, may be found of great service. The +truck to which we refer should be specially made, and should be of the +following dimensions: length, 5 ft.; width, 3 ft.; on wheels 1 ft. 3 +in. in diameter, these being placed so as to be below the level of the +body, thus avoiding contact with the load when that is either longer +or broader than the specified dimensions. The framework should be of +stout oak, and the bottom 3 in. thick boarding. The timber wheels, or +janker, being an adjunct of forest appliances, is always at hand, and +does away with the necessity of procuring any of the elaborate and +costly carriages usually recommended for transplanting large trees and +shrubs. The tree being placed in the pit opened for its reception, the +roots should be spread out and the soil replaced and trampled firmly, +and afterwards well watered. + +=Staking the Trees.=—Next to careful planting and watering a matter of +the most vital importance—but one that, unfortunately, is too often +lost sight of—is the efficient staking or otherwise securing of large +transplanted trees. The great strain and consequent damage to the roots +of large transplants when allowed to rock about with every gust of wind +is not only highly injurious, but, viewing the matter from a point of +neatness, few things in forestry have a more unsightly or neglected +appearance than trees almost blown over by the wind. Various are the +methods usually adopted in staking and tying newly-transplanted trees. +As no hard and fast lines can be laid down, as a rule, the size of +the trees and the exposure of the positions in which they are planted +must determine the method of procedure to be adopted. It may be that +when growing in a low-lying, sheltered valley, trees of even 8 or 10 +ft. in height may be perfectly safe without stake or tie of any kind, +whereas others of similar or even smaller size, growing in an open +position and exposed to the prevailing winds of the district, will +require a mooring of the most secure description, and adjusted in the +most efficient manner. For trees and shrubs up to 6 ft. in height, a +strong, sharp-pointed stake should be driven firmly into the ground, +within about 9 in. of the main stem, and on the most exposed side. The +stake should be fully 7 ft. long, and driven, not perpendicularly, but +with the head slightly inclined from the tree, and in the direction +from which the prevailing winds usually blow. A strong ligature of some +kind, such as tarred rope or thick matting, is then placed round the +stem of the tree requiring support, at about 4 ft. from the ground, and +made fast to the stake at a similar height. + +By crossing the tie between the tree and stake, a more efficient job +results, as there is then less room for the tree to work in when +rocking with the wind. It will thus be seen that the nearer to the +stem of the tree the stake is placed, the greater will be the power of +resistance. + +When the trees and shrubs are from 8 ft. in height and upwards, but +especially in the case of evergreen species, stronger moorings than +those just described will have to be employed, and the following plan +we have found suitable for almost any emergency. A strong band of +leather, or several strands of tarred rope, are placed loosely around +the stem of the tree to be staked, and at, say, three-quarters of its +height. Three wires—ordinary fencing wire does well—are then joined to +this collar, two on the most exposed side and one on the other, and +made fast to stout stakes driven firmly into the ground, at a distance +from the main stem proportionate to the tree’s height. In the case of +very large trees, or those that have been reinstated from a fallen +position, double wires are used in a manner similar to that just +described, the collar, however, being unusually strong. The advantages +of double wires are extra strength, and the fact that they admit of +being twisted at any time to the tightness required. + +The above may be considered the two principal ways of staking large +transplants, but occasionally cases will crop up in which it may be +necessary to resort to other methods, but such are peculiar cases, and +must be dealt with in a peculiar manner. + + +CUT-LEAVED, WEEPING AND FASTIGIATE TREES + +These have their own place in landscape gardening, and when placed +in the hands of a skilful planter are capable of producing the most +beautiful and pleasing effects. The majority are graceful in outline, +distinct and impressive in appearance; in fact, possess all those +qualities which render them specially valuable for the embellishment +of park or garden. Great care is, however, necessary in planting these +trees, for if not used with the greatest discretion, the good effects +they are so capable of producing in the hands of a trained planter are +destroyed. + +=Weeping Trees.=—Both picturesque and beautiful is a well-developed +specimen of the Weeping Beech, and particularly so when associated with +trees of a light and airy appearance, for the general character of the +tree is somewhat massive and lumpy. Being of large growth, the Weeping +Beech wants plenty of room for development. There is also a desirable +weeping form of the purple Beech. + +The Kilmarnock Weeping Willow (_Salix caprea pendula_) is one of the +most popular and widely cultivated of weeping trees. It originated +near Ayr, in Scotland, and was so named to distinguish it from two +other well-known varieties, the common Weeping Willow and the American +Weeping Willow—two desirable forms for waterside planting. In the +American Fountain Willow we have another excellent weeping tree, while +the ringed-leaved Willow (_S. Babylonica annularis_ or _crispa_) is one +of the most curious and picturesque of the whole group. + +Amongst the Birches are at least two desirable weeping forms in the +cut-leaved (_Betula pendula Youngi_), Young’s weeping Birch, and the +weeping white Birch (_B. alba pendula_), both of which are admirably +adapted for lawns, even where space is restricted. The Birch will +thrive on poor, light soil, and is, therefore, peculiarly suitable for +planting in gravelly or rocky formations. + +The distinct habit of the Weeping Mountain Ash, or Rowan tree, has made +it a favourite in the embellishment of small grounds, and the wealth +of conspicuous fruit produces a telling effect, especially if the tree +is backed up by darker foliaged trees or shrubs. There are other forms +of Pyrus well worthy of attention, such as the pendulous Siberian +Crab (_P. prunifolia pendula_) and _Salicifolia pendula_, the latter +in particular being a distinct and graceful small-growing tree. The +Weeping Mulberry (_Morus alba pendula_) is occasionally seen in good +form when it is a desirable acquisition, so is the Weeping Laburnum +(_L. vulgare pendulum_) and the curious and scarce _Gleditschia +triacanthos excelsa pendula_. In the silver-leaved Weeping Holly we +have one of the best of evergreens for confined situations; and _Cornus +florida pendula_ is a strikingly beautiful tree in which the weeping +habit is decidedly pronounced. + +Among Weeping Elms some varieties are most pronounced, but there are +several others all equally worthy of culture. Of the English Elm, +probably the best is _Ulmus campestris Petersii pendula_, while of the +Mountain or Scotch, that known as _U. montana pendula_ is the most +desirable. Weeping thorns are by no means common, but they are probably +the most natural and graceful of all drooping trees of modern growth. +In the flower garden at Regent’s Park is growing a beautiful specimen +of this tree. + +Perhaps the most common of weeping trees is the Weeping Ash (_Fraxinus +excelsior pendula_), and its strong, vigorous growth causes it to be +employed where others would not succeed. Even in smoky localities it is +quite at home, as many fine old trees throughout London clearly prove +that the deleterious effects of an impure atmosphere have but little +effect on its hardy constitution. It is one of the best of weeping +trees for forming an arbour, and as a distinctly ornamental specimen +for the park or large lawn it has few equals. + +Amongst coniferous trees we have several distinct and beautiful +pendulous trees or shrubs, such as _Abies excelsa inverta_ and the +well-known and much appreciated _A. Smithian_ or _morinda_. The +pendulous Hemlock spruce (_A. Canadensis pendula_) is one of the +prettiest and most natural in appearance of all weeping trees. + +There are several distinct and beautiful forms of the Cypress, +particularly _C. Lawsoniana gracilis pendula_ and _C. Lawsoniana alba +pendula_. The Weeping Chinese Juniper (_Juniperus Chinensis pendula_) +and _Virginiana pendula_ are well worthy of attention where this +particular class of trees or shrubs is in request. Than the weeping +form of the common Larch, perhaps no tree is more beautiful, the +feathery pea-green foliage being distinct from that of every other tree. + +=Cut-leaved Trees.=—Of the Maples we have several cut-leaved forms, +such as the beautiful _Acer palmatum laciniatum_ and _dissectum_, while +of the Norway Maple, the variety known as _Platanoides dissectum_ is +particularly valuable on account of the freely divided and beautifully +coloured leaves. + +In the cut-leaved Birch (_Betula alba laciniatum pendula_), we have at +once one of the most graceful and distinct of hardy trees. Not only +are the leaves cut up and divided, but the weeping sprays of foliage, +owing to the fine, whipcord-like branchlets, produce a most beautiful +and graceful effect. In addition, this Birch is a tree of neat, clean +growth, and will succeed in a satisfactory way even on poor gravelly +soils and upland situations. + +Amongst the Beam trees (_Pyrus_) we find several good cut-leaved +forms, such as _pinnatifida_ and _salicifolia_, both highly desirable +medium-sized trees and valuable for woodland margins or steep, +undulating grounds. Numerous forms of the Oak have appeared with +incised leaves, such as _Quercus dentata_ and the fern-leaved variety +of the Turkey Oak (_Quercus Cerris asplenifolia_), a decidedly +beautiful and worthy form. Of the English Oak (_Q. Robur_) we have +at least two good cut-leaved forms in _Pedunculata asplenifolia_ and +_pectinata_. There are other varieties of the Oak in which the foliage +differs considerably from that of the species in being much more freely +divided. + +_Rhus glabra laciniata_ has become widely known of late years on +account of its neatly divided foliage and as being a good town shrub. +The leaves are of a delicate pea-green and the flowers inconspicuous +and succeeded by feathery lawns. + +The common Alder has at least two forms that are much sought after for +dampish ground by the pond or lake side, in _Alnus glutinosa laciniata_ +and its well-marked and distinct variety _imperialis_. Both attain to a +goodly size, and when suitably placed where the abundant, rich green, +deeply divided leaves can be readily seen, are distinctly valuable for +contrast and waterside effect. + +The incised or cut-leaved Hornbeam (_Carpinus Betulus incisa_) is +rarely seen, but it is of so distinct a type that its inclusion in this +list is considered desirable. In this case the almost entire beech-like +leaf is finely divided and the whole tree presents a comparatively +light and airy appearance. Of the common Hawthorn there is a specially +elegant cut-leaved form in that named _laciniata_, but its distinctive +characteristics are best revealed when planted in conjunction with the +species. + +Several of the Vine family are rendered highly ornamental for covering +walls and pergolas by reason of their beautifully coloured and divided +leaves. _Vitis heterophylla dissecta_ is one of the best in this way, +but others of the less-incised forms are well worthy of attention. _V. +vinifera purpurea_ has much to recommend it as an ornamental-leaved +variety, and is specially suitable for covering mounds of earth, stones +or tree stumps. + +We must not omit to include the cut or fern-leaved variety of the +Lime (_Tilia platyphillos laciniata_), which for neat habit of growth +and distinct character from the species merits special attention. The +cut-leaved Japan Maples are exceedingly beautiful, but their slow +growth and difficult propagation will always be against extensive +planting, and render them rare and expensive. Other interesting +cut-leaved trees are the willow-leaved Ash, laurel-leaved Willow, +scarlet Oak, Maidenhair tree, and that most beautiful of all, the +fern-leaved form of the golden Elder. + +Though somewhat stiff of outline the cut-leaved Horse Chestnut +(_Æsculus_), in the form known as laciniatum, is not to be despised, +and affords a striking contrast to the species. + +The fern-leaved Beech (_Fagus sylvatica asplenifolia_) is probably the +most commonly distributed of cut-leaved trees, and rightly so, for it +is certainly one of the most beautiful and distinct of the type. _F. +sylvatica quercifolia_, the Oak-leaved, is also worthy of attention, +but cannot compare with the former in point of beauty. Even of the +common Walnut (_Juglans Regia_) there is a cut-leaved variety, which +is distinct and worthy of culture as an ornamental tree. It is named +_laciniata_ and is fairly common. + +Of the numerous varieties of the Sweet or Spanish Chestnut, the most +desirable is that which bears the rather cumbrous name of _Castanea +vesca heterophylla dissecta_. It is one of the most beautiful of hardy +trees, in which the long, narrow leaves of the upper parts of the +branches droop in a graceful manner and render it so much sought after +in ornamental gardening. + +=Fastigiate Trees.=—The Lombardy Poplar (_Populus fastigiata_) is +at once one of the most conspicuous and picturesque of tapering +trees. Though it can hardly be described as a beautiful tree, yet +for landscape effect the tall, spiry, column-like appearance renders +the Lombardy Poplar of particular value for certain well-chosen +positions in our parks and grounds. In the neighbourhood of a town or +country village it produces an effect almost akin to architectural +embellishment, while in flat or low-lying districts, and particularly +near water, it is most at home and probably looks best. It also +associates kindly with old ruins and has a pleasing effect when rising +out of pointed-headed Cypresses or Yews, but in all cases it is a +tree that should be used sparingly and with extreme caution. Forming +avenues or lines of the tree is not good taste, while planting single +specimens in open situations should be avoided. + +Of the Poplars there are several upright-growing varieties in addition +to the Lombardy, such as the beautiful _P. alba Bolleana_, a desirable +fast-growing tree with a character of its own. + +The Oak, too, has its decidedly upright form in _Quercus pedunculata +fastigiata_, which in old parks is a fairly common tree. A decidedly +beautiful small-growing tree is the upright form of the dwarf Acacia +(_Robinia Pseudo-acacia inermis fastigiata_) which for confined spaces +and wealth of delightful pea-green foliage is a valuable small-growing +variety. + +The Elms are not wanting in upright-growing forms, both the English +and Scotch being represented, the former in _Dampieri aurea_, and +the latter in _Montana fastigiata_. A beautiful and distinct tree of +upright habit will be found in the fastigiate variety of the Tulip tree +(_Liriodendron tulipifera fastigiata_). + +_Cupressus sempervirens_, in many parts of England, but particularly +by the coast, forms a beautiful tapering evergreen tree with the +darkest-green foliage. For clump planting it is particularly desirable, +but it is not quite hardy in some parts of the country. Another +coniferous tree of naturally erect growth is the red or Virginian Cedar +(_Juniperus Virginiana_), which in sheltered sites is a most desirable +member of the family. Two other Junipers are of decidedly strict +growth, _J. drupacea_ and _J. thurifera_. + +The Irish Juniper (_Juniperus hibernica_) originated in Ireland, most +probably as a chance seedling. It is a most desirable shrub, and on +account of its singular habit of growing in a compact, slender and +graceful column, has proved itself a most valuable evergreen for +almost any position, but particularly where geometrical gardening is +carried out. The silvery glaucous hue of the thickly produced foliage +is extremely beautiful. The nearly allied but much smaller growing _J. +hibernica compressa_ forms a compact slender pyramid of bright-tinted +foliage and is an excellent plant for rockwork or small gardens. + +Amongst the Cypresses are several upright-growing forms, probably the +best, and certainly the most widely distributed, being Lawson’s erect +Cypress (_Cupressus Lawsoniana erecta viridis_), of dense, erect habit +and with vivid green foliage. _Cupressus macrocorpa lutea_, raised by +Messrs. Dicksons, of Chester, has a decidedly neat and upright habit +of growth, while the distinct golden tint of the foliage renders it a +desirable acquisition for ornamental planting. + +Than the Irish Yew (_Taxus baccata fastigiata_) with its dark sombre +foliage and neat columnar outline, few evergreens are more conspicuous +and effective. This favourite and far-distributed variety originated at +Florence Court, in Ireland, a century and a quarter ago. + +_Cupressus macrocarpa fastigiata_ is a well-marked variety in +which the branches closely press to the main stem. The foliage is +of the brightest green, and the long whip-cord-like shoots with +the conspicuous reddish back, impart a peculiar grace to healthy +specimens. _C. torulosa_, for planting where space is confined, is +a decided acquisition, the easy though columnar habit of growth, +slender branchlets and bright glaucous foliage being all points of +recommendation. + +The upright form of the Birch (_Betula alba fastigiata_) has a +peculiarity of habit that, associated with the slender weeping shoots, +is highly ornamental; while _Cornus stricta_ and the upright variety of +our common Hawthorn have both points of recommendation. + + + + +CHAPTER XII + +TREES BEST ADAPTED FOR VARIOUS SOILS + + +There is, perhaps, no soil so bad and barren that it may not be +rendered either profitable or ornamental by judicious planting; but, +as might be expected, there is often a great want of knowledge as to +the proper kind of trees to be chosen to suit a particular soil. In +looking over a large extent of woodland one will often be struck with +the great disproportion in size of the individual trees of a species; +but it will generally be noticed that where the largest and healthiest +occur the tree is usually growing upon its own soil, and is found to +be flourishing at the expense of all around it. Thus the finest oaks +will be found where the soil is deep and loamy, resting on clay; beech, +and the Austrian pine (_Pinus austriaca_) upon a calcareous gravel, +resting on a bed of chalk; ash and elm on a dampish, loamy gravel; +birch in a light, black loam, with a gravelly substratum; Spanish +chestnut, in a good loamy or gravelly soil, not too damp; the Scotch +and Corsican pines (_P. sylvestris_ and _P. laricio_) at fairly high +altitudes, and in gravelly, well-drained soils; and the Cluster and +Aleppo pines (_P. Pinaster_ and _P. halepensis_), in almost pure sand +on the sea-coast. Some trees grow rapidly for a few years in almost +any soil, but where the soil is unsuitable they generally show signs +of distress after a time, make little or no progress, and ultimately +become stunted and ill-grown. Should the soil be very unfavourable, +they die outright. Instances of this are, unfortunately, far too +common wherever one travels over the country, owing to trees of a kind +that are utterly unfitted for the particular class of soil being +planted in a haphazard kind of way, without any consideration of their +individual requirements. For all practical purposes with reference +to tree-culture, soils, generally speaking, may be divided into six +distinct classes—peaty, chalky or limey, gravelly, clayey, loamy, and +such as contain ironstone, coal, etc. + +(1) =Peat.=—Few trees will succeed well on an unreclaimed peat bog, +but, where draining and soiling have been attended to at the outset, +the number that grow and produce a fair amount of valuable timber is +almost without limit among our generally cultivated species. Among +conifers that have proved themselves suitable for bog planting are the +larch, Scotch pine, and common and black spruces (_Picea excelsa_ and +_P. nigra_). The larch grows rapidly, and is less subject to disease +on peaty than any other soil—indeed, up to a few years ago, I cannot +remember having seen a trace of any of the diseases which have rendered +the life of the tree so precarious of late years in this country. In +thinning a larch plantation of fully sixty years’ growth I found the +trees felled to be perfectly healthy, and of exceptional quality, with, +on an average, 72 ft. of wood in each. The subsoil in this case was +clay, and the bog, previous to being planted, had been cut over for +fuel. The Scotch pine grows almost as freely as the larch—the average +in over fifty trees measured being about an eighth less—under similar +conditions. Natural reproduction of the Scotch pine goes on so rapidly +that it must be considered one of the very best trees for planting on +peat bog. The spruces are excellent trees for planting on reclaimed +peat bog, where they produce a fair amount of timber and afford +excellent shelter to other trees. Of hardwoods, the beech is one of the +best for bog planting, as it grows rapidly and produces a large amount +of clean timber. The alder grows luxuriously on peaty soils, and shows +no traces of disease or canker. Another excellent bog tree is the Gean +or Wild Cherry, and this may likewise be said of the holly. Ash and oak +are not generally of large size, nor are they always healthy on peat +bog, even when it has received a great amount of attention in the way +of reclaiming. Birch, lime and poplar of various kinds are all suited +for planting on well-drained bog. + +Among coniferous trees, a large number are well suited for planting in +reclaimed peat bog. By way of experiment I have planted specimens of +various kinds in newly-formed plantations, and in nearly every case +the trees have grown well, particularly when partially sheltered. +_Cupressus macrocarpa_ is one of the best, and not one whit behind +it are _C. Lawsoniana_ and _C. goveniana_. _Wellingtonia gigantea_ +and _Sequoia sempervirens_ have done well, while _Pinus laricio_ and +_P. austriaca_ grow freely. I find that the majority of the recently +introduced conifers do well on prepared peat bog—that is, where a +quantity of loam has been incorporated with the bog and all superfluous +moisture drained away. + +(2) =Chalky Soils.=—The beech is peculiarly well suited for planting +in chalk districts, for it will grow and produce a large quantity of +excellent timber where but a few inches of loam overlie the chalk. It +is a fact that, in Southern England particularly, in order to find +where the chalk beds lie, one has only to be guided by the line traced +out by the largest and most luxuriant beeches. + +The beech will grow freely enough on almost pure chalk, but it +certainly flourishes best where loam, say, from 1 ft. to 3 ft. in +depth, overlies the chalk, or is incorporated with it, as on the +Chiltern Hills. + +The Norway maple (_Acer platanoides_) revels in a chalky soil, and +so does _A. colchicum rubrum_. These are both handsome, hardy, +large-growing trees, and well suited for extensive forest-planting +under certain conditions of soil. White poplar (_Populus alba_) is +an excellent tree for planting in chalky districts—indeed, it is +surprising to see to what an immense size it attains on almost pure +chalk. + +Other poplars that do almost equally well on the chalk formation are +_P. monilifera_ and _P. canadensis_, both excellent, free-growing +trees. Elms, particularly the Huntingdon and the American, grow +rapidly, and attain to a large size, where but a small quantity of +loam is present in the chalk. The wych elm grows freely in chalky +districts, and this may also be said of the common and silver-leaved +lime. False acacia (_Robinia Pseud-acacia_) is an excellent tree for +chalky soils, and there attains to a greater size than in even the +richest of loams. The alder and birch also thrive with vigour on chalky +soils. Indeed, most trees which in a state of nature grow in damp or +marshy soils, are well suited for planting where chalk is the component +of the main soil, and this is explained as follows:—Chalk, although +sufficiently porous to allow water to percolate through it, has, like +all other calcareous matter, a strong attraction for water, and acts +like a sponge in holding it in considerable quantity for a very long +time. Among the conifers that are suitable for chalky soils the Spanish +fir (_Abies Pinsapo_) is one of the best. In the chalky districts of +Southern England it thrives with unusual luxuriance. The Mount Enos fir +(_Abies cephalonica_) is, likewise, well adapted for growing in chalky +districts. Of evergreen trees that succeed well on chalk the number is +well known to be limited, and it is important that two such beautiful +conifers as the Spanish and Mount Enos firs should there find their +most congenial home. + +Both the Scotch and Weymouth pines (_Pinus sylvestris_ and _P. +Strobus_) are well suited for planting on chalk, and many fine examples +of both may be seen on the chalky reefs of Kent and Surrey. + +The common Yew grows freely where hardly a particle of soil overlies +the chalk formation. + +The Giant Arborvitæ (_Thuja gigantea_) is peculiarly suitable for +planting in chalky soils: and the Lebanon Cedar (_Cedrus Libani_) is +never found in greater perfection than when growing in the chalk with a +fair depth of loam atop. + +_Wellingtonia gigantea_ also does well. + +(3) =Gravelly and Sandy Soils.=—The Corsican pine is an excellent tree +for planting on gravelly soils, and some of the largest and finest +specimens in this country are growing in a disused gravel-pit, and this +may also be said of the Douglas fir (_Pseudothuga Douglasii_). + +The Scotch pine is well known to be one of the best conifers for +planting in gravelly soils, where it reproduces itself in great +numbers, when the conditions of growth are at all favourable. + +_Pinus Pinaster_, the cluster pine, is, perhaps, one of the most +valuable conifers for planting either in gravelly or sandy soils. The +great value of the tree in reclaiming sandy tracts, both at home and +abroad, has been so often described that further reference here is +not required. The Aleppo pine is a good companion to the Pinaster, +and grows with great freedom in a sandy or gravelly soil, within the +influence of the sea. Gravelly soil also suits the Weymouth pine, on +which it produces a fair quantity of very resinous timber. Both the +beech and oak produce a large volume of timber on poor gravelly and +sandy soils. + +(4) =Clay Soils.=—The soil here referred to is genuine clay, devoid of +stones, and without a particle of sand or loam in it. + +It occurred on the slopes, and for some considerable distance along the +sides of one of the park roads on an estate in England. + +This is recorded simply to show what species of trees are best able to +succeed when planted in pure clay. The pits, in this case, it may be +well to mention, were dug and the soil thrown loosely up for a month +previous to planting, but no soil was added to the stiff clay. Nearly +one hundred kinds of trees and shrubs were used, but out of all these +not more than eight are doing well, the others having gradually died +out, or become so rusty and miserable looking that their removal was +compulsory. First among the trees that have succeeded is the giant +arborvitæ (_Thuja gigantea_), which seems to revel in what is generally +considered the most unkindly of soils. _Cryptomeria japonica_ has also +done well, but the trees of this kind, though bushy and well-furnished, +have grown at a comparatively slow rate. + +_Cupressus macrocarpa_ also has done fairly well: the growth certainly +has not been rapid, but for all that the general appearance of the +trees is the reverse of what one might expect from the unfavourable +nature of the soil. The Indian Cedar (_Cedrus Deodara_) we have found +to be peculiarly well suited for planting in clayey soils, the bright +silvery tint that is so characteristic of this cedar when well grown +being discernible in the clay-grown specimens. _Pinus austriaca_ has, +in a few instances, done well, the foliage being ample and of the +usual dark yew-green. Amongst shrubs the double-flowered gorse (_Ulex +Europæus_, fl. pl.) has done best of any—indeed, it has grown and +increased freely, and would seem to be quite as much at home as in its +natural element—a dry, gravelly bank. These may be considered as the +trees that have succeeded best in stiff, clayey soil. Few of the pine +tribe did well, and this may also be said of the spruces, cypresses, +yews, junipers, arbutus, dogwood, cotoneaster, hollies, and others +planted. + +It is, of course, far from advisable to plant trees or shrubs in such +unkindly soil without first adding other of better quality; but it is +of great value to know that there are a few trees and shrubs that will +thrive almost in defiance of the stubborn and unkindly nature of a +stiff clay soil. + +(5) =Ironstone Soils.=—The particular class of soil to which I refer, +and which in several districts occurs in plenty, is on the coal and +ironstone formation, where the top soil is usually shallow, and the +subsoil consists of a loose, yellowish rag that is largely impregnated +with iron. In most places but a very small quantity of soil exists, and +that is of the poorest description, varying in depth according to the +lie of the measure. The Spanish Chestnut is one of the very best trees +for this soil, growing with freedom, and producing a fair amount of +good timber, while its appearance indicates perfect health. + +Birch and beech do well, although neither of them attains to a large +size. The latter reproduces itself freely from seeds, and soon spreads +wherever a footing can be got. Sycamore grows freely, particularly +where the pan is broken up, and produces a small quantity of good +timber. Another tree that seems perfectly at home on the coal and +ironstone is the wild cherry, for there it grows to a fair size, +flowers freely, and produces excellent timber. Larch cannot be +recommended for this soil, but in places where a small quantity of +loam overlies the coal and ironstone it grows with great freedom for +a number of years, and the timber, if cut early, is of good quality. +The common spruce soon dies out, although it may grow freely enough for +a number of years after being planted, and wear a healthy appearance. +Oak and ash do fairly well, but they rarely attain to a large size or +produce first-class timber. Rhododendrons almost revel in this soil, +and some of the largest and healthiest are growing with their roots in +close contact with the coal and ironstone. + +=Shrubs for Hot and Dry Soils.=—The Bladder Senna (_Colutea +arborescens_) is one of the most useful of shrubs for planting in +poor, hot, dry soils, and not only will it succeed and flower well in +these, but it is equally valuable for using where the air is chemically +impure, and for that reason has few equals for the town or city +shrubbery. _C. cruenta_ is also valuable in a similar way. The Sea +Purslane (_Atriplex halimus_) is another valuable shrub for planting +in hot and dry situations as is _Caragana arborescens_, the native +Barberry (_Berberis vulgaris_), many forms of Genista and Cytisus, +_Spartium junceum_, and the double flowering Gorse. Another excellent +shrub is the Box Thorn or Tea Tree (_Lycium Europæum_) which is +useful for covering an arid hot bank, several species of Cotoneaster, +particularly _C. horizontalis_ and _C. microphylla_, and the neat +and curious _Muchlenbeckia complexa_. Helianthemums also do well, so +does the Venetian Sumach (_Rhus cotinus_), and several varieties of +bramble, but especially the double pink flowering form. The Rest Harrow +(_Ononis arvensis_), a native shrubby plant of great floral beauty, +also does well; while the little known _Celastris articulatus_ should +not be neglected in hot and dry situations. Other good shrubs for hot +dry banks are _Potentilla fruticosa_, the Tamarisk and _Juniperus +tamariscifolia_. + +=Concluding Remarks.=—In conclusion, it may be pointed out that +it is only by a careful selection of soil that we may expect tree +planting to be successful, and I have no hesitation in saying that +many failures can be clearly traced to errors of judgment in the +selection of trees for planting on particular soils. The subject +is a wide and complicated one, and it must be admitted that very +perplexing diversities occur with the same kinds of trees on what, to +all appearance, is the same class of soil. There are, of course, other +considerations beyond the soil itself which must be taken into account, +such as aspect, elevation, and whether the ground is inland or on the +coast. + +With reference to some of the newer conifers it must be admitted that +soil and situation have a wonderful influence on their successful +culture, and this applies in particular to such kinds as are not +perfectly hardy and liable to injury by unseasonable frost. The too +common practice of selecting warm and sheltered spots for such is, in +the main, to be condemned. + +It may be said that _Abies cephalonica_ and _A. Pinsapo_ are not worth +growing, and in many places they are not, but when planted on limestone +or chalk they are highly ornamental. + +The same holds good in the case of _Tsuga Mertensiana_, _Picea +Sitchensis_, and _P. excelsa_, which are rarely seen in good form +except on soil of a peaty description. + +Every one at all interested in trees and shrubs knows that there are +certain kinds which in a state of Nature are only found growing in a +peaty soil, mixed it may be more or less with sand, and any attempt +to cultivate them in other soils is productive of very unsatisfactory +results. + +Who would ever think of planting the so-called American or peat plants, +Cape Heaths, etc., amongst gravel or chalk, or Rhododendrons where lime +is present in the soil? And these facts show us that there is something +in the composition of certain soils only suitable for the requirements +of a certain class of plants. + +Another curious fact is this, that when growing on certain soils the +timber of one species of tree is found to be far more durable than in +others. + +Deep loamy soil and soft peat produce timber that is usually of a +second-rate description, being deficient in firmness. + +By studying the geological strata of a district much useful information +may be learnt regarding the trees best suited for planting. + +The following alphabetical table will serve to show at a glance the +trees that have been found best suited for planting in the class of +soil under which they are enumerated:— + +RECLAIMED PEAT BOG. + +_Hardwoods._ + + Alnus glutinosa Populus alba + —— —— imperialis —— balsamifera + —— —— laciniata —— canadensis + Betula alba Quercus Robur, and vars. + Cerasus Padus Salix fragilis + —— vulgaris Tilia europeæ + Fagus sylvatica Ulmus alata + —— —— purpurea —— montana + +_Conifers._ + + Abies concolor Larix Kæmpferi + —— bracteata Pinus austriaca + —— nobilis —— excelsa + —— Nordmanniana —— laricio + Cedrus Deodara —— sylvestris + Cryptomeria japonica Retinospora ericoides + Cupressus Goveniana —— plumosa + —— Lawsoniana —— —— aurea + —— macrocarpa Taxus baccata + Juniperus chinensis Thuja gigantea + —— recurva —— occidentalis + —— Sabina Thujopsis borealis + Larix europeæ Wellingtonia gigantea + +CHALKY OR CALCAREOUS. + +_Hardwoods._ + + Acer colchicum rubrum Cerasus Padus + —— dasycarpum Cratægus (nearly all) + —— Negundo Cytisus Laburnum + —— platanoides Fagus sylvatica + —— Pseudo-platanus —— —— purpurea + Æsculus Hippocastanum Fraxinus excelsior + —— rubicunda —— Ornus + Alnus glutinosa, and vars. Gleditschia sinensis + Amelanchier Botryapium —— triacanthos + Amygdalus communis Koelreuteria paniculata + Betula alba Populus alba + Castanea vesca —— balsamifera + Catalpa bignonioides —— canadensis + + Populus monilifera Quercus Turneri + —— tremula Robinia Pseud-acacia, and vars. + Pyrus Aria Salix alba + —— Aucuparia Tilia argentea + —— Malus floribunda —— europeæ + —— spectabilis Ulmus alata + Quercus Ilex —— glabra + —— Mirebecki —— montana + —— rubra Virgilia lutea + +_Conifers._ + + Abies Amabilis Pinus austriaca + —— magnifica —— Cembra + —— nobilis —— excelsa + —— Nordmanniana —— laricio + —— Pinsapo —— Pinaster + —— Webbiana —— Strobus + Cedrus atlantica —— sylvestris + —— Deodara —— tuberculata + —— Libani Retinospora ericoides + Cupressus Lawsoniana —— filicoides + —— macrocarpa —— plumosa + Juniperus chinensis —— —— aurea + —— communis Salisburia adiantifolia + —— Sabina Taxus baccata, and vars. + —— —— tamariscifolia Thuja gigantea + Larix europeæ —— Lobbii + —— Kæmpferi —— occidentalis + —— leptolepis —— Warreana + Picea excelsa Thujopsis borealis + +GRAVELLY AND SANDY. + +_Hardwoods._ + + Alianthus glandulosa Morus nigra + Alnus cordata Platanus occidentalis + Betula alba Populus Bolleana + Carpinus betulus Quercus Robur, and vars. + Fagus sylvatica —— suber + —— —— purpurea Robinia Pseud-acacia + Fraxinus Ornus Sambucus nigra + Gleditschia horrida Tilia europeæ + Ilex, many vars. Ulmus alata + Juglans cinerea —— campestris + —— nigra —— montana + Magnolia acuminata Virgilia lutea + +_Conifers._ + + Juniperus communis Pinus Pinaster + —— Sabina —— pumilio + Pinus austriaca —— sylvestris + —— halepensis Taxus baccata + —— laricio Thuja gigantea + +CLAY. + + Carpinus betulus Quercus Ilex + Castanea vesca —— pannonica + Cryptomeria elegans —— Robur + —— japonica Thuja gigantea + Gleditschia triacanthos —— Lobbii + +IRONSTONE AND COAL. + + Acer Pseudo-platanus Larix europeæ + Betula alba —— —— pendula + Castanea vesca Pinus Cembra + Cerasus Padus —— Montana + Cupressus Lawsoniana Quercus Robur + Fraxinus excelsior Thuja gigantea + Juniperus communis Ulmus montana + + + + +CHAPTER XIII + +TRANSPLANTING LARGE TREES + + +Where immediate effect is required, the transplanting of large trees +and shrubs will be an operation of considerable importance, and though +it is fraught with both trouble and expense, the results obtained have +led to an increased adoption of the system during recent years. + +There is hardly a limit to the size or weight of the tree to be removed +when the operator is provided with suitable appliances, and success has +crowned the effort of several recent operations of this nature in our +Royal and other parks. Of late years several appliances for removing +large and weighty trees and shrubs have been placed on the market; +amongst these one of the best is certainly that made and patented by +Messrs. Faulkners Ltd. Its principal recommendations are simplicity +of structure, the ease with which it may be worked, and lightness, +combined with such strength that even the weightiest tree can be +removed. But not only is this tree-lifter valuable where transplanting +is being engaged in, for in removing large tree roots, logs of timber, +blocks of stone, and heavy materials generally, it has been found most +useful. + +The apparatus is made somewhat in the form of a four-wheeled lorry, +having a steel frame only. The frame at the back is made movable to +admit of the apparatus being placed so that the tree to be moved stands +in the centre of the machine. Two stout planks with guide rails are +laid across the trench, and the machine is backed on to these. The +machine is constructed with four iron rollers, lying along over the +side frame and parallel with the frame. Around the rollers a chain is +wound, the loose end being fastened to the planking which has been +placed under the ball of earth containing the roots of the tree. +The rollers are worked with a specially made screw-gear, which is +self-sustaining, and can be moved to draw up or lower at will. + +[Illustration: FAULKNER’S TRANSPLANTING MACHINE.] + +The illustration given clearly shows the apparatus with the tree being +lifted for transportation. Barron’s transplanting machine is also well +known, and with this much valuable work in the removal of large and +heavy trees and shrubs has been accomplished. + + + + +CHAPTER XIV + +THINNING PLANTATIONS + + +In the successful