path: root/76768-0.txt

*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 76768 ***





                              ENGLISH GRAMMAR

                                    BY
                            LILLIAN G. KIMBALL
             FORMERLY HEAD OF ENGLISH DEPARTMENT, STATE NORMAL
                        SCHOOL, OSHKOSH, WISCONSIN
             AUTHOR OF “THE STRUCTURE OF THE ENGLISH SENTENCE”
                    “ELEMENTARY ENGLISH, BOOK ONE,” AND
                      “ELEMENTARY ENGLISH, BOOK TWO”

                    NEW YORK ·:· CINCINNATI ·:· CHICAGO
                           AMERICAN BOOK COMPANY

                            COPYRIGHT, 1912, BY
                          AMERICAN BOOK COMPANY.

                   ENTERED AT STATIONERS’ HALL, LONDON.

                          KIMBALL’S ENG. GRAMMAR.




PREFACE


The purpose of this book is to set forth in a simple and practical manner
the principles of modern English Grammar. The aim has been not only to
give the pupils an insight into the structure of the English sentence,
but also to provide them with exercises helpful to the formation of good
habits of speech.

It is a matter of common knowledge among teachers of grammar that a
mere understanding of the rules of syntax does not insure the avoidance
of errors and the use of correct forms. The use of language by young
persons is instinctive and spontaneous rather than reflective, hence the
most effective way for them to secure correctness of speech is through
imitation and practice. Recognizing this fundamental fact in language
teaching, the author has provided many exercises both for the learning
of correct forms and for practice in their use. These the teacher is
expected to supplement by constant criticism, example, and stimulus.

After the pupil has been led to appreciate and strive for correctness of
speech, he naturally wishes to understand why a certain form is correct
or incorrect, to have a test for his own speech and a standard by which
to judge the speech of others. Only by such an understanding does he gain
a mastery of the form of a language so that he can use it with ease,
freedom, and certainty. To promote such a mastery of English, the author
has made each construction perfectly clear, and has led the pupil through
accurate reasoning to conclusions which are strengthened and established
by their application to many illustrative sentences chosen from standard
literature.

The selection and the arrangement of subject matter have been carefully
considered in the light of experience in the classroom. The arrangement
is at the same time pedagogical and logical. Each point is taken up where
it is called for by the preceding lesson and where it will be of greatest
use in making clear what follows. Technical points that have little or no
practical value have been omitted, but whatever is of benefit in helping
the pupil to use or to interpret the English language has been included.

Thanks are due to many teachers for helpful criticisms of the manuscript
of this book.




CONTENTS


    LESSON                                                            PAGE

         I. Declarative Sentences. Subject and Predicate                 9

        II. Simple Subject. Nouns                                       11

       III. Classification of Nouns                                     13

        IV. Verbs                                                       15

         V. Pronouns                                                    18

        VI. Compound Subject and Compound Predicate                     19

       VII. Transposed Subject and Predicate                            22

      VIII. Interrogative Sentences                                     23

        IX. Adjectives                                                  25

         X. Adverbs                                                     28

        XI. Phrases. Analysis of Sentences                              31

       XII. Prepositions                                                34

      XIII. Term of Address. Exclamatory Noun                           39

       XIV. Imperative Sentences                                        41

        XV. Interjections                                               43

       XVI. Exclamatory Sentences                                       44

      XVII. Conjunctions                                                46

     XVIII. Clauses. Simple Sentences                                   48

       XIX. Compound Sentences                                          50

        XX. Dependent Clauses. Complex Sentences                        52

       XXI. Review: Classification of Sentences                         55

      XXII. Review: Parts of Speech                                     57

     XXIII. Transitive Verbs. Object of Verb                            60

      XXIV. Intransitive Verbs asserting Action                         64

       XXV. Intransitive Verbs asserting Being. Nouns as Subjective
                Complements                                             66

      XXVI. Adjectives as Subjective Complements                        69

     XXVII. Review of Verbs                                             72

    XXVIII. Nouns: Number                                               74

      XXIX. Nouns: Gender                                               77

       XXX. Possessive Nouns                                            80

      XXXI. Nouns: Case                                                 83

     XXXII. Nouns: The Appositive                                       85

    XXXIII. Appositive Adjectives                                       88

     XXXIV. Indirect Object                                             89

      XXXV. Adverbial Noun Phrases                                      91

     XXXVI. Adverbial Noun Phrases                                      92

    XXXVII. Objective Complement                                        94

   XXXVIII. Parsing of Nouns                                            96

     XXXIX. Personal Pronouns                                           98

        XL. Uses of Personal Pronouns                                  100

       XLI. Uses of Possessive Personal Pronouns                       103

      XLII. Compound Personal Pronouns                                 106

     XLIII. Interrogative Pronouns                                     108

      XLIV. Descriptive Adjectives                                     110

       XLV. Limiting Adjectives                                        113

      XLVI. Comparison of Adjectives                                   116

     XLVII. Review of Adjectives                                       120

    XLVIII. Adjective Pronouns                                         121

      XLIX. Verbs: Tense                                               123

         L. The Indicative Mode                                        127

        LI. The Interrogative Form of the Indicative Mode              129

       LII. The Subjunctive Mode                                       131

      LIII. The Imperative Mode                                        134

       LIV. Principal Parts of Verbs. Regular and Irregular Verbs      135

        LV. Voice                                                      140

       LVI. The Passive Voice                                          144

      LVII. The Progressive Conjugation                                148

     LVIII. The Emphatic Conjugation                                   149

       LIX. Parsing of Verbs                                           150

        LX. The Auxiliary Verbs _Shall_ and _Will_                     151

       LXI. Defective Verbs. Verb Phrases                              154

      LXII. Direct and Indirect Discourse                              162

     LXIII. Agreement of Verb and Subject. Collective Nouns            165

      LXIV. Review of Verbs                                            168

       LXV. Classification of Adverbs. Simple Adverbs                  169

      LXVI. Conjunctive Adverbs                                        171

     LXVII. Summary of Adverbs                                         173

    LXVIII. Coördinate Conjunctions                                    174

      LXIX. Subordinate Conjunctions                                   176

       LXX. Adverbial Clauses of Time, Place, and Manner               180

      LXXI. Adverbial Clauses of Cause, Purpose, and Result            183

     LXXII. Adverbial Clauses of Condition and Concession              186

    LXXIII. Adverbial Clauses of Comparison                            188

     LXXIV. Analysis of Sentences                                      191

      LXXV. Adjective Clauses                                          193

     LXXVI. Relative Pronouns                                          196

    LXXVII. Noun Clauses                                               200

   LXXVIII. Introductory Words of Noun Clauses                         203

     LXXIX. Review of Clauses                                          206

      LXXX. Review of Pronouns                                         207

     LXXXI. Infinitives                                                209

    LXXXII. Infinitives as Subjects or Complements                     212

   LXXXIII. Infinitives as Modifiers of Nouns                          215

    LXXXIV. Infinitives as Parts of “Double Objects.” As Modifiers
                of Verbs                                               216

     LXXXV. Other Uses of Infinitives                                  220

    LXXXVI. Summary of Infinitives                                     224

   LXXXVII. Analysis of Sentences containing Infinitive Phrases        225

  LXXXVIII. Participles                                                228

    LXXXIX. Participles modifying Nouns                                231

        XC. Participial Phrases in the Predicate                       234

       XCI. Absolute Participial Phrases                               237

      XCII. Agreement of Participles. Other Words in _-ing_            239

     XCIII. Summary of Participles                                     243

      XCIV. Analysis of Sentences                                      244

       XCV. Anticipative Subject                                       247

      XCVI. Elliptical Sentences                                       249

     XCVII. Review of Analysis                                         252

    General Review                                                     257

    Index                                                              265




I. DECLARATIVE SENTENCES. SUBJECT AND PREDICATE


=1.= The purpose of English Grammar is to set forth the laws and customs
governing the use of the English language. We study grammar in order that
we may express our thoughts correctly.

A group of words, sometimes few, sometimes many, that completely
expresses a thought is called a =sentence=. In speech one sentence is
set off from another by a slight pause. On the written or printed page
sentences are separated from each other by a slight space, while the
first word of every sentence begins with a capital letter, and the last
word is followed by some sort of terminal mark.

Most sentences are made to state, or declare, something, and hence are
called =declarative= sentences. The following are declarative sentences:—

    Molly danced up and down with delight.

    My grandfather’s desk had the best light in the room.

=2.= Declarative sentences consist of two distinct parts. One part names
the person, place, or thing which the sentence tells something about.
This part is called the subject. The other part is the telling part. It
is called the predicate.

In the first example _Molly_ is the subject, because it names the person
about whom something is told. _Danced up and down with delight_ is the
predicate, because it tells something about Molly.

What is the subject in the second example? the predicate? How do you
know? What terminal mark follows a declarative sentence?

=Summary.=—A =sentence= is a group of words that completely expresses a
thought.

A =declarative sentence= is one that states, or declares, something.

A declarative sentence is always followed by a period.

The =subject= of a sentence is the part which names that about which
something is said.

The =predicate= of a sentence is the part which says something about the
subject.

=Exercise 1.=—Tell why each of the following sentences is declarative.
Select the subject, and tell why it is the subject. Select the predicate,
and tell why it is the predicate. Tell all this in good language. Write
it about one of the sentences, and be sure to underline the words that
should be printed in italics. (See § 2.) Remember that all the words in
the sentence belong either in the subject or in the predicate.

    1. The village street was as quiet as the fields.

    2. The great crashes of deep bass notes sent little thrills
    down our backs.

    3. The cat could not find anything to eat except a thin,
    dried-up old mole.

    4. Little gray-eyed Caroline went to live with her Aunt Fogg.

    5. The traveler, being quite faint for lack of food, helped
    himself to the leg of a roast chicken.

    6. Four is the right number for a pie.

    7. A young girl of wonderful beauty lay asleep on the bed.

    8. Mary shut the parlor door with a great slam.

    9. Beauty, full of surprise but very happy, permitted the
    prince to lead her to his palace.

    10. The magic song still rose from the vines outside the
    chamber window.

    11. We cats are confined entirely to the society of each other.

    12. The glassy water was sparkling with stars.

    13. Locusts devoured the green things of the valley.

    14. Not a living soul was to be seen.

    15. My little half-starved cat grew white and plump and pretty.

=Exercise 2.=—Find five interesting declarative sentences in a story
book. Write them with the subject underlined.

=Exercise 3.=—Write a fitting predicate for each of the following
subjects:—

    1. A boy with a fish pole

    2. Abraham Lincoln

    3. My last dime

    4. The man on the ice wagon

    5. Our old white rooster

    6. Not a girl in the class

    7. The battered old musket

    8. The haymakers

    9. The miner’s cabin

    10. Moving picture shows




II. SIMPLE SUBJECT. NOUNS


=3.= It is evident from the sentences in Exercise 1, p. 10, that the
subject of a sentence may consist of one word or of a group of words. In
the sentence, “Peter was sitting by himself,” the subject is only the one
word _Peter_. In the sentence, “A lovely old lady with white hair and a
gentle, noble face came to the door,” the subject is a group of twelve
words. What are they?

When the subject of a sentence is a group of words, there is always
a base word in the group, which, more than any other word, names or
designates the person, place, or thing about which something is said.
This word is called the simple subject.

What is the simple subject in the sentence that tells who came to the
door? What are the simple subjects in sentences 1, 2, 5, 7, 12, 14, and
15 in Exercise 1, p. 10?

=4.= Every word in a sentence is used for a particular purpose. Because
words are used for different purposes they have been divided into classes
called =parts of speech=.

In the sentences just studied the words _Peter_ and _lady_ are used to
name certain persons. Name words are called nouns. A noun is a part of
speech.

=5.= Not every noun is the name of a person. Many are names of places;
as, _Oshkosh_, _pasture_, _corner_. Many more are names of things of all
sorts; as, _peach_, _violet_, _bee_, _thimble_, _automobile_.

In the sentence about the lovely old lady, find three nouns that are
names of things.

Any noun may be used as the simple subject of a sentence. Write sentences
in which the nouns _hair_, _face_, and _door_ are so used.

=Summary.=—The =simple subject= of a sentence is the base word, or most
important word, of the subject.

=Parts of speech= are the classes into which words are divided according
to their use.

A =noun= is a name word.

A noun may be used as the simple subject of a sentence.

=Exercise.=—Write a list of all the nouns you can find in the following
paragraphs. Tell what each noun is the name of. Point out five nouns that
are simple subjects. What are their predicates?

    1. At last Purun Dass went to England on a visit, and had to
    pay enormous sums to the priests when he came back to India;
    for even so high-caste a Brahmin as he lost caste by crossing
    the black sea. In London he met and talked with every one
    worth knowing—men whose names go all over the world—and saw a
    great deal more than he said. He was given honorary degrees by
    learned universities, and he made speeches and talked of Hindu
    social reform to English ladies in evening dress, till all
    London cried, “This is the most fascinating man we have ever
    met at dinner since cloths were first laid.”

    2. Her godmother laughed, and touched Cinderella also with the
    wand; at which her wretched, threadbare jacket became stiff
    with gold, and sparkling with jewels; her woolen petticoat
    lengthened into a gown of sweeping satin, from underneath
    which peeped out her little feet, no longer bare, but covered
    with silk stockings and the prettiest glass slippers in the
    world. “Now, Cinderella, depart; but remember, if you stay one
    instant after midnight, your carriage will become a pumpkin,
    your coachman a rat, your horses mice, and your footmen
    lizards; while you yourself will be the little cinder wench you
    were an hour ago.”




III. CLASSIFICATION OF NOUNS


=6.= There are certain beings in the world that are called men, and
certain other beings that are called horses, certain things that are
called cities, and certain other things that are called rivers, hence
the words _man_, _horse_, _city_, and _river_ are names, or nouns. Since
these nouns belong in common to a great many individuals, we call them
=common nouns=.

=7.= On the other hand, every man, every horse, every city, and every
river is likely to have a _special_ name that distinguishes that
particular man or horse or city or river from all others. _Cæsar_,
_Gypsy_, _Denver_, and _Penobscot_ are such names. Since these names
belong to only one thing instead of to a class of things, we call them
=proper nouns=.

=8.= A common noun is a name that belongs to a person, a place, or a
thing because of its nature or qualities. A boat is entitled to the name
_boat_ because it has the characteristics of boats. A proper noun is a
name conferred or given by some person, as when a certain boat was named
by its owners _Westernland_.

It sometimes happens that the same name is conferred upon several
objects. There is more than one city named Madison, more than one dog
named Shep. Still these names are proper names, because they are names
conferred upon a special city and a special dog to distinguish them from
other cities and other dogs.

A proper noun always begins with a capital letter.

=9.= When a word denoting relationship, like _father_, _mother_, _uncle_,
is used as the name of a particular person, it is a proper noun and
should therefore begin with a capital letter; as, “Did Father say that
Grandma and Auntie are coming?”

=10.= A title like _Colonel_, _Judge_, _Duke_, is a proper noun when
it is used to denote a special person; as, “Thousands had gathered to
welcome the Colonel home.” When such a word is the name of a class of
persons, it is a common noun; as, “A new uniform was designed for the
colonels.”

When a title is followed by another name, as, _Colonel Bouck_, _Judge
Gary_, the two words are considered as one proper noun. In the same way,
any group of two or more words forming one special name may be considered
as one proper noun; as, _Liberty Bell_, _Bay of Biscay_, _Mountains of
the Moon_. In such groups of words, each important word begins with a
capital letter.

    NOTE.—Names of qualities, conditions, or actions are often
    called =abstract nouns=; as, _honesty_, _power_, _boyhood_, the
    _passing_ of the train, sound _thinking_, _suspense_.

=Summary.=—A =common noun= is a noun that belongs in common to each one
of a class of persons, places, or things.

A =proper noun= is a name that has been conferred upon a particular
person, place, or thing.

Every proper noun should begin with a capital letter.

=Exercise.=—Select all the nouns in the following sentences, and tell
whether they are common or proper nouns. Give your reason in each case.
Account for the capitalization.

    1. The Bermudas are a cluster of small islands, lying as far
    south as Charleston, as far east as Nova Scotia.

    2. Hotel Hamilton is a large, commodious building with many
    pillars and broad verandas.

    3. The _Tenedos_ is lying off Grassy Bay, making herself fine
    to receive the Princess Louise, and her jolly tars are in high
    spirits.

    4. On the Sunday of the christening, Mrs. Howe and her children
    watched the merrymaking in Poverty Lane from a second story
    window.

    5. Where was Prospero’s cell? Where slept the fair Miranda?
    Upon what bank sat Ferdinand when Ariel sang?

    6. The Duluth High School is a fine structure built of red
    sandstone.

    7. The _Deliverance_ was a ship of eighty tons.

    8. Old Lobo, or the King, as the Mexicans called him, was the
    gigantic leader of a remarkable pack of gray wolves, that had
    ravaged the Currumpaw Valley for a number of years.

    9. About this time I met with an odd volume of the _Spectator_.

    10.

        Wynken, Blynken, and Nod one night
        Sailed off in a wooden shoe.

    11. Let us all go to the station Monday to meet Uncle.

    12.

        The cows were coming one by one;
        Brindle, Ebony, Speckle, and Bess,
        Shaking their horns in the evening wind.

    13. Gunpowder had been a favorite steed of his master’s, the
    choleric Van Ripper, who was a furious rider.

    14. Upstream, at the bend of the sluggish pool round the Peace
    Rock, stood Hathi, the wild elephant, with his sons, gaunt and
    gray in the moonlight.

    15. In his eighth year Charles Lamb entered Christ’s Hospital,
    a famous school in London.

It is evident from this exercise that several different sorts of things,
as hotels, streets, books, and ships, may have special names conferred
upon them. Think of ten other things that may have special names, and
write two names for each one.




IV. VERBS


=11.= Just as the subject of a sentence may consist of only one word, so
may the predicate. Hence it is that a declarative sentence may contain
only two words, one being the subject and the other the predicate; as in
the sentence, “Water runs.” Here the noun _water_ names the thing about
which something is told, and the word _runs_ tells something about water.

=12.= In every predicate, no matter how long it is, there is always one
word, or a little group of words, which does more of the telling than all
the rest of the predicate. In fact, without this word or group of words,
there would be no statement at all. In the sentence, “A red sash with
fringes of gold wraps his waist several times,” the predicate consists of
five words, but the one word that counts for most in making the statement
is the word _wraps_. This word is called a verb. A verb is a part of
speech.

A verb, being the essential part of a predicate, is called the =simple
predicate=.

=13.= Sometimes a verb consists of two, or three, or even four words.
What is the verb in each of the following sentences?—

    All the cherries had been picked from the trees near the house.

    The watchman on the roof was listening for the first sounds of
    day.

    A tall, dark figure might have been seen at the end of the
    avenue.

=14.= When the verb in a given sentence has been found, the subject may
be discovered by asking the question formed by placing the word _who_
or _what_ before the verb. For example, in the sentence, “The parrot’s
story, with the various pauses and interruptions, occupied a good deal of
time,” _occupied_ is the verb because it is the telling word. Asking the
question _what occupied_? we get the answer, _the parrot’s story, with
the various pauses and interruptions_, hence this group of words is the
subject. What is the simple subject?

=15.= In grammar we often use the word _assertion_ instead of
_statement_, and the word _assert_ instead of _make a statement_.

=Summary.=—A =verb= is an asserting word.

A verb may consist of one word, two, three, or four words, but never of
more than four words.

A verb is the necessary part of every predicate, hence it is called the
=simple predicate=.

To find the subject of a verb, ask the question made by using the word
_who_ or _what_ before the verb.

=Exercise.=—Divide the following sentences into subject and predicate.
Select the predicate verb, and tell why it is a verb. Find the simple
subject of each sentence. Tell what part of speech it is, and why.

    1. The procession moved from the palace to the church with
    great pomp.

    2. The blue eyes of the Greek sparkled.

    3. The magnificent buildings of the hospital stand on level
    land near the river.

    4. The gentle young bride was frightened by the silent,
    mysterious ways of the old Indian.

    5.

        The poorest twig on the elm tree
        Was ridged inch deep with pearl.

    6. The great hall of the palace was illuminated with a thousand
    lamps.

    7. His anvil makes no music on Sunday.

    8. The raccoon’s story was received with general approbation.

    9. This old hunter must have told many tales.

    10. Our conference under the peepul tree had been growing
    noisier and noisier.

    11. One great name can make a country great.

    12. The camels slept.

    13. No European could have made five miles a day over the ice
    rubbish and the sharp-edged drifts.

    14. The cows should have been milked before sundown.

    15.

        The deep waters of the bay
        Stir with the breath of hurrying day.

    16. Wully could not have imagined any greater being than his
    master.

    17. Everything out of doors was sheathed in silver mail.

    18. The duck mother would have liked the eel’s head herself.

In sentence 18 is _herself_ in the subject or in the predicate?




V. PRONOUNS


=16.= When a person makes an assertion about himself he uses for the
subject of his sentence, not his name, but the word _I_ instead. Will
Dunlap does not say, “Will Dunlap saw a flock of wild geese this morning,
and heard them too.” He says, “I saw a flock of wild geese this morning,
and heard them too.” The word _I_, which is used instead of a name, or
noun, is called a =pronoun=. A pronoun is a part of speech.

What pronoun besides _I_ do you find in the sentence quoted? For what
noun is it used?

=17.= Pronouns are used a good deal, especially in conversation, for
often instead of using the name of the person we are speaking to, we use
the pronoun _you_; and in speaking _of_ persons, we use, provided their
names are already known to our listeners, the pronouns _he_, _she_, or
_they_.

=Summary.=—A =pronoun= is a word used instead of a noun.

A pronoun can be the subject of a sentence.

By the use of pronouns we avoid the repetition of nouns and the use of
clumsy expressions.

=Exercise.=—In the following conversation select all the pronouns.
Rewrite a portion of the conversation, using the nouns that the pronouns
stand for. In changing pronouns to nouns it is sometimes necessary to
make a change in the verb also. After using nouns for pronouns, tell what
you think about the usefulness of pronouns.

    “What do you think, Tirzah? I am going away.”

    Tirzah dropped her hands with amazement.

    “Going away! When? Where? For what?”

    Judah laughed, then said, “Three questions, all in a breath.
    What a body you are!” Next instant he became serious. “You know
    the law requires me to follow some occupation. Our good father
    set me an example. Even you would despise me if I spent in
    idleness the results of his industry and knowledge. I am going
    to Rome.”

    “Oh, I will go with you.”

    “You must stay with Mother. If both of us leave her, she will
    die.”

    The brightness faded from her face.

    “Ah, yes, yes! But—must you go? Here in Jerusalem you can learn
    all that is needed to be a merchant—if that is what you are
    thinking of.”

    “But that is not what I am thinking of. The law does not
    require the son to be what the father was.”

    “What else can you be?”

    “A soldier,” he replied, with a certain pride of voice.

    Tears came into her eyes.

    “You will be killed.”

    “If God’s will, be it so. But, Tirzah, the soldiers are not all
    killed.”

    She threw her arms around his neck, as if to hold him back.

    “We are so happy! Stay at home, my brother.”

    “Home cannot always be what it is. You yourself will be going
    away before long.”

    “Never!”

    He smiled at her earnestness.

    “A prince will come soon and claim my Tirzah, and ride away
    with her, to be the light of another house.”

    She answered with sobs.

    “War is a trade,” he continued, more soberly. “To learn it
    thoroughly, one must go to school, and there is no school like
    a Roman camp.”

                                                       —LEW WALLACE.




VI. COMPOUND SUBJECT AND COMPOUND PREDICATE


=18.= It frequently happens that a person performs several actions at
the same time, and that all of them are worth telling. In such a case we
do not make several separate sentences, but one sentence with several
predicates; as, “I looked at my plate and winked back the tears.” Here we
have two predicate verbs, _looked_ and _winked_, hence two assertions. In
such a sentence we say that there is a =compound predicate=.

=19.= The compound predicate is used also when we tell of a number of
actions performed in succession by one subject; as, “Father Wolf woke up
from his day’s rest, scratched himself, yawned, and spread out his paws
one after the other to get rid of the sleepy feeling in the tips.” How
many predicates are there in this sentence? What mark separates them?
Two or more predicates in succession, having the same subject, form what
is called a =series=. Words or groups of words in a series are separated
from each other by the comma unless some joining word is used; but when
only the last two of a series are joined by some word, the comma is used
before this word.

=20.= We frequently wish to make the same assertion about several persons
or things, but we do not make several sentences, repeating the predicate
each time, for that would be tedious. Instead, we make one sentence with
several subjects; as, “The fresh fruit and milk and the slices of cold
chicken looked very nice.” This sentence has three distinct subjects.
What are they? In such a sentence we say that there is a =compound
subject=. Why is no comma used in this sentence?

=Summary.=—A =compound subject= is one that consists of two or more
distinct subjects united into one.

A =compound predicate= is one that consists of two or more distinct
predicates united into one.

Two parts of a compound predicate are separated from each other by a
comma unless they are very short. When there are more than two parts, and
the last two are joined by some such word as _and_, a comma is placed
after each part, even before the joining word.

When a compound subject consists of more than two parts, a comma is
placed after each part, unless all the parts are joined by some word.

Any sentence may have a compound subject, or a compound predicate, or
both.

=Exercise.=—Tell why the following sentences are declarative. Tell
whether each has a compound subject, or a compound predicate, or both.
Write each sentence, and draw a vertical line between subject and
predicate. Underline the simple subjects, and tell what part of speech
they are. Underline also the simple predicates, or predicate verbs.
Account for the punctuation.

    1. The oars dipped, arose, poised a moment, then dipped again,
    with winglike action, and in perfect time.

    2. The eyes and mouths of the auditors opened wide.

    3. This poor child became the scapegoat of the house, and was
    blamed for everything.

    4. The four cane-seated chairs, the walnut table, the haircloth
    sofa, and the little stand always spoke to me of my childhood
    days.

    5. She took the key bravely, but opened with a trembling hand
    the door of the little room.

    6. Such timber and such workmanship don’t come together often
    in houses built nowadays.

    7. Vast crowds of spectators lined the way, or gazed upon the
    scene from the housetops.

    8. The rider then put his foot upon the camel’s slender neck,
    and stepped upon the sand.

    9. The laborers paused, sat up, wrung the water from their
    hands, and returned the salutation.

    10. The statue of the Indian chief or the soldiers’ monument in
    the public square was given to the city by one of the pioneers.

    11. Spruce bachelors looked sidelong at the pretty maidens, and
    fancied that the Sabbath sunshine made them prettier than on
    week days.

    12. Grandmothers, mothers, and aunts sat across the end of the
    hall.

    13. He brought a carpet or square rug from the litter, and
    covered the floor of the tent on the side from the sun.

    14. Children with bright faces tripped merrily beside their
    parents, or mimicked a graver gait in the conscious dignity of
    their Sunday clothes.




VII. TRANSPOSED SUBJECT AND PREDICATE


=21.= The sentences studied thus far have been arranged so that the
subject comes first, then the predicate. This is called the =natural
order=. Sometimes, for the sake of emphasis, we reverse this order, as in
the sentence, “In a long shed behind the church stood a score of wagons
and chaises and carryalls.” This is called the =transposed order=.

Sometimes, for the sake of a pleasing arrangement, we put only a portion
of the predicate before the subject, as in the sentence, “Over the
highest peaks a vulture sailed on broad wings into widening circles.”
Here the subject is very short and the predicate very long. The sentence
balances better with a portion of the predicate coming first. This also
is a case of transposed order.

=Summary.=—The =natural= order in a sentence is first the subject and
then the predicate.

When the words of a sentence are not in their natural order, we say that
the sentence is =transposed=.

=Exercise 1.=—Rearrange the following sentences so that they will be in
the natural order, then proceed as you did with the sentences in the
exercise on p. 21. Tell in each case whether you like the natural or the
transposed order better, and why.

    1. Around him, within hand’s reach, lie osier boxes full of
    almonds, grapes, figs, and pomegranates.

    2. This challenge Fortunatus accepted.

    3. On traveled the lady and the bull through many dreadful
    forests and lonely wastes.

    4. On that first Christmas morning in their own home, the
    children found their gifts in little piles on two of the parlor
    chairs.

    5. Through the wide nostrils the camel drank the wind in great
    draughts.

    6. Out of the wide hall could be heard in the stillness the old
    clock.

    7. At full speed a genuine Syrian dromedary overtakes the
    ordinary winds.

    8. Very hard Johnny worked on the house.

    9. “Come in,” said a warm, comfortable voice on the other side
    of the door.

    10.

        Down will come Baby,
        Bough, cradle, and all.

    11. In the garret meet together all the broken-down chairs of
    the household, all the spavined tables, all the seedy hats, all
    the intoxicated-looking boots, all the split walking sticks
    that have retired from business, “weary with the march of life.”

Account for the commas in sentences 10 and 11.

=Exercise 2.=—Change the following sentences to the transposed order.
Tell why you like them better so.

    1. Pussy walked along with a slow and deliberate gait directly
    behind my sister and me.

    2. A red rose, a yellow rose, a woodbine, and a clematis grew
    up the four walls.

    3. The roll of the drum was hushed at the old man’s word and
    outstretched arm.

    4. A mat of long, uncombed hair hangs over his eyes and face,
    and down his back.

    5. The whole carpet came out right on my head.

    6. A little rabbit sat on a bank one morning.

    7. Daylight and safety were on the other side of that door.

    8. The bird flew on and on, up the steep mountain.

    9. A very amusing thing in this story comes now.

    10. The remains of a great elephant have been found in the
    curious potholes near Cohoes, New York.




VIII. INTERROGATIVE SENTENCES


=22.= Most of the sentences in books are declarative sentences, written
to make statements, but in speech we frequently make use of another kind
of sentence, one that asks a question; as, “Do you know how to tell a
sheep’s age?” This is called an =interrogative= sentence.

=23.= The interrogative sentence, “What dwarfs made that armor?” is in
the natural order, but this is not the usual order in interrogative
sentences. In the sentence, “Do you know how to tell a sheep’s age?” we
find first a part of the verb, then the subject, then the other part of
the verb and the rest of the predicate. How would this sentence read if
it were in the natural order? Would it then be an interrogative sentence?

    NOTE.—Since an interrogative sentence does not make a
    statement, it may seem strange to define the verb in such a
    sentence as an asserting word, but in making definitions we
    must think of the fundamental nature and the typical use of
    what we are defining. The primary office of the verb is to
    assert, as in declarative sentences; hence, we define the verb
    as an asserting word, though it may also be used in asking
    questions.

=Summary.=—An =interrogative sentence= is one that asks a question.

An interrogative sentence is usually in the transposed order, and is
always followed by a question mark.

=Exercise.=—Tell whether the following sentences are in the natural
or the transposed order. Put into the natural order those which are
transposed. Divide each sentence into subject and predicate. Select the
simple subject and the predicate verb, or simple predicate.

    1. Did you ever hear of a cat’s playing hide and seek?

    2. What became of you after the Princess’s death?

    3. Will no other diet serve you but poor Jack?

    4. Which flower does your mother like best?

    5. What harm can a naked frog do us?

    6. Will the town crier tell us of an auction, or of a lost
    pocket-book, or of a show of beautiful wax figures, or of some
    monstrous beast more horrible than any in the caravan?

    7. Why did no smile of welcome brighten upon his face?

    8. What did Peterson-Sahib mean by the elephant dance?

    9. How many people have ever come to know a wild animal?

    10. What important business made you late to dinner?

    11. What plant we in this apple tree?

    12. What other man would have discovered so many virtues under
    so mean a dress?

    13. What do people fish for in this country?

    14.

        Does that star-spangled banner yet wave
        O’er the land of the free, and the home of the brave?

    15. Where did you get your eyes so blue?

    16. Who will exchange old lamps for new ones?

    17. What makes your cheek like a warm, white rose?




IX. ADJECTIVES


=24.= From the sentence, “The road led us to a gate, and that to a
dooryard and a house,” we get a picture, but it is neither definite nor
attractive. Contrast it with the picture that we get from this sentence,
“The pleasant, elm-shaded road led us to a rustic gate, and that to a
green dooryard, and a long, low, brown house.” The difference is caused
by the descriptive words in the second sentence. Which words describe the
road? the gate? the dooryard? the house?

These descriptive words go with nouns, and describe the object named by
the noun. We call them =adjectives=. An adjective is a part of speech.

Adjectives are said to =modify= the nouns they go with, and are called
=modifiers=.

=25.= Most adjectives describe objects by telling size, shape, color,
texture, or other qualities. A few adjectives tell number or amount;
as, _five_ minutes, _much_ patience. A few merely point out; as, _this_
meadow, _next_ Christmas. The words _a_, _an_, and _the_ are adjectives.

=26.= When several adjectives modify the same noun, they form a series,
and are usually separated from each other by commas; as, “A hollow,
booming, ominous cry rang out suddenly, and startled the dark edges
of the forest.” In such a sentence as this, “Four little old French
ladies rose to dance the minuet,” no commas should be used, because the
adjectives modify more than the noun _ladies_. _Four_ modifies _little
old French ladies_; _little_ modifies _old French ladies_; _old_ modifies
_French ladies_; and _French_ modifies _ladies_.

=27.= Sometimes adjectives modify a pronoun instead of a noun, as in
the sentence, “Tom missed the word, and I, happy and triumphant, took
his place at the head.” How do we know that the adjectives _happy_ and
_triumphant_ modify the pronoun _I_?

=Summary.=—An =adjective= is a word used to point out or describe an
object and modify a noun or a pronoun.

Adjectives usually precede the nouns they modify but follow the pronouns.

When several adjectives modify a single noun, they are separated by
commas.

A =modifier= is a word or a group of words that goes with another word to
affect its meaning.

=Exercise 1.=—Select all the adjectives in the following sentences, and
tell what they modify. Account for the punctuation.

    1. On another side stood an old piano, a tinkling, rattling,
    merrymaking old piano, played by a young lady with a melancholy
    smile.

    2. In the dark valley that ran down to a little river, Father
    Wolf heard the dry, angry, snarly, singsong whine of a tiger.

    3. A small girl, with twinkling eyes and a merry face, got up
    and made her way to the front.

    4. Only loving fingers could have taken those tiny, even
    stitches.

    5. Charles carried water for the circus men, while I, scornful
    and lazy but envious, sat on the fence and watched him.

    6. Mammy Tittleback is a splendid, great tortoise-shell cat.

    7. I found myself sinking into some horrible, soft, slimy,
    sticky substance.

    8. Few ships come to Rivermouth now.

    9. Cæsar has one of the finest, deepest-toned voices I ever
    heard.

    10. You can speak and smile cheerfully while you are enjoying
    every comfort of a snug, warm fireside, but you should not
    expect us, hungry, wet, and cold, to be in the same cheerful
    mood.

    11. Suddenly the church clock tolled a deep, dull, hollow,
    melancholy “one.”

    12. The next best thing to cold potato and cream is cold roast
    chicken, and occasionally I found a good fat drumstick or a
    curling neck from whose corrugated bones I nibbled savory
    morsels.

=Exercise 2.=—Write sentences using the following words as adjectives.
Make your sentences such that they reveal the meaning of the adjectives.

    awkward
    brilliant
    clammy
    false
    glassy
    graceful
    greedy
    huge
    mild
    moist
    pathetic
    shaggy
    slight
    sly
    soggy

=Exercise 3.=—Write sentences containing the following nouns, each
modified by two or more adjectives:—

    cabbage
    carpet
    cloud
    deed
    garden
    grapes
    hand
    hat
    machine
    mill
    pupil
    room
    ship
    story
    teacher

=28.= In the following sentences, what word describes the statue? the
bureau? the lamp? the rings?

    A bronze statue of Benjamin Franklin stood in Lafayette Park.

    The mahogany bureau contained a desk with many drawers and
    pigeon holes.

    We grew tired of the gorgeousness of our parlor lamp.

    Indians of both sexes are fond of bracelets, necklaces, and
    finger rings.

These four descriptive words are name words, hence by nature they are
nouns; but in these sentences they are used as adjectives, and should
therefore be called adjectives.

=Exercise 4.=—Write sentences in which the following nouns are used as
adjectives:—

    silver, copper, tin, iron, steel.

    maple, oak, pine, hickory, cedar.

    kitchen, hall, cellar, roof, library.

    hand, head, foot, cheek, neck.

Think of ten other nouns that may be used as adjectives.




X. ADVERBS


=29.= In the sentence, “The donkey ate an armful of green grass,” we are
told what action the donkey performed, but we are not told the manner in
which he performed the action. Very often manner is worth telling, as in
the sentence, “The donkey ate leisurely an armful of green grass.”

Since the word _leisurely_ tells how the donkey ate, it must go with the
word _ate_. We say of it what we said of adjectives, that it _modifies_
the word it goes with. Since it modifies a verb, it is different from any
part of speech that we have studied before. We call it an =adverb=.

=30.= The great difference between adjectives and adverbs is this, that
the adjective modifies a noun or a pronoun, and the adverb usually
modifies a verb. Adjectives describe objects, which are named by nouns,
and adverbs usually describe actions, which are asserted by verbs.

=31.= Not all adverbs tell manner. They frequently tell time, place,
direction, degree, or other circumstances; as in these sentences:—

    _Now_ the cow would be eating in one place, and _then_ she
    would walk to another.

    _Here_ and _there_ a snag lifted its nose out of the water like
    a shark.

    For weeks his ship sailed _onward_ over a lonely ocean.

    Mother’s sudden cry frightened me _terribly_.

=32.= It was pointed out in Lesson IX that adjectives frequently tell
some quality of an object. Sometimes we wish to tell in what degree
this quality is possessed, as in the expressions, _a very tall man_,
_an exceedingly hot day_, _too ripe fruit_. Here the words _very_,
_exceedingly_, and _too_ go with the adjectives _tall_, _hot_, and _ripe_
to denote degree. Such words are said to modify the adjectives they go
with. Words that modify adjectives are also called adverbs.

    NOTE.—A group of words like _very tall_ and _exceedingly hot_
    may be called an =adjective element=. Its base word is an
    adjective, modified by an adverb. It is the whole element, or
    group of words, that modifies the noun.

Adverbs of degree may modify adverbs as well as adjectives, as in the
sentences, “The fox ran very swiftly,” “You speak too rapidly.”

=Summary.=—An =adverb= is a word that modifies a verb, an adjective, or
another adverb.

Adverbs usually tell time, place, manner, direction, or degree.

Unless a sentence is transposed, the adverb should be as near as possible
to the word it modifies.

Adverbs in a series are separated from each other by commas.

=Exercise 1.=—Select all the adverbs in the following sentences. Tell
what each adverb modifies, and what it denotes.

    1. People with lanterns rushed hither and thither.

    2. The island is separated from the mainland by a scarcely
    perceptible creek.

    3.

        And so the teacher turned him out,
          And still he lingered near,
        And waited patiently about
          Till Mary did appear.

    4. Faintly, in gentle whiffs, the lilies on the low marble
    shelf threw off their delicate fragrance.

    5. Quackalina was sitting happily among the reeds with her dear
    ones under her wings, while Sir Sooty waddled proudly around
    her.

    6. In youth the tulip tree has a trunk peculiarly smooth.

    7. On one occasion Gypsy put in her head, and lapped up six
    custard pies that had been placed by the casement to cool.

    8. No wild animals were ever trained by the ancients.

    9. The paper was passed skillfully from desk to desk until it
    finally reached my hands.

    10. Messua’s husband had some remarkably fine buffaloes that
    worried him exceedingly.

    11. The charcoal burners went off very valiantly in single file.

    12. Sometimes my head almost aches with the variety of my
    knowledge.

    13. Knots of gossips lingered here and there near the place.

    14. This talk amused me greatly, but it went in at one ear and
    out at the other.

    15. My father invested his money so securely in the banking
    business that he was never able to get any of it out again.

    16. Yonder I shall sit down and get knowledge.

    17. Then he would crawl forward inch by inch, and wait till the
    seal came up to breathe.

    18. No one can work well without sleep.

    19. This jackal was peculiarly low, a cleaner-up of village
    rubbish heaps, desperately timid, or wildly bold, everlastingly
    hungry, and full of cunning that never did him any good.

    20. The Black Panther raised his head and yawned—elaborately,
    carefully, and ostentatiously.

Account for the commas in the last sentence.

=Exercise 2.=—Write sentences containing adverbs of manner modifying the
following verbs:—

    comes
    goes
    plays
    reads
    sings
    skates
    speaks
    studies
    walks
    works

=Exercise 3.=—Write sentences containing the following adverbs:—

    upward, downward, forward, backward, headlong, north, southward.

    everywhere, nowhere, somewhere, anywhere.

    seldom, often, always, sometimes, forever.

    perfectly, unusually, unspeakably, positively, miserably.

Use the last five adverbs to modify adjectives or adverbs. What will they
denote when so used?

=Exercise 4.=—Form adverbs from the following adjectives:—

    careless
    dreary
    firm
    gentle
    hasty
    noble
    painful
    sharp
    slow
    wide

What part of speech are the words _chilly_, _deadly_, _holy_, _kindly_,
_lively_, _lovely_? Use them in sentences to find out.




XI. PHRASES. ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES


=33.= We cannot always describe or point out objects as fully as we wish
by means of adjectives, and so we use another sort of modifier, which is
not a single word, but a group of words. In the sentence, “Broad, flat
fields without fences stretch in every direction,” we describe the fields
by the two adjectives _broad_ and _flat_, and by the group of words,
_without fences_. Thus the noun _fields_ has three modifiers, and they
are very well placed, two of them coming before the noun, and one of them
after it.

In the group of words _without fences_, the two words are closely related
to each other. In fact, neither of them could be in the sentence at all
without the other. Such a group of related words is called a =phrase=.
When a phrase modifies a noun, we say it is an =adjective phrase=.

=34.= In the same sentence there is another phrase, _in every direction_,
telling where the fields stretch. Since this phrase modifies the verb,
it performs the same office as an adverb, and we therefore call it an
=adverbial phrase=.

=35.= Phrases never consist of fewer than two words, and they may consist
of a good many, for it is possible to have one or more phrases within
a phrase. In the sentence, “I was born in a stable on the outskirts
of a small town in Maine,” the verb _was born_ is modified by a long
phrase, _in a stable on the outskirts of a small town in Maine_. The noun
_stable_ in this phrase is modified by the phrase _on the outskirts of
a small town in Maine_. The noun _outskirts_ in this second phrase is
modified by the phrase _of a small town in Maine_. The noun _town_ in
this third phrase is modified by the fourth phrase, _in Maine_.

=36.= Phrases do not always modify the word they come next to; they
modify the word whose meaning they tell something about. In the sentence,
“I scrambled through the evergreens to my friend’s little hut just before
sunset,” there is no phrase within another phrase, but there are three
entirely distinct phrases. What are they?

=37.= A series of phrases consists of two or more phrases each modifying
the same word; as, “Ours is a government _of the people_, _for the
people_, and _by the people_.” Phrases in a series are separated from
each other by a comma. Why do not the phrases in the sentence in § 35
form a series?

It might seem at first thought that the sentence in § 36 contains a
series of three phrases; but it does not, for the phrases do not modify
the same word. _Through the evergreens_ modifies _scrambled_; _to my
friend’s little hut_ modifies _scrambled through the evergreens_. What
does the third phrase modify?

In the punctuation of phrases a good deal must be left to the judgment
of the writer. That punctuation is best which most clearly reveals the
structure and meaning of the sentence.

=Summary.=—A =phrase= is a group of related words having neither a
subject nor a predicate, and used like a part of speech.

A phrase is often used like an adjective to modify a noun, or like an
adverb to modify a verb.

Phrases in a series are separated from each other by a comma.

=Exercise.=—Select all the phrases in these sentences, and tell what each
phrase modifies. Account for the punctuation of the phrases in sentences
2 and 9. Why are commas omitted in sentence 5?

    1. I passed a very comfortable night in the carrot bin.

    2. The four little rabbits lived with their mother, in a sand
    bank, underneath the root of a very big fir tree.

    3. He went along over hills and mountains, and on the third day
    came to a wide forest.

    4. During those long winter evenings I read six of Scott’s
    novels aloud to my mother.

    5. Mr. Jeremy Fisher lived in a little damp house amongst the
    buttercups at the edge of a pond.

    6. On that evening, before sunset, some women were washing
    clothes on the upper step of the flight that led down into the
    basin of the Pool of Siloam.

    7. On the fourth day after our arrival came a letter from my
    mamma.

    8. Jelly fishes generally float near the surface of the sea,
    and are often washed up on the shore by the waves.

    9. Where no human hand would have dared to rest, the young
    lions crawled fearlessly—across the knotty muscles of the back,
    over the sinewy neck, across the death-dealing paws, even
    between the frightful jaws.

    10. Tom arched his back like a contortionist at a circus.

    11. The women of the different provinces in Holland are known
    by their head dresses.

    12. The last words rang out like silver trumpets.

    13. A farm without a boy would very soon come to grief.

    14. In winter I get up at night.

=38.= =Analyzing= a sentence is the process of separating it into its
parts, and telling the relation between those parts. In analyzing the
sentences in the following exercise proceed according to this outline:—

(1) Tell whether the sentence is declarative or interrogative.

(2) Divide it into subject and predicate.

(3) Select the simple subject and give its modifiers.

(4) Select the simple predicate and give its modifiers.

(5) If a predicate is compound, select the two or more predicate verbs,
and then give the modifiers of each.

Tell the exact truth in good, clear English. For example, in analyzing
the expression, _the four little rabbits_, do not say that _the_, _four_,
and _little_ are adjectives modifying _rabbits_, but say that _rabbits_
is modified by the adjectives _little_, _four_, and _the_. Why should
they be given in this order?

=Exercise.=—Analyze sentences 2, 3, 5, 7, 8, 11, 12, 13, and 14 in the
exercise on p. 33.




XII. PREPOSITIONS


=39.= In the preceding lesson we considered a phrase as a unit. We shall
now examine its structure, and see what parts it is composed of. If we
look carefully at these phrases,—

    with their mother

    to a wide forest

    over the sinewy neck

    like silver trumpets

we see that the first word is not a noun, a pronoun, a verb, an
adjective, or an adverb. If we try to put this word anywhere else in the
phrase, we see that it must come at the beginning; in short, that it is
the introductory word of the phrase. If we had only this introductory
word given, the word _with_, for instance, we should ask at once _with
what?_ or _with whom?_ The answer to this second question is _their
mother_, the rest of the phrase.

If we examine the other three phrases in the same way, we shall come
to the conclusion that a phrase is made up of two parts: (1) an
introductory word, (2) an answer to the question made by putting _whom_
or _what_ after the introductory word. We call the introductory word a
=preposition=, and we say that the rest of the phrase is the =object of
the preposition=. A preposition is a part of speech.

A phrase that consists of a preposition and its object is called a
=prepositional phrase=. Not all phrases are of this kind. We shall study
the other kinds later.

=40.= There are not a great many prepositions in the English language,
hardly more than a hundred in all. Most of them are short words, and of
very great usefulness. Some of the commonest are: _across_, _after_,
_before_, _between_, _by_, _for_, _from_, _in_, _over_, _to_, _through_,
_toward_, _under_, _with_, _without_.

=41.= The object of a preposition may be a single word, as in the phrase
_without fences_, but oftener it is a group of words. The base word
of the group is usually a noun. A pronoun also may be the object of a
preposition, as in the phrases _for me_, _to him_, _with us_. The object
of a preposition may be compound, as in the phrases, _over land and sea_,
_by day and night_.

=42.= In Lesson XI, it was pointed out that a phrase modifies a noun
or a verb. It does so because the preposition shows a certain relation
between its object and the noun or verb that the phrase modifies. In
the sentence, “The porters at the German railroad stations are dressed
in fine green uniforms,” the preposition _at_ shows a relation of place
between the porters and the German railroad stations, and the preposition
_in_ shows a relation of manner between the act of dressing and the fine
green uniforms.

=Summary.=—A =prepositional phrase= consists of a preposition and its
object.

A =preposition= is a word that is used with its object to form a phrase,
and shows the relation of its object to the word the phrase modifies.

    NOTE.—A prepositional phrase in its natural order consists of
    (1) the preposition and (2) its object.

The =object= of a preposition is found by asking the question made by
putting _whom_ or _what_ after the preposition.

The object of a preposition may be simple or compound.

The base word of the object may be a noun or a pronoun.

=Exercise.=—Select the prepositional phrases in the following sentences.
Tell what each phrase modifies. Divide each phrase into preposition and
object. Find the base word of the object, and tell what part of speech it
is.

    1. This monster lives in a den under yonder mountain with a
    brother of his.

    2. I carried both letters in my apron pocket.

    3. At the age of ten years he fled from the multiplication
    table and ran away to sea.

    4. In the dusk of spring evenings we sat on the window seat
    and watched the lights come out on the high bluff and the long
    bridge.

    5.

        The stormy March is come at last,
        With wind, and cloud, and changing skies.

    6. With a fair and strong breeze we soon ran into the little
    cove to the northward of Fort Moultrie.

    7. On the projecting bluffs, and occasionally on the very
    mountain tops, stand the ruins of great castles of the olden
    times.

    8. In the ancient city of London on a certain autumn day in the
    second quarter of the sixteenth century, a boy was born to a
    poor family of the name of Canty.

    9. Now I was comforted by the thought of a tassel, and an ivory
    handle, and blue and gold changeable silk.

    10. A polar storm can blow for ten days without a break.

    11. The aërial path of Hushwing, from his nest in the swamp to
    his watchtower on the clearing’s edge, led him past the pool
    and the crouching panther.

    12.

        All the little boys and girls,
        With rosy cheeks and flaxen curls,
        And sparkling eyes and teeth like pearls,
        Tripping and skipping, ran merrily after
        The wonderful music, with shouting and laughter.

What part of speech are these words: _yonder_, sentence 1, _apron_ 2,
_multiplication_ 3, _spring_ 4, _very_ 7, _autumn_ 8, _break_ 10?

What is peculiar about the object of _at_ in sentence 5, and of _to_ in
sentence 6?

=43.= Good English requires accuracy in the use of prepositions. Study
the following prepositions, and avoid errors in their use.

=Among= and =between=. The word _between_ usually refers to only two
persons or things, while _among_ refers to more than two.

    I walked between my father and my mother.

    She walked among us like an angel.

=At= and =in=. We use _in_ when speaking of countries and large cities,
_at_ when speaking of villages or buildings.

    The train arrives in Los Angeles at noon.

    The train stopped at every little station.

=At= and =to=. _At_ conveys the idea of _being_ in a place, and _to_
conveys the idea of _going_ to a place.

    Were you at school yesterday?

    I came to school early this morning.

    My sister is at home.

We speak of going to school, to church, to the factory, to the store,
to the office, etc., but we do not use _to_ before _home_. We say “I am
_at_ home,” or “Come home,” in the latter case omitting the preposition
entirely.

=Beside= and =besides=. _Beside_ means by the side of, and _besides_
means in addition to.

    Little Em’ly sat beside David.

    Nobody remained besides the old nurse.

=By= and =with=. _By_ refers to the agent, or doer of an action, and
_with_ to the instrument, or means employed.

    The cherry tree was cut down by George Washington with a little
    hatchet.

=In= and =into=. _In_ usually conveys the idea of rest, and _into_ of
motion.

    We stayed in the library all the evening.

    Our hostess took us into the Simmons Library.

    I went into the Bank.

    I put my money in the Bank.

=Off.= This preposition should not be followed by _of_. We should say,

    The pitcher fell off the table.

    I got off the car.

In place of the word _onto_ we should use _on_ or _upon_.

    He climbed upon the roof of the pilot house.

    He stepped on a loose board.

Some words are followed by certain prepositions to express certain
meanings; as,

    _Agree with_ thine adversary.

    Brutus _agreed to_ the plan.

    Brutus _differed with_ Cassius.

    My watch is _different from_ yours.

    Imogen _parted from_ him with tears.

    Imogen would not _part with_ her bracelet.

    Many people _died of_ yellow fever.

    I am _sorry for_ the mistake.

=Exercise.=—Supply the correct preposition in each of these sentences,
and give your reason in each case:—

    1. The fugitive slave ran —— the trees, and took his stand ——
    two large cypresses.

    2. While we were —— New Orleans, we stayed —— the St. Charles
    Hotel.

    3.

        And so —— the silent sea
        I wait the muffled oar.

    4. In that Sunday school class there was no girl —— Gertrude.

    5. This mark must have been made —— a knife.

    6. When you are —— Rome, you must do as the Romans do.

    7. Come —— the garden, Maud.

    8. Put the silver —— a safe place.

    9. John Gilpin’s wig fell —— his head.

    10. Get —— this stump so that you can see better.

    11. I left the programs —— home.

    12. Nobody agrees —— Kate about renting the cottage.

    13. Did Will agree —— your plans for the wedding?

    14. Charlie differed —— his family about saving his money.

    15. An apricot has a different flavor —— a peach.

    16. What did the crew die ——?

    17. Aren’t you sorry —— his misfortune?

    18. The child cried when he parted —— his playthings, and would
    not be comforted when he parted —— his old playmates.




XIII. TERM OF ADDRESS. EXCLAMATORY NOUN


=44.= When we speak directly to persons, we often call them by name; as,—

    Anne, sister Anne, do you see any one coming?

