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diff --git a/76768-0.txt b/76768-0.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..731e191 --- /dev/null +++ b/76768-0.txt @@ -0,0 +1,14148 @@ + +*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 76768 *** + + + + + + ENGLISH GRAMMAR + + BY + LILLIAN G. KIMBALL + FORMERLY HEAD OF ENGLISH DEPARTMENT, STATE NORMAL + SCHOOL, OSHKOSH, WISCONSIN + AUTHOR OF “THE STRUCTURE OF THE ENGLISH SENTENCE” + “ELEMENTARY ENGLISH, BOOK ONE,” AND + “ELEMENTARY ENGLISH, BOOK TWO” + + NEW YORK ·:· CINCINNATI ·:· CHICAGO + AMERICAN BOOK COMPANY + + COPYRIGHT, 1912, BY + AMERICAN BOOK COMPANY. + + ENTERED AT STATIONERS’ HALL, LONDON. + + KIMBALL’S ENG. GRAMMAR. + + + + +PREFACE + + +The purpose of this book is to set forth in a simple and practical manner +the principles of modern English Grammar. The aim has been not only to +give the pupils an insight into the structure of the English sentence, +but also to provide them with exercises helpful to the formation of good +habits of speech. + +It is a matter of common knowledge among teachers of grammar that a +mere understanding of the rules of syntax does not insure the avoidance +of errors and the use of correct forms. The use of language by young +persons is instinctive and spontaneous rather than reflective, hence the +most effective way for them to secure correctness of speech is through +imitation and practice. Recognizing this fundamental fact in language +teaching, the author has provided many exercises both for the learning +of correct forms and for practice in their use. These the teacher is +expected to supplement by constant criticism, example, and stimulus. + +After the pupil has been led to appreciate and strive for correctness of +speech, he naturally wishes to understand why a certain form is correct +or incorrect, to have a test for his own speech and a standard by which +to judge the speech of others. Only by such an understanding does he gain +a mastery of the form of a language so that he can use it with ease, +freedom, and certainty. To promote such a mastery of English, the author +has made each construction perfectly clear, and has led the pupil through +accurate reasoning to conclusions which are strengthened and established +by their application to many illustrative sentences chosen from standard +literature. + +The selection and the arrangement of subject matter have been carefully +considered in the light of experience in the classroom. The arrangement +is at the same time pedagogical and logical. Each point is taken up where +it is called for by the preceding lesson and where it will be of greatest +use in making clear what follows. Technical points that have little or no +practical value have been omitted, but whatever is of benefit in helping +the pupil to use or to interpret the English language has been included. + +Thanks are due to many teachers for helpful criticisms of the manuscript +of this book. + + + + +CONTENTS + + + LESSON PAGE + + I. Declarative Sentences. Subject and Predicate 9 + + II. Simple Subject. Nouns 11 + + III. Classification of Nouns 13 + + IV. Verbs 15 + + V. Pronouns 18 + + VI. Compound Subject and Compound Predicate 19 + + VII. Transposed Subject and Predicate 22 + + VIII. Interrogative Sentences 23 + + IX. Adjectives 25 + + X. Adverbs 28 + + XI. Phrases. Analysis of Sentences 31 + + XII. Prepositions 34 + + XIII. Term of Address. Exclamatory Noun 39 + + XIV. Imperative Sentences 41 + + XV. Interjections 43 + + XVI. Exclamatory Sentences 44 + + XVII. Conjunctions 46 + + XVIII. Clauses. Simple Sentences 48 + + XIX. Compound Sentences 50 + + XX. Dependent Clauses. Complex Sentences 52 + + XXI. Review: Classification of Sentences 55 + + XXII. Review: Parts of Speech 57 + + XXIII. Transitive Verbs. Object of Verb 60 + + XXIV. Intransitive Verbs asserting Action 64 + + XXV. Intransitive Verbs asserting Being. Nouns as Subjective + Complements 66 + + XXVI. Adjectives as Subjective Complements 69 + + XXVII. Review of Verbs 72 + + XXVIII. Nouns: Number 74 + + XXIX. Nouns: Gender 77 + + XXX. Possessive Nouns 80 + + XXXI. Nouns: Case 83 + + XXXII. Nouns: The Appositive 85 + + XXXIII. Appositive Adjectives 88 + + XXXIV. Indirect Object 89 + + XXXV. Adverbial Noun Phrases 91 + + XXXVI. Adverbial Noun Phrases 92 + + XXXVII. Objective Complement 94 + + XXXVIII. Parsing of Nouns 96 + + XXXIX. Personal Pronouns 98 + + XL. Uses of Personal Pronouns 100 + + XLI. Uses of Possessive Personal Pronouns 103 + + XLII. Compound Personal Pronouns 106 + + XLIII. Interrogative Pronouns 108 + + XLIV. Descriptive Adjectives 110 + + XLV. Limiting Adjectives 113 + + XLVI. Comparison of Adjectives 116 + + XLVII. Review of Adjectives 120 + + XLVIII. Adjective Pronouns 121 + + XLIX. Verbs: Tense 123 + + L. The Indicative Mode 127 + + LI. The Interrogative Form of the Indicative Mode 129 + + LII. The Subjunctive Mode 131 + + LIII. The Imperative Mode 134 + + LIV. Principal Parts of Verbs. Regular and Irregular Verbs 135 + + LV. Voice 140 + + LVI. The Passive Voice 144 + + LVII. The Progressive Conjugation 148 + + LVIII. The Emphatic Conjugation 149 + + LIX. Parsing of Verbs 150 + + LX. The Auxiliary Verbs _Shall_ and _Will_ 151 + + LXI. Defective Verbs. Verb Phrases 154 + + LXII. Direct and Indirect Discourse 162 + + LXIII. Agreement of Verb and Subject. Collective Nouns 165 + + LXIV. Review of Verbs 168 + + LXV. Classification of Adverbs. Simple Adverbs 169 + + LXVI. Conjunctive Adverbs 171 + + LXVII. Summary of Adverbs 173 + + LXVIII. Coördinate Conjunctions 174 + + LXIX. Subordinate Conjunctions 176 + + LXX. Adverbial Clauses of Time, Place, and Manner 180 + + LXXI. Adverbial Clauses of Cause, Purpose, and Result 183 + + LXXII. Adverbial Clauses of Condition and Concession 186 + + LXXIII. Adverbial Clauses of Comparison 188 + + LXXIV. Analysis of Sentences 191 + + LXXV. Adjective Clauses 193 + + LXXVI. Relative Pronouns 196 + + LXXVII. Noun Clauses 200 + + LXXVIII. Introductory Words of Noun Clauses 203 + + LXXIX. Review of Clauses 206 + + LXXX. Review of Pronouns 207 + + LXXXI. Infinitives 209 + + LXXXII. Infinitives as Subjects or Complements 212 + + LXXXIII. Infinitives as Modifiers of Nouns 215 + + LXXXIV. Infinitives as Parts of “Double Objects.” As Modifiers + of Verbs 216 + + LXXXV. Other Uses of Infinitives 220 + + LXXXVI. Summary of Infinitives 224 + + LXXXVII. Analysis of Sentences containing Infinitive Phrases 225 + + LXXXVIII. Participles 228 + + LXXXIX. Participles modifying Nouns 231 + + XC. Participial Phrases in the Predicate 234 + + XCI. Absolute Participial Phrases 237 + + XCII. Agreement of Participles. Other Words in _-ing_ 239 + + XCIII. Summary of Participles 243 + + XCIV. Analysis of Sentences 244 + + XCV. Anticipative Subject 247 + + XCVI. Elliptical Sentences 249 + + XCVII. Review of Analysis 252 + + General Review 257 + + Index 265 + + + + +I. DECLARATIVE SENTENCES. SUBJECT AND PREDICATE + + +=1.= The purpose of English Grammar is to set forth the laws and customs +governing the use of the English language. We study grammar in order that +we may express our thoughts correctly. + +A group of words, sometimes few, sometimes many, that completely +expresses a thought is called a =sentence=. In speech one sentence is +set off from another by a slight pause. On the written or printed page +sentences are separated from each other by a slight space, while the +first word of every sentence begins with a capital letter, and the last +word is followed by some sort of terminal mark. + +Most sentences are made to state, or declare, something, and hence are +called =declarative= sentences. The following are declarative sentences:— + + Molly danced up and down with delight. + + My grandfather’s desk had the best light in the room. + +=2.= Declarative sentences consist of two distinct parts. One part names +the person, place, or thing which the sentence tells something about. +This part is called the subject. The other part is the telling part. It +is called the predicate. + +In the first example _Molly_ is the subject, because it names the person +about whom something is told. _Danced up and down with delight_ is the +predicate, because it tells something about Molly. + +What is the subject in the second example? the predicate? How do you +know? What terminal mark follows a declarative sentence? + +=Summary.=—A =sentence= is a group of words that completely expresses a +thought. + +A =declarative sentence= is one that states, or declares, something. + +A declarative sentence is always followed by a period. + +The =subject= of a sentence is the part which names that about which +something is said. + +The =predicate= of a sentence is the part which says something about the +subject. + +=Exercise 1.