rearing of timber trees for profit there is, perhaps, +no other branch of more importance than a good knowledge of the art of +thinning, and, at the same time, one on which so great a diversity of +opinion exists. + +Thinning plantations, be they old or young, must always be subject to +great modification, according to the nature of the trees and soil, or +ultimate design of the plantation being operated upon, and is a matter +requiring great tact, forethought, and discrimination, and this can +only be acquired by long experience and by those having a good insight +into the peculiarities and properties of our forest trees. + +The same rule as regards thinning will not apply to, say, fir, +hardwood, and mixed plantations; and far less will it hold good in the +case of an ornamental and a profitable wood. No universal rule can, +however, be laid down for thinning, but general principles can be given +that will be sufficient for the guidance of those who have to undertake +such work. + +In thinning any plantation two important points are to be borne in +mind—first, cut away all diseased, dead and dying trees; second, +study the relationship of trees and soil, and act accordingly. To be +more explicit, we might say that in the first case, the removal of +all dead and dying trees is a necessity, and that being done, one can +proceed with the disposal of the standards to be left. In the second +case, by suiting the trees to the soil, at least as far as possible, +great benefit results, and an instance of this that came under our +own observation lately will be given as an example. A plantation +130 acres in extent was composed of oak, larch and Spanish chestnut, +placed at regular distances apart throughout the whole extent of the +wood. Now, the soil was gravelly for a considerable distance down, and, +consequently, fairly well suited for the chestnut, but just the reverse +for the larch, which, on such a soil, generally becomes “pumped,” or +rotten at the core. In thinning this particular plantation, it would +have been very unwise to cut away the chestnut and the oak and leave +the larch, and this had happened to some extent before the proper +system of management and adaptability of soil to tree was thought +of. Larch may look healthy enough, and show but small indications of +disease, even when growing on gravel up to twenty or thirty years of +age, so that it is with difficulty that the inexperienced become aware +of the pending doom that usually awaits this tree when planted on +such a soil. This example is merely given to point out how carefully +thinning should be gone about, and that in all cases it is a wise +policy to study soil in relation to the future crop of timber before an +axe is laid to the tree. + +At the outset of these remarks on thinning plantations it should be +distinctly borne in mind that there are two chief objects for which +trees may be grown, each requiring a special mode of management, in +order that the best results may be obtained. + +The first is their management in a purely economical sense or with a +view to profit; the second, their management with a view to ornament. +There is also a third object that is well worthy of consideration, +and that is the growing of timber in one and the same wood, both for +ornament and utility combined, and this is very frequently the case +with home woodlands that are visible from roads and drives, with strips +bounding parks or pleasure-grounds, and on small properties. + +To produce ornamental trees of natural appearance is by no means +difficult, as by allowing the individual specimens ample room for +branch development, the desired effect is gradually brought about. Far +greater difficulty, however, attends the production of the greatest +quantity of the most valuable trees on a given space of ground. Here +many questions of the greatest moment, on which difference of opinion +exists, crop up: such as at what age thinning should be commenced, to +what extent should it be engaged in, what time should elapse between +each thinning, and which trees should be removed. + +[Illustration: FELLING TOOLS.] + +Any one at all interested in the management of our woods and +plantations must have noticed that trees having an abundance of room +and light on all sides make comparatively short and thick trunks that +are well furnished with branches; whereas such as are grown up in a +circumscribed space and amongst others are tall and straight, with +clean, well-formed stems destitute of branches for the greater part +of their height. All species, or nearly all, are governed by the same +laws, that is to say, those that have the least room laterally within +certain prescribed limits, which will be described hereafter, produce +the tallest, cleanest and straightest trunks, and vice versa. + +The influence of light has not, in this country at least, been +sufficiently taken into account in the rearing of timber, but it has +everything to do in directing the growth of trees, and should be +reckoned as a most important factor by the forester. Thus, if it be +allowed in excess, as when the trees stand far apart, the growth of +lateral shoots and large branches will be greatly induced, the result +being short and thick boles, that are rough and knotty, and ill-adapted +for constructive purposes. On the other hand, by keeping the trees +thick on the ground, light is, to a greater or less extent, excluded, +and the trees grow tall, straight and branchless for the greater part +of their height, and are of the greatest economic value. But here +another and very important question crops up. To what extent in a wood, +managed solely for the value of the timber it produces, will it be +profitable to thin? In dealing with this, two distinct bearings should +be kept in mind—the first, that too small a quantity of branches and +consequently of leaves, must, to a greater or less extent, check the +growth of the trees, and so diminish the production of timber; and, +second, that by having too large a quantity, the value of the timber +is greatly reduced in consequence, and the number of trees to the acre +much diminished as well. + +There is, therefore, a medium between these two, by adopting which, +the greatest quantity of the most valuable timber will be produced; +although, at the same time, it is astonishing, when looked at from +a physiological point of view, what a small quantity of foliage is +required to keep a plantation tree in a healthy, growing condition, +and to produce a trunk of useful dimensions. This may, however, be +explained by the fact that the almost entire absence of large limbs and +branches, which in some cases would amount to one-fifth the total bulk +of the tree, renders the amount of sap, and consequently of leaves, +required proportionately less, the nutriment being mainly elaborated in +the building of the trunk. + +Independent altogether of the forests of northern Europe, Canada, +etc., which have grown up naturally, examples might be given in our +own country—the native Fir forests in the Highlands of Scotland, the +valuable Beech woods on the Chiltern Hills, and a few Larch plantations +in Yorkshire and Bedfordshire—where trees averaging 70 ft. in height, +growing at from 4 to 6 yards apart, and with only a tuft of foliage +atop, may be seen. It is only, however, by long and careful study and +attention to different trees at different stages of their growth that +any idea can be formed of the amount of branches and foliage required +for preparing the sap that will be necessary for the profitable yearly +increase of the trunk until maturity is arrived at. + +The questions now to be dealt with in growing timber for purely +economical purposes are: (1) At what age should thinning be commenced? +(2) To what extent should it be engaged in? (3) What time should elapse +between each thinning? And (4) Which trees should be removed? + +At the outset, it may be well to mention, that in so far as any of +the above questions are concerned, no hard and fast line can be laid +down as to the universal management of plantations, each tract of +wood, and even different parts of the same wood, according to the +particular species of tree, quality of soil, altitude, and exposure, +being dealt with on its own peculiar footing. Many serious mistakes +have been committed, and irreparable damage done, by treating every +plantation alike and according to the rule-of-thumb method. Upon the +manner in which thinning is performed, much of the ultimate success +of a plantation will depend, and it is a matter requiring great tact, +forethought, and discrimination, which can only be acquired by long +experience, and an intimate knowledge of trees and their surroundings. + +The quality as well as quantity of timber produced should be carefully +considered in the management of every plantation. In dealing with the +following questions regarding thinning, it may be well to state that +the average plantation will alone form the basis of remarks. + +=1. At what age should thinning be commenced?=—The necessity of +thinning, few practical arboriculturists will care to deny, and that +whether the plantation be composed of coniferous or hard-wooded trees. +It is the abuse of the practice that, in this country at least, is so +to be condemned, and I entirely dissent from those who consider that +a coniferous plantation should be left to Nature, or, in other words, +should thin itself. The argument that the natural forests of America, +the source from which we derive the finest and best quality of timber, +thinned themselves, is often quoted; but it should also be remembered +that the conditions of such forests are widely different from those +of our own, and that the waste of timber is immense, great quantities +being destroyed in procuring what is required. Although, however, +we cannot adopt all the details of Nature’s practice, we can and we +should admit the correctness of the principle on which she acts, and by +studying this we learn much, and it is by acquiring a knowledge of her +economy, and where and when to apply assistance, that the point of the +whole argument rests. Natural regeneration, unless it be in a limited +number of cases, and particularly with our least valuable classes of +timber, is never, in this country, likely to supersede artificial +planting, and it has been conclusively proved in the Forest of Dean, +that with our most valuable timber-producing tree, the Oak, the latter +system is most to be encouraged. + +No thinning of young trees should take place until a complete ground +shade has been established; and it is most important for the welfare of +the plantation, that a complete overhead foliage covering be brought +about at as early a date as possible after planting. At what age this +may take place will depend mainly on the size of the plants used and +the distance apart at which they were inserted in the ground, and +to a lesser extent on the quality of soil and other considerations. +At a short period after a complete leaf canopy has been established, +the individual trees begin to press against each other, and later on +a struggle for existence commences, the stronger specimens gaining +the supremacy over the weaker. Here it must be borne in mind that +hard-wooded trees require proportionately more room for their healthy +development than coniferous kinds, while length and clearness of +stem, produced by a due proportion of shade, is an object of prime +importance. It might, as some suppose, do little harm, to let the +struggle for existence go on unchecked, but there can be no question +that for several reasons it is wise policy to allow the stronger trees +every chance of succeeding, and to cut away the weaker. The object +should be to provide for the trees left standing that amount of room or +growing space best suited for bringing about the particular conditions +aimed at, and in thinning, it must be the aim of the forester to arrive +at the happy mean—neither over nor underdoing the work, the former in +particular. But while overcrowding is not to be tolerated, the danger +of suddenly exposing the trees to currents of air, to which they have +hitherto been unaccustomed, must be carefully guarded against, and it +should be distinctly borne in mind that to thin trees in an abrupt +manner is one of the greatest mistakes that it is possible to make. + +Statistics compiled from a healthy Larch plantation, growing on fair +soil, and in a moderately sheltered position in southern England, will +now be given, from which a good idea can be formed as to the age and +size when thinning should be commenced. The trees when planted were 2 +ft. high, and pitted at 3 ft. apart. In four years the outer branches +began to touch each other, and in six years from time of planting the +average height of trees was 7 ft. 10 in. and the shade occasioned had +killed out most of the grassy undergrowth. At this period of growth, +the disproportion in the size of the trees was, as is usually the case, +considerable, and left no doubt about which to remove when the first +thinning took place. Two years afterwards, or in eight years from time +of planting, thinning was first engaged in, the taller trees at that +time averaging nearly 11 ft. in height, but many of the suppressed and +weakly were little more than half that size. Another thinning took +place during the twelfth year, and in 1911 the trees average 40 ft. in +height and were standing at a distance of 9 ft. apart. The plantation +referred to is on the Earl of Derby’s property of Holwood, in Kent. + +=2. To what extent should thinning be engaged in?=—In following up +the latter case, the tallest and healthiest trees were reserved; all +distorted, sickly, and stunted specimens being removed; but in the case +of two or more proportionately small trees growing in close proximity, +the most promising was left, and the others cut away, thus avoiding +gaps in the plantation. At the first thinning it will be found quite +impossible to leave the trees anything like regular over the ground, +although this should be studied as much as possible, and bare spaces +are to be carefully guarded against. With the vigorous growth of the +trees, and the interlacing of branches previous to the first thinning, +no great openings will require to be made, and nothing more than will +be canopied over during the next two years. + +=3. What time should elapse between each thinning?=—This can only be +correctly decided after a careful inspection of the particular wood. +Generally speaking, after the first thinning, when the trees were +eight years old, the lower branches gradually began to give way, and +as the trees increased in height, this became more and more apparent, +and formed a good guide as to the time which should elapse before the +second thinning might profitably be engaged in. The intervals between +the various thinnings should for the first thirty years in the case of +Larch—and, indeed, most other trees—be comparatively short, but become +longer with advance of age; but heavy thinnings must be carefully +avoided, especially if the best class of coniferous timber is to be +produced. + +A well-managed Larch plantation of twenty years’ growth should have +the trees branchless for about one-half of their height, which is, of +course, brought about by crowding, and at forty years three-fourths of +the trunk should be clear of branches. + +I have purposely abstained from giving the number of feet apart at +which trees ought to stand at various stages of their growth, and the +number of thinnings they require, as being likely to prove misleading. + +=4. The question as to which trees should be removed= need cause little +or no anxiety, as the dead, dying, diseased, and badly-formed will +naturally receive first attention. + +In thinning, the following short rules should be observed:— + +1. Thin not at all until the undergrowing vegetation has been +completely killed out by the overhead foliage, the golden rule of +sylviculture being to keep the sunshine off the ground until near the +end of the tree’s career. + +2. Thinning should be performed in such a manner as not to reduce the +value of the crop, but so as to tend to the production of the greatest +quantity of the most valuable timber in the shortest possible space of +time. + +3. By thinning allow of sufficient light and air to prevent the trees +becoming drawn up and lanky, but avoid too much space, which induces +the growth of side branches and detracts from the value of the timber. + +4. Keep up the number of trees to the highest possible pitch until they +are tall, straight and clean, and thin gradually. + +5. The danger of suddenly exposing the trees to currents of cold air to +which they have hitherto been unaccustomed must be carefully guarded +against and it is a serious mistake to thin in an abrupt or unequal +manner. + +6. In thinning remove all dead and dying trees first, then the +distorted and stunted, the best grown and healthiest being preserved +for the permanent crop. + +7. Hard-wooded trees require proportionately more space for development +than conifers, and the annual rings in the timber of the latter should +be narrow in proportion to those of the former, good quality of +hard-wooded timber being indicated by broad annual rings, but with +coniferous wood the reverse is the case. + +8. Thinning should be commenced at the central or most sheltered point +of a plantation, or section of same, so that the outer intact boundary +may continue to form a barrier to cold winds, which might prove +injurious to trees that had hitherto stood in close order. + +9. In economic forestry, timber trees should be cut down when they have +arrived at maturity or have ceased to grow. With coniferous trees this +generally occurs at from seventy to ninety years; but with hardwoods, +excepting the ash and chestnut, which are of most value, say, up to +fifty years’ growth, the period may be greatly extended. + +10. Thinning is usually performed in autumn and early winter, but +it may be well to remember that at the latter period the lowest +percentage of moisture (about 47 per cent.) is present, and the timber +consequently of the greatest value for constructive purposes. + + + + +CHAPTER XV + +TREE-PRUNING IN ECONOMIC FORESTRY + + +Where trees are grown for profit, they will, if properly managed, prune +themselves, and where for ornament the natural outline is far better +than any of the contortions and symmetrical shapes that have been +recommended by various writers on the subject. + +A broken or dead branch may be removed, a rival leading shoot cut away, +or an ungainly or dangerous limb amputated, but here all pruning should +cease, the practice being wholly wrong and unreasonable, and without +one recommendation to be adduced in its favour. In an economic way the +finest plantations of either coniferous or hard-wooded trees in this +country are those where the individual specimens are growing so thickly +together that the branches are killed outright for fully one-half +of their height. Here the stems will be straight and clean, and the +timber when converted free from the knots and warping that are so +characteristic either of standard specimens or such as have been grown +too thinly on the ground. + +Every one knows that an Oak growing alone or along the margins of +a wood is in nine cases out of ten branched almost to the ground, +and the bole in consequence rough and ill-fitted for any particular +constructive purpose, and the same may be said of every other tree, +be it hard-wooded or coniferous. Larch and Scotch Fir trees growing +along the margins of plantations are rough and knotty, and sell at a +considerably lower figure compared with those further in, where the +branches have been killed back gradually as the trees increased in +size. + +The same thing is markedly the case in young woods of ash, oak and +chestnut, where they have been grown sufficiently thick on the ground +to kill off the lower branches, and also to cause the trees to rise +straight, clean and tapering. It is a well-known fact, too, that the +timber of trees so grown is far more elastic and realizes a much higher +price than that of the same age grown under conditions where pruning +might have been a necessity. A case of this kind came under my own +notice only a short time ago in which one-half of a plantation of +hard-wooded trees realized fully one-fourth more than the remaining +half. It came about in this way. Both ends and a large patch in the +centre of the wood had been thinned out severely for the purpose +of planting game covert. The trees, standing thinly on the ground, +branched out and soon covered the open spaces where underwood had been +planted. In thinning the whole plantation the trees on these particular +parts were very rough and knotty, and bore no comparison to those where +they had been left moderately thick on the ground, in consequence +of which the boles were straight, clean and tapering. This case is +specially noteworthy, inasmuch as the trees over the whole area were +growing under exactly similar conditions as to soil, shelter, etc., and +were of the same age and species. + +Great and irreparable damage has been done to woods and plantations in +this country by too heavy thinnings, by commencing the thinnings at too +early a period, and by adopting the book method of leaving the trees +at measured distances apart and a stated number to the acre according +to the age of the plantation. Such rules can never be expected to work +satisfactorily, the size of trees depending so much on the character +of the soil, exposure of the woodland, and other peculiarities of the +particular district in which they are planted. + +[Illustration: PRUNING TOOLS] + +Timely and judicious thinning should never be neglected, but it is the +over-thinning, whereby branches and knotty trunks are produced and +the supposed need for pruning follows, that I wish to deprecate and +entirely dissent from. Grow your timber trees so thickly on the ground +that the stems are induced to become straight, clean and branchless for +the greater part of their height, and on no account admit sufficient +light and air to cause the lower branches to be retained intact, or, in +other words, at all times retain an unbroken leaf canopy. The necessity +for pruning will then be entirely done away with, and a more valuable +class of timber produced. The losses sustained through injudicious +planting and the unnecessary and ruinous practice of pruning have +taught a lesson that is fraught with good for the tree planter of the +future. + +=When Pruning is Admissible.=—There are a few cases, however, where +pruning is quite justifiable, and where the abuse of a system should +furnish no argument against its legitimate use. Hedgerow and field +timber, for the sake of the live fences, the grass, or the grain crop +in the vicinity, may require attention in the way of judicious pruning. + +Again, pruning is sometimes a necessity where standard trees are grown +in conjunction with coppice wood, as by shortening the lower branches +the undergrowth in consequence becomes much improved. In the case +of town trees, too, where it is necessary to restrict the spread of +branches, pruning is resorted to, as also with old and heavy-headed +elms and other trees in our parks and public gardens. + +=Pruning Live Branches.=—In and around London, as well as many other +large centres of industry, the hacking and hewing—pruning we cannot +call it—to which trees are subjected is barbarous in the extreme, and +calls for the strongest denunciation. To annually prune and elbow +in such noble forest trees as the lime and plane, in order that the +restricted growth may render them suitable for the cramped positions in +which they have been unwisely planted, is little short of vandalism. +The lime and plane, perhaps, suffer most in this way, for as soon as +they have overgrown the allotted space an annual system of pruning +back the branches is resorted to, the result being great mop-headed +protuberances at the points where amputation took place, which not +only rob the tree of its graceful natural appearance, but render it +susceptible to disease and insect pests. There is no need to specialize +cases where this most objectionable system is carried out, for a walk +around our squares and gardens will unfortunately reveal how prevalent +is the maltreatment of trees in the way of pruning. There might be some +excuse for planting our noblest forest trees in cramped and unsuitable +positions were there no other species of smaller growth that would +take their place, but the Pyrus, Cratægus, dwarf Acacia, Mulberry, +Catalpa and Sumach surely give us sufficient scope for choosing trees +of restricted growth for confined positions and so do away with the +barbarous system of pruning which the use of large-growing species +necessitates. + +[Illustration: BAD EFFECTS OF PRUNING] + +Even in the case of dwarf avenues and screens it is quite unnecessary +to use such large-growing trees as the lime and plane where pruning +must oft be resorted to, for an avenue or screen of thorn or mulberry, +the beam tree or mountain ash would be more suitable, and in the end +far more natural and artistic in appearance. + +To sum up in a few words, my contention is that no tree should be +planted in a position where, in order to keep it within due bounds, a +systematic clipping and pruning has to be resorted to. + +=Pruning Dead Wood.=—Opinions differ greatly as to whether or not +dead branches should be removed from park and woodland trees. It is, +however, mainly a matter of taste, and a point on which two of the +largest owners of woodlands in this country hold distinctly opposite +opinions, though at the same time it cannot be denied that the careful +removal of all dead and dying wood from a tree is highly beneficial. +Pruning should, however, only be extended to such trees as are in a +fairly healthy condition, with well-developed heads, and containing +only a moderate quantity of dead wood, there being many fine old +specimens that would be rendered unsightly in the extreme and receive +no benefit from removal of the dead and dying timber, but this has +direct reference to trees standing singly throughout the park, and not +to specimens in the woodland. + +In many of our parks and woodlands at the present time there exists +an undue quantity of dead and dying wood, which may be attributed +to natural decay, the quality of the soil, and in some instances to +long-standing neglect in the matter of non-attention to wounds which +have been caused by wind-broken limbs and branches. Such trees would +be greatly improved, both in health and appearance, by judicious +removal of the dead branches and attention to old wounds in order to +prevent the ingress of water, the decay of many branches being directly +attributable to this cause. That an undue quantity of dead wood will +induce injurious insect pests, such as the goat and wood leopard +moths, which attack healthy trees, is well known, and was exemplified +in one of our London parks recently where numerous young thorns and +various species of Pyrus were injured by the latter. In removing dead +branches cut them well back into the living wood in order to induce +fresh growth at the point where amputation takes place. The removal of +large dead limbs from old specimen trees is an operation that requires +a great amount of skill, and should only be entrusted to those who have +had practical experience of pruning in its various phases. As before +stated, the removal of dead wood is merely a matter of sentiment, +though of its practical utility there can be no doubt, and in all cases +where the stag-headed trees are conspicuous, the removal of the dead +wood is to be recommended. + +=Pruning Shrubs.=—Generally speaking, shrubs are pruned with little or +no consideration as to whether they will be benefited by the operation. +While symmetry and regularity of outline are to be admired in a shrub, +these qualities should never be gained at the expense of natural grace +and production of flowers. The judicious pruner will, therefore, aim at +preserving the peculiar habit of each shrub as far as possible, while +interfering but little with the production of flowers. The various +species of Deutzia, Forsythia, Philadelphus and Weigela flower on the +wood of the previous year’s growth; therefore such shrubs should be +pruned immediately after the flowering season—say in June, but never in +spring or winter—at least, if the production of flowers is to be taken +into account. Again, the various species of Syringa, Spiræa, Lonicera +and Hibiscus may safely be pruned during winter, the flowers being +produced on the young wood; while _Hydrangea paniculata grandiflora_ +must be severely pruned in early spring, for only by so doing will the +greatest wealth of flowers be produced. _Chimonanthus fragrans_ should +be pruned in February; while the various species of Ceanothus should +not be touched till all danger of frost is past. _Kerria japonica_ +should be pruned in autumn, when old wood may be cut away. + +All pruning operations should be carefully carried out with a sharp +knife and not with the pruning shears, the point of amputation being +always close to an eye or bud. Too severe pruning should be avoided, +a judicious thinning out of the branches being far preferable to +indiscriminate shearing and cutting back. + +=How and when to Prune.=—The latter part of May or beginning of June +is undoubtedly the best season for pruning the majority of hard-wooded +trees, as during that time the motion of the sap is most vigorous, and +in consequence the wounds caused by amputation heal most quickly. +There are a few exceptions—the birch, sycamore and maple—where, on +account of profuse bleeding, pruning had best be postponed till after +full foliage has been attained. + +Much mischief has been done by the pruning knife, and still more by the +handbill and saw when placed in the hands of inexperienced workmen—a +fact that is apparent to any interested person who visits various parts +of the country. + +When conducted with care, on sound principles, the effect of pruning +on the class of timber referred to is highly beneficial, whereas, when +done in a haphazard way and by an inexperienced hand, it is often +attended with great danger and grave results. + +In cutting or foreshortening small branches, a sharp pocket-knife will +be found most convenient, but when large limbs have to be removed the +pruning saw should be brought into request. The branch to be removed, +especially if of large size and weighty, should first be cut through at +any convenient distance from the main stem, thus preventing splitting +and tearing of the bark, after which the stump may be neatly sawn +through as close to the bole of the tree as possible. Undercutting by a +few draughts of the saw will here also go far in preventing tearing of +the wood and bark. So as to render the saw-cut smooth and prevent water +lodging on the surface, the face and edge should be neatly dressed with +an adze or sharp pruning knife, and then painted with tar. When cutting +over an upright-growing branch, such as in pollarding trees, etc., +never cut on the horizontal, but always in a sloping direction, so that +the rain may pass off quickly. + + + + +CHAPTER XVI + +BRACING AND REPAIRING TREES + + +Though occasionally resorted to in olden times, particularly in the +case of orchard trees, it is only of late years that the systematic +treatment of tree wounds and diseases has been generally adopted. Even +at the present time, the filling of hollow trunks, bracing of heavy and +diseased branches and attention to insect and fungoid pests are rarely +engaged in and but imperfectly understood. + +When the value of old trees in an ornamental or utilitarian sense is +taken into account, it is remarkable what a small amount of attention +they receive when subjected to accident or disease. As a general rule, +cavities or hollows in a tree stem, if left to themselves, gradually +increase in size until the ascending sap is entirely cut off, when the +crumbling stem either falls to pieces or is broken over by the wind. A +branch requires to be braced or strengthened when from its weight and +shape it is likely to get wrenched from the main stem during stormy +weather and so injure the tree or man its natural beauty. + +Both insect and fungoid pests do a considerable amount of damage to +trees, both young and old, but as special chapters are devoted to their +depredations they need only receive a passing notice here. + +=Hollow Trunks and their Treatment.=—However desirable it may be to +repair hollow trunks, yet a great deal of discrimination is necessary +in deciding which trees should be operated upon, especially in the case +of such as are reduced to mere shells and are not likely to derive any +benefit commensurate with the labour and cost of materials involved in +bracing and filling. + +Young, healthy, vigorous growing trees, that have become damaged or +diseased, should in the majority of instances be attended to; but in +the case of old specimens on which a great amount of labour and money +would necessarily have to be expended, several important bearings must +be considered before works of repair are taken in hand. Historic and +valuable trees, those occupying prominent positions on a lawn or park, +town trees where vegetation is scarce, and such as are not too old and +fragile, may be dealt with within certain bounds, but to doctor all +diseased and hollow trees on the most approved principle in such places +as Epping Forest or Burnham Beeches would be highly imprudent, whether +in view of the little benefit which in many instances would accrue by +so doing or of the great expense involved in such an operation. + +The filling, too, must be adapted to circumstances, and to deal with +the entire trunk of a hollow tree is in most cases quite out of the +question, both from the point of utility and expense. Short-lived +trees, such as the Alder, Birch and Poplar, or such as are liable +to sudden attacks of insect and fungoid pests, and those that are +unfavourably situated in mining and chemical areas, should be scantily +dealt with, but the practical woodman will see at a glance which trees +are best worthy of his attention and treatment. + +Probably the simplest, and certainly the cheapest method of dealing +with diseased and hollow trunks is to clean out thoroughly all dead +and decaying matter, the interior being scraped and swept with a +rough brush, so that the loose rotting wood and bark is removed. When +quite dry, the interior of the trunk should be painted with one, or +preferably with two coats of creosote or carbolineum, and filled up +with a composition of one part of Portland cement to three of clean +gravel and sand, the surface coating at the orifice containing the +largest quantity of cement. A coat of coal tar on top of the dry +creosote goes far in making the concrete adhere firmly to the wood. + +When a fairly healthy tree is being operated upon, and when the bark +is likely to grow over the exposed surface, the concrete should only +be brought up on a level with the underside of the living bark; in +other words, the cambium should be left free for expansion. Sometimes, +brickbats, broken small, are used instead of gravel, but for various +reasons concrete is preferable. The concrete surface may be prevented +from cracking by applying annually a coat of paint, which, for +appearance sake, may be of a similar colour to that of the bark of the +tree. + +In the case of a large tree in which the trunk is quite hollow, usually +with a basal and top opening, the amount of cement required to fill the +cavity precludes the possibility of it being employed on the score of +economy, but where the hollow only extends for a comparatively short +distance upwards and inwards the composition is to be recommended. When +a large amount of material is required to fill a hollow stem, clean +bricks broken to about the size of a golf ball may be used, but they +must be packed firmly and the surface, wherever it comes in contact +with the weather, glazed over with cement in order to effectually shut +out dampness. Asphalt has of late years been employed in the filling of +hollow stems, and is to be recommended on account of its elasticity and +lasting properties. + +Sometimes, the interior of a large, hollow tree stem is strengthened +by crossbeams of timber, any holes which extend to the outside being +carefully covered with sheet lead or zinc so as to prevent the ingress +of water. A sheet of lead or zinc is, however, only a superficial +remedy and should be dispensed with where filling the cavity is at all +practicable. Lead, in some cases, is preferable to zinc for covering +wounds in trees, as it fits into position more readily and is easily +fixed. + +The treatment of hollow stems without filling the cavity is in certain +instances quite permissible, and can be carried out at a comparatively +small cost. Broadly speaking, this method consists in cleaning out all +decayed and decaying matter, painting the interior with carbolineum +or tar, and, where possible, bracing the trunk from the interior by +means of stout crossbars of wood and covering surface holes with lead, +zinc or sheet copper. When a tree trunk is hollow from top to bottom +this method is to be recommended, and stout struts placed within the +cavity at various of the weaker points will go far towards preserving +many an aged specimen. When the cavity in a hollow stem is so large +that a person can enter it, the work of either filling with a suitable +composition or supporting with wooden struts is greatly simplified. + +Recent experiments have proved the value of a mixture of sawdust and +asphalt for filling cavities. It is particularly valuable in cases +where concrete is too rigid and unyielding, such as in dealing with +trunks and branches that are apt to be swayed about in stormy weather. +The materials are dry sawdust, that of Oak, Chestnut and Beech being +preferable, and solid asphalt derived from the refining of petroleum, +which is at present in use for filling the interstices of street +pavements in various parts of the metropolis. + +For filling cavities in heavy, swaying branches, one part of asphalt +to four of clean, dry sawdust will form a mixture that is non-rigid +and yields with the motion of the branch in which it is inserted. +In dealing with the trunk, which is more rigid and less affected in +stormy weather, a larger quantity of sawdust should be used. The +filling is made by stirring dry sawdust into boiling asphalt until +the desired consistency is reached, and before the composition has +cooled, it should be inserted in the previously prepared cavity. As in +cement filling, the preparation of cavities to be filled with sawdust +and asphalt should be carefully attended to, the decayed wood and +all soft and rotten material being removed, and the interior surface +rendered sterile by an application of carbolineum or kerosene. For +wound dressings, gas tar and liquid asphalt is to be recommended, this +combination forming a more continuous and elastic covering than is the +case when tar or paint alone is used. + +Where the cavity is small and, as is often the case, filled with water +and decayed and decaying vegetable matter, the following course is +recommended:—When only a few inches deep, the water can usually be +got rid of by mopping it out with a sponge attached to a convenient +handle, but when the hole is too deep for this method the water may be +extracted by tapping, that is by boring a hole with an auger through +the trunk to the bottom of the hole. A half-inch auger will suffice, +and the correct spot to bore can usually be ascertained by measuring +the depth of the hole. After the water has been removed the cavity +must be thoroughly cleared of all decaying tissue and accumulated +vegetable matter, and in order that this may be done effectually, it +may sometimes be necessary to enlarge the opening so that a suitable +tool can be inserted. + +When the cavity has become quite dry—a matter of considerable +importance—it should be treated with creosote or carbolineum and +afterwards filled with concrete in the proportion of one part of cement +to four of clean gravel. Ram the concrete firm so that the cavity is +perfectly filled, and finish off at the orifice with pure cement in +such a way that the cambium may be induced to form a growth over the +edge of the filling. + +A cheap but temporary method of dealing with small hollows and cavities +in fruit and other trees, is to fill these with a mixture of clay and +cow-dung in the proportion of two of the former to one of the latter. +Knead well and apply when in the consistency of putty, cleaning and +disinfecting the hollows before filling. + +=Supporting Heavy and Diseased Branches.