We do this for several reasons,—sometimes for politeness, sometimes to
show clearly just whom we are speaking to. This name is not necessary to
the structure of the sentence; that is, it forms no part of the subject
or the predicate. We say, therefore, that it is =independent=. We call it
a =term of address=.

=45.= Sometimes, instead of using a person’s name, we invent a term of
address, as when the Arab said to his horse,

    “We are far from home, O _racer with the swiftest winds_, but
    God is with us.”

What noun is the base word of this term of address?

=46.= A term of address may come at the beginning of a sentence, or at
the end, or somewhere within the sentence. It must be set off by commas
to show that it is independent.

=47.= Sometimes a noun or a noun with modifiers is used as an
=exclamation=; thus,—

    A rainbow! it is too late in the day for that.

    Joy to the world! the Lord has come.

A noun used like _rainbow_ and _joy_ is called an =exclamatory noun=.
What feeling does the exclamatory noun in the first sentence express? in
the second?

=Summary.=—A =term of address= is a word or a group of words used as a
name to show to whom a remark is made.

The base word of a term of address is usually a noun.

An =exclamatory noun= is a noun used to express strong or sudden feeling.
It may be modified or unmodified.

When a word or a group of words is no part of the subject or the
predicate of a sentence, it is said to be =independent=.

A term of address and an exclamatory noun are independent elements in a
sentence.

A term of address is set off from the rest of the sentence by a comma.

An exclamatory noun is set off by an exclamation point.

=Exercise.=—Select the terms of address in the following sentences. Find
the base word of each. Select also the exclamatory nouns, and tell what
feeling they express.

    1. Little brother, canst thou raise me to my feet?

    2. “Now, my dears,” said old Mrs. Rabbit one morning, “you may
    go into the fields or down the lane, but don’t go into Mr.
    McGregor’s garden.”

    3. Indeed I was seeking thee, Flathead, but each time we meet
    thou art longer and broader by the length of my arm.

    4. Come, Lillie, it is time to go to bed.

    5. Sweet, sweet home! there’s no place like home.

    6. Why, Father, you are rather old to play cat’s cradle.

    7.

        Sail on, sail on, O ship of State!
        Sail on, O Union strong and great!

    8. Sir, I humbly beg your pardon.

    9. I understand, noble lord, that you have lost two of your men.

    10. Jefferson, I think I will go down into the kitchen and bake
    a pie.

    11. A horse! a horse! my kingdom for a horse!

    12. There is none like thee in the jungle, wise, old, strong,
    and most beautiful Kaa.

    13. Our price, your royal highness, is three shillings.

    14. Grand old outlaw, hero of a thousand lawless raids, in a
    few minutes you will be but a great load of carrion.

    15.

        Brood, kind creature, you need not fear
        Thieves and robbers while I am here.

    16. Catch me, cowardly knaves, if you can.

    17. The stately homes of England! how beautiful they stand!

    18. O Captain! my Captain! rise up and hear the bells.




XIV. IMPERATIVE SENTENCES


=48.= Besides declarative and interrogative sentences there is another
kind of sentence used when we speak directly to a person for the purpose
of telling him what to do; as, “Run into the garden, and fetch me the
largest pumpkin you can find.” This is called an =imperative sentence=.

=49.= The imperative sentence is often used in giving orders, commands,
or directions, but it is used also in giving advice, and in making
requests or entreaties; as,—

    Fling away ambition.

    Kindly reply by return mail.

    Give us this day our daily bread.

=50.= Usually only the predicate of an imperative sentence is expressed,
and so the first word of such a sentence is likely to be a verb. The
subject is the pronoun _you_, _thou_, or _ye_, signifying the person
or persons addressed. It is customary to omit this pronoun, and we say
that the subject is “understood.” Occasionally, however, it is expressed
in familiar conversation; as, “You go away.” Sometimes, too, in solemn
commands the pronoun _thou_ or _ye_ is expressed; as, “Go and do thou
likewise.” “Keep ye the law.”

Note that the verb in an imperative sentence commands rather than asserts.

An imperative sentence is frequently preceded by a term of address, but
this must not be mistaken for the subject; as, “Father, hear our prayer.”

=Summary.=—An =imperative sentence= is one that expresses a command or an
entreaty.

The subject of an imperative sentence is the pronoun _you_, _thou_, or
_ye_. This pronoun is usually omitted.

=Exercise.=—Tell what the following imperative sentences denote. Select
the predicate verbs, and the subjects whenever they are expressed. Select
also the terms of address.

    1. Open everything, go everywhere except to this little room.

    2. Come and hold this skein of yarn for me.

    3. Go and wash Kala Nag, and attend to his ears, and see that
    there are no thorns in his feet.

    4. Don’t count your chickens before they are hatched.

    5. Rouse to some high and holy work of love.

    6. Don’t you show your face here with a pocket on you. If your
    heavy pants have any in ’em, rip ’em out.

    7.

        Give freely and receive, but take from none
        By greed, or force, or fraud, what is his own.

    8. Learn to box, to ride, to pull an oar, and to swim.

    9. Polly dear, say good morning to Mrs. Chatterton, and then
    run away.

    10. Do the work first which is next at hand.

    11.

        Turn again, Whittington,
        Lord Mayor of London.

    12. O Lord of Hosts, provide a champion for thy people.

    13.

        O brave marsh Mary-buds, rich and yellow,
        Give me your money to hold.

    14.

        O Columbine, open your folded wrapper
        Where two twin turtledoves dwell.

    15.

        O Cuckoopint, toll me the purple clapper
        That hangs in your clear, green bell.

Account for the commas in sentences 1, 3, 8, 9, and 11.




XV. INTERJECTIONS


=51.= There are certain words like _oh_, _alas_, _pshaw_, _ugh_, that
are used to express strong feeling,—joy, surprise, pain, disgust, anger,
etc. These words are called =interjections=. An interjection is a part of
speech.

=52.= Interjections are no part of the subject or the predicate of a
sentence; hence, like terms of address, they are said to be independent.
They are set off from the rest of the sentence by some mark of
punctuation, usually an exclamation point, sometimes only a comma.

=53.= We may use a noun or a verb in such a way that it becomes an
interjection; as, “_Goodness!_ what a fright you gave me!” “_Hurrah!_
the lake is frozen over!” Such a verb as _hark_ is often used as an
interjection, not to express sudden feeling so much as to arrest
attention; as, “_Hark! hark!_ the dogs do bark.”

=54.= The interjection _O_ is often used before a term of address; as, “O
Lord, how manifold are thy works!”

=Summary.=—An =interjection= is a word used to express sudden or strong
feeling.

=Exercise.=—Select all the interjections in the following sentences, and
tell what each one is used for:—

    1. Boom! Boom!—two of the guns had gone off together.

    2. Alas! Amanda, by mistake, had waked up the little boys an
    hour too early.

    3. Bah! men are blood brothers of the monkey people.

    4. Hallelujah! in one day more we shall be sitting in the
    sunshine on our own doorstep.

    5.

        O mother dear, Jerusalem,
        When shall I come to thee?

    6. Ping! ping! ping! went the rifles; and Boom! boom! boom!
    answered the waves.

    7. Aha! the world is iron in these days.

    8. Alas! it was the head of old Silverspot.

    9. Scrooge said, “Pooh! Pooh!” and closed the door.

    10. Hark! hark! the lark at heaven’s gate sings.

    11. Alack-a-day! travelers encounter all the unusual bits of
    weather.

    12. Hey! Willie Winkie, are you coming then?

    13. O comrades, if we must fight, let us fight for ourselves.

    14. Hush! the winds roar hoarse and deep.

    15. Lo, the star which they saw in the east went before them
    till it came and stood over where the young child was.

    16. Piff! the packet landed exactly as it was intended, on the
    corn-husk mat in front of the screen door.

    17. Oh, London is a man’s town.




XVI. EXCLAMATORY SENTENCES


=55.= We have found that sentences are made to _state_, or to _ask_, or
to _command_, and hence are classified as _declarative_, _interrogative_,
and _imperative_.

There is a fourth class of sentence which resembles an interjection,
being used to express sudden or strong feeling; as, “How calm and lovely
the river was!” “What a pity it is!” These are called =exclamatory
sentences=. They are always followed by an exclamation point.

=56.= Such sentences as those just quoted, which begin with _how_ or
_what_, are exclamatory in form as well as in sense, and are therefore
sometimes called pure exclamatory sentences. They are always in the
transposed order. Some sentences, however, are exclamatory only in
sense. They are in the natural order, and when printed, could not be
distinguished from declarative or imperative sentences if it were not
for the exclamation point, which indicates that they were spoken with
strong feeling; as, “Now you may see that noblest of all ocean sights for
beauty, a full-rigged ship under sail!” “Helen Maria! leave the room this
moment!”

=Summary.=—An =exclamatory sentence= is one that expresses sudden or
strong feeling.

=Exercise.=—Tell why each of these sentences is exclamatory. Rearrange in
the natural order those which are transposed. Divide each of them into
subject and predicate. Select the simple subject and the simple predicate.

    1. How soundly he sleeps! From what a depth he draws that easy
    breath!

    2. What tales he had told that day!

    3. How doubly delicious things tasted in the clear, spicy air
    of the woods!

    4. How keen a scent those children had for apples in the cellar!

    5. Oh, how sweet the water was! How it soothed the tender spots
    under her weary wings! How it cooled her ears and her tired
    eyelids!

    6. With what a glory comes and goes the year!

    7. What a racket those rusty cannon had made in the heyday of
    their unchastened youth! What stories they might tell now if
    their puffy, metallic lips could only speak!

    8. Burn the hut over their heads!

    9. Ugh! may the red mange destroy the dogs of this village!

    10. Talk of the curiosity of women!

    11. So blessedly evanescent is the memory of seasickness!

    12. Hark! how the music leaps out from his throat!




XVII. CONJUNCTIONS


=57.= Notice the sentences,—

    Every pine and fir and hemlock wore ermine too dear for an earl.

    I stood and watched by the window.

The parts of the compound subject in the first sentence and of the
compound predicate in the second are joined by the word _and_. This very
common word has a use different from that of any word studied thus far;
hence it is considered another part of speech. Because it is a joining
word, it is called a =conjunction=.

There are many conjunctions besides _and_ that we all have frequent
occasion to use. Among these are _nor_, _or_, _but_, _yet_, _therefore_,
_so_, and _hence_.

=58.= Conjunctions may join not only single words, such as nouns, verbs,
pronouns, adjectives, and adverbs, but also phrases, and even whole
sentences; as,—

    You may enter without money and without price.

    The stiff rails were softened to swan’s down,
    And still fluttered down the snow.

=59.= Although the word _but_ is commonly used as a conjunction, yet,
in the sentence, “I work every day but Sunday,” it is a preposition,
and means _except_. What is its object? The great difference between a
conjunction and a preposition is that a preposition always has an object,
whereas a conjunction never has one.

=Summary.=—A =conjunction= is a word that joins sentences or parts of
sentences.

=Exercise.=—Select all the conjunctions in the following sentences, and
tell what they join:—

    1. Crow was ten years old now, and he was very black and
    polished and thin.

    2. Mount St. Michael was not only strongly fortified, but it
    was well guarded by nature.

    3. The horse neither switches his tail, nods his head, nor
    stamps his feet.

    4. Thirty years later, the remnants of her wedding gowns,—the
    blue silk, the black silk, the striped silk, and the plaid
    silk,—were cut into diamonds and squares, and then pieced
    together lovingly and proudly into a patchwork quilt.

    5. There are several steamboats which run up and down the Seine
    like omnibuses, and the charge to passengers is about two cents
    apiece.

    6. After steaming for several hours over the smooth river and
    between these flat lowlands, we reach the city of Rotterdam.

    7. These great ice streams are always moving slowly downwards;
    hence they carry off, year by year, the snow which falls upon
    the mountain above.

    8. The stars danced overhead, and by his side the broad and
    shallow river ran over its stony bed with a loud but soothing
    murmur that filled all the air with entreaty.

    9. The things that Mowgli did and saw and heard when he was
    wandering from one people to another, with or without his four
    companions, would make many stories.

    10. I drove the cows home through the sweet ferns and down the
    rocky slopes.

    11. The sucker’s mouth is not formed for the gentle angleworm
    nor the delusive fly of the fisherman.

    12. Our ancestors were very worthy people, but their wall
    papers were abominable.

    13. The keeper of the lodgings did not supply meals to his
    guests; so we breakfasted at a small chophouse in a crooked
    street.

    14. The Northmen had no compass; they must steer by the sun or
    by the stars, guess at their rate of sailing, and tell by that
    how many more days distant was their destination.

    15. Through this silence and through this waste, where the
    sudden lights flapped and went out again, the sleigh and the
    two that pulled it crawled like things in a nightmare.

    16. There may be times when you cannot find help, but there is
    no time when you cannot give help.

    17.

        Over the meadows and through the woods,
        To grandfather’s house we go.

    18. The world has never had a good definition of the word
    liberty, and the American people are much in want of one.




XVIII. CLAUSES. SIMPLE SENTENCES


=60.= We have learned that a sentence must contain a subject and a
predicate. We have another name for a combination of subject and
predicate. We call it a =clause=.

=61.= When a sentence consists of but one clause, we call it a =simple
sentence=; and we say that this clause is =independent=, because it can
stand alone and make sense.

=62.= A simple sentence may have a compound subject or a compound
predicate, or both, and yet so long as these subjects and predicates go
together, we say that there is only one clause; as in the sentence, “The
lion and the mouse helped each other and became friends.”

=Summary.=—A =clause= is any combination of subject and predicate.

An =independent clause= is one that can stand alone and make sense.

A =simple sentence= contains but one independent clause.

A simple sentence may have a compound subject or a compound predicate, or
both.

=Exercise.=—Analyze the following simple sentences:—

MODEL.—_Then a piece of mica, or a little pool, or even a highly polished
leaf will flash like a heliograph._

This is a simple, declarative sentence.

The subject is _a piece of mica, or a little pool, or even a highly
polished leaf_. The predicate is _will flash like a heliograph then_.

The subject is compound. The simple subjects are the nouns _piece_,
_pool_, and _leaf_, which are joined by the conjunction _or_. _Piece_
is modified by the prepositional phrase _of mica_ and the adjective
_a_. _Pool_, is modified by the adjectives _little_ and _a_. _Leaf_ is
modified by the adjective element _highly polished_, and the adjectives
_a_ and _even_. The base word of the adjective element is the adjective
_polished_, which is modified by the adverb _highly_.

The simple predicate is _will flash_. It is modified by the prepositional
phrase _like a heliograph_, and the adverb _then_.

    1. Through three good months the valley was wrapped in cloud
    and soaking mist.

    2. In the very heart of London stands the great Bank of England.

    3. Would not any boy respond to the sweet invitation of those
    ripe berries?

    4. A fool and his money are soon parted.

    5. A large, warm tear splashed down on the program.

    6. In the sunny days the sucker lies in the deep pools, by some
    big stone or near the bank.

    7. The feeling of a boy towards pumpkin pie has never been
    properly considered.

    8. Shall the adventures of the Peterkin family be published?

    9. No healthy boy could long exist without numerous friends in
    the animal kingdom.

    10. No sound of joy or sorrow was heard from either bank.

    11. At length has come the bridal day of beauty and of strength.

    12. On one hot summer morning a little cloud rose from the sea
    and floated lightly and happily across the blue sky.

    13. Donkeys, horses, negroes of every age, size, and shade,
    carts, crates, sacks, barrels, and boxes are mingled in
    seemingly inextricable confusion.

    14. In the midst of the wild confusion the voice of the Boots
    was heard.

    15. Then he strolled across the pasture, between the black
    stumps, the blueberry patches, the tangles of wild raspberry;
    pushed softly through the fringe of wild cherry and young
    birch saplings, and crept silently under the branches of a low
    hemlock.

    16. The moss was supported by solid earth or a framework of
    ancient tree roots.

    17. Alas! with every blow of the chisel the brick crumbled at
    my feet.

    18. A dish of apples and a pitcher of chilly cider were always
    served during the evening.

    19. I sat down in the middle of the path and never stirred for
    a long time.

    20. The mayor and other civic authorities in London came down
    to Greenwich in barges.




XIX. COMPOUND SENTENCES


=63.= We have seen that sentences may be joined together by conjunctions.
When two or more independent clauses are joined together in this way, we
say that the sentence is =compound=; as, “Coral reefs resemble great rock
ledges, and vessels are often wrecked upon them.”

=64.= The conjunctions most used in compound sentences are _and_, _or_,
_but_, _yet_, _therefore_, and _so_.

_And_ shows that two clauses are in the same line of thought; as, “His
eye was bright, and his face was ruddy.”

_Or_ shows a choice between two clauses; as, “You must work, or you must
go hungry.”

_But_ and _yet_ show a contrast; as, “I mailed the letter, but Uncle Joe
never received it.”

_Therefore_ and _so_ show that the second clause is a consequence of the
first; as, “There are fires in the forests north of us, therefore the air
is full of smoke.”

=65.= Sometimes when the relation between clauses is perfectly evident,
the conjunction is omitted; as, “I came; I saw; I conquered.”

In order that the reader may have no doubt as to where a clause ends, it
is usually followed by a comma, which speaks to the eye of the reader
just as a pause speaks to the ear of the listener. When the clauses are
long or the conjunction is omitted, a semicolon may be used instead of
the comma.

=Summary.=—A =compound sentence= contains two or more independent clauses.

The clauses of a compound sentence are separated from each other by a
comma or a semicolon.

=Exercise.=—Select all the clauses in the following compound sentences.
Tell the relation between them, and how they are joined. Tell the subject
and predicate of each clause. Account for the punctuation.

    1. Over the porch grew a hop-vine, and a brandy-cherry tree
    shaded the door, and a luxuriant cranberry vine flung its
    delicious fruit across the window.

    2. Mr. Peterkin liked to take a doze on his sofa in the room,
    but the rest of the family liked to sit on the piazza.

    3. Prosperity makes friends; adversity tries them.

    4. The whole family planted the potatoes; George dug the holes
    with his hoe, Mollie dropped into each one three pieces of an
    old potato, Paul raked the black earth over them, and Mother
    supervised and praised them all.

    5. Some of the letter-carriers must take very long walks, but
    English people do not appear to object to that sort of thing.

    6. Oh, come ye in peace here, or come ye in war?

    7. At the end of the first year the young lions shed their
    teeth, the first indications of manes appeared on the males,
    and the playfulness between brother and sister ceased.

    8. The clumsy wheels of several old-fashioned coaches were
    heard, and the gentlemen and ladies composing the bridal party
    came through the church with the sudden and gladsome effect of
    a burst of sunshine.

    9. I had never been called pretty before, so I was flattered.

    10. The yellow cur has not the speed of the greyhound, but
    neither does he bear the seeds of lung and skin diseases.

    11. The party did not return to Skarpsno until half-past eight
    in the evening, yet the sun was still above the horizon.

    12. We cherish every memorial of our worthy ancestors; we
    celebrate their patience and fortitude; we admire their daring
    enterprise; we teach our children to venerate their piety.

    13. Every animal has some great strength, or it could not live;
    every animal has some great weakness, or the other animals
    could not live.

    14. Human action can be modified to some extent, but human
    nature cannot be changed.

    15. Captain John Smith was exasperatingly sure of himself, and
    older men found his pretensions well-nigh unbearable.




XX. DEPENDENT CLAUSES. COMPLEX SENTENCES


=66.= We have seen that in both simple and compound sentences the clauses
are independent. There is a third class of sentences, however, containing
=dependent clauses=.

In the simple sentence, “At night his antelope skin was spread on the
ground,” the prepositional phrase _on the ground_ tells place, and
modifies the verb _was spread_.

In the sentence, “At night his antelope skin was spread _where the
darkness overtook him_,” the group of words where the darkness overtook
him has the same use as the phrase _on the ground_, for it tells place
and modifies the verb _was spread_.

But this group of words contains a subject and a predicate; hence it is
a clause. It could not stand alone and make sense; hence it cannot be
an independent clause. It could not be in the sentence at all unless
the verb _was spread_ were there too for it to modify. It is therefore
dependent on the verb, and so we call it a =dependent clause=. It has the
same use as an adverb, because it modifies a verb. We find many dependent
clauses used in this way, because our language does not afford enough
adverbs or even prepositional phrases to express our meaning.

=67.= When dependent clauses modify verbs, they answer such questions as
these,—_was spread where?_ _was spread why?_ _how?_ _when?_ _under what
condition?_ _for what purpose?_

=68.= In the sentence, “They went into a small parlor, which smelt very
spicy,” the parlor is described by the adjective _small_ and by the group
of words _which smelt very spicy_. What is this group of words? How do we
know? What words does it modify? What, then, is the use of some dependent
clauses? When dependent clauses modify nouns, they point out or describe
objects just as adjectives do.

=69.= In the sentences that we have just been studying there is an
independent clause as well as a dependent clause. A sentence of this kind
is called a =complex sentence=.

A complex sentence may contain any number of dependent clauses, but
only one independent clause, for as soon as a sentence contains two
independent clauses it becomes a compound sentence.

=Summary.=—A =dependent clause= is one that is used like a part of speech
and does not make sense when it stands alone.

A dependent clause may be used like an adjective to modify a noun, or
like an adverb to modify a verb.

A =complex sentence= consists of one independent clause and one or more
dependent clauses.

=Exercise.=—Select all the clauses in the following sentences, and
classify them. Tell what the dependent clauses modify. Tell the subject
and predicate of each clause.

    NOTE.—Frequently a dependent clause modifies more than the
    verb. In the sentence, “The little boys wanted a house with a
    great many doors, so that they could go in and out often,” the
    dependent clause _so that they could go in and out often_ tells
    the purpose of their wanting a house with a great many doors;
    hence, it modifies not merely the verb _wanted_, but the whole
    predicate _wanted a house with a great many doors_. Try to tell
    the exact truth about each sentence that you study.

    1. He was always catching sculpins when every one else with the
    same bait was catching mackerel.

    2. If we cross the Atlantic by one of the fast steamships, we
    shall make the voyage in about a week.

    3. The Rotterdam quays, which stretch for more than a mile
    along the river, are busy and lively places.

    4. Every Sunday morning the wash boiler was filled with water,
    and the largest tub was set in the middle of the kitchen floor,
    so that the three children might have their weekly scrubbing.

    5. People who devote themselves too severely to study of the
    classics are apt to become dried up.

    6. He charged upon the rows of the mullein stalks as if they
    were rebels in regimental ranks, and hewed them down without
    mercy.

    7. Every boy who is good for anything is a natural savage.

    8. Rude soldiers now eat, drink, and sleep, where popes and
    cardinals once moved about in state.

    9. Mowgli, who had never known the meaning of real hunger, fell
    back on stale honey three years old.

    10. Iron-clads are so called because their sides are covered
    with thick plates of iron or steel, capable of resisting very
    heavy shot.

    11. Although many people ascend Mont Blanc every year, the
    undertaking requires a great deal of muscular as well as
    nervous strength.

    12. If a boy repeats _Thanatopsis_ while he is milking, that
    operation acquires a certain dignity.

    13. The thrill that ran into my fingers’ ends then has not run
    out yet.

    14. Even a dog, who is very far removed from the wild wolf,
    his ancestor, can be waked out of deep sleep by a cart wheel
    touching his flank, and can spring away unharmed before that
    wheel comes on.

    15. The boys slipped off down the roadside to a place where
    they could dig sassafras or the root of the sweet flag.

    16. The little company of Englishmen who, in 1620, exchanged
    Holland for America were not soldiers and traders like the men
    who had led and established the colony at Jamestown.

    17. Miles Standish came with the Pilgrims to America because he
    liked both them and their enterprise.

    18. The early settlers went to church in military array and
    laid their arms down close by them while they worshiped and
    heard the sermon.

    19. The colonists chose for their place of settlement a high
    bluff, which rose upon the eastern bank of a little stream.

Tell the part of speech and use of _always_, sentence 1, _Sunday_ 4,
_too_ and _severely_ 5, _now_, _once_, and _about_ 8.

Analyze the predicate _was set in the middle of the kitchen floor_.

What is the grammatical use of the group of words _as well as_ in
sentence 11?




XXI. REVIEW: CLASSIFICATION OF SENTENCES


=70.= We have seen that sentences are classified according to =purpose=,
as declarative, interrogative, imperative, or exclamatory.

A =declarative= sentence is one that states, or declares, something.

An =interrogative= sentence is one that asks a question.

An =imperative= sentence is one that expresses a command or an entreaty.

An =exclamatory= sentence is one that expresses sudden or strong feeling.

=71.= We have seen also that sentences may consist of one clause or of
several, and that clauses may be independent or dependent. Sentences are
therefore classified according to =structure=, as simple, compound, or
complex.

A =simple= sentence is one that contains but one independent clause.

A =compound= sentence is one that contains two or more independent
clauses.

A =complex= sentence is one that contains one independent clause and one
or more dependent clauses.

=Exercise 1.=—Write a complex declarative sentence, a compound
interrogative sentence, a complex imperative sentence, and a simple
exclamatory sentence.

=Exercise 2.=—Classify the following sentences according to both purpose
and structure. Give the reasons for your classification. Tell what the
dependent clauses modify. Tell also the subject and predicate of each
clause.

    1. The oxen sagged along in their great clumsy way.

    2. Give me quickly my seven-league boots, that I may go after
    those boys and catch them.

    3. How sweet and demure the girls looked!

    4. Within sight of that tall elm tree were passed my happiest
    years.

    5. Did you ever know a child who was not interested in animals?

    6. My grandfather never skipped over an advertisement, even if
    he had read it fifty times before.

    7.

        Woodman, spare that tree!
        Touch not a single bough!

    8. Must I keep order along the whole line?

    9. All the trees and the bushes and the bamboos and the mosses
    and the juicy-leaved plants wake with a noise of growing that
    you can almost hear.

    10.

        How dear to my heart are the scenes of my childhood,
        When fond recollection presents them to view!

    11. Sometimes it is impolite to tell the truth, and then one
    can only say nothing or talk of the weather.

    12. Toll ye the church bell sad and slow.

    13. Some boys go scowling always through life, as if they had a
    stone bruise on each heel.

    14. Proud bird of the mountain, thy plume shall be torn!

    15. Mowgli had the good conscience that comes from paying debts.

    16. Cease to do evil; learn to do well.

    17. The first was a brass band, the second was a string band,
    the third was a rubber band, and the fourth was a man who
    played on the jew’s-harp.

    18.

        Lo, all our pomp of yesterday
        Is one with Nineveh and Tyre!

    19. On Sunday the hens went silently about, and the roosters
    crowed in psalm tunes.

    20.

        Up! up! my friend, and quit your books,
        Or surely you’ll grow double!

    21. Is the world growing better or are we moving in a circle?

    22. Remember thy Creator in the days of thy youth.

    23. When a man has heard the great things calling to him, how
    they call and call, day and night!

    24. O ye who have young children, if it is possible, give them
    happy memories.

Find an interjection in this exercise.

What independent elements do you find in sentences 7, 14, and 24? What is
the base word of each?




XXII. REVIEW: PARTS OF SPEECH


=72.= We have seen that words are classified according to their use into
eight parts of speech,—nouns, verbs, pronouns, adjectives, adverbs,
prepositions, conjunctions, and interjections.

A =noun= is a name word.

A =verb= is an asserting word.

A =pronoun= is a word used instead of a noun.

An =adjective= is a word used to point out or describe an object and
modify a noun or a pronoun.

An =adverb= is a word that modifies a verb, an adjective, or another
adverb.

A =preposition= is a word that is used with its object to form a phrase,
and shows the relation of its object to the word the phrase modifies.

A =conjunction= is a word that joins sentences or parts of sentences.

An =interjection= is a word used to express sudden or strong feeling.

=Exercise.=—Tell what part of speech each word is in the following
sentences. Tell in each case how you know.

    1. Toto’s good grandmother bore this commotion quietly for some
    time.

    2. “Now, set those baskets down.” He spoke sharply.

    3. Mowgli knew the manners and customs of the villagers very
    fairly.

    4. No other mother ever made such deep, smooth, golden custard
    pies, or fried such light and spicy doughnuts.

    5. Queen Elizabeth and Mary Queen of Scots are strongly
    associated together in the minds of all readers of English
    history.

    6. The tamest tiger is a tiger still.

    7. The negro cleared for us a path to an enormously tall tree.

    8. Nobody scolded me or laughed at me.

    9. Then my eyes came back to the wall paper, and I studied out
    figures in its spreading vines.

    10. Perhaps a little starch would have some effect.

    11. The roaring hot wind of the Jungle came and went between
    the rocks and the rattling branches.

    12. Ring-ting! I wish I were a primrose.

    13. O love, they die in yon rich sky.

=73.= In sentence 13 in the preceding exercise, it is evident that the
word _love_, which is often a verb, is used as a term of address, and
therefore is a noun. Many words may be used as verbs or as nouns.

=Exercise.=—Tell what part of speech the italicized words are in the
following sentences. Give your reason in each case.

    1. Don’t scour your porcelain _sink_ with sapolio.

    2. When bodies _sink_ in Lake Superior, they never rise.

    3. Oh, what _fall_ was there, my countrymen.

    4. We _fall_ to rise, are baffled to fight better.

    5. Alice gave the branch a vigorous _shake_.

    6. Nay, do not _shake_ your gory locks at me.

    7. Will you _show_ me your lineage book?

    8. There are ten thousand moving picture _shows_ in the United
    States.

    9. What a good _catch_ our right fielder made.

    10. Did you _catch_ this sturgeon last night?

Make sentences in which the following words shall be used as nouns and as
verbs: _fight_, _pay_, _rap_, _shed_, _shoe_, _sting_, _tread_.

=74.= Many words that are usually adjectives may also be used as nouns.
Such words fall into different classes:—

(1) Adjectives denoting color; as, _black_, _white_, _red_. We may say,
“The blacks were once slaves of the whites.” We may also say, “Red and
green are complementary colors.”

(2) Certain adjectives denoting qualities of persons, which may also
be used to name classes of persons having those qualities; as, _rich_,
_poor_, _old_, _young_, _bad_, _good_. We say, “The rich should not scorn
the poor,” “The good die young.”

(3) Certain adjectives denoting qualities, which may also be used to name
classes of things having those qualities; as, _good_, _evil_, _true_,
_false_. We say, “Love the good, cherish the true, admire the beautiful.”

(4) Certain other adjectives, such as _native_, _secret_, _fat_, _lean_,
_thick_. We say, “The natives had no secrets,” “Jack Sprat would eat no
fat,” “He was always in the thick of the fight.”

=Exercise.=—Make sentences containing the following words used as
adjectives and as nouns: _purple_, _blue_, _brave_, _righteous_, _evil_,
_wet_, _cold_, _sweet_, _right_, _wrong_, _solid_, _strong_.

=75.= Some words may be used both as adjectives and as adverbs. When
_well_ means the opposite of _sick_, as in the sentence, “Grace never was
a well child,” it is an adjective. When _well_ means in a good manner, as
in the sentence, “Esther sings well,” it is an adverb.

=Exercise.=—Tell what part of speech the italicized words are in the
following sentences. Give your reason in each case.

    1. The paper is large _enough_, but I have not _enough_ string.

    2. As she came _near_ I recognized one of my _near_ neighbors.

    3. _All_ flesh is grass.

    4. The girls playing basket ball are _all_ tired out.

    5. The doctor liked a _fast_ horse.

    6. We must walk _fast_ this cold morning.

    7. Nobody could play golf _worse_ than I.

    8. May I never do a _worse_ deed!

    9. Have you _any_ ribbon to match this sample?

    10. Will this color do _any_ better?

    11. Somebody _else_ will marry her then.

    12. How _else_ could I get there in time?

Make sentences containing the following words used as adjectives and
as adverbs: _high_, _last_, _long_, _low_, _much_, _round_, _slow_,
_straight_.

=76.= Some words may be used both as adverbs and as prepositions. In the
sentence, “I looked in as I went by,” both _in_ and _by_ are adverbs. How
do we know this? In the sentence, “As I went by the house, I looked in
the window,” both _in_ and _by_ are prepositions. What are their objects?
What do the phrases modify?

=Exercise.=—What part of speech are the italicized words in the following
sentences? Give your reason in each case.

    1. _Beyond_ lay the city of their dreams.

    2. Our house stands _beyond_ the church.

    3. _Over_ the Alps lies Italy.

    4. Come _over_ this evening if you can.

    5. She fainted and did not come _to_ for an hour.

    6. The granary is _behind_ the barn.

    7. Ichabod looked _behind_ for an instant.

    8. A storm of sleet was raging _without_.

    9. Civilized man cannot do _without_ cooks.

Make sentences in which the following words are used both as adverbs
and as prepositions: _about_, _above_, _along_, _down_, _off_, _on_,
_through_, _under_, _up_, _within_.




XXIII. TRANSITIVE VERBS. OBJECT OF VERB


=77.= We have seen that a noun may be related to a verb as its subject.
When the verb asserts action, as in the sentence, “Many birds eat flies,”
then the subject _many birds_ names the doer, or performer, of the action.

There is another very common relation that a noun may bear to a verb. In
the sentence above, the verb _eat_ asserts an action that is not only
performed _by_ something, but is also performed _upon_ something. That
is, there is a doer of the action, many birds, and a receiver of the
action, flies. If we had merely the subject and the verb, our sentence
would be incomplete, and we should ask at once, _eat what?_

Since the word _flies_ completes the meaning of the verb _eat_, we call
it the =complement= of the verb. Since it names the receiver of the
action that is asserted by the verb _eat_, we call it the =object= or
=direct object= of the verb.

=78.= Not all verbs require an object—only those which assert action
which the subject performs _upon_ some person or thing. Such verbs are
called =transitive= verbs.

=79.= The object of a verb is not always a single word. The object may
be compound, as in the sentence, “Many birds eat flies and gnats and
mosquitoes.” Again, the object may be a group of words, of which a noun
is the base word. In the following sentence there are three transitive
verbs. What is the object of each verb? What is the base word of each
object?—“Miss Dorothea dusted the banisters round the porch, straightened
the rows of shoes in mother’s closet, and folded the daily papers in the
rack.”

=80.= Just as we can find the subject of a verb by asking the question
made by placing _who_ or _what_ before the verb, so we can find the
object of a verb that asserts action by asking the question made by
placing _whom_ or _what_ after the verb.

These questions are often a great help, especially if a sentence is long
or transposed. In the sentence, “A more miserable little beast I had
never seen,” what is the verb? Ask a question to find the subject. Ask a
question to find the object.

=Summary.=—A =transitive verb= is one that asserts action performed upon
some person or thing.

A =complement= is a word or a group of words used to complete the meaning
of a verb.

The =direct object= of a verb is a word or a group of words that
completes the meaning of a transitive verb and names the receiver of the
action.

    NOTE.—Not all transitive verbs denote action that is
    accompanied by motion. Some denote action of the senses; as,
    “I _see_ the star,” “I _taste_ the pepper.” Others denote
    action of the feelings; as, “I _love_ the truth,” “I _hate_ a
    lie.” Still others do not denote action at all; as, “I _mean_
    you,” “Our forefathers _owned_ slaves,” “I _kept_ her letter.”
    We must enlarge our notion of transitive verbs so as to make
    it include all verbs that take a complement which denotes a
    different person or thing from the subject.

=Exercise 1.=—Select all the transitive verbs in these sentences. Find
both their subjects and their objects by asking the proper questions.

    NOTE.—A transitive verb may be modified before it is completed.
    This is true of _lifts_ in sentence 2. Oftener the idea
    expressed by the verb and its object together is modified;
    as in sentence 1, where the phrase _in despair_ modifies not
    _shook_ but _shook her head_.

    1. Dotty Dimple shook her head in despair.

    2. At the word of command, the two horsemen stop, each man
    lifts up his right leg, throws it over the back of his horse,
    and drops it to the ground so that the two boots tap the
    pavement at the same instant.

    3. Her father found a pleasant seat on the shady side, hung the
    basket in a rack, and opened a window.

    4. When the young surveyor left Detroit, he carried a huge
    green bandbox, and his wife in her far frontier home received
    in due time a beautiful blue bonnet.

    5. I threw off an overcoat, took an armchair by the crackling
    logs, and awaited patiently the arrival of my hosts.

    6. All the world likes molasses candy.

    7. The children brought home great bunches of the brilliant
    leaves, and some they pressed and varnished, while others
    Katherine dipped in melted wax.

    8. John trod down the exquisite ferns and the wonderful mosses
    without compunction. But he gathered from the crevices of the
    rocks the columbine and the eglantine and the blue harebell;
    he picked the high-flavored alpine strawberry, the blueberry,
    the boxberry, wild currants and gooseberries and fox grapes; he
    brought home armfuls of the pink and white laurel and the wild
    honeysuckle; he dug the roots of the fragrant sassafras and of
    the sweet flag; he ate the tender leaves of the wintergreen and
    its red berries; he gathered the peppermint and the spearmint;
    he gnawed the twigs of the black birch; he dug the amber gum
    from the spruce-tree; he brought home such medicinal herbs for
    the garret as the goldthread, the tansy, and the loathsome
    “boneset,” and he laid in for the winter, like a squirrel,
    stores of beechnuts, hazelnuts, hickorynuts, chestnuts, and
    butternuts.

=Exercise 2.=—Analyze the following sentences:—

    NOTE.—If any part of a sentence is compound, state that fact
    before analyzing it. If the subject or object is compound, give
    the base words first, and then the modifiers of each. If the
    predicate is compound, analyze the first predicate completely,
    then the second, and so on. If any adverb or prepositional
    phrase modifies the idea denoted by the verb and the object, be
    sure to say so in your analysis. For instance, in the sentence,
    “We have seen his star in the east,” the predicate verb is
    _have seen_. It is completed by the direct object _his star_,
    and then modified by the prepositional phrase _in the east_.

    1. Sometimes a perfume like absinthe sweetened all the air.

    2. The little brown field mouse ran along in the grass, poked
    his nose into everything, and finally spied a smooth, shiny
    acorn.

    3. My son, descend those steps and enter that door.

    4. Many and many a pair of mittens had those busy fingers knit.

    5. Always within a few moments the rabbits would resume their
    leaping progress through the white glitter and the hard, black
    shadows.

    6. The visit of the tax collector seldom gives unmixed joy.

    7. Scrooge took his melancholy dinner in his usual melancholy
    tavern.

    8. The first glimpse of a new country always quickens the sense
    of the traveler.

    9. Rebecca took off her hat and cape and hung them in the hall,
    put her rubber shoes and umbrella carefully in the corner, and
    then opened the door of paradise.

    10. The scent of herbs and the fragrance of fruit filled the
    great unfinished chamber.

    11. A polished brazen rod on a broad wooden pedestal beside the
    armchair held half a dozen lamps of silver on sliding arms.

    12. Messala hugged the stony wall with perilous clasp.

    13. Amrah rubbed her eyes, bent closer down, clasped her hands,
    gazed wildly around, looked at the sleeper, then stooped and
    raised his hand, and kissed it fondly.

    14. The proprietor of the fruit stand has a bald head, a long
    face, and a nose like the beak of a hawk.

    15. Without more ado Mr. Cary grasped his arm firmly, and
    fairly lifted him into the room.




XXIV. INTRANSITIVE VERBS ASSERTING ACTION


=81.= Transitive verbs, as we have seen, assert action performed upon
some person or thing. There are many other verbs in our language that
assert action, but the action is not performed _upon_ anything. On the
contrary, the action ends in itself; as in the sentence, “The wind in the
chimney sighed and moaned and shivered.” Here the wind is said to perform
three actions, but these actions were not received by anything. Verbs
like _sighed_, _moaned_, and _shivered_ are said to be =intransitive
verbs=.

=82.= Not all intransitive verbs assert action. The verb _be_ and a
few others (see Lesson XXV) which assert merely _being_, are also
intransitive verbs; as, “I _am_ hungry,” “You _are_ kind,” “He _is_
extravagant,” “They _were_ careless.”

=83.= It frequently happens that the same verb may be used in one
sentence as a transitive verb, and in another as an intransitive verb. If
we say, “The horse kicked his master,” the verb _kicked_ is transitive.
Why? If we say, “The poor boy kicked and squirmed and groaned,” the verb
_kicked_ is intransitive. Why?

We should always classify a verb as it is used in the particular sentence
under consideration.

=Summary.=—An =intransitive verb= is one that asserts (1) being, or (2)
action that is not received by any person or thing.

=Exercise 1.=—Select all the verbs in the following sentences, and
classify them as transitive or intransitive. Tell the subject of each
verb. If the verb is transitive, tell its object.

    1. The princess sat at table next to the king and queen.

    2. At these words a grave smile of approval lighted the gaunt
    face of the Hindu.

    3. The spring murmured drowsily beside him. The branches waved
    dreamily across the blue sky overhead. A deep sleep fell upon
    David Swan.

    4.

        While shepherds watched their flocks by night,
          All seated on the ground,
        An angel of the Lord came down,
          And glory shone around.

    5. Mr. Jeremy stuck his pole into the mud, and fastened the
    boat to it.

    6. The cat got up and stretched herself, and came and sniffed
    at the basket.

    7. I would have spared the woman who gave thee the milk.

    8. His hair had fallen about his shoulders.

    9. They sang patriotic songs, they told stories, they fired
    torpedoes, they frightened the cats.

    10. I could have killed a buck while thou wast striking.

    11. Away rolled the bogghun, away and away, over the meadows
    and into the forest; away and away bounded the Princess in
    pursuit. The golden nose ring flashed and glittered in the
    sunlight, the golden bangles on her wrists and ankles tinkled
    and rang their tiny bells as she went. The monkeys swinging
    by their tails from the branches, chattered with astonishment
    at us; the wild parrot screamed at us; all the birds sang and
    chirped and twittered.

    12. The chipmunk appeared at the mouth of his den, looked
    quickly about, took a few leaps to a tussock of grass, paused a
    breath with one foot raised, slipped quickly a few yards over
    some dry leaves, paused again by a stump beside a path, rushed
    across the path to the pile of loose stones, went under the
    first and over the second, gained the pile of posts, made his
    way through that, surveyed his course a half moment from the
    other side of it, and then darted on to some other cover, and
    presently beyond my range, where he must have gathered acorns,
    for no other nut-bearing trees than oaks grew near.

=Exercise 2.=—Tell whether the italicized verbs in the following
sentences are transitive or intransitive. Give your reason in each case.
If a verb is transitive, tell how it is completed. If it is intransitive,
tell how it is modified.

    1. All the brooks _have burst_ their icy chains.

    2. The boiler _burst_ with a tremendous noise.

    3. _Do_ your duty; that is best.

    4. Such language _will_ never _do_ for a teacher.

    5. Miss Clarissa _draws_ and paints very well.

    6. Giotto _drew_ a perfect circle with one sweep of his arm.

    7. The swallow _flies_ with a graceful dipping motion.

    8. The boys _are flying_ their kites on the common.

    9. _Give_ us this day our daily bread.

    10. The rope was stretched so tightly that it _did_ not _give_
    with his weight.

    11. All day he sits in his arm chair and _reads_.

    12. _Have_ you _read_ “The Man without a Country”?

    13. The woodworkers _have struck_ for shorter hours.

    14. David _struck_ Uriah Heep on the cheek.

    15. Aunt Betsy _swept_ down upon the trespassers.

    16. I _must sweep_ the spiders off the porch.




XXV. INTRANSITIVE VERBS ASSERTING BEING. NOUNS AS SUBJECTIVE COMPLEMENTS


=84.= There is no other verb used oftener than the verb _be_, with its
various forms,—_is_, _are_, _am_, _was_, _will be_, _has been_, etc. In
the sentence, “The lake is the mother of the great rivers,” there would
be no assertion without the verb _is_, and yet it does not assert action
of any sort. The sentence plainly means that the lake and the mother
of the great rivers are identical; that is, they are one and the same
thing. The verb _is_ enables us to assert identity. A verb of this kind
is intransitive. It is often called a verb of =being=, to distinguish it
from verbs that assert action.

=85.= Some other verbs of this kind are _seem_, _appear_, _become_,
_grow_, _feel_, _look_, _smell_, _taste_, and _sound_. They are classed
as verbs of being because they mean—to be in appearance, in looks, in
smell, in taste, etc., as, “You appear ill,” “She looks young,” “The milk
tastes sour.”

Verbs that assert being are intransitive verbs.

=86.= Intransitive verbs of being usually need a complement. In the
sentence, “I am a spinner of long yarns,” if we had merely the subject
and the verb, _I am_, we should ask, _am what?_ The group of words _a
spinner of long yarns_ answers this question, and so completes the
predicate. It is not an object complement, however, for it cannot name
the receiver of an action since the verb does not assert action at all.
This complement denotes identity with the subject; hence it is called a
=subjective complement=.

Often the subjective complement denotes the class to which the person or
thing named by the subject belongs; as, “Corn is a grain,” “My friend is
a farmer.”

=87.= The subject and the object complement denote two different persons
or things, but the subject and the subjective complement always refer to
the same person or thing.

=88.= The subjective complement is sometimes a single noun, as in the
sentence, “Stars are suns.” When the subjective complement is a group of
words, a noun is usually the base word; as, “Procrastination is the thief
of time.”

In sentences containing a subjective complement, the subject comes before
the verb, and the subjective complement after the verb, unless the
sentence is transposed; as, “Lords of the sea are we.”

=89.= Sometimes, instead of having a complement, a verb of being is
modified by a prepositional phrase, or even by an adverb, denoting place;
as, “My bark is on the sea,” “Yonder is my home.”

=Summary.=—Verbs that assert =being= or =identity= are intransitive verbs.

A =subjective complement= is a word or a group of words that completes a
verb and refers to the same person or thing as the subject.

=Exercise.=—Select all the intransitive verbs of being in the following
sentences. Find their subjects and their complements, and the base words
of each. Analyze sentences 1, 3, 4, 5, 7, 9, 14.

    1. This palace was the residence of the queen consort of
    England.

    2.

        The king was in his counting house, counting out his money,
        The queen was in the parlor, eating bread and honey.

    3. My name is Beautiful Joe, and I am a brown dog of medium
    size.

    4. Her worship of God was unselfish service, and her prayers
    were worthy deeds.

    5. The one great poem of New England is her Sunday.

    6. This guinea pig’s name was Jeff, and he and I became good
    friends.

    7. Patient waiters are no losers.

    8. In this fine open square are magnificent fountains, handsome
    statuary on tall pedestals, and crowds of vehicles and foot
    passengers crossing it in every direction.

    9. A jackknife in his expert hand was a whole chest of tools.

    10. One of the best things in the world to be is a boy.

    11. Backbiting is the meanest kind of biting, not excepting the
    bite of fleas.

    12. The rattle of a bucket in a neighbor’s yard, no longer
    mixed with other weekday noises, seemed a new sound.

    13.

        Little Boy Blue, come blow your horn.
        The sheep’s in the meadow, the cow’s in the corn.

    14. I became an enthusiastic little cook.

    15. King Arthur’s son was a handsome, polite, and brave knight.

    16. The bees are abroad under the calling sky, and the red of
    apple buds becomes a sign in the orchards.

    17. Always darker turns the growing hemp as it rushes upward.

Account for the punctuation of sentences 3, 4, 6, 8, and 15.




XXVI. ADJECTIVES AS SUBJECTIVE COMPLEMENTS


=90.= In the sentences, (1) “The tomato is a fruit,” (2) “That tall boy
is the winner of the race,” the base word of the subjective complement is
a noun, because we wish to assert (1) class, (2) identity.

In the sentence, “The old gentleman’s face was serene and rosy,” the base
words of the subjective complement are the two adjectives _serene_ and
_rosy_, because we wish to assert the characteristics, or qualities, of
the old gentleman’s face.

This is a very common use of the adjective, as seen in the familiar
sentences, “Grass is green,” “Honey is sweet,” “Ice is cold.”

=91.= The verbs of being that were given in Lesson XXV,—_be_, _become_,
_look_, _seem_, _appear_, _feel_, _smell_, _taste_, _sound_, and
_grow_,—often take adjectives for subjective complements; as, “My head
feels dizzy,” “This sentence sounds queer,” “Mary grew plump and strong.”

In some cases where the language affords no adjectives that exactly
express the meaning, we use a prepositional phrase as subjective
complement; as in the common expressions, “The house is _on fire_,” “The
girl is _in love_,” “The man is _in debt_.” None of these phrases denote
place, but each of them denotes a condition.

    NOTE.—An adjective used as a subjective complement is often
    modified by a prepositional phrase. If we say “The bin is
    full,” somebody will ask “full of what?” If we say “full of
    apples,” it is evident that the phrase _of apples_ modifies
    _full_. We also say _glad of it_, _tired of play_, _wild with
    joy_, _green with envy_, etc. These expressions are different,
    however, from what we find in the sentence, “I was tired in the
    evening,” where the phrase _in the evening_, denoting time,
    modifies not the adjective _tired_, but the two words _was
    tired_.

=Summary.=—An adjective, or a group of words of which an adjective is the
base word, may be the subjective complement of an intransitive verb.

=Exercise.=—Select all the intransitive verbs of being in the following
sentences. Find their subjects and their complements, and the base words
of each. Analyze sentences 1, 2, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 13, 15.

    1. The sting of a bee is sometimes deadly.

    2. The woodchuck looked sulky, and scratched his nose
    expressively.

    3. The traveler’s limbs were numb, for the ride had been long
    and wearisome.

    4. She might be poor in purse and weak in body, this brave
    young mother, but she was rich in hope and strong in spirit.

    5. By the third day I felt too weak and sick to stir.

    6. At these words the king grew purple in the face.

    7. Conrad will keep quiet over his books.

    8. Mary was beautiful, feminine in spirit, and lovely.
    Elizabeth was talented, masculine, and plain. Mary was artless,
    unaffected, and gentle. Elizabeth was heartless, intriguing,
    and insincere.

    9. Your grandfather looked very funny in his red nightcap, and
    without his teeth.

    10. Very few poetic people are good at arithmetic.

    11. The garden at the back of the house was sweet with the
    scent of newly blossomed lilacs and the freshness of young
    grass.

    12. Snow-white was the foam that flashed upward underneath the
    curving prow.

    13. Is not Little Annie afraid of such a tumult?

    14. His mouth felt as dry and stiff and hard as a chip.

    15. The people went nearly mad for joy.

=92.= A common error is the misuse of an adverb for an adjective as the
subjective complement of a verb of being. We should say, “I feel _bad_,
or _ill_, or _unhappy_” (not _badly_).

Another common error is the misuse of an adjective for an adverb as a
modifier of a verb of action. We should say, “The child learns _easily_”
(not _easy_).

If we wish to tell a quality or condition of the subject, we should use
an adjective; as, “The oak leaves turned _brown_.” If we wish to tell
the manner of an action, we should use an adverb; as, “The leaves turned
_quickly_ this fall.”

=Exercise 1.=—Tell the part of speech of each italicized word in these
sentences, and justify its use.

    1. Mary dresses _neatly_ and always looks _charming_.

    2. The children must keep _quiet_ to-night.

    3. Stand _straight_ and breathe _deeply_.

    4. Look at them _kindly_ and speak _gently_.

    5. The old bishop looks _kind_ and _gentle_.

    6. This pie tastes very _queer_.

    7. Mother feels _uneasy_ if we are _out late_.

    8. The boy seemed _nervous_ and felt _uneasily_ of his watch
    chain.

    9. Poor oil made the lamp smell very _disagreeable_.

    10. All the doors stood _open_.

    11. The air grew _cold steadily_.

    12. Keep the box _carefully_ till I return.

=Exercise 2.=—Select the right word for each of the following sentences,
and give your reason in each case:—

    1. The light is so poor that I cannot see the picture (_plain_
    or _plainly_).

    2. I am frightened when she speaks (_cross_ or _crossly_) to me.

    3. Sit with me so that you can hear (_good_ or _well_).

    4. Does he always deal (_honest_ or _honestly_) with you?

    5. The miser died (_miserable_ or _miserably_).

    6. You came so (_sudden_ or _suddenly_) that I was taken by
    surprise.

    7. No wonder you fell, you move too (_quick_ or _quickly_).

    8. How (_stylish_ or _stylishly_) she dresses.

    9. I (_sure_ or _surely_) mailed the letter.

    10. Next time I shall act more (_sensible_ or _sensibly_).

    11. Money comes (_easy_ or _easily_) to him, and is soon gone.

    12. I felt so (_bad_ or _badly_) that I cried.

    13. I was ill yesterday, but I feel pretty (_good_ or _well_)
    this morning.

    14. All my rose bushes look (_fine_ or _finely_).




XXVII. REVIEW OF VERBS


=93.= A =verb= is an asserting word.

A =transitive verb= is one that asserts action performed upon some person
or thing.

A transitive verb is completed by a =direct object=.

The =direct object= of a transitive verb is a word or a group of words
that completes the meaning of the verb and names the receiver of the
action.

The =base word= of a =direct object= is usually a noun.

An =intransitive verb= is one that asserts, (1) being, or (2) action not
performed upon any person or thing.

An =intransitive verb of action= needs no complement.

An =intransitive verb of being= is usually completed by a subjective
complement.

A =subjective complement= is a word or a group of words that completes a
verb and refers to the same person or thing as the subject.