=—Tell why each of the following sentences is declarative. +Select the subject, and tell why it is the subject. Select the predicate, +and tell why it is the predicate. Tell all this in good language. Write +it about one of the sentences, and be sure to underline the words that +should be printed in italics. (See § 2.) Remember that all the words in +the sentence belong either in the subject or in the predicate. + + 1. The village street was as quiet as the fields. + + 2. The great crashes of deep bass notes sent little thrills + down our backs. + + 3. The cat could not find anything to eat except a thin, + dried-up old mole. + + 4. Little gray-eyed Caroline went to live with her Aunt Fogg. + + 5. The traveler, being quite faint for lack of food, helped + himself to the leg of a roast chicken. + + 6. Four is the right number for a pie. + + 7. A young girl of wonderful beauty lay asleep on the bed. + + 8. Mary shut the parlor door with a great slam. + + 9. Beauty, full of surprise but very happy, permitted the + prince to lead her to his palace. + + 10. The magic song still rose from the vines outside the + chamber window. + + 11. We cats are confined entirely to the society of each other. + + 12. The glassy water was sparkling with stars. + + 13. Locusts devoured the green things of the valley. + + 14. Not a living soul was to be seen. + + 15. My little half-starved cat grew white and plump and pretty. + +=Exercise 2.=—Find five interesting declarative sentences in a story +book. Write them with the subject underlined. + +=Exercise 3.=—Write a fitting predicate for each of the following +subjects:— + + 1. A boy with a fish pole + + 2. Abraham Lincoln + + 3. My last dime + + 4. The man on the ice wagon + + 5. Our old white rooster + + 6. Not a girl in the class + + 7. The battered old musket + + 8. The haymakers + + 9. The miner’s cabin + + 10. Moving picture shows + + + + +II. SIMPLE SUBJECT. NOUNS + + +=3.= It is evident from the sentences in Exercise 1, p. 10, that the +subject of a sentence may consist of one word or of a group of words. In +the sentence, “Peter was sitting by himself,” the subject is only the one +word _Peter_. In the sentence, “A lovely old lady with white hair and a +gentle, noble face came to the door,” the subject is a group of twelve +words. What are they? + +When the subject of a sentence is a group of words, there is always +a base word in the group, which, more than any other word, names or +designates the person, place, or thing about which something is said. +This word is called the simple subject. + +What is the simple subject in the sentence that tells who came to the +door? What are the simple subjects in sentences 1, 2, 5, 7, 12, 14, and +15 in Exercise 1, p. 10? + +=4.= Every word in a sentence is used for a particular purpose. Because +words are used for different purposes they have been divided into classes +called =parts of speech=. + +In the sentences just studied the words _Peter_ and _lady_ are used to +name certain persons. Name words are called nouns. A noun is a part of +speech. + +=5.= Not every noun is the name of a person. Many are names of places; +as, _Oshkosh_, _pasture_, _corner_. Many more are names of things of all +sorts; as, _peach_, _violet_, _bee_, _thimble_, _automobile_. + +In the sentence about the lovely old lady, find three nouns that are +names of things. + +Any noun may be used as the simple subject of a sentence. Write sentences +in which the nouns _hair_, _face_, and _door_ are so used. + +=Summary.=—The =simple subject= of a sentence is the base word, or most +important word, of the subject. + +=Parts of speech= are the classes into which words are divided according +to their use. + +A =noun= is a name word. + +A noun may be used as the simple subject of a sentence. + +=Exercise.=—Write a list of all the nouns you can find in the following +paragraphs. Tell what each noun is the name of. Point out five nouns that +are simple subjects. What are their predicates? + + 1. At last Purun Dass went to England on a visit, and had to + pay enormous sums to the priests when he came back to India; + for even so high-caste a Brahmin as he lost caste by crossing + the black sea. In London he met and talked with every one + worth knowing—men whose names go all over the world—and saw a + great deal more than he said. He was given honorary degrees by + learned universities, and he made speeches and talked of Hindu + social reform to English ladies in evening dress, till all + London cried, “This is the most fascinating man we have ever + met at dinner since cloths were first laid.” + + 2. Her godmother laughed, and touched Cinderella also with the + wand; at which her wretched, threadbare jacket became stiff + with gold, and sparkling with jewels; her woolen petticoat + lengthened into a gown of sweeping satin, from underneath + which peeped out her little feet, no longer bare, but covered + with silk stockings and the prettiest glass slippers in the + world. “Now, Cinderella, depart; but remember, if you stay one + instant after midnight, your carriage will become a pumpkin, + your coachman a rat, your horses mice, and your footmen + lizards; while you yourself will be the little cinder wench you + were an hour ago.” + + + + +III. CLASSIFICATION OF NOUNS + + +=6.= There are certain beings in the world that are called men, and +certain other beings that are called horses, certain things that are +called cities, and certain other things that are called rivers, hence +the words _man_, _horse_, _city_, and _river_ are names, or nouns. Since +these nouns belong in common to a great many individuals, we call them +=common nouns=. + +=7.= On the other hand, every man, every horse, every city, and every +river is likely to have a _special_ name that distinguishes that +particular man or horse or city or river from all others. _Cæsar_, +_Gypsy_, _Denver_, and _Penobscot_ are such names. Since these names +belong to only one thing instead of to a class of things, we call them +=proper nouns=. + +=8.= A common noun is a name that belongs to a person, a place, or a +thing because of its nature or qualities. A boat is entitled to the name +_boat_ because it has the characteristics of boats. A proper noun is a +name conferred or given by some person, as when a certain boat was named +by its owners _Westernland_. + +It sometimes happens that the same name is conferred upon several +objects. There is more than one city named Madison, more than one dog +named Shep. Still these names are proper names, because they are names +conferred upon a special city and a special dog to distinguish them from +other cities and other dogs. + +A proper noun always begins with a capital letter. + +=9.= When a word denoting relationship, like _father_, _mother_, _uncle_, +is used as the name of a particular person, it is a proper noun and +should therefore begin with a capital letter; as, “Did Father say that +Grandma and Auntie are coming?” + +=10.= A title like _Colonel_, _Judge_, _Duke_, is a proper noun when +it is used to denote a special person; as, “Thousands had gathered to +welcome the Colonel home.” When such a word is the name of a class of +persons, it is a common noun; as, “A new uniform was designed for the +colonels.” + +When a title is followed by another name, as, _Colonel Bouck_, _Judge +Gary_, the two words are considered as one proper noun. In the same way, +any group of two or more words forming one special name may be considered +as one proper noun; as, _Liberty Bell_, _Bay of Biscay_, _Mountains of +the Moon_. In such groups of words, each important word begins with a +capital letter. + + NOTE.—Names of qualities, conditions, or actions are often + called =abstract nouns=; as, _honesty_, _power_, _boyhood_, the + _passing_ of the train, sound _thinking_, _suspense_. + +=Summary.=—A =common noun= is a noun that belongs in common to each one +of a class of persons, places, or things. + +A =proper noun= is a name that has been conferred upon a particular +person, place, or thing. + +Every proper noun should begin with a capital letter. + +=Exercise.=—Select all the nouns in the following sentences, and tell +whether they are common or proper nouns. Give your reason in each case. +Account for the capitalization. + + 1. The Bermudas are a cluster of small islands, lying as far + south as Charleston, as far east as Nova Scotia. + + 2. Hotel Hamilton is a large, commodious building with many + pillars and broad verandas. + + 3. The _Tenedos_ is lying off Grassy Bay, making herself fine + to receive the Princess Louise, and her jolly tars are in high + spirits. + + 4. On the Sunday of the christening, Mrs. Howe and her children + watched the merrymaking in Poverty Lane from a second story + window. + + 5. Where was Prospero’s cell? Where slept the fair Miranda? + Upon what bank sat Ferdinand when Ariel sang? + + 6. The Duluth High School is a fine structure built of red + sandstone. + + 7. The _Deliverance_ was a ship of eighty tons. + + 8. Old Lobo, or the King, as the Mexicans called him, was the + gigantic leader of a remarkable pack of gray wolves, that had + ravaged the Currumpaw Valley for a number of years. + + 9. About this time I met with an odd volume of the _Spectator_. + + 10. + + Wynken, Blynken, and Nod one night + Sailed off in a wooden shoe. + + 11. Let us all go to the station Monday to meet Uncle. + + 12. + + The cows were coming one by one; + Brindle, Ebony, Speckle, and Bess, + Shaking their horns in the evening wind. + + 13. Gunpowder had been a favorite steed of his master’s, the + choleric Van Ripper, who was a furious rider. + + 14. Upstream, at the bend of the sluggish pool round the Peace + Rock, stood Hathi, the wild elephant, with his sons, gaunt and + gray in the moonlight. + + 15. In his eighth year Charles Lamb entered Christ’s Hospital, + a famous school in London. + +It is evident from this exercise that several different sorts of things, +as hotels, streets, books, and ships, may have special names conferred +upon them. Think of ten other things that may have special names, and +write two names for each one. + + + + +IV. VERBS + + +=11.