=—A limb requires to be braced +or strengthened when from its weight and shape it is likely to get +wrenched from the main stem during stormy weather, when the weight of +the minor branches and foliage is too great for the strength of the +limb, when the wood of the tree is unusually brittle, when trunk or +limb is decayed, and when, from accident, the tree has become one-sided +and lost its natural appearance. + +Forked trees often require staying, as also do such as have suddenly +become exposed to storms to which they have hitherto been unaccustomed. +But probably in the matter of bracing and strengthening, the most +important of all trees are those in our public parks and such as are +contiguous to or overshadow dwelling-houses. Park trees should receive +special attention in the way of making sure that limbs are secure and +not likely to cause injury to visitors; while in the case of heavy +branches hanging over dwelling-houses these should be carefully and +periodically examined and made secure whenever it is found necessary. +Should there be any doubt as to whether a limb is insecure and +dangerous, a decision should be made in favour of bracing or reducing +the weight by pruning. + +Unwieldy and heavy limbs are most commonly to be found on isolated +trees, or such as have had plenty of room for the perfect development +of stem and branch. As the loss of one or more of the larger branches +often mars the ornamental appearance of a specimen tree, every +reasonable means should be employed to prevent such a disfigurement. +By reducing the weight of a branch by pruning, or by giving support to +any that are heavy and diseased by means of wires, chains or light iron +bands and connecting-rods, the trouble may be averted. In all cases +the object should be to unite the branches in such a way that they +may offer the greatest amount of resistance to the storm, and at the +same time be neither conspicuous nor clumsy in appearance owing to the +operation. + +Chains, though often used, probably owing to their being readily +obtainable and cheap, are for various reasons to be avoided, the flat +iron band lined with leather or rubber being preferable, more readily +adjusted, and less likely to cut into the bark and wood. The bands, +which can be made by any blacksmith, are usually 2½ in. wide, and of +the shape of the branch to be encircled, each being in two parts to +facilitate fixing and to allow of slackening at any future time should +the necessity arise. The band is made of a larger size than the branch +to be encircled, so as to allow of the insertion of a leather or rubber +collar between it and the wood, the purpose of the packing being to +prevent undue friction and chafing of the bark owing to the movement of +the tree. The bands, whether placed around two opposite branches or the +main stem and a branch, are connected together by a light iron rod and, +according to the strain, may be from one-half to three-quarters of an +inch in diameter. This rod, like the bands, is divided into two parts, +which are connected by a swivel and screw for convenience in loosening +or tightening. + +[Illustration: BRACING A TREE] + +Great care is necessary in choosing the point at which a band should +be placed, and in deciding which branches or branch and stem should be +joined together, so that the greatest resistance may be obtained and in +order that the one may act as a support to the other. The shape of the +tree and disposition of the stem and branches can alone be the guides +in this matter. In comparison with the use of a chain, the advantages +of this method of supporting heavy branches are principally ease of +fixing, greater rigidity, less friction, adaptability for loosening or +tightening as may be required, and better results. + +Accurate measurements as to the size and shape of the limb to be +operated upon must be taken and the girdling hoops made accordingly. +The best way to take these is to ascend the tree, and, after deciding +as to the points where bracing is to take place, encircle each branch +with a strip of hoop-iron, which will not only give the size but shape +of the particular limb, a most important point where neatness is +studied and after-chafing of the bark and wood is to be avoided. + +[Illustration: BAND AND CONNECTING-ROD] + +In the case of old trees, or such as are not likely to greatly increase +in size, the bands need not be much larger than the actual size of +the branches to which they are to be affixed, but where the tree is +young and vigorous, room for expansion should be provided. Fixing the +bands and connecting-rods is readily accomplished either by the use +of ladders or by climbing the trunk and slinging the portions into +position by means of ropes. The exigencies of each case will point out +the best means of carrying out the work, as also the height at which +the supports can most effectively be placed. When damaged or diseased +branches are being dealt with, great care is necessary to ensure that +the bands are placed in such positions that the greatest leverage +against wind is afforded, and so as to minimize the risk of the branch +being broken across at the weakened point during stormy weather. + +Frequently, where the main trunk divides into two or more portions near +ground level, it will be found that a split or crack has been caused by +the swaying of the divided stems. In such cases the split between the +stems should be carefully cleaned out, treated with an antiseptic and +filled with asphalt. The limbs should then be braced together by means +of a band and connecting-rod, and, as the asphalt becomes set, the +brace may be tightened up as may be found necessary. + +Rarely is it found necessary to place a band around the stem of a +tree to prevent splitting. Where, however, appearances point to the +likelihood of this taking place, as in the case of forked trees, +especially when the stem divides abruptly into two or three heavy +limbs, it is a wise precaution to encircle the bole with a wide band +of iron. This band should be placed at such a height that the greatest +possible resistance to splitting of the stem is afforded. Such bands +are usually proportionate to the strain of the stem to which they are +to act as support. A band of leather or rubber between the iron and +bark of the tree to allow for expansion of the stem is necessary. + +Supporting tree branches by chains is not to be recommended, for the +simple reason that, however carefully they may be adjusted, friction +and chafing of the bark and wood is sooner or later bound to ensue. +Connecting the flat iron bands, already referred to, by means of chains +or strand wire, is, however, not so open to objection nor attended +with such ill effects as is the case when the chain or wire is placed +in direct contact with the branch, for even with the most careful +adjusting and packing, the uneven surface of a chain, with its saw-like +action during stormy weather, soon renders the belting useless for the +purpose intended, and both bark and wood suffer in consequence. + +Occasionally we see holes bored through the live branch or trunk in +order to fix the binding rod or chain—a most reprehensible practice +that, fortunately, has few supporters amongst those who have even had a +cursory knowledge of trees and their growth. + +It is, however, generally admitted that there are several disadvantages +connected with bracing trees with iron rods that pass through holes +bored in the trunk or branch. However carefully this operation may be +performed, there are grave risks from insect and fungoid attacks in +holes that have been made in living wood, as the friction caused by the +movement of the tree renders healing of the wound quite problematical. +Further, the movement of an embedded iron rod is not only apt to cause +friction with the wood but the strain must often be in an opposite +direction to that which was intended, this increasing with the diameter +of the stem or branch. + +Another untidy, slipshod and most objectionable method of staying a +tree is by using wire as a band around the trunk. This certainly has +the virtue of cheapness, but in so far as efficiency is concerned, and +especially in the case of old trees, it is to be deprecated. + +In the repairing and strengthening of tree limbs it should consistently +be borne in mind that any girdle or band that either partially or +wholly constricts the growth of a branch defeats its own object +by preventing the uninterrupted flow of sap and impairing the +strength of the limb. With care in forming the band and a proper +method of adjusting it, there is no reason why the desired object +of strengthening a stem or branch may not be attained. On the other +hand, a badly formed, narrow band, too tightly applied and without +the requisite packing, may in a short space of time be productive of +the most unsatisfactory results, particularly in the case of young +and fast-growing trees. The main point is that the bands should be +fixed in such a way that friction to the bark is avoided and the flow +of sap uninterrupted. Unfortunately in the past this has not in all +cases been carefully provided against, with the result that the bands, +owing to their being too small, gradually became embedded in the wood +and, by injuring the cambium and preventing the flow of sap, defeated +the object for which they were intended. For fuller information on +doctoring trees, the reader is referred to my book on _Tree Wounds and +Diseases_. + + + + +CHAPTER XVII + +COPPICE AND UNDERWOOD: THE MANAGEMENT OF COPPICE WOOD + + +Although coppice wood has deteriorated considerably in value during +late years, yet in certain districts and on suitable soils its +cultivation is still to be recommended. Unfortunately, however, the +uses to which coppice wood are in the main applied are much localized, +and this, with the bulky nature of the commodity, will to a very +considerable extent restrict its sale to the localities in which it is +used. Thus in parts of Kent and Sussex hop poles find a ready market, +pea and bean stakes in the gardening districts around London, crate +wood in the neighbourhood of potteries, willow and ash in basket-making +localities, and faggot wood wherever kilns abound, or in the environs +of populous districts generally. It will, therefore, be seen that next +to the question of soil probably the most important is that of local +demand, so that in forming a coppice plantation only such underwood +should be used as there is a demand for in the particular district. +Foreign importations and preferential carriage rates have also dealt +hardly with the profitable cultivation of coppice wood. Coppice wood +may either be grown alone or in company with large standard trees, but +the latter must at all times be kept sufficiently thin, so as not to +overshadow and kill out the undergrowth. There are advantages, too, +in employing standards for the protection they afford to the young +shoots in spring, as also in the amount realized for the periodical +thinnings to which they may be subjected. For this purpose the oak is +to be recommended, but such wide-spreading trees as the ash, elm and +beech, which produce so dense a shade as to kill out or seriously +injure all vegetation that might spring up beneath them, are to be +avoided. Generally where the health and vigour of the coppice wood are +points of first consideration, it will not be advisable to allow the +standard trees to occupy altogether more than about one-fifth of the +wooded area; and even then the lower branches should be pruned off, so +that the effects of shade will be mitigated as much as possible. As to +the woods which coppice most freely, the ash, oak and hazel occupy the +first rank, at least in a profitable sense, the elm, willow, beech, +birch, hornbeam, alder and sycamore occupying a second, but, as before +stated, the nature of the soil, and less so the altitude and exposure, +have everything to do with the particular species that will succeed +best. Thus ash will do well where the soil is moist and loamy, the +Spanish chestnut in sandy or gravelly districts, for rich plains and +hollows the oak will be most remunerative, the alder and willow in +marshy ground, and where bare and exposed, the birch, hazel, beech and +hornbeam will succeed best. + +The preparation of the land and planting for coppice are similar in all +respects to that adopted for the growing of an ordinary timber crop. +Where the ground is too wet, draining should be judiciously engaged +in, while trenching, although expensive at first, is amply compensated +for in the increased growth and vigour of the underwood. The pits for +planting may be made from 3½ ft. to 4 ft. apart, and, if the ground +was previously trenched, of sufficient size to hold the roots without +undue cramping. It is always well to keep the stools tolerably close +together, as the shoots take a more erect habit and are straighter +and more valuable than when allowed too much space and side room. Two +years after being planted, or at the end of the second autumn, the +young trees, excepting such as it may be thought advisable to leave as +standards, should be cut over near ground level. This cutting is a most +important operation, and should only be performed by skilled workmen, +with tools of the best description well sharpened. The cut should be +clean and directed upwards, all splitting of the stems and tearing of +the bark being assiduously guarded against as conducive to decay and +early death to the stools. After four years’ growth the shoots should +be thinned out, leaving, say, four on each stool, and these preferably +the strongest, the work being carried out at any time from November to +the end of March, but not during frosty weather. + +Upon the kind of wood grown and uses for which it is designed will +depend very much the length of rotation pursued, for while osiers might +profitably be cut at the end of the second year, ash, oak and chestnut +would not usually, even on the best quality of soil, be felled sooner +than from ten to twelve years, and the poorer classes of coppice wood, +especially on light soil, at from twelve to sixteen years. It should +be remembered, however, that the duration of the stool is usually +proportionate to the length of the rotation adopted, and with good +management on fair soil the best class of coppice wood has a duration +of nearly a century. In felling the coppice wood it is always advisable +to cut as near the ground level as possible, the shoots sent up having +the advantage of rooting in the ground and so extending the area of +the stool. The system of allowing the stools, by careless cutting, to +rise in some instances several feet from the ground is contrary to the +methods adopted under the best management. A sharp billhook should be +used for all smaller shoots, a light well-ground axe for those from 3 +to, say, 6 inches in diameter, and the cross-cut saw for all over that +size. + +The coppice wood is usually sorted out after being cut down, the best +poles being laid aside for the use of the hop grower, the next size for +pit props, or fencing according to the demand of the moment, and so on +until every pole has been sorted according to the use for which it may +be intended, the lop and branches being bound into faggots for fire or +oven-lighting. + +The following are the various uses to which underwood is applied: +hoops, hurdles, crate rods, pea stakes, spars for thatching, withes for +faggot-tying, sheep cages, hop poles, brooms, broom handles, skewers +for butchers, chisel handles, plant stakes, whip handles, gunpowder +wood and faggots. + +Profits will vary from 15_s._ to 25_s._ per acre, exclusive of the +standards which are left, and the crop, according to age and quality, +will realize from £5 per acre downwards. + +Great care is necessary to avoid damage to the stools when removing +the fall, which is not usually done until just before the young buds +are shooting out, and consequently at the time when injury is most +easily brought about. The trampling of horses and passage of wheels +are most injurious, while the browsing of cattle should be carefully +guarded against. Good roads are always a great advantage in a coppice +plantation, and to these as much of the produce as possible should be +carried for loading, thus avoiding damage to the stools. + +Although the growth of coppice wood has its disadvantages, particularly +in park scenery, yet it is valuable in this way, that should the crop +from local circumstances not be found remunerative, the plantation can +at any time be converted into a standing wood by allowing the best and +strongest shoots from the stools to form the permanent crop. + +The approximate cost of forming a coppice wood per acre is as follows:— + + £ _s._ _d._ + Trenching at 2_s._ per rod 16 0 0 + 5,000 trees at 35_s._ per 1,000 8 15 0 + Pitting and planting 2 5 0 + ———————————————— + £27 0 0 + + + + +CHAPTER XVIII + +THE FORMATION AND MANAGEMENT OF GAME COVERTS + + +When we consider that on not a few estates in this country the value +of the plantations as game coverts is wellnigh of as much importance +as that of the timber produced, it will be readily seen that the +successful formation and management of these is a matter of no small +moment to those entrusted with the work. That game-rearing and economic +forestry can be advantageously carried on in the same woods is, +however, a contention we by no means feel inclined to uphold, and from +which, being apart from the subject matter of the chapter, we will for +the present stand aloof. + +Game coverts may be divided into two kinds, natural and +artificial—natural when the woods are kept sufficiently thin to admit +of the free growth of bramble, bracken or other native vegetation; +and artificial when the planting of such shrubs as are suitable for +underwood is resorted to. + +Natural game coverts, which, by most sportsmen, are considered superior +to those artificially formed, can only exist where the plantations +are kept well and regularly thinned, so as to admit abundance of both +light and air—the two principal requisites for the successful growth of +natural underwood. Generally speaking, the formation of natural coverts +has seldom to be helped, although occasionally it is found necessary +to assist Nature by the sowing of such seeds as those of gorse, broom, +etc., in the thinner and more open portions of the woodlands. This may, +however, be considered an exception to the rule, as where the woods +are kept sufficiently thin, spontaneous undergrowth is usually pretty +abundant, and requires neither care nor management, beyond preventing +its too free incursions along the margins of roads and shooting drives. +Where, however, bare patches do occur, the sowing of seed may be relied +upon as not only a speedy but most effectual method of increasing +the cover. Where seeds are intended to be sown, the soil should be +dug over, and all hard clods or lumps broken down, and the whole +made smooth and fine with a rake. The seeds may be sown in spring, +and afterwards covered over with hardwood branches as a preservative +against the depredations of small birds and game. + +The best natural game coverts are those composed of bramble, gorse, +heath, hazel, holly, blackthorn, elder, blackberry, bracken or the +stronger growing grasses, these being arranged according to merit, and +each possessing some peculiar feature, specially recommending it for +planting in certain soils, altitudes or situations. + +In the formation of artificial game coverts, when not only shelter and +protection for game are required, but ornamental effect as well, the +judicious grouping of the different shrubs should never be lost sight +of, more especially when the coverts are within the park or policy +grounds, and visible from drives and roads. Formality and stiffness are +so often the characteristics of the present style of shrub planting, +that in many cases our woodlands seem utterly destitute of that variety +of outline and contrast of light and shade so essential to picturesque +beauty. In planting evergreen shrubs for the two-fold purpose of covert +and ornament, the best method is to plant each variety in separate +groups or clumps. No hard and fast lines can be laid down as to the +distribution or number of plants to be used in the clumps, which, to a +great extent, must depend on the size and shape of the ground as well +as taste of the operator. The clumps should, however, be placed at +irregular distances apart, be irregular in size and outline, and with +from forty or fifty to one hundred plants in each—bearing in mind that +game of all kinds delight in small patches of shrubs with abundance of +open space around each, but detest in a most marked manner continuous +masses or jungles of underwood. + +In selecting sites for the various groups, be careful to choose the +most open positions, avoiding as much as possible planting immediately +under the spread of trees; and, if practicable, so arrange that in +viewing the wood from any point, the eye may not pass along a straight +bare unplanted space, but become arrested by the various clumps in +passing to the farther side. + +Having arranged the positions of the various clumps, the pits should +be opened of a size, and at a distance apart suitable for the plants +intended to be used, taking care that they are sufficiently large to +avoid cramping or bending of the roots, which in all cases should be +spread out to their full extent. In making the pits, it is well to +thoroughly loosen the soil in the bottom and sides with a pick, so as +to give the tender rootlets a free course when starting into growth +in spring. Should the soil be found of inferior quality, a few loads +of leaf-mould, road-scrapings or loam from an adjoining field will be +found to work wonders in the way of giving the plants a start, and also +in producing a strong, healthy growth. Drainage should also have been +attended to previous to opening the pits, and all stagnant water or +superfluous moisture removed by the formation of open ditches. + +In giving a list of the best evergreen shrubs for covert purposes, I +would call attention particularly to the merits of laurel, box, privet, +laurustinus, rhododendron, holly and yew, as these have been very +extensively used for underwood, and with the best possible results. +As to which of the above shrubs should receive pre-eminence as an +ornamental covert plant I cannot decide, each having some peculiar +merit rendering it valuable in its own particular place. We will for +the present, however, consider all alike in this respect, and briefly +describe the value of each separately, beginning with the laurel. + +The =Common= and =Colchic= laurels are amongst our best shrubs for +underwood, and should be planted extensively; they are of free growth, +bear cutting and pruning well, and thrive under the shade and drip of +other trees. For covert planting the Colchic is perhaps preferable +to the normal form, as it is of a more dense and procumbent habit, +perfectly hardy, and less liable to injury from hares and rabbits. +The common laurel requires frequent and heavy pruning to keep it in +bounds, as, if allowed to ramble at will, it soon becomes bare near +the ground, and useless either as game covert or ornament. Some years +ago we layered a great number of this plant that had through neglect +become useless for the purpose intended, many being from 12 ft. to +over 20 ft. in height, with simply a tuft of foliage near the top. In +layering, the stems were sawn half through near the ground, to assist +in bending, and laid flat on their sides, a couple of stout pegs being +driven alongside, the crooked heads of which served to keep the plants +in their procumbent position. A spadeful of soil was then placed on +the top of each peg to assist the layer in rooting. The result at the +present time is everything that could be desired, each stem having +thrown up quantities of young shoots, and thus formed a jungle of +underwood, which year by year will increase in value. + +In planting the laurel for covert avoid overcrowding, as, being of +quick growth, the plants, even although placed at a considerable +distance apart, soon unite and form a continuous undergrowth. No rule +can be laid down as to the distance which should be allowed between +individual plants, this depending entirely on their size, as well +as on the quality of the soil in which they are to be planted. We +not unfrequently plant double thick, either for immediate effect, or +to produce covert at once, and when the plants begin to encroach on +each other every alternate one is removed, thus giving the remaining +plants ample room for developing side branches and thereby inducing a +dwarf-spreading habit. Having a tendency, especially when confined, +to increase more in height than width, the laurel, after a few years’ +growth, should have all the leading and straggling upper branches +cut over, by which not only will the under shoots be increased but +the plants will be prevented from running up into tall, branchless +specimens. + +The =Green Tree Box= (_Buxus sempervirens_) forms a very pretty as +well as desirable covert plant, and thrives well beneath the shade of +deciduous trees. It is also of slow, dense growth, and well adapted for +planting in various soils and situations, although preferring a light +loam and a shady position. Another recommendation is its immunity from +the attacks of game, hares and rabbits having such an aversion to this +plant that even during the most severe weather I cannot remember having +seen it badly injured. Few plants suffer more from overcrowding than +the box, and for this reason it should be planted at wide distances +apart, the plants soon getting top-heavy and falling over of their own +accord. Where the plants are not of large size, and immediate effect +or covert is required, they may be planted pretty close, and in a few +years, when encroaching on each other, every alternate one may be +removed. It is well adapted for transplanting, the almost solid mass of +matted roots holding the ball of earth firmly together, thus rendering +the plant one of our easiest as well as safest to remove. + +The box would seem at one time to have been more abundant in our own +land than it now is; thus, Boxley in Kent, Boxwell in Gloucestershire, +and Boxhill in Surrey, were named from the quantity of this plant which +was formerly found in their neighbourhoods. + +=Privet=, as a covert plant, has its advantages and disadvantages. +On the one hand it is cheap, easily grown, and not at all fastidious +about soil. When planted amongst trees, however, it generally assumes +a loose, straggling habit, and as the shade increases it usually dies +out altogether. Where the plantations are well thinned and regularly +kept so, privet, if a little care and trouble be expended on its +cultivation, will succeed and form capital underwood. In planting +privet the greatest care is necessary to prevent its being overdone. +Close planting is always productive of the most unsatisfactory results, +not only as regards the health of the plants, but management of the +woods as well. Instead of filling up the whole ground, as is not +unfrequently done, plant in small clumps, and these at wide distances +apart, as this will not only allow the privet to grow more healthy +and compact but also admit of space for pruning and layering—two +necessaries for the successful cultivation of privet as underwood. + +The layering of privet, which is a simple and inexpensive though +effectual method of increase, is performed as follows:—Cut off all the +branches, except those intended for layering, which are then laid flat +on the ground equidistant around the main stem or root and kept fast +by hooked pegs driven firmly down. A spadeful or two of soil should +then be placed on the top of each peg, which will partly exclude air +and hasten the formation of roots. The pegs may be made of any refuse +branches—hard wood, such as ash or oak, being preferable—about 10 ins. +in length, one end being hooked for holding the branches in position, +and the other sharply pointed for ease in driving. As several forms of +privet have crept into circulation of late, it is well to be sure that +none but the true evergreen are used in the formation of game coverts. +The oval-leaved privet, though a most desirable evergreen plant and +well suited for ornamental hedges, is from its too luxuriant growth and +upright form hardly to be commended for underwood; at least, its merits +in this respect are inferior to those of the common form. + +=Aucuba Japonica= and the =Laurustinus= are two of our handsomest +evergreen shrubs, but, unlike those already described, they will not +succeed in the densest shade. In open places or along woodland drives +they thrive well, and are excellent for variety and contrast. The +laurustinus cannot, however, be considered as perfectly hardy in this +country, for even in maritime situations where the air is to some +extent ameliorated, it suffers severely from frost, and during severe +winters it is even killed completely to the ground. It, however, +springs very freely from the root, and in a few years quite regains its +original size and luxuriance. From their bushy, well-furnished habit +of growth both the above plants are excellent as game covert, more +especially around the outskirts of woods and plantations. They should +be allowed plenty of room for development of both root and branch, +though they may, when necessary, be pruned with the greatest advantage. + +=Mahonia aquifolia=, =Berberis Darwinii= and =B. Stenophylla= are +frequently recommended as covert plants and for using in similar +situations to those favoured by the laurel and box. Along the margins +of plantations or in very open places they may and do succeed, but from +practical experience of these plants we find them next to useless as +underwood in shady positions. Where many thousands of covert plants +are used annually, we have entirely discarded them from use except in +the most open situations. These plants are highly ornamental, both in +foliage and flower; produce berries which are much sought after by +game, are quite hardy, and not at all fastidious about soil—qualities +which specially recommend them for extensive use in positions at all +suited for their growth. + +The barberry, more especially when planted out in rich soil, and +when at all confined, is apt to lose the compact, branchy nature so +recognizable a feature of the plant when allowed ample room in the +nursery border, and to assume a more upright habit of growth, which is +anything but desirable in underwood generally. To check this and keep +the plant in bounds, frequent light prunings will have to be resorted +to, and this had best be effected during dull, damp weather, as the +barberry is not a good subject for the pruning shears. Neither the +barberry nor mahonia are adapted for planting in very high or exposed +situations—at least where such has been tried the results have been +anything but satisfactory, the plants soon presenting a miserable, +half-starved appearance. + +Both plants are readily propagated—the mahonia, when planted in +loose soil and an open situation, soon covering a considerable space +of ground, the running roots being especially active under such +circumstances. + +=Rhododendron ponticum=, although useful in an ornamental point of +view, cannot be considered a first-class plant for game shelter. It +has, however, several good qualities which recommend it for underwood, +such as ease of culture, dwarf-spreading habit, and immunity from the +attacks of game—indeed, in this latter respect, it is not equalled +by any other plant, if we except one or two species of Daphne. It is +seldom resorted to by pheasants, the bottom being not only damp, but +such a tangled mass of branches that it forms anything but pleasant +quarters for game. For ornamental effect along the outskirts of +plantations, the rhododendron is invaluable, and is by no means so +fastidious about soil as is generally supposed, peat being not at all +essential to its growth and successful cultivation. Few plants can be +made to increase in like proportion with the rhododendron, and for +this reason it should be planted in small patches; and when it is +desirable to increase the cover, the outer branches may be pegged down +or layered. This plant also bears pruning with impunity, so that old +plants that have, through neglect, become lank and straggling, may +without fear or risk be layered or pruned in with advantage. + +The =Common Yew= and =Holly= cannot be too extensively used in the +formation of game coverts, both being unrivalled for beauty and +hardiness. They thrive in a great variety of soils, and beneath the +densest shade of our woodland trees. In planting the yew it is well, +however, to bear in mind that its branches are highly deleterious to +farm stock that may browse upon them, and for this reason it should +never be planted along the outskirts of a wood, or in any position to +which such have access. + +The =St. John’s Wort=, as a low-spreading shrub, is unsurpassed, and +thrives best in a light sandy or peaty soil. It is readily propagated +by division of the roots; and when planted out in small patches a foot +or two apart, the creeping stems soon cover a considerable surface of +ground, and form a dense evergreen mass, covered in summer with bright +golden flowers. + +=Gaultheria Shallon=, another plant of creeping habit, is, +notwithstanding its many good qualities, seldom planted to any extent +in our woodlands; but this may, to some extent at least, be accounted +for by the high price of the plants, and the small size of those +purchaseable from our nurserymen. Like most other North American +plants, the Gaultheria prefers a rather damp, peaty soil, and is one of +the few shrubs found to thrive in pine plantations. The berries, which +are borne in great abundance, are greedily devoured by pheasants, and +in their native country are not unfrequently used as food. + +The =Butcher’s Broom= is a fine glaucous green shrub densely covered +with sharp, prickly, leaves and invaluable for planting in shady +places—indeed, in such positions it seems to be quite at home. There +it flowers and fruits freely beneath half-standard rhododendrons where +few other plants could exist, far less succeed. The twigs of this shrub +were formerly used by butchers for sweeping their blocks; hence the +English name. + +Some of the above plants, notably the =St. John’s Wort= and +=Gaultheria=, may be considered as carpet plants, which, in +contradistinction to general underwood, may be classed as evergreens, +which, from their low, procumbent mode of growth, are scarcely in the +true sense of the word suited for game coverts. To clearly define +the difference would, however, be no easy matter, and, even were it +possible to do so, would in the end be productive of but little good, +as the habits of different plants vary so much that what is used in +one place for carpeting purposes might in another and more favourable +situation be equally valuable for game covert. A good example of +this will be found in the St. John’s Wort, which, when planted out +and allowed to ramble at will amongst bramble, privet, etc., forms a +capital covert; whereas, when used in open, airy situations—such as +alongside shrubbery walks—it soon forms a dense evergreen carpet, of so +compact a growth as to be almost impenetrable even to ground game. + +In addition to the above-named plants, the following are well adapted +for giving shelter to game:—Dogwood, Hazel, Elder, Arbutus, Cotoneaster +of sorts, Juniper of sorts, _Pernettya mucronata_, _Rubus nutkanus_, +_Taxus adpressa_, _Photinia serrulata_, _Kalmia latifolia_, _Garrya +elliptica_, etc. These should be planted out in small groups—the more +valuable kinds in the most conspicuous position, such as alongside or +within view of woodland drives and shooting-roads. + +=Protection from Rabbits=, etc.—It may seem somewhat absurd to speak +of planting coverts, and then to protect them from the depredations +of game; but that this is highly necessary for the first two years, +at least, is well known to all planters. Few of the shrubs treated +of in this paper are exempt from the attacks of hares and rabbits, +more especially when in a young state and newly transferred from the +nursery; and for this reason it is always found necessary to protect +them in some way or other until fairly started into growth and beyond +the reach of game. For this purpose wire netting is the cheapest +and most effectual preservative with which I am acquainted. The +netting should be about 4 ft. in height, not more than 1½ in. mesh, +and inserted in the ground 4 in., to prevent rabbits from working +underneath. It may be fixed to posts driven firmly into the ground at +a distance of 5 ft. apart along the line of fence. This precaution +against the depredations of game may not be necessary for all the +clumps, but it is especially so for those of laurustinus, barberry, and +laurel. + +For the first two or three years after planting, the shrubs should be +kept free of grass and weeds, as this will encourage the plants to +start into growth more quickly and thrive much better than they can do +if the ground is impoverished and light and air excluded by weeds. + + + + +CHAPTER XIX + +HEDGES: THEIR FORMATION AND MANAGEMENT + + +Strictly speaking, hedges are divided into two kinds—useful and +ornamental—the former being employed for keeping farm stock in bounds, +and the latter in the subdivision of private gardens and for lawn and +park purposes generally. Where the fences are intended purely for +protective purposes the thorn, beech, hornbeam or holly are the plants +usually employed, while for ornamental garden subdivisions almost any +shrub may be used, the choice of which will lie with the operator. + +Amongst all the trees and shrubs that have been found suitable for +the climate of Britain, none equals the common whitethorn, or Quick, +for hedge-formation, where strength and shelter are points of first +consideration. The beech and hornbeam certainly can thrive better on +exposed and high-lying ground and where the soil is poor and thin, but +neither forms so durable a protection against farm stock as the thorn. + +When properly treated the thorn is a fast grower, and as a fence plant +it is ornamental, smooth, stubborn, and long lived. It is also not at +all subject to disease, and is very readily propagated. Few soils come +amiss to the thorn—that is, if they are not overcharged with moisture, +but it delights in a rich hazelly loam. + +(1) =Plantation Hedges—Preparation of the Ground and Planting.=—Thorough +preparation of the ground where live fences are formed should take +precedence of all other operations—indeed, nothing can repay the +planter more satisfactorily than the previous suiting of the land, +in the way of draining and trenching, to the plants intended to be +inserted. + +In all cases we have found it well to have the ground along the line +of fence trenched to a depth of 2 ft., and about 3 ft. in width, and +a quantity of manure incorporated at the same time. If this can be +done some months before planting the thorns or other fence plants, so +much the better, as it gives time for the loosely upturned soil to get +mellowed and sweetened, as also for the manure to get well decomposed. +In all cases it may not be necessary to apply manure, but, where the +soil is at all poor, the addition of a quantity of well-rotted manure +has a wonderful effect in stimulating the quick into active and strong +growth. The vigorous and rapid growth of a hedge, when the soil has +been well worked and manured, is remarkable, and in all cases the +labour and outlay expended on the fence is amply repaid. + +[Illustration: HEDGING TOOLS] + +It is well to plant rather above than below the general ground level, +so that in trenching the soil a slight mound should be raised along +the intended line of fence, which will not only materially assist in +keeping the plants from excessive moisture, but aid in the cleaning and +general management of the hedge. Where superfluous moisture is present +in the soil the hedge-and-ditch system is to be recommended, which +consists in digging out a ditch parallel with the line on which it is +intended to place the fence. It should be 3 ft. deep, 5 ft. wide at +top, and 1 ft. at bottom, and the soil removed in so doing is thrown +upon that side where the hedge is to be planted, thus forming a mound, +or rather ridge, on which the plants are to be placed. + +In wet soils such a ditch is indispensable, but, under ordinary +circumstances, it is to be condemned, and for the simple reasons that +it is expensive and rather against than in favour of the free growth of +the fence. + +=Thorn or Quick.