A subjective complement denotes identity with the subject, or tells the
class to which the subject belongs, or some quality of the subject.

The =base word= of a =subjective complement= may be a noun or an
adjective.

=Exercise.=—Select and classify all the verbs in the following sentences.
Tell the subject of each verb, and tell how each verb is completed or
modified.

    1. As soon as he saw the cat in the soap barrel, he set the
    lamp down on the cellar bottom, and laughed so that he could
    hardly move.

    2. When night came, I felt still more lonesome.

    3. Little Toomai shall become a great tracker.

    4. The wind whistled around the low, unplastered chamber, but
    the beds were soft and warm, and the guests were ready for
    sleep.

    5. The youngest daughter was the gentlest and most beautiful
    creature ever seen, and the pride of all the people in the land.

    6. I am too stiff and sore from a terrible fall I have had, to
    write more than one line.

    7. Next month, when the city had returned to its sunbaked
    quiet, the Hindu did a thing that no Englishman would have
    dreamed of doing; for, so far as the world’s affairs went, he
    died.

    8. The knoll in the tamarack swamp was a haven of peace amid
    the fierce but furtive warfare of the wilderness.

    9. Beauty rose by four o’clock every morning, lighted the
    fires, cleaned the house, and prepared the breakfast for the
    whole family.

    10. More years sped swiftly and tranquilly away.

    11. What a place the old market must have been in the days of
    Herod the Builder!

    12. The lizard belonging to my mistress was a very beautiful
    creature.

    13. The rocky walls are red with the scarlet of the geranium,
    aglow with the orange of the lantana, or they are hidden by the
    purple veil of the wild convolvulus. The dainty sweet alyssum
    clings to the rock in great patches, and the little rice plant
    lays its pink cheek against it lovingly.

    14. The spring had been a trying season for the lank she-bear.

    15. Right proud the baron was of his gallant steed.

    16. There is the house with the gate red-barred.

    17. The big male cuffed the cubs aside without ceremony,
    mounted the carcass with an air of lordship, glared about him,
    and suddenly with a snarl of wrath, fixed his eyes upon the
    green branches wherein the boy was concealed.

    18. Rip Van Winkle was a kind neighbor and an obedient,
    hen-pecked husband.

    19. The great error in Rip’s composition was an insuperable
    aversion to all kinds of profitable labor.

    20. The same sweet clover smell is in the breeze.

    21. David stooped down and piled the fagots in the hollow of
    his arm.

    22. Gentle are the days when the year is young.

    23. The winter sunshine on the fields seems full of rest.

    24. I feel out of place under this roof.

    25. Strips of snow still whitened the fields, but on the stumps
    were bluebirds, and they warbled of spring.

    26. The great limb of the cedar snapped off, rolled over in the
    air, and lay on the ground like a huge animal.




XXVIII. NOUNS: NUMBER


=94.= When we wish a noun to denote more than one object, we often change
its form slightly. _Man_ becomes _men_, _child_ becomes _children_,
_river_ becomes _rivers_.

This change in the form of a noun by which it denotes one object or more
than one is called =number=.

Number is said to be one of the =properties= of a noun.

=95.= When a noun denotes one object, it is said to be in the singular
number; as, _lion_, _mouse_, _knife_.

When a noun denotes more than one object, it is said to be in the
=plural= number; as, _lions_, _mice_, _knives_.

=96.= Most nouns form their plural by adding _s_ or _es_ to the singular;
as, _key_, _keys_; _hand_, _hands_; _rope_, _ropes_; _mass_, _masses_;
_fox_, _foxes_; _church_, _churches_; _bush_, _bushes_.

This is said to be the =regular= way of forming the plural. Why is it
that some words add _es_ instead of _s?_

=97.= Nouns ending in _o_ preceded by a vowel form their plural by adding
_s_; as, _folio_, _folios_; _cameo_, _cameos_.

Some nouns ending in _o_ preceded by a consonant add _es_, and others
_s_; as, _potato_, _potatoes_; _mosquito_, _mosquitoes_; _solo_, _solos_;
_piano_, _pianos_.

=98.= Some nouns form their plural =irregularly=.

(1) A few nouns change the vowel; as, _man_, _men_; _goose_, _geese_;
_mouse_, _mice_; _foot_, _feet_; _tooth_, _teeth_.

(2) A few nouns add _en_; as, _ox, oxen_; _child, children_.

(3) Nouns ending in _y_, preceded by a consonant sound, change _y_ to _i_
and add _es_; as, _fly, flies_; _fairy, fairies_.

(4) Some nouns ending in _f_ or _fe_ change _f_ or _fe_ to _v_ and add
_es_; as, _wolf_, _wolves_; _knife_, _knives_.

=99.= Some nouns have the same form in both the singular and the plural;
as, _deer_, _grouse_, _salmon_.

=100.= Some nouns ending in _s_ look like plural nouns, but are regarded
as singular; as, _news_, _athletics_, _gymnastics_.

=101.= Some nouns are used only in the plural; as, _scissors_, _pincers_,
_thanks_.

=102.= Compound nouns form their plural in three different ways:—

(1) By adding _s_ to the last word; as, _forget-me-not_, _forget-me-nots_.

(2) By adding _s_ to the principal word; as, _son-in-law_, _sons-in-law_.

(3) By pluralizing both words; as, _manservant_, _menservants_.

=103.= When a title is used with one name, we may pluralize either the
name or the title. We may say the _Misses Gray_ or the _Miss Grays_, the
_Messrs. Greenwood_ or the _Mr. Greenwoods_.

When a title is used with more than one name, we pluralize the title. We
say the _Misses Morgan and Adams_. The title _Mrs._ has no plural, so we
must say _Mrs. Morgan and Mrs. Adams_.

=104.= Letters, signs, or figures form their plurals by adding an
apostrophe and _s_; as, 6’s, i’s, _t_’s.

=105.= A few foreign nouns have kept their foreign plurals. Some of these
in common use are _stratum_, _strata_; _alumnus_, _alumni_; _axis_,
_axes_.

=106.= Some nouns have two plurals used with slightly different meanings;
as, _penny_ has _pennies_ and _pence_; _brother_ has _brothers_ and
_brethren_; _die_ has _dies_ and _dice_. Find out from the dictionary the
meanings of these plurals.

The correct plural of a noun cannot always be reasoned out. It should
never be guessed. It can always be learned from a dictionary.

=Summary.=—=Number= is that property of a noun by which it denotes one
object or more than one.

A =singular= noun denotes one object.

A =plural= noun denotes more than one object.

Nouns form their plural =regularly= by adding _s_ or _es_ to the singular.

Many nouns form their plural =irregularly=.

=Exercise 1.=—Tell the plural of each of the following nouns. Tell how it
is formed. Consult the dictionary when you are in doubt.

    alto
    apostrophe
    box
    brush
    calf
    chromo
    crisis
    cupful
    deer
    Dutchman
    elf
    enemy
    fez
    fife
    foot
    German
    half
    hero
    hoof
    lasso
    lioness
    loaf
    monkey
    motto
    mouse
    negro
    noose
    Norman
    oasis
    piano
    pony
    sheaf
    size
    soprano
    tableau
    tooth
    vertebra
    volcano
    wharf
    court-martial
    Dr. Wright
    eyelash
    flagstaff
    General Allen
    hanger-on
    jack-in-the-pulpit
    Miss Davis
    passer-by
    postmaster general
    will-o’-the-wisp

=Exercise 2.=—Select all the nouns in the following sentences, and tell
whether they are singular or plural. Give the singular of each plural
word, and the plural of each singular word.

    1. Listen! In yonder pine woods what a cawing of crows!

    2. A washstand in the corner, a chest of carved mahogany
    drawers, a looking-glass in a filigree frame, and a high-backed
    chair studded with brass nails like a coffin constituted the
    furniture.

    3. There have always been medicine men, rain makers, wizards,
    conjurers, sorcerers, astrologers, and fortune tellers, ready
    to trade on the fears of the weak, the ignorant, and the
    superstitious.

    4. April brought the blue scylla and the sweet violet; May
    brought the much-loved narcissus and lily of the valley.

    5. In came the three Miss Fezziwigs, beaming and lovable.

    6. People hardly ever do know where to be born until it is too
    late.

    7. The bell in the church tower was striking six, but I
    undressed for the night and buried myself under the bedclothes.

    8. As it fell out, the three princesses were talking one night
    of whom they would marry.

    9. Poor Mrs. Wise! I’m sure she’s to be pitied, living here
    with all these grandchildren.

    10. As soon as Pussy heard me shut the gate in the yard at
    noon, when school was done, she would run up the stairs as hard
    as she could go.

    11. The puppy’s nightly couch was outside the stable, even
    during the coldest weather.

    12. The fish, strange creatures called groupers, with great
    sluggish bodies and horribly human faces, come crowding up to
    be fed.

    13. What a hardy set of men they were, those Northmen of old!

    14. The streams that have entered into our American life come
    from springs very wide apart,—from the Puritan whom James I was
    persecuting, and from the courtiers whom he was patronizing;
    from the Dutchmen whom Charles II was fighting, and from the
    Covenanters whom he was trying to convert at the pistol’s
    point; from the Scotchmen who had captured the north of
    Ireland, and from the Huguenots who had been driven out of the
    south of France.

What is the use of _listen_, sentence 1, _furniture_, 2, _horribly_, 12?

How are the adjectives _weak_, _ignorant_, and _superstitious_ used in
sentence 3?




XXIX. NOUNS: GENDER


=107.= One of the characteristics of living things is sex; that is, all
living things are male or female. Many nouns that are names of living
things indicate sex. The noun _king_ indicates the male sex. The noun
_queen_ indicates the female sex. The property of a noun by which it
indicates the sex of the object named is called =gender=.

=108.= Since there are two sexes, there must be at least two genders.
Nouns that indicate the male sex are said to be of the =masculine=
gender; as, _hero_, _grandfather_.

Nouns that indicate the female sex are said to be of the =feminine=
gender; as, _hen_, _tigress_, _sister_.

Note that sex, male or female, refers to a distinction, or difference,
in the living creatures themselves, while gender is merely a property
of their names that shows this distinction. It is absurd, therefore, to
speak of a person of the masculine gender, but it is allowable to speak
of masculine qualities, masculine attire, a masculine voice, etc.

=109.= Since things without life have no sex, the nouns that name such
things have no gender; as, _sky_, _tent_, _pie_. Such words are said to
be of the =neuter= gender. _Neuter_ means _neither_.

=110.= Some nouns that may be applied to persons of either male or female
sex are said to be of =common= gender; as, _child_, _cousin_, _parent_,
_clerk_.

=111.= Gender is denoted in three ways:—

(1) By a pair of words; as, _man_, _woman_; _bull_, _cow_; _lad_, _lass_.

(2) By inflection, that is, by adding a syllable to the masculine noun
to form the feminine; as, _hero_, _heroine_; _lion_, _lioness_; _host_,
_hostess_.

What can you say of the words _widow_ and _widower_?

(3) By prefixing a word whose gender is well known; as, _bull moose_,
_maidservant_, _she bear_.

    NOTE. —Some feminine nouns are going out of use. We no longer
    use the words _poetess_ or _authoress_. If a woman preaches,
    she is a minister; if she practices medicine, she is a doctor,
    not a “lady doctor.”

=Summary.=—=Gender= is that property of a noun which indicates the sex or
non-sex of the object named.

There are four genders:—

A noun of the =masculine gender= indicates the male sex.

A noun of the =feminine gender= indicates the female sex.

A noun of the =neuter gender= indicates the absence of sex.

A noun of =common gender= may indicate either the male or the female sex.

Gender is denoted (1) by different words, (2) by inflection, (3) by
prefixing some gender word.

=Exercise.=—Tell the gender of each noun in the following sentences. Tell
how its gender is denoted. If you are in doubt about any word, consult
the dictionary.

    1. The she wolf lay agonizing in the darkest corner of the
    cave, licking in grim silence the raw stump of her right
    foreleg.

    2. The wild goose winging at the head of the V knew of good
    feeding grounds near by, which he was ready to revisit.

    3. Not vague was the fear of the brooding grouse in the far-off
    thicket, though the sound came to her but dimly.

    4. At the captain’s signal the _Seabird_ came alongside, and
    Mr. Wintermute left Mrs. Howe and her little family to go on
    their journey alone.

    5. Having sniffed the air for several minutes, without
    discerning anything to interest him, the great bull moose
    bethought him of his evening meal.

    6. Here on the ridge a buck, with his herd of does and fawns,
    has established his winter “yard.”

    7. Without a second’s hesitation the cow flung up her tail,
    gave a short bellow, and charged the bear.

    8. Another thing that attracts attention is the animals
    tethered here, there, and everywhere. You see donkeys, goats,
    cows, even cats, hens, and turkeys, confined by the inevitable
    tether.

    9. Never before since the nestlings broke the shell had her
    mate been so long away.

    10. The pupils never entered the study except upon the most
    formal occasions.

    11. A fine cock grouse alighted on a log some forty paces
    distant, stretched himself, strutted, spread his ruff and wings
    and tail, and was about to begin drumming.

    12. Pedestrians walk where they will, here, there, or yonder.

    13. Several men-of-war, with a multitude of smaller craft, are
    at anchor in Grassy Bay, and the admiral’s ship is lying on the
    great floating dock for repairs.

    14. Some civilians are buried here, and many little children;
    and I came upon a pathetic memorial to a fair young English
    wife, who followed her soldier husband hither with her little
    child, only to die on these far-off shores.

    15. Any animal that had died from natural causes the wolves
    would not touch, and they even rejected anything that had been
    killed by the stockmen. Their choice and daily food was the
    tenderer part of a freshly killed yearling heifer. An old bull
    or cow they disdained, and though they occasionally took a
    young calf or colt, it was quite clear that veal or horseflesh
    was not their favorite diet. It was also known that they were
    not fond of mutton, although they often amused themselves by
    killing sheep.




XXX. POSSESSIVE NOUNS


=112.= Instead of saying, “I borrowed the knife belonging to Will,” we
are likely to say, “I borrowed Will’s knife.” Here we have a new form of
the noun _Will_. It is used with the noun _knife_ to denote ownership of
the knife, and is called a =possessive= noun.

=113.= Since a possessive noun denotes ownership, it must be used with
another noun, the name of the thing owned. The possessive noun is said to
modify this other noun. In the expression _doctor’s car_, the possessive
noun _doctor’s_ modifies the noun _car_.

When the name of the thing owned is well known, it is often omitted. We
say, “I bought these skates at Percy’s,” and omit the word _store_. A
word omitted in this way is said to be “understood.”

=114.= Possessive nouns have a certain form of their own. The possessive
singular of a noun is formed by adding to it the apostrophe and _s_; as,
_girl’s_ desk; _friend’s_ home; _George’s_ boat.

    NOTE.—In a few common expressions, like _for Jesus’ sake_, _for
    conscience’ sake_, the possessive is formed, for the sake of
    euphony, by adding merely the apostrophe.

When the plural of a noun ends in _s_, the possessive plural is formed by
adding an apostrophe; as, _girls’_ league; _ladies’_ bonnets.

When the plural of a noun does not end in _s_, the possessive plural is
formed by adding the apostrophe and _s_; as, _women’s_ shoes; _oxen’s_
yokes.

=115.= When two persons are joint owners of one thing, we give the
possessive form to the name of the second person only; as, _Lewis and
Fred’s_ boat.

When two persons own separate things, the name of each person must have
the possessive form; as, I went to _Mandel’s_ and _Field’s_, meaning two
different stores.

=116.= Compound nouns form the possessive by adding the sign of
possession to the last word; as, singular, _son-in-law’s_; plural,
_sons-in-law’s_.

=117.= The possessive noun does not always express actual ownership.
Thus, “an _hour’s_ walk” means a walk lasting an hour, “_Lowell’s_
poems,” means the poems written by Lowell, “a _child’s_ grief” means the
grief felt by a child. What is the meaning of _the day’s work_? _a good
night’s rest_? _a year’s vacation_? _the king’s death_?

=118.= Possession may be denoted by a phrase beginning with the
preposition _of_. This phrase is much used. We say _the back of the
chair_, not _the chair’s back_; _the roots of the elm_, not _the elm’s
roots_. This phrase enables us to avoid some awkward possessives. What
may we say instead of _my cousin’s wife’s sister_? _the king of Greece’s
court_?

=119.= In the expression “this book of John’s,” we have what is called a
=double possessive=, for we have the possessive noun _John’s_, and the
phrase introduced by _of_. We use the double possessive when the noun
denoting the thing owned is first modified by some adjective, as _a_,
_the_, _this_, _every_, _both_, _no_.

=Summary.=—A =possessive noun= denotes ownership.

A possessive noun modifies another noun, expressed or understood.

The possessive singular is formed by adding the apostrophe and _s_.

The possessive plural is formed by adding the apostrophe and _s_ if the
noun does not end in _s_, and the apostrophe alone if the noun does end
in _s_.

A =double possessive= is a phrase consisting of the preposition _of_
followed by some possessive word.

=Exercise 1.=—Write the possessive of each of these nouns. Tell whether
it is singular or plural.

    attorney-general
    chairman
    city
    colonies
    Colonel Cleveland
    commander in chief
    Charles Dickens
    daughters-in-law
    dwarfs
    foxes
    geese
    goddess
    groomsman
    Frenchman
    John Keats
    ladies
    major generals
    Miss James
    mulatto
    sailor boy
    thief
    witches
    woodpecker
    yeoman

=Exercise 2.=—Select all the possessive nouns in the following sentences.
Tell what nouns they modify, and whether they are singular or plural.
Tell also the gender of each possessive.

    1. The lady’s fondness and the gentleman’s blindness were
    topics ably handled at every sewing circle in the town.

    2. St. Paul’s is the largest Protestant church in the world.

    3. Last year’s nuts are this year’s black earth.

    4. On the way home we stopped at the baker’s to get some cream
    puffs.

    5. Every debt of my partner’s has been paid.

    6. The woodsman’s aim was true.

    7. The singers’ seats, where the pretty girls sat, were the
    most conspicuous of all.

    8. A half hour’s tramp through difficult woods brought him to
    the nearest of the waters.

    9. In August we had two weeks’ vacation.

    10. This editorial of Roosevelt’s is attracting much attention.

    11. Sulphur they could buy at the apothecary’s.

    12. The horse is coal-black, which is the regulation color of
    the Horse-Guards’ horses.

    13. My clothes and my father’s were packed in a little leather
    valise.

    14. The backwoodsman cast a tender look on the sleepers’ faces,
    and slipped out of the cabin door as silently as a shadow.

    15. Just where we leave the highway to go to Gibbs’s Hill we
    pass a ruined house.

    16. He had melted up his wife’s gold thimble and his
    great-grandfather’s gold-bowed spectacles.

    17. I called on Nancy because she was a friend of Miss Davis’s.

    18. Can you give a traveler a night’s lodging?

    19.

        When beechen buds begin to swell,
          And woods the bluebird’s warble know,
        The yellow violet’s modest bell
          Peeps from the last year’s leaves below.

Analyze sentences 2, 3, 5, 6, 8, 9, 11, 16.




XXXI. NOUNS: CASE


=120.= We have seen that a noun may be used in different relations to
other words in the sentence. It may be related to a verb, for instance,
as subject, as object, and as subjective complement. That property of
a noun which shows its relation to some other word in the sentence is
called =case=.

=121.= The three most important and striking relations that a noun may
bear are these: subject of a verb, object of a verb, and possessive
modifier. Hence there are three cases.

When a noun is the subject of a verb, we say that it is in the
=nominative= case.

When it is the object of a verb, we say that it is in the =objective=
case.

When it is a possessive modifier, we say that it is in the =possessive=
case.

The pronoun has the same three cases as a noun.

=122.= A noun is said to be =declined= when we give its three case forms
in both the singular and the plural number.

          DECLENSION OF _child_

             _Singular_  _Plural_

    _Nom._    child      children
    _Poss._   child’s    children’s
    _Obj._    child      children

=123.= The noun in the nominative case is used in other relations besides
that of subject of a verb. The subjective complement is in the nominative
case, as well as the noun used independently.

When a noun is object of a preposition, it is in the objective case.

=Summary.=—=Case= is that property of a noun or a pronoun which shows its
relation to some other word in the sentence.

There are three cases.

A noun used as subject of a verb, as subjective complement, as an
exclamatory noun, or as a term of address is in the =nominative case=.

A noun used as object of a verb or of a preposition is in the =objective
case=.

A noun used as a possessive modifier is in the =possessive case=.

=Declension= is the arrangement of the three case forms of a noun in the
two numbers.

=Exercise.=—Tell the use, the case, the number, and the gender of every
noun in these sentences.

    1. The chill glitter of the northern summer sunrise was washing
    down over the rounded top of old Sugar Loaf.

    2. Thank him according to our customs, Mowgli.

    3. What a good draught the nag takes!

    4. Alas! Kitty Clover, they say it is wicked; that I must not
    catch grasshoppers for a pussy cat on Sunday.

    5. Why doesn’t your mother make a fresh cup of coffee?

    6. We might shovel off the snow, and dig down to some of last
    year’s onions.

    7. Pilgrim fathers! why should we not glorify the pilgrim
    mothers?

    8. What did Peterson Sahib mean by the elephant dance?

    9. The boy is the shoemaker’s friend.

    10.

        Mistress Mary, quite contrary,
        How does your garden grow?

    11. I didn’t ask the captain’s leave when I attended this
    ceremony, for I had a general idea that he wouldn’t give it.

    12. Cæsar is certainly the handsomest and most gentlemanly cat
    I ever saw.

    13. How was the Princess’s nose ring the cause of your
    misfortune?

    14.

        Comrade, where wilt thou be to-night.
        When the loosed storm breaks furiously?

    15. Indeed all the really pretty girls that you see are
    Americans.

    16. When I opened the goldfinch’s door on the morning of the
    blackbird’s arrival, he paid no attention to his beloved
    bath, but instantly flew over and alighted on the cage of the
    newcomer.

    17. These ten cows knew their names after a while, and would
    take their places as I called them.

    18. Oh! but he was a tight-fisted hand at the grindstone, was
    Scrooge.

    19.

        O time and change! how strange it seems
        With so much gone to still live on!




XXXII. NOUNS: THE APPOSITIVE


=124.= It is frequently necessary to explain some term we use, and there
is a convenient way for doing this without making a new sentence. For
instance, an author writes, “One of these buildings belongs to the Horse
Guards.” Then, for fear we may not know who the Horse Guards are, he adds
these explanatory words, “a very fine body of English cavalry.”

This group of words consists of the noun _body_ used as a base word,
modified by the prepositional phrase _of English cavalry_, the adjective
element _very fine_, and the article _a_. The whole group is placed
beside the term it explains, and is separated from it by a comma. Such
a group of words is called an =appositive=, and the base word _body_ is
called =a noun in apposition=.

=125.= Sometimes we explain who a person is by using his name; as, “I
heard your friend, _John Richards_, say that he was going to write to
you.”

Sometimes the name of a person or animal or place is used first, and then
explained by a group of words; as, “Akela, _the great gray Lone Wolf_,
lay out at full length on his rock.”

=126.= The appositive and the term it explains are in reality two names
for the same person or thing. You might think that either one could be
called the appositive, but this is not so. It is the explanatory term
that is the appositive, and this is the second of the two terms.

=127.= Sometimes, when there is no danger of any misunderstanding, the
appositive comes at a little distance from the word it modifies; as,
“Splendid buildings meet our eyes at every turn,—churches, private
residences, places of business, and public edifices.” Can you account for
this arrangement?

=128.= Sometimes an appositive has been used so long with the word it
modifies that the two have become united into one name; as, Peter the
Hermit, Peter the Great, William the Conqueror. Such an appositive is not
set off by a comma.

    NOTE.—In the term Peter the Great, the adjective _great_ has
    become a noun, and is modified by the adjective _the_.

=129.= When ownership is to be denoted, the sign of possession is added
to the appositive instead of to the term that it explains; as, “The poet
Milton’s daughter,” “Mr. Taft, the president’s, cow,” “My friend Julia’s
husband.”

=Summary.=—An =appositive= is a word or a group of words placed after a
term to explain it.

When the base word of an appositive is a noun, it is called a =noun in
apposition=.

The case of a noun in apposition is the same as that of the noun it
explains.

An appositive is a modifier of a noun or a pronoun.

An appositive is set off from the rest of the sentence by commas unless
it makes one term with the word it modifies.

=Exercise.=—Select all the appositives in the following sentences, and
tell what they modify. Find the nouns in apposition. Tell the case of
each, giving the reason in each instance. Analyze sentences 1, 2, 3, 5,
6, 8, 9, 10, 11, 16.

    1. Alfred the Great loved books and strangers and travelers.

    2. In the neatest, sandiest hole of all lived Benjamin’s aunt
    and his cousins,—Flopsy, Mopsy, Cottontail, and Peter.

    3. The conversation turned to rheumatism, a subject of very
    remote interest to Polly.

    4. My son William became a telegraph operator before he was
    seventeen.

    5. James II, the bigoted successor of Charles I, had annulled
    the charters of all the colonies.

    6. The geography lesson that day was the rivers of Asia,—the
    Obi, Yenisei, Lena, Amoor, Hoang Ho, and Yang-tse-kiang.

    7. Some writers tell us that Edward the Confessor had made a
    will appointing Duke William his successor.

    8. Foremost among the envious ones was the Princess Panka, the
    daughter of a neighboring king.

    9. Close to Charing Cross is Trafalgar Square, a fine open
    space with a fountain, and a column to Lord Nelson.

    10. The body of Warwick the kingmaker was exposed for three
    days on the pavement of St. Paul’s, and then deposited among
    the ashes of his fathers in the abbey of Bilsam.

    11. The pass was crowned with dense, dark forest,—deodar,
    walnut, wild cherry, wild olive, and wild pear.

    12. Kaa, the big Rock Python, had changed his skin for perhaps
    the two hundredth time since his birth.

    13. Eric the Red, a wandering Norseman who was dwelling in
    Iceland, went to sea and discovered Greenland.

    14. There are so many things to distract a boy’s attention,—a
    chipmunk in the fence, a bird on a near tree, and a henhawk
    circling high in the air over the barnyard.

    15. Very soundly it slept, that doomed hare crouching under the
    fir bush!

    16. They had never been accounted for, Rebecca’s eyes.




XXXIII. APPOSITIVE ADJECTIVES


=130.= Adjectives are not always placed before the noun they modify. When
they are used as subjective complements, they follow the verb, although
they modify the subject; as, “Life is _real_,” “The air seems _moist_.”
We also find many sentences like the following, “The camel, restless and
weary, groans and occasionally shows his teeth.”

Here it is evident that the adjectives _restless_ and _weary_ are in the
sentence to describe the camel; hence they modify the noun _camel_; but
instead of preceding this noun, they follow it. Because of their position
such adjectives are called =appositive adjectives=.

=131.= An appositive adjective is usually set off by a comma or commas.
It is frequently modified by a phrase, as in the expressions, “restless
under his heavy load,” “weary with the long journey.”

=Summary.=—An adjective with or without modifiers may be used as an
appositive.

An appositive adjective is usually set off from the rest of the sentence
by a comma.

=Exercise.=—Select all the appositive adjectives in these sentences, and
tell what they modify. Give the modifiers of each adjective. Account for
the punctuation. Analyze sentences 2, 4, 5, 6, 7, 11, 12.

    1. His tunic, scarlet in color, is of the softest woolen fabric.

    2. The skirt drops to the knee in folds heavy with embroidery.

    3. Grandfather Nutter was a hale, cheery old gentleman, as
    straight and as bald as an arrow.

    4. The pink rose, dear for its old associations, was
    transplanted to a sunny place close by the south door.

    5. Presently the Colonel came in, bluff, warm, and hearty.

    6. From the other window one saw the distant forest, so deep,
    black, and mysterious.

    7. The April night, softly chill and full of the sense of thaw,
    was closing down over the wide salt marshes!

    8. Presently, from far along the dark heights of the sky, came
    voices, hollow, musical, confused.

    9. Here is a foot passenger, dusty and tired, who comes with
    lagging steps.

    10. There is no nation known to history in which all citizens,
    male and female, old and young, native and foreign born, have
    had the suffrage.

    11. Ginger hurried off into the darkness, wild with excitement.

    12. The chief engineer entered the smoking room for a moment,
    red, smiling, and wet.




XXXIV. INDIRECT OBJECT


=132.= We have seen that the direct object names the receiver of the
action asserted by the verb. In the sentence, “Kotuko made his dog a
tiny harness,” the direct object of the verb _made_ is a _tiny harness_,
for this group of words tells what received the making, and answers the
question _made what?_

If we go further and ask the question, _made a harness for what?_ the
answer is, _his dog_. This group of words is called the indirect object.
It names the receiver of the direct object; that is, the dog received the
harness.

=133.= An indirect object is always in the objective case, but it is
not a complement of the verb, because it is not a necessary element of
a sentence. We call it a modifier of the verb. The sentence, “In the
morning the old wife gave the princess three nuts,” would be complete if
we left out the indirect object _the princess_, and merely told what the
old wife gave, namely, three nuts.

Notice that the indirect object comes between the verb and the direct
object. If we place it after the direct object, we must supply the
preposition _to_ or _for_, and then instead of an indirect object we
shall have a prepositional phrase.

=Summary.=—An =indirect object= is a word or a group of words that tells
to whom or for whom, to what or for what, something is done.

An indirect object names the receiver of the direct object.

An indirect object precedes the direct object.

An indirect object is a modifier of a verb.

An indirect object is in the objective case.

Only a few transitive verbs take both direct and indirect objects. Some
of them are _bring_, _buy_, _do_, _get_, _give_, _lend_, _make_ _pass_,
_pay_, _promise_, _sell_, _send_, _show_, _take_, _tell_, _write_.

=Exercise 1.=—Write sentences containing both direct and indirect
objects, using verbs in the list above.

=Exercise 2.=—Select both the direct and the indirect objects in the
following sentences, giving reasons:—

    1. Carry your grandmamma a custard and a little pot of butter.

    2. Aladdin made his mother very little reply.

    3. I showed my comrades a large heap of stones.

    4. Mrs. Howe had promised the children presents, so she bought
    George a gun, Mollie two gold rings, and Paul a checkerboard.

    5. I wish the Lord would give horses voices for just one week.

    6. Bring my mother six women slaves to attend her.

    7. If you offer Dash a bit of sheep’s wool now, he tucks his
    tail between his legs, and runs for home.

    8. I never told my schoolmates that I was a Yankee.

    9. I paid Gypsy a visit every half hour during the first day of
    my arrival.

    10. Then the magician gave Aladdin a handful of small money.

    11. Father Andrew also taught Tom a little Latin.

    12. The sultan granted Aladdin his request and again embraced
    him.




XXXV. ADVERBIAL NOUN PHRASES


=134.= We have learned that a frequent modifier of a verb is a
prepositional phrase telling the place or time of an action; as, “So off
we go in the cool, clear morning.”

Sometimes a noun, or a group of words of which a noun is the base word,
takes the place of this prepositional phrase; as, “_Last summer_ the
apple trees bore no fruit.”

The words _last summer_ tell time, and modify the predicate _bore no
fruit_, but there is no preposition in this group of words. _Summer_ is a
noun modified by the adjective _last_. Such a group of words we call an
=adverbial noun phrase=. The noun used as base word we call an =adverbial
noun=.

=135.= An adverbial noun phrase tells not only time and place, but it
often answers such questions as _how far?_ _how long?_ _how much?_ as,
“We walked _the whole distance_ before sunset.” “She stayed in London
_ten days_.” “One orange weighed _twelve ounces_.”

=Summary.=—An =adverbial noun phrase= is a group of words of which a noun
is the base word, that tells the time or place of an action, or how long,
how far, or how much.

An adverbial noun phrase modifies a verb.

An =adverbial noun= is always in the objective case.

=Exercise.=—Select the adverbial noun phrases and the nouns used as base
words. Tell what the phrases modify, and what questions they answer.
(Notice that these phrases often modify more of the predicate than just
the verb.) Analyze sentences 1, 3, 4, 5, 6, 9, 10.

    1. He followed her to school one day.

    2. Each boy who failed to report himself was fined one cent.

    3. Elizabeth Eliza went home directly.

    4. Morning, noon, and night, Dame Van Winkle’s tongue was
    incessantly going.

    5. His keen, sonorous, passionate cry rang strangely on the
    night, three times.

    6. The trail was an easy one this time.

    7. There the wild plum each summer fruited abundantly; and
    there a sturdy brotherhood of beeches each autumn lavished
    their treasure of three-cornered nuts.

    8. I worked a whole week to get the traps properly set out.

    9. The next instant the panther received a smart blow on the
    top of his head.

    10. Kala Nag, the elephant, stood ten fair feet at the shoulder.

    11. Ere the cow had gone twenty-five yards, Lobo was upon her.

    12. The next morning Mrs. Peterkin began by taking out the
    things that were already in her trunk.




XXXVI. ADVERBIAL NOUN PHRASES


=136.= When we wish to tell how long, or wide, or deep, or thick a thing
is, we frequently make use of such statements as these:—

    The valley is nine miles long.

    The street is sixty feet wide.

    The water is ten fathoms deep.

    The slices were an inch thick.

It is evident that in the first sentence the question _how long?_ is
answered by the words _nine miles_. Hence this group of words modifies
the adjective _long_, having the same use as the adverb _very_ in,
“The valley is very long.” But the base word of this group is the noun
_miles_, hence the whole group must be an adverbial noun phrase. We
conclude from this familiar sentence that an adverbial noun phrase may
modify an adjective.

What adverbial noun phrase modifies _wide_? _deep_? _thick_?

Make sentences in which an adverbial noun phrase modifies the adjectives
_old_, _tall_, _high_.

=137.= The adverbial noun phrase may also modify an adverb, as in the
sentence, “She came two hours afterward,” where _two hours_ answers the
question _how long afterward?_ How do we know that _afterward_ is an
adverb?

    NOTE.—A common illustration of this use is found in the
    familiar expression _a short time ago_, where the adverb _ago_
    (which is never used by itself) is modified by the adverbial
    noun phrase _a short time_. Think of five other noun phrases
    often used to modify _ago_.

=Summary.=—An adverbial noun phrase may modify an adjective or an adverb.
In such a case it denotes a measure of some sort.

=Exercise.=—Select the adverbial nouns and the phrases of which they are
the base words. Tell what these phrases modify, and what questions they
answer.

    1. About an hour later a big red fox came trotting into the
    glade.

    2. When the stone was pulled up, there appeared a staircase
    about three or four feet deep, leading to a door.

    3. The trail was perhaps an hour old.

    4. After viewing old Fort Snelling, we walked a mile farther to
    the parade ground, and watched the soldiers drill.

    5. An ordinary wolf’s forefoot is four and one half inches long.

    6. Lobo stood three feet high at the shoulder, and weighed one
    hundred and fifty pounds.

    7. If the crows do not kill the owl, they at least worry him
    half to death and drive him twenty miles away.

    8. It is a curious fact about boys that two will be a great
    deal slower in doing anything than one.

    9. When the eagle returned an hour later to the point of
    shoals, the net looked less strange to him.

    10. Twenty-five years ago the American minister at the court of
    Turin was conversing with a young Italian of high rank from the
    island of Sardinia.

    11. The largest aboriginal structure of stone within the limits
    of the United States has a circuit of 1480 feet, is five
    stories high, and once included five hundred separate rooms.

    12. How many years did Jacob serve for Rachel?

    13. The week before the election one of the candidates for
    mayor spoke to an audience of laboring men every evening.

    14. That day I left the university, and my trial took place a
    little while later.

    15. David reflected a few moments longer.




XXXVII. OBJECTIVE COMPLEMENT


=138.= In the sentence, “The boys called the turtles Harry Blake’s
sheep,” the verb is followed by two noun elements. What are they? The
second element is not an appositive of the first, neither have we here a
direct and an indirect object. Prove this.

If we ask the question, _What_ did the boys call Harry Blake’s sheep?
the answer is, _the turtles_; hence this must be the direct object of
_called_. But the sentence is not complete here. We do not mean that the
boys _called_ the turtles, that is, _summoned_ them. We mean that they
_named_ the turtles. If we ask the question, “What did the boys call the
turtles?” the answer is, “_Harry Blake’s sheep_.” This group of words is
necessary as a second complement of the verb, and at the same time it
tells what the turtles became as a result of calling, or naming, them.
Such an element is called an =objective complement=, because it tells
something about the direct object.

The base word of an objective complement is in the objective case.

=139.= Not all transitive verbs take an objective complement; but only
verbs of making or causing, such as _make_, _call_, _name_, _elect_,
_appoint_, _choose_.

=140.= Sometimes the objective complement has an adjective for its base
word instead of a noun; as, “The great wood-fire in the tiled chimney
place made our sitting room _very cheerful_ of winter nights.”

=Summary.=—An =objective complement= is a word or a group of words that
helps to complete the verb, and tells what the direct object becomes as a
result of the action asserted by the verb.

The base word of an objective complement may be either a noun or an
adjective.

=Exercise.=—Find all the objective complements in the following sentences
and tell about them in this way:—

MODEL.—_Ben called this room his cabin._

_His cabin_ is a noun element used as objective complement of the verb
_called_, because it tells what the direct object, _this room_, becomes
as a result of the calling. The base word of this objective complement is
the noun _cabin_.

    1. His blue beard made him so ugly and so terrible in
    appearance that women and children fled from him.

    2. She kept the cottage always as neat as a new pin.

    3. By much trampling we had made the salt marsh a mere quagmire.

    4. This mother, proud of her knowledge of French, always called
    her little daughter Mademoiselle.

    5. If ever I have a boy to bring up in the way he should go, I
    shall make Sunday a cheerful day to him.

    6. To the great amusement of my grandfather, Sailor Ben painted
    the cottage a light sky-blue.

    7. Then, inch by inch, the untempered heat crept into the heart
    of the Jungle, turning it yellow, brown, and at last black.

    8. The fish had buried themselves deep in the dry mud.

    9. The natives of Bermuda call the tamarisk the “salt-cedar.”

    10. Nature meant him for a frontiersman, but circumstances made
    him an innkeeper.

    11. The only way that they could set the king’s head straight
    was to remove it.

    12. Columbus rechristened the island San Salvador, but its
    precise identity has always been a little doubtful.

    13. A parrot would shriek me wild in a week.

    14. Skin changing always makes a snake moody and depressed till
    the new skin begins to shine and look beautiful.

    15. The giver makes the gift precious.

    16. The sound of a bell struck the merrymakers dumb.

    17. Who appointed you judge of your brother?

    18. The dim light of stars rendered large objects near at hand
    visible in bulk and outline.

    19. We call domestic animals dependent creatures; but who made
    them dependent?




XXXVIII. PARSING OF NOUNS


=141.= When we tell all that is true about a noun from a grammatical
point of view, we are said to =parse= it.

In parsing a noun we should tell:—

(1) Its class,—common or proper.

(2) Its person,—first, second, or third. (See Note.)

(3) Its number,—singular or plural.

(4) Its gender,—masculine, feminine, neuter, or common.

(5) Its case,—nominative, possessive, or objective.

(6) Its use in the sentence.

    NOTE.—Nouns do not change their _form_ for =person=. Since
    they are almost always the names of persons or things spoken
    of, they are usually in the _third person_. A noun is in the
    _first person_ when it is used in apposition with a pronoun of
    the first person. (See p. 98.) A noun is in the _second person_
    (1) when it is used in apposition with a pronoun of the second
    person; (2) when it is used as a term of address.

=Exercise.=—Parse each noun in the following sentences:—

    1. All the great men of the neighborhood were there on
    horseback,—militia officers in uniform, the member of Congress,
    the sheriff of the county, the editors of newspapers, and many
    a farmer, too, had mounted his patient steed or come on foot.

    2. Next day Mowgli himself fell into a very cunning leopard
    trap.

    3. The Bermudas are, with the exception of Gibraltar, England’s
    most strongly fortified hold.

    4. Then Mrs. Howe graciously showed the admiring ladies her
    collection of fine lace and embroideries.

    5. The thoughtful, lonely ways of their admiral made Columbus
    an object of terror to his ignorant seamen.

    6. I thought that nothing in the world was so beautiful as the
    sultan my father’s palace.

    7. Perhaps your fish is eighteen inches long.

    8. Here comes the boat! This is your waterproof, Hetty. Be
    careful now, Miss Alice. Mrs. Blank, you will need your sun
    umbrella. Hold on a minute, skipper, till I get that basket.

    9. At nine o’clock, Williams, a bronze Hercules, low-voiced,
    gentle-mannered, a trusty boatman, and an enthusiast in his
    calling, met us at the dock.

    10. The savage sticks bright feathers in his hair, carries a
    tomahawk, and wears moccasins upon his nimble feet.

    11. Some evenings afterward the same thing happened at another
    corner of the pasture.

    12. The innocent savages gave Columbus a new world for Castile
    and Leon, and he gave them some glass beads and little red caps.

    13. The sultan received the present from Aladdin’s mother’s
    hand.

    14. The elephant was thoughtfully chewing the green stem of a
    young plantain tree.

    15. In the good old days the boys on the coast ran away and
    became sailors.

    16. I was a favorite with the cooks, and so, although they
    denied my cousins certain privileges of the kitchen, they
    freely granted these to me.

    17. The Norsemen called gold “the serpent’s bed.”


SUMMARY OF CASE RELATIONS

Nominative.

    (1) Subject of a verb.
    (2) Term of address.
    (3) Exclamatory noun.
    (4) Subjective complement of a verb.
    (5) Appositive.
    (6) Nominative absolute (see p. 237).

Possessive.

    (1) Modifier of a noun.

Objective.

    (1) Object of a verb.
    (2) Object of a preposition.
    (3) Appositive.
    (4) Indirect object.
    (5) Adverbial noun.
    (6) Objective complement.

Make an original sentence to illustrate each of the case relations of a
noun.




XXXIX. PERSONAL PRONOUNS


=142.= Certain pronouns, as _I_, _you_, _he_, _it_, etc., show by their
form that they refer to the person speaking, the person spoken to, or the
person or thing spoken of.

The pronoun _I_ denotes the person speaking, and is said to be a pronoun
of the =first person=.

The pronoun _you_ denotes the person spoken to, and is said to be a
pronoun of the =second person=.

The pronouns _he_, _she_, and _it_ denote the person or thing spoken of,
and are said to be pronouns of the =third person=.

Such pronouns are called =personal= pronouns.

=143.= The noun that a pronoun stands for, whether it is expressed
somewhere in the sentence or merely understood, is called the
=antecedent= of the pronoun.

=144.= All the personal pronouns have several different forms, and if we
wish to speak our language correctly, we must know these forms and be
careful in their use. The personal pronouns are declined as follows:—

             FIRST PERSON                        SECOND PERSON

          _Singular_      _Plural_         _Singular_    _Plural_

    _Nom._    I             we               you           you
    _Poss._   my, mine      our, ours        your, yours   your, yours
    _Obj._    me            us               you           you

                                  THIRD PERSON

                    _Singular_                    _Plural_

             MASCULINE     FEMININE                NEUTER

    _Nom._    he            she              it            they
    _Poss._   his           her, hers        its           their, theirs
    _Obj._    him           her              it            them

=145.= There is another personal pronoun of the second person—_thou_.
It is not used in conversation nowadays, but is frequently found in the
Bible and in poetry. It is declined as follows:—

             _Singular_   _Plural_

    _Nom._    thou         ye
    _Poss._   thy, thine   your, yours
    _Obj._    thee         you

=Summary.=—A =personal pronoun= is one that shows by its form whether it
denotes the person speaking, the person spoken to, or the person or thing
spoken of.

The personal pronouns are _I_, _thou_, _you_, _he_, _she_, _it_, and
their various case forms in the two numbers.

The =antecedent= of a pronoun is the word for which it stands.

=Exercise.=—Select all the personal pronouns. Tell from the form of each
its person and number, and, if it is a pronoun of the third person, tell
also its gender. Where it is possible, tell the antecedent of the pronoun.

    1. Hide me in the oven.

    2. First lay aside your black veil, then tell us why you put it
    on.

    3. While we were following the direction of his finger, a sound
    of distant oars fell on our ears.

    4. If you want a thing, and have no money to buy it, go without
    it until you can pay for it.

    5. Though the Jungle People drink seldom, they must drink deep.

    6. The whelps were evidently very young, but their ears were
    wide open, and they stood up on strong legs when the boy
    touched them gently with his palm.

    7. “Well,” said grandfather, “I tell you one thing; the game
    will last me till that poor cat gets well again.”

    8. They sent him for troops only the sweepings of the galleys.

    9.

        My driftwood fire will burn so bright!
        To what warm shelter canst thou fly?
        I do not fear for thee, though wroth
        The tempest rushes through the sky.

    10. Caught in a steel trap, she had gnawed off her own paw as
    the price of freedom.

    11. At recess he gave me the core of his apple, though there
    were several applicants for it.




XL. USES OF PERSONAL PRONOUNS


=146.= The personal pronoun, since it takes the place of a noun, has
almost all the uses of a noun. It may be,—

(1) The subject of a verb; as, “_I_ only know _I_ cannot drift beyond His
love and care.”

The subject of an imperative sentence is always the pronoun _you_,
_thou_, or _ye_, but this pronoun is seldom expressed; as, “Telegraph
for staterooms at once.”

(2) The base word of a term of address; as, “Ho, _ye_ who suffer, know
ye suffer for yourselves.”

(3) The subjective complement of a verb; as, “This man, good Ilderim, is
_he_ who told you of me.”

(4) The base word of an appositive phrase; as, “The fourth lackey, _he_
of the two gold watches, poured the chocolate out.”

(5) A possessive modifier; as, “All the harmless wood folk were _his_
friends.”

    NOTE.—The possessive pronoun is often intensified by the
    adjective _own_, which modifies the same noun that the
    possessive pronoun modifies; as, “This is _my own_, my
    native land.”

(6) The direct object of a verb; as, “The farm boy spreads the grass
after the men have cut _it_.”

(7) The object of a preposition; as, “What a new world did that party
open to _him_!”

(8) An indirect object; as, “Here will the cattle come to drink, and I
will kill _me_ a yearling heifer.”

=Exercise.=—Select and parse all the personal pronouns in the following
sentences. In parsing a personal pronoun we should tell its person,
number, gender, antecedent, case, and use in the sentence.

    1. I verily believe that my ill looks alone saved me a flogging.

    2. Taste the tamarisk, and you get the very flavor of the brine.

    3. Then I swung my lasso, and sent it whistling over his head.

    4. They worked together, read together, walked together,
    planned together, she and her daughter, and in all things were
    friends and companions.

    5. Mother Wolf would throw up her head, and sniff a deep snuff
    of satisfaction as the wind brought her the smell of the tiger
    skin on the Council Rock.

    6. The old crow spread the shells out in the sun, turned them
    over, lifted them one by one in his beak, dropped them, nestled
    on them as though they were eggs, toyed with them, and gloated
    over them like a miser.

    7. The spirits have spoken to Kotuko. They will show him open
    ice. He will bring us the seal again.

    8. The rank swamp grass concealed the nest where Raggylug’s
    mother had hidden him.

    9.

        Across the lowly beach we flit,
        One little sandpiper and I.

    10. Up jumped Scarface, for it was he, and ran.

    11.

        And a voice that was calmer than silence said,
        “Lo! It is I. Be not afraid.”

    12. Nearly every cottage in England has its little garden full
    of blooming plants and shrubs.

    13.

        “Who gives himself with his alms feeds three,—
        Himself, his hungering neighbor, and Me.”

    14. This is he that was spoken of by the prophet.

    15. Arise, and take the young child and his mother, and flee
    into Egypt, and be thou there until I bring thee word.

    16.

        I called my servant, and he came;
          How kind it was of him
        To mind a slender man like me,
          He of the mighty limb.

    17. Prepare ye the way of the Lord, make his paths straight.

    18. It is so slippery and shiny down here, and the stage is so
    much too big for me, that I rattle round in it till I’m almost
    black and blue.

    19. These are they who have passed through much tribulation.

    20. O thou that rollest above, round as the shield of my
    fathers, whence comes thy everlasting light?

=147.= Many errors are made in the form of personal pronouns.

(1) When a pronoun is used as the subject of a verb, it must have the
nominative form, hence the correct answer to the question, Who is there?
is _I_ (not _me_).

(2) When several pronouns are used as the subject of the same verb, the
pronoun of the second person should come first, and the pronoun of the
first person should come last. We should say,—

    _You and he and I_ have been chosen.

    _You and I_ were on time.

    _He and I_ read the book.

Can you justify Whittier’s lines?

    Ah, brother, only _I and thou_
    Are left of all that circle now.

(3) For the subject of a sentence we may use the expressions _we boys_,
_we girls_, _we Americans_, etc.

    _We girls_ bought the pictures.

    _We boys_ set up the tents.

    _We Baptists_ had a church supper.

(4) A pronoun used as the complement of an intransitive verb of being
must have the nominative form. We should say,—

    Yes, it was _I_.

    No, it was not _she_.

    Perhaps it is _he_.

    It is surely _they_.

(5) A pronoun used as object of a verb must have the objective form. We
should say,—

    Mrs. Albee invited mother and _me_.

    Did you see Julia and _me_ in the gallery?

    Didn’t you expect _him and her_?

    She will never suspect _you and me_.

    That team can’t beat _us boys_.

(6) A pronoun used as object of a preposition must have the objective
form. We should say,—

    Leo wrote first to _her_ and _me_.

    Father will call for _you_ and _me_.

    Between _you_ and _me_ he was afraid.

    There is a great difference between Carrie and _me_.

    They can never catch up with _us girls_.

=Exercise.=—Fill each blank in the following sentences with a pronoun
having the correct case form. Give your reasons.

    1. Mother says that it was —— and not —— that paid off the
    mortgage.

    2. Who left the room first? ——, but Mary was close behind ——.

    3. —— fellows are going to have a debating society.

    4. The German teacher gave you and —— the same passage to
    translate.

    5. There must be no secrets between —— and ——.

    6. When do you expect Grandmother and ——?

    7. Perhaps —— girls are most to blame.

    8. Nobody chose —— or ——, so —— and —— sat on the stairs and
    talked.




XLI. USES OF POSSESSIVE PERSONAL PRONOUNS


=148.= When we studied the declension of personal pronouns, we learned
that all of them except _it_ and _he_ have two forms in the possessive
case. These forms are _my_, _mine_; _our_, _ours_; _thy_, _thine_;
_your_, _yours_; _her_, _hers_; and _their_, _theirs_. There is a
difference in the use of these two forms.

The pronouns of the first form,—_my_, _our_, _thy_, _your_, _her_,
and _their_, as well as _his_ and _its_, are used with nouns as
possessive modifiers. We say, _my father_, _our school_, _her hat_, _its
population_, etc.

=149.= The pronouns of the second form,—_mine_, _ours_, _thine_, _yours_,
_hers_, _theirs_, and also _his_, are used alone, that is, they are not
followed by a noun, the name of the thing possessed. We say, “_Mine_ is
too heavy,” when the object spoken of—a waterproof, for instance—is well
known by both speaker and listener. Or we say, “Her writing is clear,
but I like _his_ better,” where it is unnecessary to repeat the noun
_writing_ after _his_.

In the first sentence _mine_ is the subject of the verb is, and in
the second _his_ is the object of the verb _like_. We even find the
possessive form used as the object of a preposition; as, “If the book
isn’t in my desk, it must be in _yours_.”

This use of the possessive forms _mine_, _his_, _yours_ as subject or
object is =idiomatic=; that is, it is peculiar to itself in grammatical
construction. The one word _mine_ really means _my waterproof_, _his_
means _his writing_, and _yours_ means _your desk_. But we cannot say
that the noun is understood after these pronouns, for we cannot supply
it except after _his_. It is not English to say _mine waterproof_ or
_yours desk_. Instead of being understood, the nouns are included in
the pronouns. In speaking of such pronouns we may say that they are
possessive in form, but are used idiomatically as subject, object, etc.

    NOTE.—The two pronouns _mine_ and _thine_ are sometimes used
    to modify a noun expressed, especially in poetry; as, “Mine
    eyes have seen the glory of the coming of the Lord.” It is
    worth noting that they are not used before words beginning with
    a consonant sound. We do not say _mine country_, nor _thine
    liberty_.

=150.= In the expression “a friend of mine,” we have in the phrase _of
mine_ a “double possessive” (see § 119); for the preposition _of_ denotes
possession, and so does the object, the possessive pronoun _mine_. In
this use there is no noun included in the pronoun. _Mine_ does not mean
_my friends_. It means _me_.

=Summary.=—The possessive pronouns _mine_, _ours_, _thine_, _yours_,
_hers_, _his_, and _theirs_ may be used idiomatically without a noun to
modify. These pronouns have then the same use that the noun would have if
it were expressed.

These pronouns may be used as the object of the preposition _of_ to form
“double possessives.”

_Mine_ and _thine_ are sometimes used to modify nouns expressed, the same
as _my_ and _thy_.