= Just as the subject of a sentence may consist of only one word, so +may the predicate. Hence it is that a declarative sentence may contain +only two words, one being the subject and the other the predicate; as in +the sentence, “Water runs.” Here the noun _water_ names the thing about +which something is told, and the word _runs_ tells something about water. + +=12.= In every predicate, no matter how long it is, there is always one +word, or a little group of words, which does more of the telling than all +the rest of the predicate. In fact, without this word or group of words, +there would be no statement at all. In the sentence, “A red sash with +fringes of gold wraps his waist several times,” the predicate consists of +five words, but the one word that counts for most in making the statement +is the word _wraps_. This word is called a verb. A verb is a part of +speech. + +A verb, being the essential part of a predicate, is called the =simple +predicate=. + +=13.= Sometimes a verb consists of two, or three, or even four words. +What is the verb in each of the following sentences?— + + All the cherries had been picked from the trees near the house. + + The watchman on the roof was listening for the first sounds of + day. + + A tall, dark figure might have been seen at the end of the + avenue. + +=14.= When the verb in a given sentence has been found, the subject may +be discovered by asking the question formed by placing the word _who_ +or _what_ before the verb. For example, in the sentence, “The parrot’s +story, with the various pauses and interruptions, occupied a good deal of +time,” _occupied_ is the verb because it is the telling word. Asking the +question _what occupied_? we get the answer, _the parrot’s story, with +the various pauses and interruptions_, hence this group of words is the +subject. What is the simple subject? + +=15.= In grammar we often use the word _assertion_ instead of +_statement_, and the word _assert_ instead of _make a statement_. + +=Summary.=—A =verb= is an asserting word. + +A verb may consist of one word, two, three, or four words, but never of +more than four words. + +A verb is the necessary part of every predicate, hence it is called the +=simple predicate=. + +To find the subject of a verb, ask the question made by using the word +_who_ or _what_ before the verb. + +=Exercise.=—Divide the following sentences into subject and predicate. +Select the predicate verb, and tell why it is a verb. Find the simple +subject of each sentence. Tell what part of speech it is, and why. + + 1. The procession moved from the palace to the church with + great pomp. + + 2. The blue eyes of the Greek sparkled. + + 3. The magnificent buildings of the hospital stand on level + land near the river. + + 4. The gentle young bride was frightened by the silent, + mysterious ways of the old Indian. + + 5. + + The poorest twig on the elm tree + Was ridged inch deep with pearl. + + 6. The great hall of the palace was illuminated with a thousand + lamps. + + 7. His anvil makes no music on Sunday. + + 8. The raccoon’s story was received with general approbation. + + 9. This old hunter must have told many tales. + + 10. Our conference under the peepul tree had been growing + noisier and noisier. + + 11. One great name can make a country great. + + 12. The camels slept. + + 13. No European could have made five miles a day over the ice + rubbish and the sharp-edged drifts. + + 14. The cows should have been milked before sundown. + + 15. + + The deep waters of the bay + Stir with the breath of hurrying day. + + 16. Wully could not have imagined any greater being than his + master. + + 17. Everything out of doors was sheathed in silver mail. + + 18. The duck mother would have liked the eel’s head herself. + +In sentence 18 is _herself_ in the subject or in the predicate? + + + + +V. PRONOUNS + + +=16.= When a person makes an assertion about himself he uses for the +subject of his sentence, not his name, but the word _I_ instead. Will +Dunlap does not say, “Will Dunlap saw a flock of wild geese this morning, +and heard them too.” He says, “I saw a flock of wild geese this morning, +and heard them too.” The word _I_, which is used instead of a name, or +noun, is called a =pronoun=. A pronoun is a part of speech. + +What pronoun besides _I_ do you find in the sentence quoted? For what +noun is it used? + +=17.= Pronouns are used a good deal, especially in conversation, for +often instead of using the name of the person we are speaking to, we use +the pronoun _you_; and in speaking _of_ persons, we use, provided their +names are already known to our listeners, the pronouns _he_, _she_, or +_they_. + +=Summary.=—A =pronoun= is a word used instead of a noun. + +A pronoun can be the subject of a sentence. + +By the use of pronouns we avoid the repetition of nouns and the use of +clumsy expressions. + +=Exercise.=—In the following conversation select all the pronouns. +Rewrite a portion of the conversation, using the nouns that the pronouns +stand for. In changing pronouns to nouns it is sometimes necessary to +make a change in the verb also. After using nouns for pronouns, tell what +you think about the usefulness of pronouns. + + “What do you think, Tirzah? I am going away.” + + Tirzah dropped her hands with amazement. + + “Going away! When? Where? For what?” + + Judah laughed, then said, “Three questions, all in a breath. + What a body you are!” Next instant he became serious. “You know + the law requires me to follow some occupation. Our good father + set me an example. Even you would despise me if I spent in + idleness the results of his industry and knowledge. I am going + to Rome.” + + “Oh, I will go with you.” + + “You must stay with Mother. If both of us leave her, she will + die.” + + The brightness faded from her face. + + “Ah, yes, yes! But—must you go? Here in Jerusalem you can learn + all that is needed to be a merchant—if that is what you are + thinking of.” + + “But that is not what I am thinking of. The law does not + require the son to be what the father was.” + + “What else can you be?” + + “A soldier,” he replied, with a certain pride of voice. + + Tears came into her eyes. + + “You will be killed.” + + “If God’s will, be it so. But, Tirzah, the soldiers are not all + killed.” + + She threw her arms around his neck, as if to hold him back. + + “We are so happy! Stay at home, my brother.” + + “Home cannot always be what it is. You yourself will be going + away before long.” + + “Never!” + + He smiled at her earnestness. + + “A prince will come soon and claim my Tirzah, and ride away + with her, to be the light of another house.” + + She answered with sobs. + + “War is a trade,” he continued, more soberly. “To learn it + thoroughly, one must go to school, and there is no school like + a Roman camp.” + + —LEW WALLACE. + + + + +VI. COMPOUND SUBJECT AND COMPOUND PREDICATE + + +=18.= It frequently happens that a person performs several actions at +the same time, and that all of them are worth telling. In such a case we +do not make several separate sentences, but one sentence with several +predicates; as, “I looked at my plate and winked back the tears.” Here we +have two predicate verbs, _looked_ and _winked_, hence two assertions. In +such a sentence we say that there is a =compound predicate=. + +=19.= The compound predicate is used also when we tell of a number of +actions performed in succession by one subject; as, “Father Wolf woke up +from his day’s rest, scratched himself, yawned, and spread out his paws +one after the other to get rid of the sleepy feeling in the tips.” How +many predicates are there in this sentence? What mark separates them? +Two or more predicates in succession, having the same subject, form what +is called a =series=. Words or groups of words in a series are separated +from each other by the comma unless some joining word is used; but when +only the last two of a series are joined by some word, the comma is used +before this word. + +=20.= We frequently wish to make the same assertion about several persons +or things, but we do not make several sentences, repeating the predicate +each time, for that would be tedious. Instead, we make one sentence with +several subjects; as, “The fresh fruit and milk and the slices of cold +chicken looked very nice.” This sentence has three distinct subjects. +What are they? In such a sentence we say that there is a =compound +subject=. Why is no comma used in this sentence? + +=Summary.