=—The best time to plant the whitethorn is just after +the fall of the leaf in autumn; but the operation is usually extended +from that time until early spring, though in the latter case perhaps +with less satisfactory results. + +In selecting the plants a great amount of care is necessary, as also in +the lifting and after-planting. Four-year-old plants are best suited +for hedge-formation, and they should be stout of growth and well +rooted. The size of the plants is of more importance than the age, and +those with stems as thick as one’s finger are to be preferred to others +of greater height, but lank and small of stem. Frequent transplanting +while in the nursery border should have been paid attention to, as +then the roots are bushy and fibrous and well suited for planting out +permanently. + +Great damage is frequently done to thorn plants by careless lifting, +and, worse still, by bundling the plants in lots ready for the planter. +This should never be tolerated, as it is quite evident that when tied +up in bundles and covered over with soil, the plants in the centre of +each bundle get dust-dry and fall a prey to the searching winds of +spring. + +Plants should in all cases, where it is possible, be lifted and +replanted within the week, but, much better still—and this is readily +effected where a home nursery is on the estate—on the same or the +following day. + +In planting, stretch a line along the centre of the prepared ground, +and close to the line take out a perpendicular trench with the spade of +sufficient size to allow of the roots of the plants being spread out +to their full extent. From 6 in. to 8 in. will be found a convenient +distance apart to place the thorns, and they should not be planted +deeper than they stood whilst in the nursery border, which will readily +be seen by the mark on the stems. A small quantity of fine soil should +now be placed next the roots, and this firmly trodden, the remainder +of the soil being added afterwards. Dibbling the plants is sometimes +recommended, but, in our own opinion, it is a dangerous practice and to +be avoided, the roots necessarily being thus confined to small space +and placed in an unnatural position. Planting in single line is in most +cases preferable to inserting in double line, as it is by the former +method that the strongest and most durable fences have been formed. +Some planters cut back the young thorns to within 2 in. of the ground, +and the practice, although not readily reconciled with physiological +principles, is to be recommended. It is unquestionable that headed-back +thorns shoot out with greater vigour, and become thicker, than such +as have been left untouched, but the fact that they are then greedily +devoured by ground game has somewhat caused the practice to fall into +disuse, at least where game is abundant and the cost of fencing cannot +be entertained. + +The =Beech=, as a hedge-plant, must not be despised, being a rapid +grower on most soils, and soon forming a very valuable fence. In rich +soils it retains a great proportion of its leaves during winter, and +is, therefore, an excellent shelter-plant. It, however, lacks the +rigidity of the thorn, and for that reason is not very suitable for +planting where farm stock have access. It may be planted in a manner +similar to that recommended for the thorn, only the individual plants +should stand farther apart. + +The =Hornbeam= makes a good live fence, and will grow readily in +any fairly good soil and not too exposed ground. It may be treated +similarly to the beech. + +=Privet=—both the common and oval-leaved—have been largely used, either +alone or with other plants, in the formation of hedges, for which they +are peculiarly suitable. They, however, want stiffness, so as to be +able to cope with farm stock, and for this reason are principally used +in ornamental garden subdivisions. + +=Gorse or Furze.=—Strikingly beautiful as well as useful hedges may be +formed of gorse. It is well adapted for planting on light dry or sandy +soils, or on the top of a dyke or sunk fence. + +Seed sowing is to be recommended in the formation of gorse fences, +and after preparing and well working the soil, 1 lb. of seed to every +100 lineal yards will be found sufficient for sowing down. It should +be remembered that in order to keep the fence full and bushy, pruning +should take place immediately after flowering and before seeds are +produced. + +Cutting over the hedge at ground level every third year will be very +beneficial to this fence. + +(2) =Ornamental Hedges—Holly.=—This makes an excellent ornamental +fence, and it is occasionally though rarely used for plantation +purposes. The ground should be thoroughly prepared, and, if necessary, +enriched by a dressing of strong loam, and the plants inserted in +May. The holly can be planted when of almost any height, if previous +transplanting was attended to. + +=Yew.=—For purposes similar to the latter, the yew is generally in use. +It may be planted at any time, but should be kept well watered until it +has become established. + +=Laurustinus.=—As a flowering hedge for garden or lawn purposes few +shrubs are of greater value than the laurustinus, particularly in +maritime districts. In severe winters it suffers considerably, though +generally fresh growths are sent up from the root-stock. Pruning should +be carefully done, so that the flowering shoots are not cut away. + +=Box.=—Very neat and serviceable garden fences are made of this shrub. +It grows freely and stands pruning well. + +=Rosa rugosa= and =R. rubiginosa= (Sweet Briar).—Both these species of +rose have come greatly into favour for garden subdivisions, for which +they are peculiarly suitable. They make charming hedges, are of easy +growth, and stand pruning with impunity. Of course, where they are +wanted to flower great care in pruning is necessary. + +=Laurel.=—Both the common and Colchic laurels make fairly good hedges, +but they are apt to get gappy by portions dying out. This can, however, +easily be remedied by filling up with others instead. They bear +trimming well. + +=Aucuba japonica= forms a useful and ornamental hedge, stands pruning +well, and lasts for a long time. + +=Berberis Darwinii= and =B. stenophylla= are both highly ornamental +hedge shrubs, and when not pruned too severely flower with great +freedom. Shortening the long shoots with a pocket-knife is best. + +=Cleaning and Pruning.=—An annual cleaning of the ground alongside +hedges must never be neglected, as weeds rob the soil of its +nourishment, choke the young plants, and to a great extent prevent the +free access of rain to the roots of the hedge plants. The common hoe +is, for this purpose, to be recommended, and any weeds that cannot +be got at around the stems must be removed by the hand. Ivy, elder +and honeysuckle should all be treated as weeds, for they are highly +injurious to hedges, be these young or old. + +Very little, if any, pruning or switching should be done till the third +year after the fence has been formed, and then only the longer twigs +cut back, so as to get by degrees a general uniformity of shape. The +switching-knife is alone to be recommended for pruning fences, shears +never making a clean cut, and pressing and loosening the bark at the +point where amputation took place. A well-sharpened switching-knife in +the hands of a dexterous hedger turns out beautiful and commendable +work. + +Unless it be an annual cleaning and trimming, a well-formed hedge +should require but little attention for many years. Should it, +however, when old, begin to show signs of distress and become gappy, +a top-dressing of rich farmyard manure will go a great way towards +throwing fresh energy into the plants. This should be applied in +winter, and lightly forked in the following spring, and before growth +has commenced. Should gaps occur by reason of deaths in the old plants +these should be removed, and others of young growth substituted, the +soil at the same time being dug out and other fresh from a field or +roadside used instead. Great care should be exercised that the roots of +living plants are not injured whilst removing the dead and substituting +the live specimens. Specially-prepared plants and such as are unusually +stout and bushy should alone be used in hedge-repairing. + + + + +CHAPTER XX + +SHRUBS FOR SHADY SITUATIONS + + +The list of procumbent or carpeting shrubs that have been found to +succeed when planted beneath the shade and drip of forest trees is by +no means a long one, and as the clothing of such bare places is often +a point of the greatest importance, particularly in park or ornamental +grounds, the following notes may prove useful. By careful manipulation +much may be done to carpet such places with suitable shrubs, but the +task in some instances is by no means an easy one, and must be set +about in a common-sense and practical way. Evidently deciduous trees +have an advantage over evergreen kinds in that with the extra light and +greater amount of surface dampness undergrowth succeeds better beneath +their shade. + +The =common Ivy= is probably the best evergreen carpet for shade +planting with which we are acquainted. It runs about and roots freely, +soon covering a large space of ground with its neat, deep-green +foliage. Propagation is brought about either by means of cuttings or +suckers, and is simple and inexpensive. + +The =Periwinkles= (_Vinca major_ and _V. minor_) are well adapted for +planting beneath our larger trees, where, unless the shade is very +dense, they succeed admirably, soon forming large breadths of evergreen +carpet and producing their deep blue flowers in abundance. They are +readily increased by layering or subdivision, and when once established +soon spread about unheeded. + +The =St. John’s Wort= (_Hypericum calycinum_) can confidently be +recommended for planting as a ground covering beneath our larger trees. +It increases readily, and if occasionally cut over, shoots out all +the more freely and thickly. For the showy yellow flowers it is also a +desirable shrubby plant. + +The =Mezereon= and =Spurge Laurel= (_Daphne Mezereum_ and _D. +Laureola_) are excellent, medium-sized shrubs for planting in shady +positions, where they not only succeed well, but flower freely. They +are both increased by layering. + +=Euonymus Radicans Variegata= is a useful, procumbent shrub for +planting in the shade, and succeeds well in smoky localities. + +The =Butcher’s Broom= (_Ruscus aculeatus_) grows with great freedom +beneath the densest shade of our forest trees, and being an evergreen +is to be recommended for such situations. + +=Gaultheria Shallon= and =G. Procumbens= may also be recommended for +planting where the shade is not too dense; they both flower and fruit +freely, and are of neat procumbent growth. + +Amongst taller growing subjects for planting in the shade, mention +may be made of the holly and yew, both of which thrive beneath +the shade and drip of forest trees and where they often assume a +dwarf, procumbent habit of growth. Two at least of the recent shrubs +introduced from China have just claims to be included in the list +of suitable species for planting in the shade. These are _Sarcoccos +humile_ and _S. ruscifolia_. They are of particularly neat growth, with +persistent leaves and bear yellowish-white flowers. + +The =Common Ling= or =Heather=, =Blackberry=, and =Andromeda Catesbœi= +all succeed well in the shade of trees, particularly if the soil be +inclined to peat. + +It frequently happens that the soil beneath large trees is thoroughly +exhausted, and that the small, fibrous rootlets are so abundant as +to render planting almost impossible. Under such conditions it is +advisable to first gently loosen the soil, without disturbing the +larger roots, and add a top-dressing of, say, three or four inches of +good friable loam. This, thoroughly incorporated with the existing +soil, will give the young plants a start and allow of their becoming +strong and established before the encroaching roots rob the ground of +its nourishment. + + + + +CHAPTER XXI + +INSECT ENEMIES OF TREES + + +Whether viewed from a commercial or sylvicultural point of view, the +widespread damage caused to timber from insect attacks can scarcely +be overrated. The depredations in various parts of our own country, +particularly in young plantations, are bad enough, but when compared +with those of Europe and America they appear insignificant. In France +and Germany whole woods have been wiped out by insect pests, while the +Government of Bavaria were mulcted in something like £100,000 by the +destruction of its spruce forests. The United States fares no better, +for we find that over a period of ten years the amount of timber killed +and reduced in value was calculated at fully £10,000,000. The coffee +plantations of Ceylon suffered much from the attacks of a fungus, and +we could go on multiplying cases. In our own country the ravages of the +pine beetle and of the larch disease have caused incalculable damage; +indeed, in the latter case there is hardly a plantation of larch where +the presence of the fell disease cannot be distinctly traced, while the +pine beetle has ruined whole plantations both in England and Scotland. +Though the adult bark and wood-boring beetles do a great amount of +damage, yet that inflicted by the caterpillar or grub from the egg +is greater still, and in the case of fungi we have a typical example +of their destructive properties in the case of the well-known larch +disease. + +The =Pine Beetle= (_Myelophilus {Hylurgus_} _piniperda_) is a dreaded +enemy to not a few species of Pinus, but particularly _P. sylvestris_, +_P. laricio_, _P. austriaca_ and _P. Strobus_. The injury done by this +beetle consists in its destruction of the leading shoots of the tree it +attacks. It enters by boring a hole into the side of the shoot until it +reaches the pith, after which its course is directed upwards, and an +exit made at the terminal bud. This tunnelling of the shoot so weakens +it that frequently during stormy weather it is broken across at the +point where the beetle entered. Not only are unhealthy trees attacked +by the pine beetle, but young and robust-growing specimens frequently +fall a prey to its insidious depredations. + +June, July and August are the months when it is most commonly found. + +The only remedy is to collect and burn the affected shoots—work that +requires to be done with the utmost care to prevent the escape of the +wary insect. Burning all brushwood in plantations is a great preventive. + +The =Pine Weevil= (_Curculio_ {_Hylobius_} _Abietis_) is another +destructive insect, which differs from the former in waging its attacks +against the buds of the leaders and branches, as also by eating patches +of the bark here and there on the stems and branches. The various +species of Abies suffer most, but the pines are occasionally attacked +as well. It is always most destructive in young plantations growing on +the margins of old woods, and equally bad amongst trees that have been +planted on the site of a former pine plantation. + +The beetle is about half an inch long, and nearly black. One remedy, +probably the best, is to place fresh pieces of pine bark on the ground, +beneath the infested trees. By shaking the trees and examining the +traps the following morning, many may be destroyed. + +=Bostrichus typographus= is another pest of our woodlands, and may +frequently be seen, like fine white wool, spreading over the stem +and branches of the silver and other firs. It spreads with terrible +rapidity, first appearing in small patches here and there on the bole, +and particularly on the under sides of the branches. The tree infested +soon becomes unhealthy, and frequently dies off prematurely. Trees +growing in low-lying, heavy ground would seem to fall a first prey to +this insect. + +=Bostrichus laricis= is nearly allied to the former, but its +devastations, which are, however, not very deadly, are principally +confined to the larch. It is usually known as the “larch blight.” + +The =Pine Shoot Moths= (_Retinia buoliana_ and _R. turionella_) would +seem to be more numerous in this country than is generally supposed. +Quite lately I visited a large plantation of young Scotch fir, the +terminal buds of which were greatly injured by the caterpillars of +this elaborately-coloured moth. The moth lays its eggs at the base +of the buds, and into these the caterpillars enter by hollowing out +the centre, thus destroying their vitality and causing them to take +on a withered appearance and to feel soft and empty to the touch. +Trees infested by this insect resemble greatly in their stunted shoots +and exudation of resin such as have become a prey to the Pine beetle +(_Myelophilus piniperda_), only in the latter case it is the fresh +young shoot and not the bud that is attacked. The _Retinia_ would +seem, from all my notes and observations, to be most abundant in what +might be termed neglected fir plantations, that is, where the trees +have suffered from overcrowding, or from unfavourable conditions as to +soil, etc., and particularly when the wood is composed entirely of one +species. There is no method of dealing with large infested areas, for +the attacked trees have repeatedly been cut over and removed without +any seeming diminution in the numbers of the insect. One experiment +with a small infested corner has been rewarded with good results, viz. +the lighting of a fire to windward, and causing the smoke of coal tar +to pass over the infected area. This might be worth trying in the case +of fruit trees infested by particular insects. + +The =Larch Miner= (_Coleophora laricella_).—Few, other than those +specially interested in tree diseases, have the remotest idea that the +yellow, withered appearance of many of our English larch plantations +is due to the larvæ of the above tiny moth. It usually attacks young +trees, say, from five to twenty years old, and although it may not kill +them out, yet the repeated onslaughts year after year tend to keep the +trees in an unhealthy condition, and so render them liable to other and +more deadly diseases. + +Unfortunately the attacks of the larch miner are by no means confined, +as is usually supposed, to trees growing under unfavourable conditions, +for I have this season noticed in an unusually healthy, fast-growing +plantation in Sussex that almost every tree was more or less affected. +Certainly in another large extent of larch in Gloucestershire which I +examined lately, where nine-tenths of the trees were being ruined by +the _Peziza_, the larch miner was very abundant; but, I think, that +young trees, whatever may be their state of health, suffer alike, +although where hard-wooded trees form a portion of the crop the larch +certainly suffers less than when grown in pure woods. The moth lays its +eggs at the end of June on the needles of the larch; the caterpillar +mining into and feeding upon the interior of the needle causes it to +turn faded and yellow. It lives in the tube thus formed during the +winter, changing to a pupa, and ultimately to a moth. It is a most +difficult matter in the case of this insect, as, indeed, of all others +that are fairly abundant, to suggest a remedy, and I have looked +over and examined larch plantations that are differently situated in +many respects to find out under what condition the attacks are most +persistent, but with little or no success—healthy and unhealthy, native +or Tyrolese, faring alike when grown as a pure crop. + +Where the larches are intermixed with hard-wooded trees—sycamore, oak +and beech—the attacks are certainly less frequent, as I have noticed +in a number of cases. Trees growing at high altitudes do not seem to +suffer less than those only a few feet above sea-level, and this point +I have paid particular attention to. + +Whether the wounds caused by this insect will serve as a nidus for the +spores of _Peziza Willkommii_ has yet to be determined, but special +importance should be attached to all larch-feeding insects, and their +depredations minimized to as great an extent as possible. + +The =Pine Sawfly= (_Lophyrus Pini_).—Fortunately, this insect is not +abundant in the British Isles, though on the Continent the damage it +does in the pine forests is by no means inconsiderable. The insect +may readily be recognized by its wide, flattish body, and usually +dark appearance. Having attained to full size in the trees, they form +cocoons among the foliage or on the stems, and remain in this condition +until the following spring, when, in April or May, the perfect insects +make their appearance. The male is considerably smaller than the +female, while the full-grown caterpillar, which is of a greenish-yellow +colour, with a row of black spots on either side, is about an inch +long. The remedial measures are not at all easy, especially when +a large number of trees are attacked, but single specimens may be +entirely cleared by shaking the caterpillars into a sheet placed +beneath the tree. + +[Illustration: (_a_) WILLOW BEETLE (_Phyllodecta vulgatissima_), AND +(_b_) ITS LARVA.] + +The =Larch Aphis= (_Adelgis laricis_) and =Giant Sirex= (_Sirex +gigas_) are both, more or less, harmful to the larch. The latter is a +formidable and splendid insect, which is, however, not very abundant in +this country. + +Generally felled trees, or such as are somewhat sickly, are chosen by +the female in which to lay her eggs. These are deposited beneath the +bark by means of the powerful ovipositor, and in course of time the +whitish cylindrical maggots make an appearance, and with their strong +jaws form large borings in the affected tree. + +Cutting down and burning infested trees is the only practical remedy. + +The =Willow Beetle= (_Phyllodecta vulgatissima_) causes considerable +damage to osier plantations, and would appear to be greatly on the +increase of late years. Much damage has been done to osier holts in +various parts of the country, and in northern Ireland the ravages of +this beetle were particularly noticeable during the past five years. +The insect, which is metallic green or blue in colour, passes the +winter in the adult state, at which time it may be found amongst refuse +of the osier beds, such as the heaps of bark, and also at the base +of old stools and beneath stones or other shelter. The larvæ have a +tough yellowish cuticle with conspicuous brown bristles, the head and +prothorax being black and hard. The eggs are laid on the undersides of +the leaves in spring, and when the larvæ are hatched they feed on the +leaves, eating holes quite through to the upper surface. Burning all +rubbish in the osier beds is to be recommended, and spraying with Paris +green or lead arsenate has been found useful. + +The =Larch Sawfly= (_Nematus Erichsonii_).—This is a species of +sawfly the larvæ of which bear considerable resemblance to those of +the caterpillar of the pine sawfly, and also to that of the better +known gooseberry caterpillar. The larvæ are about three-quarters of +an inch long, and possess twenty feet. From July to August they feed +on the leaves of the larch, and a plantation that has been attacked +presents a partially leafless condition with quantities of the brown +cylindrical cocoon cases lying amongst the grass beneath the trees. +There have been several notable instances in which larch plantations +have suffered severely from the attacks of this insect, and in northern +England, particularly Cumberland, whole areas of plantation have been +attacked. Burning all brushwood and grass beneath the trees in infected +plantations is probably the best means of lessening the numbers of this +dread insect in our larch plantations. + +The =Spruce Gall Aphis= (_Chermes abietis_).—This is a common insect, +and one that renders many fine young spruce trees very unsightly by +reason of the cone-like excrescences that are formed by the action of +the insect on the shoots of the infested specimen. The formation of +this excrescence is brought about by the female aphis piercing with +her beak, or sucker, one of the buds, and drawing off the sap, the +consequence being an unusual growth at that part. + +When the young larvæ appear, they also, by piercing the gall, extract +the juices, and the gall enlarging soon causes the larvæ to become +embedded at the bases of the leaves, which, by this time, have become +curiously malformed. The insects are scarcely one-tenth of an inch long. + +[Illustration: ELM TREE DESTROYER] + + A. Entrance of Parent Tube. + B. Insect in Tube. + C. An imperfect Tube arrested from want of nourishment. + D. Scolytus Destructor. Natural size. + E. Lateral Tubes with Larvæ, some changing to the Pupa state. + +The only remedy is to collect the cone-like excrescences and have them +destroyed, except in the case of badly infested trees, which should be +cut down and burned. + +The =Elm Tree Destroyer= (_Scolytus destructor_) is about one-fifth +of an inch long, stout and cylindrical, and usually confines its +depredations to the elm. + +In the beginning of June this beetle bores into the inner bark, where +it forms galleries, along the margins of which are laid the eggs. +Cutting down and burning badly-attacked trees is the best remedy, +but promoting exuberant health of the infested specimens by means of +enriching the soil has been attended with promising results. + +The =Goat Moth= (_Cossus ligniperda_) is most frequently found on the +willow, oak, lime and other trees. Being not only one of our largest +native moths, but also one of the most destructive, its ravages are +much dreaded, the holes or tunnels made by the moth being of large +size—large enough to admit the little finger. Filling up the tunnels +with a mixture of soot, lime and cow manure is an excellent remedy. + +The =Lackey Moth= (_Clisiocampa neustria_), so called from the gay +colours of the caterpillar, is another destructive woodland pest, +eating wholesale the leaves of the oak, elm, beech, poplar and most +fruit trees. + +In April and May the caterpillars are hatched, when the leaves are +just unfolding. They form a nest or web of silken hairs, generally +amongst the smaller branches, in which they live during the day, +sallying forth in the evening to feed on the tender foliage. Being very +plentiful, they are usually difficult to deal with, but hand-picking +and destroying the cocoons are the only practicable methods of meeting +the evil. + +The =Winter Moth= (_Cheimatobia brumata_) and the =Lime Looper Moth= +(_Hybernia defolaria_).—The caterpillars of both these moths are very +destructive to the leaves of elms, limes and willows, but particularly +to the buds of the apple tree. + +When full grown they descend to the ground, where they cover themselves +and become chrysalides, from which the moths appear from October to +December. + +Being almost wingless, it is by no means difficult to prevent their +ascending the trees by painting a band of any sticky substance around +the stems of the trees that it is expected they might attempt to crawl +up. + +[Illustration: A. Larva of the Cossus Ligniperda, three years old, +ready to change into the Chrysalis state.] + +[Illustration: + + A. Cossus Moth. + B. Chrysalis from which the perfect Insect has escaped. + C. Cluster of Eggs. + D. Magnified Ovum. + +THE GOAT MOTH] + +The =Red Spider= (_Tetranychus_).—In hot and dry summers trees suffer +much from this member of the mite family. Limes and poplars, as also +many other trees, are greatly injured, the foliage turning to a russety +brown colour, and falling off long before the usual time. There are +several remedies, such as fumigating and spraying with a solution of +soft soap, but none of these are applicable to a plantation of trees, +or even a single specimen of large size. + +The =Thorn Fly= (_Aphis Cratægi_) attacks whole hedges or brakes of +Quick, especially those in the nursery border; as a rule, the younger +and more healthy plants first fall a prey to its depredations. + +Sponging with tobacco water, or almost any of the prescribed solutions +will rapidly exterminate the fly; but such work is laborious when a +large brake or long hedge of the thorn has to be gone over. + +The =Cockchafer= (_Melolontha vulgaris_) is usually pretty abundant, +and does most damage by eating the leaves of the sycamore, beech, oak, +cherry and many other trees. It will also eat the roots of most young +trees, but those of pine in particular. + +The insect is about 1¼ in. long, and of a chestnut-brown colour on the +upper part of the body, while the head and some other parts of the body +are of a bronzy green, and thickly covered with yellowish-white hairs. + +In April and May the eggs are laid in a hole in the ground about 5 in. +deep, and the grubs are hatched in July. They are of a dirty-white +colour and much wrinkled. In this state, however, they do but little +harm; but, after having changed their skins and remained in a torpid +state during winter, come to the surface in spring and eat the roots +of almost any plant that comes in their way. They again burrow deeper +at the approach of winter, coming to the surface again in spring, and, +when full grown, are about 1½ in. long, and almost ½ in. in diameter. +The perfect insects do not live more than about twelve days, and are +easily known by their heavy, awkward flight towards the evening. + +The =Laburnum Moth= (_Cemiostoma laburnella_) is fairly abundant—in +England, at least; and, in some instances, every leaf of a tree has +been eaten almost wholesale by the caterpillars of this pretty moth. +The insect is about one-eighth of an inch in length, and three-tenths +of an inch across the fully expanded wing. It is of a silvery-white +colour. + +The greenish-grey caterpillars are about ¼ in. long. + +By burning the attacked leaves great numbers of the caterpillars may +be destroyed, while, by shaking the trees in May and August, the moths +will fly out, and may be caught in a butterfly net. + +[Illustration: WOOD LEOPARD MOTH + +(_Zeuzera æsculi_) + +(Very destructive to trees, particularly around London)] + +=Wood Leopard Moth= (_Zeuzera æsculi_).—The caterpillar of this +beautiful moth is very destructive to the beech, ash, birch, elm, +walnut, privet, etc., which it bores into, eating and living on +the wood. Usually young trees or the branches of old specimens are +attacked, and the tunnelling is confined in the former either to the +pithy centre or the soft wood near the bark. The moths appear about +mid-July, and the female, by piercing the bark with her powerful +ovipositors, deposits her eggs, one in each hole. Three years are +required for the caterpillar to arrive at maturity when it is nearly +2 in. long. Both in form and colour the leopard moth is particularly +elegant, the head and thorax being covered with a thick white pile, the +body with a black down, fringed with white at each joint. The wings +are white with yellowish-brown veins, a row of rounded bluish spots +running between every two. + +By stuffing a piece of tow in gas tar, or placing cyanide of potassium +in the hole and closing the aperture, the caterpillar may be +overpowered and destroyed. + +A bent wire has often been successfully used in dislodging the +caterpillar. + +The =Holly Fly= (_Phytomyza aquifolia_).—The foliage of the holly is +frequently very much disfigured by the grubs of the holly fly, which +burrow beneath the upper skin of the leaves, feeding on the internal +substance. This imparts a blistered and discoloured appearance, which, +in the case of ornamental varieties, is anything but desirable. +Probably no great damage to the infested trees is brought about, but +the wholesale destruction of the leaves, as is often the case, cannot +but weaken the plant. + +In May and June the flies make their appearance, and lay their eggs +beneath the upper skin of the leaf, from which the grubs, about +one-fifth of an inch long, are hatched. These work their way beneath +the skin of the leaves, forming small tracks of a more or less circular +shape, thus causing the large and unsightly blisters. They quit the +leaves about March, by making small holes in the skin of the leaf, and +afterwards become chrysalides. The fly is small and inconspicuous. + +Picking off and destroying affected leaves, or crushing the grub by +pinching the blisters are the only ways of lessening the attacks. + +The =Oak Leaf Roller Moth= (_Tortrix viridana_).—The widespread +destruction caused to oak-woods in almost every part of the country +by the caterpillars of this little moth would seem to be on the +increase from year to year. But it is not the oak alone that suffers, +for numbers of the hornbeam and beech are in an equally pitiable +condition. Having closely watched this insect for several years, mainly +with the view of striving to keep it in check or devise some means +of destruction, I have come to the conclusion that a few individual +trees may, at considerable expense, be rid of the pest, but in the +case of whole woodlands artificial treatment is quite out of the +question. Many observers are under the impression that the caterpillar +is most abundant where the trees grow closest together, and when we +consider that both wind and rain destroy numbers of these, the fact of +isolated trees, which, consequently, are most exposed to storms, being +comparatively free from attack is not to be wondered at. So far as we +know at present, the only way to diminish in any appreciable degree +the numbers of this insect is by encouraging as much as possible its +enemies. + +The rook, jackdaw, starling, thrush and sparrow help immensely in +destroying the caterpillars, and the occupants of a rookery will +frequently in a few hours clear the pest from the trees over a +considerable area of woodland. The same has been noted with regard to +the starling, and I have frequently seen the trees over an infested +area almost black with this particular bird when in the act of feeding +on the caterpillars. + +In support of this recommendation it may be stated that insects are far +less numerous in the forests of St. Germain, Senart and Fontainebleau +than in the Bois de Boulogne, where, of course, small birds are scarcer. + +Sometimes with the oak leaf roller moth its excessive number proves +the means of its extinction, the foliage being devoured before the +caterpillars are fully fed; while, as is usual at the season of attack, +parasitic flies and ichneumons destroy them wholesale, and a box of +caterpillars sent to me the other day revealed the fact that each one +had succumbed to the attacks of one of these enemies. + +The life history of this moth is full of interest, and the curious +manner in which it rolls up the leaves is well worthy of study. + +The =Felted Beech Coccus= (_Cryptococcus Fagi_).—Judging from the +numerous specimens of the beech coccus that are being forwarded to me +for identification, and the inquiries as to how this insect pest may +be dealt with, its presence in almost every part of the country is +indicated. It was only in 1862 that Dr. Balfour reported the presence +of this coccus in Scotland, and I remember well how the beautiful +beech hedges on the Penicuik Estate, Mid-Lothian, were ravaged by the +insect in 1875. In Germany, however, the beech coccus was noticed as +early as 1849. It is probable that the beech coccus also extends to +the Weymouth pine, as at Keston, Lord Derby’s estate in Kent, several +of these trees were badly affected with an insect that appeared to me +identical with this pest, and other instances of the Weymouth pine +being similarly attacked have been recorded. Since the appearance +of the insect in Scotland it has spread southwards rapidly, but it +is only of late years that its ravages have been felt severely, and +that owners of woodlands have been driven to do everything in their +power to combat its injurious effects. I think I have nowhere seen +the insect so abundant as on the Burnham beeches, which I visited in +company with several members of the Royal Horticultural Society at the +request of the Lord Mayor and the Corporation of the City of London. +Here, speaking broadly, all the trees are affected in a greater or less +degree, independent altogether of the age or health of the trees. + +Amongst the beautiful beech woods of Hertfordshire, where the timber +produced commands a higher price than that from any other station +in Britain excepting the Chiltern Hills, the trees are suffering +severely. After a careful inspection of many beech woods, I am at a +loss to account for the spread of this insect. Usually, in the case +of injurious forest insects, the presence of dead and dying wood and +the general health of the plantations have much to do with the attack, +but this would not appear to be the cause in the case of the beech +coccus. Even old and diseased trees do not appear to suffer more than +the young and healthy specimens, and at Burnham some of the youngest +and fastest growing specimens were by far the worst affected, appearing +in parts as if coated with drifted snow. Neither would soil appear to +have anything to do with the spread of the insect, as on chalky, sandy +and loamy soils, as well as on shale rock, the trees are all more or +less affected. I cannot say that unhealthy trees are more liable to +be attacked than vigorous ones, for I have observed diseased trees to +be sometimes quite free from the coccus, whilst healthy specimens in +the immediate neighbourhood were badly infested. This was particularly +noticeable on some park trees on two estates that I visited lately; in +each instance the majestic boles rose to a height of fully 90 ft. and +contained about 100 cubic ft. of wood. At one time I had an idea that +beech trees when grown too thickly were most liable to be attacked, +but more extensive observations have disproved the hypothesis. By some +it has been suggested that the drainage of ground on which the beech +is growing will facilitate the spread of the insect by bringing about +an unhealthy state of the trees. To some extent this has been noticed +at Burnham, and particularly in Gloucestershire, where a lake had been +formed contiguous to a beech plantation. In another instance that came +under my notice the burrowing of rabbits to an unusual extent was +blamed for the appearance of the insect and the gradual death of the +trees, the soil in this case being sand and gravel. It is a strange +fact, too, that a badly infested tree may be standing amongst others +that are perfectly free from the attack. Under a magnifying glass the +insect appears of a yellowish colour, irregularly globular in shape, +and almost transparent. It is thickly covered over by a secretion +from the body, which looks like fine waxen-white threads or cotton +wool, which effectually screens the insect from observation. With its +proboscis it sucks up the juices, which are readily reached through +the thin, smooth bark. When badly attacked, the foliage becomes meagre +and has a burnt appearance, then the tips of the branches, and finally +whole branches die off. Afterwards the bark becomes dry and cracks, +usually longitudinally, falling off in flakes with the death of the +tree. The timber of trees that have been killed by the coccus is +dry, short-grained, and by no means comparable with that of healthy +specimens. From whatever cause, the presence of the insect in our +plantations is much to be deplored, and already many fine old trees +in different parts of the country have succumbed to the attack. It is +a curious fact that certain trees fall victims to the attack of this +insect very rapidly, often in the short space of two years, while +others of equal age and vigour, and, as far as can be seen, similarly +situated, live for many years. Fully grown trees are, in my opinion, +more liable to be killed quickly than younger specimens. + +As regards remedies, these can only conveniently be applied to +single specimens and are scarcely practicable on a large scale. That +success has, however, attended the application of certain remedies I +am quite convinced, for several valuable ornamental trees on a lawn +in Buckinghamshire that were badly affected by the pest are now, +twelve months after being treated, quite free from the insect, and do +not appear to have suffered in consequence. In this case the remedy +was simple, and consisted merely in scrubbing the tree stems where +affected with a stiff brush dipped in an emulsion of soft soap, this +being rubbed well into all crevices of the bark. Only one application +was given, but as the trees were nearly 100 ft. high with many large +limbs, which also showed the presence of the coccus, the work took a +considerable time. However, the results well repaid the expense of +labour. Another excellent remedy is to mix together equal portions of +paraffin and soft soap, and when required for use add twenty times +their bulk of hot water, stirring all well together. This may be +applied either with a scrubbing brush or syringed on to the affected +parts. Other measures of a more drastic nature have been found to +be beneficial, but those given are probably the simplest and best. +Three or four handfuls of lime to a bucket of water is an excellent +application, the only drawback being the unpleasant colour imparted to +the trees. This is a simple remedy, and may be applied with a painter’s +or scrubbing brush. It has saved many trees on an estate near London. + +=Wireworms.