=Exercise.=—Select all the possessive pronouns in these sentences, and
tell their use:—

    1. You have no uncle by your father’s side or mine.

    2. To thine own self be true.

    3. The people of Europe did not know that America, this great
    country of ours, was in the world at all.

    4. This young girl came to Wisconsin to live with an uncle of
    hers who had seven sons and no daughters.

    5. Early in the spring I had begun Bingo’s education. Very
    shortly afterward he began mine.

    6. Stand! The ground’s your own, my braves!

    7. A boy who lived in a street behind ours had an awkward
    three-wheeled machine that he called a “verlosophy.”

    8.

        He will say, “O Love, thine eyes
        Build the shrine my soul abides in;
        And I kneel here for thy grace.”

    9. The boy saw big, clutching talons outstretched from
    thick-feathered legs, while round eyes, fiercely gleaming,
    flamed upon his in passing, as they searched the bush.

    10. Time hath his work to do, and we have ours.

    11. The sultan ordered that the princess’s attendants should
    come and carry the trays into their mistress’s apartment.

    12. Susie could sew like a woman, and her patchwork quilts were
    masterpieces of their kind. Neither mine nor Marty’s were well
    made.

    13. Your worthy father was my own brother.

    14. There was more joy in this little brown, battened house of
    ours than in their mansion with its onyx mantels and mahogany
    doors.

Are the verbs in sentences 1, 7, 10, transitive or intransitive? How do
you know?

Account for the punctuation of sentences 3, 6, 10, 12, and 14.




XLII. COMPOUND PERSONAL PRONOUNS


=151.= Besides the personal pronouns that have already been considered
there are certain other forms such as _myself_ and _ourselves_, formed
by uniting the noun _self_ to a singular personal pronoun, and the noun
_selves_ to a plural personal pronoun.

These are called =compound personal pronouns=.

    _First person_    myself,                     ourselves
    _Second person_   thyself, yourself,          yourselves
    _Third person_    himself, herself, itself,   themselves

What is the number of each of these pronouns?

=152.= Compound personal pronouns are never in the possessive case.
They never change their form for case, but are in the nominative or the
objective case according to their use. They have two main uses:—

(1) A compound personal pronoun may be used for emphasis, and is then in
apposition with the noun it makes emphatic; as, “Cæsar himself refused
the crown.” The pronoun does not always come next to the noun. We may
say, “Cæsar refused the crown himself.” The pronoun is in the same case
as the word it goes with.

(2) It may be used reflexively, that is, to show that an action comes
back to the doer of it; as, “I scratched myself with a pin.” Here the
pronoun is object of a verb, hence in the objective case.

It may also be the object of a preposition; as, “I was talking to myself.”

It may even be an indirect object; as, “She bought herself a watch.”

    NOTE.—The compound personal pronoun is used as object of a
    preposition in some familiar idiomatic expressions; as, “He was
    _beside himself_ with joy.” “She was sitting _all by herself_.”

=Summary.=—The =compound personal pronouns= are _myself_, _ourselves_,
_thyself_, _yourself_, _yourselves_, _himself_, _herself_, _itself_, and
_themselves_.

They are commonly used for two purposes:—

(1) For emphasis, (2) reflexively.

=Exercise.=—Select and parse all the compound personal pronouns in the
following sentences. Tell their person, number, case, and use.

    1. Love thyself last.

    2. The men folks, having worked in the regular hours, lie down
    and rest, stretch themselves idly in the shade at noon, or
    lounge about after supper.

    3. Very stupid people are never aware of their stupidity
    themselves.

    4. On cold, stormy evenings we would make ourselves toast at
    the sitting room fire, and eat our supper on the little sewing
    table.

    5. At the more remote end of the island Legrand had built
    himself a small hut.

    6. A masterly retreat is in itself a victory.

    7. Now make yourselves at home, and if you find an eel’s head,
    you may bring it to me.

    8. The little fox ground his pearly milk teeth into the mouse
    with a rush of inborn savageness that must have surprised even
    himself.

    9. They were returning home for the holidays in high glee, and
    promising themselves a world of enjoyment.

    10. Pity for his gallant horse, rage and mortification at the
    ridiculous plight he was in, anxiety lest he should be late
    for the tournament, all combined to make the baron for a time
    beside himself.

    11. Rivermouth itself is full of hints and flavors of the sea.

    12. I think the ugly duckling will grow up strong, and be able
    to take care of himself.

    13. With what awe, yet with what pride, did I look forward to
    the day when I myself should enter the doorway of the high
    school.

    14. That I may have nobody to blame but myself should my
    marriage turn out amiss, I will choose for myself.

    15. Although the English and we ourselves both speak the same
    tongue, we do not speak it in the same way.

    16. Heaven helps those who help themselves.

Analyze sentences 1, 3, 4, 6, 9, 11.




XLIII. INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS


=153.= If we ask the question, “Who killed cock robin?” the answer may be
the declarative sentence, “The sparrow killed cock robin.” The sentences
are alike, except that in the declarative sentence _the sparrow_ is the
subject, while in the interrogative sentence _who_ is the subject. It is
clear then that _who_ is used instead of the noun _sparrow_. _Who_ is
therefore a pronoun, and since it is used in asking a question, we call
it an =interrogative pronoun=.

=154.= The other interrogative pronouns are _whose_, _whom_, _which_, and
_what_. _Whose_ is the possessive form of _who_, and is used, like other
possessive pronouns, to modify some noun expressed or understood; as,
“Whose house is the gray stone mansion on the corner?”

_Whom_ is the objective form of _who_, and is used as the object of a
verb or of a preposition; as, “Whom did he marry?” “To whom did you
speak?”

    NOTE.—In conversation, the preposition governing an
    interrogative pronoun is often placed at the end of the
    question; as, “Whom did you come for?”

=155.= _What_ is used when we inquire for the name, not of a person but
of a thing; as, “What did he have on his head?”

=156.= _Which_ is used when we wish to know the particular one of several
persons or things; as, “Which of these moon-stones do you like best?”

=157.= In a sentence like this, “Who is that tall man?” it may be
difficult at first thought to decide whether _who_ is the subject of _is_
or the subjective complement. We can always tell by the answer. In this
case the answer is, “That tall man is Joseph Choate.” It is clear that
_Joseph Choate_ is the subjective complement, hence in the question the
word _who_, which means _Joseph Choate_, is the subjective complement.

=Summary.=—An =interrogative pronoun= is one used in asking a question.

The interrogative pronouns are _who_, _which_, and _what_.

_Who_ is declined: Nominative, _who_; possessive, _whose_; objective,
_whom_.

An interrogative pronoun has the same use in the question that the word
which takes its place has in the answer.

=Exercise.=—Select all the interrogative pronouns in these sentences.
Tell the use and case of each. Determine this by answering the question
that is asked.

Analyze sentences 1, 4, 6, 8, 10, 11, 12, 15.

    1. What made you so late?

    2. Who is there?

    3. Who is this young and handsome officer now entering the door
    of the tavern?

    4. Whose work is this crayon drawing of a castle in the
    moonlight?

    5. What do you mean by telling me such nonsense as that?

    6. What may so bold a hunter kill?

    7. Who should know better than I?

    8. What is all this talk about the Red Flower?

    9. What is gingerbread?

    10. Whose is this image and superscription?

    11. With whom did you take that memorable trip on Lake Superior?

    12. Whose little girl are you, with your rosy cheeks and pretty
    red hood?

    13. Whom did the superintendent mean when he announced that the
    youngest pupil in the grammar school had made one hundred in
    all her examinations?

    14. Which should you rather be, an artist or a poet?

    15. Which shall I take, a new piano or a trip to California?

=158.= A common error in the use of interrogative pronouns is the use of
the nominative form _who_ when the objective _whom_ is required. This
error arises from the fact that the pronoun comes at the beginning of the
sentence, and is separated by intervening words from the verb or the
preposition of which it is the object, as in these sentences,—

    Whom did the ball hit?

    Whom do you sit with this term?

=Exercise.=—Supply the proper pronoun, _who_ or _whom_, in each of the
following sentences, and give your reasons:—

    1. —— does the baby look like?

    2. —— do I see in the orchard?

    3. —— did you go to the station for this morning?

    4. —— are you smiling at, George?

    5. —— does Mr. Coburn work for now?

    6. —— will open this window for me?

    7. —— can we depend upon?

    8. —— is that child playing with?

    9. —— have you invited to your party?

    10. —— can keep a secret?




XLIV. DESCRIPTIVE ADJECTIVES


=159.= We learned in Lesson IX that adjectives are used (1) to describe
objects, (2) to point them out. Adjectives are therefore divided into two
classes,—(1) =descriptive adjectives=, and (2) =limiting adjectives=.

=160.= Descriptive adjectives tell the qualities of objects. They are
very useful words, for they enable us to see things with the imagination.
In the following sentence the well-chosen adjectives make us feel that
we are looking into the very eyes of the eagle,—“His eyes, clear,
direct, unacquainted with fear, had a certain hardness in their vitreous
brilliancy, perhaps by reason of the sharp contrast between the bright
gold iris and the unfathomable pupil.”

It is also through descriptive adjectives that we are able to identify
things when we do see them. After reading this sentence we could pick out
a moose calf from a score of other animals,—“The moose calf is uncouth,
to be sure, with his high, humped fore shoulders, his long, lugubrious,
overhanging snout, his big ears set low on his big head, his little
eyes crowded back toward his ears, his long, big-knuckled legs, and the
spindling lank diminutiveness of his hind quarters.”

=161.= One variety of descriptive adjective is the adjective derived from
a proper noun; as, _Scotch_ from _Scotland_, _French_ from _France_, and
_Greek_ from _Greece_. These are called =proper adjectives=.

Proper adjectives include within themselves many other adjectives. If
we speak of a Scotch collie, a French costume, or a Grecian nose, the
listener gets the same picture that he would get if we used a long series
of other adjectives.

=162.= Many proper adjectives may be used as proper nouns, naming a class
of people, as when we speak of the Scotch, the French, the Russians, the
Americans.

What proper noun have we to name the inhabitants of Spain? of Turkey? of
Denmark? of Sweden?

What proper noun have we to designate one man who is a native of England?
of Scotland? of France? of China? Italy? Germany? What is the plural of
each of these nouns?

=Exercise.=—Supply the correct word in each of the following sentences:—

    1. Three (_French_ or _Frenchmen_) spent the evening at the
    house.

    2. The (_French_ or _Frenchmen_) are said to be very polite.

    3. Why are so many (_Scotch_ or _Scotchmen_) captains of
    steamships?

    4. Are the (_Irish_ or _Irishmen_) as thrifty as the Germans?

    5. Are there many (_Welsh_ or _Welshmen_) in this locality?

=Summary.=—=Descriptive adjectives= are those which tell the qualities of
objects.

=Proper adjectives= are those derived from proper nouns. They always
begin with a capital letter.

=Exercise 1.=—Write a list of the proper adjectives derived from the
following proper nouns. Use them in sentences to modify appropriate nouns.

    Africa
    Alaska
    Asia
    China
    Christ
    Denmark
    England
    Germany
    India
    Ireland
    Italy
    Japan
    Jew
    Malta
    Norway
    Paris
    Portugal
    Spain
    Sweden
    Turkey

=Exercise 2.=—In the following sentences select all the descriptive
adjectives and tell what objects they describe. In so far as you can,
tell what qualities the adjectives denote, as color, size, form,
texture, surface, material, nature, etc. Account for the punctuation and
capitalization.

    1. All the time the crocodile’s little eyes burned like coals
    under the heavy, horny eyelids on the top of his triangular
    head, as he shoved his bloated barrel body along between his
    crutched legs.

    2. It is a little village of great antiquity, having been
    founded by some of the Dutch colonists in the early times of
    the province.

    3. The dog and his master hunted together, fur-wrapped boy and
    savage, long-haired, narrow-eyed, white-fanged, yellow brute.

    4. We always smiled to hear the judge’s wife talk about her
    Turkish carpets, her little Chippendale chairs, her Wedgwood
    china, and her Persian shawls.

    5. This crowded, lively, and interesting thoroughfare is over
    two miles long.

    6. In queer little _châlets_, or Swiss huts, live the people
    who attend to the cattle, and make butter and cheese.

    7. The split and weatherworn rocks of the gorge had been used
    since the beginning of the Jungle by the Little People of the
    Rocks,—the busy, furious, black, wild bees of India.

    8. At every stride the loose-hung, wide-cleft, spreading hoofs
    of the moose came sharply together with a flat, clacking noise.

    9. Out comes the negro pilot, and scrambles up on deck.

    10. Yonder lies a Norwegian ship, with her sailors climbing the
    shrouds like so many monkeys.

    11. Mowgli’s voice could be heard in all sorts of wet,
    starlighted, blossoming places, helping the big frogs through
    their choruses, or mocking the upside-down owls that hoot
    through the white nights.




XLV. LIMITING ADJECTIVES


=163.= Limiting adjectives are those which merely point out an object
without telling any quality of it. The most useful limiting adjectives
are _this_, _that_, and their plural forms _these_ and _those_. These
four words are often called =demonstrative adjectives=.

Some limiting adjectives tell number or amount, but in a somewhat
indefinite way, as _all_, _some_, _several_, _few_, _much_, _little_,
_more_, _most_.

Some tell number definitely, as _one_, _two_, _six hundred_, _three
million_, _first_, _second_, _fiftieth_.

Number words, like _one_, _two_, _three_, _four_, _five_, etc., are often
called =numeral adjectives=.

=164.= The limiting adjective _enough_ may precede or follow the noun it
modifies. We may say _enough butter_ or _butter enough_; _enough time_ or
_time enough_.

The limiting adjective _else_ always follows the noun or pronoun that it
modifies. We say _who else_, _nobody else_, _everybody else_, _nothing
else_.

=165.= When the interrogative pronouns _which_ and _what_ are used to
modify a noun, as in _which picture?_ _what city?_ they cease to be
pronouns, and become limiting adjectives. Since they are used to ask
questions, we call them =interrogative adjectives=.

    NOTE.—_Which_ and _what_, when used as adjectives, are
    sometimes called =pronominal adjectives=.

=166.= Three very common words, _a_, _an_, and _the_, are classed with
limiting adjectives. They are called =articles.= _The_ is a =definite
article=; _an_ and _a_ are the =indefinite article=. _A_ is really the
same word as _an_, but when it is used before a word beginning with a
consonant sound, as _bicycle_, the _n_ is dropped for the sake of a more
pleasing sound.

=167.= We use _the_ when we wish to specify a particular object, and _an_
or _a_ when we do not care to be specific. What is the difference between
these sentences?

    The man on horseback came to the turn in the road.

    A man on horseback came to a turn in the road.

=168.= We use _the_ before a singular noun to designate a whole class of
objects; as, “The oak is a sturdy tree,” “The cow is a domestic animal.”

=169.= We repeat the article when we wish to denote more than one person
or thing. What is the difference between these pairs of sentences?

    (_a_) The secretary and treasurer came late.
    (_b_) The secretary and the treasurer came together.

    (_a_) I saw a red and green signal.
    (_b_) I saw a red and a green signal.

=170.= We use _an_ or _a_ after the adjectives _many_ and _such_ instead
of before them; as, _many_ a man, _such_ a storm.

=171.= The sentence, “I have _few_ books,” means I have few compared
with many; but the sentence, “I have _a few_ books,” means I have a few
compared with none. What is the difference in meaning between these
sentences?

    I have little time for sewing.

    I have a little time for sewing.

=Summary.=—=Limiting adjectives= are those which merely point out.

Limiting adjectives that denote a definite number are called =numerals=.

_Which_ and _what_ may be used as =interrogative adjectives=.

The =articles= are _the_, _an_, and _a_.

_The_ is a =definite article=. _An_ and _a_ are =indefinite articles=.

=Exercise 1.=—Select all the limiting adjectives, including articles, and
tell what they modify. Give reasons for the articles used.

    1. What business brings you here?

    2. In that same village, and in one of these very houses, there
    lived, many years since, a simple, good-natured fellow of the
    name of Rip Van Winkle.

    3. Every change of season, every change of weather, indeed,
    every hour of the day, produces some change in the magical hues
    and shapes of these mountains.

    4. Which fan did your mother carry when she was a young lady in
    Maine?

    5. Lobo had only five followers during the latter part of his
    reign.

    6. What excuse shall I make to Dame Van Winkle?

    7. The dog managed so that each fresh rush should be toward the
    settlement.

    8. No wild animal dies of old age.

    9. Which part in the play of _Julius Cæsar_ did Edwin Booth
    take?

    10. When this dog of marvelous wind saw that the wolf was dead,
    he gave him no second glance.

    11. After much pains on my behalf and many pains on his, Bingo
    learned to go at the word in quest of our old yellow cow.

    12.

        I only ask a hut of stone,
        A very plain brown stone will do,
        That I may call my own;
        And close at hand is such a one
        In yonder street that fronts the sun.

    13. No other living thing can go so slow as a boy sent on an
    errand.

    14. What courage can withstand the ever-during and
    all-besetting terrors of a woman’s tongue?

=Exercise 2.=—Classify the words _which_ and _what_ in the following
sentences as interrogative pronouns or interrogative adjectives. Where
they are pronouns, tell their case. Where they are adjectives, tell what
they modify.

    1. What have you in your basket?

    2. What manner of man is this?

    3. Which of these pictures did you paint?

    4. Which is it, a toadstool or a mushroom?

    5. Which city has the larger population?

    6. Which boy threw the stone?

    7. What stone did he throw?

    8. What did the man come for?

    9. What do you want?

    10. Which will you take?




XLVI. COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES


=172.= Since different objects may possess the same quality in different
degrees, there must be some means of telling this. We do it by changing
the form of adjectives. For instance, wool, snow, and feathers have
the same quality of softness, but not in the same degree, so we say
that wool is _soft_, snow is _softer_, and feathers are _softest_. This
change in the adjective soft to denote the degree of softness is called
=comparison=.

=173.= Comparison is a =property= of adjectives. There are three
=degrees= of comparison,—the =positive=, the =comparative=, and the
=superlative=.

The positive degree denotes the simple quality, the comparative degree
denotes more or less of this quality, and the superlative denotes most or
least of this quality. When we give the three forms of an adjective, we
are said to =compare= it. We compare _bold_ by saying: positive, _bold_;
comparative, _bolder_; superlative, _boldest_; or positive, _bold_;
comparative, _less bold_; superlative, _least bold_.

=174.= Comparison is denoted in three ways:—

(1) By adding the suffixes _er_ and _est_. These are added to adjectives
of one syllable, and to a few of two syllables; as, _fine_, _finer_,
_finest_; _lovely_, _lovelier_, _loveliest_.

(2) By prefixing the adverbs _more_ and _most_. This method is used in
comparing longer adjectives; as, _spacious_, _more spacious_, _most
spacious_; _disagreeable_, _more disagreeable_, _most disagreeable_.

(3) By prefixing the adverbs _less_ and _least_; as, _rough_, _less_
_rough_, _least rough_; _elegant_; _less elegant_, _least elegant_. This
is a mode of comparing adjectives on a descending scale instead of an
ascending scale.

=175.= Some adjectives cannot be compared at all; as, _asleep_, _dead_,
_correct_, _round_, _square_, _principal_. Instead of saying _rounder_,
we may say _more nearly round_.

=176.= Some adjectives are compared irregularly. The following are
examples:—

    POSITIVE      COMPARATIVE               SUPERLATIVE

    good          better                    best
    ill           worse                     worst
    bad           worse                     worst
    many          more                      most
    much          more                      most
    little        less                      least
    far           farther _or_ further      farthest _or_ furthest

=Summary.=—=Comparison= in an adjective is a change of form to express
quality or quantity in different degrees.

There are three =degrees= of comparison,—=positive=, =comparative=, and
=superlative=.

Short adjectives are compared by adding the suffixes _er_ and _est_.

Longer adjectives are compared by prefixing _more_ and _most_.

Many adjectives may be compared on a descending scale by prefixing _less_
and _least_.

=Exercise.=—Select all the adjectives, and tell the kind and the degree
of each. Compare each adjective. If any cannot be compared, state that
fact.

    1. There was nothing in these woods bigger than a weasel.

    2. The way led through the deepest and most perilous part of
    the swamp.

    3. This brother was younger and handsomer, and much more
    amiable than William.

    4. As she grew older, she became less exacting and more
    tolerant, less certain and more hopeful, less vigorous in body,
    but gentler in manner and sweeter in spirit.

    5. The Hotel de Cluny is one of the quaintest, queerest,
    pleasantest, and most homelike places we are likely to meet
    with.

    6. The other captive was of a more restless temperament,
    slenderer in build, more eager and alert of eye, less
    companionable of mood.

    7. Least vague of all was the terror of the usually unterrified
    weasel.

    8. Those men are most apt to be obsequious and conciliating
    abroad, who are under the discipline of shrews at home.

    9. At the least flourish of a broomstick or a ladle, Wolf would
    fly to the door with yelping precipitation.

    10. The lynx was smaller than her mate, somewhat browner in
    hue, leaner, and of a peculiarly malignant expression.

    11. The women of the village used to employ Rip to do such
    little odd jobs as their less obliging husbands would not do
    for them.

    12. The singing master’s hair was a little longer, his hands
    were a little whiter, his shoes a little thinner, his manner a
    trifle more polished than that of his soberer mates.

Tell the use of adjectives in sentences 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 12.

=177.= Sometimes errors are made in the use of adjectives.

The comparative degree should be used in comparing two objects, the
superlative in comparing more than two. If only two roads are open to us,
we ought to say that we shall take the _shorter_.

=Exercise.=—Select the proper adjective for each of these sentences, and
give your reasons:—

    1. Which would be the (_cheapest_ or _cheaper_) route—by water
    or by rail?

    2. Prince is the (_swifter_ or _swiftest_) horse, but Pete is
    the (_stronger_ or _strongest_).

    3. Which is the (_higher_ or _highest_)—the Eiffel Tower or the
    Washington Monument?

    4. Of the two leading candidates, Wilson and Harmon, which is
    (_more likely_ or _most likely_) to be nominated?

Sometimes an ill-chosen adjective is used after the verb _feel_. The
sentence, “I feel _good_,” is correct only when it means “I feel
righteous,” while “I feel _well_,” means “I am in good health.” In this
sentence _well_ is an adjective meaning the opposite of _sick_.

    NOTE.—We also have the adverb _well_, denoting manner, as in
    the sentence, “LaFollette spoke _well_.”

The sentence, “Rufus looks _good_,” is correct when we mean that Rufus
looks as if he were a good man; but we should say, “Rufus looks _well_
(not _good_) in gray.” Here _well_ is an adjective meaning pleasing or
acceptable.

The limiting adjectives _this_ and _these_ should not be followed by the
word _here_. We point out sufficiently when we say _this book_, _these
books_.

The personal pronoun _them_ should never be used for the limiting
adjective _those_. We should say _those horses_, _those wagons_, _those
tents_.

If we modify a noun by the limiting adjective _each_, _every_, _either_,
_neither_, or _no_, we must use a singular pronoun to represent that
noun; as,—

    Each man took _his_ appointed place.

    Every girl made _her_ own costume.

    Neither man lost _his_ job.

=Exercise.=—Supply the correct pronoun in each of these sentences:—

    NOTE.—The masculine pronoun should be used when there is no
    word in the sentence that indicates whether the male or the
    female sex is referred to.

    1. Everybody came and brought —— appetite.

    2. Each lady contributed whatever —— chose.

    3. No young person can afford to waste —— time.

    4. Neither doctor will give —— assistance.

    5. No day is without —— disappointments.

    6. If either man calls, tell —— that I am busy.

    7. Every girl in the class said that —— did not understand the
    lesson.

    8. Every boy wishes that —— might be president.

    9. No soldier acknowledged that —— was afraid.

    10. Neither chair is in —— place.




XLVII. REVIEW OF ADJECTIVES


=178.= In our study of adjectives in Lessons IX, XXVI, XXXIII, XXXVII,
XLIV, XLV, and XLVI we have learned that adjectives may be classified
as limiting adjectives and descriptive adjectives; that _which_ and
_what_ are interrogative adjectives; that adjectives have the property
of comparison; and that adjectives may be used in four different ways:
(1) before a noun to modify that noun; (2) after a noun as an appositive
modifier; (3) as a subjective complement of certain intransitive verbs,
and (4) as the objective complement of certain transitive verbs.

=Exercise.=—Make an outline of the subject, Adjectives, to recite from in
class. Illustrate each point you make with a good sentence of your own
composition.

=179.= When we parse an adjective, we should tell:—

(1) Its class,—descriptive, limiting, or interrogative.

(2) Its degree (if it admits of comparison).

(3) Its use, and what it modifies.

=Exercise.=—Parse each adjective in the following sentences:—

    1. The puppy grew bigger and clumsier each day. His most
    friendly overtures to the cat were wholly misunderstood.

    2. Paris is an immense city, full of broad and handsome
    streets, magnificent buildings, grand open places with
    fountains and statues, great public gardens and parks free to
    everybody.

    3. His gray eyes, clear and kind, flashed like fire when he
    spoke of his adventures.

    4. Which picture shall we hang between these two front
    windows—the little Nydia or this pretty landscape?

    5. It was clear that the whelps of last spring had betaken
    themselves to other and safer hunting grounds.

    6. For a moment the boy felt afraid—afraid in his own woods.

    7. Below us lies a lake, clear and cold, whereon fairies might
    launch their airy shallops.

    8. Jo Calone threw down his saddle on the dusty ground, and
    turned his horses loose.

    9. What fun the rabbits must have been having!

    10. The full moon of October, deep orange in a clear, deep sky,
    hung large and somewhat distorted just over the wooded hills.

    11. For a long time pain and hunger kept me awake.

    12. How sweet and demure those girls looked!

    13. Do you suppose that any old Roman ever had twenty-four
    different kinds of pie at one dinner?

    14. There was something in their cries that sounded strangely
    wild and fierce.

    15. The cardinal bird drew herself up very straight, raised her
    crest, and opened her big beak.

    16. What harm can a naked frog do us?

    17. Land in London is so valuable that a single acre of it has
    been sold for four and a half million dollars.

    18. The old servant made our lives miserable by her
    cantankerous ways.




XLVIII. ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS


=180.= When we say, “This ring was my mother’s,” we use the word _this_
as an adjective modifying the noun _ring_. When we say, “This was my
mother’s ring,” we use the one word _this_ in place of _this ring_ as
subject of the sentence, hence _this_ is no longer an adjective, but has
become a pronoun. Since its ordinary use is that of an adjective, we call
it an =adjective pronoun=.

Many limiting adjectives may be used as pronouns. We often make such
sentences as these:—

    _Few_ shall part where _many_ meet.

    If honor is lost, then _all_ is lost.

    When _two_ or _three_ are gathered together in Thy name, Thou
    wilt grant their requests.

=181.= The commonest adjective pronouns are _all_, _any_, _each_,
_either_, _few_, _first_, _former_, _last_, _little_, _many_, _more_,
_most_, _much_, _neither_, _one_, _other_, _several_, _some_, _this_,
_that_, _these_, _those_.

Make sentences containing five of these adjective pronouns.

=182.= Two adjective pronouns, _one_ and _other_, may be declined.

             _Singular_    _Plural_      _Singular_      _Plural_

    _Nom._    one           ones          other          others
    _Poss._   one’s         ones’         other’s        others’
    _Obj._    one           ones          other          others

Sentences like these are common:—

    One sometimes tires of _one’s_ occupation.

    Each envied the _other’s_ good fortune.

The two adjective pronouns, _one_ and _other_, may be modified by
adjectives; as, “Many others came,” “The green ones are the prettiest.”

_Each other_ and _one another_, though consisting of two words, may be
considered as one adjective pronoun.

=183.= Some adjective pronouns may be modified by articles. We say, “_The
last_ is the best of all the game,” “I like gooseberries, so I picked _a
few_.”

=Summary.=—An =adjective pronoun= is a limiting adjective used in place
of a noun.

The adjective pronouns _one_ and _other_ may be declined.

Some adjective pronouns may be modified by adjectives.

=Exercise.=—Select the adjective pronouns in these sentences. Tell the
use and case of each. Tell the noun that each pronoun stands for. Supply
this noun where you can. What part of speech does the adjective pronoun
become then?

    1. This is the story of a bad boy.

    2. Many of the protozoa are very beautiful. Some build shells
    for themselves of strange and curious shapes.

    3. The ham turned out to be a very remarkable one.

    4. There is a vast difference between the styles of 1860 and
    1900. The former favored Paisley shawls and flounced skirts,
    the latter sanctioned the tailor-made suit and the shirt waist.

    5. A little made us very happy once.

    6. From time to time one or another of the leaping rabbits
    would take himself off through the fir trees, while others
    continued to arrive along the moonlight trails.

    7. All is of God that is or is to be.

    8. A bluejay and a red squirrel were loudly berating each other
    for stealing.

    9. The convenience of resting one’s self in the open air is one
    of the comforts of Paris.

    10. Each of these was a wolf of renown; most of them were
    above the ordinary size; one in particular, the second in
    command, was a veritable giant. Several of the band were
    especially noted. One of them was a beautiful white wolf, that
    the Mexicans called Blanca; this was supposed to be a female,
    possibly Lobo’s mate. Another was a yellow wolf of remarkable
    swiftness.

    11. It is not easy to change one’s life all in a minute.

    12. It is a blessed fact that one’s own home is the hub of the
    universe.

    13. Every one said that I was a tomboy.

    14. Some wore short doublets, others jerkins, with long knives
    in their belts, and most of them had enormous breeches of
    similar style with that of the guide’s.

    15. The years hurry onward, treading in their haste on one
    another’s heels.

What noun is understood after _guide’s_ in sentence 14?




XLIX. VERBS: TENSE


=184.= Three very common words are _yesterday_, _to-day_, and
_to-morrow_. The word _yesterday_ refers to time that has gone, or
past time; _to-day_ refers to time that now is, or =present= time; and
_to-morrow_ refers to time that is to come, or =future= time.

=185.= Every event takes place in time, and so when we tell of the
occurrence of any event, we must have some way of making clear whether
that event took place in the past, or is taking place in the present, or
will take place in the future. Of course, we might tell this by adverbs
or adverbial phrases, but we have a very much better way,—we tell it by
the form of the verb we use. What time do we think of when we see the
verbs _eats_, _works_, _plays_, _sleeps_? What time is told by the verbs
_ate_, _worked_, _played_, _slept_? What change is made in the form of
the two sets of verbs? What time is told by the verbs _will eat_, _will
work_, _will play_, _will sleep_?

=186.= In the last group of verbs, where each verb consists of two words,
it is the first word _will_ that denotes future time. Such a word is
called a helping word, or =auxiliary= verb.

=187.= The change in the form of a verb to denote time is called =tense=.

=188.= Tense is a property of all verbs. It is evident that there must be
three tenses,—present, past, and future, as shown in the three sets of
verbs that have just been examined. These are called =primary= tenses.

There are three other tenses, called =secondary= tenses. We may say, “I
_have eaten_ my supper,” “I _had eaten_ my supper,” “I _shall have eaten_
my supper.” These verbs call attention not so much to the time of the
action as to the fact that it is completed, or perfected.

_Have eaten_ means that a past action is completed at the present time.
This form is called the =present perfect= tense.

_Had eaten_ means that a past action was completed before some particular
past time. This form is called the =past perfect= tense.

_Shall have eaten_ means that an action will be completed before some
definite future time. This is called the =future perfect= tense.

=Summary.=—=Tense= is that property of a verb which denotes the time of
an action or an event.

There are six tenses:—

(1) The =present tense= denotes that an action is taking place. It
usually consists of one word, the simplest form of the verb.

(2) The =past tense= denotes that an action did take place. It usually
consists of one word.

(3) The =future tense= denotes that an action will take place. It
consists of two words, one of which is the auxiliary _shall_ or _will_.

(4) The =present perfect tense= denotes that a past action is now
completed. It consists of two words, one of which is the auxiliary _have_
or _has_.

(5) The =past perfect tense= denotes that a past action was completed
before a particular past time. It consists of two words, one of which is
the auxiliary _had_.

(6) The =future perfect tense= denotes that a future action will be
completed before a particular future time. It consists of three words,
one of which is the auxiliary _have_, and another the auxiliary _shall_
or _will_.

    NOTES.—1. The present tense is used also to denote (1) that
    something is true at all times; as “Waste makes want,” and (2)
    that something occurs habitually; as, “She teaches school.”

    2. When a predicate consists of a series of verbs in the same
    tense, the auxiliary is usually expressed only with the first
    verb. In the sentence, “Now that he has eaten and slept, he
    is ready for work,” the second verb is _has slept_, with the
    auxiliary understood.

=189.= A common error is the use of the present perfect tense for the
past tense. We say, “I _have been_ in Florida several times,” because
we mean several times before now; but we say, “I _was_ in Florida last
year,” because we mean that our being there occurred in past time with
no reference whatever to the present. If we are still in Florida we may
say, “I _have been_ in Florida a long time”; but if we are no longer in
Florida we say, “I _was_ in Florida a long time.”

=Exercise 1.=—Justify the use of the past or the present perfect tense in
each of these sentences:—

    1. I learned the poem last evening.

    2. I have learned the poem already.

    3. I bought my hat at Stone’s.

    4. I have bought a new spring hat.

    5. I came home last Monday.

    6. I have come to stay a week.

    7. I tried my skates this afternoon.

    8. I haven’t tried my new skates.

    9. I have walked ever since sunrise.

    10. I walked from sunrise until noon.

    11. I spoke to the President this morning.

    12. I have never spoken to the President.

    13. I spoke to him twice when I was in Washington.

    14. I have spoken to him several times.

=Exercise 2.=—Using the subject _I_, form the six tenses of the following
verbs. Consult the dictionary for forms of which you are not sure.

    break
    bring
    buy
    come
    drive
    go
    leave
    love
    run
    see
    sing
    take
    turn
    wait

=Exercise 3.=—Select all the verbs in these sentences, and tell the tense
of each:—

    1. Trees wave, flowers bloom, and bright-winged birds flit from
    palm to cedar.

    2. The lynx turned to the right, along a well-worn trail,
    ran up a tree, descended hastily, and glided away among the
    thickets.

    3. Tommy and I had played together till five o’clock that
    Saturday afternoon.

    4. The children thought, “how long the vacation will be!” but
    the mother thought, “how soon it will have come and gone.”

    5. He who knows nothing fears nothing.

    6. The duck had never seen a guinea egg before in all her life.

    7. The boy comes nearer to perpetual motion than anything else
    in nature.

    8. Nobody has yet discovered how many grasshoppers a turkey
    will hold.

    9. I have made no addition to my cabinet since we met.

    10. The big black pots swinging from the cranes had bubbled and
    gurgled and sent out puffs of appetizing steam.

    11. “How many pieces shall I cut this pie into?” said she.

    12. I have seen wild bees and butterflies feeding at a height
    of 13,000 feet above the sea.

    13. You shall go to bed, and I will remain with you a few days
    until you get over this fever.

    14. The daisies have shut up their sleepy red eyes.

Analyze sentences 2, 3, 6, 9, 14.




L. THE INDICATIVE MODE


=190.= Each of the six verb forms that we have been studying,—I _eat_,
I _ate_, I _shall eat_, I _have eaten_, I _had eaten_, I _shall have
eaten_,—is used in the statement of a fact, and is said to be in the
=indicative mode=.

Mode is that property of a verb which denotes the manner of an assertion.

The indicative mode is used in the statement of a fact.

=191.= In some tenses there is a slight difference between the singular
and the plural form of a verb, hence verbs are said to have the property
of =number=. We should always use the verb form that agrees with the
number of the subject. In the present tense, for example, we say in the
singular, “The man _goes_;” and in the plural, “The men _go_.”

=192.= In some tenses there is a slight difference in the form of the
verb to denote person, hence verbs are said to have the property of
=person=. In the present perfect tense, we say in the first person, “I
_have_ gone;” and in the third person, “He _has_ gone.”

=193.= When we give all the forms of a verb in the three persons and the
two numbers of each tense, we are said to =conjugate= the verb.

=194.= Conjugation of the verb _be_ in the indicative mode:—

             PRESENT TENSE                         PAST TENSE

    _Singular_            _Plural_         _Singular_        _Plural_

    I am                  we are           I was             we were
    thou art              you are          thou wast         you were
    he is                 they are         he was            they were

             FUTURE TENSE                      PRESENT PERFECT TENSE

    _Singular_            _Plural_         _Singular_        _Plural_

    I shall be            we shall be      I have been       we have been
    thou wilt be          you will be      thou hast been    you have been
    he will be            they will be     he has been       they have been

           PAST PERFECT TENSE

    _Singular_            _Plural_

    I had been            we had been
    thou hadst been       you had been
    he had been           they had been

           FUTURE PERFECT TENSE

    _Singular_            _Plural_

    I shall have been     we shall have been
    thou wilt have been   you will have been
    he will have been     they will have been

=195.= Conjugation of _see_ in the indicative mode:—

             PRESENT TENSE                         PAST TENSE

    _Singular_            _Plural_         _Singular_        _Plural_

    I see                 we see           I saw             we saw
    thou seest            you see          thou sawest       you saw
    he sees               they see         he saw            they saw

             FUTURE TENSE                      PRESENT PERFECT TENSE

    _Singular_            _Plural_         _Singular_        _Plural_

    I shall see           we shall see     I have seen       we have seen
    thou wilt see         you will see     thou hast seen    you have seen
    he will see           they will see    he has seen       they have seen

           PAST PERFECT TENSE

    _Singular_            _Plural_

    I had seen            we had seen
    thou hadst seen       you had seen
    he had seen           they had seen

           FUTURE PERFECT TENSE

    _Singular_            _Plural_

    I shall have seen     we shall have seen
    thou wilt have seen   you will have seen
    he will have seen     they will have seen

=Exercise.=—Conjugate the verbs in Exercise 2, p. 126, in the six tenses
of the Indicative Mode.




LI. THE INTERROGATIVE FORM OF THE INDICATIVE MODE


=196.= The indicative mode is used not only in stating facts, but also in
asking questions. In interrogative sentences the order of the words that
make up the verb is changed somewhat. In a simple statement we say, _I
have paid_. In a question we say, _Have I paid?_ putting the auxiliary
before the subject.

=197.= Conjugation of _be_ in the indicative mode, interrogative form:—

             PRESENT TENSE                         PAST TENSE

    am I                  are we           was I             were we
    art thou              are you          wast thou         were you
    is he                 are they         was he            were they

             FUTURE TENSE                      PRESENT PERFECT TENSE

    shall I be            shall we be      have I been       have we been
    wilt thou be          will you be      hast thou been    have you been
    will he be            will they be     has he been       have they been

           PAST PERFECT TENSE

    had I been            had we been
    hadst thou been       had you been
    had he been           had they been

           FUTURE PERFECT TENSE

    shall I have been     shall we have been
    wilt thou have been   will you have been
    will he have been     will they have been

=198.= When we use the present and past tenses of any verb except _be_
for asking questions, we do not say _sings she?_ or _sang she?_ but _does
she sing?_ _did she sing?_ that is, we use the auxiliaries _do_ and _did_.

Conjugate the verb _see_ in the indicative mode, interrogative form.

=Exercise.=—Conjugate the verbs in Exercise 2, p. 126, in the indicative
mode, interrogative form.

=199.= The use of the negative word _not_ after a verb gives rise to
many contractions which are permissible in familiar conversation. The
contractions for which incorrect forms are often used are the following:—

    isn’t
    wasn’t
    aren’t
    weren’t
    don’t
    doesn’t
    haven’t
    hasn’t

There is no contraction for _am not_; the word _ain’t_ is incorrect.

Contractions are oftenest misused in questions. Notice the following
correct forms:—

    Isn’t it too bad?
    Isn’t he tall?
    Isn’t she pretty?
    Aren’t you cold?
    Aren’t they coming?
    Wasn’t it long?
    Weren’t you there?
    Weren’t they slow?
    Don’t you believe me?
    Doesn’t it hurt?
    Doesn’t she work hard?
    Doesn’t he like it?
    Haven’t you been there?
    Hasn’t he any friends?

We should be careful never to say, _you was_ or _was you_; for the
pronoun _you_, even when it denotes one person, is followed by a verb in
the plural form. We should say, “You _were_ late,” “_Were you_ late?”
“_Weren’t you_ late?”




LII. THE SUBJUNCTIVE MODE


=200.= When we say, “If I were you, I should be a doctor,” we have a
dependent proposition, _If I were you_, which states not a fact, but an
imaginary condition. This condition is, moreover, directly contrary to
fact, for I am not you, and never can be. The verb used in expressing
such a condition is said to be in the =subjunctive= mode.

=201.= The subjunctive mode is found not only in dependent propositions
introduced by if, but in those introduced by _lest_, _whether_,
_although_, etc.

    (a) Be quiet lest the baby _wake_.

    (b) We cannot tell whether he _be_ the rightful heir or not.

    (c) Though he _wait_ long, yet he will come at last.

In each of these sentences the subjunctive mode is used to express doubt
or uncertainty, or something imagined but not actually realized.

=202.= The subjunctive mode is so named because it is found principally
in dependent, or subjoined propositions. It is, however, found also in
independent propositions expressing a wish; as, “Long _live_ the King!”
“God _bless_ thee, dear!”

=203.= The subjunctive mode is used in the statement of something that
is uncertain; as, “If he _come_ in time, dinner will be served at six.”
This sentence means that his coming is to take place in the future, hence
we cannot tell whether it will be a fact or not. In the sentence, “If he
_comes_ in time, dinner is served at six,” we use the indicative mode
because we mean that sometimes he really does come in time.

=204.= The subjunctive mode is little used, especially in conversation;
but we find many instances of it in the Bible and in the works of
Shakespeare, hence we should understand its meaning. Nowadays, except to
express a wish, as, “Heaven _defend_ thee!” and to express a condition
contrary to fact, as, “If the ring _were_ gold, it would not discolor
your finger,” most persons use the indicative mode or some other verb
phrase. Instead of saying, “If to-morrow _be_ fair,” most persons say,
“If to-morrow _is_ fair,” or “If to-morrow _should be_ fair.” (See Lesson
LXI.)

=205.= There are four tenses in the subjunctive mode, but the forms
do not differ greatly from those of the indicative mode. There is no
interrogative form.

=206.= Conjugation of _be_ in the subjunctive mode:—

          PRESENT TENSE                      PAST TENSE

    I be             we be             I were         we were
    you be           you be            thou were      you were
    he be            they be           he were        they were

       PRESENT PERFECT TENSE               PAST PERFECT TENSE

    I have been      we have been      I had been      we had been
    thou have been   you have been     thou had been   you had been
    he have been     they have been    he had been     they had been

=207.= Conjugation of _see_ in the subjunctive mode:—

          PRESENT TENSE                      PAST TENSE

    I see            we see           I saw              we saw
    thou see         you see          thou saw           you saw
    he see           they see         he saw             they saw

       PRESENT PERFECT TENSE               PAST PERFECT TENSE

    I have seen      we have seen      I had seen        we had seen
    thou have seen   you have seen     thou had seen     you had seen
    he have seen     they have seen    he had seen       they had seen

=Summary.=—The =subjunctive mode= is used in an exclamative sentence
to express a wish, and in a dependent proposition to express something
contrary to fact or something uncertain.

The subjunctive mode has no future tenses.

=Exercise 1.=—Conjugate all the verbs in Exercise 2, p. 126, in the
subjunctive mode.

=Exercise 2.=—Select all the verbs in the subjunctive mode in these
sentences, and tell why that mode is used:—

    1. Misery loves company—even though it be very poor company.

    2. If the weather be fine, there breaks upon the eye, as
    we rise higher and higher, a succession of those views of
    mountain, lake and forest, which can be had only from an
    elevated position.

    3. The Lord be between thee and me when we are absent one from
    the other.

    4. If the whole world were put into one scale and my mother
    into the other, the world could not outweigh her.

    5. If a boy were obliged to work at nut gathering in order to
    procure food for the family, he would find it very irksome.

    6.

        Green be the turf above thee,
        Friend of my better days!

    7. John convinces himself that he must watch the hawk lest it
    pounce upon the chicken.

    8. If chicadee seem preoccupied or absorbed, you may know that
    he is building a nest.

    9. If I were a millionaire, city life would be agreeable
    enough, for I could always get away from it.

    10.

        And Death, whenever he come to me,
        Shall come on the wide, unbounded sea.

    11. In their hands they shall bear thee up, lest at any time
    thou dash thy foot against a stone.

    12.

        Christ save us all from a death like this,
        On the reef of Norman’s Woe!

    13. If wishes were horses, beggars might ride.

    14. God be merciful to us, and bless us, and show us the light
    of his countenance.

    15. If a man say that he hath no sin, he deceiveth himself, and
    the truth is not in him.

    16. If he had told the truth, somebody would have believed him.

    17. If impressment were the law of the world, if it formed part
    of the code of nations and were usually practiced, then it
    might be defended as a common right.




LIII. THE IMPERATIVE MODE


=208.= We learned in Lesson XIV that sentences expressing a command or an
entreaty are called imperative sentences; that the subject of the verb in
an imperative sentence is a pronoun of the second person,—_you_, _thou_,
or _ye_; and that this subject is seldom expressed. The verb in an
imperative sentence is said to be in the =imperative mode=; as, “_Sleep_,
baby, _sleep_.”

=209.= There is only one form for the imperative mode, hence it is not
said to have tense at all.

Conjugation of _be_ in the imperative mode:—

         _Singular_                 _Plural_

    be (_you_ or _thou_)        be (_you_ or _ye_)

Conjugation of _see_ in the imperative mode:—

         _Singular_                 _Plural_

    see (_you_ or _thou_)       see (_you_ or _ye_)

=Summary.=—The =imperative mode= is used in expressing a command or an
entreaty. It has but one form. Its subject is always the pronoun _you_,
_thou_, or _ye_.

=Exercise.=—From these sentences select the verbs in the imperative mode.
Conjugate these verbs in the indicative, subjunctive, and imperative
modes.

    1. Ring, happy bells, across the snow.

    2. Break, break, break, on thy cold, gray stones, O sea!

    3. Repent ye, for the kingdom of heaven is at hand.

    4. Run upstairs and get my glasses.

    5. Blow, winds, and crack your cheeks.

    6.

        Build thee more stately mansions, O my soul!
        As the swift seasons roll.
        Leave thy low-vaulted past,
        Let each new temple, nobler than the last,
        Shut thee from heaven with a dome more vast....

    7. Laugh, and the world laughs with you.

    8.

        Work till the last beam fadeth,
        Fadeth to shine no more.

    9. Come unto me, all ye that labor and are heavy laden, and I
    will give you rest.

    10. Whatsoever thy hand findeth to do, do it with thy might.

    11. Suffer the little children, and forbid them not to come
    unto me, for of such is the kingdom of heaven.

    12. Honor thy father and thy mother.

    13.

        Tell me not in mournful numbers
        Life is but an empty dream.

Find all the terms of address in the sentences above.




LIV. PRINCIPAL PARTS OF VERBS. REGULAR AND IRREGULAR VERBS


=210.= If we examine the conjugation of the verb _see_, we shall discover
that most of the tenses are formed by the use of auxiliary verbs, and
that only four forms of the verb _see_ itself are made use of; namely,
_see_, _sees_, _saw_, _seen_. The form _sees_ occurs only once, but the
other three forms occur often. These three forms—_see_, _saw_, _seen_—are
called the =principal parts= of the verb _see_.

The principal parts of any verb are the present indicative, as, _go_,
_take_; the past indicative, as, _went_, _took_; and another form, as,
_gone_, _taken_, called the =past participle=.

=211.= The past participle is used in forming all the perfect tenses.
It is plain, then, that we should say _I have gone_ (not _have went_),
_I had taken_ (not _had took_); since _went_ and _took_ are past tense
forms, not past participles.

The past participle is never used in the primary tenses. That is why we
say _I saw_ (not _seen_), _I did_ (not _done_).

    NOTE.—The very common word _ought_ is, as we use it to-day,
    an old past tense form of the verb _owe_, and not a past
    participle. Hence, we should say _ought to go_, or _ought not
    to go_ (not _had ought to go_ or _hadn’t ought to go_).

=212.= Most verbs form their past tense and past participle by adding _d_
or _ed_ to the present tense. The past tense and the past participle of
_move_ are _moved_ and _moved_; of _plow_ are _plowed_ and _plowed_; of
_lift_ are _lifted_ and _lifted_. Such verbs are called =regular verbs=.

=213.= Many verbs in very common use form their past tense or past
participle, not by the addition of a suffix, but by some change within
the word, such as a change in the vowel. The past tense and past
participle of _sing_ are _sang_ and _sung_ respectively; of _leave_ are
_left_ and _left_; of _write_ are _wrote_ and _written_. These verbs are
called =irregular verbs=.

=214.= Some verbs, like _put_ and _set_, have the same form for each of
their principal parts. These also are irregular verbs.

=215.= The verb _be_ is very irregular. Its principal parts are: present
tense _am_, past tense _was_, past participle _been_.

=216.= If we know the proper auxiliaries for the different tenses, we can
conjugate any verb correctly by first ascertaining its principal parts.
These can always be found in a dictionary.

=Summary.=—The =principal parts= of a verb are the present tense, the
past tense, and the past participle.

A =regular verb= is one that forms its past tense and past participle by
adding _d_ or _ed_ to the present tense.

An =irregular verb= is one whose past tense or past participle is formed
in some other way than by adding _d_ or _ed_ to the present tense.

    NOTE.—Webster’s New International Dictionary gives the present
    tense form of every verb. If the verb is irregular, the
    dictionary gives also the past tense form preceded by _pret._,
    and the past participle preceded by _p.p._ The abbreviation
    _pret._ stands for _preterit_, which means past tense. If the
    verb is regular, the abbreviations are omitted, and the form
    _d_ or _ed_ is printed but once.

=Exercise.=—Find in the dictionary the past tense and the past participle
of each of the following verbs. Use the three forms of each verb
correctly in sentences.

    awake
    bear
    beat
    begin
    bid
    bind
    bite
    bleed
    blow
    break
    bring
    build
    buy
    catch
    choose
    cling
    come
    cost
    creep
    cut
    dare
    dig
    do
    draw
    drink
    drive
    eat
    fall
    feed
    fight
    find
    flee
    fling
    fly
    forget
    freeze
    get
    give
    go
    grind
    grow
    hang
    have
    hide
    hit
    hold
    hurt
    keep
    kneel
    knit
    know
    lay
    lead
    lend
    let
    lie
    lose
    make
    meet
    pay
    read
    ride
    ring
    rise
    run
    say
    seek
    sell
    shake
    shed
    shine
    shoot
    show
    shrink
    shut
    sink
    sit
    slay
    sleep
    slide
    sling
    smite
    speak
    spend
    spin
    spread
    spring
    stand
    steal
    stick
    sting
    stride
    strike
    string
    strive
    swear
    sweat
    sweep
    swim
    swing
    take
    tell
    think
    throw
    tread
    wear
    weave
    weep
    wet
    win
    wind
    wring

=217.= Many errors are made in using the different forms of irregular
verbs.

Certain verbs, the meaning and principal parts of which are somewhat
alike, occasion a good deal of trouble to some persons. The most
important of these are _lie_ and _lay_, _sit_ and _set_, and _rise_
and _raise_. The first word of each pair, _lie_, _sit_, and _rise_ is
an intransitive verb. The second verb of each pair, _lay_, _set_, and
_raise_, is a transitive verb.

=Exercise 1.=—Supply the correct form of _lie_ or _lay_ in each of these
sentences, and give your reason in each case.

_Lie_ means to be at rest in a reclining position.

_Lay_ means to place a thing down in a reclining position.

    1. —— down, Phiz, and be a good dog.

    2. Phiz —— at the foot of my couch and gazed out of the nearest
    window.

    3. After he had —— there an hour or more, he whined to go out
    on the street.

    4. Phiz brought in a notebook and —— it at my feet.

    5. Go and —— it on your master’s chair, Phiz.

    6. Did the soldiers —— on the damp ground?

    7. This land —— too low for grain fields.

    8. How long has my fan been —— on the window sill?

    9. Grant —— in bed dictating his Memoirs.

    10. The tools have —— here in the wet and are rusted.

=Exercise 2.=—Supply the correct form of _sit_ or _set_ in each of these
sentences, and give your reason in each case.

_Sit_ means to be in a sitting position.

_Set_ means to place a thing down in a position of rest.

    1. By and by we looked in, and there —— Miss Eugene.

    2. Have you —— here long, or did you just come?

    3. I will —— my suit case here, and then —— in your seat.

    4. Why did you —— there so long without speaking?

    5. Father —— the white hen to-day, so she will be —— for about
    three weeks.

    6. The little bird —— and sings at his door in the sun.

    7. Who has been —— in my chair?

=Exercise 3.=—Supply the correct form of _rise_ and _raise_ in each of
these sentences, and give your reason in each case.

_Rise_ means to move from a lower to a higher position.

_Raise_ means to cause to rise.

    1. The bread —— very slowly that cold day.

    2. Bread —— because of the yeast in it.

    3. After the bread had ——, we set the pans in the oven.

    4. They —— the old house so as to put a furnace in the cellar.

    5. The Black River —— sixteen inches yesterday.

    6. If the river continues to ——, the dam will go out.

    7. Shall we —— the flag at sunrise?

The present tense form of some verbs is misused for the past tense. We
should say, “The tailor _came_ (not _come_) last night,” “I _ran_ (not
_run_) a mile yesterday,” “And then he _said_ (not _says_), ‘Hurry up.’”
The verbs oftenest misused in this way are _come_, _give_, _run_, _say_,
and _see_.