=—A =compound subject= is one that consists of two or more +distinct subjects united into one. + +A =compound predicate= is one that consists of two or more distinct +predicates united into one. + +Two parts of a compound predicate are separated from each other by a +comma unless they are very short. When there are more than two parts, and +the last two are joined by some such word as _and_, a comma is placed +after each part, even before the joining word. + +When a compound subject consists of more than two parts, a comma is +placed after each part, unless all the parts are joined by some word. + +Any sentence may have a compound subject, or a compound predicate, or +both. + +=Exercise.=—Tell why the following sentences are declarative. Tell +whether each has a compound subject, or a compound predicate, or both. +Write each sentence, and draw a vertical line between subject and +predicate. Underline the simple subjects, and tell what part of speech +they are. Underline also the simple predicates, or predicate verbs. +Account for the punctuation. + + 1. The oars dipped, arose, poised a moment, then dipped again, + with winglike action, and in perfect time. + + 2. The eyes and mouths of the auditors opened wide. + + 3. This poor child became the scapegoat of the house, and was + blamed for everything. + + 4. The four cane-seated chairs, the walnut table, the haircloth + sofa, and the little stand always spoke to me of my childhood + days. + + 5. She took the key bravely, but opened with a trembling hand + the door of the little room. + + 6. Such timber and such workmanship don’t come together often + in houses built nowadays. + + 7. Vast crowds of spectators lined the way, or gazed upon the + scene from the housetops. + + 8. The rider then put his foot upon the camel’s slender neck, + and stepped upon the sand. + + 9. The laborers paused, sat up, wrung the water from their + hands, and returned the salutation. + + 10. The statue of the Indian chief or the soldiers’ monument in + the public square was given to the city by one of the pioneers. + + 11. Spruce bachelors looked sidelong at the pretty maidens, and + fancied that the Sabbath sunshine made them prettier than on + week days. + + 12. Grandmothers, mothers, and aunts sat across the end of the + hall. + + 13. He brought a carpet or square rug from the litter, and + covered the floor of the tent on the side from the sun. + + 14. Children with bright faces tripped merrily beside their + parents, or mimicked a graver gait in the conscious dignity of + their Sunday clothes. + + + + +VII. TRANSPOSED SUBJECT AND PREDICATE + + +=21.= The sentences studied thus far have been arranged so that the +subject comes first, then the predicate. This is called the =natural +order=. Sometimes, for the sake of emphasis, we reverse this order, as in +the sentence, “In a long shed behind the church stood a score of wagons +and chaises and carryalls.” This is called the =transposed order=. + +Sometimes, for the sake of a pleasing arrangement, we put only a portion +of the predicate before the subject, as in the sentence, “Over the +highest peaks a vulture sailed on broad wings into widening circles.” +Here the subject is very short and the predicate very long. The sentence +balances better with a portion of the predicate coming first. This also +is a case of transposed order. + +=Summary.=—The =natural= order in a sentence is first the subject and +then the predicate. + +When the words of a sentence are not in their natural order, we say that +the sentence is =transposed=. + +=Exercise 1.=—Rearrange the following sentences so that they will be in +the natural order, then proceed as you did with the sentences in the +exercise on p. 21. Tell in each case whether you like the natural or the +transposed order better, and why. + + 1. Around him, within hand’s reach, lie osier boxes full of + almonds, grapes, figs, and pomegranates. + + 2. This challenge Fortunatus accepted. + + 3. On traveled the lady and the bull through many dreadful + forests and lonely wastes. + + 4. On that first Christmas morning in their own home, the + children found their gifts in little piles on two of the parlor + chairs. + + 5. Through the wide nostrils the camel drank the wind in great + draughts. + + 6. Out of the wide hall could be heard in the stillness the old + clock. + + 7. At full speed a genuine Syrian dromedary overtakes the + ordinary winds. + + 8. Very hard Johnny worked on the house. + + 9. “Come in,” said a warm, comfortable voice on the other side + of the door. + + 10. + + Down will come Baby, + Bough, cradle, and all. + + 11. In the garret meet together all the broken-down chairs of + the household, all the spavined tables, all the seedy hats, all + the intoxicated-looking boots, all the split walking sticks + that have retired from business, “weary with the march of life.” + +Account for the commas in sentences 10 and 11. + +=Exercise 2.=—Change the following sentences to the transposed order. +Tell why you like them better so. + + 1. Pussy walked along with a slow and deliberate gait directly + behind my sister and me. + + 2. A red rose, a yellow rose, a woodbine, and a clematis grew + up the four walls. + + 3. The roll of the drum was hushed at the old man’s word and + outstretched arm. + + 4. A mat of long, uncombed hair hangs over his eyes and face, + and down his back. + + 5. The whole carpet came out right on my head. + + 6. A little rabbit sat on a bank one morning. + + 7. Daylight and safety were on the other side of that door. + + 8. The bird flew on and on, up the steep mountain. + + 9. A very amusing thing in this story comes now. + + 10. The remains of a great elephant have been found in the + curious potholes near Cohoes, New York. + + + + +VIII. INTERROGATIVE SENTENCES + + +=22.= Most of the sentences in books are declarative sentences, written +to make statements, but in speech we frequently make use of another kind +of sentence, one that asks a question; as, “Do you know how to tell a +sheep’s age?” This is called an =interrogative= sentence. + +=23.= The interrogative sentence, “What dwarfs made that armor?” is in +the natural order, but this is not the usual order in interrogative +sentences. In the sentence, “Do you know how to tell a sheep’s age?” we +find first a part of the verb, then the subject, then the other part of +the verb and the rest of the predicate. How would this sentence read if +it were in the natural order? Would it then be an interrogative sentence? + + NOTE.—Since an interrogative sentence does not make a + statement, it may seem strange to define the verb in such a + sentence as an asserting word, but in making definitions we + must think of the fundamental nature and the typical use of + what we are defining. The primary office of the verb is to + assert, as in declarative sentences; hence, we define the verb + as an asserting word, though it may also be used in asking + questions. + +=Summary.=—An =interrogative sentence= is one that asks a question. + +An interrogative sentence is usually in the transposed order, and is +always followed by a question mark. + +=Exercise.=—Tell whether the following sentences are in the natural +or the transposed order. Put into the natural order those which are +transposed. Divide each sentence into subject and predicate. Select the +simple subject and the predicate verb, or simple predicate. + + 1. Did you ever hear of a cat’s playing hide and seek? + + 2. What became of you after the Princess’s death? + + 3. Will no other diet serve you but poor Jack? + + 4. Which flower does your mother like best? + + 5. What harm can a naked frog do us? + + 6. Will the town crier tell us of an auction, or of a lost + pocket-book, or of a show of beautiful wax figures, or of some + monstrous beast more horrible than any in the caravan? + + 7. Why did no smile of welcome brighten upon his face? + + 8. What did Peterson-Sahib mean by the elephant dance? + + 9. How many people have ever come to know a wild animal? + + 10. What important business made you late to dinner? + + 11. What plant we in this apple tree? + + 12. What other man would have discovered so many virtues under + so mean a dress? + + 13. What do people fish for in this country? + + 14. + + Does that star-spangled banner yet wave + O’er the land of the free, and the home of the brave? + + 15. Where did you get your eyes so blue? + + 16. Who will exchange old lamps for new ones? + + 17. What makes your cheek like a warm, white rose? + + + + +IX. ADJECTIVES + + +=24.= From the sentence, “The road led us to a gate, and that to a +dooryard and a house,” we get a picture, but it is neither definite nor +attractive. Contrast it with the picture that we get from this sentence, +“The pleasant, elm-shaded road led us to a rustic gate, and that to a +green dooryard, and a long, low, brown house.” The difference is caused +by the descriptive words in the second sentence. Which words describe the +road? the gate? the dooryard? the house? + +These descriptive words go with nouns, and describe the object named by +the noun. We call them =adjectives=. An adjective is a part of speech. + +Adjectives are said to =modify= the nouns they go with, and are called +=modifiers=. + +=25.= Most adjectives describe objects by telling size, shape, color, +texture, or other qualities. A few adjectives tell number or amount; +as, _five_ minutes, _much_ patience. A few merely point out; as, _this_ +meadow, _next_ Christmas. The words _a_, _an_, and _the_ are adjectives. + +=26.