=—These occasionally do a great deal of damage in beds of +seedling trees, particularly conifers, and in some instances they +attack and destroy the seeds before germination. In the case of +young conifers they are gnawed completely through just above or at +the ground level, the beds in many instances being strewn with the +cut-over plants. _Abies nobilis_ and _A. Nordmanniana_ suffer to a +great extent, and I have frequently been at my wit’s end to put a stop +to the repeated depredations. In the case of a newly-formed nursery or +freshly-made-up seed-beds the attack of the wireworm is always most +pronounced. In the case of fresh nursery ground, paring off and burning +a couple of inches of the top soil in the autumn has been attended with +excellent results, as has also dressing the ground with gas lime. When +seedlings are attacked, hand-picking, with the use of sliced carrots, +mangold or potatoes, varied with pieces of oilcake as a bait, are to be +recommended. Dressing the seeds with red lead is very advantageous to +prevent birds and mice from attacking freshly-sown quantities. Injury +from wireworm is not likely to cause any serious consequences after the +first year’s growth of the plants, especially if the ground has been +kept clean and free from weeds during the egg-laying season in June. + +[Illustration: WITCH’S BROOM ON THE WILLOW (SUMMER APPEARANCE)] + +The above are only a few of the many insects that injure our forest +trees; but those treated of are the most familiar to the forester, and +those whose attacks he has most frequently to wage war against. Willow +trees all over London are suffering severely from attacks of a mite +insect. It is known as the “Witch’s Broom” on the Willow (_Eriophyes +triradiatus_). + +Remedial measures are frequently of little avail, more particularly +when a whole wood or plantation is attacked; but with single specimens +the numbers may readily be lessened by the methods suggested. + +[Illustration: WITCH’S BROOM ON THE WILLOW (WINTER ASPECT)] + +Keeping the woodlands free of dead and dying trees and branches is a +preventive of insect attacks that should never be neglected. + +As showing the injury that can be inflicted on our forest trees by some +of these insect pests, the following cases may be mentioned:— + +During fifteen years (between 1853-68) the spruce in East Prussia, +Poland and Russia was killed over an area of 7,000 square German miles; +while in the Bavarian forests, the loss to the Revenue in one year was +£40,000. + +In both cases the destructive insect _Liparis monacha_ was the cause of +injury. + + + + +CHAPTER XXII + +FUNGUS GROWTH ON TREES + + +Some fungi attack living wood, some dead, and some both; and, while the +majority are found growing on the stem, others attack the twigs, leaves +or root. They are of all sizes, from the almost microscopical to the +beefsteak fungus, which often exceeds a couple of feet in diameter. +Some are jelly-like in consistency, others leathery or almost woody +in texture; and while certain kinds spring up and disappear in a few +days, others remain intact on the tree stem for several years. In +shape, too, they vary considerably, from the curious Jew’s ear fungus, +which greatly resembles the human organ, to the giant puff-ball, that +sometimes measures four feet in circumference. Then the cup-shaped +and parasol fungi are appropriately named, while the flat, shelf-like +arrangement of a species that frequents the oak and elm has interested +many a casual observer. Excepting perhaps green, they are found of +almost all colours from dull brown to the brightest crimson, while +beautifully spotted and mottled kinds are not uncommon. + +Healthy trees growing under normal conditions are little affected by +fungi, whereas such as are predisposed to infection, by unsuitable +soil, excessive drought or dampness, injury by accident or otherwise—in +fact, those in a weakened condition however brought about—are, of +course, far more liable to attacks. Though certain species of fungi +only attack dead and decomposing wood, and are, therefore, the +consequence and not the cause of disease, there are others, fortunately +fewer in number, that attack healthy living trees and are the direct +cause of disease and death. The prevention and extermination of fungus +pests is by no means an easy matter, but by keeping the woods free from +dead and dying trees and branches, and by giving immediate attention to +outbreaks of the malady, much harm may be averted. + +[Illustration: LARCH CANKER] + +In the following notes, only the most serious cases are dealt with, or, +in other words, such fungi referred to as are commonly met with and +cause most damage to our woodland trees. + +=Larch Disease.=—In all probability the larch disease or larch canker +owes its origin to the minute spores formed in the fructification of +the now well-known fungus—_Peziza Willkommii_. It has been pretty +conclusively proved that these spores can only find a footing where +the rind of the bark has become in some way injured, such as might be +occasioned by the puncture of an insect, by wind, frost or from many +other causes. The spores send down their germ tubes into the cambium, +between the bark and the wood, where the moisture and nourishment +afforded causes rapid development of the fungus. This soon spreads to +the cells of the wood, and the annual layers either entirely cease to +grow, or become disorganized and crippled in growth, causing a hollow +appearance of the stem at the point of attack. The surrounding bark, +by its attempts to heal over the wound, causes a thickened or burly +appearance of the trunk, thus imparting to affected trees the cankered, +swollen and distorted look that is so distinguished a characteristic. + +The disease appears in this country on the larch, both common and +Tyrolese, at all stages of growth up to thirty years, but rarely after +that age. I have examined a plantation of only four years’ growth sadly +infested by the _Peziza_ whereas, in other cases, the trees may be +fully twenty years old before being attacked. + +=Cause.=—Under what conditions of growth the larch is most susceptible +to the _Peziza_ is still a matter of vague uncertainty, but there can +be little doubt that an enfeebled constitution, as fully explained in +the article on the larch “Trees for Economic Planting”, aided by our +peculiarly erratic climate, has much to answer for. The variableness +of our spring weather is, no doubt, one of the predisposing causes of +disease, for, although no degree of frost experienced in this country +can injure the tree when leafless, yet few are more sensitive when in +young foliage. + +Bearing on the subject of the larch disease, I have communications +from almost every part of the country, and have personally visited +and examined many of the worst infested plantations, particularly +in England and Wales. Soil, if we exclude peaty, would seem to have +little or nothing to do with encouraging the disease, as I have found +it equally virulent on dry, sandy and heavy damp soils, but worse +on chalk. Curiously enough, the disease is hardly known in the peat +bogs of Ireland, and there the rainfall is excessive. It is equally +strange that it first made its appearance in the Eastern and drier +parts of England, and gradually proceeded to the more humid West. I +have, however, noticed it in certain low-lying still, and damp portions +of some woodlands, and where frosts would be most prevalent, but such +cases are not general. + +=Remedy.=—Several remedies have been more or less successfully tried +with a view to getting rid of the disease on trees, such as by cutting +and scraping out the injured portions, and applying a suitable +dressing; but such remedies, although suited for single specimens, +cannot be applied to a whole area of infested trees. + +Under exceptionally favourable conditions, I have found the larch to +outgrow the disease, though the cankered, swollen stems are never +afterwards of great value for constructive purposes. Prevention in the +present case is undoubtedly the best measure, for when once it has made +headway, the larch disease is most difficult to cope with. By planting +only sound, healthy trees, with uninjured roots in the most suitable +soils and situations, and retaining these in as healthy a condition as +possible, can we guard against attacks of the disease. Hardwoods mixed +with the larch are to be recommended. + +_Polyporus squamosus_ attacks the elm and other hard-wooded trees and +rapidly brings about decay. It is one of our commonest species on +diseased trees. + +The =Sycamore Fungus= (_Rhytisma acerinum_).—Every one interested in +trees must be familiar with the conspicuous black, pitch-like spots +which so mar the appearance of sycamore leaves. These are due to the +above-named fungus which, appearing as small yellowish spots on the +undersides of the leaves towards the end of June, gradually increase +in size and intensity of colour until they attain to fully half an +inch in diameter and are inky black, with a margin of dirty yellow. +The attacked portion of the leaf becomes wrinkled and much thickened +in texture, while all the affected foliage drops off prematurely. +After lying on the ground during the winter, the thread-like spores +are produced in large quantities at the time when the foliage of the +sycamore is appearing in May and June. The sycamore is not the only +tree affected by this fungus, for the Norway Maple and our native _Acer +campestre_ are equally liable to attack, and have in some instances +suffered very severely from this cause. The fungus is becoming more +plentiful, and it disfigures the maple and sycamore leaves to a wide +extent. + +[Illustration: POLYPORUS SQUAMOSUS (ON ELM TREE)] + +_Rhytisma punctata_ may at once be distinguished from the above species +by the many small black spots studded thickly together, which combine +to form the large conspicuous blotches for which affected trees are +remarkable. Both species are sometimes found on the same leaf. As the +attacks of this fungus continue from year to year, and cause almost +every leaf to drop off prematurely, the health of the trees is greatly +impaired, and they become an easy prey to the still more destructive +coral spot fungus, _Nectria cinnabarina_. By burning the leaves +affected with _Rhytisma_ before the spores are liberated in spring, the +spread of the fungus is prevented in a simple and effective manner. The +sycamore fungus is very plentiful on trees around London. + +The canker of hard-wooded trees is brought about by one of the Nectria +(_N. ditissima_), and is very common in every part of the country, +affecting the oak, beech, ash, sycamore and fruit trees generally. The +ash perhaps suffers most, the timber turning black and being quite +unfitted for structural purposes. It is strictly parasitical, growing +on wounded portions of the stem and branch, and spreads with great +rapidity, attacking trees of all ages. We have known the trees in a +plantation of ash to be quite destroyed by this canker, which attacks +most freely those growing on wet, sour land. This should be a warning +to planters to avoid such soil. + +The =Red-rot Fungus= (_Fomes annosus_ or _Trametes radiciperda_) +attacks the roots of several species of pine, particularly the Scotch, +Corsican and Weymouth, as also the Spruce and Silver Fir. It is +probably the most destructive of the family, attacking living roots and +spreading rapidly from tree to tree. The trees, when affected, quickly +turn sickly and die, the wood becoming spongy and of a brownish colour, +with distinct black spots. The only remedy is to take out affected +trees and burn them root and branch, replanting the ground with +beech or elm. Though one of the most destructive fungi in coniferous +woodlands, its attacks are by no means confined to these alone, since +it is found on the roots of several hard-wooded species, such as the +filbert, hazel, birch and beech. Quite recently a nut plantation in +Kent suffered severely from the attacks of this fungus, whole lines of +trees being killed outright before the cause was detected. It spreads +quickly underground from tree to tree, and unless eradicated, as it +may easily be by uprooting affected trees and carefully destroying the +mycelium, much damage may result. + +The =White-rot Fungus= (_Fomes igniarius_) is usually found on +hard-wooded trees, and takes possession of wounds that may have been +occasioned by the accidental breaking of a branch or stem injury. Oak +trees suffer most from the attacks of this fungus, which is often as +large as a foot across, and of a brownish colour. It is named igniarius +on account of the inner surface being used as tinder, when prepared +with saltpetre, especially in the old days of flint and steel. By +removing the fungus and attending to the wound by cleaning away all +dead and dying matter, and coating with tar, much benefit will ensue. + +The =Leaf-shedding Fungus= or =Pine-leaf Scurf= (_Lophodermium +pinastre_) is a well-known and widely distributed species, and is +usually found on the Scotch and Austrian Pines. The leaves, when +attacked, wither suddenly and fall off, the fungus being most prevalent +after unusually dry weather, or in early spring succeeded by a frosty +winter. It occurs both as a saprophyte on dead pine leaves and a +parasite on the living foliage. We have been most successful in +combating the attacks and preventing the spread of the pest by spraying +the affected parts with “Bordeaux mixture.” Young trees under ten +years of age are most commonly attacked, and when this occurs in the +nursery borders, the plants should be rooted out and burned. On several +Scottish and English estates, thousands of Scotch Pines have been +killed out by the attacks of the leaf-shedding fungus. + +One of the commonest fungi on old stumps is =Agaricus melleus=. It has +no particular host, being found alike on coniferous and hard-wooded +trees, and on both root and stem. Known as the honey fungus, and +edible, this toadstool is about three inches in diameter, and of a +yellowish-brown or rusty colour. It spreads with great rapidity both +in the soil and between the bark and wood of the affected tree. The +only remedy is digging out and destroying the fungus, and, in the case +of healthy young trees, collecting and burning the mycelium. + +Next to the larch canker, one of the most destructive diseases +of forest trees is caused by attacks of the =Bladder-rust= or +=Cluster-cup= (_Peridermium piniacicola_). It is a wound fungus and +attacks almost every species of pine, the Scotch in particular, +especially when the trees are growing on light, poor soils. Young trees +up to, say, twenty years old are most commonly attacked by this fungus, +which appears like blisters, emitting bright reddish-coloured spores. +Rooting up and burning all affected trees is the best remedy. + +[Illustration: POLYPORUS SULPHUREUS (ON WHITE POPLAR)] + +_Polyporus sulphureus_ attacks many species of trees—yew, poplar, etc. + + + + +CHAPTER XXIII + +BARKING OAK + + +Previous to the war the price of oak bark—about £2 10_s._ per +ton—rendered it questionable whether from a purely financial point of +view the operations of stripping and harvesting should be undertaken. +Now, however, with bark at fully three times that figure, the operation +is to be recommended. + +The period of bark-stripping and harvesting is one of the most anxious +seasons of the year with the forester, as the quality of the bark is +so largely dependent upon the weather during the time that intervenes +between the stripping and stacking, or delivery, and not less so +upon the carrying out of the work at the proper time, to secure easy +and expeditious peeling. In most cases the time when the bud is just +expanding into leaf is that which gives the greatest weight of bark of +the best quality, with the smallest amount of labour. By deferring the +work, even for a few days, there is often a loss in weight amounting to +as much as 10 per cent., and a great deterioration in quality. + +Even in the most favoured situations it is seldom that the season +for stripping extends beyond twenty-eight days. The advantages of +early stripping are so well known that any comment on the subject is +unnecessary; suffice it to say that, immediately the bark commences to +“run” freely, no time should be lost in making a start, and the work +should be prosecuted with vigour and dispatch until completed. + +The proper time to commence barking cannot, however, be fixed with +any amount of certainty, much depending on the season, whether early +or late, as well as on the district of the country in which the +operation is to be performed. During ordinary seasons, and in most +parts of England, bark-stripping commences during the third week in +April and continues for about a month, or until such time as the trees +are in full leafage, whereas in some parts of Scotland, especially the +north, the operation is frequently nearly a month later. No mistake +can, however, arise as to the right time to start barking in any +locality, as in all cases the period when the bud is first bursting +into leaf will be found the proper time for felling to insure easy +stripping and the best quality of bark. As the season of bark-stripping +is, therefore, of short duration, every preparation should be made +beforehand—trees marked and numbered, tools in readiness, and squads +arranged—so that an early start may be made, as, by deferring the work +beyond the time stated above, there is not only a perceptible loss in +weight, but considerable deterioration in the quality of bark as well. + +Elaborate directions regarding the arrangements of squads and tools +to be used are unnecessary, as almost every district has its own +peculiarities in this way. The tools generally in use are heavy axes +and the cross-cut saw for felling, hand-bills and saws for pruning, +peeling-irons or chisels for removing the bark, scrapers for removing +moss, and light wooden mallets for beating refractory bark or such as +cannot be removed by the peeling-irons alone. + +Previously to felling the trees a man or stout lad is sent before, +who removes the bark from the root upwards for a distance of 2 ft. or +3 ft.; this not only prevents its being injured when laying in and +felling the tree, but is convenient for after-stripping as well. When +the stools are intended for reproduction great care is necessary to +avoid tearing or loosening the bark from the roots. After being thus +prepared the trees are felled in the usual manner, those under 6 in. in +diameter being cut with the axe; above that size it is found an economy +of time and timber to fell with the cross-cut saw. Following in the +rear of the cutters should be a squad of men, to clear the trunk and +larger limbs of all branches down to 1 in. in diameter, leaving the +limbs to be peeled as part of the tree. + +Heavy timber and large branches are usually peeled where they fall, +but it will be found convenient to have the smaller trees and branches +carried out to some open space adjoining the stacking ground, and +peeled while one end is supported by means of two forked sticks placed +against each other. When the bark of small branches cannot readily be +removed by the peeling-iron, a smooth and flat stone is brought into +use, beside which the peeler sits, and with one hand holds the branch +on the stone, moving it along from one end to the other, at the same +time applying the mallet with the other hand until the bark becomes +loosened from the wood. Here it may be well to issue a caution against +a too frequent use of the mallet, which should never be brought into +request when the bark can be otherwise removed from the wood, as all +hammering and beating not only diminishes the quality of tannin, but +has a tendency to blacken the fleshy part of the bark and cause rapid +decay in a bad season. The body, or trunk bark, is removed in lengths +of from 30 in. to 36 in., and in as large pieces as possible. + +[Illustration: BARKING TOOLS] + +A dry, open and airy situation, convenient to the work, but without +the wood, should be selected on which to harvest the bark, and rather +than this should be done in a sheltered, humid spot, the bark should be +carted to some distance off. The drying racks, or ranges, may be fully +2 ft. high, drooping somewhat to one side, and formed of forked sticks +driven firmly in the ground, while stout rods are placed transversely +upon these. It should also be so arranged as that not only may the +rain be thrown off, but so that the ends of the bark may be facing the +prevailing wind, thereby insuring a current of air through and beneath +the mass. After being carted or carried to the drying-ground, the +small bark is spread out loosely on the stage to a depth of about 6 +in., and thatched or covered over with the larger pieces as a means of +protection against rain. Each day’s bark should be cleared up, and put +on the range the same evening, and oftener, if found necessary, during +damp showery weather, keeping the white or fleshy part downwards and +using the larger pieces as covers to run off the rain. + +During favourable weather the bark will be ready for stacking in about +a fortnight from the time it was placed on the stage, but should +close damp weather intervene, it may be found necessary to turn the +bark occasionally, thus adding to the length of time required for +harvesting. It should, however, be remembered that the less turning +the bark receives after being placed on the stage the better will the +quality be. Well-seasoned bark has the fleshy side of a creamy colour, +whereas such as has been exposed to the sun or rain is of a dull brown, +and is wanting in tannin matter, and consequently of inferior value. + +As soon as the bark is thoroughly dry and ready for stacking, which +may readily be ascertained by its breaking freely across rather than +bending or yielding to pressure, it should be secured in a shed, +ricked, or delivered to the tanner. + +In stacking bark the rick should not be made too wide—say about 9 +ft.—but well hearted, so that the side pieces may have a good fall +or declivity outwards to throw off the rain. The rick may be of any +length, according to the quantity of bark on hand, and of a height +proportionate to the width. The largest pieces of bark should be +reserved for thatching the rick, the whole being covered over by a +tarpaulin or waterproof cloth of some kind. In most cases the bark is +chipped previously to being sold, but as this necessitates having a +large shed at command, the system is not generally adopted. There are, +however, several advantages accruing from this method, not the least +of which is that the bark may be chopped up as it is removed from +the drying-stands, thus saving the expense of stacking. Chopping the +bark can also be done by the workmen during wet weather, and when not +otherwise engaged. + +In computing the quantity of bark before stripping, we have found the +following data fairly reliable:— + +1. A well-balanced tree with a good head will yield about 6 cwt. of +bark for every ton of measurable timber, if branches down to an inch in +diameter are peeled. + +2. Hedgerow trees usually yield about a ton of bark to every three tons +of timber. + +3. Trees growing in close woodland are usually thin barked, the yield +being about a ton of bark to every 4½ tons of timber. + +4. Oak poles will average five tons of timber to a ton of bark. + +Tall, clean stems, as are produced when the poles are grown thickly +together, with small heads, give the smallest yield in proportion +to the quantity of timber, and short stems with spreading heads the +largest. + +The cost of production is as follows:— + + £ _s._ _d._ + Labour, peeling and harvesting 1 10 0 + Cartage to railway station, including loading + (this is the average from six districts) 0 7 6 + Loss on four months’ delay in selling the timber, + which, but for the bark, would have been + felled in winter at 5 per cent. 0 5 0 + Customary terms of payment, less 2½ per cent. 0 2 0 + Superintendence, etc. 0 1 6 + ——————————— + £2 6 0 + +It has been carefully estimated that there is a loss of fully 12 per +cent. of wood, caused by felling the oak during the barking season. In +other words, the proportion of sap wood to the whole tree is about 14 +per cent., which, for the majority of purposes to which oak timber is +applied, is rendered by the peeling of little or no value. + +We may say, however, that 2 per cent. can be profitably utilized, which +still leaves us with a considerable loss on the whole tree. + +The average price of the best oak is 2_s._ per ft., 12 per cent. of +which is as nearly as possible 3_d._ per ft., or £1 17_s._ 6_d._ per +ton of bark to 150 ft. of wood. + +This, with the £2 6_s._ per ton cost of production, brings the total +to £4 3_s._ 6_d._, leaving a considerable balance on the wrong side at +pre-war prices. + + + + +CHAPTER XXIV + +THE MANUFACTURE OF CHARCOAL + + +Amongst dead or dying industries of our woodlands that have been +revived by the war, none is at present receiving a greater share of +attention than the manufacture of charcoal. + +There was a time, and not so long ago, when the merry voice and ring of +the charcoal burner’s axe were familiar sounds in some of the Kentish +and other forests of Southern England; but keen foreign competition, +aided by preferential carriage rates, have caused this time-honoured +industry to slip from our hands; indeed, it was almost forgotten +till again called into existence for the battlefields of France and +Flanders. The trenches must be warmed without apprising the enemy of +the existence of our men, and in order to do this and prevent soaring +signals of smoke, the tent brazier is filled with glowing charcoal. + +Except, perhaps, in Kent and Surrey and the English Lake district, +where small quantities of charcoal are annually produced for the hop +kilns and iron smelting, charcoal burning is a thing of the past. +The expert charcoal burner is now a difficult man to find, and an +independent, highly-paid workman when you have found him. Successive +members of the same family in Kent have been known to follow the +occupation of charcoal burning for fully a century and a half, and it +is distinctly a skilled industry, and confined to few. + +Usually the men work in threes, and, having selected a piece of ground +sheltered from the prevailing winds and in a position to which easy +access with wood can be obtained, a rough hut is erected for the +accommodation of these nocturnal workmen. Water, sand or sawdust and +turf are other requisites that must be provided as the work proceeds. A +couple of large tarpaulins and half a dozen straw-covered hurdles are +other necessities. + +From the point of economy in carting the wood to the kilns it may seem +that shifting the position of burning from one part of the woodland to +another is to be recommended. Such is, however, not the case, as the +hard, dry, ash-covered site, where charring has already been carried +out, has its advantages, and the cost of transferring the workmen’s hut +and tools from one position to another must also be considered. + +Several methods, largely dependent on the quantity and quality of +charcoal to be obtained, are adopted, but in order to procure that of +the best description the following system, which has been successfully +carried out on a large estate for the past hundred years at least, is +recommended. The timber carted to the charcoal yard consists of all +kinds of hardwoods, preferably not under two inches in diameter. + +Firewood and rough, unsaleable timber, as also inferior grades of heavy +coppice wood, are mainly utilized for the production of charcoal. +The wood is sawn into pieces about 2 ft. long, this being the most +convenient size for building the kiln, and these again split if +required to some 4 in. to the side, and when a sufficient quantity for +two pits has been cut up, the building of these is proceeded with. It +has been found economical to burn two pits at the same time, as both +can be attended to as conveniently as one, and it is unnecessary for +the men to sit up at night to watch each separately. The charcoal pits, +one of which is shown in the accompanying sketch, are made of a broadly +conical shape, 21 ft. in diameter and about 9 ft. high, and the mode of +construction is as follows:— + +A strong stake is driven firmly into the ground and left protruding +about a foot. Around this are placed small pieces of dry ash of equal +length, and standing as close to the upright stake as possible; around +this another layer is placed in the same manner, and this is continued +until a circle 5 ft. in diameter is obtained. A circle 1 ft. in +diameter, and having the top of the stake previously driven into the +ground as centre, is next made by placing the wood horizontally on the +upright pieces and side by side, the ends of each piece being placed at +the circumference of the circle already made, and directed towards its +centre. Layer upon layer is built in this manner until the pit is of +the required height, the wood used here being dry pieces of ash 2 ft. +in length, but split rather smaller than the ordinary pieces. A sort +of chimney is thus formed, by means of which the pit is fired. Outside +the core the wood is placed on end and reclining inwards, this being +continued until the pits are of the required size. When the building +is completed the pits are covered with newly cut turf, the grassy side +placed innermost, beginning at the base and working towards the top, +each line of turf overlapping the previous one by a few inches. The +circular hole or chimney is left open for firing. Before turfing the +top half of each pit it is carefully examined, and any crevices between +the wood packed full of small pieces of turf and sawdust to exclude +the air. The turfs are cut about 1 ft. in width, and of any convenient +length. The quantity required for two pits of the dimensions stated is +seven loads. + +When the pit is satisfactorily covered it is fired by dropping a +couple of shovelfuls of burning wood and some dry pieces of pine or +ash into the opening left at the top; the top turf is then put on, +which effectually shuts up the chimney, and the process of charring +commences. The smoke is first seen issuing from the lower half of each +pit, where the chinks were not packed with sawdust, and ultimately it +escapes from the whole surface. + +Constant attention is required day and night during the period of +burning, especially should the weather be stormy, as the wind, by +striking on a particular part of the pit, causes that side to burn more +rapidly, and fall in. When this occurs the hole must at once be filled +in with rough logs, which had been set aside for the purpose when +splitting the wood, and re-covered with turf. + +When the weather is mild the pits burn uniformly, require but little +attention, and produce the finest charcoal. The time required for +burning will vary with the size of the pit, quality of wood, method +of covering, and meteorological conditions. From six to seven days +are usually required for pits of the above dimensions, but smaller +kilns only covered with grass, fern and a little soil may be ready for +uncovering in from two to four days. Long experience has, however, +proved that by the slower process of charring the best charcoal is +produced, but the cost is higher. By covering the pits with grass and +fern, as is often done, a considerable saving is no doubt effected, +but where turf is available there can be no question as to its value +over the former, and on the boundaries of most woodlands it is readily +procurable at the cost of cutting. As the charring proceeds the turf +gradually disappears until only a slight covering of burnt earth +remains. When the pits have burned out and become cool, it is found +that they are reduced to rather less than half their original size. + +[Illustration: SECTION OF CHARCOAL PIT] + +The charcoal is extracted by means of a specially constructed rake +resembling a light drag, but having much finer teeth, which, after it +has become quite cold, is stored in a shed until required for use. + +The very finest charcoal, superior to what is generally sold, is +produced by this method. The expenses connected with making it are, +however, a little heavier than usual, owing to the slower system of +charring, the use of larger wood, and the extra cost of covering with +turf. As to the cost of producing charcoal by the above method, this +will vary greatly, much depending on the distance the wood has to be +carted and on the cost of labour in the particular district. + +The price paid to the charcoal burners is 7_d._ per bushel, or about +four guineas per ton, which may seem high, but when we consider that +it is specialized work that is confined to few and attended with grave +risks and discomfort, the amount earned is not excessive. It should +also be remembered that, previous to lighting the kilns, sufficient +rough, not corded, wood has to be sawn and split and the pits carefully +built and covered, not to speak of the constant attention required, +both day and night, wet or dry, for from three to seven days, during +charring process. The usual price for burning charcoal when the wood is +corded is 35_s._ per ton. + +Fresh-felled wood is rarely converted into charcoal, the greater +portion of that used being thinnings of the previous season. The +proportion of wood to charcoal varies greatly, much depending on the +size, quality, and maturity of timber. Having had occasion to purchase +charcoal lately, I found the price, retail, to be 2_s._ 6_d._ per +bushel, or in quantities of not less than a ton, £14, for that of fair +quality. + +From about the twelfth century onwards Scotland, where wood was +abundant, produced annually a large quantity of charcoal iron; and in +1660 the Navy Commissioners nominated John Evelyn to investigate the +then denudation of forests owing to the manufacture of charcoal for +iron smelting, and the following quaint extract from his report will +be interesting:—“Nature has thought fit to produce this wasting ore +more plentifully in woodlands than any other point, and to enrich our +forests to their own destruction—a deep execration of iron mills and +ironmasters also.” The Lorn Works, in Argyllshire, were started in +1753, and annually consumed upwards of 3,000 tons of lump charcoal. + +The Sussex and Kentish forests at one time supported many of the +familiar charcoal burners, and right brawny and thrifty were these +denizens of the woodland with their rustic wooden huts and piles of +rifted firewood, but the industry was almost a thing of the past till +again called into active existence by the exigencies of the war. + +=Kiln burning.=—The kiln is made of brick, one course being sufficient, +if bands of iron be added to strengthen the brickwork. It is usually +conical in shape, 24 ft. in diameter, with an equal height, and holds +about forty cords of wood. The wall of the kiln is carried up nearly +straight for about 6 ft., when it is gradually drawn in and made a +blunt cone shape. A plate of iron is fastened on the top in the manner +of a stone to an arch. Three-inch hoop-iron bands, about an eighth +of an inch thick, are placed around the kiln and drawn together by +means of screw-bolts and nuts. At the base, and near the top, are +double sheet-iron doors, by which it is filled with wood or emptied +of charcoal. The time required to fill, burn and empty is about three +weeks. Pit-burning, for estate purposes, is, however, most commonly +pursued, and has this advantage—that the charcoal can be made at any +place where timber is being felled, without extra expense, save that of +the cartage of the charcoal, whereas in using the kiln or retort the +wood must, in most cases, be conveyed to the place where it is erected. + +=Comparative Value of Woods for Charcoal making.=—Amongst home-grown +timber, oak, ash, and beech are generally preferred for charcoal +making, but the following table will show pretty correctly the +proportionate relative values of the various descriptions of wood for +gunpowder charcoal:— + + Per Cent. + Rhamnus frangula contains 27 + Laburnum 25 + Boxwood 24 + Sweet Chestnut 23 + Oak 22 + Holly 20 + Walnut 20 + Beech 19 + Sycamore 19 + Elm 19 + Willow 18 + Poplar 18 + Birch 17 + Alder 17 + Ash 17 + Hazel 17 + Mountain Ash 17 + Scotch fir 16 + Larch 16 + +=Uses of Charcoal.=—The uses of charcoal for estate purposes are very +numerous, for horticultural, agricultural and other departments. +From remote antiquity charcoal has been used as a fuel, and for many +purposes it is still unsurpassed. It is by far the cleanest solid fuel +known; it burns steadily, gives out a great amount of heat, and lasts +well. On account of its smokelessness it is invaluable for cookery, and +it is also admirably suited for use in green-house and other stoves. +It is not adopted for heating apartments on account of the poisonous +gas (carbonic oxide) produced in its combustion, and the danger, +most apparent when the charcoal is burnt in an open chauffer, is not +obviated by using it in a stove, as carbonic oxide has the power of +diffusing through red-hot iron. + +In gardening, charcoal is largely used for potting purposes, for vine +borders, and for flower beds; and in the form of dust it is the best +material for packing bulbs for transmission to a distance. + +Perhaps the most important of the uses to which charcoal can be put +about a house or estate is that depending on its extraordinary power +of absorbing gases. It is a perfect deodorant, a preservative of food +and all animal substances and a valuable disinfectant. The gases most +readily absorbed by charcoal are those which are most prejudicial to +health and most frequently produced by putrefactive changes. + +In the pores of the charcoal they are destroyed by union with the +oxygen condensed from the air. The fact of its being absolutely +non-poisonous and perfectly odourless puts it before all other +disinfectants. + +=“Dogwood” for Gunpowder Charcoal.