Study the following correct sentences:—

    He _came_ last night.

    She _came_ to meet me.

    It _came_ without warning.

    I _ran_ a mile yesterday.

    He _ran_ in front of me.

    She _ran_ out of sugar.

    At last he _said_, “I will go.”

    John _said_, “The schoolhouse is on fire.”

    I _said_, “Ring the bells.”

    He _gave_ me a dollar.

    I _gave_ the child a penny.

    She _gave_ it to me.

    They _ran_ up a bill.

    The dog _ran_ behind.

    The baby _ran_ to his mother.

    I _saw_ the parade yesterday.

    He _saw_ me go out.

    She _saw_ them at the window.

    I _came_, I _saw_, I _conquered_.

Some persons make a wrong past tense for certain verbs, and use such
forms as _blowed_ and _drawed_, when they should use _blew_ and _drew_.

=Exercise 4.=—Supply the correct form for the past tense in each of these
sentences:—

    1. _Blow._ The wind soon —— the smoke away.

    2. _Draw._ The boat —— four feet of water.

    3. _Grow._ Lucy —— too fast to be strong.

    4. _Know._ Nobody —— the right date but me.

    5. _Throw._ Who —— the ball last?

Some persons use the past participle of _see_ and _do_ for the past
tense. We should say, “I _saw_ (not _seen_) my duty, and I _did_ (not
done) it.”

Study these correct sentences:—

    I _saw_ the boat go down.

    Who _saw_ the star first?

    We _saw_ the elephant dance.

    He _did_ his own work.

    She _did_ it too fast.

    Everybody _did_ what he could.

Another common error is the use of the past tense of a verb for the past
participle, as in the expressions _is broke_ and _had froze_.

=Exercise 5.=—Supply the correct form in each of these sentences:—

    1. _Begin._ First we must finish what we have ——.

    2. _Break._ Dear me! I have —— the bird’s seed dish.

    3. _Drink._ Have you —— all the milk?

    4. _Freeze._ If the lagoon is ——, we can go skating.

    5. _Steal._ Why do you think that the purse was ——?

    6. _Swim._ Have you ever —— out to the island?




LV. VOICE


=218.= When we say, “The fish swallowed the worm,” we have a sentence
made up of a subject, a verb, and an object complement. The subject
names the doer of the action, while the object names the receiver of the
action. The verb _swallowed_ could have nothing for subject but some word
that indicates the doer of the action. How is it with the verbs _broke_,
_struck_, _whittled_? A verb that requires for its subject the name of
the doer of an action is said to be in the =active voice=.

=219.= When we say, “The worm was swallowed by the fish,” we have a
sentence made up of a subject, a verb, and a prepositional phrase. The
subject names the receiver of the action, and the phrase tells by whom
the action was performed. The verb _was swallowed_ could have nothing for
subject but some word that indicates the receiver of the action. How is
it with the verbs _was swept_, _has been eaten_, _will be cut_? A verb
that requires for its subject the name of the receiver of the action is
said to be in the =passive voice=.

=220.= When a verb is changed from the active to the passive voice, the
object of the active verb becomes the subject of the passive verb. Hence
it is evident that only transitive verbs can have the passive voice.

=221.= A verb is conjugated in the passive voice by adding the past
participle of the verb to the conjugation of the verb _be_.

=222.= Conjugation of the verb _see_ in the passive voice:—

                            INDICATIVE MODE

         PRESENT TENSE                           PAST TENSE

    I am seen        we are seen       I was seen       we were seen
    thou art seen    you are seen      thou wast seen   you were seen
    he is seen       they are seen     he was seen      they were seen

                  FUTURE TENSE

    I shall be seen           we shall be seen
    thou wilt be seen         you will be seen
    he will be seen           they will be seen

                PRESENT PERFECT

    I have been seen          we have been seen
    thou hast been seen       you have been seen
    he has been seen          they have been seen

                 PAST PERFECT

    I had been seen           we had been seen
    thou hadst been seen      you had been seen
    he had been seen          they had been seen

                FUTURE PERFECT

    I shall have been seen    we shall have been seen
    thou wilt have been seen  you will have been seen
    he will have been seen    they will have been seen

                            SUBJUNCTIVE MODE

            PRESENT                                PAST

    I be seen        we be seen        I were seen      we were seen
    thou be seen     you be seen       thou were seen   you were seen
    he be seen       they be seen      he were seen     they were seen

                PRESENT PERFECT

    I have been seen          we have been seen
    thou have been seen       you have been seen
    he have been seen         they have been seen

                 PAST PERFECT

    I had been seen           we had been seen
    thou had been seen        you had been seen
    he had been seen          they had been seen

                            IMPERATIVE MODE

           be seen (_you_ or _thou_)     be seen (_you_ or _ye_)

=223.= Conjugation of the verb _see_ in the passive voice, indicative
mode, interrogative form:—

                            INDICATIVE MODE

              PRESENT                               PAST

    am I seen        are we seen       was I seen       were we seen
    art thou seen    are you seen      wast thou seen   were you seen
    is he seen       are they seen     was he seen      were they seen

                       FUTURE

    shall I be seen             shall we be seen
    shalt thou be seen          shall you be seen
    will he be seen             will they be seen

                   PRESENT PERFECT

    have I been seen             have we been seen
    hast thou been seen          have you been seen
    has he been seen             have they been seen

                    PAST PERFECT

    had I been seen              had we been seen
    hadst thou been seen         had you been seen
    had he been seen             had they been seen

                   FUTURE PERFECT

    shall I have been seen       shall we have been seen
    shalt thou have been seen    shall you have been seen
    will he have been seen       will they have been seen

=Summary.=—=Voice= is that property of a verb which shows whether the
subject names the doer or the receiver of an action.

The =active voice= shows that the subject names the doer of an action.

The =passive voice= shows that the subject names the receiver of an
action.

A verb is conjugated in the passive voice by adding the past participle
of the verb to the conjugation of the verb _be_.

No intransitive verb has a passive voice.

=Exercise 1.=—Conjugate the verbs _draw_, _take_, _find_, _forget_, and
_leave_ in the passive voice, both declaratively and interrogatively.

=Exercise 2.=—Select the verbs in the following sentences. Tell whether
they are transitive or intransitive. Give the tense, mode, voice, and
subject of each. Change the active verbs to the passive voice and the
passive to the active.

    NOTE.—When the verb is passive, the name of the doer of the
    action is often omitted. Sometimes we do not know who the doer
    is; as, “The art of printing was invented in China long ago.”
    Sometimes we do not wish to tell who the doer is; as, “A window
    was broken in the basement yesterday.” Sometimes the subject is
    so obvious as not to be worth telling; as, “Lying is despised.”
    In changing sentences like these three to the active voice, we
    must supply a subject for the verb. For instance, in changing
    the sentence, “The pie was cut into four pieces,” we might say,
    “Mother cut the pie into four pieces.”

    1. The babe was conveyed to the church in a grand procession.
    The road, all the way, was carpeted with green rushes. Over
    this road the little infant Elizabeth was borne by one of her
    godmothers. She was wrapped in a mantle of purple velvet, with
    a long train. This train was trimmed with ermine, a very costly
    kind of fur, and was borne by lords and ladies of high rank.
    These dignitaries were appointed for the purpose by the king.

    2. The height of the pinnacle is determined by the breadth of
    the base.

    3. Leicester Hospital supports twelve old soldiers and their
    wives.

    4. After the housework had been done, they went out to the
    sunny garden, and picked the luscious red raspberries, not
    forgetful of the time when Mrs. Howe had set out the bushes
    with her own hands.

    5. Many of these splendid castles on the Rhine have been
    destroyed in modern times.

    6. It is wonderful and beautiful how a man and his dog will
    stick to one another through thick and thin.

    7. The door had been very firmly fastened, but the crowd tore
    it away bodily, and the light of the torches streamed into the
    room.

    8. This garden is shaded by long lines of trees, and adorned
    with fountains and statues.

    9.

        Away to the window I flew like a flash,
        Tore open the shutters, and threw up the sash.

    10. Elephants are very strictly preserved by the English
    government.

    11. The farm boy picks up the potatoes after they have been
    dug; he drives the cows night and morning; he brings wood and
    water and splits kindling; he gets up the horse and puts out
    the horse; whether he is in the house or out of it, there is
    always something for him to do.

    12.

        They who do their souls no wrong,
        But keep at eve the faith of morn,
        Shall daily hear the angel song,
        “To-day the Prince of Peace is born.”

    13. Mr. Marley has been dead these seven years.

    14. The Peterkins told how their mother had put salt in the
    coffee, and how the chemist had made it worse instead of better.

    15. We climbed the Alps, veiled our faces before the awful
    splendors of Mont Blanc, trembled on the verge of dizzy
    heights, shrank back from fathomless abysses, picked our way
    across the _Mer de Glace_, and cowered beneath the weight of
    the whole incumbent mass of mountains as we went through the
    tunnel.

Tell the part of speech and use of _way_, sentence 1, _forgetful_ 4, _one
another_ 6, _open_ 9, _up_ 9, _souls_ 12, _years_ 13, _worse_ 14.




LVI. THE PASSIVE VOICE


=224.= Every combination of some form of the verb _be_ with the past
participle of a transitive verb is not necessarily a passive verb.

For example, one passive form of the verb _do_ is _is done_, but it does
not follow that _is done_ is always a passive verb. In the sentence, “The
meat is done now,” we do not mean that the meat is receiving an action,
hence _is done_ cannot be a passive verb. We mean to tell the condition
of the meat, that it is _done_ meat. The word _done_ is used in precisely
the same way as an adjective; as if we should say, “The meat is _good_
now,” In other words, the participle _done_ is a subjective complement.

Past participles are used as subjective complements to tell the condition
of something _after_ an action has been performed on it; as, “Every
window in the house is _broken_,” “My dress is badly _torn_,” “The old
house is _deserted_.”

=225.= When we are in doubt as to whether we have a true passive verb
or not, we may apply these tests: (1) Does the sentence mean that the
subject is acted upon? (2) Can we add a phrase, telling the performer of
the action? (3) Can we change the sentence to the active voice, keeping,
of course, the same tense?

Let us take, for instance, the sentence, “Courage is praised.” We do mean
that courage receives the praising. We can add the phrase _by everybody_.
And we can change the sentence to the active sentence, “Everybody praises
courage.” Hence _is praised_ is the verb, and is in the passive voice.

But in the sentence, “Every seat in the balcony is taken,” if _is taken_
is a passive verb, it must mean, since it is present tense, that every
seat is receiving an action now. It does not mean this, but it does mean
that every seat is a _taken_ seat, hence _taken_ is used as a subjective
complement, and the verb is just the one word _is_.

=226.= We learned in Lesson XXXVII that some verbs like _make_, _elect_,
_appoint_, and _call_, are often followed by a direct object and an
objective complement; as, “We called our canary Buttercup.”

When such a sentence is changed to the passive voice, the direct object
becomes, of course, the subject, and we have the sentence, “Our canary
was called Buttercup.” The word _Buttercup_ has now become a subjective
complement. How do we know this?

When the objective complement is an adjective, as in the sentence,
“She kept the polished floor as _bright_ as a mirror,” if we change
the sentence to the passive voice, the adjective becomes a subjective
complement; as, “The polished floor was kept as bright as a mirror.”

=227.= We learned in Lesson XXXIV that certain verbs may be followed by
both an indirect and a direct object; as, “Fred told Arthur the news.”

In changing this sentence to the passive voice we may use the direct
object for the subject of the passive verb; as, “The news was told to
Arthur by Fred”; or we may use the indirect object for the subject of
the passive verb; as, “Arthur was told the news by Fred.” In the latter
case we have an idiomatic construction—a passive verb _was told_ taking
a direct object _the news_. The direct object of a passive verb is often
called a =retained object=, because it remains as an object after the
sentence has been changed to the passive voice.

Not all sentences containing a direct and an indirect object can be
changed to the passive voice in two ways. We say, “A rose was given to
me,” or “I was given a rose.” We say, “A holiday was promised to the
children,” or “The children were promised a holiday.” But we do not say,
“I was passed the bread,” “I was written a note,” or “I was poured a cup
of tea.”

=Summary.=—The past participle of a transitive verb may be used as the
subjective complement of some form of the verb _be_. In such a case it
denotes the condition of the subject.

When a sentence containing a direct object and an objective complement is
changed to the passive voice, the direct object becomes the subject, and
the objective complement becomes a subjective complement.

Some sentences containing both an indirect and a direct object may be
changed to the passive voice in two ways, either the direct object or
the indirect object becoming the subject.

=Exercise 1.=—Select each verb in the following sentences. Tell its
voice, and how it is completed.

    1. The time of the singing of birds is come, and the voice of
    the turtle is heard in the land.

    2. Queen Elizabeth is often familiarly called Queen Bess.

    3. Rebecca’s face was so swollen with tears and so sharp with
    misery that for a moment Uncle Jerry scarcely recognized her.

    4. To put it mildly, Mrs. Howe was greatly pleased when she was
    elected first president of the Murray Hill Society.

    5. When the eggs had been beaten stiff, the little cook sifted
    the sugar.

    6. Christ the Lord is risen to-day.

    7. The colonists were so disheartened and alarmed that they
    sailed at once for England.

    8. The youngest girl in the senior class was chosen
    valedictorian.

    9. When the automobile ran off the bridge, every one was
    surprised at the driver’s escape.

    10. The black colt had been named Odin, but he was always
    called Teddy.

    11.

        The day is past and gone,
        The evening shades appear.

    12. Those people are mistaken who say that hard work does not
    pay—they have never really tried it.

    13. The room was made cool and dark, so that the lady might
    sleep.

    14. The roofs of the long red barns, which had been stained
    green by the weather, were struck by the level rays of the low,
    western sun.

    15. The fabric of common order in America is sound and strong
    at the center; the pattern is well marked, and the threads are
    firmly woven.

    16. Harvard College may be regarded as the legitimate child of
    Emmanuel College at Cambridge in England.

=Exercise 2.=—Make either one or two passive sentences out of each
sentence in Exercise 2, page 90. Tell in each case what becomes of the
subject, the direct object, and the indirect object.




LVII. THE PROGRESSIVE CONJUGATION


=228.= We have learned to conjugate verbs both declaratively and
interrogatively, in both the active and the passive voice. There is
another form of conjugation, as shown in the statements, _I am laughing_,
_I was laughing_, _I shall be laughing_, _I have been laughing_, etc.

We use this form of conjugation when we wish to call attention to the
_continuance_ of the action asserted by the verb, and we call it the
=progressive conjugation=.

=229.= Just as we use the past participle in conjugating a verb in the
passive voice, so we use the =present participle= in conjugating a verb
in the progressive form. _Laughing_ is the present participle of the
verb _laugh_. The present participle of every verb ends in _ing_; as,
_running_, _hoping_, _tying_.

=230.= Synopsis of the progressive conjugation of the verb _see_:—

    NOTE.—In the =synopsis= of a conjugation we give only one form
    for each tense, instead of six forms.

               INDICATIVE MODE

    _Present_              I am seeing
    _Past_                 I was seeing
    _Future_               I shall be seeing
    _Present Perfect_      I have been seeing
    _Past Perfect_         I had been seeing
    _Future Perfect_       I shall have been seeing

               SUBJUNCTIVE MODE

    _Present_              I be seeing
    _Past_                 I were seeing
    _Present Perfect_      I have been seeing
    _Past Perfect_         I had been seeing

                IMPERATIVE MODE

    be seeing (you, thou, ye)

=231.= The progressive conjugation may be made interrogative by changing
the position of the auxiliary; as, _am I seeing?_ _was I seeing?_ etc.

=Summary.=—The =progressive conjugation= is used to denote a continued
action.

It is made by joining the present participle of a given verb to the
conjugation of the verb _be_.

=Exercise.=—Conjugate the verbs _lift_, _dine_, and _get_ in the
progressive form, both declaratively and interrogatively.




LVIII. THE EMPHATIC CONJUGATION


=232.= In the indicative mode, present tense, we may say, _I study_,
which is the common form, or _I am studying_, which is the progressive
form, or _I do study_, which is the =emphatic form=.

=233.= The emphatic conjugation is made by using the auxiliary verb _do_.
It is found only in the present and past tenses of the indicative mode,
and in the imperative mode.

=234.= Conjugation of the verb _try_ in the emphatic form.

           INDICATIVE MODE

            PRESENT TENSE

    I do try          we do try
    thou dost try     you do try
    he does try       they do try

             PAST TENSE

    I did try         we did try
    thou didst try    you did try
    he did try        they did try

           IMPERATIVE MODE

    do try (thou, you, or ye)

=235.= The two tenses of the indicative mode, emphatic form, may be made
interrogative, as we learned in Lesson LI.

=236.= The emphatic form is used for other purposes than for emphasis.
It is generally used instead of the ordinary forms when the adverb _not_
modifies the predicate. We say, “I do not love thee, Dr. Fell,” instead
of “I love thee not.” And in the imperative mode with _not_ we say, “Do
not run with the ball,” instead of “Run not with the ball.”




LIX. PARSING OF VERBS


=237.= When we parse a verb, we should tell,—

(1) Its class as to form,—regular or irregular.

(2) Its principal parts.

(3) Its class as to use,—transitive or intransitive.

(4) Its voice,—active or passive.

(5) Its mode,—indicative, subjunctive, or imperative.

(6) Its tense.

(7) Its person.

(8) Its number.

(9) Its form of conjugation,—interrogative, progressive, or emphatic.

(10) Its simple subject.

(11) Its complement (if any),—direct object, subjective complement, or
objective complement.

=Exercise.=—Parse each verb in the following sentences:—

    1. What are you smiling at, Lady Mother?

    2. The shades were lowered at the windows, the lamps were
    lighted, the great family table was drawn towards the fire.

    3. When he went out from the village at the head of his men one
    fine day, while the sun was shining brightly, and the birds
    were singing, he did not neglect a single one of the many
    things which he had been told always brought good luck to the
    hunting.

    4. “No,” said Mrs. Howe, “I don’t enjoy moving, but the
    children do. They have been transporting clocks, and pictures,
    and lamps all the forenoon, when they haven’t been loading the
    dray, but they don’t seem a bit tired.”

    5. What shall it profit a man if he gain the whole world and
    lose his own soul?

    6. Child, was not your father called Mustapha the tailor?

    7. Do look at those gateposts!

    8. The hens had been mysteriously disappearing for over a month.

    9. Stir not a step till I come again.

    10. Do you wonder that I missed a word in spelling?

    11. Son, have any told thee that thou art beautiful beyond all
    men?

    12. Hadn’t you been putting on airs?




LX. THE AUXILIARY VERBS _SHALL_ AND _WILL_


=238.= In conjugating a verb in the future tense, indicative mode, we
make use of the auxiliaries _shall_ and _will_.

    _Singular_        _Plural_

    I shall go        we shall go
    thou wilt go      you will go
    he will go        they will go

These verb phrases express simple futurity,—they assert an intention on
the part of the person indicated by the subject, but not a promise.

=239.= We have another set of verb phrases belonging to the future tense,
indicative mode:—

    I will go         we will go
    thou shalt go     you shall go
    he shall go       they shall go

These phrases are used to express a promise, a vow, or a threat on the
part of the speaker; that is, the speaker will see to it that the action
is carried out. There is more of certainty in these phrases than in those
of the first set.

=240.= _Shall_ and _will_ with _have_ are used also in forming the future
perfect tense; as, _I shall have gone_, _he will have come_, etc. There
is much less occasion to use the future perfect tense than there is to
use the simple future tense, so we shall discuss the use of _shall_
and _will_ only in the future tense. When that is mastered, the future
perfect tense will present no difficulties.

=241.= Frequent errors are made in the use of _shall_ and _will_.
Perhaps the commonest occur in interrogative sentences. Many persons
say carelessly, “Will I open this window for you?” This question means,
“Am I going to open this window for you?” and the only possible answer
is, “I am sure I don’t know.” What is really intended by the question
is this, “Do you wish me to open this window?” hence we should say,
“_Shall_ I open this window for you?” The rule is,—When the subject of an
interrogative sentence is _I_ or _we_, the auxiliary _shall_ should be
used instead of _will_.

=242.= In questions where the subject is a word of the second or the
third person, we should use in the question the form we expect in the
answer. A boy should say to his employer, “Shall you be in your office
this afternoon?” because he expects the reply, “I shall,” meaning, “I
intend to be there.” But a boy says to another boy, “Will you pitch
for us to-morrow?” because he expects the reply, “I will,” meaning “I
promise.”

=Summary.=—Rules for the use of _shall_ and _will_:—

(1) To assert simple futurity use _shall_ in the first person, and
_will_ in the second and third persons.

(2) To assert determination, a promise, or a threat, use _will_ in the
first person, _shall_ in the second and third persons.

(3) In questions use _shall_ in the first person. In the second and third
persons use _will_ or _shall_ according to the answer you should get. The
form of the answer is to be determined by rules 1 and 2.

=Exercise 1.=—Account for the use of _shall_ and _will_ in the following
sentences:—

    1. “What shall we do next?” said I, with a long breath.

    2. Thou shalt hang for laying thy hand upon me.

    3. Will you please tell me whether Mrs. Josiah Wheeler lives on
    this road?

    4. You shall have a birthday party on the lawn, and I will
    make you a soldier suit, and papa will get you a drum, and the
    supper table shall be set under the balm-of-Gilead tree.

    5. “No,” said the fairy, “this is my ax, and it shall lie upon
    the shelf, while you must dive for yours, yourself.”

    6. “We will come into the crop lands to play with thee by
    night,” said Gray Brother to Mowgli.

    7. Blessed are the peacemakers; for they shall be called the
    children of God.

    8. The first social problem is the problem of rule: who shall
    exercise it, how far shall it go, and by what means shall it be
    enforced?

    9. Whosoever will lose his life for my sake shall find it.

    10. Let us rest ourselves, and then we shall be better able to
    pursue our walk.

    11.

        When shall we three meet again
        In thunder, lightning, or in rain?

    12. I will lift up mine eyes unto the hills, whence cometh my
    strength.

    13.

        Who will fill our vacant places?
        Who will sing our songs to-night?

    14.

        The daisies will be there, love.
        The stars in heaven will shine;
        But I shall not feel thy wish, love,
        Nor thou my hand in thine.

Tell the part of speech and use of _thy_, sentence 2, _me_ 3, _you_ 4,
_this_ 5, _yours_ 5, _yourself_ 5, _children_ 7, _we_ 11, _mine_ 12.

=Exercise 2.=—Fill the blanks with the proper auxiliary, and give your
reason in each case.

    1. O mother dear, Jerusalem, when —— I come to thee?

    2.

        We —— meet, but we —— miss him,
        There —— be one vacant chair.

    3. There is no market in the world in which money —— buy brains.

    4. You —— always have this little blue Wedgwood tea set to
    remember her by.

    5. —— you wear the hat even if it is not becoming?

    6. I —— know him when he comes, happy youth.

    7. —— you get my watch that was left at the jeweler’s?

    8.

        Oh, who —— walk a mile with me
        Along life’s merry way?

    9. If you do not promise to be home before midnight, you —— not
    go to the ball.

    10.

        Three years she grew in sun and shower,
        Then Nature said, “A lovelier flower
        On earth was never sown;
        This Child I to myself —— take;
        She —— be mine, and I —— make
        A Lady of my own.

        “The stars of midnight —— be dear
        To her; and she —— lean her ear
        In many a secret place
        Where rivulets dance their wayward round,
        And beauty born of murmuring sound
        —— pass into her face.

          “And vital feelings of delight
        —— rear her form to stately height,
        Her virgin bosom swell;
        Such thoughts to Lucy I —— give
        While she and I together live
        Here in this happy dell.”




LXI. DEFECTIVE VERBS. VERB PHRASES


=243.= Some verbs lack one or more of their principal parts. Such verbs
are called =defective verbs=.

A very common defective verb, which has only one form, is _ought_. (See
page 135.)

Other defective verbs are _can_, _may_, _must_, _shall_, and _will_. The
past tense forms of these verbs are _could_, _might_, _must, should_,
and _would_, respectively. No one of these verbs is ever used as a
principal verb, except _would_, as in the familiar expressions, “I
_would_ I were a bird,” “_Would_ that he were here!”

=244.= _Shall_ and _will_ are used as auxiliary verbs to form the future
tenses. _Can_, _could_, _may_, _might_, _must_, _should_, and _would_ are
used to form certain very useful verb phrases that are in the present,
the past, or the future perfect tense, and in either the indicative or
the subjunctive mode according to their meaning.

=245.= Using these verb phrases in the indicative mode we say,—

    I _may go_ to Japan.              He _may have gone_ home early.
    I _can see_ seven stars.          It _cannot have come_ yet.
    We _must go_ early.               He _must have sold_ it.
    You _might hurry_ a little.       We _might have hurried_.
    He _could not tell_ a lie.        I _could have eaten_ more.
    She _would talk_ in church.       He _would have helped_ me.
    We _should honor_ the flag.       You _should have earned_ it.

If we look closely at the meaning of these sentences, and think of others
containing the same auxiliaries, we shall conclude (1) that _may_ and
_might_ denote possibility or permission, (2) that _can_ and _could_
denote power or ability, (3) that _must_ denotes necessity, (4) that
_would_ denotes determination, (5) that _should_ denotes obligation or
duty.

Any one of the verb phrases just studied may be made interrogative by
transposition; as,—_May I borrow_ your knife?

=246.= _Can_ and _must_ are used only in the indicative mode. Using
_may_, _might_, _could_, _would_, and _should_ in subjunctive verb
phrases, we say,—

    Long _may_ it _wave_!

    Oh, that he _would help_!

    Though he _might be telling_ the truth, he would not be
    believed.

    If I _could go_ with father, I should be happy.

    If it _should freeze_, we could go skating.

If we look closely at these sentences, we shall see that the verbs denote
(1) a wish, (2) something contrary to fact, (3) something uncertain. (See
Lesson LII.)

=247.= The seven auxiliaries just studied may be used in making passive
verb phrases. Use the following phrases or similar ones in sentences:—

    may be broken        may have been taken
    can be cut           can have been heard
    must be paid         must have been bought
    might be driven      might have been kept
    could be seen        could have been done
    would be hurt        would have been stung
    should be met        should have been thrown

=248.= Other verb phrases in very common use in speech are formed by
means of the participle _going_. It is easy to imagine the following
conversation as really taking place.

    “I _am going to go_ to Niagara Falls next summer.”

    “Why, _you were going to go_ there last summer. In fact, you
    _have been going to go_ there every summer since I have known
    you.”

    “True enough. My intentions are good, but my purse is light.
    Perhaps I _shall be going to go_ all my life, and then get to
    heaven first after all.”

Each of the four groups of italicized words is a verb phrase denoting an
intention. Make ten similar phrases; as, _am going to sing_, _was going
to eat_. Notice that _going_ does not denote the act of going anywhere to
sing or to eat, as it does in “I am going to the Park to hear the band
play,” but only the _purpose_ or _intention_ of singing or eating.

=249.= Just as we denote an intended future action by using the word
_going_, so we often denote a customary past action by a phrase in which
we employ the verb _used_; as, “She _used to wear_ a little red cape,”
“Johnson _used to touch_ every fence post that he passed.” The italicized
words should not be separated here, but should be considered as one
group or verb phrase.

=250.= In speaking of any of the verb phrases described in this lesson,
we may call them verbs; we decide their person and number by their
subject, their voice and mode by their meaning, and their tense by their
form.

=251.= The verbs _have_ and _do_ are not always auxiliaries. They are
sometimes principal verbs, and as such are conjugated in the various
ways. What are the principal parts of _have?_ of _do_?

Conjugate _have_ in the indicative mode; _do_ in the emphatic form;
_have_ in the progressive form; _do_ in the passive voice, in the third
person, singular number, using _it_ for the subject.

=252.= Verbs like _rain_, _snow_, _hail_, etc., are sometimes called
=impersonal verbs=, because they are used only in the third person
singular with the pronoun _it_.

=Summary.=—A =defective verb= is one that lacks one or more of its
principal parts.

Defective verbs are used as auxiliary verbs.

The auxiliaries _may_, _can_, _must_, _might_, _could_, _would_, and
_should_ are used to form certain common verb phrases.

These verb phrases may be active or passive, declarative or
interrogative, indicative or subjunctive mode, present, past, or present
perfect tense.

_Going_ is used to form verb phrases that denote a future or intended
action.

_Used_ is employed to form verb phrases that denote a customary past
action.

_Have_ and _do_ may be principal verbs as well as auxiliary verbs.

=Impersonal verbs= are used only in the third person singular, with the
neuter pronoun _it_.

=Exercise 1.=—Select all the verb phrases in the following sentences.
Tell their voice, person, number, subject, and complement if they have
any.

    1. What a bird it must be that could utter such wondrous sounds!

    2. From time to time the two rabbits would halt, sit up on
    their hind quarters, erect their long, attentive ears, and
    glance about warily with their bulging eyes.

    3.

        The rich man’s son inherits cares;
        The bank may break, the factory burn,
        A breath may burst his bubble shares,
        And soft white hands could hardly earn
        A living that would serve his turn.

    4. All the girls in the class are going to wear pink chambray
    dresses, and mother is going to make mine by hand.

    5. We can go by the North Road, the South Road, or the Middle
    Road.

    6. Instead of candy, mother used to give him sugar in a cup,
    and then he would stretch out on the sunny doorstep and feed
    his sweet crystals to the flies.

    7. The Cottontails were now sole owners of the holes, and did
    not go near them when they could help it, lest anything like a
    path should be made that might betray their last retreats to an
    enemy.

    8. If you are going to make orange marmalade to-morrow, you
    must peel the oranges this evening.

    9. I should think that something might be done about covering
    the cow’s horns; perhaps they might be padded with cotton.

    10. Governor Winthrop wrote his third wife tender messages in a
    way that could only have come of long practice.

    11. The children used to stand at the window in the twilight,
    and watch the lights appear in the houses; and when they had
    counted ten, they used to clap their hands, and say, “Now,
    mother, it is time to light the lamp.”

    12. On the usual crisp mornings of sugar season the snow at
    such an hour would have borne a crust to crackle sharply under
    every footstep.

    13. I had not told the horse that I was going to whip him, so
    he was taken by surprise and started forward.

    14. Grandpa would not be helped into his overcoat.

=Exercise 2.=—Select all the verb phrases containing any form of _have_
or _do_. Tell whether this form is used as an auxiliary or as a principal
verb.

    1. Shere Khan does us great honor.

    2. Whoever has made a voyage up the Hudson must remember the
    Kaatskill Mountains.

    3. Do you ever wonder how so much sin and wrong and suffering
    can be in God’s world?

    4. Mother never forgot the millionaire’s daughter who said that
    she did up her father’s shirts.

    5. All the Offal Court boys had this same hard time, so Tom
    supposed it was the correct and comfortable thing.

    6. Where does amber get its strange, poetic charm?

    7. I never had the pleasure of meeting a crowing hen; but I
    have known a great many whistling girls, and I cannot recall an
    instance where their ends were any worse than those of other
    girls.

    8. If I could have committed suicide without killing myself, I
    should certainly have done so.

    9. She had eaten as many mouthfuls of breakfast as she possibly
    could in her excited condition, had kissed everybody good-by
    twice over, and now thought it was time to be starting.

    10. I can’t write a composition unless I have something to say,
    can I?

    11. On these hard, smooth roads one horse will do the work of
    two.

    12. I do not feel wholly sure that my Pussy wrote these letters
    herself.

    13. The Boy had no fear of the undisputed Master of the Woods,
    the big black bear.

    14. Do the duty that lies nearest thee; thy second duty will
    already have become clearer.

    15. Jakie had been stolen from the nest before he could fly.

    16. I do wish that you and your father would turn around
    directly and come home.

    17. Jane had had the inestimable advantage of a sorrow.

    18. The old bell had things all its own way up in the steeple.

    19. Boys always do the nice splendid things, and girls can only
    do the nasty dull ones that get left over.

    20. After the twins had had measles and mumps, whooping cough
    descended on the household.

Tell the part of speech and use of _us_, sentence 1, _honor_ 1, _shirts_
4, _same_ 5, _great_ 7, _two_ 11, _wholly_ 12, _herself_ 12, _bear_ 13,
_clearer_ 14, _father_ 16, _home_ 16.

=253.= Many errors are made in the use of the auxiliaries _may_ and
_can_, _would_ and _should_.

We should use _may_ to denote permission, liberty, or possibility, and
_can_ to denote power or ability.

=Exercise 1.=—Supply the correct word in each of these sentences, and
give your reason in each case:—

    1. What —— I do to help you?

    2. You —— have a watch when you graduate.

    3. I —— go by boat, but it is doubtful.

    4. —— you run an automobile?

    5. —— we have a school paper?

    6. Do you think that I —— earn ten dollars a week?

    7. Fred, you —— open the east windows.

    8. If we walk fast, we —— surely get there in time.

    9. We —— get there in time, but we shall have to hurry.

Make three good sentences containing _may_ and three containing _can_.

_Would_ is used to denote,—

(1) Determination; as, “Albert _would_ leave school.”

(2) Inclination; as, “I _would_ read more if I could.”

(3) Customary past action; as, “We _would_ listen to her songs hour after
hour.”

_Should_ is used to denote,—

(1) Simple intention; as, “I _should_ come often if you did not live so
far.”

(2) Obligation or duty; as, “We _should_ honor our parents.” Perhaps
these auxiliaries are oftenest misused when associated with the verb
_like_. The expression, “I would like to go,” is wrong, because it means
“I am inclined or determined to like something,” which is not good
sense. We should say,—

    I should like to go       We should like to go
    You would like to go      You would like to go
    He would like to go       They would like to go

In a dependent clause _should_ denotes merely an imaginary condition, and
_would_ denotes inclination as well as an imaginary condition.

The clauses, “If I should lose my watch,” “If you should lose your
watch,” “If he should lose his watch,” are equivalent to the present
tense of the subjunctive mode, and denote merely an imaginary condition.

The clauses, “If I would study harder,” “if you would study harder,” “if
he would study harder,” denote an imaginary condition that may become
real according to the inclination of the subject.

What is the meaning of the familiar dependent clause in the following
sentence: “If it would only snow, we could have a sleigh ride?”

=Exercise 2.=—Supply the correct word in each of these sentences, and
give your reason in each case:—

    1. You —— study the text before you undertake the exercise.

    2. What —— you do with him, Mr. Dick?

    3. I —— wash him and put him to bed.

    4. Neither of the boys —— obey me.

    5. As soon as day broke, the canary —— begin to sing.

    6. I —— like to meet your grandfather.

    7. Any girl —— be satisfied with two new hats.

    8. They —— all like to come, I am sure.

    9. I —— not take one cent of his money.

    10. I —— think that you —— be glad to work.

    11. Each man —— keep himself loyal to truth.

    12. If I —— tell the story, the children —— not be satisfied.

    13. If I —— tell them stories all day long, they —— not be
    satisfied.

Make five good sentences containing _would_, and five containing _should_.

The verb _have got_ is often misused for the verb _have_. “I have it”
means “I possess it,” while “I have got it” means “I have procured
it.” “I have to go” means “I must go,” while “I have got to go” is an
incorrect expression.

=Exercise 3.=—Supply _has_ or _have_, _has got_, or _have got_ in each
of the following sentences, and give your reason in each case. Use the
negative word _not_, if necessary.

    1. —— you tickets for the entertainment?

    2. No, I —— them yet.

    3. Can he buy a farm if he —— no money?

    4. —— you a chisel, Albert?

    5. No, I —— one, but Herman —— one.

    6. At last he —— a position on the police force.

    7. We —— a fruit farm and father —— a new tenant on it.

    8. We —— to practice at four o’clock.

    9. I can’t go to the football game for I —— to work Saturday
    afternoons.

    10. Nobody —— to leave before nine o’clock.

What correct expressions can you substitute for _has got_ in the familiar
sentence, “Madge has got to do as I say”?




LXII. DIRECT AND INDIRECT DISCOURSE


=254.= In the sentence,—Ruth said, “_I like your cake_,” we have a
=direct quotation=, the exact words spoken by Ruth. A direct quotation is
often called =direct discourse=.

In the sentence,—_Ruth said that she liked my cake_, we have an =indirect
quotation= containing the substance, or thought, of Ruth’s remark, but
not her exact words. An indirect quotation is often called =indirect
discourse=.

=255.= In changing from direct to indirect discourse, we are likely to
make a change in personal pronouns, as well as in the tense of verbs.
An indirect quotation usually takes the form of a dependent clause
beginning with the word _that_. If the verb of saying that usually
precedes an indirect quotation is in the present tense, then the verb in
the quotation is likely to be in the present or the future tense; but if
the verb of saying is in the past tense, then the verb in the quotation
is likely to be in the past tense; as,

    Father _says_ that he _is_ on the jury.

    Father _said_ that he _was_ on the jury.

Can you account for the tense of the verb in the indirect quotation in
this sentence,—Somebody once said that the pen is mightier than the sword?

=256.= When a direct quotation containing the word _shall_ is changed
to an indirect quotation, _shall_ is retained if the verb of saying
preceding the quotation is in the present tense; but if this verb is
in the past tense, then _shall_ is changed to _should_. In like manner
_will_ is changed to _would_; as,—

    Mother says, “I shall be voting soon.”

    Mother says that she shall be voting soon.

    Mother said that she should be voting soon.

    Mother says, “I will make him a pillow.”

    Mother says that she will make him a pillow.

    Mother said that she would make him a pillow.

=257.= If a direct quotation is a question, it becomes an indirect
question when changed to indirect discourse; as,—

    He asked, “Why do you tremble so?”

    He asked me why I trembled so.

=258.= A command may be changed from direct to indirect discourse; as,—

    Christ said, “Love your enemies.”

    Christ said that we should love our enemies.

=Exercise 1.=—Account for the use of _shall_, _will_, _should_, and
_would_ in the following sentences:—

    1. The teacher said, “I shall be pleased to go.”

    2. The teacher said that she should be pleased to go.

    3. Aunt Elsie said, “I will tell you the story to-morrow.”

    4. Aunt Elsie said that she would tell us the story to-morrow.

    5. The principal said, “You shall have no recess to-day.”

    6. The principal said that we should have no recess to-day.

    7. Mother said, “You will be late.”

    8. Mother said that I should be late.

    9. The mayor said, “The matter shall be investigated.”

    10. The mayor said that the matter should be investigated.

    11. The director said, “The celebration will be on Tuesday.”

    12. The director said that the celebration would be on Tuesday.

    13. The teacher said, “David and Harry shall not take part.”

    14. David and Harry, the teacher said that you should not take
    part.

    15. The boys said, “David and Harry will be sorry.”

    16. David and Harry, the boys said that you would be sorry.

=Exercise 2.=—Change the following sentences from direct to indirect
discourse:—

    1. Longfellow said, “Life is real, life is earnest.”

    2. John wrote, “I know that Shep will give you a warm welcome
    when you come.”

    3. The lawyer demanded, “Mr. Christoff, what have you done with
    the company’s books?”

    4. The Bible says, “Give to him that asketh.”

    5. Patrick Henry asked, “When shall we be stronger?”

    6. The eloquent speaker said, “The declaration of our
    independence will strengthen us at home, and give us character
    abroad.”

    7. The great orator declared, “If we fail, it can be no worse
    for us. But we shall not fail. The cause will raise up armies.”

    8. He admitted, “We may not live to the time when this
    declaration shall be made good.”

    9. Then he uttered this prophecy: “This declaration must cost
    treasure, and it may cost blood; but it will stand, and it will
    richly compensate for both.”

    10. Every listener was moved when the statesman said, “If it
    be the pleasure of Heaven that my country shall require the
    poor offering of my life, the victim shall be ready at the
    appointed hour of sacrifice.”

    11. His closing words were these: “All that I have, and all
    that I am, and all that I hope, in this life, I am now ready
    here to stake upon it; and I leave off as I began, that live or
    die, survive or perish, I am for the declaration.”

=Exercise 3.=—Make the following sentences clear by changing them from
indirect to direct discourse:—

    1. The teacher told Mrs. Gray that her little girl lost the
    report she had given her.

    2. Jennie told Ada that her mother was willing that she should
    go to the concert with her and her brother.

    3. Bertrand told George that he ought to sell his sailboat and
    buy his launch.

    4. The teachers asked the young men why they had made such a
    disturbance in the corridor when they had forbidden them to
    congregate there.




LXIII. AGREEMENT OF VERB AND SUBJECT. COLLECTIVE NOUNS


=259.= A verb must agree with its subject in number, and since the verb
changes its form sometimes to denote number, we must be careful to employ
the correct form. We should say, “The rose _is_ red, the roses _are_ red;
the wind _does_ blow, the winds _do_ blow; the bird _flies_, the birds
_fly_.”

=260.= This agreement of the subject and the verb is a simple matter in
English, for in our language verbs have the same form in the singular and
the plural, except in four cases:—

(1) The verb _be_, which changes its form considerably to indicate
number, in the present and past tenses. See page 128.

(2) Any verb in the second person conjugated in the solemn style. See
page 128.

(3) Any verb in the third person of the present tense, indicative mode;
as, he _speaks_, they _speak_.

(4) Any verb in the third person of the present perfect indicative; as,
he _has_ spoken, they _have_ spoken.

=261.= As _don’t_ is a contraction of _do not_, it should be used only
with a plural subject, or with the singular pronouns _I_ and _you_. We
say, “I _don’t_ know,” “You _don’t_ know,” “They _don’t_ know,” but “He
_doesn’t_ know,” “She _doesn’t_ know,” “It _doesn’t_ come.”

=262.= A compound subject composed of two or more singular nouns should
have a plural verb when the parts are joined by any conjunction but _or_
or _nor_. We say, “Either John or Byron _is_ her cousin,” and “Both John
and Joe _are_ her cousins.”

When two singular subjects refer to one person, the verb, of course,
should be singular. We say, “The secretary and treasurer _was_ absent.”

=263.= When a singular noun is modified by the limiting adjective _each_,
_every_, _either_, _neither_, _any_, or _no_, and used as subject of
a clause, its verb must be singular; as, “Each flower _is_ a thing of
beauty,” “No man _lives_ but loves something.”

In declarative sentences this rule is not likely to be violated, but it
is often violated in interrogative sentences, where the verb precedes the
subject. We should say, “_Has_ either book been returned?” “_Is_ either
of you willing to stay?” “_Was_ neither of the speakers on time?”

=264.= There is a class of nouns like _flock_, _army_, _herd_, _company_,
which mean a collection of individuals, and so seem to be plural; but
since the individuals forming the collection are thought of as one body,
these nouns are in reality singular. They are =collective nouns=.

=265.= The verb of which a collective noun is subject is a singular verb,
and the pronoun that stands for a collective noun is the neuter singular
pronoun _it_. We say, “The company _is_ on _its_ way to the Philippines.”

    NOTE.—When a collective noun is plural in meaning, that is,
    when the individuals are thought of as acting separately,
    it takes a plural verb; as, “The faculty _are_ not going to
    trouble _their_ heads about the kind of shoes we wear.”

=Summary.=—A verb must agree with its subject in person and in number.

A =collective= noun is one that names a group of individuals considered
as one body.

A collective noun is usually singular and neuter.

=Exercise 1.=—If you do not already know, find out from the dictionary to
what sort of individuals each of these collective nouns is applied.

    bevy
    choir
    committee
    constellation
    covey
    crew
    drove
    family
    fleet
    flock
    gang
    hive
    horde
    jury
    mob
    orchestra
    regiment
    swarm
    tribe
    troop

=Exercise 2.=—Find all the collective nouns in these sentences. Find
evidence as to whether they are singular or plural. If they are plural,
tell why. Give the reason for the number of each verb.

    1. Forty wolves make a very fair pack indeed.

    2. At the edge of the thicket was a straggling colony of low
    blueberry bushes.

    3. Here, in course of days, there accumulated a shining cluster
    of six large white eggs.

    4. At last cousin Eben came with a double sleigh and the team
    of prancing grays, and then the whole family was off for
    Christmas dinner at Aunt Mary’s.

    5. Has either of the critics ever heard the new organ?

    6. No man in his senses takes such a risk.

    7. A school of porpoises were ducking and tearing through the
    water.

    8. Through the ancient forest, which was a mixed growth of
    cedar, water ash, black poplar, and maple, with here and
    there a group of hemlocks on a knoll, the light drained down
    confusedly.

    9. The opinions of this junto were completely controlled by
    Nicholas Vedder.

    10. Is either of you going up the river in the houseboat?

    11. This band of crows numbered about two hundred.

    12. Each year the old crow came with his troop, and for about
    six weeks took up his abode on the hill.

    13. Here and there a band of chimney sweeps were staring in
    stupid wonder at the miracle of a showman’s box.

    14. Butler tells of an Indian tribe in the Far North that was
    all but exterminated by a feud over a dog.

    15. On a level spot was a company of odd-looking personages
    playing at ninepins.

    16. Every word on his papers was correctly spelled.

    17. The rest of the horses swept dutifully into line, and the
    herd was off.




LXIV. REVIEW OF VERBS: PARSING


=266.= Study again Lessons XXIII-XXVII, XLIX-LXIII. Make an outline of
verbs, having the following main topics:—

(1) Classification.

(2) Properties.

(3) Conjugation.

(4) Principal Parts.

(5) Auxiliaries.

(6) Agreement.

Fill in the subtopics and recite in detail from your outline with
illustrations of every point.

=Exercise.=—Parse the verbs in the following sentences according to the
outline on p. 150:—

    1. If you have a Halloween party, shall you invite the Cromers?

    2. At first the chemist said he couldn’t do anything about it;
    but when Agamemnon said they would pay in gold if he would only
    go, he packed up his bottles in a leather case, and went back
    with the Peterkins.

    3.

        Faith’s journeys end is welcome to the weary,
        And heaven, the heart’s true home, will come at last.

    4. We are going to have a tile well, and Mr. Jones is going to
    oversee the men who dig it.

    5. This woodchuck was neither handsome nor interesting, but he
    knew how to take care of himself.

    6. Sheep are usually kept in flocks of from one thousand to
    three thousand under one or more shepherds.

    7. Rabbits telegraph each other by thumping on the ground with
    their hind feet.

    8. Lady Moon, Lady Moon, where are you roving?

    9.

        Breast the wave, Christian, when it is strongest.
        Watch for day, Christian, when the night’s longest.

    10. Even so did men talk round the king’s cages at Oodeypore.

    11. Your Uncle Nathan and I used to be called the bothering
    Bodleys, because we were always teasing to find out something.

    12. The Peterkins had been so busy inside the house that they
    had not noticed the ceasing of the storm outside.

    13. For thou, Lord, wilt give thy blessing unto the righteous,
    and with thy favorable kindness wilt thou defend him as with a
    shield.

    14. My father’s, like every other young ladies’ school near
    a village, was very much disturbed by the attentions of the
    village young men.

    15. If any man have a hundred sheep, and one of them be gone
    astray, doth he not leave the ninety and nine and go into the
    mountains and seek that which goeth astray?

    16. They were sitting round the breakfast table and wondering
    what they should do because the lady from Philadelphia had gone
    away.




LXV. CLASSIFICATION OF ADVERBS. SIMPLE ADVERBS


=267.= In Lesson X it was shown that an adverb modifies a verb, an
adjective, or another adverb. Select the adverbs in the following
sentences, and tell what words they modify:—

    We proceeded through a tract of country excessively wild and
    desolate.

    People with lanterns rushed hither and thither.

    John knew that he could spend a day very pleasantly in going
    over to that pasture.

All the adverbs in these sentences are called =simple adverbs= because
they have but one office in the sentence,—they merely modify the word
they go with.

=268.= In the sentence, “Perhaps my pony can carry the load,” the word
_perhaps_ tells nothing whatever about the action of carrying, but
rather serves to make the whole statement doubtful. Such a word is said
to modify the whole sentence. Some other adverbs used in this way are
_certainly_, _indeed_, _fortunately_, and _not_.

The common use of the adverb _not_ is to change an affirmative statement
to a negative statement, as in the sentence, “I will not wear my heart
upon my sleeve.”

=269.= The simple adverbs, _when_, _where_, _why_, _how_, _whence_,
_whither_, are used in asking questions; as, “_When_ shall we be
stronger?” “_Why_ do you answer me so?” Such adverbs modify the whole
predicate. They are called =interrogative adverbs=.

    NOTE.—_The_ is sometimes used as an adverb before comparatives;
    as, “_The_ more you have, _the_ more you want.”

=270.= When the meaning permits, adverbs may be compared in the same
manner as adjectives; as, _fast_, _faster_, _fastest_; _pleasantly_,
_more pleasantly_, _most pleasantly_; _fortunately_, _less fortunately_,
_least fortunately_.

=Summary.=—A =simple adverb= is one that merely modifies the word or the
group of words that it goes with.

Some simple adverbs, like _not_, _perhaps_, _certainly_, modify the whole
sentence.

An =interrogative adverb= is a simple adverb that is used in asking a
question.

Some adverbs may be compared.

=Exercise.=—Select all the simple adverbs in the following sentences,
and tell what each modifies. In so far as you can, tell what each adverb
denotes. (See Lesson X.)

    1. How the huge breakers foam and fret!

    2. People living by the sea are always more or less
    superstitious.

    3. No one can work well without sleep.

    4. Whence came that blessed mother love, so strong, so
    dauntless, so pure, and whither has it fled?

    5. Where had the stone been before? Why did it come there? When
    would it go away?

    6. Heaven is not reached at a single bound.

    7. Luckily, poor Pepper was not seriously hurt.

    8. Meanwhile Mrs. Peterkin was getting quite impatient for her
    coffee.

    9. How do you like to go up in a swing, up in the air so blue?

    10. Why should one hurry when days are long and calm and sweet?

    11. You may lead a horse to water, but you cannot make him
    drink.

    12. Presently a huge black bear poked his nose out of the
    bushes, and sniffed inquiringly.

    13. How quickly we learn to claim as our own that in which we
    delight!




LXVI. CONJUNCTIVE ADVERBS


=271.= In Lesson XX we learned that a dependent clause is one that does
not make sense when standing alone; also that such a clause sometimes has
the office of an adverb, modifying a predicate, and sometimes that of
an adjective, modifying a noun. It is, therefore, called an =adverbial
clause= or an =adjective clause=.

Select and classify the dependent clauses in each of the following
sentences:—

    (_a_) Old Stony Phiz set out on a visit to the valley where he
    was born.

    (_b_) When I first came to Rivermouth, I looked upon girls as
    rather tame company.

=272.= A dependent clause is usually introduced by some word which
indicates that it is a dependent clause. In the clause _where he was
born_, this introductory word is _where_. What is the introductory word
in the clause in sentence (_b_)?

This introductory word does more than introduce the clause; it joins the
clause to the word the clause modifies. What does _where_ join in (_a_)?
What does the introductory word in (_b_) join?

But these words do more than join. _Where_ denotes place, and modifies
the verb _was born_. Hence it is an adverb. What does _when_ denote? What
does it modify?

Since these words have two uses, that of an adverb and that of a joining
word, we call them =conjunctive adverbs=.

=Summary.=—A =conjunctive adverb= is one that introduces a clause,
modifies some part of the clause, generally the predicate, and joins the
clause to that part of the sentence which the clause modifies.

Some common conjunctive adverbs are _when_, _where_, _whence_,
_whenever_, _wherever_, _while_, _why_, _how_. (See note, p. 177.)

An =adverbial clause= is a dependent clause that is used like an adverb.

An =adjective clause= is a dependent clause that is used like an
adjective.

Both the adjective and the adverbial clause may be introduced by a
conjunctive adverb.

=Exercise.=—Select all the conjunctive adverbs in the following
sentences. Tell what clause they introduce, what they join, what they
denote, and what they modify.

    1. When his eyes got command of the dusk, he saw to his
    surprise that the den was empty.

    2. Mr. Gathergold bethought himself of his native valley, and
    resolved to go back thither, and end his days where he was born.

    3. The canals in Amsterdam are crossed by a great many
    drawbridges, and the people must sometimes wait while a ship or
    barge is passing.

    4. Our lunch was only bread and tea and blueberries and cream,
    but do you remember how delicious it tasted that day when you
    came home from the circus as tired as a dog and as hungry as a
    bear?

    5.

        Whenever I cross the river
          On its bridge with wooden piers,
        Like the odor of brine from the ocean,
          Comes the thought of other years.

    6. The reason why men succeed who mind their own business is
    because there is so little competition.

    7.

        The frugal snail, with forecast of repose,
        Carries his house with him where’er he goes.

    8. When all the trees in the forest have the same number of
    leaves, then will all men be alike in their power and skill.

    9.

        While the breath’s in his mouth, he must bear without fail,
        In the name of the Empress the Overland Mail.

    10.

        Where’er our footsteps range,
        Comes the chilling breath of change,
        And the best of friends look strange
          When the purse is low.

    11. The reason why men do not obey us is because they see the
    mud at the bottom of our eye.

    12.

        So shut your eyes while mother sings
          Of wonderful sights that be.