= When several adjectives modify the same noun, they form a series, +and are usually separated from each other by commas; as, “A hollow, +booming, ominous cry rang out suddenly, and startled the dark edges +of the forest.” In such a sentence as this, “Four little old French +ladies rose to dance the minuet,” no commas should be used, because the +adjectives modify more than the noun _ladies_. _Four_ modifies _little +old French ladies_; _little_ modifies _old French ladies_; _old_ modifies +_French ladies_; and _French_ modifies _ladies_. + +=27.= Sometimes adjectives modify a pronoun instead of a noun, as in +the sentence, “Tom missed the word, and I, happy and triumphant, took +his place at the head.” How do we know that the adjectives _happy_ and +_triumphant_ modify the pronoun _I_? + +=Summary.=—An =adjective= is a word used to point out or describe an +object and modify a noun or a pronoun. + +Adjectives usually precede the nouns they modify but follow the pronouns. + +When several adjectives modify a single noun, they are separated by +commas. + +A =modifier= is a word or a group of words that goes with another word to +affect its meaning. + +=Exercise 1.=—Select all the adjectives in the following sentences, and +tell what they modify. Account for the punctuation. + + 1. On another side stood an old piano, a tinkling, rattling, + merrymaking old piano, played by a young lady with a melancholy + smile. + + 2. In the dark valley that ran down to a little river, Father + Wolf heard the dry, angry, snarly, singsong whine of a tiger. + + 3. A small girl, with twinkling eyes and a merry face, got up + and made her way to the front. + + 4. Only loving fingers could have taken those tiny, even + stitches. + + 5. Charles carried water for the circus men, while I, scornful + and lazy but envious, sat on the fence and watched him. + + 6. Mammy Tittleback is a splendid, great tortoise-shell cat. + + 7. I found myself sinking into some horrible, soft, slimy, + sticky substance. + + 8. Few ships come to Rivermouth now. + + 9. Cæsar has one of the finest, deepest-toned voices I ever + heard. + + 10. You can speak and smile cheerfully while you are enjoying + every comfort of a snug, warm fireside, but you should not + expect us, hungry, wet, and cold, to be in the same cheerful + mood. + + 11. Suddenly the church clock tolled a deep, dull, hollow, + melancholy “one.” + + 12. The next best thing to cold potato and cream is cold roast + chicken, and occasionally I found a good fat drumstick or a + curling neck from whose corrugated bones I nibbled savory + morsels. + +=Exercise 2.=—Write sentences using the following words as adjectives. +Make your sentences such that they reveal the meaning of the adjectives. + + awkward + brilliant + clammy + false + glassy + graceful + greedy + huge + mild + moist + pathetic + shaggy + slight + sly + soggy + +=Exercise 3.=—Write sentences containing the following nouns, each +modified by two or more adjectives:— + + cabbage + carpet + cloud + deed + garden + grapes + hand + hat + machine + mill + pupil + room + ship + story + teacher + +=28.= In the following sentences, what word describes the statue? the +bureau? the lamp? the rings? + + A bronze statue of Benjamin Franklin stood in Lafayette Park. + + The mahogany bureau contained a desk with many drawers and + pigeon holes. + + We grew tired of the gorgeousness of our parlor lamp. + + Indians of both sexes are fond of bracelets, necklaces, and + finger rings. + +These four descriptive words are name words, hence by nature they are +nouns; but in these sentences they are used as adjectives, and should +therefore be called adjectives. + +=Exercise 4.=—Write sentences in which the following nouns are used as +adjectives:— + + silver, copper, tin, iron, steel. + + maple, oak, pine, hickory, cedar. + + kitchen, hall, cellar, roof, library. + + hand, head, foot, cheek, neck. + +Think of ten other nouns that may be used as adjectives. + + + + +X. ADVERBS + + +=29.= In the sentence, “The donkey ate an armful of green grass,” we are +told what action the donkey performed, but we are not told the manner in +which he performed the action. Very often manner is worth telling, as in +the sentence, “The donkey ate leisurely an armful of green grass.” + +Since the word _leisurely_ tells how the donkey ate, it must go with the +word _ate_. We say of it what we said of adjectives, that it _modifies_ +the word it goes with. Since it modifies a verb, it is different from any +part of speech that we have studied before. We call it an =adverb=. + +=30.= The great difference between adjectives and adverbs is this, that +the adjective modifies a noun or a pronoun, and the adverb usually +modifies a verb. Adjectives describe objects, which are named by nouns, +and adverbs usually describe actions, which are asserted by verbs. + +=31.= Not all adverbs tell manner. They frequently tell time, place, +direction, degree, or other circumstances; as in these sentences:— + + _Now_ the cow would be eating in one place, and _then_ she + would walk to another. + + _Here_ and _there_ a snag lifted its nose out of the water like + a shark. + + For weeks his ship sailed _onward_ over a lonely ocean. + + Mother’s sudden cry frightened me _terribly_. + +=32.= It was pointed out in Lesson IX that adjectives frequently tell +some quality of an object. Sometimes we wish to tell in what degree +this quality is possessed, as in the expressions, _a very tall man_, +_an exceedingly hot day_, _too ripe fruit_. Here the words _very_, +_exceedingly_, and _too_ go with the adjectives _tall_, _hot_, and _ripe_ +to denote degree. Such words are said to modify the adjectives they go +with. Words that modify adjectives are also called adverbs. + + NOTE.—A group of words like _very tall_ and _exceedingly hot_ + may be called an =adjective element=. Its base word is an + adjective, modified by an adverb. It is the whole element, or + group of words, that modifies the noun. + +Adverbs of degree may modify adverbs as well as adjectives, as in the +sentences, “The fox ran very swiftly,” “You speak too rapidly.” + +=Summary.=—An =adverb= is a word that modifies a verb, an adjective, or +another adverb. + +Adverbs usually tell time, place, manner, direction, or degree. + +Unless a sentence is transposed, the adverb should be as near as possible +to the word it modifies. + +Adverbs in a series are separated from each other by commas. + +=Exercise 1.=—Select all the adverbs in the following sentences. Tell +what each adverb modifies, and what it denotes. + + 1. People with lanterns rushed hither and thither. + + 2. The island is separated from the mainland by a scarcely + perceptible creek. + + 3. + + And so the teacher turned him out, + And still he lingered near, + And waited patiently about + Till Mary did appear. + + 4. Faintly, in gentle whiffs, the lilies on the low marble + shelf threw off their delicate fragrance. + + 5. Quackalina was sitting happily among the reeds with her dear + ones under her wings, while Sir Sooty waddled proudly around + her. + + 6. In youth the tulip tree has a trunk peculiarly smooth. + + 7. On one occasion Gypsy put in her head, and lapped up six + custard pies that had been placed by the casement to cool. + + 8. No wild animals were ever trained by the ancients. + + 9. The paper was passed skillfully from desk to desk until it + finally reached my hands. + + 10. Messua’s husband had some remarkably fine buffaloes that + worried him exceedingly. + + 11. The charcoal burners went off very valiantly in single file. + + 12. Sometimes my head almost aches with the variety of my + knowledge. + + 13. Knots of gossips lingered here and there near the place. + + 14. This talk amused me greatly, but it went in at one ear and + out at the other. + + 15. My father invested his money so securely in the banking + business that he was never able to get any of it out again. + + 16. Yonder I shall sit down and get knowledge. + + 17. Then he would crawl forward inch by inch, and wait till the + seal came up to breathe. + + 18. No one can work well without sleep. + + 19. This jackal was peculiarly low, a cleaner-up of village + rubbish heaps, desperately timid, or wildly bold, everlastingly + hungry, and full of cunning that never did him any good. + + 20. The Black Panther raised his head and yawned—elaborately, + carefully, and ostentatiously. + +Account for the commas in the last sentence. + +=Exercise 2.=—Write sentences containing adverbs of manner modifying the +following verbs:— + + comes + goes + plays + reads + sings + skates + speaks + studies + walks + works + +=Exercise 3.=—Write sentences containing the following adverbs:— + + upward, downward, forward, backward, headlong, north, southward. + + everywhere, nowhere, somewhere, anywhere. + + seldom, often, always, sometimes, forever. + + perfectly, unusually, unspeakably, positively, miserably. + +Use the last five adverbs to modify adjectives or adverbs. What will they +denote when so used? + +=Exercise 4.=—Form adverbs from the following adjectives:— + + careless + dreary + firm + gentle + hasty + noble + painful + sharp + slow + wide + +What part of speech are the words _chilly_, _deadly_, _holy_, _kindly_, +_lively_, _lovely_? Use them in sentences to find out. + + + + +XI. PHRASES. ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES + + +=33.= We cannot always describe or point out objects as fully as we wish +by means of adjectives, and so we use another sort of modifier, which is +not a single word, but a group of words. In the sentence, “Broad, flat +fields without fences stretch in every direction,” we describe the fields +by the two adjectives _broad_ and _flat_, and by the group of words, +_without fences_. Thus the noun _fields_ has three modifiers, and they +are very well placed, two of them coming before the noun, and one of them +after it. + +In the group of words _without fences_, the two words are closely related +to each other. In fact, neither of them could be in the sentence at all +without the other. Such a group of related words is called a =phrase=. +When a phrase modifies a noun, we say it is an =adjective phrase=. + +=34.= In the same sentence there is another phrase, _in every direction_, +telling where the fields stretch. Since this phrase modifies the verb, +it performs the same office as an adverb, and we therefore call it an +=adverbial phrase=. + +=35.= Phrases never consist of fewer than two words, and they may consist +of a good many, for it is possible to have one or more phrases within +a phrase. In the sentence, “I was born in a stable on the outskirts +of a small town in Maine,” the verb _was born_ is modified by a long +phrase, _in a stable on the outskirts of a small town in Maine_. The noun +_stable_ in this phrase is modified by the phrase _on the outskirts of +a small town in Maine_. The noun _outskirts_ in this second phrase is +modified by the phrase _of a small town in Maine_. The noun _town_ in +this third phrase is modified by the fourth phrase, _in Maine_. + +=36.= Phrases do not always modify the word they come next to; they +modify the word whose meaning they tell something about. In the sentence, +“I scrambled through the evergreens to my friend’s little hut just before +sunset,” there is no phrase within another phrase, but there are three +entirely distinct phrases. What are they? + +=37.= A series of phrases consists of two or more phrases each modifying +the same word; as, “Ours is a government _of the people_, _for the +people_, and _by the people_.” Phrases in a series are separated from +each other by a comma. Why do not the phrases in the sentence in § 35 +form a series? + +It might seem at first thought that the sentence in § 36 contains a +series of three phrases; but it does not, for the phrases do not modify +the same word. _Through the evergreens_ modifies _scrambled_; _to my +friend’s little hut_ modifies _scrambled through the evergreens_. What +does the third phrase modify? + +In the punctuation of phrases a good deal must be left to the judgment +of the writer. That punctuation is best which most clearly reveals the +structure and meaning of the sentence. + +=Summary.=—A =phrase= is a group of related words having neither a +subject nor a predicate, and used like a part of speech. + +A phrase is often used like an adjective to modify a noun, or like an +adverb to modify a verb. + +Phrases in a series are separated from each other by a comma. + +=Exercise.=—Select all the phrases in these sentences, and tell what each +phrase modifies. Account for the punctuation of the phrases in sentences +2 and 9. Why are commas omitted in sentence 5? + + 1. I passed a very comfortable night in the carrot bin. + + 2. The four little rabbits lived with their mother, in a sand + bank, underneath the root of a very big fir tree. + + 3. He went along over hills and mountains, and on the third day + came to a wide forest. + + 4. During those long winter evenings I read six of Scott’s + novels aloud to my mother. + + 5. Mr. Jeremy Fisher lived in a little damp house amongst the + buttercups at the edge of a pond. + + 6. On that evening, before sunset, some women were washing + clothes on the upper step of the flight that led down into the + basin of the Pool of Siloam. + + 7. On the fourth day after our arrival came a letter from my + mamma. + + 8. Jelly fishes generally float near the surface of the sea, + and are often washed up on the shore by the waves. + + 9. Where no human hand would have dared to rest, the young + lions crawled fearlessly—across the knotty muscles of the back, + over the sinewy neck, across the death-dealing paws, even + between the frightful jaws. + + 10. Tom arched his back like a contortionist at a circus. + + 11. The women of the different provinces in Holland are known + by their head dresses. + + 12. The last words rang out like silver trumpets. + + 13. A farm without a boy would very soon come to grief. + + 14. In winter I get up at night. + +=38.= =Analyzing= a sentence is the process of separating it into its +parts, and telling the relation between those parts. In analyzing the +sentences in the following exercise proceed according to this outline:— + +(1) Tell whether the sentence is declarative or interrogative. + +(2) Divide it into subject and predicate. + +(3) Select the simple subject and give its modifiers. + +(4) Select the simple predicate and give its modifiers. + +(5) If a predicate is compound, select the two or more predicate verbs, +and then give the modifiers of each. + +Tell the exact truth in good, clear English. For example, in analyzing +the expression, _the four little rabbits_, do not say that _the_, _four_, +and _little_ are adjectives modifying _rabbits_, but say that _rabbits_ +is modified by the adjectives _little_, _four_, and _the_. Why should +they be given in this order? + +=Exercise.=—Analyze sentences 2, 3, 5, 7, 8, 11, 12, 13, and 14 in the +exercise on p. 33. + + + + +XII. PREPOSITIONS + + +=39.= In the preceding lesson we considered a phrase as a unit. We shall +now examine its structure, and see what parts it is composed of. If we +look carefully at these phrases,— + + with their mother + + to a wide forest + + over the sinewy neck + + like silver trumpets + +we see that the first word is not a noun, a pronoun, a verb, an +adjective, or an adverb. If we try to put this word anywhere else in the +phrase, we see that it must come at the beginning; in short, that it is +the introductory word of the phrase. If we had only this introductory +word given, the word _with_, for instance, we should ask at once _with +what?_ or _with whom?_ The answer to this second question is _their +mother_, the rest of the phrase. + +If we examine the other three phrases in the same way, we shall come +to the conclusion that a phrase is made up of two parts: (1) an +introductory word, (2) an answer to the question made by putting _whom_ +or _what_ after the introductory word. We call the introductory word a +=preposition=, and we say that the rest of the phrase is the =object of +the preposition=. A preposition is a part of speech. + +A phrase that consists of a preposition and its object is called a +=prepositional phrase=. Not all phrases are of this kind. We shall study +the other kinds later. + +=40.= There are not a great many prepositions in the English language, +hardly more than a hundred in all. Most of them are short words, and of +very great usefulness. Some of the commonest are: _across_, _after_, +_before_, _between_, _by_, _for_, _from_, _in_, _over_, _to_, _through_, +_toward_, _under_, _with_, _without_. + +=41.= The object of a preposition may be a single word, as in the phrase +_without fences_, but oftener it is a group of words. The base word +of the group is usually a noun. A pronoun also may be the object of a +preposition, as in the phrases _for me_, _to him_, _with us_. The object +of a preposition may be compound, as in the phrases, _over land and sea_, +_by day and night_. + +=42.= In Lesson XI, it was pointed out that a phrase modifies a noun +or a verb. It does so because the preposition shows a certain relation +between its object and the noun or verb that the phrase modifies. In +the sentence, “The porters at the German railroad stations are dressed +in fine green uniforms,” the preposition _at_ shows a relation of place +between the porters and the German railroad stations, and the preposition +_in_ shows a relation of manner between the act of dressing and the fine +green uniforms. + +=Summary.=—A =prepositional phrase= consists of a preposition and its +object. + +A =preposition= is a word that is used with its object to form a phrase, +and shows the relation of its object to the word the phrase modifies. + + NOTE.—A prepositional phrase in its natural order consists of + (1) the preposition and (2) its object. + +The =object= of a preposition is found by asking the question made by +putting _whom_ or _what_ after the preposition. + +The object of a preposition may be simple or compound. + +The base word of the object may be a noun or a pronoun. + +=Exercise.