=—The alder buckthorn, berry-bearing +or black alder (_Rhamnus frangula_) is a native shrub that is fairly +plentiful in Southern England, though rare in Scotland and Ireland. +Confusion sometimes arises from the same popular name being applied +to widely different species of plants, and this, unfortunately, is +the case with the shrub in question. What is known among gunpowder +manufacturers as dogwood is in reality the present shrub (_Rhamnus_), +which, however, is quite distinct from the true dogwood (_Cornus_) +and belongs to an entirely different family. To those who contemplate +growing charcoal wood for the making of explosives, this distinction is +of the utmost importance, as I have seen _Cornus sanguinea_ cultivated +for the making of gunpowder. + +The alder buckthorn is perfectly hardy, growing freely even in the +North of Scotland, where it ripens its seeds. It is usually found as an +erect-growing bush from 8 ft. to 10 ft. in height, though in suitable +situations in Southern England specimens fully 20 ft. high, with stems +6 in. in diameter, are to be met with. The bright green leaves are +oval in shape and vary, according to conditions of growth, from 2 in. +to 3 in. in length, while the flowers are of a dull yellowish green +and are succeeded by dark purple berries each about the size of a pea. +From a very early date the alder buckthorn has been cultivated, though +not extensively, in this country for charcoal making, and the price, +upwards of £15 per ton, that is paid for the wood, shows that the +growing of this shrub is a profitable undertaking. At one time large +quantities of the wood were produced in Sussex and other counties, the +selling price being £14 per ton when peeled and tied in bundles. + +The cultivation of the alder buckthorn is nearly similar to that of the +osier for basket-making, and the produce is dealt with and disposed of +in like manner. For soil any good loam inclined to be dampish will suit +it well, and an open, but not wind-swept, situation should be chosen +for its cultivation. The land intended for growing the alder buckthorn +should be trenched the winter before planting, and a top-dressing of +leaf soil or thoroughly decomposed manure, the former preferably, will +greatly assist the growth of the young plants and prevent too speedy +evaporation of moisture from the soil. Young plants are not offered +in quantity in our nursery catalogues, and in order to obtain a stock +sufficient to form a plantation, seed-sowing or layering old plants +must be resorted to. Fortunately, by either method the plant is readily +obtained in quantity, and as the seeds are produced in fair abundance +and ripen freely this method of getting up a stock is to be recommended. + +The berries, after being collected in the early winter, are treated +much as we treat those of the yew and holly. They are mixed with sand +in order to separate the seed and fleshy covering, and the whole +is sown during early spring in previously prepared beds. The seed +beds may be prepared in any shady situation out of doors, the soil +being largely composed of light sandy loam mixed with finely riddled +leaf-mould. Sometimes the seeds are sown in boxes and placed in a cool +frame, but we have found cultivation out of doors more satisfactory. +When two years old, the seedlings should be transplanted into lines +18 in. apart and 9 in. from plant to plant. Here they may remain for +another two years, after which they should be planted out permanently +and headed back the following season. Rather thick final planting is +to be recommended, as the shrub being of upright growth, requires +comparatively small room for development, and the best wands are +produced by a close order of growth, say 5 ft. from plant to plant. + +Layering does not produce such upright-habited shrubs as those grown +from seed, and the yield of wood per acre under exactly similar +conditions of growth is greatly in favour of seedlings. + +After planting, the ground should be kept free from rough-growing seeds +for the first two years, the crop being cut at from six to seven years’ +growth, when the wands are from 1½ in. to 2 in. diameter at butt end. +Cutting and bundling is usually done by contract, but, as with the +osier, it is imperative that the crop be cut over near ground level and +short “stumps” without “spurs” encouraged. + +As in the case of ordinary coppice wood, the buckthorn for charcoal +making may be cut every sixth or seventh year, the straightest shoots +when sorted in about 5 ft. lengths being tied in bundles which are +about a yard in girth. The buckthorn being a gross feeder, manuring the +land after the removal of a crop has been found advantageous. + +Although largely imported from Holland, and other parts of the +Continent, home-grown wood is preferred, as it produces a much +superior charcoal for the manufacture of explosives. Unfortunately, +however, home supplies are so limited that foreign wood is imported +in considerable quantity, and as there was a scarcity before the war, +the probabilities are that, with our greatly increased consumption of +charcoal explosives, a dearth of suitable wood is now being felt. + +With the present small remuneration attaching to the cultivation of +coppice or underwood, which under ordinary circumstances does not +exceed £4 per acre, the cultivation of the alder buckthorn is to be +recommended, particularly as the price is at least quadrupled. The +cultivation of this is quite simple, while the quality of soil required +need not be better than that which produces a crop of chestnut or +hazel. In cultivating the alder buckthorn for charcoal purposes the +following rules should be observed:— + +1. It will not succeed satisfactorily in sandy, poor or water-logged +soils; rich, well-manured loam being preferred. + +2. The ground should either be trenched or ploughed and cleared of all +rough-growing weeds the winter before planting. + +3. Plant seedlings or layers in the spring in lines about 5 ft. apart +and the same distance from plant to plant. + +4. An annual clearance of weeds and loosening of the soil between the +rows of plants is recommended where a heavy crop is expected. + +5. Induce the growth of stout clean shoots by liberal feeding and clean +cultivation. + +6. Cut the shoots close to the ground so as to prevent the formation of +long spurs and minimize the number of off-shoots. Clean cutting with a +sharp tool is imperative. + +7. After the removal of a crop, stirring and enriching the soil is to +be recommended. + +8. Though found mixed with undershrubs and in the shade of trees when +in a wild state, yet the greatest quantity of the most valuable wood +for charcoal making is produced in open situations. + + + + +CHAPTER XXV + +PRICES OF HOME-GROWN TIMBER + + +These vary so much in different parts of the country that it is +almost impossible to give a list that would apply generally to the +British Isles. Local demand and the situation of the plantations where +the timber is to be sold have to be considered, while the quantity +available and quality of the particular timber are also important +factors in determining the price. + +In many instances woods and plantations are far removed from road and +rail, consequently the cost of delivering to the consuming centre +is proportionately high, while in the vicinity of coal mines or +manufacturing towns almost every class of timber will find a ready and +profitable market. Then the quality of the timber (its reputation, we +might almost say) is a powerful factor in assessing its value, as will +be seen in the case of oak produced in Surrey and Sussex, or beech from +the chalky districts of Kent and Hertfordshire. No timber merchant +thinks twice as to whether he should, on account of quality, purchase +oaks at Rockingham, Ashridge, Welbeck or other well-known centres, and +so it is with the beech timber on the Chiltern Hills, at the Chenies, +in Hertfordshire, or with Scotch pine from the famous Aberdeenshire +plantations. + +But there is another factor that frequently affects the price of good +timber, and that is, that in inaccessible positions the quantity +offered is too small. This has been the case with excellent larch +timber in Ireland, where the quantity offered was not sufficient to +induce the timber merchant to lay down plant and arrange for delivery +to the nearest railway or port. There are other causes of a minor +nature that greatly affect the price of home-grown timber, and it is +a curious fact that in adjoining counties, sometimes even in the same +county, the prices of various timbers vary several pence per cubic +foot. With all woodland products the same is the case, and locality +and local demand determine the price of faggots, firewood and other +commodities. + +Previous to the war, the following were the average prices of +home-grown timber, felled and lying in the wood; also of other woodland +produce. The prices at present are generally much higher. + + _s._ _d._ _s._ _d._ + Ash from 1 6 to 2 6 per cubic foot. + Alder ” 0 7 ” 0 10 ” ” + Beech ” 0 10 ” 1 4 ” ” + Birch ” 0 7 ” 0 10 ” ” + Chestnut (Spanish) ” 1 3 ” 1 6 ” ” + ” (Horse) ” 0 8 —— ” ” + Cherry ” 0 9 ” 1 2 ” ” + Elm ” 0 7 ” 1 6 ” ” + Larch ” 0 10 ” 1 4 ” ” + Lime ” 0 10 ” 1 6 ” ” + Oak ” 1 3 ” 2 6 ” ” + Oak, brown ” 3 6 ” 10 6 ” ” + +(but these trees are usually sold at so much for each) + + Poplar from 0 9 to 1 6 per cubic foot. + Scotch Pine ” 0 5 ” 0 10 ” ” + Spruce Fir ” 0 5 ” 0 9 ” ” + Willow ” 1 6 ” 10 6 ” ” + Walnut ” 1 0 ” 2 6 ” ” + Sycamore ” 1 3 ” 2 6 ” ” + Firewood ” 5 0 per cart load. + ” ” 12 0 to 16 0 per cord. + Faggots (large) ” 14 0 ” 21 0 ” 100. + ” (small) ” 2 6 per 100. + Oak bark ” 52 0 ” ton. + Charcoal ” 1 0 ” bushel. + +Since the war commenced several kinds of timber have increased greatly +in value, notably ash, poplar, Scotch pine and spruce fir. For the +latter as much as 1_s._ 4_d._ per cubic foot was obtained in Bucks, +while in several cases first-class ash timber realized upwards of 4_s._ +per cubic foot. + +Pitwood, also, has increased in price. + +PRICES OF TIMBER PER TON WEIGHT + +In several parts of the country, particularly Ireland, timber is +regularly sold by weight and the following prices were realized +previous to the war:— + + _s._ _d._ _s._ _d._ + Ash and sycamore —— 18 0 per ton. + Beech 5 0 to 10 0 ” + Larch 12 0 ” 20 0 ” + Scotch pine, spruce and silver fir —— 8 0 ” + Spruce 8 0 ” 10 0 ” + Oak —— 15 0 ” + Elm and beech —— 10 0 ” + Hardwoods of pitwood size —— 6 0 ” + Larch poles and pitwood (Wales) 9 0 ” 10 0 ” + +That the heavy importation of foreign woods has had a prejudicial +influence on the value of home-grown timbers is realized by all those +who are engaged in the trade. The depreciation in price has, however, +been so gradual that it is difficult to realize this unless by +comparing the prices of to-day with those of, say, a hundred years ago. +Several of these comparisons clearly indicate that oak, at least, has +become much reduced in value, less so ash and elm, and the following +list of prices obtained in 1807 for timber on two estates in Hants will +serve to show that for trees of equal size the price to-day is far +behind that of a century ago. + + _s._ _d._ + Oak averaging 9 cubic feet 4 0 per foot. + Ash ” 7 ” 2 3 ” + Elm ” 22 ” 1 9 ” + Beech ” 14 ” 1 6 ” + Sycamore ” 19 ” 1 3 ” + Fir ” 11 ” 1 3 ” + +On another estate trees of about the same size brought: oak, 4_s._; +ash, 1_s._ 6_d._; elm, etc., 1_s._; beech, 1_s._; and firs, 1_s._ +per cubic foot. When the small size of the individual trees is taken +into account, and even admitting that only the best portion of each +trunk was measured, the prices, as compared with those of to-day, are +exceedingly high, particularly for oak, ash and fir. + + + + +CHAPTER XXVI + +BRITISH TIMBER AND SOME OF ITS USES + + +The following are a few of the many uses to which home-grown timber is +applied:— + +=Alder= is used extensively for clog soles, barrel staves, mill +bobbins, and occasionally in furniture making. It makes excellent +charcoal for cooking and heating, as well as that used in the +manufacture of gunpowder. + +The wood of the =Apple=, =Cherry= and =Pear tree=, when of large size, +is used for cabinet purposes, and stained in imitation of other woods. +For veneers, golf clubs, bowls, etc., these woods are of value, as also +for weaving shuttles. + +=Ash= timber is largely used by agricultural implement makers on +account of its possessing great elasticity and bearing considerable +cross-strain. It is the best wood for shafts of all kinds, for tool +handles and wooden rakes, and is largely used by furniture makers. + +=Beech= wood is the chief constituent of cane-bottomed chairs, and is +largely employed for the handles of joiners’, carpenters’ and other +wood-workers’ tools. For gunstocks, saddle-trees for heavy harness, +wheel-felloes and bobbins it is also largely employed. When of large +size and clean growth, it is used for calendar machines, and for +engineering purposes in spinning and bleaching districts. It makes +excellent charcoal. + +=Birch= wood is largely used for turnery work, thread bobbins, clog +soles, shoe pegs, furniture, hatters’ blocks; it is also used in the +manufacture of brushes and in toy making. + +=Chestnut= (Spanish) timber more nearly approaches that of oak than +any other species, and when stained is not only substituted for it, but +for the walnut as well. For piano sides it is largely used, as also for +rafters in open-roof churches, for furniture and cabinet work, ship +fittings, sign-boards, and post and rail fencing. + +=Elm= wood is extensively used for the boarding and flooring of carts +and wagons, in coffin making, for the framework and foundations of +bridges, for naves for wheels, and for the keels of boats and ships. +It makes strong furniture, and is often substituted for ash in making +agricultural implements. + +=Holly= is used by mathematical instrument makers, for fancy turnery +and inlaid work. It is often sold as ebony when “ebonized.” + +=Hornbeam= timber for cogs in mill gearing is well known, also in +“bushing” for sawmill rollers, and for skittle pins. + +=Horse Chestnut.=—The timber is largely used for packing boxes, +moulding patterns for castings, cutting boards, manufacture of brushes, +and occasionally for covering temporary buildings. + +=Larch.=—The wood of this tree is largely used for fencing, boat +building, permanent staging, and pitwood. + +=Lime.=—The wood is white and very fine of grain, and used for carved +work, sounding boards for musical instruments, wagon brakes, packing +boxes, toys, domestic utensils, and for shoemakers’ and saddlers’ +cutting boards. Charcoal for gunpowder is made from this wood. + +=Maple= is employed in the turning of bowls, for toys, and “bird’s-eye” +maple for furniture. + +=Oak= has long been associated with our national defence as the chief +element in shipbuilding, but although iron and steel have to a great +extent taken its place, yet for barges and small boats the timber is +still largely used. Wagons for railway mineral traffic are largely made +of oak, while the builder finds in it his best material for the strong +frames of domes, spires and roofs of public buildings. It is also +used for the bottoms of carts and wagons, cartwheel spokes, fencing, +furniture making, railway “spraggs,” charcoal, etc. + +=Poplar= wood is woolly and tenacious, and for this reason is used for +the bottoms of stone carts and barrows. It is well adapted for making +packing cases, railway brakes, weather boarding, and for purposes where +lightness is of greater importance than durability. The Abele, or +white Poplar, produces perhaps the most valuable timber of any of the +numerous species. + +=Scotch Spruce= and =Silver Fir= may all be classed under the same +heading, being of about equal value and applicable to similar purposes, +viz., for sleepers and pitwood, boarding under slates, headings for +barrels, soap boxes, temporary fencing, also for conversion into +planking for lead works, and for all erections of a temporary kind. + +=Sycamore= timber is peculiarly white and smooth and free from grain, +which makes it very valuable. It is used for curtain rings, churns, +butter prints, for the backs of violins, for founders’ patterns and +cutting boards, and in the making of wooden vessels and furniture. For +calendar machines and in cotton and jute factories it is much employed. + +=Walnut= timber is much in demand for gun and rifle stocks, for the +best class of furniture, and for veneering purposes. + +=Willow= is famous for the production of the best class of cricket bats +and for artificial limbs and crutches. It also makes good charcoal. + +=Yew= wood is valuable when employed for veneering. + + + + +CHAPTER XXVII + +WILLOWS FOR BASKET-MAKING + + +Previous to the war, preferential railway and boat rates, aided by keen +foreign competition, wellnigh rendered the time-honoured industry of +basket-making a thing of the past in this country. The best classes +of osiers, cleaned and ready for manipulation, were delivered to our +principal markets from Continental sources at so low a price that +competition on our part was almost out of the question. There are +still, however, a few stations, such as those in Bedfordshire, the fen +districts of Lincoln and Cambridge, and along certain reaches of the +Thames, where willow culture is engaged in, though not in the same +energetic way as was the case some half a century ago. + +About 7,000 acres, producing roughly 20,000 tons of osiers, are +cultivated in this country at the present time, many small plantations +having been grubbed out and the land laid down in other crops during +the past five and twenty years. + +This falling off is much to be regretted, as the sorting and harvesting +of osiers and basket-making gave light and remunerative employment +to a large number of residents, both young and old, of the districts +in which the willow-beds were situated. Land that was damp and could +not well be brought under other cultivation without the expense of +drainage, gave a good return under a crop of osiers. Taking everything +into consideration, and judging from talks that I have had recently +with those who are interested in the osier industry, the formation +of willow-beds, under the plea that considerable profits attend the +undertaking, is not to be recommended. No doubt in some favoured +districts where carriage is reduced to a minimum and local demand +is considerable, osier cultivation gives a fair return for capital +invested; but until we can get back the once lucrative trade in +baskets for fruit and other similar commodities from the hands of our +Continental rivals, profits of any magnitude are quite precluded. + +There is little doubt that on soil which is unsuited for farming +purposes willow culture can be made fairly profitable, but it is a +mistake to suppose that any marshy piece of stiff ground will grow +osiers, or that the planting and tending are matters of small import. +Quite the reverse is the case. The willow will not thrive for long +in water-logged soils, though periodical inundations, particularly +during winter and early spring, are highly beneficial. In addition, +the soil must be well worked, the cutting of rods carefully and +systematically carried out, and the clearing of the ground must receive +strict attention, else deterioration of the crop will quickly ensue. +Previously to planting the cuttings or sets, the ground should be +ploughed, harrowed and consolidated, all objectionable weeds being +destroyed. + +For some considerable time to come there is bound to be a dearth of +willows for basket-making, as our main supplies have come from Germany +and the Netherlands. Here, then, is a chance for the owners of suitable +land in this country to set to work at once and revive a time-honoured +industry by planting up suitable grounds with the most approved kinds +of willow for basket-making. That the undertaking, if wisely carried +out, would be a remunerative one is beyond question, and the excellent +results attained at such places as Leicester and Bedford clearly prove +that willow culture is a most profitable way of utilizing naturally +dampish land in any but the most exposed situations. + +For the past few years the demand in this country for high-grade +willows has been greatly in excess of the supply, in fact, hardly +one-fifth of our requirements are produced at home. Germany, previous +to the war, exported willows and rods to the value of about £42,000, +this being an increase in five years of fully one-half; while of +the manufactured articles in the way of baskets and basket ware her +total value exceeded £42,000. But as giving some idea of our wants in +this direction it may be stated that the total value of willow rods +annually sent to this country from the Continent is in round figures +about £100,000, and of baskets and basket ware fully £170,000. What a +contrast with the period in our history when an important export trade +in willows was done by this country! + +The willow working industry is a rapidly expanding one. Owing to the +increasing demand, the value of peeled willows is gradually on the +increase, and present prices range from £24 to £38 per ton for those +of best size and quality. These are in the main exported and used for +high-class work in the basket trade, rougher unpeeled willows that are +largely in use for cheap packing hampers and farm purposes bringing +in a much lower price. Fruit baskets in immense numbers are annually +imported from the Continent, one firm alone having sent over £150,000; +while at Leith basket works, which mainly caters for the agricultural +and fishing industries, thousands of herring baskets alone are sent out +every month, while the packing hamper department is of great interest +and a special feature of this enterprising firm. + +Previous to the war willow or osier culture was mainly in the hands of +the French for rods of good quality, the Belgians and Germans supplying +a cheaper kind probably owing to the quality of soil and inferior +varieties that are cultivated. + +There are not a few persons who consider that in order to cultivate +willows successfully, any neglected, damp piece of ground, which is +unsuited for other crops, may be utilized, and the cuttings simply +stuck in without ground preparation of any kind. This is, however, a +great mistake, as experience has long ago demonstrated that in order to +make osier cultivation at all profitable, a low level, and a naturally +rather moist situation must be chosen, and further, that the soil +should be deep, well drained and thoroughly prepared. + +Thoroughly drain the ground first, then steam-plough or trench the +soil to a depth of about 18 in., removing carefully all weeds, +particularly such troublesome kinds as the bindweed, couch grass and +dock. It is always preferable to take a crop of potatoes first from +the land intended to be laid down for osier culture, as it not only +sweetens and enriches the soil, but allows of the eradication of all +obnoxious weeds. Where, however, it is not practicable to crop the land +first with potatoes, the soil should be well and roughly broken up and +left so for a year, or for a winter, at least, before being planted +with the osiers. The best time to plant is from October to the middle +of March. The sets, or cuttings, should be about 15 in. long, and +formed of well-ripened rods, of one year’s growth, and the straightest +and cleanest portion of the rod only used. Three or four buds should, +if possible, be on the top end of each set. In planting, insert the +cuttings from 9 to 12 in. into the ground, leaving 3 in. above soil, +which forms the stool that bears the future crops. + +It is well to exercise great caution while inserting the cuttings, +as, if the work has been delayed till the sap is rising, the bark +readily strips away from the wood, and this is very objectionable, as +the plants in such a state usually die. The sets may be placed about +15 in. apart, and the rows, which, for convenience, should be lined +off straight, about 30 in. from each other. Of course, as regards +distances, these will depend to a great extent on the quality of the +soil and the particular kind of willow being planted, but the above are +good average distances. + +For basket-making, etc., the best kinds of osiers to use are +_Salix triandra_ and _S. viminalis_, but there are others. A good +basket-willow, be it of whatever kind, should, when green, twist from +end to end without breaking. It is well to bear in mind that, in order +to obtain the greatest profits from willow culture, only the very +best kinds should be planted—indeed, next to preparing the ground, a +judicious selection should be one of the main considerations. For the +first year, at least, after being formed, osier beds must be carefully +attended to in the way of cleaning and weeding. Hoeing will be found +the most convenient method of getting rid of weeds, but, in the case +of bindweed, hand-picking around and amongst the sets will be found +necessary. + +Cutting the osiers must be done while the crop is dormant, or not later +than the middle of February, but not during frost, which will injure +and kill off parts of the stool. The cutting is done by means of a +rod-hook, which resembles a miniature sickle; this should always be +kept sharp, so that the cuts may be made clean. Tie the rods together +when dry, in bundles of three or four sizes, and either house or stack +them. It should be borne in mind that rods are easily spoiled by being +tied up or stacked whilst in a wet state, as they very soon become +heated, which makes them brittle and utterly valueless for the purpose +intended. What is known in England as “bolting” is simply taking a +number of osiers, as nearly of a size as possible, and laying them on +a twisted wand, at the same time keeping the butts all one way, and +level, then drawing them tightly together—not, however, to such an +extent as to injure the bark—with a rope and two levers, and finishing +off by tying the wand. The wand should be at 14 in. from the butts. A +bolt of rods should measure 40 in. round the band. + +In forming a willow bed, the following short rules should be observed:— + +1. Willows will not succeed well in peaty, sandy, or water-logged +soils; rich, well-drained loam, that can be flooded at will is the most +suitable. + +2. Trench or plough, and thoroughly clean or pulverize the ground +before planting. + +3. Plant only the best kinds, studying soil and market, and avoid a +mixed crop. + +4. From November to March insert the cuttings about nine inches deep, +avoiding such as are bark-chafed, and tramp firmly. + +5. Keep the beds clean and free from weeds. + +6. Cut the crop close to the ground; pollard willows soon decay and in +that state harbour injurious insects. + +The following estimate of the approximate cost per acre of osier +culture, and the returns therefrom for the first three years will be of +interest:— + +FIRST YEAR. + + £ _s._ _d._ + Ploughing the ground and planting 4 10 0 + Hoeing and other attention 1 5 0 + 15,700 willow cuttings (_Salix viminalis_) 10 0 0 + Rent, rates, and 5 per cent. interest on capital 2 12 0 + Harvesting 0 18 0 + ———————————— + £19 5 0 + Yield first year 3 tons, value 9 0 0 + ———————————— + Loss £10 5 0 + +SECOND YEAR. + + £ _s._ _d._ + Rent, rates and incidentals 2 10 0 + Hoeing and cleaning 1 8 0 + Harvesting 1 10 0 + ———————————— + £5 8 0 + Yield about 5 tons. 20 0 0 + ———————————— + Profit £15 8 0 + +THIRD AND SUBSEQUENT YEARS. + + Expenditure £6. Yield £24. Profit £18. + +If the ground is properly cultivated and losses made good, the +plantation should give a yield similar to the third year for fully a +quarter of a century. + +In the low-lying district between Taunton, Bridgwater and Langport, in +Somerset, willow or osier culture is largely engaged in. + +The system generally adopted is that the owner or tenant of the land +planted to willows keeps the land free from weeds to prevent the +withies being choked. This entails an outlay of about 25_s._ per acre +per annum if properly done. The crops are measured and marked out +in half-acre lots and sold in October or November. The purchasers +cut and remove them, and in some cases convert them into baskets, +basket-chairs, and such like. In other cases the purchasers select and +bundle the crop in the regulation sizes and sell them to dealers. + +The results of some recent sales are as follows: One field of 11½ +acres realized £132 and the first two half-acres, being remarkably +good withies, made £19 10_s._ Three other fields, containing 16 acres +in all, made £161 10_s._; and three others, containing 22½ acres, £222 +2_s._ 6_d._ The agricultural annual rental value of this land when +pasture, before it was planted to willows, was under £2 per acre. + +From the above it will be seen that if prudently entered upon and +economically carried out the cultivation of willows for basket-making +is a paying industry, and as for some years to come foreign supplies +will be barred to our markets, the enterprise should prove highly +remunerative. + + + + +CHAPTER XXVIII + +UTILIZING WASTE FOREST PRODUCE + + +That the production of timber, in common with other trades, has of +late years been rendered far less remunerative than formerly, owing +principally to keen foreign competition, is a fact that is now well +known, even to the most casual observer. In face of this it behoves +us to ask ourselves the question: Do we utilize to the fullest extent +the by-products of the forest and woodland, and so diminish waste, +and, at the same time, add to the general revenue of the forest +department? By waste produce, or by-products, is meant anything other +than wood in the condition in which it is generally used, and includes +bark, charcoal, firewood, house and kiln faggots, tar, wood-spirit, +turpentine, sawdust, wood-ashes, leaf soil, etc. That much may be done, +both in economy of production and in utilization of waste produce, is +well known to those in charge of woods and forests in every part of the +country. Where the by-products cannot well be utilized in any of the +above-named ways, it would be better, perhaps, to reduce them to ashes; +for, by so doing, insect and fungus life are lessened, and a valuable +manure is obtained, particularly rich in potash, whether for grassland +or certain farm or garden crops. + +The forest by-products of Great Britain and Ireland are, in the main, +applied in the four following ways:— + + (1) Firewood. + (2) Charcoal, for heating purposes, etc. + (3) Bark for tanning. + (4) Faggots, for house and kiln purposes. + +Although the British forester has usually little or nothing to do with +what we might term the volatile products of the forest—tar, pitch, +turpentine, rosin, wood-spirit, acetic acid, etc.—nor, indeed, with +paper-pulp, it may not be out of place to point out briefly the minor +uses to which waste timber and by-products generally may be applied. + +Tar, which at present is largely imported from the Baltic ports and +Southern United States, is obtainable principally from three species of +Pinus: _P. palustris_, _P. Pinaster_, and _P. sylvestris_. + +Pitch is simply tar deprived of the volatile oils, which is brought +about by boiling. + +Turpentine comes from incisions made in the stems of some of the pines, +principally _Pinus palustris_, _P. sylvestris_, and _P. tæda_. + +The common silver fir (_Abies pectinata_) produces the famous Strasburg +turpentine, while the larch is the source of the Venice turpentine of +commerce. + +In New England the whole of the younger sapling pines—stem, branches, +bark and leaves—are made into pasteboard, while in other countries the +lime and poplar are converted into paper-pulp of great value. That the +great and ever-increasing demand for paper of all qualities will cause +a corresponding demand for the material used in its production cannot +be doubted, and attention has already been directed to this matter in +some parts of this country. From the sap of the larch and Scotch firs +“coniferin” is obtained, while “rubber,” a valuable product for mixing +with gutta-percha, which is very durable, is got from the bark of the +common birch by distillation. The value of gorse as a food for horses +and sheep is well known even in this country, while in Italy poplar +leaves have long been used as cattle-food, and ground fir-needles in +Styria for the same purpose. + +Dried leaves make excellent litter, and they are valuable as manure. +Sawdust, though without manurial value, absorbs liquid manure, and is +thus used as an excellent top-dressing. Leaf-mould is well known for +its many uses in the garden, as for top-dressing and mixing with other +poorer soils in the making of composts for planting. These are some +of the many uses to which the minor by-products of the forest can be +applied, but, as these hardly come within the scope of the forester, +special attention will be devoted to the major by-products—firewood, +charcoal, bark and faggots—with which the British forester is most +intimately associated. + +=(1) Firewood.=—Never, perhaps, was the subject of English firewood +more worthy of consideration than at the present time, when the price +of other fuels is excessively high. Many persons will maintain that +in districts where coal is abundant, it is very questionable whether +there is any advantage to be obtained from burning wood. We have +satisfied ourselves that even if wood could be procured at less than +its present price—firewood price—it is nearly as expensive as coal, +as sold previous to the war, in most of our large towns. No doubt, on +many large estates where there is a superfluity of unsaleable wood, +it would be utter folly not to have it converted into firewood, more +particularly as such work gives employment to the woodmen when the +inclemency of the weather puts a stop to general outdoor work. But this +in itself is no proof that the firewood when prepared and ready for +the grate is not as expensive as coal; for, when the rent of ground on +which the wood was grown, and the cost of felling and converting it +into firewood is taken into account, it will be found nearly as costly +as household coal of ordinary quality. + +What will it cost to prepare a ton of firewood? This is a question that +is not readily answered, the cost of labour in various parts of the +country varying so widely. In England, generally speaking, the cutting +up and stacking of a cord of fairly clean firewood—that is to say when +large knotty pieces, which require the mallet and wedge for their +manipulation, are excluded—costs from 5_s._ to 6_s._ Again, how many +cords of wood will make a ton of firewood? This is another question +that is more readily asked than answered, for the difference in weight +between equal-sized logs of, say, oak and birch is considerable. For +all practical purposes, however, we may state that about one and a +half cords of wood go to the ton of firewood, thus making the cost of +preparing and housing the latter about 10_s._ The lowest price at +which we have sold a ton weight fresh cut was 8_s._, but 10_s._ is +nearer the usual price, or about one-half of what is generally obtained +for firewood. The cartage of this ton of wood cannot be less than 3_s._ +Much depends upon the distance it must be carted, no doubt, but it is +usually delivered within a radius of two miles for the price quoted. + +The whole matter, therefore, stands something like this: Lowest cost of +a ton of wood, 8_s._, cutting same into firewood and stacking, 8_s._; +cost of delivery, 3_s._—total 19_s._ + +It will thus be seen that the difference in price between a ton of +firewood and one of coal is inconsiderable, and every one knows which +of the two as fuel lasts the longer and imparts the greater amount of +heat. + +Of course, where the firewood is cut up during wet weather by the +estate workmen and consumed on the estate, the matter will stand +somewhat differently, the two principal items, the cost of preparing +and cutting being considerably diminished. In districts where the +firewood cannot readily be sold, and would only rot in the woods, it +is a wise policy to have it cut into firewood, not only for the saving +effected in the coal bill, but also for preservation of the health of +the plantations. + +In mining districts, or on the outskirts of large towns, there is +usually little difficulty in getting rid of all surplus wood for firing +and other purposes, but in thinly-populated, outlying parts of the +country, where the cost of transit is excessive, the actual difference +between the price of a ton of coal and one of firewood has to be +considered. + +=(2) Charcoal.=—The following are the chief uses to which charcoal +is put in this country: the manufacture of gun and blasting powders, +the heating of hall-stoves, cooking, boiling preserves, and the +smelting of iron. It is also employed as a filtering and deodorizing +agent. Further, it occupies an important place in the making of black +paint, ink, ivory- and lamp-black, and is valuable as a horticultural +requisite in the packing of bulbs and for potting purposes. In the +manufacture of gunpowder, for which a highly inflammable quality is +required, the three principal woods used are the so-called dogwood +(_Rhamnus frangula_), the white willow (_Salix alba_), and the common +alder (_Alnus glutinosa_), though not infrequently the hazel, chestnut +and our native _Rhamnus catharticus_ are substituted. + +Charcoal produced from the dogwood is, however, preferred to any other, +as this forms a very explosive powder, used for military small-arms and +for sporting purposes. For this purpose the dogwood is cut when an inch +in diameter, and, if possible, when not more than of ten years’ growth. + +Although iron cylinders or retorts are more economical in the making of +charcoal, yet for various reasons the primitive method of pit-burning +is to be recommended for general estate purposes. The manufacture of +charcoal in this way having received due attention elsewhere in this +book, it need not be repeated here. It should be remembered that small +wood is more profitable for charcoal making than that of a larger +size, not only because the former requires little or no cutting and +splitting, but for the main reason that it can be procured at less +cost, and produces more charcoal, weight for weight. Even at the +present low price of charcoal—about 1_s._ per bushel—there is a fair +profit attached to the making of it, as will be seen from the following +figures, which may be taken as fairly representative. A cord of +ordinary mixed wood, which should measure, after being stacked, 12 ft. +long, 3 ft. wide, and 3 ft. high, will usually, when properly burned, +yield 35 bushels of charcoal, and this, at the low price of 10_d._ will +realize 29_s._ 2_d._ The cost of cutting this cord of wood, which is +generally performed by contract, will be at the least 5_s._, and that +of burning 7_s._; thus leaving a clear profit of 17_s._ 2_d._ per cord +for the wood. + +Even roots are made into charcoal, and we have seen whole woods grubbed +up free of expense, the roots being given in return for the labour; but +such work is usually performed during the winter, when labour is at a +discount. Pinewood is not nearly so valuable for charcoal making as +hardwood, but the former is not infrequently made to realize a profit +of from 8_s._ to 10_s._ per cord of wood. + +=(3) Bark.=—In the past, the annual home supply of bark was estimated +at about 300,000 tons, but, in addition to this some 30,000 tons were +imported from the Continent; but of late years, owing to the employment +of chemical substitutes, the amount used is much smaller. For tanning +purposes, oak, and occasionally larch, bark is principally in use in +this country, though both willow and alder are largely used for the +same purpose in various countries, more especially in Russia. Although +not at present a valuable product, a small margin of profit, even +at the present low price, will accrue through careful and judicious +management of the bark crop. Of this we are fully convinced. It is, +perhaps, not so well known as it should be that of our two varieties +of oak, _Quercus Robur pedunculata_ and _Q. R. sessiliflora_—the +former contains 15 and the latter only 13 per cent. of tannin. The +branches, too, down to an inch in diameter, contain a relatively higher +proportion of tannin than the bark of the stem. + +The stripping and harvesting of oak bark having received notice in a +separate paper, nothing further need be said of these here. + +=(4) Faggots.=—These are made of the smaller branches or spray, the +remains of charcoal wood, etc., and tied into bundles similar in +size to a sheaf of wheat. They are either left lying on the ground +or standing upright in threes or fours together for a few days after +being made, previous to being stacked, as they always are for about +six months before being used. In thinning a woodland the faggots are +usually bound up by contract at 4_s._ 6_d._ per hundred, except when +the wood is exceptionally rough and crooked, when another shilling is +added. When stacked and dry they realize about 16_s._ per hundred in +the wood, thus giving a clear profit of 11_s._ 6_d._, if we deduct +4_s._ 6_d._, for binding, per hundred. + +In England the demand for these faggots is considerable, they being +used either for kiln purposes, or, when chopped up into smaller +bundles, for fire-lighting. These latter are about 9 in. long, and +half that in diameter, and are bound tightly round the centre with +tarred rope. Previous to the war they were sold at 3_s._ 6_d._ per +hundred. + +This is a good and profitable way of getting rid of all superfluous +spray and branches. Brush or kiln faggots, which are largely used for +brick-burning, consist of all refuse woodland scrub, and when tied +up and dry can be sold at from 5_s._ to 6_s._ per hundred for the +brick-kilns. They are made by contract at 2_s._ 6_d._ per hundred. By +the utilizing of this otherwise waste-product, every twig and branch is +carefully gathered together, and the woodlands are thus kept in a neat +and healthy condition. + +=Minor Products.