    13. Chip answered me with a cheery little note or two whenever
    I spoke to him.

    14.

        My heart leaps up when I behold
        A rainbow in the sky.




LXVII. SUMMARY OF ADVERBS


=273.= We have learned,—

(1) That adverbs may be simple adverbs or conjunctive adverbs.

(2) That simple adverbs merely modify some word or group of words.

(3) That conjunctive adverbs modify, and at the same time introduce a
dependent clause and join it to whatever the clause modifies.

(4) That one kind of simple adverb is the interrogative adverb, which
is used in asking a question.

(5) That an adverb may modify a verb, an adjective, an adverb, a whole
predicate, or even a whole statement.

(6) That adverbs may denote time, place, manner, degree, and direction.

(7) That some adverbs may be compared.

Give a good illustration of each point in this summary.

=274.= When we parse an adverb we should tell,—

(1) Its class as to use,—simple, interrogative, conjunctive.

(2) Its class as to meaning,—time, place, manner, etc.

(3) Its degree (if it admits of comparison).

(4) Its use, and what it modifies.

=Exercise.=—Parse each adverb in the following sentences:—

    1. Virtue and intelligence will lead our country ever onward in
    her happy career.

    2. Oh, why should the spirit of mortal be proud?

    3. The man in the moon came down too soon.

    4. Fortunately, what seemed to be a barrel of apples turned out
    to be an electric lamp.

    5. The old horse cars rocked along scarcely faster than we
    could walk.

    6. Calmly I await the hour when the summons comes for me.

    7. Somewhere the birds are singing evermore.

    8. I will lock the door most willingly, but I will not cover
    the bird.

    9. Probably Frank was mightily relieved when he saw the mayor’s
    automobile.

    10. Our side made a remarkably good score.

    11. Where shall we sit in the new church?




LXVIII. COÖRDINATE CONJUNCTIONS


=275.= We have learned that such words as _and_, _but_, and _or_ are
conjunctions. Their use is merely to join, and they may join either
words, phrases, or clauses. Since they join like elements,—a word to
a word, a phrase to a phrase, a clause to a clause, a sentence to a
sentence, we call them =coördinate= conjunctions.

=276.= In the sentence, “Either the well was very deep or she fell very
slowly,” the coördinate conjunction _or_, which joins two sentences, is
preceded by the word _either_, which hints that _or_ is coming. When
_either_ and _or_ are used in this way, they are called =correlatives=;
that is, they are words related to each other. Other correlatives are
_neither_, _nor_; _not only_, _but_; _both_, _and_. It is always the
second word of these pairs that does the joining. The first merely tells
the listener or reader what sort of sentence is to follow.

    NOTE.—Frequently a coördinate conjunction has another word
    going with it to change or emphasize its meaning. In the
    sentence, “He is rich and yet he is not generous,” the word
    _yet_ going with _and_ changes its meaning to _but_. In the
    sentence, “He is poor, but still he is generous,” the word
    _still_ reinforces the meaning of _but_. Such a word associated
    with a conjunction may be said to be a part of the conjunction,
    that is, the two words together do the joining. In the same way
    the two words _not only_ form the correlative of _but_ or _but
    also_; as, “He is not only a teacher but also a student.” What
    does _but also_ join here?

=Summary.=—A =coördinate conjunction= is one that joins like elements. It
is sometimes more than one word.

=Correlative coördinate conjunctions= are pairs of words, the second of
which does the joining.

=Exercise.=—When we parse a coördinate conjunction we tell its class and
what it joins. If it has a correlative, we state that fact. Parse the
coördinate conjunctions in the following sentences:—

    1. The writer who professes to care nothing for fame is
    probably deceiving himself, or else his liver is out of order.

    2. Everybody took a holiday, and high and low, rich and poor,
    feasted and danced and sang, and got very mellow.

    3. There was neither dust nor mud nor noise to annoy one.

    4. The mahogany arm chair is very handsome, and the green plush
    rocker is very comfortable, but still I choose this little
    chair with the flowers painted on the back, that mother gave to
    me when I was only five.

    5. On its southern side is an elevated walk, or terrace, very
    broad and handsome, and about half a mile long.

        NOTE.—In the preceding sentence, try to discover under
        what circumstances an appositive is joined to the word it
        explains by _or_. Notice the punctuation. Make other
        sentences illustrating this use of _or_.

    6. The road to Paradise is rough and thorny.

    7. His chief amusements were gunning and fishing, or sauntering
    along the beach and through the myrtles.

    8. Neither hare nor grouse was stirring in the brushy opens.

    9. You know Mary always bangs things when she is cross, but I
    never could see what good it does.

    10. When the two children went down to the river to play, they
    not only disobeyed their mothers, but they also ran away from
    school.

    11. I never looked either neat or clean, though I had my daily
    bath and a generous allowance of clothes.

    12. Over the tree tops and from the open spaces in the wood
    could be seen the first pallor of approaching day.

    13. In deep snow the moose can neither flee nor fight.

    14. They always put Mammy Tittleback in the carriage too; but
    before they had carried her far, she generally jumped out, and
    walked the rest of the way by their side.

    15. These Spaniards wished to build ships and to get away; but
    they had neither knowledge nor tools nor iron nor forge nor tow
    nor resin nor rigging.

    16.

        He prayeth best who loveth best
        All things both great and small.

Tell the part of speech and use of _himself_, sentence 1, _high_, _low_
2, _mellow_ 2, _when_ 4, _neat_ 11, _allowance_ 11, _pallor_ 12.




LXIX. SUBORDINATE CONJUNCTIONS


=277.= We have learned that a dependent clause is often used as an adverb
to modify a predicate. When so used, it is joined to the predicate it
modifies by some connecting word.

Sometimes this connecting word is a conjunctive adverb, as was pointed
out in Lesson LXVI, but more often it is some other word, as in the
following sentences:—

    Sheep are such senseless creatures _that_ they are liable to be
    stampeded by the veriest trifle.

    You cannot catch a muskrat _unless_ you put tar on his nose.

    I love hens _because_ they are such good mothers.

What is the dependent clause in each of these sentences? What does it
modify? What word joins it to that part of the sentence which it modifies?

These connecting words,—_that_, _unless_, and _because_,—are not adverbs,
for they do not modify any word. They merely connect, hence they are
conjunctions. Since they connect elements not alike, not equal in rank,
they are called =subordinate conjunctions=.

=278.= There are many subordinate conjunctions. The most common are
_after_, _although_, _as_, _because_, _before_, _for_, _if_, _in order
that_, _lest_, _provided_, _since_, _so that_, _than_, _that_, _though_,
_till_, and _unless_.

    NOTE.—There is little distinction between the subordinate
    conjunction and the conjunctive adverb. Both connect a
    dependent to a principal clause; and some subordinate
    conjunctions, like conjunctive adverbs, express time, cause, or
    manner, etc. For this reason, _as_, _after_, _before_, _since_,
    _till_, etc. are included by some authors among conjunctive
    adverbs. Compare, “I came _when_ you called me” with “I came
    _before_ you called me.”

=Summary.=—A =subordinate conjunction= is one that introduces a dependent
clause, and joins it to that part of the sentence which it modifies.

=Exercise.=—Parse the conjunctions in the following sentences. Tell their
class and what they join.

    1. The four cubs, running down hill on their bellies, melted
    into the thorn and underbrush as a mole melts into a lawn.

    2. Boys will do any amount of work provided it is called play.

    3. The great horned owl stood so erect and motionless that he
    seemed a portion of the pine trunk itself.

    4. Since the maples were cut down, the elms have flourished.

    5. Androclus had not lain long quiet in the cavern, before he
    heard a dreadful noise, which seemed to be the roar of some
    wild beast, and terrified him very much.

    6. Harry laughed till the tears ran down his cheeks.

    7. Unless you have sat on a stone fence and beaten russet
    apples soft on its hard top, you have missed one of the
    greatest delicacies that the orchard gives.

    8. I liked the doctor very much, for he would let me drive
    around with him, and hold his horse while he made his
    professional calls.

    9. Fast the ivy stealeth on, though he wears no wings.

    10. Even after the invitations were sent out, it seemed to
    Dolly that the party day would never come.

    11. The shawl doll was my favorite because it was more nearly
    the size of a real baby.

    12. The two young Cratchits crammed spoons into their mouths
    lest they should shriek for goose before their turn came to be
    helped.

    13. A man would laugh if you told him that he had never really
    seen a burdock.

Select all the verbs in the sentences above. Classify them as transitive
or intransitive. Tell their voice, mode, and tense.

=279.= Some words may be used as conjunctions, as prepositions, or as
adverbs.

    =After.=

    Conj.—I came _after_ you called me the second time.

    Adv.—We look before and _after_, and pine for what is not.

    Prep.—Let us walk to the lake _after_ school.

    =Before.=

    Conj.—The roosters woke me _before_ the sun rose.

    Adv.—They had never seen mountains _before_.

    Prep.—In winter we get up _before_ daylight.

    =But.=

    Conj.—I am weak, _but_ Thou art mighty.

    Prep.—He relishes no fruit _but_ apples.

    Adv.—We can _but_ die.

    =Else.=

    Conj.—You must tell the truth, _else_ you will not be trusted.

    Adv.—How _else_ can we get to Berlin?

    Adv.—Where _else_ shall I look for your glasses?

        NOTE.—What part of speech is _else_ in the sentences, “What
        _else_ can I do for you?” “Who _else_ was there?”

    =For.=

    Conj.—Work _for_ the night is coming.

    Prep.—The faithful slave died _for_ his young master.

    =Hence.=

    Conj.—Smoke is coming out of the chimney, _hence_ the house
    must be occupied.

    Adv.—Let me go _hence_ and be no more seen.

    =Only.=

    Conj.—I should be glad to go, _only_ I have nothing to wear.

    Adv.—I made the cake; mother _only_ baked it.

        NOTE.—What part of speech is _only_ in the sentence, “Grace
        is an _only_ child”?

    =Since.=

    Conj.—I have been happy _since_ you became my friend.

    Prep.—Prices have never gone down _since_ the war.

    Adv.—One day the dog disappeared, and he has never been heard
    of _since_.

    =So.=

    Conj.—The baby monopolized her time, _so_ she withdrew from the
    club.

    Adv.—Don’t speak _so_ loud, Caroline.

    =Till= or =Until.=

    Conj.—Tarry thou _till_ I come.

    Prep.—We work hard _until_ noon.

    =Yet.=

    Conj.—She speaks much, _yet_ she says very little.

    Adv.—Has the case been settled _yet_?

Explain the use of each italicized word in the sentences above.

=280.= When we parse a preposition, we tell (1) what phrase it
introduces, and (2) what words it shows a relation between; thus, “In
the sentence, ‘I bring you tidings of great joy,’ the preposition _of_
introduces the adjective phrase _of great joy_, and shows a relation
between its object _great joy_ and the noun _tidings_.”

=Exercise.=—Parse all the conjunctions, adverbs, and prepositions in the
following sentences:—

    1. Roger Conant came over from England before 1630.

    2. We had a cold spell in April, so the peach crop is small.

    3. Our flag was still there.

    4. The barn was strongly built, so it was made over into a good
    house.

    5. Ours is a government of the people, for the people, and by
    the people.

    6. Look before you leap.

    7. Years have passed since anybody remembered my birthday.

    8. The poet saw the daffodils beside the lake.

    9. After the boy arrived in Richmond, he slept under a sidewalk.

    10. Did anybody besides Rufus go with you to Janesville?

    11. Mr. Micawber would pay his debts if something would only
    turn up.

    12. Jill came tumbling after.

    13. The turkey was steamed first, else it would not have been
    so tender.

    14. The fern has grown fast since Easter.

    15. I can’t paint well if you look over my shoulder.

    16. There is nothing to breathe but air.

    17. Wait till the clouds roll by.

    18. Disappointments will surely come, yet they need not crush
    us.

    19. I will go before the king.

    20. Did you make your will before you went round the world?




LXX. ADVERBIAL CLAUSES OF TIME, PLACE, AND MANNER


=281.= Adverbial clauses are used in many different relations. Frequently
they denote the =time= when an action is performed; as, “When the pie was
opened, the birds began to sing.” Here the clause tells when the birds
began to sing, and hence modifies the predicate. It is joined to _began
to sing_ by the conjunctive adverb _when_.

A subordinate connective does not have to come _between_ the elements
that it joins. This enables us to put a dependent clause at the beginning
of a sentence. What is the advantage of such an arrangement?

An adverbial clause of time answers such questions as _when?_ _how
often?_ _how long?_ It is joined to what it modifies by the conjunctive
adverbs _when_, _while_, _whenever_, or by the subordinating conjunctions
_before_, _after_, _till_, _until_, _since_, _as_.

Sometimes, if the connective is _when_, and the clause comes first, we
begin the principal proposition with the simple adverb _then_, which we
call a correlative of _when_. Illustrate this.

=282.= The adverbial clause may be used to tell the =place= where some
action is performed; as, “The maid is standing with reluctant feet
where the brook and river meet.” Here the clause tells where the maid
is standing, and is joined to _is standing_ by the conjunctive adverb
_where_.

An adverbial clause of place answers such questions as _in what place?_
_to what place?_ _from what place?_ It is introduced by the conjunctive
adverbs _where_, _whence_, _whither_, _wherever_. Sometimes _there_ is
used in the principal proposition as a correlative of _where_ in the
clause. Which of these correlatives is the connective?

=283.= Frequently the =manner= of an action, the way in which it was
performed, is told by an adverbial clause; as, “Not as the conqueror
comes, they the true-hearted came.” What is the clause here? What does
it tell? What does it modify? What is the connective? What is the use of
_not_?

A clause of manner answers the question _in what way?_ It is joined to
what it modifies by the subordinate conjunction _as_, _as if_, or _as
though_. The simple adverb _so_ may be used as a correlative of _as_.

=284.= The word _like_ is never a subordinate conjunction, hence it
cannot properly be used for _as_ or _as if_. We should say, “Walk _as_
(not _like_) I do;” “She walks _as if_ she were tired (not _like_ she was
tired).” _Like_ may be used as a preposition to introduce a phrase; as,
“Elizabeth walks _like him_.”

=Exercise 1.=—Fill the blank in each of these sentences with the proper
word, and explain your choice:—

    1. Mary sings —— a bird.

    2. It looks —— it would rain.

    3. The man speaks —— he knew his subject.

    4. March came in —— a lion.

    5. You knit just —— my grandmother does.

    6. The children ate —— they were hungry.

    7. Can you dance —— the gypsies do?

    8. Plant the seeds exactly —— I told you to.

=Summary.=—An adverbial clause of =time= tells when a condition exists,
or when an action was performed.

An adverbial clause of =place= tells where a condition exists, or where
an action was performed.

An adverbial clause of =manner= tells in what way something was done.

The connectives _when_, _where_, and _as_ are sometimes accompanied by
the correlatives _then_, _there_, and _so_ respectively.

=Exercise 2.=—Select all the adverbial clauses in the following
sentences. Tell what each clause denotes, what it modifies, and what its
connective is. Study the punctuation of these sentences, and make a rule
for the punctuation of adverbial clauses:—

    1. Your bicycle is a stationary bit of iron and india rubber,
    until you put your feet upon the pedals and use your mind to
    guide the wheel.

    2. The old man sits as if he were carved in stone.

    3. Where the snowflakes fall thickest, there nothing can freeze.

    4. When mother awoke and saw the burglar, she quietly ordered
    him to leave; and only after she had pursued his obedient
    figure to the door did it occur to her that the proper thing to
    do was to scream.

    5. Where the peak leaned to the valley, the trunk of a giant
    pine jutted forth slantingly from a roothold a little below the
    summit.

    6. As we came up the harbor I had noticed that the houses were
    huddled together on an immense hill.

    7.

        I have come to meet judges so wise and so grand
        That I shake in my shoes while they’re shaking my hand.

    8.

        She struck where the white and fleecy waves
        Looked soft as carded wool.

    9. Whither thou goest, I will go; and where thou lodgest, I
    will lodge.

    10. When the blackbird approached that side of the cage, the
    goldfinch dashed away as though he feared his strange neighbor
    might come through.

    11.

        I love to hear thine earnest voice wherever thou art hid,
        Thou testy little dogmatist, thou pretty Katydid!

    12. At every little station a man popped out as if he were
    worked by machinery, and waved a red flag, and appeared as
    though he would like to have us stop.

    13. The little bandy-legged dogs had been trotting steadily for
    many an hour, until their tongues hung out for want of breath.

    14. Years had passed since that particular panther had strayed
    from his high fastnesses, where game was plentiful and none
    dared poach on his preserves.

    15. I stood up and “hollered” with all my might, as everybody
    does with oxen, as if they were born deaf, and whacked them
    with the long lash over the head, just as the big folks did
    when they drove.




LXXI. ADVERBIAL CLAUSES OF CAUSE, PURPOSE, AND RESULT


=285.= One action or condition may cause some other action or condition,
and when we tell this, we often make such a sentence as the following,
“Most caged birds are not happy, because few of them are well cared for.”
Here the dependent proposition, _because few of them are well cared for_
is an adverbial clause of =cause=, for it tells the cause of the fact in
the principal clause, or why most caged birds are not happy.

The adverbial clause of cause answers the question _why?_ or _how do you
know?_ and is usually joined to the predicate that it modifies by the
subordinate conjunction _for_, _because_, or _since_.

=286.= Sometimes an action is performed in order that some other action
or condition may come to pass. We say then that the action is performed
for a =purpose=, and we express this purpose by means of an adverbial
clause; as, “Leonardo da Vinci would walk the whole length of Milan that
he might alter a single tint in his picture of the Last Supper.” Here
the clause _that he might alter a single tint in his picture of the Last
Supper_ tells the purpose that the artist had in walking the whole length
of Milan. What does this clause modify? What is it introduced by?

A clause of purpose answers the question _what for?_ It is usually joined
to the predicate that it modifies by the subordinate conjunction _that_,
_so that_, or _in order that_.

=287.= A clause of purpose tells an intention without saying that this
intention ever really comes to pass. But there is another clause which
tells what really happens as an outcome of the action or condition in the
principal clause. This is called a clause of =result=; for instance, “So
porous is the limestone of the roads that in five minutes after a brisk
shower one has no need of overshoes.” Here the principal clause tells us
that the roads are porous, and the clause tells us what is the result, or
outcome, of their being porous. What is the clause in this sentence? What
does it modify? What is it introduced by?

A clause of result answers the question _what of it?_, and is generally
introduced by the subordinate conjunction _that_.

=Summary.=—A clause of =cause= tells what produces a certain act or
condition.

A clause of =purpose= tells the intended consequence of some action.

A clause of =result= tells the real consequence of some action or
condition.

=Exercise.=—Select the adverbial clauses, classify them, giving your
reason in each case, tell what they modify, and what they are joined by.
Account for the punctuation.

    1. I have explained thus carefully about my Bird Room because I
    do not approve of keeping wild birds in cages.

    2. When Chipee had eaten all she could, she would quietly sit
    down in the seed dish so that Chip couldn’t get any.

    3. Of course this bird could not be set free, for he did not
    know how to take care of himself.

    4. One little nugget of purest gold the surveyor carefully
    preserved, that it might one day become a wedding ring for the
    gray-eyed girl in Maine.

    5. Had his nerves grown so sensitive that the staring of a
    chipmunk or a rabbit had power to break his sleep?

    6. So strong was Polly’s liking for green peas that the sight
    of raw peas made her wild till some were given to her.

    7. Master Fox said to the Crow, “Sing but one song to me, that
    I may greet you as the Queen of Birds.”

    8. It is very convenient to be a reasonable creature, since it
    enables you to find or make a reason for everything you have a
    mind to do.

    9. Rebecca left the screen door ajar, so that flies came in.

    10. Rolf was called the Goer because he had such long legs that
    when he mounted one of the little Norwegian horses, his feet
    touched the ground.

    11. Dikes are built that the spread and flow of the water may
    be regulated, and the land protected from destructive floods.

    12. The sun burned down so fiercely that the people were
    fainting in its rays; it seemed as if they must die of heat,
    and yet they were obliged to go on with their work, for they
    were very poor.

    13. Then the people ran as only hill folk can run, for they
    knew that in a landslip you must climb for the highest ground
    across the valley.

    14.

        Lord God of Hosts, be with us yet,
        Lest we forget, lest we forget!

    15. I go to prepare a place for you, that where I am there ye
    may be also.




LXXII. ADVERBIAL CLAUSES OF CONDITION AND CONCESSION


=288.= Very often an action cannot take place except under a certain
condition, and this condition is often expressed in a dependent clause;
as in the sentence, “A man can buy a vote only if some other man is
willing to sell a vote.” Here the one condition under which a man can buy
a vote is told in the adverbial clause, _if some other man is willing to
sell a vote_. This is called a clause of =condition=. It is generally
introduced by _if_, _unless_ (which means _if not_), _provided_, or
_providing_. In the illustration what does the clause modify? What is the
use of _only_?

=289.= Sometimes an action takes place in spite of something else, and we
tell this in such a sentence as the following, “Though He slay me, yet
will I trust Him.” Here the fact that I trust Him is true in spite of the
fact that He may slay me. Such a clause as _though He slay me_ is called
a clause of =concession=, for it concedes, or grants, something that
seems to be in direct opposition to what is in the principal clause. What
does it modify? What can you say of the word _yet_?

A clause of concession is generally joined by the subordinate conjunction
_though_, or by some such word as _notwithstanding_, or _even if_, which
means _though_.

Sometimes _though_ has a correlative, the word _yet_, _still_, or
_nevertheless_ used at the beginning of the principal clause.

=Summary.=—A clause of =condition= answers the question _provided what?_
It tells the circumstance under which the principal statement is true.

A clause of =concession= answers the question _in spite of what?_ It
tells the circumstance in spite of which the principal statement is true.

=Exercise.=—Select all adverbial clauses. Tell what each clause denotes,
what it modifies, what it is joined by. Account for the punctuation.

    1. If your everyday language is not fit for a letter or for
    print, it is not fit for talk.

    2. In Bermuda, if you are in want of some choice cologne, do
    not fail to ask for it at the nearest shoe shop.

    3. Though delicate in his tastes, an elephant likes quantity as
    well as quality, and at his meals makes nothing of bales of hay
    and gallons of water.

    4. Though the weeping willow and the mountain ash could not
    endure the cold northeast storms, yet the sturdy elms grew
    apace and soon spread their branches far.

    5. Half the pleasure in going out to murder another man with a
    gun would be wanting, if one did not wear feathers, and gold
    lace, and stripes on his pantaloons.

    6. There is something queer about thoughts; you cannot have a
    good time with them if you have done anything naughty.

    7.

        Though watery deserts hold apart the worlds of East and West,
        Still beats the selfsame human heart in each proud Nation’s breast.

    8. If our forefathers had not chosen to emigrate to America, we
    should now be English people ourselves.

    9. Rebecca was so slender and so stiffly starched that she slid
    from space to space on the leather cushions, though she braced
    herself against the middle seat with her feet, and extended her
    cotton-gloved hands on each side.

    10.

        If the men were so wicked, I’ll ask my papa
        How he dared to propose to my darling mamma.
        Was he like the rest of them? Goodness! Who knows?
        And what should I say if a wretch should propose?

    11. Though he looked like a bird, he behaved like a monkey.

    12.

    Though the mills of God grind slowly, yet they grind exceeding small,
    Though with patience he stands waiting, with exactness grinds he all.

    13. If the scythes cut well and swing merrily, it is due to the
    boy who turned the grindstone.

    14. If a man write little, he had need have a great memory; if
    he confer little, he had need have a present wit; and if he
    read little, he had need have much cunning to seem to know
    that he doth not.

    15.

        Men must work and women must weep.
        Though storms be sudden and waters deep.
        And the harbor bar be moaning.

Account for the mode of the verb in each dependent clause in the
preceding sentences.




LXXIII. ADVERBIAL CLAUSES OF COMPARISON


=290.= Often we are not satisfied to say, “Cousin John is good.” We wish
to tell _how_ good he is, and a common way of doing this is by means of a
comparison. We say, “Cousin John is as good as gold.” Here the group of
words _as gold_ is a clause with the word _is_ omitted. It is called a
clause of =comparison=. It denotes an =equality= between John’s goodness
and that of gold. Since this clause answers the question _how good?_ it
must modify the adjective _good_.

What is the introductory word of the clause of comparison?

=291.= Sometimes we compare two things and yet denote an =inequality=
between them; as in the sentence, “The river is bluer than the sky.” Here
the clause of comparison is introduced by the subordinating conjunction
_than_. It modifies the word _bluer_. We know this because it is the word
_bluer_ that needs the clause, and without the word _bluer_ the clause
would not be in the sentence at all.

Notice that a clause of equality modifies an adjective in the positive
degree, while a clause of inequality modifies an adjective in the
comparative degree.

=292.= A clause of comparison may modify an adverb as well as an
adjective, as in these sentences:—

    The old man moved as slowly as a cloud.

    More swiftly than eagles, his coursers they flew.

    NOTE.—The adverb _rather_ is seldom used without being modified
    by a clause of comparison; as, “Henry Clay said that he would
    rather be right than be president.” When we supply the words
    understood, the clause reads, _than he would be president_.

Complete the clauses in the following sentences:—

    Some people would rather have money than brains.

    I should rather earn a college education than go without it.

    A wise American would rather go to Yellowstone Park than to
    Switzerland.

=Summary.=—A clause of =comparison= tells the degree of some quality or
quantity by pointing out a likeness or a difference.

A clause of comparison pointing out a =likeness= is introduced by _as_,
and modifies an adjective or an adverb in the positive degree.

A clause of comparison pointing out a =difference= is introduced by
_than_, and modifies an adjective or an adverb in the comparative degree.

A clause of comparison is seldom completely expressed.

=Exercise.=—Select all the clauses of comparison. Tell what they denote,
what they modify, and what they are introduced by.

    1. Sitting up on the driver’s high seat is almost as good as
    climbing the meeting-house steeple.

    2.

        The muscles of his brawny arms
        Are strong as iron bands.

    3. The loons could dive quicker than the eagle could swoop and
    strike.

    4. Gertrude was prouder than ever when the president of the
    college said, “Your mother is handsomer than you will ever be,
    young lady.”

    5.

        The hearts that were thumping like ships on the rocks
        Beat as quiet and steady as meeting-house clocks.

    6. Truth is stranger than fiction.

    7. I had rather have a fool to make me merry than experience to
    make me sad.

    8.

        Blue were her eyes as the fairy flax,
          Her cheeks like the dawn of day,
        Her bosom white as the hawthorn buds,
          That ope in the month of May.

    9. One syllable of woman’s speech can dissolve more love than a
    man’s heart can hold.

    10.

        I am nearer my home to-day
        Than I ever have been before.

    11. Whiter than snow were his locks, and his cheeks were as
    brown as the oak leaves.

    12.

        A steed as black as the steeds of night
        Was seen to pass as with eagle flight.

    13. Weeds are sure to grow quicker in my garden than anywhere
    else.

    14.

        Dark as winter was the flow
        Of Iser rolling rapidly.

    15. I should rather see the friezes of the Parthenon molder to
    dust under the blue veil of the Grecian atmosphere than have
    them preserved in the grand halls of the British Museum.

    16. The huge body of the elephant needs less sleep than
    anything else that lives.

=293.= Since the predicate is usually omitted in clauses of comparison,
it follows that these clauses often consist of only two words; as, “I
am as old as Mary.” “I am older than Mary.” One of these words is the
connective, and the other is often the subject of the clause. When the
subject is a pronoun, we must be careful to use the nominative form. We
should say, “Are you older than _I_? than _he_? than _she_?”

=Exercise 1.=—Fill the blank in each of these sentences. Then supply the
words omitted, and thus show that you have chosen the right pronouns:—

    1. Our parents are wiser than (_we_ or _us_).

    2. You are not always so careful as (_she_ or _her_).

    3. Who knows the day better than (_me_ or _I_)?

    4. What! You are stronger than (_who_ or _whom_)?

    5. The Preston girls were just as friendly as (_me_ or _I_).

    6. No man could be more faithful than (_him_ or _he_).

    7. Who stands higher in this city than (_they_ or _them_).

    8. Are you older or younger than (_her_ or _she_)?

    9. Well, perhaps I am not so polite as (_he_ or _him_).

    10. Our geese are whiter than (_them_ or _they_).

=Exercise 2.=—Justify the case of the italicized pronoun in each of these
sentences:—

    1. Jessie likes Julia as well as _me_.

    2. I found her brother more easily than _her_.

    3. I expect an angel sooner than _them_.




LXXIV. ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES


=294.= We are ready now to analyze sentences containing adverbial
clauses. In analyzing such sentences we should state as soon as we come
to an adverbial clause, (1) what it denotes and (2) what part of speech
its introductory word is. We should not analyze any dependent clause in
detail, however, until we have completed our analysis of the principal
clause.

MODEL.—_The lion fixed his great hind claws in the softer skin of the
crocodile’s throat, and ripped it open as one would rip a glove._

This is a complex, declarative sentence.

The subject is _the lion_. The predicate is _fixed his great hind claws
in the softer skin of the crocodile’s throat, and ripped it open as one
would rip a glove_.

The predicate is compound, the two parts being joined by the conjunction
_and_. The first predicate verb is _fixed_. It is completed by the direct
object _his great hind claws_, and then modified by the prepositional
phrase _in the softer skin of the crocodile’s throat_. The base word
of the object is _claws_; it is modified by the adjectives _hind_ and
_great_, and by the possessive pronoun _his_. The base word of the object
of the preposition _in_ is _skin_. It is modified by the adjectives
_softer_ and _the_, and by the prepositional phrase of _the crocodile’s
throat_. The base word of the object of the preposition _of_ is _throat_;
it is modified by the possessive noun _crocodile’s_, which is modified by
the adjective _the_.

The second predicate verb is _ripped_. It is completed by the direct
object _it_ and the objective complement _open_, and then modified by
the adverbial clause of manner _as one would rip a glove_, which is
introduced by the subordinate conjunction _as_.

The subject of this clause is the adjective pronoun _one_. The predicate
is _would rip a glove_. The predicate verb is _would rip_. It is
completed by the direct object _a glove_.

=Exercise.=—Analyze the following sentences. When you write the analysis
of a sentence, use abbreviations, and instead of writing out a group of
words in full, as is done in the model, write only the first and last
words of the group with a dash between them. Be sure to underline all
words quoted from the sentence.

    1.

        He looks the whole world in the face,
        For he owes not any man.

    2. The young lion was growing so fast that the milk of three
    goats was scarcely sufficient for him.

    3.

        When the glorious sun is set,
        When the grass with dew is wet,
        Then you show your little light.

    4. When Charles was studying shorthand, his mother read sermons
    to him for an hour every morning, so that he might have
    practice in the writing of long words.

    5. If you save the pennies, the dollars will take care of
    themselves.

    6.

        Where the purple violet grows,
        Where the bubbling water flows,
        Where the grass is fresh and fine,
        Pretty cow, go there and dine.

    7. Tommy, though he was getting a big boy, retained some of the
    habits of a baby.

    8. I was sitting on the top rail of the front fence, when a
    party of gypsies went by on their way to a camp.

    9.

        The day is done, and the darkness
          Falls from the wings of night,
        As a feather is wafted downward
          From an eagle in his flight.

    10. Whenever you see many drones, you will find plenty of young
    bees.

    11. After the robins have pinched and shaken all the life
    out of an earthworm, as Italian cooks pound all the spirit
    out of a steak, and then gulped him, they stand up in honest
    self-confidence, expand their red waistcoats with a virtuous
    air, and outface you with their bold calm eyes.

    12. Moti Guj, the elephant, never trampled the life out of his
    master Deesa, for, after the beating was over, Deesa would
    embrace his trunk, and call him his love and his life and the
    liver of his soul, and give him some liquor.

    13. If imitation be the sincerest form of flattery, the
    mischief of the monkey should be regarded more leniently.

    14. I liked dolls well enough, though my assortment was not a
    choice one.

    15. Her nails were so hard that they would yield to the
    scissors only after a day’s soaking in hot soapsuds.

    16.

        His words were shed softer than leaves from the pine,
        And they fell on Sir Launfal as snows on the brine.




LXXV. ADJECTIVE CLAUSES


=295.= We learned in Lesson XX that a dependent clause often has the use
of an adjective, that is, it modifies a noun; as in the sentence, “This
is the house that Jack built.” Such a clause as _that Jack built_ is
called an adjective clause. Why?

=296.= An adjective clause may be used for two different purposes.

(1) It may serve to point out a particular person, place, or thing; as,
“This is the maiden all forlorn that milked the cow with the crumpled
horn.” Here the clause tells what particular maiden is meant. A clause
of this sort is called a =restrictive= clause, because it limits, or
restricts, the application of the word it modifies.

(2) An adjective clause may serve merely to bring in a new thought,
something that is worth telling, of course, but still not necessary to
the truth of the sentence; as, “My father had ten cows, which I had to
escort to and from pasture night and morning.” This clause does not tell
what particular cows my father had, but merely tells an additional fact
about them. Such a clause as this is called an =unrestrictive= clause. It
is set off by a comma.

=297.= A restrictive clause is usually necessary to the truth of a
sentence; as, “A city that is set on a hill cannot be hid,” “A prince
that is a tyrant is unfit to rule.”

To find out whether a clause is restrictive or not, determine first what
word it modifies; then ask yourself the question, Did the author put this
clause into the sentence to point out a particular object?

Could such a term as _The Declaration of Independence_, _my mother’s
father_, _Theodore Roosevelt_, _the planet Mars_, or _Boston_ be modified
by a restrictive adjective clause?

=Summary.=—An =adjective clause= is a dependent clause that modifies a
noun or a pronoun.

A =restrictive= adjective clause is one that points out a particular
person, place, or thing. A restrictive clause is not set off by commas.

An =unrestrictive= adjective clause is one that merely adds a new thought
to the sentence. An unrestrictive clause is set off by a comma.

=Exercise 1.=—Select the adjective clauses. Tell what they modify. Then
find out whether they are restrictive or not, and why.

    NOTE.—Always test an adjective clause first to find out whether
    it is restrictive. If you decide that it is not restrictive,
    then it must be unrestrictive.

    1. Charley Marden, whose father had promised to cane him if he
    ever set foot on sail or row boat, came down to the wharf in a
    sour-grape humor to see us off.

    2. A sharp tongue is the only edged tool that grows keener with
    constant use.

    3. From one corner of St. Paul’s churchyard runs the lively
    street called Cheapside, from which John Gilpin started on his
    famous ride.

    4. The reason why the women and children slept upon the floor
    was their fear lest the Indians should fire through the windows
    and kill them in their beds.

    5. The king whose despotic power was felt over the entire
    extent of the cattle range was an old gray wolf.

    6. The monks who put peas in their shoes as a penance do not
    suffer more than the country boy in his penitential Sunday
    shoes.

    7. There is a girl in the carriage, who looks out at John, who
    is suddenly aware that his trousers are patched on each knee
    and in two places behind.

    8. He could see the pale and naked trunk of a pine tree, which
    the lightning had shattered.

    9. The night that was so favorable to the wild rabbits was
    favorable also to the fox, the wildcat, and the weasel.

    10. The only days that I can remember in Yonkers were hot.

    11.

        All things that are on earth shall wholly pass away,
        Except the love of God, which shall live and last for aye.

    12. Sleek, unwieldy porkers were grunting in the repose and
    abundance of their pens, whence sallied forth, now and then,
    troops of sucking pigs, as if to snuff the air.

=Exercise 2.=—Write sentences containing restrictive adjective clauses
pointing out a certain river, a certain boy, a certain bridge, a certain
house, a certain day.

Write sentences containing unrestrictive clauses that tell something
about the moon, the President of the United States, Salt Lake City, the
Sistine Madonna, the Eiffel Tower.

Write sentences containing adjective clauses introduced by the
conjunctive adverbs _when_, _where_, and _why_. (See Lesson LXVI.) Tell
whether your clauses are restrictive or unrestrictive.




LXXVI. RELATIVE PRONOUNS


=298.= Just as an adverbial clause is joined to what it modifies by a
conjunctive adverb or a subordinate conjunction, so an adjective clause
must be joined to the noun it modifies by some connecting word.

In Lesson LXVI it was shown that this word may be a conjunctive adverb,
as in the sentence, “I can never forget the night when I first heard the
whippoorwill sing.” What is the clause here? What does it modify? How is
it joined to the word that it modifies?

=299.= Most adjective clauses are introduced by some other word than a
conjunctive adverb. In the sentence, “The hand that rocks the cradle
rules the world,” the adjective clause _that rocks the cradle_ is joined
to the noun _hand_, which it modifies, by the word _that_. This word
is used as subject of the verb _rocks_, and really means _hand_. Since
it takes the place of a noun, it is a pronoun; and since this noun, or
antecedent, precedes the pronoun, we say that the pronoun _relates_ to
its antecedent, and we call it a =relative= pronoun.

=300.= The relative pronouns that introduce adjective clauses are _who_,
_which_, and _that_.

_Who_ has three case forms: nominative, _who_; possessive, _whose_;
objective, _whom_.

_Which_ has the possessive form _whose_; _that_ has no possessive form.

_Which_ and _that_ do not change their form for the objective case.

=301.= A relative pronoun always has a use in the adjective clause that
it introduces. This is the same use that the antecedent would have if it
were used in place of the pronoun.

The four common uses are:—

(1) Subject of a verb; as, “He who fights and runs away may live to fight
another day.”

(2) Object of a verb; as, “This is the day that the Lord hath made.”

(3) Object of a preposition; as, “I saw the room in which Shakespeare was
born.”

    NOTE.—Sometimes the pronoun comes before the preposition; as,
    “The buggy that we rode in was low and light.”

(4) Possessive modifier; as, “Any boy whose memory is good can learn a
history lesson.”

=302.= The relative pronoun _that_ introduces only restrictive adjective
clauses. The pronouns _who_, _whose_, _whom_, and _which_ may introduce
either restrictive or unrestrictive clauses.

=303.= _Who_ has for its antecedent the name of some person; _which_ has
for its antecedent the name of some thing. The antecedent of _that_ may
be the name of a person or a thing.

=304.= The word _but_ may be used as a relative pronoun as a substitute
for the two words _that not_. Instead of saying, “There is no day that
has not an end,” we may say, “There is no day _but_ has an end.” This is
a better sentence than the first because it contains only one negative
word.

=305.= The word _as_ may be used as a relative pronoun following the
words _such_, _same_, or _as many_. We say,—

    I like _such_ flowers _as_ you sent me.

    Your dress is the _same_ color _as_ mine.

    I will take _as many_ apples _as_ will fill this basket.

    I want _such_ a chair _as_ you are sitting in now.

In each of the sentences above, what is the use of the relative pronoun
_as_ in the clause that it introduces?

=Summary.=—A =relative pronoun= is one that refers to a preceding noun or
pronoun, and joins to it an adjective clause.

The relative pronouns that introduce adjective clauses are _who_,
_which_, and _that_.

_As_ and _but_ are sometimes used as relative pronouns.

=306.= When we parse a relative pronoun we tell,—

(1) Its antecedent.

(2) What adjective clause it joins to its antecedent.

(3) Its case.

(4) Its use in the adjective clause.

=Exercise 1.=—Parse all the relative pronouns in the following sentences:—

    1. In came the six young followers whose hearts the Misses
    Fezziwig broke.

    2. There were the wide sweeps of forest through which the
    winter tempests howled, upon which hung the haze of summer
    heat, over which the great shadows of summer clouds traveled.

    3. Susie was a well-behaved child, who took care of her clothes
    and played quiet games.

    4. And now the dandelion is a pest—the same yellow dandelion
    with its long, bitter, milky stem that we children sought for
    in the shady fence corners to make into spiral curls.

    5. Buffers had a small moustache, which he fostered much, and a
    cane with which he was not yet very familiar.

    6. She bade me good-by as if I were a friend of her family whom
    she would gladly meet again.

    7. There is only one bird that terrifies the crow, and that is
    the owl.

    8. Solomon John proposed that they should open the window, a
    thing which Agamemnon could easily do with his long arms.

    9. There was one lady whose conversation at the best of times
    made my mother sleepy.

    10. The two men shared those mysterious rites of smoking and
    shaving and discussing stocks which occupy men when they are
    left to themselves.

    11. The turkey cock, who had been born into the world with
    spurs, and thought he was a king, puffed himself out like a
    ship with full sails, and flew at the duckling.

    12. In a few moments Ned arrived at a small open glade in the
    middle of the forest, in which, to his horror, he saw a lion
    upon the body of a man, whom he seized by the throat, while
    Nero stood within a few yards, baying him furiously.

    13. He lives longest who does most.

=Exercise 2.=—Analyze the following sentences:—

    1.

    No time is like the old time when you and I were young,
    When the buds of April blossomed, and the birds of spring-time sung.

    2.

    No place is like the old place, where you and I were born,
    Where we lifted first our eyelids on the splendor of the morn.

    3. No friend is like the old friend, who has shared our morning
    days.

    4. At the teachers’ meeting, which she regularly attended with
    her mother, Gertrude saw the pale-faced little lady whom the
    children called a “Grahamite.”

    5. The old broken gate which a gentleman would not tolerate an
    hour upon his grounds is a great beauty in the picture which
    hangs in his parlor.

    6. Often the road passes between lofty walls of solid rock,
    from the crevices of which all lovely growths are springing.

    7.

        Read from some humbler poet,
        Whose songs gushed from his heart,
        As rain from the clouds in summer,
        Or tears from the eyelids start.

    8. Michel was a vivacious, lean little Frenchman, who fulfilled
    the duties of a chambermaid very adroitly.

    9. The first thing that my pet starling imitated was the
    rumbling of carts and carriages on the street.

    10. In one corner of the fireplace sat a superannuated crony,
    whom the sexton called John Ange, and who had been his
    companion from childhood.

    11. The good ship _Humber_ is taking home a regiment whose term
    of service has expired.

    12. Madame took for breakfast two fresh eggs, which her two
    hens laid for her every morning with the perfect regularity
    that is the politeness of all well-bred poultry.

    13.

        The boy stood on the burning deck,
        Whence all but him had fled.

    14. Lay up for yourselves treasures in heaven, where neither
    moth nor rust doth corrupt, and where thieves do not break
    through and steal.

    15. Sycamore Ridge might have been one of the dreary villages
    that dot the wind-swept plain to-day, instead of the bright,
    prosperous elm-shaded town that it is.




LXXVII. NOUN CLAUSES


=307.= We have seen that a dependent clause may have the use of an
adverb or of an adjective. It may also have another use, as may be seen
in the sentence, “Whatever Midas touched with his finger immediately
glistened and grew yellow.” If we ask the question, _What glistened
and grew yellow?_ we get the answer, _Whatever Midas touched with his
finger_; hence this group of words must be the subject. But this group is
a clause, for it contains the subject _Midas_ and the verb _touched_. A
clause used as the subject of a predicate is used like a noun, hence we
call it a =noun clause=.

=308.= The noun clause has several other uses of a noun besides that of
subject. It may be,—

(1) Object of a verb; as, “I think that life would be very dull without
meals.”

(2) Subjective complement; as, “The sad part of this tale is that the
trouble was not with poor little Quackalina’s eyes at all.”

(3) In apposition; as, “He had a theory that the big horned owl might be
tamed.” Here the clause explains the noun _theory_ telling exactly what
the theory is. This may seem at first like an adjective clause, but there
is a clear difference. We can make a sentence by putting the verb _is_
between the noun _theory_ and the clause. This shows that the two are
identical, but we cannot do this with the noun _theory_ and an adjective
clause, as in this sentence, “I do not believe in the theory that he sets
forth in his book.”

(4) Object of a preposition; as, “Aladdin’s mother listened with surprise
to what her son told her.” If you ask the question, _listened to what?_
you get the answer, _what her son told her_. Therefore, the group of
words _what her son told her_, which is a dependent proposition, must be
the object of the preposition _to_.

(5) Some adjectives, like _anxious_, _aware_, _careful_, _certain_,
_glad_, _hopeful_, _sorry_, and _sure_, especially when used as
subjective complements, are modified by noun clauses that take the place
of adverbial prepositional phrases. We may say,—

    I am sure _of his election_.

    I am sure _that he will be elected_.

In the first sentence the adjective _sure_ is modified by the phrase _of
his election_. In the second sentence the adjective _sure_ is modified
by the noun clause _that he will be elected_, which answers the question
_sure of what?_ This may be called the adverbial use of the noun clause.

=309.= Often, when a noun clause is used as subject, it is placed after
the predicate, and the sentence begins with the word _it_; as, “It is
curious that almost every nation on earth has some particular traditions
regarding the dog.” If we ask the question, _what is curious?_ the answer
is not _it_, for that tells nothing, but the clause. The word _it_ is
called an =anticipative subject=, because it comes before the real
subject, and signifies also to the reader that the real subject may be
expected after the predicate.

=310.= The tense of the verb in a noun clause is determined partly by
the meaning of the sentence and partly by the tense of the verb in
the independent clause. What is the meaning of each of the following
sentences, and what is the tense of each verb?

    I understand that he builds bridges.

    I understand that he will build the bridge.

    I understand that he has built the bridge.

    I understood that he builds bridges.

    I understood that he would build the bridge.

    I understood that he had built the bridge.

=Summary.=—A noun clause is a dependent clause having the use of a noun.

The noun clause may be used adverbially to modify certain adjectives.

The word _it_ may be used as an anticipative subject to throw the real
subject, a noun clause, after the verb.

=Exercise 1.=—Select all the noun clauses, and explain the use of each.

    1. Just then a shout from the boys’ tent proclaimed that the
    twins were awake.

    2. There were two summer houses at one end of what we called a
    park.

    3. The probability is very great that the Vikings did land on
    our coast.

    4. What made the little silver teapot so alluring was that it
    held just enough for two.

    5. Be careful how you handle my razor.

    6. It so happened that one of his neighbors had two very
    beautiful daughters.

    7. I discovered that the world was not created exclusively on
    my account.

    8. Mr. Cobb had a feeling that he was being hurried from peak
    to peak of a mountain range without time to take a good breath
    in between.

    9. That supply follows demand is a sure rule of political
    economy.

    10. The truth is that my dancing days are over.

    11. In choosing words it is to be remembered that there is not
    a really poor one in any language.

    12. Are you aware that Phio has gone to the hospital?

    13. On the very day of his inauguration Jefferson took a step
    toward what he called simplicity, and what his opponents
    thought vulgarity.

    14. I knew that I was born at the North, but I hoped that
    nobody in New Orleans would find it out.

    15. The Austrian commander noticed this peculiarity about the
    firing,—that every shot seemed to come from the same place.

    16. That the monkeys had stolen the snuffbox was obvious, for
    both of them were seized with convulsions of sneezing.

    17. I am glad that you are going to talk on the peace movement.

    18. The disadvantage of being a boy is that it does not last
    long enough.

    19. We are all sorry that some days never come but once.

=Exercise 2.=—Justify the tense of the verb in the noun clause in each of
these sentences—

    I know that fever produces thirst.

    I knew that tennis is a healthful sport.

    I know that the lake will freeze to-night.

    I knew that the lake would freeze last night.

    I know that my turn comes next.

    I knew that my turn came next.

    I know that she has heard the news.

    I knew that she had heard the news.




LXXVIII. INTRODUCTORY WORDS OF NOUN CLAUSES


=311.= We have learned that adjective clauses and adverbial clauses are
joined to what they modify by some connective. This word also serves to
show that the clause it introduces is not independent but dependent.

The noun clause also is introduced by some connecting word. In the
sentence, “That you have wronged me doth appear in this,” the first word
_that_ could be placed nowhere in the clause except at the beginning, and
it reveals at once that the clause it introduces is dependent.

=312.= The introductory word of a noun clause may be several parts of
speech:

(1) The subordinating conjunctions _if_, _that_, and _whether_.

    Go and see _if_ your father is coming home.

    I believe _that_ all men are created free and equal.

    I do not know _whether_ Mary is a suffragist or a suffragette.

Often the connective _that_ is omitted; as, “You said you were coming
home early,” “David thought Dora was an angel.”

(2) The interrogative pronouns _who_, _whose_, _whom_, _which_, _what_.

    Nobody knows _who_ first wrote the story of little Red Riding
    Hood.

    Can you tell _whose_ picture this is?

    We cannot tell _whom_ the baby looks like.

    Have you heard _which_ came out ahead?

    Tell me _what_ you like, and I will tell you _what_ you are.

In sentences of this sort the interrogative pronoun is not used in a
direct question, but always when a noun clause is introduced by an
interrogative pronoun there is an indirect, or implied question. Make a
direct question out of each of the noun clauses above.

The interrogative pronoun always has a use in the noun clause that it
introduces, just as the relative pronoun has a use in the adjective
clause. What is the use of each interrogative pronoun in the preceding
sentences?

(3) The relative pronoun _what_. This pronoun is always equivalent to the
two words _that which_, and there is no question implied in a noun clause
introduced by this pronoun.

    _What_ Martha told me about the will did not surprise me.

    Getting dinner is _what_ takes most of my time.

(4) The indefinite pronouns _whoever_, _whichever_, _whatever_, etc.

    _Whoever_ came was made welcome.

    Take _whichever_ you like.

    _Whatever_ is, is right.

What is the use of each noun clause in these sentences? What is the use
in the clause of each indefinite pronoun?

(5) The conjunctive adverbs _when_, _where_, _why_, _how_, _whither_, etc.

    Do you know _when_ the steamer sails?

    I cannot remember _where_ I put my spectacles.

    Can you tell _why_ he never wears a muffler?

    I never understood _how_ the purse was returned.

    It is strange _how_ the memory clings to some things.

    Who knows _whither_ the clouds have fled?

The adverb introducing a noun clause modifies some word within the
clause, usually the verb.

=Summary.=—The noun clause may be introduced by (1) a subordinate
conjunction, (2) an interrogative pronoun, (3) the relative pronoun
_what_, (4) an indefinite pronoun, (5) a conjunctive adverb.

=Exercise.=—Select all the noun clauses, and tell the use of each in the
sentence. Tell the introductory word of each clause, and its use in the
clause.

    1. What disgusted them still more was that Bluebeard had
    already been married several times, and no one knew what had
    become of his wives.

    2. Ernest was always ready to believe in whatever seemed
    beautiful and good.

    3. We asked the boatman why he did not speak Gaelic to his dog
    as well as to his family.

    4. Whoever has been hypnotized by a book agent will understand
    how mother felt about the spectacles that she bought and could
    not wear.

    5. I wonder if Burbank ever really produced a deodorized onion.

    6. Shakespeare’s chair stands in the chimney nook of a small
    gloomy chamber, just behind what was his father’s shop.

    7. Whatever was iron or brass in other houses was silver or
    gold in this.

    8. The apothecary listened as calmly as he could to the story
    of how Mrs. Peterkin had put salt in her coffee.

    9. The lady from Philadelphia asked where the milk was kept.

    10. Fortunately, what God expects of us is not _the_ best, but
    _our_ best.

    11. Why this spot was selected for a mansion was always a
    mystery, unless it was that the newcomer desired to isolate
    himself completely.

    12. Whether the Indians were not early risers, or whether they
    were away just then on a warpath I couldn’t determine.

    13. What passes for laziness in a boy is very often an
    unwillingness to farm in a particular way.

    14. The direction of a man’s life follows the unseen influence
    of what he admires and loves and believes in.

    15. Her only noteworthy achievement was that she had named her
    twin sons Marquis de Lafayette Randall and Lorenzo de Medici
    Randall.

    16. I wonder who could describe those wonderful coral gardens
    on which we gazed through twenty fathoms of crystal water.




LXXIX. REVIEW OF CLAUSES


=313.= We have learned that clauses may be independent or dependent; that
dependent clauses may be used like nouns, adjectives, or adverbs; that
adjective clauses may be restrictive or unrestrictive; that adverbial
clauses may denote various circumstances, such as time, place, manner,
etc.; that dependent clauses are introduced by some word that indicates
their dependence.

=Exercise 1.=—Study again Lessons XVIII, XX, LXVI-LXXVIII, and then make
an outline of the subject, Clauses, having for your main topics,—

(1) Classification.

(2) Introductory word.

(3) Use.

Make a good original sentence to illustrate each point.

=Exercise 2.=—Analyze the following sentences:—

    1. Though Diana looked very old, she looked exactly the same
    during all the years in which I knew her; and Aunt Maria, who
    had known her all her life, said that she had never looked any
    younger.

    2. The only difference between the sisters was that while
    Miranda only wondered how they could endure Rebecca, Jane had
    flashes of inspiration in which she wondered how Rebecca would
    endure them.

    3. Whether the pigeons dropped exhausted on some ship and were
    helped across the ocean, or whether some storm at sea swept
    them away forever, no one ever knew.

    4. Did mother know who brought the scarlet-runner seeds from
    Whittier’s birthplace?

    5. I never quite understood why a girl who climbed trees, clung
    to the tail end of carts, and otherwise deported herself as a
    well-conditioned girl should not, was called a tomboy.

    6. The boy remembers how his mother’s anxiety was divided
    between the set of his turn-over collar, the parting of his
    hair, and his memory of the Sunday-school verses.

    7. Most people think that the best thing they can give to a
    caged bird is his liberty.

    8. The horrible thought came coldly over me that the tiger was
    keeping me company until a good chance offered for a spring.