=—Select the prepositional phrases in the following sentences. +Tell what each phrase modifies. Divide each phrase into preposition and +object. Find the base word of the object, and tell what part of speech it +is. + + 1. This monster lives in a den under yonder mountain with a + brother of his. + + 2. I carried both letters in my apron pocket. + + 3. At the age of ten years he fled from the multiplication + table and ran away to sea. + + 4. In the dusk of spring evenings we sat on the window seat + and watched the lights come out on the high bluff and the long + bridge. + + 5. + + The stormy March is come at last, + With wind, and cloud, and changing skies. + + 6. With a fair and strong breeze we soon ran into the little + cove to the northward of Fort Moultrie. + + 7. On the projecting bluffs, and occasionally on the very + mountain tops, stand the ruins of great castles of the olden + times. + + 8. In the ancient city of London on a certain autumn day in the + second quarter of the sixteenth century, a boy was born to a + poor family of the name of Canty. + + 9. Now I was comforted by the thought of a tassel, and an ivory + handle, and blue and gold changeable silk. + + 10. A polar storm can blow for ten days without a break. + + 11. The aërial path of Hushwing, from his nest in the swamp to + his watchtower on the clearing’s edge, led him past the pool + and the crouching panther. + + 12. + + All the little boys and girls, + With rosy cheeks and flaxen curls, + And sparkling eyes and teeth like pearls, + Tripping and skipping, ran merrily after + The wonderful music, with shouting and laughter. + +What part of speech are these words: _yonder_, sentence 1, _apron_ 2, +_multiplication_ 3, _spring_ 4, _very_ 7, _autumn_ 8, _break_ 10? + +What is peculiar about the object of _at_ in sentence 5, and of _to_ in +sentence 6? + +=43.= Good English requires accuracy in the use of prepositions. Study +the following prepositions, and avoid errors in their use. + +=Among= and =between=. The word _between_ usually refers to only two +persons or things, while _among_ refers to more than two. + + I walked between my father and my mother. + + She walked among us like an angel. + +=At= and =in=. We use _in_ when speaking of countries and large cities, +_at_ when speaking of villages or buildings. + + The train arrives in Los Angeles at noon. + + The train stopped at every little station. + +=At= and =to=. _At_ conveys the idea of _being_ in a place, and _to_ +conveys the idea of _going_ to a place. + + Were you at school yesterday? + + I came to school early this morning. + + My sister is at home. + +We speak of going to school, to church, to the factory, to the store, +to the office, etc., but we do not use _to_ before _home_. We say “I am +_at_ home,” or “Come home,” in the latter case omitting the preposition +entirely. + +=Beside= and =besides=. _Beside_ means by the side of, and _besides_ +means in addition to. + + Little Em’ly sat beside David. + + Nobody remained besides the old nurse. + +=By= and =with=. _By_ refers to the agent, or doer of an action, and +_with_ to the instrument, or means employed. + + The cherry tree was cut down by George Washington with a little + hatchet. + +=In= and =into=. _In_ usually conveys the idea of rest, and _into_ of +motion. + + We stayed in the library all the evening. + + Our hostess took us into the Simmons Library. + + I went into the Bank. + + I put my money in the Bank. + +=Off.= This preposition should not be followed by _of_. We should say, + + The pitcher fell off the table. + + I got off the car. + +In place of the word _onto_ we should use _on_ or _upon_. + + He climbed upon the roof of the pilot house. + + He stepped on a loose board. + +Some words are followed by certain prepositions to express certain +meanings; as, + + _Agree with_ thine adversary. + + Brutus _agreed to_ the plan. + + Brutus _differed with_ Cassius. + + My watch is _different from_ yours. + + Imogen _parted from_ him with tears. + + Imogen would not _part with_ her bracelet. + + Many people _died of_ yellow fever. + + I am _sorry for_ the mistake. + +=Exercise.=—Supply the correct preposition in each of these sentences, +and give your reason in each case:— + + 1. The fugitive slave ran —— the trees, and took his stand —— + two large cypresses. + + 2. While we were —— New Orleans, we stayed —— the St. Charles + Hotel. + + 3. + + And so —— the silent sea + I wait the muffled oar. + + 4. In that Sunday school class there was no girl —— Gertrude. + + 5. This mark must have been made —— a knife. + + 6. When you are —— Rome, you must do as the Romans do. + + 7. Come —— the garden, Maud. + + 8. Put the silver —— a safe place. + + 9. John Gilpin’s wig fell —— his head. + + 10. Get —— this stump so that you can see better. + + 11. I left the programs —— home. + + 12. Nobody agrees —— Kate about renting the cottage. + + 13. Did Will agree —— your plans for the wedding? + + 14. Charlie differed —— his family about saving his money. + + 15. An apricot has a different flavor —— a peach. + + 16. What did the crew die ——? + + 17. Aren’t you sorry —— his misfortune? + + 18. The child cried when he parted —— his playthings, and would + not be comforted when he parted —— his old playmates. + + + + +XIII. TERM OF ADDRESS. EXCLAMATORY NOUN + + +=44.= When we speak directly to persons, we often call them by name; as,— + + Anne, sister Anne, do you see any one coming? + +We do this for several reasons,—sometimes for politeness, sometimes to +show clearly just whom we are speaking to. This name is not necessary to +the structure of the sentence; that is, it forms no part of the subject +or the predicate. We say, therefore, that it is =independent=. We call it +a =term of address=. + +=45.= Sometimes, instead of using a person’s name, we invent a term of +address, as when the Arab said to his horse, + + “We are far from home, O _racer with the swiftest winds_, but + God is with us.” + +What noun is the base word of this term of address? + +=46.= A term of address may come at the beginning of a sentence, or at +the end, or somewhere within the sentence. It must be set off by commas +to show that it is independent. + +=47.= Sometimes a noun or a noun with modifiers is used as an +=exclamation=; thus,— + + A rainbow! it is too late in the day for that. + + Joy to the world! the Lord has come. + +A noun used like _rainbow_ and _joy_ is called an =exclamatory noun=. +What feeling does the exclamatory noun in the first sentence express? in +the second? + +=Summary.=—A =term of address= is a word or a group of words used as a +name to show to whom a remark is made. + +The base word of a term of address is usually a noun. + +An =exclamatory noun= is a noun used to express strong or sudden feeling. +It may be modified or unmodified. + +When a word or a group of words is no part of the subject or the +predicate of a sentence, it is said to be =independent=. + +A term of address and an exclamatory noun are independent elements in a +sentence. + +A term of address is set off from the rest of the sentence by a comma. + +An exclamatory noun is set off by an exclamation point. + +=Exercise.=—Select the terms of address in the following sentences. Find +the base word of each. Select also the exclamatory nouns, and tell what +feeling they express. + + 1. Little brother, canst thou raise me to my feet? + + 2. “Now, my dears,” said old Mrs. Rabbit one morning, “you may + go into the fields or down the lane, but don’t go into Mr. + McGregor’s garden.” + + 3. Indeed I was seeking thee, Flathead, but each time we meet + thou art longer and broader by the length of my arm. + + 4. Come, Lillie, it is time to go to bed. + + 5. Sweet, sweet home! there’s no place like home. + + 6. Why, Father, you are rather old to play cat’s cradle. + + 7. + + Sail on, sail on, O ship of State! + Sail on, O Union strong and great! + + 8. Sir, I humbly beg your pardon. + + 9. I understand, noble lord, that you have lost two of your men. + + 10. Jefferson, I think I will go down into the kitchen and bake + a pie. + + 11. A horse! a horse! my kingdom for a horse! + + 12. There is none like thee in the jungle, wise, old, strong, + and most beautiful Kaa. + + 13. Our price, your royal highness, is three shillings. + + 14. Grand old outlaw, hero of a thousand lawless raids, in a + few minutes you will be but a great load of carrion. + + 15. + + Brood, kind creature, you need not fear + Thieves and robbers while I am here. + + 16. Catch me, cowardly knaves, if you can. + + 17. The stately homes of England! how beautiful they stand! + + 18. O Captain! my Captain! rise up and hear the bells. + + + + +XIV. IMPERATIVE SENTENCES + + +=48.= Besides declarative and interrogative sentences there is another +kind of sentence used when we speak directly to a person for the purpose +of telling him what to do; as, “Run into the garden, and fetch me the +largest pumpkin you can find.” This is called an =imperative sentence=. + +=49.= The imperative sentence is often used in giving orders, commands, +or directions, but it is used also in giving advice, and in making +requests or entreaties; as,— + + Fling away ambition. + + Kindly reply by return mail. + + Give us this day our daily bread. + +=50.