=—In addition to firewood, charcoal, faggots, etc., +which may be considered as the main by-products of the forest and +woodland, there are other minor products, such as are to be met with +largely where coppice wood is grown to any extent, which will repay +the cost of singling out from amongst the above. These may include +flower-stakes, tool-handles, walking-sticks, barrel-hoops, chisel-rods, +etc., all of which sell readily in various parts of the country and +from which considerable profits are realized. + +In cutting the coppice wood, the longest and straightest poles are +selected for hop-stakes, the next size for bean stakes, pea-boughs, +etc., and so on until every part of the wood is utilized. + +Leaf soil, too, sells readily at 5_s._ per cart load—indeed, near large +towns the demand for this and peat often exceeds the supply. In all +cases, however, it may not be a wise policy to remove this valuable +soil from the woodlands, even at the high price offered. + +Half-decayed leaves, too, are much sought after where market gardening +is largely carried on, being used to form forcing-beds, and to preserve +plants and roots from severe frost. + + + + +CHAPTER XXIX + +FENCING PLANTATIONS + + +Many different methods of fencing are adopted throughout the country, +each one, no doubt, possessing peculiar advantages according to the +circumstances in which it may happen to be required. + +In hilly districts very efficient fences of stones may be made where +these are abundant. Turf dykes may be constructed on high-lying grounds +where stones cannot be readily procured, and iron or wood used wherever +fancy dictates. + +The term “dead fence” may be applied to these in contradistinction to +“live fence” or hedge, to which a special chapter is devoted. + +To describe even a few of the various wood or iron fences erected +nowadays would be by no means an easy task, but typical examples of +several kinds will be explained. + +[Illustration] + +=Stone Walls.=—These make capital plantation fences, but they are at +first rather expensive, and unless well built require a good deal +of attention in the way of repairing breaches. They possess a great +advantage over most other fences in the amount of shelter afforded to +the young trees. Two methods of building are usually adopted: firstly, +where stones are abundant, the entire wall may be of these; and, +secondly, where only a limited quantity are available, the wall is +built to a certain height and wires placed atop. + +The dry stone wall as this is usually termed, is built without mortar, +with the exception of the cope-stone, which in all cases should be +bedded in and pointed with lime. + +From 4 ft. to 5 ft. is the usual height, the foundations being from 22 +in. to 24 in. wide, and the wall 14 in. across beneath the cope-stone, +the latter being about 10 in. high and placed on edge. Great care is +necessary in building to see that the “throughs” or binding-stones are +placed in position, as on this depends mainly the efficiency of the +fence. Where wires are used atop, the wall need only be 3 ft. high, +22 in. wide at base, and 12 in. under the cope-stone. The latter are +bedded in mortar, and an extra large stone is placed every 6 ft. for +receiving the iron standard, to which the wires are attached. Slate +slabs, where these are readily procured, may be used for the same +purpose as the iron standards, but they should be built firmly into the +wall, and reach from the base of the foundation. Two, and sometimes +three, wires are used atop of the wall. + +=Slate Fences.=—These are commonly in use throughout Wales; in fact, +wherever slate quarries are worked. When well erected and of fairly +regular sized slates, this fence is certainly not to be despised, +and it may be considered as practically indestructible. The expenses +incurred for keeping these fences in repair are also very little, as +they seldom become damaged, and when an upright chances to get broken, +another whole one can easily be substituted, and without interfering +with any other portion of the fence. The size of slate pale, or slab, +as usually termed, is 5 ft. long, 4 in. to 6 in. wide, and about 1 in. +in thickness. In erecting the fence a trench is cut about 12 in. wide +and 8 in. deep, care being taken that the trench is cut perpendicular, +so as to ensure the pales standing in a similar position. These are +placed upright in the trench, about 3 in. apart, with their flat side +close to the perpendicular cut and the soil replaced in the trench and +made firm with a rammer. + +A double wire is then tightly interlaced about 3 in. from the top of +the pales, and given a double twist between each, thereby ensuring +great stability by uniting the fence and keeping the pales at equal +distance apart. The straining-posts are also of slate, 6 ft. long, 6 +in. wide, and 3 in. thick. + +[Illustration: SLATE FENCES] + +=Turf Dykes.=—These were formerly much used in moorland and outlying +districts, where stones are not abundant, and where, from the nature of +the soil and situation, hedges would not succeed. They are, at best, +troublesome fences to keep in repair, and require some adjunct either +in the way of wires atop, or, failing this, they must be planted with +gorse or other suitable shrubs. One advantage is the great amount of +shelter they afford to the young plants, while they are, comparatively +speaking, cheap of erection. There are several methods of building turf +dykes, the best being to cut or pare the turf 3 in. in thickness in +one or more lengths to suit the width of the dyke, and of a convenient +breadth: these are laid cross-wise one above the other. Both sides +of the dyke should be built at once, giving the necessary batter as +the work proceeds, and the grassy surface of the turf placed to the +outside. The dyke is usually made 3 ft. in height, 3 ft. wide, and +drawn gradually in to 12 in. at top. A two-rail fence surmounts the +dyke, bringing the total height to 4½ ft. or 5 ft. Sometimes a ditch is +cut alongside the dyke 3 ft. wide, about 2½ ft. deep, and 9 in. wide at +bottom, so as to prevent the farm stock getting at and damaging it, the +soil removed being used in forming the fence. By sowing gorse and broom +seeds on top of the dyke an excellent shelter fence is obtained. + +=Wood Fences.=—These are common on almost every estate throughout the +country, especially such as are well wooded, and, owing to the low +prices obtainable for home-grown timber, it is well that such should be +employed as widely as possible. Wooden fences are also much preferred +by many owners of property to those erected either of stone or iron on +account of their rustic appearance. + +Wooden fences are, therefore, sure to be largely employed when the +appearance of the property and not too-exacting financial results are +points of importance. + +There are many forms of wooden fences adopted, these varying chiefly +according to the particular use to which they are applied. The +following descriptions are of such kinds as are generally in use for +woods and plantations. + +Here it might be well to mention in passing that only matured and +seasoned timber should be used in fencing, the cost of erection, +whether the timber be good or inferior, being the same, and every one +knows which will last the longer. + +A good strong fence is erected as follows:—Posts, 5 ft. 9 in. long, 4 +in. broad, and 2½ in. thick; bars or rails, 9 ft. long, by 3½ in. by +1½ in. Four holes are mortised into the posts for the reception of the +bars, the ends of which are so formed as to overlap each other tightly. +The fence is usually 4 ft. high, and so as to strengthen the horizontal +bars a stake is driven into the ground midway between the larger posts, +and to this the rails are securely nailed. In some cases the posts are +not to be mortised, so that the bars require to be attached by nails. + +[Illustration: SAWN WOOD FENCE] + +For park clumps, particularly where a substantial and neat fence to +keep back horses, cattle or deer is required, the following, though +rather expensive at first, is largely employed. The entire fence is +made of oak or Spanish chestnut, and is shown on following page. + +[Illustration] + +[Illustration] + +[Illustration: OAK FENCES] + +Posts 7 ft. long, 6 in. by 4 in., and run out with the circular saw. +Rails triangular, about 3½ in. to the side. The uprights are rent from +oak or chestnut trees of straight grain, and are usually about ³/₁₆ of +an inch thick, and 5 ft. high. The posts are erected 6 ft. apart, the +rails being mortised into these, and the rent uprights fastened about +2 in. apart by patent rose nails to the horizontal rails. A fence of +this kind, when properly erected, will last for upwards of forty years, +especially if the butts of the posts are charred before being inserted +in the ground. + +[Illustration: WIRE FENCE WITH WOODEN POSTS] + +Rustic fences for small tree clumps may be of almost any design, but +the following is cheap and easily erected. It is formed of larch posts +6 ft. long, and about 4½ in. diameter, driven into the ground at 6 +ft. apart. Two flat or rounded rails about 3 in. by 1¼ in. are nailed +horizontally to these, the lower at 9 in. from the ground and the other +flush with the tops of the posts, which when driven in are 4 ft. from +ground level. The uprights are also of larch, split up the centre and +nailed on the horizontal bars at 2 in. apart. They extend above the top +rail for 7 in., and are sharply pointed so that they cannot be climbed +over. + +[Illustration: TOOLS FOR FENCING] + +=Wire Fences.=—These may be erected either with iron or wooden +standards and straining-posts. The form most commonly in use for +enclosing woods is that with wooden posts and strainers, these being +made of mature and thoroughly seasoned larch or oak. The strainers are +7 ft. long and 6 in. square, or, if round, about 7 in. in diameter, +while the intermediate posts are 5½ ft. long, and 3½ in. by 3 in., or, +if round, 3½ in. diameter at smallest end. The strainers should be +fitted into the ground at 150 yards apart, and the posts driven firmly +at 6 ft. from each other. At every sharp curve along the line of fence +a stout post, say 5 in. in diameter, should be used. In order to make a +stout fence proof against cattle and sheep, six wires should be used, +the two top No. 6, and the others No. 7 gauge, the distances between +each pair, beginning at the top, being 8, 7, 6, 5½ and 5 in., the lower +being 5 in. from the ground. Brackets for straining the wires should +be attached to each of the strainers, these having this advantage over +the older system of using the straining machine, that the wires can +be loosened or tightened at will, when repairs are found necessary. +The tops of the posts should be rounded off or sawn on angle so as to +prevent the lodgment of water. Iron and wire fences combined are now +commonly in use, and there are so many excellent systems that it would +be invidious to recommend one kind more than another. + +Iron box fencing, which consists of standards with double pronged +feet for fixing in the ground and round or flat horizontal bars run +through them, has been largely used and looks neat, being also, if +properly erected, very efficient. Wrought-iron hurdles are sometimes +used for fencing park clumps, and they possess at least this advantage, +that they can be lifted at any time and re-erected should it be found +necessary to remove them from one place to another. + +Unclimbable iron fencing, usually in hurdles 7 ft. long, are now much +in use for park fencing, but for general plantation purposes this class +of fencing is too expensive. + +=Tree Guards.=—These may either be erected of wood or iron; the former +is, however, preferred on most large estates where timber is plentiful, +and will receive first attention. For large trees whose branches +sweep the greensward an elaborate structure is required, which may +take the form of almost any of those described under wooden fencing. +That entirely formed of oak is to be recommended, or split larch for +uprights, with oak posts and rails may be considered more rustic in +appearance. In any case the guard should be sufficiently high and wide +to prevent cattle and horses reaching over to damage the branches. + +[Illustration: TREE GUARDS] + +When the trees are destitute of branches for a considerable distance +up the stem, say 8 ft. or 10 ft., a very neat and efficient guard is +made as follows:—Procure a number of larch, oak or Spanish chestnut +poles, 7 ft. high, and about 2½ in. diameter at small end. Thread these +on wires by boring holes in the poles at 2 ft. and 5 ft. from the butt +end, keeping each couple separate by 3 in-long pieces of the same size +of pole, also threaded on the wires. These can be formed on the level, +and when sufficient to embrace the tree have been got together, the +whole may be lifted up and placed in position closely around the trunk. +Another method is to bind the poles together with fencing wire, giving +a double twist between each to keep them at a suitable distance apart. + +When a more elaborate fence or guard is required, four posts 7 ft. +long, 4 in. square, and sawn from crooked oak branches are used. The +posts are quite straight for 5 ft. in length, the upper 2 ft. being +inclined outwards, which not only gives the guard a neat appearance, +but is a great preventive against the encroachments of farm stock. The +posts are inserted nearly 2 ft. in the ground, and so as to form a +square around the stem of 4½ ft. to the side, four bars, each 3 in. by +1 in., are nailed horizontally on the straight portions of the posts, +and at equal distances apart from where the angle occurs downwards; +upwards from that three hoop-iron rails are nailed in a similar manner, +the top one being one inch below the level of the crown of the posts. +Iron has a light and neat appearance when used for the top bars, but +wood is often substituted. Another cheap and neat tree guard for using +with the rarer trees, to which horses and cattle have not access, is +made as follows:—Pales 3 ft. long, 2 in. wide, by ⅜ in. thick, are sawn +out and pointed. They are driven into the ground round the tree to be +protected, the tops sloping outwards and 1½ in. apart. Stout tying wire +is then interlaced at two heights from the ground. + +Oak or chestnut bark placed loosely around clean-stemmed young trees +will prevent damage by ground game, and is cheap and looks unobtrusive. + + + + +CHAPTER XXX + +TIMBER MEASURING + + +To those who are not practically acquainted with the measuring of +home-grown timber the following brief remarks in elucidation of the +subject will be useful. It may, however, be well to mention that timber +measuring is rather a vexed question, some following what is known as +Hoppus’s system, and others advocating that of Horton. The former being +that generally in use amongst timber merchants in this country, and +consequently of greatest value to the forester, the following details +of this system may prove serviceable. + +Regarding the timber-measurer’s equipment it may first be necessary to +say a few words. This consists of a 66 ft. Chesterman’s tape-line, or +instead of this a 5 ft. wooden rod, standard girt-strap, or fine cord, +scribing knife, and bent piece of iron, with eye at end for drawing the +girt-strap beneath such trees as the arm cannot readily pass under. + +For girthing timber a piece of thin whipcord or string is frequently +used, but as the elasticity of this varies greatly, and has in many +instances led to dispute, a much fairer plan and one that is liable +to no abuse is to use the 12 ft. girt-strap, upon which every inch in +length is reckoned ¼. As the proper quarter-girth can be seen at a +glance on this strap, its adoption will at once remove any chance of +trickery, which may be possible in the use of the string and rule. + +For entering measurements the most convenient book is that 9 in. by 4 +in., with stiff pasteboard covers, ruled with horizontal lines, and +divided into four vertical columns. To measure proceed as follows:—Mark +a number with the scribe on the butt end of the tree, and enter a +similar number in the first column of the book; this will not only +serve to identify the particular log, but prevent any risk of measuring +twice. Should the taper throughout the whole length of the tree be +tolerably gradual, set down the length in the second column of the +book, opposite the number already entered. At exactly one-half of +the length of the portion measured, take the girth by passing the +girt-strap tightly around the stem. Put this down in the third column +on the same horizontal line as the number and length. Should, however, +the trunk taper not be fairly uniform throughout the entire length, as +frequently happens, several measurements may require to be taken. + +For example, a tree may be 36 ft. in length, running with regular taper +for perhaps 12 ft., after which it branches out, reducing the size of +the remaining part very considerably for, say another 12 ft., where it +again branches and leaves the last 12 ft. of a relatively small size. +With such a tree it would be quite impossible to obtain anything like a +correct measurement by taking only one length and girth. The difficulty +is, however, readily got over by first measuring the lower 12 ft., then +the second, and then the third, marking the respective lengths and +girths in the vertical columns as already described. + +The measurement of these trees, so far as the field work is concerned, +is now completed, the contents of each tree being found by referring +to “Hoppus’s Measurer”—a book with which every forester should be +supplied. By squaring the quarter-girth in inches, multiplying by the +length in feet, and dividing by 144, the same result will be obtained. +This is, however, a tedious method, especially where large numbers of +trees have to be dealt with, and should only be adopted when Hoppus is +not at hand. + +By committing to memory the following short table of quarter-girths +much time in calculating and consulting authorities will be saved. + + 6-inch quarter-girth will give contents equal to ¼ + the entire length in feet. + 7 ” ” ” ⅓ + 8½ ” ” ” ½ + 10 ” ” ” ⅔ + 12 ” ” ” 1 + 13 ” ” ” 1¼ + 14¾ ” ” ” 1½ + 16 ” ” ” 1¾ + 17 ” ” ” 2 + 19 ” ” ” 2½ + 21 ” ” ” 3 + 22½ ” ” ” 3½ + 24 ” ” ” 4 + 27 ” ” ” 5 + 29½ ” ” ” 6 + 31¾ ” ” ” 7 + 34 ” ” ” 8 + 36 ” ” ” 9 + +The sliding rule is also useful for determining contents. + +The proper allowance to be made for bark is half an inch for every +foot of quarter-girth for oak and elm under 12 in. quarter-girth, and +an inch for all beyond, but it is quite impossible to fix upon any +one uniform scale that will meet even the majority of circumstances. +Trees growing in exposed situations will frequently have bark almost +double the thickness of those of a similar size in the woodland. My +plan has been always to allow for the bark of each tree at the time of +measurement. + +=Measuring Standing Timber.=—For this a pliable pole 18 ft. long, +marked in feet, and the girt-strap already referred to are the +necessary equipment. In estimating the number of feet of timber upon a +large area, it is not always necessary to measure each tree separately, +particularly when the whole situation is composed of one species, and +the individual trees are about the same age and size, as by multiplying +the total number of trees by the average content of those selected and +measured a very just calculation will be arrived at. Great care in +their selection, and considerable judgment in taking the average will, +however, be required. + +[Illustration: MEASURING HEIGHT OF TREES] + +When each tree is to be measured separately two assistants will +be required, one to carry the 18-ft. pole, and the other the +girting-strap. Sometimes, when the timber is of great height, jointed +bamboos are used, and a light ladder brought into requisition. + +In carrying out the work in this way, the man with the pole declares +the height of the tree, and the one with the tape the quarter-girth. + +=Measuring the Height of Trees.=—There are several methods of +ascertaining the heights of trees, but the two following are, perhaps, +the most simple, and the appliances necessary quite inexpensive:— + +No 1.—Take three laths, such as bricklayers use for tiling, and nail +them in the shape of the frame shown; _a a_ must be of equal length; +_a_ and _b_ being placed on the ground, the eye must follow up the +larger lath _d d_ until it is in a line with _e_, the top of the tree +or object you wish to measure. + +The frame must be placed as level with the bottom of the tree as +possible. Should the ground be very uneven you must give and take +accordingly. + +It will be seen that _b_ to _c_ is the same length as _c_ to _e_, and +this gives the height of the tree. + +No 2.—Suspend the triangle between the thumb and forefinger of the +left hand, knuckles down, upon the point _a a_, allowing it to swing +freely. The edge _b c_ will then fall perpendicularly, and _c d_ will +be horizontal. The remaining edge _d b_ will then lie at an angle of 45 +to the horizon. On this edge are two sights, _e_ and _f_. Look through +_e_ until _f_ is aligned with the tree-top, advancing or retiring till +the sights point exactly to it. + +Then, if the observer’s feet are level with the tree root, the height +of the tree is the distance from his feet to the root, plus the height +of the eye from the ground. + +The dendrometer is perhaps the most useful instrument for taking the +height of a tree and can be procured from some of our nurserymen. + + + + +CHAPTER XXXI + +BLASTING AND BURNING TREE ROOTS + + +[Illustration: BLASTING AND BURNING TREE ROOTS] + +Blasting by gunpowder or dynamite is not only the most expeditious +but also the cheapest method of clearing away tree stumps and large +logs. In preparing to blast a stump, great care must be exercised to +bore the hole in the right place and not to use too much explosive. +For blasting powder the hole should be 1½ in. in diameter, and should +penetrate to the centre of the stump. It must not be too low down, lest +the bottom should blow out and the force be expended in shattering the +ground instead of the stump or log. In selecting the spot to bore for +the powder, choose the hardest part of the root and ensure an equal +thickness of wood all round, and even splitting of the log will be the +result. The following is a good way of putting in the powder:—For large +stumps of from 2 ft. to 4 ft. in diameter about 3½ in. depth of coarse +blasting powder should be inserted in a hole 1½ in. in diameter. The +end of the fuse should be put into the centre of the powder, and left +protruding for 15 in. outside the hole, which is filled with dry sand, +consolidated, or packed around the fuse by means of a coarse iron wire. +The outside end of the fuse should be teased out and lighted with a +match, and as it will require over a minute for the fire to reach the +powder, time is given for the operator to find a place of safety. + +=Burning Tree Stumps.=—With a 2-in. auger bore a vertical hole in the +centre of the stump from the top towards the bottom. In the side of the +stump, near ground level, bore a horizontal hole towards the centre, +so as to open into the vertical hole, drop some fire down the vertical +hole, and if the wood is at all dry the draught of air entering by +the horizontal hole will, like the draught of a chimney, maintain the +combustion of the fire in the centre, until this slowly spreads and +ultimately burns away the stump. + +Another and equally simple method of destroying stumps of trees is as +follows:—In autumn bore a hole 2 in. in diameter and 18 in. deep, put +in 1½ oz. of saltpetre, fill with water, and plug up close. In the +following spring put in the same hole half a gill of kerosene oil and +then light. The stump will smoulder away without blazing, down to every +part of the roots. + +=American Method of Blasting.=—At Studley Horticultural College, +Warwickshire, the American method of blasting was successfully carried +out and reported upon by Mr. A. P. Long as follows:— + +A hole is bored with a long auger or crowbar in a sloping direction +from one side of the stump to its base, generally from 2½ ft. to 3½ ft. +deep. The bore-hole is cleaned out, and a number of dynamite cartridges +inserted, each being firmly pressed home by a wooden rod. A primer +cartridge containing a detonator is then placed on the top of these, +and the bore-hole is filled with clay and tightly rammed. The primer +is either connected directly with a safety fuse, or to a high-tension +battery, by a cable, and is afterwards fired. As dynamite strikes +downwards as well as upwards, the effect of the explosion is that the +roots and stump are all either ejected or loosened, so that they can be +easily removed by hand. + +The American method is less costly and more speedy than the methods +hitherto used in England in removing stumps. If there is no man on +the estate qualified to handle explosives, an expert must be employed +at about £1 per day, besides travelling and hotel expenses. Three +men—an expert and two labourers—can bore holes and blast thirty sound +stumps per day easily. If the stumps are hollow in the centre, two or +three bore holes are necessary for each stump, and in that case twenty +only can be blasted during the day. Taking the pre-war wages of two +labourers at 2_s._ 6_d._ each per day, the cost of boring and firing +averages 2½_d._ per stump, exclusive of the expert’s fee. The expert’s +fee increases the cost by about 2_s._ per stump. + +The explosive used is Nobel’s dynamite, in the form of cartridges, +costing 9½_d._ per lb. The average quantity used for each stump is +between 2 lbs. and 3 lbs. (about twenty to thirty cartridges), so that +the cost of the explosive is not more than 2_s._ 6_d._ per stump. The +detonators and fuses required only cost a few pence. Summing up, the +cost per stump is:— + + _s._ _d._ + Expert’s fee 2 0 + Cost of boring 0 2½ + Cost of explosive 2 6 + Detonators and fuse 0 9½ + ——————— + 5 6 + +Misfires and partial removal of stump may require fresh borings and +further charges of explosive, thus increasing the cost. By employing a +skilled estate hand capable of using explosives instead of an expert, +the expense, however, is greatly diminished. + +By the old method of grubbing and jacking, stumps were removed at +Studley some time ago at the high cost of about £2 5_s._ each butt, +and even then success was only partial. In another case, on an estate +in Norfolk, where an old pasture was converted into a plantation of +mixed trees, trenching at the cost of £18 per acre had to be resorted +to on account of the presence of roots and stumps of old trees. In +this case it would have been much cheaper to have removed the stumps +by blasting. The demonstrations at Studley showed that both sound and +unsound stumps could be successfully blasted, and whole trees—an Apple +and an Oak—were also uprooted by the same method with equal success, +using only one bore-hole and about the same charge of explosive. The +timber of the trees so treated, however, is very much split, so that +blasting is only advisable when the timber is considered of little +value. + +The particular explosives used are unaffected by damp, and, in +consequence, the method is applicable in both wet and dry situations. +Firing the charges was done at the demonstrations mostly by ladies, and +a photographer was able to get sufficiently near to obtain photographs +of the effect of the explosion without danger. The principal +recommendations of this method, therefore, are cheapness, effectiveness +and safety. + + + + +CHAPTER XXXII + +PRICES OF CONTRACT OR PIECEWORK + + +The following prices may be taken as approximating to those paid +generally throughout the country previous to the war. + +It may be well to remember, however, that in districts where unusually +high or low wages are paid, so in proportion will be the contract +prices for the various classes of work. + + BARKING OAK: _s._ _d._ _s. d._ + Barking oak per ton 21 0 + Loading bark on wagons ” 3 0 + Barking oak per ton of bark 30 0 + Chopping bark ” 8 0 to 10 0 + + COPPICEWOOD: + Cutting out hurdle rods per score 0 1 + ” hurdle stakes per dozen 0 1 + ” rake stems ” 0 1 + ” spade stems ” 0 1 + ” spick gads ” 0 1 + ” dahlia stakes ” 0 1 + ” rose stakes per two dozen 0 1 + ” besom handles ” 0 1 + ” kidney-bean stakes 50 in bundle 0 2 + ” pea stakes per bundle 0 1 + ” birchwood for besoms ” 0 1 + + DRAINING: _s._ _d._ _s. d._ + Pipe draining, mains, 4 ft. 3 in. + deep, 4 in. or 6 + in. pipes per chain 3 0 to 3 6 + ” ” small, 4 ft. deep, 1½ + in. to 3 in. pipes ” 2 0 ” 2 9 + ” ” small, 4 ft. deep, 1½ + in. pipes ” 1 9 ” 2 6 + Ditches, open, 36 in. wide at top, + 30 in. deep, and 9 in. wide at + bottom per chain 3 0 to 4 0 + Scouring out ditto ” 0 9 ” 1 0 + Small open ditches, 15 in. to 18 in. + wide at top, 12 in. to 15 in. deep, + and 9 in. wide at bottom ” 1 6 ” 2 6 + Scouring out ditto ” 0 6 ” 0 9 + + FAGGOT-MAKING: _s._ _d._ + Making faggots per 100 4 6 + ” oven faggots ” 3 0 + ” faggots for fire-lighting ” 1 3 + Cutting bands for tying faggots ” 0 4 + + FELLING AND STUBBING TIMBER: _s. d._ _s. d._ + Felling oak timber per ton of 40 ft. 3 0 + ” other hardwoods ” ” 2 6 + ” pinewood ” ” 1 6 to 1 9 + Stubbing out timber ” ” 3 6 ” 4 0 + Cutting underwood from 12 to 15 years’ growth + per acre 9 6 ” 12 0 + + FENCING: _s. d._ _s. d._ + Setting out and mortising 4-holed posts + per score 4 0 + ” ” ” 3-holed ” ” 3 0 + ” ” ” 2-holed ” ” 2 6 + ” ” ” 1-holed ” ” 2 0 + ” and cleaving rails ” 0 10 + ” ” ” stakes ” 0 6 + ” ” ” long poles ” 0 6 + ” ” ” short poles ” 0 4 + Hanging field-gates each 4 0 to 5 0 + Fixing stile ” 2 0 + Preparing posts, rails and pails for tree guards + per set 0 9 + Fixing ditto ” 2 0 + Six-wire fence larch posts and creosoted + per chain 35 0 to 40 0 + Fixing same ” 4 6 ” 5 0 + + FIREWOOD: _s. d._ _s. d._ + Splitting firewood per cord 4 0 to 6 0 + ” ” for charcoal ” 2 6 ” 3 0 + Cutting and stacking cordwood ” 2 0 ” 3 0 + Burning charcoal per bushel of 20 lbs. 0 2 + Loading and spreading soil per load 0 5 ” 0 6 + + GATE-MAKING: _s. d._ _s. d._ + Field gate, oak 5-bar 17 0 + Posts per pair 23 0 + Iron fastening and ironwork complete 5 9 + ” Fixing 4 6 + Making 5-bar oak gate 2 6 + ” half gate 1 9 + ” rough wickets 2 0 + ” wrought wickets 3 0 + Sawing hardwood per 100 ft. 3 6 to 4 0 + ” softwood ” ” 2 6 ” 3 0 + + HEDGING: _s. d._ _s. d._ + Trimming hedges, ordinary size per chain 0 9 to 1 6 + Making bank for quick hedge, digging + ditch and planting quick ” 7 6 ” 10 6 + ” hedge, without bank or ditch, + trenching ground, preparing + bed and planting ” 3 0 ” 4 0 + Cleaning young hedges ” 0 8 ” 0 9 + Laying hedge and scouring out ditch ” 2 0 ” 3 0 + + HURDLE-MAKING: _s. d._ _s. d._ + Making hurdles per dozen 3 6 to 4 0 + ” cattle hurdles (wattle) ” 5 0 ” 6 0 + ” Welsh hurdles, for sheep ” 4 0 ” 5 0 + + PITTING: + Digging out clay per yard 0 6 + ” holes for tree planting, 15 in. in diameter + and 15 in. deep per 100 1 6 to 2 6 + Inserting plants ” 0 6 ” 1 0 + Notch planting ” 2 0 ” 3 0 + + PREPARING ROAD MATERIAL: + Quarrying stones per yard 0 10 to 1 3 + Breaking stones for roads ” 0 8 ” 1 0 + + + + +CHAPTER XXXIII + +FOREST AREA OF THE WORLD + + +Exclusive of the forests of China, Corea and parts of Africa and South +America, for which there are no available data, the forest area of the +world is approximately 3,800,000,000 acres. + +The forests of Europe total upwards of 750,000,000 or, roughly +speaking, about 31 per cent. of the total land area of the Continent; +whilst among non-European countries Canada comes first with 799,000,000 +acres, United States, 545,000,000, tropical South America 528,000,000, +Asiatic Russia 348,000,000, and Central Africa 224,000,000. + +Finland is, perhaps, the best wooded country in the world, Bosnia, +Herzegovina and Sweden coming next, whilst amongst the least wooded +areas are Great Britain and Portugal, the former including only about 4 +per cent. of the total area of the land. + +So far as is at present known the following are the approximate areas +of woodlands in the various countries of the world:— + + COUNTRY. TOTAL FOREST AREA. + (Acres.) + Russia— + European Russia 461,611,000 + Finland 52,500,000 + Austria-Hungary— + Austria 23,996,000 + Hungary 18,692,000 + Croatia and Slavonia 3,769,000 + Bosnia and Herzegovina 6,380,000 + Sweden 49,390,000 + Germany 34,990,000 + France 24,021,000 + Norway 16,848,000 + Spain 16,065,000 + Italy 10,115,000 + Bulgaria 7,603,000 + Roumania 6,367,000 + British Isles 3,071,361 + Switzerland 2,140,000 + Belgium 1,304,000 + Servia 3,865,000 + Other Countries 4,427,000 + —————— + 747,154,361 + + Asiatic Russia 348,030,000 + India 149,000,000 + Ceylon 6,763,000 + Japan 57,718,000 + Philippine Islands 49,000,000 + British Australasia 126,720,000 + Cape Colony, Natal, Swaziland and Transvaal 641,000 + Madagascar 25,000,000 + Barbary States 9,527,000 + Central Africa 224,000,000 + South America (tropical) 528,000,000 + West Indies 42,669,000 + Canada 799,360,000 + Mexico 25,000,000 + Alaska 107,000,000 + United States of America 545,000,000 + Other Countries including the Straits + Settlement, Java, etc. 6,870,000 + ———————————— + 3,050,298,000 + +The approximate area of woodlands in Great Britain and Ireland are:— + + Acres. + England 1,715,473 + Scotland 868,409 + Wales 184,361 + Ireland 303,118 + —————————— + 3,071,361 + + + + +CHAPTER XXXIV + +AFFORESTING WASTE LANDS AND THE FINANCIAL RETURNS THEREFROM + + +Now that the Government is being urged seriously to consider the +question of afforestation, it may be opportune on my part, as one +of the earliest writers on the subject, to briefly recall what has +already been done in this matter, and to offer some remarks on planting +waste lands, with special reference to cost and the financial returns +therefrom. + +For the past thirty years I have not failed to urge on the State and +private owners of woodlands the pressing necessity for planting up +some at least of the waste and unprofitable lands of our country, in +order to provide a sufficiency of timber for the future and leave us +less dependent on the supplies that are annually sent us from abroad. +As stated elsewhere, when we consider that the total area of woodlands +in this country is only a little over 3,029,000 acres, that fully +15,000,000 acres of waste lands exist, and that we annually import +over 10,000,000 tons of timber, at a cost of about £25,000,000, the +necessity for an increased area of woodlands, so that a portion at +least of this vast sum may be kept at home, will be apparent to all, +and the more so as a dearth of timber is imminent, and outside supplies +are being rigidly conserved, while our home demands are ever on the +increase. England being, so to speak, a residential country, the +retention of a certain amount of heath, mountain and common lands, for +the purpose of deer forests, grouse moors, game coverts and golfing +links is imperative, and will considerably reduce the acreage of land +available for afforesting purposes. But I think that I am well within +bounds in alloting out of the 15,000,000 acres of waste land 1,000,000 +to afforesting and 14,000,000 to game preserves, deer forests and rough +pasture. + +Having personally explored much of the mountain and heath lands in +England and Scotland, and some of the vast tracts of bog land in +Ireland (the latter extending to fully one million acres), I have +carefully computed that of land up to 1,200 feet altitude, where +timber would grow perfectly well, about 9,000,000 acres are available +for afforesting purposes. As far as I have been able to find out, the +average rental of the ground referred to is a fraction under 3_s_. per +acre, and I am quite confident that any land which does not bring in +at least three times that amount for grazing or agricultural purposes +would be more profitably employed in carrying a crop of timber. + +It is unfortunate that much of these waste lands are private property, +the owners of which, even could they afford it, have little inclination +to sink, for a period of say twenty years, the necessary capital +required to be expended on the formation of woods and plantations. +Equally unfortunate is it that owing to an injudicious system of +management many plantations in this country have been wrongly formed—in +so far as adaptation of soil and trees are concerned, the results being +that financially speaking the woods are a failure, and proprietors in +consequence fight shy of further planting operations. I have examined +and reported on several of such woods in various parts of the country, +one of the most noticeable being in Nottinghamshire, where a large +area of ground was planted with a crop of oak, for which tree the soil +was quite unsuitable, the result being that over the whole ground the +average production of timber per tree was under 10 cubic feet in sixty +years. When pressing home the question of woodland extension I have +frequently been confronted by the argument that past experience does +not warrant further expenditure in that way. That this is true cannot +be denied, but let us hope that it will be remedied in the near future +by the better education of our foresters and by greater attention being +given to the relation of trees and soil. + +With the wholesale felling of timber for war purposes and the +disinclination of owners of land to engage in extensive planting +operations, the question naturally arises: What is the most feasible +way of overcoming the difficulty? + +In answer, and without the slightest hesitation, I would say that +the State should acquire and plant suitable waste lands at the rate +of 40,000 acres annually for a period of twenty-five years. Such +lands could, in England, Scotland and Wales, be gradually and cheaply +acquired by the State, while in Ireland there are vast tracts of peat +bog which their owners would willingly hand over to the Government at +the present time at a small cost per acre. Taking the British Isles as +a whole, the cost of procuring suitable lands would be at an annual +rental of about 3_s._ per acre, or 40_s._ per acre for purchase. On +the Gwydyr Estate, Carnarvonshire, 7,412 acres of land, described as +rough grazing and sheep walk, were lately sold by public auction for +£15,670, or at the rate of £2 2_s._ 3_d._ per acre. I have little faith +either in the State advancing money to landed proprietors towards +afforesting, or in municipalities coming to the front as planters of +woodlands. The State would be the best custodian of forest property for +the simple reason that the State only can readily acquire the needed +land in sufficient quantity and on the best terms, and I am fully +convinced that plantations formed under Government supervision will, in +an economic sense at least, be far more successful than those planted +either by private persons or public bodies. Again, the continuity +of ownership under such a scheme, together with the ample resources +guaranteed by State control, would both largely contribute towards a +successful issue in such an undertaking. + +The difficulty of housing and providing for the workmen employed in +afforesting out-of-the-way lands has been brought to my notice, but +from personal experience of similar work in Scotland and Wales I +anticipate little difficulty in that way. In these cases, where a good +deal of the work was carried out by contract, the workmen gladly walked +to and from the adjoining villages each day, often a distance of three +or four miles, bringing their midday meal with them, which was heated +or cooked on the ground. Then, as the plantations increase in age +and size, and sawmills are required, the ever-increasing industry so +created will cause hamlets to spring up in the wooded regions, just as +we find is the case in mining and quarrying districts. + +After careful computation I have no hesitation in saying that the area +of plantations in the United Kingdom could at once be doubled by the +planting of waste lands which at present do not bring in over 2_s._ per +acre per year of rental, with infinite benefit to the country generally +and a vast increase in the value of land both to the owner and farmer +who cultivates it. In the matter of afforesting, a grain of practice +is worth a ton of theory, and as I have personally supervised every +operation, from marking out the plantation boundary on the exposed +hillside, to draining, fencing, planting, thinning and disposing +of the produce, my opinions on the question are at least worthy of +consideration. + +=The Approaching Scarcity of Timber.