    9. Possibly the reason why monkeys have been so little on
    the stage is that their appearance there would emphasize too
    strongly the striking similarity between man and monkey.

    10. An elephant who will not work and is not tied up is about
    as manageable as an eighty-one ton gun in a heavy seaway.

    11. Nothing cleverer than was Moufflou had ever walked upon
    four legs.

    12. The truth is that boys have always been so plenty that they
    are not half appreciated.

    13. The professor was so pleased with his witticism that I was
    let off without even a scolding.

    14. Those Indian nations who still preserve their ancient mode
    of life, have dogs which bear a strong resemblance to wolves.

    15. The partridge remembered the time when the chickadees had
    seemed such big, important creatures.

Criticize the use of _between_ in sentence 6.




LXXX. REVIEW OF PRONOUNS


=314.= We have learned that pronouns may be classified as follows:—

(1) Personal pronouns.

(2) Compound personal pronouns.

(3) Interrogative pronouns.

(4) Adjective pronouns.

(5) Relative pronouns.

(6) Indefinite pronouns.

=Exercise 1.=—Study again Lessons V, XXXIX-XLIII, XLVIII, LXXVI, LXXVIII,
and then be prepared to explain each class of pronoun, and to tell the
various uses of each class. Illustrate each point with an original
sentence or with one that you yourself have found in some book.

=Exercise 2.=—Parse all the pronouns in the following sentences. If there
is anything peculiar in the use of any pronoun, comment upon it. (See pp.
100, 106, 108, 122, 197.)

    1. What was the Great Stone Face?

    2. To make a quarrel needs, indeed, two; but to make peace
    needs only one.

    3. When the swarm comes out, it consists of both old and young
    bees, and, indeed, some say that the old queen leads them, and
    the young one takes her vacant throne.

    4. We could easily surmise who the Halloween rascals were, but
    what was the terrifying apparatus they applied to our window
    panes we could not imagine.

    5. All of this is mine and thine.

    6. Attracted by the smell either of the newly killed waterbuck
    or of ourselves, the hungry lions were storming our position.

    7. Oh, give me my lowly thatched cottage again.

    8. The interior of St. Paul’s is just what one would expect
    after viewing the outside. A maze of grand arches on every side
    encompasses the dome, which you gaze up at as at the sky; and
    from every pillar and wall look down the marble forms of the
    dead.

    9. By the wholesome law of the prairie, he who falls asleep on
    guard is condemned to walk all day.

    10.

        Who has sight so keen and strong
        That it can follow the flight of song?

    11. The schoolhouse was a high brick building, and the yard
    itself was made of brick.

    12. The Eskimo dogs are of great use to their masters in
    discovering by the scent the winter retreats which the bears
    make under the snow.

    13. The Taj Mahal is a Mohammedan tomb, the tomb of the
    favorite wife of an Indian Mogul. It is her tomb, and also his
    own, for he lies beside her, and it was built in compliance
    with a request of hers before she died.

    14. I procured a bowl of soup from the steward, but as I was
    not able to eat it, I gave it to an old man whose hungry look
    and wistful eyes convinced me it would not be lost on him.

    15.

        What’s a fair or noble face
        If the mind ignoble be?

    16.

        Keep fresh the grass on Wordsworth’s grave,
        O Rotha, with thy living wave!
        Sing him thy best! for few or none
        Hears thy voice right, now he is gone.




LXXXI. INFINITIVES


=315.= Look at the following sentences:—

    Dare _to be_ true.

    It is high time _to go_.

    The bishop seemed _to have talked_ with angels.

    You ought _to have been paying_ attention.

We have here certain verb forms,—_to be_, _to go_, _to have talked_, _to
have been paying_,—which are very familiar to all of us, but which we
have not yet studied. They are not forms of the indicative, subjunctive,
or imperative mode, nor are they like any of the verb phrases that we
have examined. They all begin with the word _to_, and they contain two,
three, or four words, the last of which is the important one. We call
these groups of words =infinitives=.

=316.= An intransitive verb has four infinitives, two of them denoting
a present action, hence called =present infinitives=; and the other two
denoting an action already completed, hence called =perfect infinitives=.

The four infinitives of the intransitive verb _laugh_ are these:—

     PRESENT                PERFECT

    to laugh               to have laughed
    to be laughing         to have been laughing

Which two of these infinitives belong to the progressive conjugation?

=317.= Transitive verbs have six infinitives. The infinitives of the
transitive verb _eat_ are these:—

                            PRESENT                PERFECT

    _Active_               to eat                 to have eaten
    _Active Progressive_   to be eating           to have been eating
    _Passive_              to be eaten            to have eaten

=318.= The infinitives above are called =infinitives with _to_=, because
they begin with the word _to_. This word is not used as a preposition,
but merely as a sort of handle, or introduction, to the infinitive.

=319.= Besides the infinitive with _to_ there is another form called the
=infinitive in _-ing_=. The infinitives in _-ing_ of the verb _eat_ are
these:—

                            PRESENT                PERFECT

    _Active_               eating                 having eaten
    _Active Progressive_                          having been eating
    _Passive_              being eaten            having been eaten

What are the infinitives in _-ing_ of the verb _laugh_? Which two forms
does it lack?

Find the infinitives in _-ing_ in these sentences:—

    He was fined for losing his temper.

    “Being a Boy” is the title of a book.

    He was vexed at having misspelled so many words.

=320.= All infinitives are forms of verbs, but they cannot be predicate
verbs because they do not assert. They are spoken of as =verbals=.

=321.= A verbal is used in a sentence like some part of speech,—a noun,
an adjective, or an adverb. The infinitive is most frequently used like
a noun. The infinitive in _-ing_ is very much like a noun in another
respect too,—it _names_ the action or state that the predicate verb
_asserts_. If we should ask for the name of any action that we saw a
person performing, the answer would be an infinitive in _-ing_; as,
_reaping_, _mowing_, _plowing_, _driving_.

=322.= The infinitive in _-ing_ is so much like a noun that it can be
modified by a possessive noun or pronoun. We say, “_Your_ winning the
victory depends on your keeping cool.” “The farmer’s chagrin was due to
his _hay’s_ having spoiled.” Explain the use of all the possessives in
these sentences.

    NOTE.—The infinitive in _-ing_ is often called a =gerund=.

=323.= The infinitive may take the same complements and modifiers that
any other form of the same verb might take. The infinitive, together
with all the words associated with it, makes an =infinitive phrase=. The
base word of an infinitive phrase is always an infinitive. What are the
infinitive phrases in all the illustrative sentences in this lesson?

=Summary.=—A =verbal= is a verb form that denotes action or being without
asserting it.

A verbal is used in a sentence as a noun, an adjective, or an adverb.

An =infinitive= is a verbal that is generally used as a noun.

There are two classes of infinitives,—the infinitive with _to_, and the
infinitive in _-ing_.

The infinitive has two tenses,—present and perfect.

The infinitive may be active or passive or progressive.

An =infinitive phrase= is a group of words consisting of an infinitive
together with its complement and modifiers.

=Exercise 1.=—Write all the infinitives of the verbs _be_, _bring_,
_come_, _find_, _freeze_, _go_, _leave_, _seem_, _taste_, _turn_.

=Exercise 2.=—Select all the infinitive phrases in the following
sentences. Tell the voice and tense of each infinitive.

MODEL—_It is hard to teach an old dog new tricks._ _To teach an old dog
new tricks_ is an infinitive phrase. _To teach_ is the present active
infinitive of the transitive verb _teach_.

    1. Am I to give a reason for all I choose to do?

    2. The cherry pie seemed to have been left in the refrigerator
    for that hungry young pair.

    3. Driving between these long lines of dainty-flowering and
    sweet-smelling rows of hedges is very delightful.

    4. All the lines of pain smoothed out of her brow, and she
    seemed to be peacefully sleeping.

    5. The lights had been extinguished, the buoys removed, and the
    whole coast seemed to have gone back hundreds of years.

    6. Your having given me the opera glasses is no reason that you
    have a right to borrow them continually.

    7. Any child should know that a hot stove is a thing to be
    avoided, but I did not seem to realize the fact.

    8. The boy would like to have thrown a stone at the wagon.

    9. Did you mind being reproved by your mother for sitting up so
    late?

    10. It was already past the appointed hour for Mr. Cobb and his
    coach to be lumbering down the street.

    11. From her having been staying at the Antlers the entire
    season, I should judge her to be wealthy.

    12. Scrooge was not a man to be frightened by echoes.

    13. There’s no use in making two bites of a cherry.

    14. The fact of the letter’s having been opened was evident,
    but it could not be proved against the mail carrier.

Tell the part of speech and use of _your_, sentence 6, _her_ 11,
_letter’s_ 14.




LXXXII. INFINITIVES AS SUBJECTS OR COMPLEMENTS


=324.= If we wish to make an assertion about a person, a place, or an
object, we use a noun for the base word of our subject; but if we wish to
make an assertion about an action, we use an infinitive or an infinitive
phrase for subject; as, “Just to breathe the air and feel one’s self
alive was enough,” “Going after the cows was a serious thing in my day.”

=325.= We have seen that a noun clause used as subject may be thrown to
the end of the sentence by means of the anticipative subject _it_; as,
“It is a good thing _that somebody likes to cook_.” In the same way an
infinitive phrase used as subject may come after the predicate; as, “It
pleased the jackal to see Mother and Father Wolf look uncomfortable.”
Recast this sentence, omitting _it_.

=326.= The infinitive phrase is often used as the object of a verb. Not
all transitive verbs, however, can be completed by infinitives—only those
which can take for an object the name of an action or a condition; as,
“The cloud began to sink softly down to the earth,” “After a struggle
Bess gave up using two lumps of sugar in her coffee.”

Why cannot the verbs _break_, _bring_, _buy_, _cut_, _eat_, and _plow_
take infinitives for objects?

=327.= The infinitive is used as a subjective complement of an
intransitive verb in two ways that differ slightly; as, “The hunter’s
first impulse was to laugh at his own folly,” “No trees of any magnitude
were to be seen.”

In the first sentence the infinitive phrase, _to laugh at his own folly_,
completes the verb _was_ and explains just what the impulse was, hence it
denotes identity with the subject. Its use is precisely like that of the
word _dime_ in the sentence, “My ‘lucky penny’ is a silver _dime_,” hence
we say that it is used like a noun.

In the second sentence it is clear that the infinitive _to be seen_
completes the verb _were_ and tells something about the subject, hence it
must be a subjective complement. But instead of being used like a noun
to denote identity with the subject, it is equivalent to the adjective
_visible_, hence may be said to be used like an adjective.

=Summary.=—The infinitive phrase may be the subject of a verb, the object
of a verb, or a subjective complement.

By means of the anticipative subject _it_, the real subject, an
infinitive phrase, may be placed at the end of the sentence.

As subjective complement the infinitive phrase may have the use of a noun
or of an adjective.

=Exercise.=—Tell the grammatical use of all infinitive phrases in these
sentences, and classify all infinitives:—

    1. Mowgli said that he never wished to see, or hear, or smell
    man again.

    2. That which most resembles living one’s life over again is
    recalling all the circumstances of it and recording them in
    writing.

    3. To fit out a fleet, and to levy and equip an army, and to
    continue the forces thus raised in action during a long and
    uncertain campaign would cost a large sum of money.

    4.

        When the days begin to lengthen,
        Then the cold begins to strengthen.

    5. It is delightful to look upon the charming country which
    springs up under a watering-pot sky.

    6. One of the best things in farm life is gathering the
    chestnuts, hickory nuts, butternuts, and beechnuts.

    7. Speaking of Latin reminds me that I once taught my cows
    Latin.

    8. The quaint, picturesque old town seems to bristle with forts.

    9. When I wanted to hit a mark, my usual way was to aim at
    something else.

    10. The one idea in Mowgli’s head was to get Messua and her
    husband out of the trap.

    11. This boy was so forward in domestic arts that he undertook
    sewing on the machine when he was only five years old.

    12. It is bad manners to find fault with your food at the table.

    13. To climb a tree and shake it, to club it, to strip it of
    its fruit, and pass to the next, is the sport of a brief time.

    14. One of Jakie’s amusements was dancing across the back of
    a tall chair, taking funny little steps, coming down hard,
    jouncing his body, and whistling as loud as he could.

    15. The Englishman learned to fight from behind a tree, to
    follow a trail, and to cover his body with hemlock boughs for
    disguise.

    16. It exactly suits the temperament of a real boy to be very
    busy about nothing.

    17. Trotting on city pavements is very hard on the dray horses.

    18. The reward of a good sentence is to have written it.

Tell the part of speech and use of _that_ and _which_ in sentence 2,
_sum_ 3, _then_ 4, _years_ 11. What is the object of _from_ in sentence
15? Think of similar expressions.




LXXXIII. INFINITIVES AS MODIFIERS OF NOUNS


=328.= The infinitive phrase is often a modifier of a noun, and may be
used either like an adjective or like an appositive.

In the sentence, “Ulf still had a name to win,” what noun does the
infinitive modify? How do you know?

In the sentence, “The mayor gave the order to close the skating rink,”
the infinitive phrase _to close the skating rink_ modifies the noun
_order_ by telling exactly what the order was; hence we must say that it
is in apposition with _order_.

=329.= The infinitive in _-ing_ is not used as an adjective modifier
of a noun except in some compound words like these: _rolling-pin_,
_laughingstock_, _meetinghouse_, _drawing-room_.

=330.= Often the infinitive in _-ing_ is used in apposition, as in the
sentence, “Her household tasks, keeping the bedrooms tidy and caring for
the canary birds, left her little time for music practice.”

=Summary.=—The infinitive phrase may modify a noun either as an adjective
or as an appositive.

=Exercise.=—Select all the infinitive phrases, and explain the use of
each. Classify also each infinitive, as in the preceding exercise.

    1.

        Is this a time to be cloudy and sad
        When our Mother Nature laughs around?

    2. As the Cloud became larger, this wish to do something for
    the people of earth was ever greater in her heart.

    3. This is your last chance to see Chicago, Tom.

    4. Day after day mother sat at the east window engaged in her
    favorite pastime—making something dainty and beautiful with her
    needle.

    5. Almost all persons who travel in Switzerland have a great
    desire to go to the top of at least one of the towering peaks
    they see about them.

    6. Now bring us something to eat. I have not patience to wait,
    for I am ravenously hungry.

    7. The first tracks to meet our eyes were the delicate
    footprints of the red squirrel.

    8. The Colonel’s only form of exercise, riding horseback every
    evening, made him a familiar figure throughout the city.

    9. Nothing pleased the dog more than an order to go and fetch
    the cow.

    10. To the deer a mystery means something to be solved.

    11. A strange longing to follow the swan took possession of
    each of the young birds.

    12. A queer freak of my chewink was her determination to get
    her feet into her food.

    13. Never lose an opportunity to see anything beautiful.

    14. This father was the comrade of his son, made so by the
    memory of his own boyhood sports,—playing baseball on the
    common, swimming in the lake off Miller’s Point, skating out to
    Garlic Island, and gathering hickory nuts and hazelnuts in the
    autumn woods.

Classify the dependent clauses in sentences, 1, 2, 5, 9. Tell the part of
speech and use of _figure_, sentence 8.




LXXXIV. INFINITIVES AS PARTS OF “DOUBLE OBJECTS.” AS MODIFIERS OF VERBS


=331.= In the sentence, “I want my friends to believe in me,” we find the
verb to be _want_. If we ask the question _want what_? the answer is the
group of words _my friends to believe in me_; hence we are sure that this
group of words is the object.

But this object is different from any group of words that we have studied
hitherto. It does not consist of a base word and modifiers, but instead
it consists of two parts that are equally important. These are _my
friends_ and the infinitive phrase _to believe in me_. The phrase is not
a modifier of _friends_, but has the logical relation of predicate to
_friends_, as may be proved by changing the whole group of words to a
noun clause, _that my friends should believe in me_.

When the object of a verb consists of two parts, a noun element and an
infinitive, having to each other the logical relation of subject and
predicate, we call the whole group a =double object=.

=332.= Although the relation between the two parts of a double object
is logically that of subject and predicate, still this relation is not
grammatically expressed. A double object does not make sense standing
alone, and we cannot speak of the infinitive in a double object as a
predicate, for an infinitive cannot assert. It is customary, however,
to speak of the noun element in a double object as the subject of the
infinitive. The subject of an infinitive is always in the objective case,
as may be plainly seen by substituting a pronoun for the noun used as
subject. In the sentence quoted, the pronoun that might take the place of
_my friends_ is the objective pronoun _them_.

=333.= An infinitive in _-ing_ is often used as part of a double object;
as, “I hear their voices _ringing_ in merry childish glee,” “I can see
his gallant figure _coming_ down the road.”

=334.= Notice that a double object is not two objects of equal rank, as
in the sentence, “I want _peace and quiet_;” but is one object consisting
of two equal parts so closely related, that neither of these parts could
be the object if used without the other.

=335.= When the infinitive with _to_ is used after the verbs _hear_ and
_see_, as well as after _feel_, _let_, _make_, the _to_ of the infinitive
is omitted; as, “Did you hear me (_to_) _rap_ at your door?” “Let us
(_to_) _be_ true to one another,” “The mosquitoes made us (_to_) _go_
indoors.”

Find and explain the double objects in each of these three sentences.

=336.= When a sentence containing a double object is changed to the
passive voice, the noun element of the double object becomes the subject
of the passive verb, and the infinitive phrase becomes the subjective
complement of the verb. Change this sentence to the passive voice and
explain the change, “We expected John to decorate the banquet room.”

=337.= We have seen that the infinitive may be used as the complement of
a verb in several ways: it may be the direct object of a verb, or the
subjective complement, or part of a double object. There is another very
common relation of the infinitive to a verb, as shown in the sentence,
“Some persons live to eat.” The infinitive _to eat_ is in the predicate,
but it is not an object of the verb _live_, neither is it a subjective
complement. How do we know this? As the infinitive answers the question
_for what purpose_? we conclude that it is a modifier of the verb _live_.
Furthermore, it could be expanded into the adverbial clause of purpose,
_that they may eat_.

The infinitive denoting purpose is very common, as seen in the familiar
sentences: “We go to school to learn,” “We stood up to see,” “I sat down
to rest.”

=Summary.=—An infinitive phrase and a noun, having the logical relation
of subject and predicate, may form the =double object= of some transitive
verbs.

An infinitive phrase denoting the purpose of an action may be used to
modify a verb.

=Exercise 1.=—Write sentences containing double objects of the verbs
_cause_, _desire_, _expect_, _feel_, _hear_, _let_, _make_, _order_,
_see_, _wish_.

Explain why there are no double objects in these sentences:—

    1. They could get no water to drink.

    2. He has an ax to grind.

    3. We found plenty to eat.

    4. She bought a rose to wear.

    5. I made a cake to sell.

=Exercise 2.=—Explain the use of all infinitive phrases in these
sentences. Classify the infinitives.

    1. The boy made up his mind that he would take two of
    the whelps home with him to be brought up in the ways of
    civilization.

    2.

        In happy homes he saw the light
        Of household fires gleam warm and bright.

    3. More rarely a fox or a hyena quickened his gallop to study
    the intruder at a safe distance.

    4. When the car stopped and I looked up at the window with the
    pink geranium, I saw mother waiting to welcome me.

    5. The whole family went to the station to see us off.

    6. I do not quite know what caused me to lift my head from the
    friendly shelter of the blanket.

    7. He felt his swift craft quiver with life beneath him in
    response to the rhythmic stroke of the oarsmen.

    8. Jupiter bustled about to prepare some marsh hens for supper.

    9. To keep the artillery dry, we stuffed wads of loose hemp
    into the muzzles, and fitted wooden pegs to the touch holes.

    10. Down the elm-bordered road we two walked toward the sunset,
    and watched the mists rising ghostlike from the fields.

    11. Mowgli heard the sound rumble, and rise, and fall, and die
    off in a creepy sort of whine behind him.

    12. At recess the next noon the Centipedes met in a corner of
    the schoolyard to talk over the proposed lark.

    13. Our Heavenly Father himself has planted that pea, and made
    it grow and blossom to bring joy to you and hope to me, my
    blessed child.

    14. Nearly all the finest diamonds in the world are brought to
    Amsterdam to be cut into shape.

    15. It was Long Tom who taught Harvey to shoot at a mark with a
    revolver.

    16. He’s gone to fight the French for King George upon his
    throne.

    17. We heard the meadow larks singing their wistful songs, but
    always instead of the black hearts upon their yellow breasts
    they showed us just the two white feathers in their tails.

Change sentences 2, 4, 10, 11, 13, 17 to the passive voice, and explain
the change in the use of the infinitive.




LXXXV. OTHER USES OF INFINITIVES


=338.= The most frequent use of the infinitive in _-ing_ is as the object
of a preposition; as, “I am tired of _doing_ nothing,” “He earned a
living by _sharpening_ scissors.”

=339.= The infinitive in _-ing_, like the noun, may be the object of any
preposition, but the infinitive with _to_ is used as the object of very
few prepositions, only _about_, _except_, _but_, and _save_, the last two
meaning _except_.

In the sentence, “He ate nothing but bananas,” the object of the
preposition _but_ must be a noun because it must be the name of a food.
But in the sentence, “He did nothing but play tennis,” the object of
_but_ must be an infinitive because it must be the name of an action.

    NOTE.—We often hear the expression “I was about to say.” In
    this familiar idiom the prepositional phrase _about to say_ is
    used as the subjective complement of the verb _was_. How do we
    know this? What is the use of the infinitive _to say_?

=340.= In the sentence, “The gentleman drew out the chair for the lady to
sit down,” if we ask the question _for what?_ we get the answer _the lady
to sit down_, hence the group of words _the lady to sit down_ must be the
object of the preposition _for_. But this group of words consists of two
parts, _the lady_ and the infinitive phrase _to sit down_, which have the
logical relation of subject and predicate, hence we conclude that the
preposition _for_ may take a double object.

=341.= The sentences, “Sheep are apt,” “I am sorry,” “The traveler was
glad,” are all incomplete. We wish to know in what respect sheep are apt,
what I am sorry about, what the traveler was glad of. In other words,
the adjectives _apt_, _sorry_, and _glad_ need a modifier to make the
sentence complete in meaning. This modifier may be an infinitive, “Sheep
are apt _to get lost_,” “I am sorry _to leave Warwick_,” “The traveler
was glad _to see his home again_.” We learn from these sentences that an
infinitive phrase may modify an adjective.

=Exercise.=—Complete the following sentences by infinitive phrases. What
do your phrases modify? How do you know?

    1. This child is too young—

    2. A man of twenty-five is old enough—

    3. The water was so deep as—

    4. The general was anxious—

    5. Some lessons are not easy—

=342.= The infinitive may be used independently; as, “_To be frank_, I do
not like it.” “_To make a long story short_, we were utterly defeated.”

=343.= A common error is the use of the perfect infinitive for the
present. It is proper to say, “I ought to have gone,” when we mean that
the time of the going was in the past; as, “I ought to have gone then,
or yesterday, or a year ago.” But when we mean that the going is at the
present time or is to be in the future, then we should use the present
infinitive, and say, “I ought to go.”

What is the difference in the meaning of the following pairs of sentences?

    1. I am sorry to offend you.
       I am sorry to have offended you.
    2. I am glad to see you.
       I am glad to have seen you.
    3. The train is reported to be late.
       The train is reported to have been late.
    4. The man is said to be a candidate.
       The man is said to have been a candidate.

It is evident from the four pairs of sentences above that some verbs
in the present tense may be followed by either a present or a perfect
infinitive. This is likewise true of some verbs in the past tense. We
say, “He seemed to be sleeping,” meaning that he was sleeping at the time
we noted his appearance. We also say, “He seemed to have been sleeping,”
meaning that he had slept before we noted his appearance.

What is the difference in the meaning of the following pairs of
sentences:—

    1. Washington was never known to fight a duel.
       Hamilton was known to have fought a duel.
    2. The ship was reported to be wrecked.
       The ship was reported to have been wrecked.
    3. The child appeared to lead the old man.
       The child appeared to have led the old man.

Since the verbs _desire_, _expect_, _hope_, _want_, and _wish_ refer
to something in the present or the future, but never in the past, they
cannot be followed by a perfect infinitive. It is absurd to say, “I hoped
to have seen you,” “I expected to have gone,” “I wished to have stayed.”
We should say:—

    I desire to go. I desired to go.

    I expect to be there. I expected to be there.

    I hope to pass. I hoped to pass.

    I want to know. I wanted to know.

    I wish to speak. I wished to speak.

=Summary.=—The infinitive phrase may be used as the object of a
preposition. The preposition _for_ may take a double object.

The infinitive phrase may modify an adjective.

The infinitive phrase may be used independently.

=Exercise.=—Explain the use of each infinitive phrase. Classify each
infinitive.

    1. The cat was just about to spring upon the window sill where
    the bird cage sat, when Paul shouted out a warning.

    2. I am perfectly willing to dine in the kitchen beside this
    cool north window.

    3. The gay youths spent their time in walking, hunting,
    fishing, feasting, and dancing.

    4. It was so cold at Petoskey in July that the hotel proprietor
    furnished a large lamp for us to heat our room by.

    5. The cherries grew too high to be picked except by the robins.

    6. My lot was indeed a hard one; I was too old to play out of
    doors with my brothers, and too young to go to parties with my
    sisters.

    7. After supper, the boy who has done nothing all day but
    turn grindstone, and spread hay, and run his little legs off
    at everybody’s beck and call, is sent on some errand or some
    household chore lest time may hang heavy on his hands.

    8. Bark is only good to sharpen claws.

    9. John was hungry enough to have eaten the New England Primer.

    10. Franklin was employed in cutting wicks for the candles,
    filling the molds for cast candles, attending the shop, going
    of errands, etc.

    11. To tell the truth, I prefer to stay at home.

    12. The only way to make the world better is for each man to do
    his best.

    13. A dog is good to bite peddlers and small children, and to
    run out and yelp at wagons that pass by, and to howl all night
    when the moon shines.

    14. To sum up, the infinitive is used chiefly as a noun, but
    also as an adjective and an adverb.

    15. The teacher’s eyes glanced half a dozen different ways at
    once,—a habit probably acquired from watching the boys.

    16.

        None knew thee but to love thee,
        Nor named thee but to praise.

    17. To see the sparks rush like swarms of red bees skyward
    through the smoke is an experience long to be remembered.

    18. To make way for hemp the magnificent forests of Kentucky
    were felled.

    19. The crow and the blackbird seem to love these plants.

    20. It takes a hundred days to lift out of the tiny seed these
    powerful hollow stalks.

    21. The seeds fall to the ground, there to be folded in against
    the time when they shall rise again.

Classify the dependent clauses in sentence 1. What is the object of
_except_ in sentence 5?




LXXXVI. SUMMARY OF INFINITIVES


=344.=

      I. DEFINITION.—An infinitive is a verbal noun.

     II. FORMS.
         1. The infinitive with _to_.
            (a) Intransitive verbs.
                _Present_, to go, to be going.
                _Perfect_, to have gone, to have been going.
            (b) Transitive verbs.
                _Present_, to see, to be seeing, to be seen.
                _Perfect_, to have seen, to have been seeing, to have been
                  seen.
         2. The infinitive in _-ing_.
            (a) Intransitive verbs.
                _Present_, going.
                _Perfect_, having gone, having been going.
            (b) Transitive verbs.
                _Present_, seeing, being seen.
                _Perfect_, having seen, having been seeing, having been
                  seen.
    III. USES.
         1. As a =noun=.
            (a) _Subject of a verb._
                To err is human.
                Hunting is a sport.
            (b) _Object of a verb._
                He expects to win.
                They stopped working.
            (c) _Subjective complement._
                My desire is to own a boat.
                His task is feeding the sheep.
            (d) _Appositive._
                His idea, to use coal ashes, was carried out.
                His work, running a machine, is monotonous.
            (e) _Object of a preposition._
                The patient did nothing but eat and sleep.
                The child was praised for telling the truth.
         2. As an =adjective=.
            (a) _Modifying a noun._
                I have a garden to make.
            (b) _Completing a verb._
                These boats are not to let.
         3. As an =adverb=.
            (a) _Modifying a verb._
                I went back to get some matches.
            (b) _Modifying an adjective._
                We are sure to succeed.
         4. As part of a =double object=.
            (a) _Of a verb._
                I made her tell me.
            (b) _Of a preposition._
                I made room for her to sit with me.
         5. =Independent use.=
                To speak plainly, I don’t believe it.




LXXXVII. ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES CONTAINING INFINITIVE PHRASES


=345.= The infinitive phrase is analyzed very much like a predicate.
First, the infinitive should be given as the base word; then its
complement and modifiers should be given.

MODEL.—_By the law of the jungle the tiger has no right to change his
quarters without fair warning._

This is a simple, declarative sentence.

The subject is _the tiger_. The predicate is _has by the law of the
jungle no right to change his quarters without fair warning_.

The predicate verb is _has_; it is completed by the direct object _no
right to change his quarters without fair warning_, and then modified by
the prepositional phrase _by the law of the jungle_.

The base word of the object is the noun _right_; it is modified by the
infinitive phrase _to change his quarters without fair warning_, and then
denied by the adjective _no_.

The base word of the infinitive phrase is the infinitive _to change_;
it is completed by the direct object _his quarters_ and modified by the
prepositional phrase _without fair warning_. The base word of the object
is the noun _quarters_, modified by the possessive pronoun _his_. The
base word of the object of the preposition _without_ is the infinitive
_warning_, which is modified by the adjective _fair_.

The base word of the object of the preposition _by_ is the noun _law_,
which is modified by the prepositional phrase _of the jungle_ and the
article _the_.

=Exercise.=—Analyze the following sentences:—

    1. Turning grindstones to grind scythes is one of those heroic
    but unobtrusive occupations for which one gets no credit.

    2. Some books are to be tasted, others to be swallowed, and
    some few to be chewed and digested.

    3. When Kotick felt his skin tingle all over, his mother told
    him he was learning the feel of the water.

    4. Mother made and embroidered a white linen pocket for me to
    wear at my belt.

    5. The neighbors and friends did not wait for an invitation to
    go to the house of the young wife, so impatient were they to
    see her treasures.

    6. The Boy had no desire to investigate further, with the risk
    of finding the lynx at home.

    7. It seems hard any day to think what to have for dinner.

    8. The next thing was to cord up the trunk, and Mr. Peterkin
    tried to move it.

    9. I have seen wild bees and butterflies feeding at a height of
    13,000 feet above the sea.

    10. If you wear an automobile veil to pick cherries in, I must
    get an automobile to take you to the cherry trees.

    11. No person but yourself is permitted to lift this stone or
    enter the cave.

    12. Very sweet were the child’s ways of loving her
    father,—putting flowers on his study table, learning to read
    so that she could read his books, reaching up to rub her cheek
    against his, praying for him, and letting him put her to bed.

    13. The Oldest Inhabitant refused to go to bed on any terms,
    but persisted in sitting up in a rocking-chair until daybreak.

    14. The Eskimo never knows when his own time may come to beg.

    15. Fate tried to conceal him by naming him Smith.

    16. The only department of life in which Mr. Randall failed to
    shine was the making of sufficient money to live upon.

    17. He saw an eagle swoop across the gigantic hollow, but the
    great bird dwindled to a dot ere it was halfway over.

    18. After she began wearing the bracelet, she was unwilling to
    go without it even for a day.

    19. Hewing wood and sawing plank leave me no time to take part
    in disputes.

    20. The one object of Polly’s life was to get out of her cage.

    21. The skipper had taken his little daughter to bear him
    company.

    22. Every boy is anxious to be a man.

    23. A man has no more right to say a rude thing to another than
    to knock him down.

    24. To travel in Switzerland it is generally necessary to cross
    the mountains, to go around the sides, or to go through them.

    25. Even the blind men’s dogs appeared to know Scrooge.

    26. Let dogs delight to bark and bite.

    27. When a bear kills a sheep, he skins it deftly and has the
    politeness to leave the pelt in a neat bundle, just to indicate
    to the farmer that he has been robbed by a gentleman.

    28. The first tracks to meet their eyes were the delicate
    footprints of the red squirrel.

    29. It is not good to make a jest of thy teacher.

    30. Angels seemed to have sat with Ernest by the fireside.

    31. My joy was greater than I can express when I saw the tiger
    rise and slink into the jungle.




LXXXVIII. PARTICIPLES


=346.= In Lesson LIV we learned that the perfect tenses of any verb are
formed by combining certain auxiliaries with the =past participles= of
the verb; as, “I have _heard_,” “I had _heard_,” “I shall have _heard_.”
We learned also that the past participle is one of the principal parts of
a verb.

In Lesson LV we learned that the passive voice of any transitive verb is
formed by adding its past participle to the conjugation of the verb _be_;
as, “It is _caught_,” “It was _caught_,” “It will be _caught_.”

In Lesson LVI we learned that the past participle of a verb may be used
like an adjective as the subjective complement of a verb; as, “The
potatoes seem _done_,” “The flowers are _withered_ now.”

=347.= In Lesson LVII we learned that the =present participle= of a verb
always ends in _-ing_, and that this participle is used in forming the
progressive conjugation, as, “I am _sleeping_,” “I was _sleeping_,” “I
shall be _sleeping_.”

We are ready now to study participles in all their relations.

=348.= Intransitive verbs have four participles:—

                           PRESENT        PAST     PERFECT

                           coming         come     having come
    _Progressive_                                  having been coming

Transitive verbs have six participles:—

                           PRESENT        PAST     PERFECT

    _Active_               writing                 having written
    _Active Progressive_                           having been writing[1]
    _Passive_              being written  written  having been written

[1] This form is rarely used.

The active participles denote action performed; they make us think of the
doer of the action. On the other hand, the passive participles denote
action received; they make us think of the receiver of the action.

The present participle expresses action as still in progress; the
past participle expresses action completed in past time; the perfect
participle expresses past action completed before some particular past
time.

=349.= The participle, like the infinitive, is a verbal, because it is a
verb form without the power to assert. Just as an infinitive is oftenest
used as a noun, so the participle is oftenest used as an adjective;
that is, it is usually associated with some noun. Indeed, it is by
their adjective use that we are able to distinguish participles from
infinitives in _-ing_, for in form they are almost exactly the same.

What nouns do the participles belong with in the following sentences?

    I hear the sound of trickling water.

    The lost child had wandered far.

    The diamonds sparkling in her dark hair rivaled the stars.

    The chair made two hundred years ago tilted one forward very
    uncomfortably.

=350.= The participles used oftenest are the simplest of all, the present
active participle and the past passive participle.

=351.= A participle, like an infinitive, may have all the complements
and modifiers that a verb may have; as, “The man _turning the switch_ is
faithful,” “_Feeling sleepy after lunch_, I took a nap.”

The participle and all its accompanying words form together a
=participial phrase=.

=Summary.=—A =participle= is a verbal that is generally used as an
adjective.

Participles may be active or passive or progressive in meaning.

Participles have three tenses,—present, past, and perfect. The present
participle expresses continuing action, the past participle completed
action, and the perfect participle past action completed before a
particular time.

Participles have the same complements and modifiers as verbs.

A =participial phrase= is a group of words consisting of a participle and
its complement and modifiers.

=Exercise 1.=—Form all the participles of the verbs _choose_, _draw_,
_drink_, _go_, _find_, _know_, _tell_, _think_, _turn_, _shine_.

=Exercise 2.=—Select all the participial phrases in these sentences. Tell
what noun or pronoun they belong with. Classify the participles.

    1. Two children sat on the grass under the lilacs, making
    dandelion chains and talking happily.

    2. Those three tall poles now being lifted to position will
    enable us to have a telephone.

    3. From a little hill called Hutchinson’s Hill you could look
    over three and a half miles of ground covered with fighting
    seals.

    4. Having given away the old candle mold, she was anxious to
    get it back again.

    5. Mrs. Merrithew, knowing well that little folk are generally
    troubled with a wonderful thirst, had also brought a cup and a
    bottle of lemonade.

    6. The floors were bird’s-eye maple, and having been lately
    waxed, they looked too fine for my desecrating tread.

    7. The workmen, having been painting for hours on the sunny
    side of the house, grew faint and dizzy.

    8. The boy took his seat, frowning and blinking at the candle
    light, while his mother, placing his coffee before him, let her
    hand rest on his shoulder.

    9. Having passed at the turnstile into the campus, David stood
    before the college.

    10. In one hand he carried a faded valise made of Brussels
    carpet sprinkled with pink roses.

    11. The old peasant woman, having eaten three meals with the
    servants and three with the mistress, declared at evening that
    she was satisfied.

    12. If all the money being spent for ice-cream sodas were put
    to some useful purpose—cement sidewalks, for instance,—few of
    us would be stubbing our toes on old board walks.

    13. A snowball soaked in water and left out to cool was a
    projectile which had been resorted to with disastrous results.

    14. No flying or crawling creature escapes the sharp little
    eyes of the birds.

    15. Its roots having been cut, the top of the tree suffered.

    16. The tourists, having watched the bears nose about among the
    tin cans in the garbage piles, went back to the hotel to avoid
    being devoured by mosquitoes.

    17. Very soon their path led them out into a wide glade, fenced
    all about with the serried and formal ranks of the young firs.

    18. That log just being sawed will produce eight hundred feet
    of lumber.

    19. The whale is the largest animal now living in the world.

    20. Having been told by his master that he too could go to the
    village, Shep bounded away down the road like mad.

    21. Sleep, having descended upon him, spread a quiet mist
    through his brain.

    22. Having been tramped down by the cattle, the snow was smooth
    like a floor.

Tell the use of all the infinitive phrases in sentences 2, 4, 10, 13.




LXXXIX. PARTICIPLES MODIFYING NOUNS


=352.= The participle may be associated with a noun in several ways.

(1) The participle may modify a noun precisely like an adjective, as when
we say _boiling_ water, _pleading_ eyes, _revolving_ turret, _educated_
men, _hammered_ brass, _plowed_ land, _dried_ apples.

The participle in this use can be distinguished from a real adjective in
two ways:—(_a_) it comes from a verb, (_b_) it cannot be compared.

Apply these two tests to the seven participles just given.

Some participles have become real adjectives, as _loving, learned_,
_striking_ (in _striking appearance_), _annoying_, _exciting_. Any one of
these adjectives may be compared.

(2) The participle or participial phrase may take the place of an
adjective clause. Sometimes it is used instead of a restrictive clause,
thus pointing out a particular thing or class of things; as, “The men
_shoveling coal on the docks_ were prostrated by the heat.” Sometimes
the participial phrase takes the place of an unrestrictive clause, thus
adding a new thought to the sentence; as, “Here comes a turbaned negress,
_balancing a basket of lemons on her head_.”

In both the sentences just given the participial phrase comes after the
noun it modifies, thus taking in the sentence the same position as the
appositive adjective.

The restrictive participial phrase is not set off by a comma. The
unrestrictive participial phrase is set off by a comma.

(3) The participial phrase may take the place of a clause of time or
cause, and yet modify a noun, as in the following sentences:—

    Those pens, _having been given to me by my dear master_, were
    never put to any common uses.

    _Having said these words_, Beowulf plunged into the water and
    disappeared among the dark waves.

In the first sentence, change the phrase to a clause of cause. What noun
does the phrase modify?

In the second sentence, what does the participial phrase modify? What can
you say of its position? Change it to a clause of time.

Note that although the participial phrase may take the place of a clause
of time or cause, it is still an adjective element; for, as shown in the
sentences just studied, such a participial phrase may modify a noun.

=Summary.=—The participle may be used alone to modify a noun precisely
like an adjective.

The participial phrase may modify a noun, taking the place of a clause.

The participial phrase sometimes comes before, and sometimes after, the
noun it modifies.

A participial phrase is set off by a comma when it is unrestrictive,
whether it follows or precedes the word it modifies.

=Exercise.=—Explain the use of all the participial phrases. Classify the
participles. Account for the punctuation.

    1.

        The breaking waves dashed high
        On a stern and rock-bound coast.

    2. Being direct descendants of Adam and Eve, we had much of
    their inquiring turn of mind.

    3. Worms are elongated, soft-bodied animals, differing greatly
    in form and habits.

    4. The books bound in red morocco belonged to my mother, and
    the “Iliad” illustrated by Flaxman was one of my father’s
    treasures.

    5. The Temple School was a two-story brick building, standing
    in the center of a great square piece of land, surrounded by a
    high picket fence.

    6.

        Then [comes] the whining schoolboy with his satchel
        And shining morning face, creeping like snail
          Unwillingly to school.

    7. That tree toad squatting on the trellis and peering down at
    us reminds me of the gargoyles on the Cathedral of Notre Dame.

    8. The boys looked like a legion of imps, coming and going in
    the twilight, busy in raising some infernal edifice.

    9. At last, finding himself hungry and weary, and seeing that
    there were herds of wild asses in the plain which he was
    traversing, Rustum thought that he would catch one of them for
    his meal, and rest for the night.

    10. It is only he who is weary of life that throws himself in
    the way of a roaring lion.

    11. Like most things connected in their first associations with
    schoolbooks and schooltimes, the Leaning Tower of Pisa seemed
    much too small.

    12. In the morning it was raining, with little prospect of fair
    weather, but having expected nothing better, we set out on foot
    for the Causeway.

    13. In this tavern the visitor may derive good entertainment
    from real Genoese dishes,—sausages, strong of garlic, sliced
    and eaten with fresh green figs; cocks’ combs and sheep
    kidneys, chopped up with mutton chops and liver; small pieces
    of some unknown part of a calf, twisted into small shreds,
    fried, and served up in a great dish; and other curiosities of
    that kind.

    14. Having supposed the Giant’s Causeway to be of great height,
    I was somewhat disappointed at first for I found the Loom,
    which is the highest part of it, to be but fifty feet from the
    water.




XC. PARTICIPIAL PHRASES IN THE PREDICATE


=353.= Although the participial phrase is in the sentence for the purpose
of telling something about some person or thing, still it does not always
go with the noun that names that person or thing. In the sentence, “The
children stood watching them out of the town,” the participial phrase
_watching them out of the town_ tells something about the _children_, but
it is not a direct modifier of the noun _children_, for it belongs in
the predicate of the sentence. It does not modify the verb _stood_, for
it does not tell how the standing was done. It really takes the place of
a second predicate, _watched them out of the town_, but participles are
not asserting words, hence we cannot call this phrase a predicate. The
best way to tell about it is this: The verb _stood_ is accompanied by
the participial phrase _watching them out of the town_, which denotes an
action taking place at the same time as the standing.

Tell about the participial phrases in these sentences:—

    Fred entered the house _calling as usual for his mother_.

    The Indians advanced, _shouting their war cries_.

    She gazed forward, _shading her eyes with both hands_.

    NOTE.—Sometimes the participle is used adverbially to modify a
    verb; as in the sentence, “The children went scampering off to
    the woods.” This sentence does not mean that the children went
    _and_ scampered. They only scampered, and the scampering was
    what made them go. Since the participial phrase tells just how
    the children did the going, it must be a modifier of the verb
    _went_.

    What is the difference between the sentence just given and
    the following?—“The children went singing to the woods.” It
    is plain that not every verb can be modified by a participle.
    Usually only a verb meaning _come_ or _go_ may be so modified.

=354.= In Lesson LV it was shown that the past participle is often used
as a subjective complement; as, “This dress is _soiled_,” “My money is
_spent_.”

=355.= In a few idiomatic expressions the participle is used adverbially
to modify an adjective; as, _freezing_ cold, _steaming_ hot, _hopping_
mad, _dripping_ wet. Here the participle tells how cold, how hot, etc.,
and thus denotes degree.

=356.= Sometimes the noun that a participle modifies is omitted, and the
participle is said to be used as a noun; as, “The loving are the daring,”
which means that loving persons are daring persons. We also speak of the
_killed_ and _wounded_.

=Summary.=—The participle or the participial phrase may be a part of the
predicate in three ways.

(1) It may be an accompaniment of the verb.

(2) It may be a subjective complement of the verb.

(3) It may be a modifier of a few verbs, denoting the way in which an
action was performed.

The participle may be used adverbially to modify an adjective and thus
denote the degree of some quality.

The participle may be used as a noun.

=Exercise.=—Explain the use of all participles and participial phrases.
Classify the participles.

    1. The little mare gave me all the sympathy I could ask,
    repeatedly rubbing her soft nose over my face, and lapping up
    my salt tears with evident relish.

    2.

        Three fishers went sailing out into the west,
        Out into the west as the sun went down.

    3. The warriors of the king were little pleased to hear such
    talk from his lips.

    4. After her conference with the superintendent, this
    undignified young schoolmistress went dancing and skipping home
    to tell her mother of her promotion.

    5. The sun shining on the rippling water made it so dazzling
    bright that we were almost blinded.

    6.

        Little white Lily sat by a stone,
        Drooping and waiting till the sun shone.

    7. On my first day in Tangiers the spectacle was bewildering,
    and only by concentrating my attention on detached groups could
    I form any distinct impression of it.

    8. Then Rustum made his way to the bazaar, taking his camel
    drivers with him.

    9. After licking his lips and polishing his whiskers, the lynx
    went loping off through the woods with the limp body of the
    mink in his jaws, to eat it at leisure in his lair.

    10. In October the woods were a blaze of color,—clear gold,
    flaming scarlet, crimson, amber, and coppery brown.

    11.

        I watch him as he skims along,
        Uttering his sweet and mournful cry.

    12. Society may be divided into two classes—the bores and the
    bored.

    13.

        O Captain! my Captain! our fearful trip is done,
        The ship has weathered every rock, the prize we sought is won.

    14. Three kings came riding from far away.

    15. One day as the king sat drinking in one of the chambers of
    his palace, and boasting after his custom, a genius, disguised
    as a minstrel, desired to be admitted to the royal presence.

    16. The underfed dogs snapped and growled in the passages,
    glaring at the cold stars, and snuffing into the bitter wind,
    night after night.

    17. Drops of nightly dews trickle down to the seeds, moistening
    the dryness, closing up the little hollows of the ground,
    drawing the particles of maternal earth more closely.

    18. The barley and the rye are garnered and gone, the landscape
    is bare and deserted.

    19. The air was stinging cold and felt like ice upon the boy’s
    bare, hot throat.

    20. Her heart overflowed with sympathy for all the weary, the
    beaten, the oppressed.

Explain the use of the infinitive phrases in sentences 3, 4, 7, 9, 15.




XCI. ABSOLUTE PARTICIPIAL PHRASES


=357.= In the sentence, “When the snow had left the lawns bare, the
crocuses appeared,” we have an adverbial clause. What is it? What does it
denote? Such a clause is frequently condensed into a group of words like
this, _the snow having left the lawns bare_. In this group there are two
parts,—the noun element _the snow_, which was subject of the clause, and
the participial phrase _having left the lawns bare_, which is made out of
the predicate of the clause. It is clear then that the two parts of this
group of words have the logical, though not the grammatical, relation of
subject and predicate.

Such a group of words is called an =absolute phrase=.

=358.= The absolute phrase is generally spoken of by grammarians as an
independent element; that is, it is not a modifier of any part of the
sentence.

=359.= Occasionally, as in the example given, the absolute phrase is an
abridgment of an adverbial clause of time. Oftener it is used instead of
a clause of cause, as in the sentence, “_The drought having lasted so
long_, the foliage began to turn yellow.”

=360.= Sometimes an absolute phrase is used instead of an independent
clause, thus changing a compound sentence to a simple sentence; as, “The
crew escaped from the ship in three boats, _only two reaching Siberia_.”
What clause would you make out of the absolute phrase here? By what
conjunction would you join it to the first independent proposition?

=361.= The noun or the pronoun that is the base word of the noun element
in an absolute phrase is said to be in the =nominative case=, used
=absolutely=.

=Summary.=—An =absolute phrase= is a group of words used independently
and consisting of a noun or a pronoun and a participle, having to each
other the logical relation of subject and predicate.

An absolute phrase is an abridgment of an adverbial clause or an
independent clause.

=Exercise.=—Select all the absolute phrases. Separate them into their two
parts. Expand them into adverbial clauses or independent clauses.

    1. His feet were clad in half slippers of red leather, the toes
    being pointed and turned upward.

    2. She had paused in reverie, her hands clasped behind her head.

    3. Jack telling his condition, the giant bade him welcome.

    4. Grandma and Norman were sitting on the floor in front of the
    ice box, the child having manifested a peculiar desire for cold
    boiled potato.

    5. From a balcony above leaned the lovely Ermengarde, her
    golden tresses crowned with a nightcap of rare and curious
    design.

    6. The Frey home was made up of cheery workers, even little
    Dorothea having her daily self-assumed tasks.

    7. The laws of that country being very severe against slaves,
    Androcles was sentenced to be torn in pieces by a furious lion.

    8. Through wild and desolate scenes, by forests, rocks, and
    waterfalls, we pass, the little locomotive always puffing and
    pushing vigorously behind us.

    9. Mowgli had been looking from one to the other of his
    friends, his chest heaving and his eyes full of tears.

    10. These eggs being sold, Jack and his mother got plenty of
    money.

    11. Everywhere, scattered about the country, we have seen
    windmills, their great arms moving slowly around.

    12. Under Rebecca’s delicately etched brows her eyes glowed
    like two stars; their dancing lights half hidden in lustrous
    darkness.

    13. The eagerness of Barnum to obtain a white elephant is
    easily understood, that animal being considered by showmen the
    greatest attraction in the country.




XCII. AGREEMENT OF PARTICIPLES. OTHER WORDS IN -ING


=362.= A sentence containing a participial phrase should be so
constructed that there is no doubt as to what noun or pronoun the phrase
modifies.

In the sentence, “I had a fine view of your new hospital coming in on
the train this morning,” the participial phrase seems by its position to
modify the noun _hospital_; but it really modifies the pronoun _I_, and
hence should be placed at the beginning of the sentence. If the phrase is
expanded into an adverbial clause of time, it may remain where it is.

=363.= In the sentence, “_Opening the door_, my lamp went out,” the
participial phrase has nothing to modify.

This is called a =dangling= or a =floating participle=. The best way to
deal with such a sentence is to expand the participial phrase into an
adverbial clause,—“When I opened the door.”

=Exercise.=—Point out the error in each of these sentences. Reconstruct
each sentence.

    1. We never once thought of the baby, rushing out of doors to
    see the fire.

    2. I heard the whistles plainly, sailing across the bay.

    3. I met your sister coming home from my music lesson.

    4. Mother saw the flames first sitting on the veranda.

    5. Entering the hall, her foot slipped on the waxed floor and
    she fell.

    6. Putting two and two together, it is quite plain that he
    wants an appointment.

    7. Knitting mittens and piecing quilts, I think Grandmother is
    very happy.

    8. Having been recently painted, Mr. Graham did not recognize
    his own house.

    9. Grasping the rope and plunging into the surf, the huge
    receding wave carried him out almost to the wreck.

=364.= We have seen that certain participles are in form precisely like
infinitives in _-ing_, and can be distinguished from them only by their
use. The participle is used like an adjective, and the infinitive in
_-ing_ is used like a noun.

Take, for instance, the word _running_ in the following sentences:—

    Water _running_ down hill acquires great force.

    _Running_ races is a small boy’s pastime.

    _Running_ water is clear.

    I shall never forget the _running_ of that race.

In the first sentence it is clear that _running_ is a participle, because
the participial phrase _running down hill_ modifies the noun _water_ and
is, therefore, used like an adjective.

In the second sentence it is equally clear that _running_ is an
infinitive, for the infinitive phrase _running races_ is subject of the
sentence and is therefore used like a noun.

In the third sentence _running_ is a participle, because it is derived
from a verb and cannot be compared. (See § 352.) In other respects it
resembles a pure descriptive adjective. In the phrase “an interesting
book” _interesting_ is a pure adjective; it can be compared.

In the fourth sentence _running_ is an infinitive in _-ing_. It is
modified by an article and is used, like a noun, as the object of the
verb.

In the sentences, “It is a wise _saying_,” “Take my _blessing_,” _saying_
and _blessing_ are pure nouns without verbal force, as is shown by the
fact that they have plural forms.

=Exercise 1.=—Classify the _-ing_ words in the following sentences as
infinitives, participles, adjectives, or nouns:—

    1. The half back was cheered by the admiring crowd.

    2. The time of the singing of birds is come.

    3. I distinctly said that I wanted a singing bird.

    4. Singing hymns was her favorite diversion.

    5. Painting high buildings is a dangerous occupation.

    6. The old lady painting in the Louvre was an excellent copyist.

    7. Mr. Morgan paid a large sum for this small painting.

    8. The child was pleased with the painting book.

    9. A setting hen looks very placid.

    10. They should have been arrested for setting fire to the old
    house.

    11. I will ask the photographer when he can give you a sitting.

    12. The child sitting on the curbing said sweetly, “Hello, old
    lady.”

    13. The smiling days are not always the friendliest.

    14. “I am better,” said Agnes, smiling brightly.

    15. A short saying oft contains much wisdom.

    16. Ever charming, ever new, when will the landscape tire the
    view?

    17. Health is a blessing that money cannot buy.

    18. Another duty the robin took upon himself,—to assist me in
    seeing that every bird in the room had his daily outing.

    19. Turning a canary out into the world is about like turning a
    two-year old baby out to get its own living.

    20. We require from buildings as from men two kinds of
    goodness: first, the doing their practical duty well; then that
    they be graceful and pleasing in doing it.

=Exercise 2.=—Explain the use of each verbal in the following sentences.
Analyze sentences 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 10, 13, 16, 17, 18, 20, 21.

    1. The garret is a fine place to sit of an afternoon and hear
    the rain pattering on the roof.

    2. To be called to the principal’s office filled the stoutest
    heart with alarm.

    3.

        The curfew tolls the knell of parting day,
        The lowing herd wind slowly o’er the lea.

    4. The old German carpenter packed Mrs. Howe’s heavy furniture
    in an empty store beneath her apartment, and when she refused
    to pay him an exorbitant sum, he locked the door on her and her
    boxes and went off to find a policeman.

    5. I had views of many interesting scenes in this family of
    crows, supposed by the wary parents to be visible only to the
    cows stolidly feeding on the hillside.

    6. The chickens seemed to be well cared for by the women; but
    the men appeared to be the laziest of mortals.

    7. Let us stand on the long iron bridge that spans the St.
    Lawrence just above Montreal, the very place to study the river
    as it narrows and runs swifter for its smashing plunge through
    yonder rapids to the east,—the dreaded Lachine Rapids, whose
    snarling teeth flash white in the sun.

    8. To keep Jim from following the regiment or from staying and
    getting lost in search of it, the wagoner had tied him to the
    rear axle of his wagon with a strong twine.

    9. The engine mounted the curve faster and faster, roaring
    through a tunnel, growling over a bridge, and snarling at a
    paling alongside, but no glimpse of the runaway locomotive
    could the pursuers get.

    10. Daddy felt, like the midshipman, sadly perplexed when
    the dog was finally missing, but he could suggest no mode of
    revenge which was not too dangerous for them to put in practice.

    11. The thought of my shortcomings in this life falls like a
    shadow on my life to come.

    12. Launching majestically from the edge of the nest, the great
    eagle had swooped down into the cold shadow, and then, rising
    into the light by a splendid spiral, he had taken a survey of
    the empty, glimmering world.

    13. Our terrier was never known to spend a night away from home.

    14. It is inexplicable to me that any bird should be either so
    unobservant as not to recognize a foreign egg at sight, or so
    easy-tempered as not to insist on straightway being rid of it.

    15. It is easier to do what you please than to do what you
    ought.

    16. The blue-white moon of midwinter, sharply glittering like
    an icicle, hung high in a heaven clear as tempered steel.

    17. Sometimes the fox resorts to numerous devices to mislead
    and escape the dog altogether,—walking in the bed of a small
    creek, running along a rail fence, or leaping into a hollow
    stump.

    18. The elephants simply moved their legs mechanically up
    and down, and swung their trunks to and fro; but they were
    determined not to pull or exert the slightest power, neither
    did they move forward a single inch.

    19. The only way to mitigate the hard lot of a canary is to
    make him so happy that he will not wish to be free.

    20. The best part of a journey is getting home again.

    21. Jefferson sent Lewis and Clark to penetrate the vast
    regions west of the Mississippi.

    22. While the old turkey perched upon a tree top to keep an eye
    on the enemy, the brood went sailing over the trees toward home.

    23. The officers ordered the crape to be instantly cut off from
    the dogs’ legs.




XCIII. SUMMARY OF PARTICIPLES


=365.=

      I. DEFINITION.—A participle is a verbal adjective.

     II. FORMS.—
         1. Of =intransitive verbs=.
              _Present_, going.
              _Past_, gone.
              _Perfect_, having gone, having been going.
         2. Of =transitive verbs=.
              _Present_, seeing, being seen.
              _Past_, seen.
              _Perfect_, having seen, having been seeing, having been
                seen.

    III. USES.
         1. To form the =perfect tenses=, the =passive voice=, and the
                =progressive conjugation=.
              I have trusted you.
              You were trusted by me.
              I am trusting you.
         2. As an =adjective modifier= of a noun or a pronoun.
              (a) _Restrictive._
                  Barking dogs seldom bite.
                  The picture painted by Leonardo da Vinci was stolen.
              (b) _Unrestrictive._
                  (1) Used in place of an adjective clause.
                      The silver moon, shining in the rosy eastern sky,
                        must have looked upon the setting sun.
                  (2) Used in place of a clause of time or cause.
                      Having built a magnificent church, we had to have
                        a magnificent organ.
         3. As =subjective complement of a verb=.
              Christ is risen.
              Everybody is gone.
         4. As an =accompaniment of a verb=.
              Then the blind girl came nearer, reaching out her hands
                toward my face.
         5. As part of an =absolute phrase=.
              The roast turkey having received due attention, the boys
                were ready for mince pie.
     IV. MODIFIERS AND COMPLEMENTS.
         Participles have the same modifiers and complements as verbs.
              Having earned the money, I spent it.
              Growing tired, we walked slower.
              Calling me a coward, he went on.
              Turning sharply to the right, he struck the tree.
      V. AGREEMENT.
         1. The construction of a sentence should leave no doubt as to
              what word a participial phrase modifies.
         2. Dangling participles should be avoided.

Make two good sentences to illustrate each use of the participle.




XCIV. ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES


=366.= A participial phrase is analyzed very much like an infinitive
phrase. First the participle should be given as the base, then its
complement and modifiers.

MODEL.—_Behind each islet of tall reeds is a fishing boat held fast by
two poles stuck in the bottom of the river._

This is a simple, declarative sentence. The subject is _a fishing boat
held fast by two poles stuck in the bottom of the river_. The predicate
is _is behind each islet of tall reeds_.

The base word of the subject is _boat_. It is modified by the infinitive
_fishing_, the article _a_, and the participial phrase _held fast by two
poles stuck in the bottom of the river_.

The base word of this phrase is the participle _held_. It is modified
by the adverb _fast_ and by the prepositional phrase _by two poles
stuck in the bottom of the river_. The base word of the object of the
preposition _by_ is the noun _poles_. It is modified by the adjective
_two_ and the participial phrase _stuck in the bottom of the river_. The
base word of this phrase is the participle _stuck_. It is modified by the
prepositional phrase _in the bottom of the river_, etc.

=367.= A sentence containing an absolute phrase should be analyzed as
follows:—

MODEL.—_Amy having gone to Vermont, the lady was lonely._

This is a simple, declarative sentence containing the absolute phrase
_Amy having gone to Vermont_, which is used instead of the adverbial
clause of cause, _since Amy had gone to Vermont_.

The subject is _the lady_. The predicate is _was lonely_, etc.

The absolute phrase consists of the noun _Amy_ and the participial phrase
_having gone to Vermont_, which have the logical relation of subject and
predicate. The base of the participial phrase is the participle _having
gone_, etc.

=Exercise.=—Analyze the following sentences:—

    1. In one store I would find a catbird moping on a high shelf
    or in a dark back room; in another a bluebird scared half to
    death, and dumb in the midst of squawking parrots and singing
    canaries.

    2. In that first battle, Jim ran barking after the very first
    shell that came screaming over our heads.

    3. The island is supplied with the best water imaginable, small
    streams leaping down from the sides of the hills and running
    through every valley.

    4. The biting cold wind that shrunk our faces and pinched our
    noses blue only brought a wild-rose bloom to mother’s delicate
    cheeks.

    5. The doings of the people thus suddenly become his neighbors,
    Bobby studied with all a bird’s curiosity.

    6. Coming out into the road on my way home again, I fell in
    with an old friend.

    7. The soldiers were miserably clad, and asked whether we had
    shoes to sell.

    8. It is difficult to describe the left-half’s agony as he
    picked himself up and went limping back to his place.

    9. At daylight, directly ahead of us was the island of Juan
    Fernandez, rising like a deep blue cloud out of the sea.

    10. Long ears twinkling, round eyes softly shining, the rabbits
    leaped lightly hither and thither, pausing every now and then
    to touch each other with their sensitive noses, or to pound on
    the snow with their strong hind legs in mock challenge.

    11. In long, graceful leaps, barely touching the fence, the fox
    went careering up the hill as fleet as the wind.

    12. Joel’s long legs began to ache, and seemed stiffening at
    the thighs and knees.

    13. After their supper of milk and oatmeal porridge, the
    children sat down, waiting and watching, and fancying they
    heard sounds in the hills.

    14. Hearing loud cries of distress coming from the lawn, the
    gardener rushed across and found the crow lying on his back,
    his claw tightly gripping the end of one of the wings of a
    large hawk.

    15. We soon found the vireo’s nest, suspended within the angle
    of two horizontal twigs, and trimmed outwardly with some kind
    of white silky substance.

    16. He lay like a warrior taking his rest.

    17. For four miles the pilot must race along a squirming,
    twisting, plunging thread of water, that leaps ahead like a
    greyhound, and changes its crookedness somewhat from day to day
    with wind and tide.

    18. For centuries the trees had developed strength to resist
    the winds when they were clad in all their leaves, or to carry
    the load of those leaves weighted with raindrops, or to bear
    the winter snows; but they had no strength that would enable
    them to be coated thick with ice and then wrenched by angry
    blasts.

    19. The servants having gone to their cabins, the great house
    was filled with the quiet of a Sunday afternoon.




XCV. ANTICIPATIVE SUBJECT


=368.= We have learned that the pronoun _it_ may be used as an
anticipative subject to throw the real subject after the predicate. This
real subject may be a noun clause or an infinitive phrase.

    It will never be known whether the lady came out of that door
    or the tiger.

    It is a mistake to suppose that the fox cannot be tamed.

=369.= We must not conclude that the word _it_ at the beginning of
a sentence is always an anticipative subject. Sometimes it is the
real subject, that is, it is a neuter personal pronoun having for its
antecedent some term perfectly understood by both speaker and listener;
as, “Have you read ‘The Call of the Wild’? _It_ is the story of a dog
that reverted.”

=370.= Sometimes _it_ is used for subject with no special word for
antecedent; as when we say, “It was blowing great guns.” (See § 252.)

=371.= In the familiar expression, “It is time to get up,” the antecedent
of _it_ is the word _now_ or the term _the present moment_.

=372.= _It_ is not the only word used as anticipative subject. Another
word is _there_; as in the sentence, “There is snow on the top of Pike’s
Peak.” If we ask the question, _What is on the top of Pike’s Peak?_ the
sensible answer is not _there_, but _snow_, hence _snow_ is the subject.
The word _there_ does not denote place, hence it is not an adverb. It is
used merely to fill a gap in a declarative sentence in which the subject
has been placed after the verb, for if the gap were not filled and the
sentence began with a verb, it would seem to be interrogative. When so
used the word _there_ is called an =expletive=, which means a word used
to fill up a gap.

=373.= Of course _there_ at the beginning of a sentence is not always an
expletive. Sometimes it is an adverb denoting place; as, “There will I
build me a nest.”

    NOTE.—When _there_ is an adverb we pronounce it distinctly, but
    when it is an expletive used as anticipative subject, we slur
    it.

=Summary.=—The word _it_ is often used as an anticipative subject so that
the real subject may come after the verb. The word _there_ may be an
anticipative subject. It is then called an expletive.

=Exercise.=—Analyze the following sentences. If there is an anticipative
subject, state that fact before giving the real subject; thus,—In
the sentence, “Once upon a time there were four little rabbits,” the
anticipative subject is the expletive _there_; the real subject is _four
little rabbits_. The predicate is _were once upon a time_.

    1. There would be several insuperable difficulties in adopting
    the moon as a residence.

    2. Every object on the moon would be only one sixth as heavy as
    the same object on the earth. There a box containing a pound of
    chocolate bonbons would weigh only two or three ounces.

    3. It is a little curious that the effect of a short allowance
    of food does not show itself in hunger.

    4. There never was such a hailstorm in Wisconsin.

    5. It is just the right time of the moon for planting sweet
    peas.

    6. There were dances, theatricals, and sleighrides that winter.

    7. It would amuse me very much to sing while I am hunting.

    8. A cannon that breaks loose from its fastenings on a ship is
    suddenly transformed into a supernatural beast. It is a monster
    developed from a machine; it has the weight of an elephant, the
    agility of a mouse, the obstinacy of the ox; it takes one by
    surprise, like the surge of the sea; it flashes like lightning;
    it is deaf as the tomb; it weighs ten thousand pounds, and it
    bounds like a child’s ball.

    9. That day there came our first great snowstorm.

    10. There lay the beautiful piece of embroidery that mother had
    put away so carefully and forgotten so completely.

    11. There’s a special providence that watches over idiots,
    drunken men, and boys.

    12. There came to the beach a poor exile of Erin.

    13.

        It made the children laugh and play,
        To see a lamb at school.

    14. In the reign of King Arthur, and in the county of Cornwall,
    near to the Land’s End in England, there lived a worthy farmer,
    who had an only son, named Jack.

    15. There the two old dogs sat and talked of the wonderful
    tenacity of rheumatism that has once settled in a dog’s
    shoulder.

    16. There was one passenger in the coach,—a small, dark-haired
    person in a glossy buff calico dress.

    17. Professor Boyesen describes what he calls the _saeter_, the
    spring migration of the dairy and dairymaids. It is the great
    event of the year in all the rural districts.

    18. There were three Catherines, two Annes, and a Jane.

    19. It is said in Ceylon that the cocoanut, like the magpie and
    the robin, will flourish only within sound of the human voice.

    20. There is always a sad element in the departure of a steamer.




XCVI. ELLIPTICAL SENTENCES


=374.= We have noted several constructions in which there is an ellipsis,
or omission of some word or words necessary to the grammatical structure
of the sentence.

(1) The subject of an imperative sentence, the pronoun _you_, _thou_, or
_ye_ is usually omitted; as, “(_You_) Honor the flag.”

(2) A noun is often omitted after a possessive modifier; as, “Let us go
over to Baker’s (_house_) this evening.”

(3) An auxiliary verb is often omitted; as, “Somebody has entered the
hall and (_has_) taken my umbrella.”

(4) The predicate is often omitted in a clause of comparison; as, “I am
not so tired as you (_are_ or _are tired_).” “He has no better right than
I (_have_ or _have right_).”

(5) The relative pronoun _that_ is often omitted in an adjective clause;
as, “The ring (_that_) you gave me is too small.”

(6) The subordinate conjunction _that_ is often omitted in a noun clause;
as, “You said (_that_) I might take your skates.”

=375.= The elliptical sentence is very common, especially in
conversation, where we do not have to depend entirely upon words to
convey our meaning, as we have the help of emphasis, tone of voice, and
gesture. It follows that in oral language we leave out many words that
can easily be supplied by our listeners.

(1) In answering questions, we seldom make complete statements, as,—

    What is your name? (_My name is_) Donald.

    Whose boy are you? (_I am_) Mr. Hill’s (_boy_).

    Where do you live? (_I live_) On Jackson Street.

(2) We often omit a word that has already been expressed in the sentence;
as, “Our first maid was an Irish girl; our second (_maid was_) a
Norwegian (_girl_).”

(3) In sentences beginning with _no wonder_ or _no matter_ we omit the
main verb and the anticipative subject _it_.

    “No wonder he died,” means “It is no wonder that he died.”

    “No matter what I said,” means “It is no matter what I said.”

(4) Two very common questions are _What of it?_ and _What if I do?_ We
may expand the first question thus, “What (_will come_) of it?” and the
second thus, “What (_difference will it make_) if I do?”

(5) In adverbial clauses we find many cases of ellipsis, but the words
omitted can readily be supplied; as,—

    I lived on the south side when (_I was_) a child.

    I cut my finger while (_I was_) paring an apple.

    She sings as if (_she were singing_) by note.

    I will be there if (_it is_) possible.

    Though (_we were_) tired and hungry we plodded on.

    I will go (_though it_) rain or (_though it_) shine.

=Exercise.=—Analyze the following sentences, supplying the words omitted
wherever there is an ellipsis.

    1. Wisdom is better than rubies.

    2. A song to the oak, the brave old oak!

    3. The sun shall not smite thee by day nor the moon by night.

    4. She will close the house and go to her son’s.

    5. Cæsar had his Brutus; Charles the First his Cromwell.

    6. It is more blessed to give than to receive.

    7. And then to breakfast with what appetite you have.

    8. To-day he puts forth the tender leaves of hope; to-morrow
    blossoms.

    9. Love’s wing moults when caged and captured.

    10. He that is slow to anger is better than the mighty, and he
    that ruleth his spirit than he that taketh a city.

    11. Few and short were the prayers we said.

    12. All the world’s a stage and all the men and women merely
    players.

    13.

        Stone walls do not a prison make,
        Nor iron bars a cage.

    14. Though mild, Calvin was also intolerant.

    15.

        Happy the man whose wish and care
        A few paternal acres bound.

    16. Drink to me only with thine eyes.

    17.

        True hope is swift and flies with swallow’s wings,
        Kings it makes gods and meaner creatures, kings.

    18. My true love hath my heart, and I have his.

    19.

        Lives of great men all remind us
        We can make our lives sublime.

    20. What if the river is too deep for the cattle to ford?

    21.

        If all the year were playing holidays
        To sport would be as tedious as to work.

    22. My kingdom for a horse!

    23.

        No matter what the daisies say,
        I know I’ll be married some fine day.

    24. Blessings on thee, little man!

    25.

        Six white eggs on a bed of hay,
        Flecked with purple, a pretty sight.

    26.

        “Lady Moon, Lady Moon, where are you roving?”
        “Over the sea.”

    27. The wind has a language, I would I could learn.




XCVII. REVIEW OF ANALYSIS


=Exercise.=—Analyze the following sentences. These sentences contain
examples of the various constructions that have been presented in this
book. If there is any doubt as to what part of speech a certain word
is, the dictionary will usually enable you to decide. Where an ellipsis
occurs, the word or words omitted should be supplied.

    1. How the black cat had captured the alert and restless
    squirrel so quickly was a great mystery to me.

    2. If a woman puts on airs with her equals, she probably has
    something about herself or her family that she is ashamed of.

    3. In writing these memoirs I shall yield to the inclination
    so natural to old men, of talking of themselves and their own
    actions.

    4.

        When ye come where I have stepped,
        Ye will wonder why ye wept.

    5. I sought out one of these few, Fred Ouillette, pilot and
    son of a pilot, an idol in the company’s eyes, a hero to the
    boys of Montreal, a figure to be stared at always by anxious
    passengers.

    6. Must we conclude that the dignity of a bird depends upon the
    length of his tail?

    7. During these gales, the top of the tableland is enveloped
    in thick clouds, which the people of the Cape call the Devil’s
    Table Cloth.

    8. The sand-hills were gashed with numberless ravines; and as
    the sky had suddenly darkened, and a cold gusty wind arisen,
    the strange shrubs and the dreary hills looked doubly wild and
    desolate.

    9.

        Floweret and hope may die,
        But love with us shall stay.

    10. There are three beautiful dandelions out on the terrace.

    11.

        I hope to see my Pilot face to face
        When I have crossed the bar.

    12. Gray Brother did not come upon the night when I sent him
    the word.

    13. The beasts cannot use me more cruelly than I have been used
    by my fellow creatures.

    14. If I stroked the cat in my pet monkey’s presence, he would
    get into a paroxysm of rage and make great efforts to bite me.

    15.

        The spangled heavens, a shining frame,
        Their great Original proclaim.

    16. He was a strange figure, this tattered, long-haired man,
    with the spear and wallet, and his boots cut down into sandals.

    17. Gordon waited long for an opportunity to sing in the choir
    at old St. George’s.

    18. When shall you leave Yarmouth? On the fifteenth, if
    possible.

    19. The captain, whose ideas of hard riding were all derived
    from trans-Atlantic sources, expressed the utmost amazement at
    the feats of Sorel, who went leaping ravines, and dashing at
    full speed up and down the sides of precipitous hills, lashing
    his horse with the recklessness of a Rocky Mountain rider.

    20. The Great American Desert is a land where no man
    permanently abides; for in certain seasons of the year there is
    no food either for the hunter or his steed.

    21.

        One constant element in luck
        Is genuine, solid, old Teutonic pluck.

    22. Did you ever think why a dog’s nose is always wet?

    23. One of the most difficult things is to get any wild animal
    to allow himself to be touched with the human hand.

    24. Old Trinity’s steeple probably sways eighteen inches
    whenever an elevated train passes.

    25. Do steeple climbers always work in pairs?

    26. The chipmunk had made a well-defined path from his door out
    through the weeds and dry leaves into the territory where his
    feeding ground lay.

    27. No wonder Eve ate the forbidden fruit.

    28. In Bermuda the banana is as omnipresent as the onion.

    29. We called the mice Jack, Jill, and Jenny, and they seemed
    to know their names.

    30. Shooting the Lachine Rapids is like taming a particularly
    fierce lion.

    31. Turk slept at night outside his master’s door, and no
    sentry could be more alert upon his watch than this faithful
    mastiff, who had apparently only one ambition,—to protect and
    to accompany his owner.

    32. We fancied we could hear the huge bodies of the whales
    burrowing through the water.

    33. At length, finding my life very solitary, I accepted the
    claw and heart of a rich and respectable green parrot, who
    offered me a good home and the devotion of a lifetime.

    34. Be it ever so humble, there’s no place like home.

    35. Presently the doe stepped away, and left her little one
    lying on a spotted heap of dead leaves and moss.

    36. While traveling along the Rhine, we observed that when the
    German has nothing else to do, he eats and drinks.

    37. The Spaniards changed the whole character and habits of the
    Indians when they brought the horse among them.

    38. The fires in the Australian bush are often the work of the
    natives, to frighten away the white men; and sometimes the work
    of the shepherds, to make the grass sprout afresh.

    39. Near the Pyramids, more wondrous and more awful than all
    else in the land of Egypt, there sits the lonely Sphinx.

    40. The sexton had lived in Stratford for eighty years, and
    seemed still to consider himself a vigorous man, with the
    trivial exception that he had nearly lost the use of his legs.

    41. What if this were my last day at school?

    42. It was something to have seen the dust of Shakespeare.

    43. A queen bee will lay two hundred eggs in a few hours, and
    in the year she will generally have laid twenty or thirty
    thousand.

    44. The ground was carpeted with softest moss, into which the
    boy’s feet sunk so deep that they were almost covered; and all
    over the moss were sprinkled little star-shaped pink flowers.

    45. The wolf asked little Red Riding Hood whither she was going.

    46.

        O happy harbor of God’s saints!
          O sweet and pleasant soil!
        In thee no sorrow can be found,
          Nor grief, nor care, nor toil.

    47. She fell back upon the floor as if by the stroke of an
    unseen hand.

    48. Whether she was attended by a physician from Canton or from
    Milton, I was unable to say; but neither the gig with the large
    allopathic sorrel horse, nor the gig with the homœopathic white
    mare was ever seen hitched at the gate during the day.

    49. No sooner did I open their door than out the little
    starlings would all fly, and seat themselves on my head and
    shoulders.

    50. Neither eye nor ear revealed him anything.

    51. Small leisure have the poor for grief.

    52. By a flight of winding stairs we reached a covered balcony,
    over which a tropical vine wanders at will.

    53. Dora heard Marjorie singing, laughing, chatting, as she
    flashed here and there, helping and hindering in about equal
    proportions.

    54. No matter what honors your ancestors attained, make your
    own name honorable.

    55. As I trod the sounding pavement, there was something
    intense and thrilling in the idea that the remains of
    Shakespeare were moldering beneath my feet.

    56. The lark, springing up from the reeking bosom of the
    meadow, towered away into the bright fleecy cloud, pouring
    forth torrents of melody.

    57. I now found myself among noble avenues of oaks and elms,
    whose vast size bespoke the growth of centuries.

    58. The air within the tunnel is somewhat damp, but fresh and
    agreeably cool, and one can scarcely realize in walking along
    the light passage, that a river is rolling above his head.

    59. No frog egg may hope to develop into a turtle, or a bird,
    or anything but a frog.

    60. I heard my own mountain goats bleating aloft.

    61. Everybody knows that the porcupine is ridiculously
    fastidious in his choice of food.

    62.

        The daisy, by the shadow that it casts,
        Protects the lingering dewdrop from the sun.

    63. If I choose to work eleven hours a day, what of it?

    64. Far below lay the earth, brown, dry, and desolate, from
    drouth.

    65. There was no sleep that long night for the little duck
    mother Quackalina.

    66. One evening, after the ice of a sleet storm had clogged
    their wings, the pigeons settled on one of the highest
    buildings they could find, and sat and shivered through the
    long night.

    67. The taking down of a steeple two hundred and thirty-eight
    feet high, that rises on a closely built city street, is not a
    simple proceeding.

    68.

        The legend of Felix is ended, the toiling of Felix is done;
        The master has paid him his wages, the goal of his journey is won.

    69. There we were shown the chair on which the English monarchs
    have been crowned for several hundred years.

    70. Under the seat is the stone brought from the Abbey of
    Scone, whereon the kings of Scotland were crowned.

    71. Sleeping or waking, my thoughts are all of Ireland and of
    you.

    72. Fortunately for us, our two lean, wiry little horses did
    not object to being used as aquatic animals.

    73. Many Russian villages possess a public bath of the most
    primitive construction, but in some parts of the country the
    peasants take their vapor bath in the household oven in which
    the bread is baked!

    74. This aptly illustrates a common Russian proverb, which says
    that what is health to the Russian is death to the German.

    75. Scarfs, shawls, stuffs for dresses, morning gowns, and
    vests, handkerchiefs, sashes, purses, and tobacco bags are
    heaped in rich profusion.

    76. When a man of fourscore, he continued his weekly visits to
    the schools.

    77. His master having been honorably discharged before the
    close of the war, Jim was left with the regiment in care of
    Wiggins, the wagoner.

    78. No other pigeon is so bold and fearless, so full of bulldog
    tenacity, so full of royal courage, as the homer.

    79. The French carried their imitation of Indians so far that
    they often disguised themselves to resemble their allies, with
    paint, feathers, and all.

    80. It was sometimes impossible to tell in an attacking party
    which were French and which were Indians.

    81. The sea was dotted everywhere with the heads of seals
    hurrying to land and begin their share of fighting.

    82. Old Marley was as dead as a door-nail.

    83.

        If eyes were made for seeing,
        Then beauty is its own excuse for being.

    84.

        Out on the lawn there arose such a clatter
        I sprang from my bed to see what was the matter.

    85.

        There is a pleasure in the pathless woods,
        There is a rapture on the lonely shore.

    86. How I wish that when the Angel comes for me, I might reach
    out and feel your hand!




GENERAL REVIEW


Exercise 1

    (1) The family of the Lambs had long been among the most
    thriving and popular in the neighborhood; the Miss Lambs
    were the belles of Little Britain, and everybody was pleased
    when old Lamb had made money enough to shut up shop, and put
    his name on a brass plate on his door. (2) In an evil hour,
    however, one of the Miss Lambs had the honor of being a lady in
    attendance on the Lady Mayoress, at her great annual ball, on
    which occasion she wore three towering ostrich feathers on her
    head. (3) The family never got over it; they were immediately
    smitten with a passion for high life; set up a one-horse
    carriage, put a bit of gold lace round the errand-boy’s
    hat, and have been the talk and detestation of the whole
    neighborhood ever since. (4) They could no longer be induced
    to play at Pope-Joan or blindman’s buff; they could endure no
    dances but quadrilles, which nobody had ever heard of in Little
    Britain; and they took to reading novels, talking bad French,
    and playing upon the piano. (5) Their brother, too, who had
    been articled to an attorney, set up for a dandy and a critic,
    characters hitherto unknown in these parts; and he confounded
    the worthy folks exceedingly by talking about Kean, the opera,
    and the “Edinburgh Review.”

                                  —WASHINGTON IRVING, _Sketch Book_.

1. Consult the dictionary for the meaning of all words in this paragraph
that you do not understand.

2. Account for the capitalization and punctuation. Why is the term
_Edinburgh Review_ inclosed in quotation marks?

3. What kind of noun is _family_ in sentence (1)? Use it in a sentence so
as to reveal its number and its gender. What is its number in sentence
(3)? How do you account for it?

4. What two plural forms has the term _Miss Lamb_? What is the plural
of _Lady Mayoress_? What does the dictionary say about the plural form
_folks_? What is the number of _everybody_ in sentence (1)? What is the
plural of _attorney_? of _dandy_?

5. Tell the part of speech and use of _long_, _enough_, sentence (1);
_however_, _one_, _which_, sentence (2); _ever_, _since_, sentence (3);
_no_, _longer_, _no_, _but_, sentence (4); _too_, _up_, _hitherto_,
sentence (5). Which of these words can be used as other parts of speech?
Illustrate in sentences.

6. Are _thriving_ in sentence (1) and _towering_ in sentence (2)
participles or adjectives? How do you decide? Is _pleased_ in sentence
(1) a complement of _was_ or a part of a passive verb _was pleased_? How
do you decide? How is _smitten_ used in sentence (3)? Find two passive
verbs, and prove that they are passive.

7. Supply the ellipsis before and after _popular_ in sentence (1); before
_put_ in sentence (1).

8. Tell the use of each of the following verbals: _being_ (2); _reading_,
_talking_, _playing_ (4); _talking_ (5). Tell how each of these verbals
is modified or completed.

9. Select each prepositional phrase and tell what it modifies.

10. Select all the infinitives with _to_ and tell the grammatical use of
each.

11. Parse the relative pronouns in sentences (4) and (5). Are the clauses
that they introduce restrictive or unrestrictive?

12. Tell the use and case of each of the following nouns: _belles_ (1);
_talk_, _detestation_ (3); _characters_ (5).

13. Tell the principal parts of each of these verbs: _put_ (1); _had_,
_wore_ (2); _got_, _set_ (3); _took_ (4).


Exercise 2

    (1) Ahem! Dry work, this speechifying, especially to an
    unpracticed orator. (2) I never conceived till now what toil
    the temperance lecturers undergo for my sake; hereafter they
    shall have the business to themselves. (3) Do, some kind
    Christian, pump a stroke or two, just to wet my whistle. (4)
    Thank you, sir! (5) My dear hearers, when the world shall have
    been regenerated by my instrumentality, you will collect your
    useless vats and liquor casks into one great pile and make a
    bonfire in honor of the town pump. (6) And when I shall have
    decayed like my predecessors, then, if you revere my memory,
    let a marble fountain, richly sculptured, take my place upon
    this spot. (7) Such monuments should be erected everywhere and
    inscribed with the names of the distinguished champions of my
    cause.

    (8) One o’clock! (9) Nay, then, if the dinner bell begins to
    speak, I may as well hold my peace. (10) Here comes a pretty
    young girl of my acquaintance with a large stone pitcher for me
    to fill. (11) May she draw a husband while drawing her water,
    as Rachel did of old! (12) Hold out your vessel, my dear! (13)
    There it is, full to the brim; so now run home, peeping at your
    sweet image in the pitcher as you go, and forget not, in a
    glass of my own liquor, to drink “Success to the town pump.”

                           —NATHANIEL HAWTHORNE, _Twice Told Tales_.

1. Consult the dictionary for the meaning of words in these paragraphs
that you do not understand.

2. Classify each sentence both as to purpose and structure.

3. What part of speech is _ahem_? What feeling does it express in
sentence (1)?

4. Supply the ellipsis in sentence (1). What part of speech is
_speechifying_? What is its grammatical use?

5. What does the adverb _especially_ in sentence (1) modify?

6. Account for the use of _shall_ and _will_ in these paragraphs.

7. Select all the dependent clauses. Tell the class and use of each, and
the introductory word.

8. Select all the terms of address. What is the base word of each?

9. What is the use of _now_ sentence (2)? _old_ (11)? _dinner_ (9)?

10. Parse each predicate verb in sentences (3), (5), (6), (7).

11. Tell the part of speech and use of _themselves_, sentence (2);
_stroke_, _two_ (3); _there_, _full_, _peeping_, _glass_, _own_ (13).

12. Tell the use of all infinitive phrases in sentences (3), (6), (9),
(10), (13).


Exercise 3

    (1) Once upon a time there came to this earth a visitor from a
    neighboring planet. And he was met at the place of his descent
    by a great philosopher, who was to show him everything.

    (2) First of all they came through a wood, and the stranger
    looked upon the trees. “Whom have we here?” said he.

    (3) “These are only vegetables,” said the philosopher. “They
    are alive, but not at all interesting.”

    (4) “I don’t know about that,” said the stranger. “They seem to
    have very good manners. Do they never speak?”

    (5) “They lack the gift,” said the philosopher.

    (6) “Yet I think I hear them sing,” said the other.

    (7) “That is only the wind among the leaves,” said the
    philosopher. “I will explain to you the theory of winds; it is
    very interesting.”

    (8) “Well,” said the stranger, “I wish I knew what they are
    thinking.”

    (9) “They cannot think,” said the philosopher.

    (10) “I don’t know about that,” returned the stranger; and
    then laying his hand upon a trunk: “I like these people,” said
    he.

    (11) “They are not people at all,” said the philosopher. “Come
    along.”

    (12) Next they came through a meadow where there were cows.

    (13) “These are very dirty people,” said the stranger.

    (14) “They are not people at all,” said the philosopher; and
    he explained what a cow is in scientific words which I have
    forgotten.

    (15) “That is all one to me,” said the stranger. “But why do
    they never look up?”

    (16) “Because they are graminivorous,” said the philosopher;
    “and to live upon grass, which is not highly nutritious,
    requires so close an attention to business that they have
    no time to think, or speak, or look at the scenery, or keep
    themselves clean.”

    (17) “Well,” said the stranger, “that is one way to live, no
    doubt. But I prefer the people with the green heads.”

    (18) Next they came into a city, and the streets were full of
    men and women.

    (19) “These are very odd people,” said the stranger.

    (20) “They are the people of the greatest nation in the world,”
    said the philosopher.

    (21) “Are they indeed?” said the stranger. “They scarcely look
    so.”

                                         —R. L. STEVENSON, _Fables_.

1. Rewrite this selection, changing the direct to indirect discourse and
noting the changes made in verbs, pronouns, and other words.

2. Fill out the elliptical sentences, and tell the grammatical use of
each of the words that you supply.

3. Comment on the use of _and_ (1), _but_ (15), and _but_ (17).

4. Explain how each of the following verbs and verbals is completed and
modified: _was_, _to show_, paragraph (1); _have_ (2); _are_, and _are_
(3); _seem_ (4); _lack_ (5); _think_, _hear_, _said_ (6); _wish_, _knew_,
_are thinking_ (8); _laying_ (10); _explained_, _is_, _have forgotten_
(14); _is_ (15); _keep_ (16).

5. Find the subject of _came_ in the first sentence, and explain the use
of _there_. Prove that _was met_ in paragraph (1) is a true passive verb.

6. Tell the grammatical use of each infinitive in paragraphs (16) and
(17).

7. Tell the part of speech and use of _once_, paragraph (1); _first_ (2);
_highly_, _so_ (16); _well_ (17); _next_ (18); _very_ (19); _indeed_,
_scarcely_, _so_ (21).

8. Parse all the adjective pronouns, interrogative pronouns, and relative
pronouns.

9. Find all the prepositional phrases, and tell what each phrase
modifies. Tell the object of each preposition, and if there is anything
peculiar about any object, comment upon the peculiarity.

10. Select all the dependent clauses. Tell the kind and use of each
clause, and its introductory word. Classify the adjective clauses as
restrictive or unrestrictive, and tell what the adverbial clauses denote.

If a word is used in a peculiar or uncommon way, consult the dictionary
for information regarding it.


Exercise 4

    (1) There troop the three most roguish boys that ever made
    parents scold or laugh. (2) They have nothing to do but to
    set each other on to mischief. (3) They pull off buds from
    the unblossomed rose bushes; they pick cucumbers by the half
    bushel that were to have been let alone; they break down rare
    shrubbery to get whips, and instead get whippings; they kill
    the guinea-pigs; chase the chickens; break up hens’ nests; get
    into the carriages and wagons only to tumble out, and set all
    the nurses a-running; they study every means of getting under
    the horses’ feet, and, as the more dangerous act, they are
    fond of tickling their hind legs, and pulling at their tails;
    they fill the already fed horses with extra oats, causing the
    hostler to fear for his charges’ health, since they refuse oats
    at the next regular feeding; they paddle in all the mud on the
    premises; sit down in the street and fill their pockets with
    dirt; they wet their clothes in the brook, tear them in the
    woods, lose their caps a dozen times a day, and go bare-headed
    in the blazing sun; they cut up every imaginable prank with
    their long-suffering nurses when meals are served, or when
    bedtime comes, or when morning brings the washing and dressing.
    (4) They are little, nimble, compact skinfuls of ingenious,
    fertile, endless, untiring mischief. (5) They stub their toes,
    or cut their fingers, or get stung, or eat some poisonous
    berry, seed, or root, or make us think that they have, which
    is just as bad; they fall down stairs, or eat green fruit till
    they are as tight as a drum; and yet there is no peace to us
    without them, as there certainly is none with them. Mischievous
    darlings! Joyful plagues! Loving, rollicking, laughing rogues!

                                 —HENRY WARD BEECHER, _Star Papers_.

1. Give the principal parts of each predicate verb in this selection; its
tense. Read the selection with the predicate verbs in the past tense.

2. Explain how the following verbs are completed and modified: _made_,
sentence (1); _have_ (2); _pull_, _were_, _lose_, _go_, _cut_ (3); _are_
(4); _get_, _make_ (5).

3. Select all the adjectives and tell what they modify. Classify them as
limiting or descriptive. Compare them, if possible. If any of them do not
admit of comparison, tell why.

4. Tell the use of _there_, sentence (1) and _there_ (5).

5. Tell the use and case of each of the following nouns: _boys_, sentence
(1); _legs_ (3); _hostler_ (3); _times_ (3); _day_ (3); _drum_ (5);
_darlings_ (5).

6. Find three nouns in the possessive case, and tell what each of them
modifies. Decline each of these nouns.

7. Select all the infinitives with _to_ and tell the use of each.

8. Select and classify all the words in _-ing_.

9. Account for the punctuation of this selection.

10. Select all the dependent clauses. Tell the kind and use of each, and
the introductory word.

11. Tell the part of speech and use of _on_ (2); _off_, _alone_, _down_,
_up_, _already_ (3); _just_, _down_, _certainly_ (5).

12. Select all the coördinate conjunctions in sentences (3) and (5) and
tell what each conjunction joins.




INDEX


  Absolute phrases, 237.

  Absolute use of noun, 237.

  Abstract nouns, 14.

  Active voice, 40.

  Address, term of, 39, 40.

  Adjective clauses, 171.
    restrictive, 193.
    unrestrictive, 194.

  Adjective elements, 29.

  Adjective phrases, 31.

  Adjective pronouns, 121.
    declension of, 122.

  Adjectives, appositive, 88.
    classified, 110.
    comparison of, 116, 117.
    defined, 25.
    errors in use of, 118, 119.
    misused for adverbs, 70, 71.
    modifying pronouns, 26.
    objective complement, 94.
    parsing of, 120.
    review of, 120.
    subjective complement, 69.

  Adverbial clauses, of cause, 183.
    of comparison, 188, 189.
    of concession, 186.
    of condition, 186.
    of manner, 181.
    of place, 181.
    of purpose, 184.
    of result, 184.
    of time, 180, 181.
    office of, 171.

  Adverbial nouns, 91.

  Adverbial noun phrases, 91.
    modifying adjectives or adverbs, 92.

  Adverbial noun phrases, modifying verbs, 91.
    what they denote, 91.

  Adverbial phrases, 31.

  Adverbs, comparison of, 170.
    conjunctive, 172.
    defined, 28.
    formation of, 31.
    interrogative, 170.
    introducing noun clauses, 204, 205.
    meaning of, 28.
    misused for adjectives, 70, 71.
    modifying adjectives, 29.
    modifying adverbs, 29.
    modifying sentences, 175.
    modifying verbs, 28.
    parsing of, 174.
    simple, 170.
    summary of, 173.

  _After_, 178.

  Agreement, of participle and noun, 239.
    of subject and verb, 165, 166.

  _Among_, 37.

  Analysis, models for, 34, 48, 191, 225, 244.

  Antecedent, of personal pronoun, 98.
    of relative pronoun, 197.

  Anticipative subject, 201, 212, 247.

  Appositive, adjective, 88.
    case of, 87.
    in possessive case, 86.
    infinitive, 215.
    noun, 85, 86.

  Appositive, noun clause, 201.
    position of, 86.
    punctuation of, 86, 87.

  Articles, definite and indefinite, 113.
    uses of, 114.

  _As_, relative pronoun, 197.

  _At_, 37.

  Auxiliary verbs, 124.
    _can_, _could_, etc., 154-156.
    _shall_ and _will_, 151, 152.


  _Before_, 178.

  _Beside_, 38.

  _Besides_, 38.

  _Between_, 37.

  _But_, conjunction and preposition, 46.
    relative pronoun, 197.
    uses of, 178.

  _By_, 38.


  _Can_ and _could_, 155, 156.

  Capitalization, of proper adjectives, 111.
    of proper nouns, 13, 14.

  Case, 83-95, 100, 108, 196.

  Cause, clauses of, 183.

  Clauses, adjective, 171, 193-197.
    adverbial, 171, 180-191.
    defined, 48.
    dependent, 52, 53.
    independent, 48.
    noun, 200, 201.
    review of, 206.

  Collective nouns, 166.

  Common gender, 78.

  Common nouns, 13, 14.

  Comparative degree, 116.

  Comparison, clauses of, 188, 189.
    of adjectives, 116.
    of adverbs, 170.
    how denoted, 116, 117.
    irregular, 117.

  Complement, defined, 61.

  Complement, direct object, 61.
    double object, 216.
    objective, 94, 145.
    subjective, 67, 68.

  Complex sentences, 53.

  Compound personal pronouns, 106.
    uses of, 106.

  Compound predicate, 19, 20.

  Compound sentences, 50.

  Compound subject, 20.

  Concession, clauses of, 186.

  Condition, clauses of, 186.

  Conjugation, active voice, 128-130, 132, 134.
    defined, 127.
    emphatic, 149.
    imperative mode, 134.
    indicative mode, 128-130.
    interrogative, 129.
    passive voice, 140-142.
    progressive, 148.
    subjunctive mode, 132.

  Conjunctions, 46.
    coördinate, 174.
    correlative, 175.
    in compound sentences, 50.
    subordinate, 176, 177.

  Conjunctive adverbs, 172.
    in noun clauses, 204.

  Contractions, 130.

  Coördinate conjunctions, 174.

  Correlative conjunctions, 175.


  Dangling participles, 239.

  Declarative sentences, 9, 10.

  Declension, of nouns, 84.
    of personal pronouns, 98.
    of relative pronouns, 196.

  Defective verbs, 154-157.

  Demonstrative adjectives, 113.

  Dependent clauses, 52.

  Descriptive adjectives, 110, 111.

  Direct and indirect discourse, 162-165.

  Direct and indirect quotations, 162-165.

  _Do_, as principal verb, 157.

  Double object, of preposition _for_, 220.
    of verb, 216-218.

  Double possessive, 81, 104.


  _Each other_, 122.

  Elliptical sentences, 249, 250.

  _Else_, as limiting adjective, 113.
    uses of, 178.

  Emphatic conjugation, 149, 150.

  _Enough_, 113.

  Errors, in adjectives, 70, 71, 118, 119.
    in adverbs, 70, 71.
    in infinitives, 221, 222.
    in interrogative pronouns, 109, 110.
    in participles, 239.
    in personal pronouns, 101, 103.
    in verbs, 130, 137-142.

  Exclamatory nouns, 40.

  Exclamatory sentences, 44, 45.


  Feminine gender, 78.

  Floating participle, 239.

  _For_, 179.


  Gender, 77, 78.
    how denoted, 78.

  Gerund, 211.

  _Going_, in verb phrase, 156.


  _Have_, as principal verb, 157.

  _Hence_, 179.


  Idiomatic expressions, 104, 201, 220, 235, 247.

  Imperative mode, 134.
    conjugation of, 134.

  Imperative sentences, 41.
    subject omitted, 42.

  Impersonal verbs, 157.

  _In_, 37, 38.

  Independent elements, 39, 40.

  Indicative mode, 127.

  Indirect discourse, 162-165.

  Indirect object, 89, 90.
    becoming subject of passive verb, 141.
    position of, 90.

  Infinitive phrases, 211.

  Infinitives, defined, 209.
    errors in use of, 221, 222.
    in apposition, 215.
    in _-ing_, 210.
    modified by possessive, 211.
    modifier of adjective, 220, 221.
    modifier of noun, 215.
    modifier of verb, 218.
    object of preposition, 220.
    object of verb, 213.
    part of double object, 216-218.
    subjective complement, 213.
    summary of, 224, 225.
    used independently, 221.
    with _to_, 209, 210.

  Interjections, 43.

  Interrogative adjectives, 113.

  Interrogative adverbs, 170.

  Interrogative conjugation, 129.

  Interrogative pronouns, 108.
    errors in use of, 109, 110.
    in noun clause, 204.
    uses of, 108.

  Interrogative sentences, 23, 24.
    order of, 24.

  _Into_, 38.

  Intransitive verbs, of action, 64.
    of being, 64, 66, 67.

  Irregular verbs, defined, 135, 136.
    errors in use of, 137-140.
    principal parts of, 137.

  _It_, as anticipative subject, 201, 212, 247.


  _Lay_ and _lie_, 137.

  _Like_, 181.

  Limiting adjectives, 110, 113, 114.


  Manner, clauses of, 181.

  Masculine gender, 77.

  _May_ and _might_, 155, 156.

  Mode, defined, 127.
    imperative, 134.
    indicative, 127.
    subjunctive, 131, 132.

  Modifier, 26.

  _Must_, 155, 156.


  Natural order, 22.

  Neuter gender, 78.

  Nominative case, 83, 84, 100.

  Noun clauses, 200.
    introductory word of, 203, 204.
    uses of, 200, 201.

  Nouns, abstract, 14.
    adverbial, 91, 92.
    as adjectives, 27.
    as interjections, 43.
    case of, 83, 84.
    collective, 166.
    common, 13, 14.
    compound, 81.
    declension of, 84.
    defined, 11, 12.
    direct object, 61.
    gender of, 77, 78.
    in apposition, 85-87.
    in exclamation, 40.
    in _-ing_, 240.
    indirect object, 89.
    number of, 74-76.
    object of preposition, 35.
    objective complement, 94.
    parsing of, 96.
    possessive, 79-82.
    proper, 13, 14.
    term of address, 39, 40.
    used absolutely, 237.

  Number, defined, 74.
    singular and plural, 74, 75.

  Numeral adjectives, 113.


  _O_, 43.

  Object, double, 216.
    indirect, 89, 90, 141.
    of preposition, 35, 36.
    of verb, 61.
    retained, 146.

  Objective complement, 94.
    becoming subjective complement of passive verb, 145.

  _Off_, 38.

  _One_, declined, 122.

  _One another_, 122.

  _Only_, 179.

  _Other_, declined, 122.

  _Own_, with possessives, 100.


  Parsing, of adjectives, 120.
    of adverbs, 174.
    of nouns, 96.
    of prepositions, 179.
    of pronouns, 100, 208.
    of verbs, 150, 168.

  Participial phrases, 229.

  Participles, agreement of, 239.
    dangling, or floating, 239.
    defined, 228, 229.
    differing from adjectives, 231.
    errors in use of, 239.
    forms of, 228.
    summary of, 243, 244.
    uses of, 140, 144, 145, 148, 228, 229, 231, 235, 237.

  Parts of speech, summary of, 57.

  Passive voice, 140-142.

  Past participle, 135, 228.
    as subjective complement, 144, 145.
    in passive conjugation, 140.

  Person, of nouns, 98.
    of pronouns, 98.
    of verbs, 127.

  Personal pronouns, 98.
    compound, 106.
    declension of, 98.
    errors in use of, 101-103.
    uses of, 100, 103-105.

  Phrases, 31, 33.
    absolute, 237.
    adjective, 31.
    adverbial, 31.
    as subjective complement, 69.
    defined, 33.
    denoting possession, 81.
    in a series, 32.
    infinitive, 211.
    participial, 229.
    position of, 32.
    prepositional, 35, 36.

  Place, clauses of, 181.

  Plurals, foreign, 75.
    formation of, 74, 75.
    compound nouns, 75.
    letters and figures, 75.
    titles, 75.
    regular and irregular, 74.
    same as singular, 74.

  Positive degree, 116.

  Possessive case, 83.
    of compound nouns, 81.

  Possessive nouns, 80, 83.
    form of, 80, 81.
    in double possessives, 81.
    what they denote, 81.

  Possessive pronouns, 103.
    how used, 104.
    in double possessives, 104.

  Predicate, compound, 19, 20.
    defined, 9, 10.
    simple, 16.
    transposed, 22.

  Prepositions, 34, 35.
    correct use of, 37-39.
    parsing of, 179.

  Present participle, in progressive conjugation, 148, 228.

  Principal parts, 135.

  Principal parts, of irregular verbs, 137.

  Progressive conjugation, 148.

  Pronouns, adjective, 121.
    compound personal, 106.
    defined, 18.
    in clauses of comparison, 190, 191.
    indefinite, 204.
    interrogative, 108.
    parsing of, 100, 208.
    personal, 98, 100, 103.

  Pronouns, relative, 196, 197.
    review of, 207.

  Proper adjectives, 111.

  Proper nouns, 13, 14.

  Punctuation, of a series, 20, 25, 26, 32.
    of appositives, 86-88.
    of compound sentences, 50.
    of compound subject and predicate, 20.
    of declarative sentences, 10.
    of exclamatory sentences, 44.
    of interrogative sentences, 24.
    of phrases, 32.

  Purpose, clauses of, 184.


  _Raise_ and _rise_, 138.

  Reflexive use of pronouns, 106.

  Regular verbs, 135, 136.

  Relative pronouns, 196, 197.
    _what_, 204.

  Result, clauses of, 184.

  Retained object, 146.

  Review, general, 257-264.
    of adjectives, 120.
    of adverbs, 173.
    of analysis, 252.
    of clauses, 206.
    of infinitives, 224, 225.
    of nouns, 96, 97.
    of participles, 243.
    of parts of speech, 57.
    of prepositions, 179.

  Review, general, of pronouns, 207.
    of sentences, 55.
    of verbs, 72, 168.


  Sentences, complex, 53.
    compound, 50.
    declarative, 9, 10.
    defined, 9, 10.
    elliptical, 249, 250,
    exclamatory, 44, 45.
    imperative, 41.
    interrogative, 23, 24.
    review of, 55.
    simple, 48.

  Sequence of tenses, 125, 163.

  Series, of adjectives, 25.
    of phrases, 32.
    of predicates, 20.

  _Set_ and _sit_, 138.

  _Shall_ and _will_, 151.
    in indirect discourse, 163.
    in interrogative sentences, 152.
    rules for use of, 152.

  _Should_ and _would_, 160-162.
    in subjunctive mode, 155.

  Simple adverbs, 170.

  Simple predicate, 16.

  Simple sentences, 48.

  Simple subject, 11.

  _Since_, 179.

  Singular number, 74.

  _So_, 179.

  Subject, compound, 20.
    defined, 9, 10.
    how found, 16.
    simple, 11.
    transposed, 22.

  Subjective complement, 67, 68.
    adjective, 69.
    infinitive, 213.
    noun, 67, 69.
    participle, 144, 145.
    prepositional phrase, 69.

  Subjunctive mode, 131.
    conjugation of, 132.

  Subjunctive mode, tenses of, 132.

  Subordinate conjunctions, 176, 177.

  Summary, of adverbs, 173.
    of case relations, 97.
    of infinitives, 224, 225.
    of participles, 243, 244.

  Superlative degree, 116.


  Tense, 123.
    errors in, 125, 126.
    in noun clauses, 201.
    primary, 124.
    secondary, 124.
    sequence of, 125, 163.

  Term of address, 39.

  _The_, an adverb, 170.

  _There_, 247, 248.

  _Till_, 179.

  Time, clauses of, 180, 181.

  _To_, omitted in infinitives, 217.

  _To_, use of, 37.

  Transitive verbs, 60, 61.
    followed by indirect object, 90.
    followed by objective complement, 94.
    what they denote, 62.

  Transposed order, 22.


  _Until_, 179.

  _Used_, in verb phrases, 156.


  Verb phrases, 155, 156.

  Verbals, 210, 211.

  Verbs, defective, 154-157.
    defined, 16.
    errors in use of, 130, 137-142.
    intransitive, 64, 66, 67.
    mode of, 127, 131, 134.
    parsing of, 150, 168.
    principal parts of, 135, 137.
    regular and irregular, 135, 136.
    review of, 72, 168.
    tense of, 123-126.
    transitive, 60, 61.
    used as interjections, 43.
    used transitively or intransitively, 64, 66.
    voice of, 140-142.

  Voice, active and passive, 140.
    conjugation of passive, 140-142.
    test for passive, 145.


  _With_, 38.

  Words in _-ing_, 240.

  Words used, as adjective or adverb, 59.
    as adverb or preposition, 60.
    as noun or adjective, 58.
    as noun or verb, 58.
    as preposition, conjunction, or adverb, 179.

  _Would_, as principal verb, 155.


  _Yet_, 179.



*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 76768 ***