=—Than timber no article is +probably more indispensable to the welfare of a nation, entering +extensively as it does into almost every trade and industry. For +England, therefore, with an ever-increasing import, the possibility +of a dearth of timber must be regarded with the keenest anxiety, more +particularly as this would entail prohibitive prices and seriously +cripple the trade of the country. The following table, as reported to +the Washington Bureau of Manufactures, will show at a glance the annual +imports of timber of the principal countries of Europe:— + + England 16,342,600 cub. yds. + Germany 11,766,667 ” + France 8,496,300 ” + Belgium 1,897,777 ” + Italy 915,148 ” + Denmark 849,630 ” + Spain 392,222 ” + Switzerland 313,778 ” + +In face of this it is only reasonable to suppose that the Government +will act promptly in the matter, remembering that no scheme of +afforesting, however extensive or well ordered, can bring the necessary +relief for at least forty years after its inception. For all this, and +in spite of numerous warnings as to the pressing necessity for tree +planting and the ominous signs of a timber famine, little or nothing +has been done, save the holding of meetings by the Board of Agriculture +and the purchase of a few hundred acres of waste land in Scotland. + +To sum up briefly, the situation is this:—England’s imports before the +war rapidly increased from a trifle under 3¼ million loads in 1864 to +fully 10 million loads in 1906, thus showing an increment of fully 7 +million loads in forty-two years. + +Most European countries have large internal supplies of timber, so +that, by a system of conserving and protective tariffs, the pinch of +want would not be felt severely for years to come. But not so England, +which is almost wholly dependent on supplies from abroad. + +According to the Secretary of the Agricultural Department of +Washington, the area of forests in the United States is 700 million +acres, but even now the States are more or less dependent on Canada, +and actually receive the entire surplus from that country. But +regarding the United States, ex-President Roosevelt said: “If the +present rate of forest destruction is allowed to continue with nothing +to offset it, a timber famine in the future is inevitable. Remember +that you can prevent such a famine occurring by wise action taken in +time; but once the famine occurs there is no possible way of hurrying +the growth of trees necessary to relieve it.” Again, the late Mr. Lewis +Miller, who had vast forests both in Sweden and Nova Scotia, told me +that in twenty-five years neither the United States nor Canada will +have much timber left, while Sweden and Finland are already played out. +“I am also of opinion,” he said, “that during the next twenty-five +years timber will be double its present price, and that it will not +only pay to plant land valued at 3_s._ per acre, but that worth 20_s._ +per acre.” These are no idle words, but the records of those who know +well what they are talking about; neither are the writers in any +sense pessimists. With all these warnings from men whose business it +is to study the question and who are fully qualified to advance an +opinion, surely it is time that we took up seriously the question of +afforestation. + +It may be said by some that the timber of our foreign possessions +will partly fill up the gap, but this is not the case. Indian timber, +principally teak, is not in request to any appreciable extent, while +the great African forests are hardwoods, and as a rule unsuited to our +wants. The forests of South America are on a par with those of India +and Africa, while China and Japan, as also Australia, require more +timber than they possess. + +=Cost of suitable Land for Afforesting.=—When in the past the question +of afforesting has been brought forward, the usual outcry has been +that suitable land is too expensive to buy. But this argument will no +longer suffice, for, as I have before pointed out, excellent land for +the cultivation of high-class timber can be procured in considerable +quantity at about £2 per acre. Through the kindness of Lord Ancaster’s +estate agent, I have been allowed to look over the sale contracts of +several parts of the Gwydyr Estate, in Carnarvonshire, and from these +I find that 7,412 acres were disposed of, at an average price of £2 +2_s._ 3_d._ per acre. The ground was excellent for the production of +timber, as the larch on other adjoining lands clearly evidenced. Again +the Crown recently purchased 12,500 acres in Scotland at the modest +rental of about £2 per acre. Other instances could be quoted, but the +above suffice to show that land in every way suited for profitable tree +planting can be bought at probably less than £2 per acre. + +It is perhaps unfortunate that many of these waste lands are private +property, the owners of which, even if they could afford it, have +little inclination to sink for a period of, say, twenty-five years +the necessary capital required to be expended on the formation of +plantations. But all this would be obviated by State ownership of the +woodlands. Private individuals, or, indeed, public bodies, labour +under many disadvantages in respect of afforestation, not the least, +as before stated, being the quarter of a century required before the +money expended in planting can be even partially recovered, while a +systematic method of cultivation and large wooded areas are first +necessities to successful timber culture. It is therefore preferable +in every way that the Government should take up the question of tree +planting on a large scale, the necessary land being available at a +moderate cost per acre. + +=Cost of Forming Plantations.=—This will vary greatly with the manner +in which the work is carried out, the particular district of the +country, nature of soil and rate of wages paid, as also whether fencing +and draining have to be engaged in. The difference in cost between +“notch” and “pit” planting is very considerable, and the fact that +the former method is almost exclusively adopted on the rough grounds +throughout Scotland accounts mainly for the smaller first outlay on +Scottish plantations. Thus at Grantown, Strathspey, the Countess of +Seafield’s estate, Mr. Thomson, the very capable wood manager, has +planted during the past forty-seven years upwards of 20,000 acres +of woodlands, at a cost, including fencing, of rather under £2 per +acre. In England, however, where, for various reasons, pit planting +is adopted, and larger plants are used, the cost varies from £5 to £6 +per acre. For all practical purposes, however, the cost of forming +plantations may be put down at, say, £5 per acre, as an average taken +from the following figures will show:— + +ENGLAND AND WALES. + + £ _s._ _d._ + Yorkshire, at 600 ft. altitude, cost of planting + and fencing per acre 4 18 9 + Kent, fencing and planting ” 6 3 0 + Lincolnshire ” ” ” 8 0 0 + Gloucestershire ” ” ” 7 10 0 + Carnarvonshire ” ” ” 5 2 0 + +SCOTLAND. + + Inverness-shire, Glengloy Estate, 800 ft. altitude, + cost of fencing and planting per acre 3 10 0 + Ross-shire, up to 1,200 ft. altitude, cost of + fencing and planting per acre 2 10 0 + Perthshire (planting only) ” 2 10 0 + Blair Athol, 3,665 acres, fencing and + planting ” 2 10 0 + Grantown, Strathspey, fencing and + planting ” 2 0 0 + +IRELAND. + + Wicklow, 700-900 ft. altitude, fencing and + planting per acre 4 13 11 + Armagh (bogland), fencing and planting ” 5 2 0 + +Another instance in Scotland may be recorded, in which 550 acres were +planted at a cost of £1,178, or at the rate of £2 2_s._ 10_d._ per +acre. This included for fencing, £164 18_s._ 4_d._; drainage, £123 +15_s._; plants, £520 10_s._; planting, £368 16_s._ 8_d._ + +In connexion with these figures, it may be reassuring to state that +in each case a strict account of the expenditure involved had been +carefully noted, and the returns given are practically correct. The +average cost, therefore, taking Great Britain as a whole, would be +about £5 per acre for fencing and planting the ground. The above-named +plantations, too, were formed on the very class of ground of which we +have so much lying idle or bringing in only a few shillings rental +per acre, in various parts of the country. The Ross-shire plantation +referred to was a bleak and barren moorland which the crofters, who +used it as a common for their cattle and sheep, refused to rent at +1_s._ per acre per annum, while at Strathspey the 20,000 acres of +land were let out previous to planting at 8_d._ per acre per annum. +Vast tracts of the bare hillsides of Wales are only bringing in a few +shillings of rental per acre. It should be remembered that all the +above-named plantations were formed on bleak, exposed moorlands—the +very class of waste lands that I have so strongly advocated as being +suitable for the woodlands of the future, and of which at the present +time there are about 15,000,000 acres lying idle in various parts of +the kingdom. Therefore the cost of planting may be considered as or +about £5 per acre. This, with £2 5_s._ for cost of purchase and 5_s._ +for incidental expenses, would bring the initial total expenditure to +£7 10_s._ per acre. Elsewhere I have suggested that 1,000,000 acres +should be planted over a period of twenty-five years, at the rate +of 40,000 acres per year, which would entail an outlay of £300,000 +annually—a small sum when compared with the £25,000,000 expended each +year by this country on supplies brought from abroad. + +But there is another point that I should like to touch upon whilst +dealing with the formation of plantations, and that is that the work +should only be entrusted to the efficient and practical wood manager, +who is fully conversant with the whole routine of woodland work. It +is frequently urged that forestry does not pay, but where this holds +good, the cause is always traceable to injudicious planting and wrong +methods of management. No more can we expect the gardener, gamekeeper, +estate joiner, or even the land agent to undertake economical timber +culture than we could expect the forester to carry out successfully +the duties of any of these individuals. Wrongly formed plantations +are, unfortunately, far too common, in so far, at least, as adaptation +of soil and trees are concerned, the result being that, financially +speaking, the woods are a failure, and proprietors, in consequence, +fight shy of further planting operations. When pressing home the +question of the extension of plantations, I have more than once been +confronted by the statement that past experience does not warrant +further expenditure in that way. That this is true cannot be denied, in +many instances at least, but, then, as above stated, faulty methods of +management are alone responsible for the failure. + +=Financial Returns from Tree Planting.=—Though it must be admitted +that, in the majority of cases at least, the financial returns cannot +be accepted as strictly correct (in most cases they are too low), +owing to the woods being treated for other than commercial purposes, +yet in not a few instances, where neither game-rearing nor ornamental +effect have to be considered, the yield of timber and gross returns +for a stated number of years are perfectly reliable. Of course, where +game coverts and underwood, or where the perfect development of the +trees, as in ornamental plantations, are matters of first importance, +and require that the individual specimens be scattered thinly over the +ground, the greatest yield of the best quality of timber cannot be +expected; but where, as on various Scottish and English estates, the +trees are grown thickly together and solely for their economic value, +the case is quite different, as the returns given below will attest. + +One hundred acres of common land were planted from 1852 to 1862. +Larch was the principal crop, with a few beech, Scotch pine, spruce +and silver fir. The plantation was thinned at intervals from 1871 to +1884, the thinnings being sold for close on £500, but many trees were +used for fencing and estate purposes generally. The whole plantation +was felled in 1907, and realized fully £4,500, or at the rate of £45 +per acre. The larch on the lower portion averaged 23¼ ft. per tree, +but on the exposed ground the trees were only about one-third of that +dimension. This plantation has a northern aspect, and is situated at +from 800 ft. to 1,300 ft. above sea-level. After allowing for the cost +of planting and interest on the money expended, the annual return +per acre comes to about 20_s._ The adjoining heath-covered lands let +for about 2_s._ 6_d._ per acre. Again, on the Countess of Seafield’s +estates, Scotland, on grazing land which formerly brought in 8_d._ per +acre, Mr. Thomson, the woods manager, tells me that, at the age of +forty-seven years, Scotch fir realized £40 per acre; while in another +wood the individual trees brought 24_s._ 6_d._ each. + +A larch plantation of 208 acres, on a steep hillside, was felled at the +age of fifty years. The actual returns during that period were: from +thinnings, £4,500; from final felling, £14,500; or fully £90 per acre. +The original cost of planting was under £5 per acre, and the value of +the land at thirty years’ purchase £7 10_s._ per acre, thus leaving a +balance of fully £78 per acre at the age of fifty years. + +The extensive hillside plantations formed by the late Lord Powerscourt +in Ireland, those at Glendalough in the same country, formed by the +Duke of Atholl between Dunkeld and Blair Atholl, those at Glengoy, in +Aberdeenshire, at Strathkyle in Ross-shire, and at Gwydyr and Penrhyn +Castle in the Principality of Wales—all of which were formed over +thirty-five years ago, account of the cost of formation and management +being strictly kept—these surely afford sufficient evidence not only +of the profitable returns to be obtained from woodlands, but of the +feasibility of afforesting mountain lands with vast benefit in the +way of shelter to the dreary, treeless, and bleak, exposed uplands +where the planting has been carried out. As far as actual profits are +concerned, it will be prudent to assume that for the first twenty years +no return whatever will be derived from hillside plantations, the sales +of thinnings up to that time barely covering the expense of cutting +and interest on first cost. From twenty-five to forty years an annual +return of fully 12_s._ per acre has in many instances been forthcoming, +while the value of the standing crop at the latter age has been found +to vary from £50 to £70 per acre. I do not think that these figures +would be, generally speaking, too high, as at Balfour, in Scotland, the +larch at forty-three years’ growth on a hillside were valued at 20_s._ +each, while a valuation of 21_s._ per tree was made of larch on the +slopes of the Snowdon range of hills, in Wales, at the age of forty +years. But many similar instances could be recorded, and are constantly +coming before those who have to do with the valuing and felling of +timber. + +The late Mr. Lewis Miller, who had probably a larger experience of home +woods than any other person, has given me some valuable and interesting +information regarding what he has paid per acre for larch in various +parts of Scotland. In twenty years, between 1870 and 1890, Mr. Miller +has cut down growing timber to the value of over £250,000. A great many +of the plantations were fifty years old, and yielded over £50 per acre +when finally cut down, apart from the value of the thinnings taken out +of them previously to the time they were cut down. To one proprietor +in Aberdeenshire he paid £60,000 for plantations about fifty years of +age, and the price worked out on an average at fully £50 per acre. +One particular plantation of larch in Aberdeenshire, about seventy +years old, yielded £150 per acre; another plantation, all larch, about +forty-four years of age gave over £100 per acre, and these plantations +were for the most part growing on what was formerly pasture or waste +land, and cost for planting and fencing from £2 to £2 10_s._ per acre. +It will be needless to multiply cases in which poor lands worth only +from 1_s._ to 3_s._ per acre have been made to realize by judicious +tree planting as much as 20_s._ per acre for fifty or sixty years +with a final crop worth from £50 to £75 per acre. All the plantations +above referred to are excellent object-lessons of the possibilities of +the British Isles for the production of high-class timber if woods are +properly planted and managed. + +=Advantages of Tree Planting.=—Not only from a strictly financial point +of view but also from a hygienic sense standpoint, plantations are of +the utmost importance. + +For shelter for farm stock, for improving the agricultural value of +the lower lying lands, and for the part they play in clothing and +ornamenting our bare commons and hillsides, their value can hardly +be over-estimated. Twenty-five years ago I formed a plantation on +a spur of the Snowdon range of hills, in Wales, where the fierce, +long-continued and hard-hitting blasts were of almost constant +occurrence, and the amount of shelter and warmth it now affords to the +farm stock and lower lying lands would hardly be credited. Previous to +the formation of this particular plantation, at altitudes varying up to +600 ft., the adjoining lands were quite incapable of cultivation, but +now crops are gradually creeping up the hillsides, while the farm stock +find the much-needed shelter and warmth that they were formerly denied. +So great has been the benefit of this wood both to man and beast that +the farmer on whose land it was planted speaks of it as “a Godsend.” +Other similar cases in Wales might be mentioned, as for instance the +plantations on the Gwydyr and Penrhyn Estates, and also those near +Abergele, where the judicious planting up of rocky and almost worthless +land has converted dreary and inhospitable districts into the most +fashionable and expensive residential property. In many parts of +Scotland, particularly Perth, Inverness and Aberdeenshire, equally good +results have been obtained by judicious tree planting. + +Another notable advantage gained by the planting of trees lies in the +provision of profitable work for the unemployed. As a special chapter +is devoted to this important subject, it need only be mentioned here. +It should not be overlooked that excellent results have followed in +the wake of planting bog lands in Ireland. In 1862 my father formed +several plantations there, a full account of which will be found in +the _Transactions of the Highland and Agricultural Society of Scotland_ +for 1873. I examined these woods and was agreeably surprised at the +height which the trees had attained, the cubic contents of the timber, +and the price realized. Incidentally, it might be noticed that the +ground previously to planting was a dreary, heath-clad waste, only +suitable for snipe-shooting and the production of turf for fuel. +Many other instances of the numerous advantages to be derived from +a well-organized system of tree planting could be cited, not the +least important being the greater facilities that would be afforded +for disposing of the timber. In many outlying districts all over the +country far removed from road and rail, it is difficult to get rid of +the small amount of timber that is periodically cut down, but were +larger quantities handled and a continuity of supply forthcoming, I +feel certain that timber merchants would be prompted to make special +transit arrangements. More than once I have been asked by Irish +landowners to recommend buyers of good larch and oak timber, but, after +negotiation, I have invariably been told by the merchant that the +quantity offered was far too small to allow of special facilities for +delivery being provided, since the timber was far away from road and +rail. They stated, however, that if a specified number of cubic feet +of good timber could be guaranteed annually for a number of years they +were quite prepared to buy. The same obstacles to the sale of timber +have been experienced in Scotland and remote parts of Wales. In these +cases a continuity of supply, such as would be forthcoming if my scheme +of afforesting was carried out, would ensure speedy sales at moderate +prices in places where at present it is difficult, if not impossible, +to dispose of small quantities except at ruinously low prices. + + + + +INDEX + + + A PAGE + Abele Poplar for Town Planting, 101 + Acacia, False, for Town Planting, 102 + Advantages of Tree Planting, 293 + Afforesting Waste Lands, 282 + _Agaricus melleus_, 218 + Ailanthus for Town Planting, 101 + Alder as Timber, 240 + —— Common, for Seaside Planting, 78 + —— for Economic Planting, 52 + —— —— Exposed Positions, 52 + —— —— Ornamental Planting, 117 + —— —— Seaside ” 78 + —— Hoary, for Seaside Planting, 78 + Almond for Town Planting, 107 + American Winged Elm for Exposed Planting, 70 + Andromeda for the Shade, 192 + Apple as Timber, 240 + Appliances used in Forestry, 153 + _Araucaria Imbricata_ Seed, 14 + Area of Woodlands, 280 + Arrangement of Plantations, 33 + Ash as Timber, 240 + —— for Economic Planting, 48 + —— —— Exposed ” 71 + —— —— Ornamental ” 132 + —— —— Seaside ” 79 + —— —— Town ” 104 + —— Seed, 11 + Aspect of Home Nursery, 26 + Aspen for Seaside Planting, 78 + Atlantic Cedar for Seaside Planting, 82 + —— —— for Economic Planting, 65 + _Aucuba Japonica_ for Town Planting, 105 + —— —— —— Game Coverts, 179 + —— —— —— Hedges, 189 + Austrian Pine for Economic Planting, 65 + —— —— —— Exposed Planting, 69 + —— —— —— Ornamental Planting, 118 + —— —— —— Town Planting, 108 + —— —— Seed, 11 + Autumn-tinted Foliage Trees for Ornamental Planting, 123 + Autumn Work in Home Nursery, 30 + + B + Bark, 255 + —— Stripping——Tools used, 222 + Barking Oak, 220-222 + Barron’s Transplanting Machine, 140 + Beam Tree for Seaside Planting, 77 + —— —— in London, 103 + Bedford Willow for Seaside Planting, 85 + Beech Coccus, 205 + Beech as Timber, 246 + —— for Economic Planting, 49 + —— —— Exposed ” 71 + —— —— Hedge ” 187 + —— —— Ornamental ” 188 + —— —— Seaside ” 80 + —— Seed, 11 + Beetle Pine, 193 + _Berberis Darwinii_ for Game Coverts, 180 + —— —— —— Hedge Planting, 189 + —— —— —— Seaside, 84 + Bhotan Pine for Ornamental Planting, 117 + Birch as Timber, 240 + —— for Economic Planting, 53 + —— —— Exposed ” 71 + —— —— Ornamental ” 122 + —— —— Seaside ” 79 + —— —— Town ” 104 + —— Seed, 11 + Bird Cherry for Exposed Planting, 71 + —— —— —— Town Planting, 104 + Black Italian Poplar for Town Planting, 101 + Blackberry for the Shade, 192 + Bladder Senna for Town Planting, 106 + —— Rust or Cluster-Cup, 219 + Blasting Tree Roots, 273 + Bog Soils, Trees for, 136 + _Bostrichus Laricis_, 194 + —— _Typographus_, 194 + Box for Hedge Planting, 188 + —— —— Game Covert, 177 + —— Thorn for Seaside Planting, 83 + Bracing a Tree, 159 + Briar for Hedge Planting, 188 + British Oak for Hedge Planting, 111 + —— Timber and its Uses, 240 + Broom for Seaside Planting, 84 + Buckthorn, Sea, for Seaside Planting, 82 + Burning Tree Stumps, 274 + Butcher’s Broom for Game Coverts, 182 + —— —— —— Carpeting in Shade, 192 + By-products of the Forest, 250 + + C + Canadian Poplar for Town Planting, 101 + Cedar for Seaside Planting, 82 + Cephalonian Fir for Ornamental Planting, 118 + Chalky Soil for Tree Planting, 130, 136 + Charcoal, 253 + —— Making, 226 + —— Comparative Value of Wood, 231 + —— Pit, 231 + —— Kiln Burning, 231 + —— Uses of, 232 + Cherry as Timber, 240 + —— for Exposed Planting, 71 + —— —— Ornamental Planting, 118 + Chestnut as Timber, 240 + —— for Town Planting, 104 + —— —— Economic Planting, 51 + Clay Soil for Tree Plantations, 138 + Cleaning and Pruning Hedges, 189 + Climbers for Town Planting, 107 + Cluster Pine for Planting, 81 + —— —— —— Ornamental Planting, 118 + —— —— —— Seaside Planting, 81 + Cockchafer, 202 + Colchic Laurel for Hedge Planting, 189 + Collecting Tree Seeds, 8 + Common Alder for Seaside Planting, 78 + —— Gorse for Seaside Planting, 84 + Common Holly for Seaside Planting, 84 + —— Ivy for Carpeting in Shade, 191 + —— —— —— Town Planting, 107 + —— Laburnum for Seaside Planting, 84 + —— Laurel for Hedge Planting, 189 + —— London Plane for Town Planting, 98 + —— Mulberry for Town Planting, 102 + Comparative Value of Woods for Charcoal Making, 231 + Conifers suitable for Chalky Soil, 131 + —— —— —— Reclaimed Peat Bog, 129 + —— for Economic Planting, 57 + —— —— Town Planting, 108 + —— Seeds, 9 + —— Seaside, 80 + Contract Work, Prices of, 277 + Contents, xi + Coppice Wood Management, 170 + —— Cost of, 173 + Cornelian Cherry for Ornamental Planting, 118 + —— —— —— Hedgerow Planting, 111 + Corsican Pine for Economic Planting, 59 + —— —— —— Exposed Planting, 70 + —— —— —— Ornamental Planting, 118 + —— —— —— Seaside Planting, 81 + —— —— Seeds, 11 + Cost of Forming Plantations, 287-288 + _Cratægus Pyracantha_ for Town Planting, 108 + Cricket Bat Willow, 54 + Cryptomeria for Ornamental Planting, 118 + Cucumber Tree for Town Planting, 101 + _Cupressus Lawsoniana_, Seed of, 11 + —— —— for Town Planting, 109 + Currant, Flowering, for Town Planting, 106 + Cut-leaved Trees, 121 + Cutting Osiers, 247 + Cypress for Ornamental Planting, 118 + —— —— Seaside Planting, 82 + + D + _Daphne Laureola_ for Seaside Planting, 84 + —— _Mezereon_ for Seaside Planting, 84 + Darwin’s Barberry for Seaside Planting, 84 + Deciduous Cypress for Ornamental Planting, 117 + Dedication, v + Dogwood for Seaside Planting, 83 + —— —— Charcoal, 232 + Double Furze for Town Planting, 106 + Douglas Fir for Economic Planting, 63 + —— —— Seed, 12 + Draining——Tools used, 37 + —— and Clearing Ground for Plantations, 36 + Dried Leaves as Litter, 251 + + E + Economic Planting, 47 + —— —— Trees for, 48 + Elder for Exposed Planting, 70 + —— —— Seaside Planting, 76 + Elegant Cryptomeria for Ornamental Planting, 118 + Elm, as Timber, 240 + —— English for Hedge Planting, 111 + —— for Economic Planting, 51 + —— —— Exposed Planting, 70 + —— —— Seaside Planting, 79 + —— —— Town Planting, 104 + —— Scotch, for Seaside Planting, 85 + —— Seed, 12 + —— Tree Destroyer, 199, 200 + English Elm for Hedge Planting, 111 + —— Maple for Seaside Planting, 79 + _Euonymus Japonicus_ for Seaside Planting, 84 + —— _Radicans Variegata_ for Carpeting in Shade, 192 + Evergreen Honeysuckle for Town Planting, 107 + —— Oak for Seaside Planting, 79 + Exposed Ground, Planting, 72 + + F + Faggots, 255 + False Acacia for Town Planting, 102 + Felling——Tools used, 43 + Felted Beech Coccus, 205 + Fencing, 97 + —— Plantations, 257 + —— Tools used, 264 + Fern-leaved Beech for Ornamental Planting, 118 + Financial Returns of Planting, 290 + Firewood, 252 + _Fitzroya Patagonica_ for Ornamental Planting, 118 + Flowering Currant for Town Planting, 106 + —— Trees for Ornamental Planting, 116 + Forest Area of the World, 280 + Forest By-Products, 250 + —— Produce, Utilizing, 250 + Forestry and the War, 1 + Formation of Game Coverts, 174 + —— —— Plantations, 32 + _Forsythia Viridissima_ for Town Planting, 106 + Fountain Willow, 121 + Fruit Trees for Ornamental Planting, 116 + Fungi on Trees, 212 + Furze for Hedge Planting, 188 + —— —— Town Planting, 106 + + G + Game Coverts, Formation and Management, 184 + _Gaultheria Procumbens_ for Carpeting in Shade, 192 + —— _Shallon_ for Carpeting in Shade, 192 + —— —— —— Game Coverts, 181 + Giant Arborvitæ for Economic Planting, 64 + —— —— —— Seaside Planting, 81 + Goat Moth, 200 + —— Willow for Seaside Planting, 78 + Golden Willow for Ornamental Planting, 117 + Gorse for Hedge Planting, 188 + —— —— Seaside Planting, 84 + Grasses for the Sea-Coast, 86 + —— —— Woodland Drives, 34 + Gravelly Soil for Tree Plantation, 131-137 + Green Tree Box for Game Coverts, 177 + _Griselinia Littoralis_ for Seaside Planting, 83 + —— —— —— Town Planting, 105 + Groundsel Tree for Seaside Planting, 84 + + H + Hard-wooded Trees for Economic Planting, 47 + Hardwoods for Chalky Soil, 130 + —— —— Clay Soils, 132 + —— —— Gravelly Soil, 131 + —— —— Ironstone Soils, 133 + —— —— Reclaimed Peat Bog, 129 + Hawthorn Seed, 12 + Hazel Nuts, 12 + Heather for the Shade, 192 + Heaven, Tree of, for Town Planting, 101 + Hedges as Fences, 185 + —— Formation of, 184 + —— Management, 184 + —— Ornamental, 188 + —— Planting, 186 + —— Pruning, 189 + Hedgerow and Field Planting, 110 + Hedging Tools used, 185 + Height of Trees, Measuring, 271 + Hoary Alder for Seaside Planting, 78 + Holly as Timber, 240 + —— Berries, 12 + —— Fly, 204 + —— for Game Coverts, 181 + —— —— Hedge Planting, 188 + —— —— Seaside Planting, 84 + Home Nursery, 24 + —— —— Spring Work, 28 + —— —— Summer Work, 30 + —— —— Autumn Work, 30 + —— —— Winter Work, 30 + Honeysuckle for Town Planting, 107 + Hornbeam as Timber, 241 + —— for Exposed Planting, 70 + —— —— Hedge Planting, 113, 167 + —— —— Seaside Planting, 80 + —— —— Town Planting, 104 + Horse Chestnut as Timber, 241 + —— —— for Town Planting, 104 + —— —— Seeds, 12 + Hot and Dry Soils, Shrubs for, 134 + How to Prune, 157 + Huntingdon Willow for Seaside Planting, 77 + _Hypericum Calycinum_ for Seaside Planting, 84 + + I + Imperial Alder for Ornamental Planting, 117 + Index, 295 + Indian Bean for Town Planting, 102 + Insects and Diseases Injurious to Forest Trees, 193 + Introduction, ix + Ironstone Soil for Plantations, 133, 138 + Italian Poplar for Town Planting, 101 + Ivy for Carpeting in Shade, 191 + —— —— Town Planting, 107 + + J + Japanese Cryptomeria for Ornamental Planting, 118 + _Jasminum Nudiflorum_ for Town Planting, 108 + Juneberry for Ornamental Planting, 118 + Juniper, Savin for towns, 109 + + K + Kentucky Coffee-Tree for Town Planting, 106 + Kilmarnock Willow, 121 + Kiln Burning Charcoal, 231 + + L + Laburnum, Common, for Seaside Planting, 84 + —— Moth, 202 + —— Scotch, for Seaside Planting, 84 + Lackey Moth, 200 + Land Sale on the Gwydyr Estate, 287 + Larch Aphis, 197 + —— Canker, 213 + —— Cones, 12 + —— Disease, Cause and Remedy, 213 + —— for Economic Planting, 57 + —— —— Exposed Planting, 71 + —— —— Hedge Planting, 114 + —— Miner, 195 + —— Sawfly, 198 + —— Timber, 241 + Large-Fruited Cypress for Seaside Planting, 82 + Laurel Spurge for Carpeting in Shade, 192 + Laurustinus for Game Coverts, 179 + —— —— Hedge Planting, 188 + —— —— Seaside Planting, 83 + —— —— Town Planting, 107 + Leaf-Shedding Fungus, 218 + Levelling, 38 + _Leycesteria Formosa_ for Town Planting, 106 + _Ligustrum Coriaceum_ for Town Planting, 105 + —— _Ovalifolium_ for Seaside Planting, 84 + Lilacs for Seaside Planting, 84 + —— —— Town Planting, 84 + Lime as Timber, 241 + —— for Hedge Planting, 113 + —— —— Town Planting, 103 + Litter of Dried Leaves, 251 + Lombardy Poplar for Hedge Planting, 112 + —— —— —— Town Planting, 101 + London Plane for Town Planting, 98 + Lymegrass for Seaside Planting, 84 + + M + Magnolias for Ornamental Planting, 118 + —— for Town Planting, 101 + _Mahonia Aquifolia_ for Game Coverts, 180 + Maidenhair Tree for Town Planting, 100 + Manna Ash for Ornamental Planting, 118 + Manufacture of Charcoal, 226 + Manure for Home Nursery, 26 + Maple as Timber, 241 + —— for Seaside Planting, 79 + Maram for Seaside Planting, 84 + Measuring Height of Trees, 272 + Measuring Standing Timber, 270 + Mezereon Laurel for Carpeting in Shade, 192 + Minor Products of Forest Waste, 256 + Mountain Ash for Exposed Planting, 70 + —— —— —— Seaside Planting, 78 + —— —— —— Town Planting, 104 + —— —— Seed, 12 + Mulberry for Town Planting, 102 + + N + Norway Maple for Seaside Planting, 76 + —— Spruce for Economic Planting, 64 + Notch Planting, 44 + Nursery, Formation and Management, 24 + —— Home, its Formation and Management, 24 + —— Plan of, 27 + —— Tools used in, 29 + —— Work for the Seasons, 28 + + O + Oak as Timber, 241 + —— Evergreen for Seaside Planting, 79 + —— for Economic Planting, 47 + —— —— Exposed Planting, 71 + —— —— Seaside Planting, 79 + —— —— Roller Moth, 204 + —— Seed, 13 + _Olearia Hastii_, 105 + _—— Macrodonta_, 105 + Oriental Plane for Town Planting, 98 + Ornamental Planting, 116 + —— Weeping Trees, 121 + _Osmanthus Ilicifolius_ for Town Planting, 105 + + P + Paper=Pulp, 251 + Peat Soil, 129 + Periwinkles for Carpeting in Shade, 191 + _Phillyrea Vilmoriniana_ for Town Planting, 106 + _Picia Sitchensis_, 59 + Pine Beetle, 193 + —— for Economic Planting, 59 + —— —— Exposed Planting, 70 + —— —— Ornamental Planting, 121 + —— —— Seaside Planting, 81 + —— Sawfly, 196 + —— Shoot Moth, 195 + —— Weevil, 194 + _Pinus Insignis_, 82 + _—— Montana_ for Seaside Planting, 81-85 + _—— Macrocarpa_ Seed, 14 + _—— Sabiniana_ Seed, 14 + _—— Stropus_, 11 + Pitch, 251 + Pitting, 40 + Plane for Town Planting, 99 + —— Tree in Regent’s Park, 99 + Plantations, Formation and Cost, 32 + —— Hedges, 184 + Planting, 41 + —— Advantages of Tree, 293 + —— Exposed Ground, 68 + —— Financial Returns of, 290 + —— Hedges, 184 + —— Iron, 45 + —— Ironstone Soils, 133 + —— Notch, 44 + —— Ornamental, 121 + —— Osiers, 243 + —— Tools used for, 43 + _Polyporus Sulphureus_, 219 + _—— Squamosus_, 216 + Poplar as Timber, 241 + —— for Economic Planting, 57 + —— Town Planting, 101 + _Populus Canadensis_ for Seaside Planting, 78 + _—— Alba_ for Seaside Planting, 78 + _—— Nigra_ for Seaside Planting, 78 + Portugal Laurel for Seaside Planting, 84 + Preface, vii + Preparation of Ground for Town Planting, 92 + —— —— —— Hedges, 184 + Prices of Contract Work, 277 + —— of Timber per ton, 239 + —— —— —— per cubic foot, 238 + —— —— Forest Produce, 237 + Prince Albert’s Fir for Ornamental Planting, 118 + Privet for Game Coverts, 178 + —— —— Hedge Planting, 188 + Propagating Trees and Shrubs, 15 + —— by Cuttings, 19 + —— —— Grafting, 22 + —— from Budding, 23 + —— —— Layers, 21 + —— —— Seed, 15 + Prune, How and When to, 157 + Pruning Bad Effects of, 152 + —— Dead Wood, 155 + —— Hedges, 152 + —— Live Branches, 154 + —— Shrubs, 157 + —— Tools used in, 153 + —— Trees, 151 + Purple Willow for Ornamental Planting, 117 + Pyrus for Ornamental Planting, 118 + + Q + Quick Hedges, 186 + + R + Red-Rot Fungus, 217 + Red Spider, 201 + _Retinospora_ for Town Planting, 109 + _Rhamnus Frangula_ for Charcoal, 233 + _Rhododendron Ponticum_ for Game Coverts, 180 + _Rhytisma Punctata_, 216 + _Rosa Rugosa_ for Hedge Planting, 188 + _—— Rubiginosa_ for Hedge Planting, 188 + Rowan Tree for Town Planting, 104 + _Ruscus Aculeatus_ for Seaside Planting, 84 + + S + St. John’s Wort for Carpeting in Shade, 191 + —— —— —— —— Game Coverts, 182 + Scotch Elm for Exposed Planting, 70 + —— —— —— Seaside Planting, 79 + —— Fir as Timber, 242 + —— —— for Hedge Planting, 113 + —— Laburnum for Seaside Planting, 84 + —— Pine for Economic Planting, 62 + —— —— —— Exposed Planting, 70 + —— —— —— Ornamental Planting, 118 + —— —— —— Seaside Planting, 82 + Sea Buckthorn for Seaside Planting, 82 + Seaside Planting, 73 + —— —— Hardwoods for, 76 + —— —— Shrubs for, 82 + —— —— List of Trees for, 85 + Seed, Best Depth for Germinating, 17 + —— Collecting and Harvesting, 8 + —— of Various Trees contained in a Bushel, 10 + —— Required to plant 100 sq. ft., 18 + —— Tree, number in a lb., 10 + Selecting Tree Seeds, 9 + Shade-loving Shrubs, 191 + Shrubs for Carpeting in Shade, 191 + Shrubs for Hot and Dry Soils, 134 + —— —— the Sea-Coast, 82-86 + —— —— Town Planting, 105-107 + Silver Fir as Timber, 242 + —— —— for Economic Planting, 64 + —— —— Seed, 13 + Sitka Spruce for Economic Planting, 59 + _Skimmia Japonica_ for Town Planting, 106 + Slate Fences for Plantations, 258 + Slit Planting, 44 + Snowberry for Seaside Planting, 83 + _Snowy Mespilus_ for Town Planting, 106 + Soil for Home Nursery, 26 + _Sophora Japonica_ for Town Planting, 104 + Spanish Broom for Seaside Planting, 84 + —— Chestnut as Timber, 51 + —— —— for Economic Planting, 51 + —— —— Seed, 12 + —— Silver Fir for Ornamental Planting, 118 + Spider, Red, 201 + _Spirea Adiantifola_ for Seaside Planting, 83 + Spring Work in Home Nursery, 28 + Spruce Fir as Timber, 242 + —— for Economic Planting, 59 + —— —— Ornamental Planting, 118 + —— Gall Aphis, 198 + Spurge Laurel for Carpeting in Shade, 192 + —— —— —— Town Planting, 106 + Stag’s Horn Sumach for Town Planting, 106 + Staking Trees, 119 + Standing Timber Measuring, 270 + Stone Walls for Fencing Plantations, 257 + Strawberry Trees for Town Planting, 106 + —— —— for Seaside, 84 + Summer Work in Home Nursery, 30 + Sweet-Bay for Seaside Planting, 84 + —— Briar for Hedge Planting, 188 + —— Chestnut for Economic Planting, 51 + Sycamore as Timber, 242 + —— for Economic Planting, 51 + —— —— Exposed Planting, 70 + —— —— Hedge Planting, 112 + —— —— Seaside Planting, 76 + —— —— Town Planting, 104 + —— Fungus, 216 + + T + Tamarisk for Seaside Planting, 76-82 + _Tamarix Gallica_ for Seaside Planting, 82 + _—— Germanica_ for Seaside Planting, 82 + Tansy-leaved Thorn for Town Planting, 105 + Tar, 251 + _Taxodium Distichum_ for Town Planting, 109 + Thinning Plantations, 141 + —— —— Rules for, 149 + Thorn Fly, 202 + —— for Hedge Planting, 186 + Thorns for Ornamental Planting, 118 + —— —— Seaside Planting, 83 + —— —— Town Planting, 105 + _Thujopsis Dolabrata_ for Town Planting, 109 + Timber, British, and Some of Its Uses, 240 + —— Measuring, 288 + —— Prices, 237 + Tools used in Forestry, 43 + Town Planting, 87-109 + —— —— Trees for, 98 + Transplanting Seedlings, 18 + —— Large Trees, 139 + —— Machine, Faulkner’s, 140 + —— Specimen Trees, 118 + Tree Groundsel for Seaside Planting, 84 + —— Guards, 265 + —— Mallow for Seaside Planting, 83 + Tree of Heaven for Town Planting, 101 + —— Planting, Advantages of, 293 + —— —— Financial Returns of, 290 + —— Pruning in Economic Forestry, 151 + —— Purslane for Seaside Planting, 83 + Trees and Shrubs, Propagating, 15 + —— best adapted for Various Soils, 128 + —— for Chalky or Calcareous Soils, 130 + —— —— Clay Soils, 132 + —— —— Economic Planting, 47 + —— —— Exposed Planting, 68 + —— —— Gravelly and Sandy Soils, 131 + —— —— Hedge Planting, 110 + —— —— Hedgerow and Field, 110 + —— —— Ironstone Soils, 133 + —— —— —— and Coal Soils, 133 + —— —— Ornamental Planting, 121 + —— —— Peaty Soils 129 + —— —— Seaside Planting, 85 + —— —— Town Planting, 98 + Trumpet Honeysuckle for Town Planting, 107 + Tulip Tree for Town Plantations, 102 + Turf Dykes for Plantations, 269 + Turkey Oak for Seaside Planting, 79 + Turpentine, 250 + + U + Umbrella Pine for Ornamental Planting, 118 + Underwood, 170 + Uses of Charcoal, 232 + Utilizing Waste Forest Produce, 250 + + V + Value of Woods for Charcoal Making, 231 + —— —— Reclaimed Peat Bog, 129 + Venetian Sumach for Town Planting, 106 + _Vinca Major_ for Seaside Planting, 84 + —— _Minor_ for Seaside Planting, 84 + Vine for Town Planting, 108 + Virginia Creeper for Town Planting, 107 + + W + Walnut as Timber, 242 + —— for Town Planting, 104 + —— Seed, 13 + Waste Forest Produce, Utilizing, 250 + Water for Home Nursery, 26 + Watering Trees, 97 + Wayfaring Tree for Town Planting, 106 + Weeping Ash for Town Planting, 104 + —— Trees for Ornamental Planting, 121 + Weymouth Pine for Economic Planting, 60 + —— Pine Seeds, 11 + When to Prune, 157 + White Beam Tree for Town Planting, 102 + —— Fruited Mulberry for Town Planting, 102 + —— Rot Fungus, 218 + Wild Cherry for Exposed Planting, 71 + Willow Beetle, 197 + —— Culture, 243 + —— for Economic Planting, 54 + —— —— Ornamental Planting, 117 + —— —— Seaside Planting, 78 + —— —— Timber, 242 + —— —— Town Planting, 104 + —— Kilmarnock, 121 + —— Ringlet, 121 + Willows for Basket-Making, 243 + —— Profits of Culture, 248 + —— Rules for Culture, 247 + Winged Elm for the Seaside, 77 + Winter Moth, 210 + —— Work in Home Nursery, 30 + Wire Fences for Plantations, 263 + Wireworms, 208 + Witch’s Broom or Willow, 210 + Wood Fences for Plantations, 262 + —— Leopard Moth, 203 + Woods for Charcoal Making, 231 + + Y + Yew as Timber, 242 + —— for Game Coverts, 181 + —— —— Hedge Planting, 188 + —— Seed, 13 + +Butler & Tanner Frome and London + + + +*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 76876 *** |