= Usually only the predicate of an imperative sentence is expressed, +and so the first word of such a sentence is likely to be a verb. The +subject is the pronoun _you_, _thou_, or _ye_, signifying the person +or persons addressed. It is customary to omit this pronoun, and we say +that the subject is “understood.” Occasionally, however, it is expressed +in familiar conversation; as, “You go away.” Sometimes, too, in solemn +commands the pronoun _thou_ or _ye_ is expressed; as, “Go and do thou +likewise.” “Keep ye the law.” + +Note that the verb in an imperative sentence commands rather than asserts. + +An imperative sentence is frequently preceded by a term of address, but +this must not be mistaken for the subject; as, “Father, hear our prayer.” + +=Summary.=—An =imperative sentence= is one that expresses a command or an +entreaty. + +The subject of an imperative sentence is the pronoun _you_, _thou_, or +_ye_. This pronoun is usually omitted. + +=Exercise.=—Tell what the following imperative sentences denote. Select +the predicate verbs, and the subjects whenever they are expressed. Select +also the terms of address. + + 1. Open everything, go everywhere except to this little room. + + 2. Come and hold this skein of yarn for me. + + 3. Go and wash Kala Nag, and attend to his ears, and see that + there are no thorns in his feet. + + 4. Don’t count your chickens before they are hatched. + + 5. Rouse to some high and holy work of love. + + 6. Don’t you show your face here with a pocket on you. If your + heavy pants have any in ’em, rip ’em out. + + 7. + + Give freely and receive, but take from none + By greed, or force, or fraud, what is his own. + + 8. Learn to box, to ride, to pull an oar, and to swim. + + 9. Polly dear, say good morning to Mrs. Chatterton, and then + run away. + + 10. Do the work first which is next at hand. + + 11. + + Turn again, Whittington, + Lord Mayor of London. + + 12. O Lord of Hosts, provide a champion for thy people. + + 13. + + O brave marsh Mary-buds, rich and yellow, + Give me your money to hold. + + 14. + + O Columbine, open your folded wrapper + Where two twin turtledoves dwell. + + 15. + + O Cuckoopint, toll me the purple clapper + That hangs in your clear, green bell. + +Account for the commas in sentences 1, 3, 8, 9, and 11. + + + + +XV. INTERJECTIONS + + +=51.= There are certain words like _oh_, _alas_, _pshaw_, _ugh_, that +are used to express strong feeling,—joy, surprise, pain, disgust, anger, +etc. These words are called =interjections=. An interjection is a part of +speech. + +=52.= Interjections are no part of the subject or the predicate of a +sentence; hence, like terms of address, they are said to be independent. +They are set off from the rest of the sentence by some mark of +punctuation, usually an exclamation point, sometimes only a comma. + +=53.= We may use a noun or a verb in such a way that it becomes an +interjection; as, “_Goodness!_ what a fright you gave me!” “_Hurrah!_ +the lake is frozen over!” Such a verb as _hark_ is often used as an +interjection, not to express sudden feeling so much as to arrest +attention; as, “_Hark! hark!_ the dogs do bark.” + +=54.= The interjection _O_ is often used before a term of address; as, “O +Lord, how manifold are thy works!” + +=Summary.=—An =interjection= is a word used to express sudden or strong +feeling. + +=Exercise.=—Select all the interjections in the following sentences, and +tell what each one is used for:— + + 1. Boom! Boom!—two of the guns had gone off together. + + 2. Alas! Amanda, by mistake, had waked up the little boys an + hour too early. + + 3. Bah! men are blood brothers of the monkey people. + + 4. Hallelujah! in one day more we shall be sitting in the + sunshine on our own doorstep. + + 5. + + O mother dear, Jerusalem, + When shall I come to thee? + + 6. Ping! ping! ping! went the rifles; and Boom! boom! boom! + answered the waves. + + 7. Aha! the world is iron in these days. + + 8. Alas! it was the head of old Silverspot. + + 9. Scrooge said, “Pooh! Pooh!” and closed the door. + + 10. Hark! hark! the lark at heaven’s gate sings. + + 11. Alack-a-day! travelers encounter all the unusual bits of + weather. + + 12. Hey! Willie Winkie, are you coming then? + + 13. O comrades, if we must fight, let us fight for ourselves. + + 14. Hush! the winds roar hoarse and deep. + + 15. Lo, the star which they saw in the east went before them + till it came and stood over where the young child was. + + 16. Piff! the packet landed exactly as it was intended, on the + corn-husk mat in front of the screen door. + + 17. Oh, London is a man’s town. + + + + +XVI. EXCLAMATORY SENTENCES + + +=55.= We have found that sentences are made to _state_, or to _ask_, or +to _command_, and hence are classified as _declarative_, _interrogative_, +and _imperative_. + +There is a fourth class of sentence which resembles an interjection, +being used to express sudden or strong feeling; as, “How calm and lovely +the river was!” “What a pity it is!” These are called =exclamatory +sentences=. They are always followed by an exclamation point. + +=56.= Such sentences as those just quoted, which begin with _how_ or +_what_, are exclamatory in form as well as in sense, and are therefore +sometimes called pure exclamatory sentences. They are always in the +transposed order. Some sentences, however, are exclamatory only in +sense. They are in the natural order, and when printed, could not be +distinguished from declarative or imperative sentences if it were not +for the exclamation point, which indicates that they were spoken with +strong feeling; as, “Now you may see that noblest of all ocean sights for +beauty, a full-rigged ship under sail!” “Helen Maria! leave the room this +moment!” + +=Summary.=—An =exclamatory sentence= is one that expresses sudden or +strong feeling. + +=Exercise.=—Tell why each of these sentences is exclamatory. Rearrange in +the natural order those which are transposed. Divide each of them into +subject and predicate. Select the simple subject and the simple predicate. + + 1. How soundly he sleeps! From what a depth he draws that easy + breath! + + 2. What tales he had told that day! + + 3. How doubly delicious things tasted in the clear, spicy air + of the woods! + + 4. How keen a scent those children had for apples in the cellar! + + 5. Oh, how sweet the water was! How it soothed the tender spots + under her weary wings! How it cooled her ears and her tired + eyelids! + + 6. With what a glory comes and goes the year! + + 7. What a racket those rusty cannon had made in the heyday of + their unchastened youth! What stories they might tell now if + their puffy, metallic lips could only speak! + + 8. Burn the hut over their heads! + + 9. Ugh! may the red mange destroy the dogs of this village! + + 10. Talk of the curiosity of women! + + 11. So blessedly evanescent is the memory of seasickness! + + 12. Hark! how the music leaps out from his throat! + + + + +XVII. CONJUNCTIONS + + +=57.= Notice the sentences,— + + Every pine and fir and hemlock wore ermine too dear for an earl. + + I stood and watched by the window. + +The parts of the compound subject in the first sentence and of the +compound predicate in the second are joined by the word _and_. This very +common word has a use different from that of any word studied thus far; +hence it is considered another part of speech. Because it is a joining +word, it is called a =conjunction=. + +There are many conjunctions besides _and_ that we all have frequent +occasion to use. Among these are _nor_, _or_, _but_, _yet_, _therefore_, +_so_, and _hence_. + +=58.= Conjunctions may join not only single words, such as nouns, verbs, +pronouns, adjectives, and adverbs, but also phrases, and even whole +sentences; as,— + + You may enter without money and without price. + + The stiff rails were softened to swan’s down, + And still fluttered down the snow. + +=59.= Although the word _but_ is commonly used as a conjunction, yet, +in the sentence, “I work every day but Sunday,” it is a preposition, +and means _except_. What is its object? The great difference between a +conjunction and a preposition is that a preposition always has an object, +whereas a conjunction never has one. + +=Summary.=—A =conjunction= is a word that joins sentences or parts of +sentences. + +=Exercise.=—Select all the conjunctions in the following sentences, and +tell what they join:— + + 1. Crow was ten years old now, and he was very black and + polished and thin. + + 2. Mount St. Michael was not only strongly fortified, but it + was well guarded by nature. + + 3. The horse neither switches his tail, nods his head, nor + stamps his feet. + + 4. Thirty years later, the remnants of her wedding gowns,—the + blue silk, the black silk, the striped silk, and the plaid + silk,—were cut into diamonds and squares, and then pieced + together lovingly and proudly into a patchwork quilt. + + 5. There are several steamboats which run up and down the Seine + like omnibuses, and the charge to passengers is about two cents + apiece. + + 6. After steaming for several hours over the smooth river and + between these flat lowlands, we reach the city of Rotterdam. + + 7. These great ice streams are always moving slowly downwards; + hence they carry off, year by year, the snow which falls upon + the mountain above. + + 8. The stars danced overhead, and by his side the broad and + shallow river ran over its stony bed with a loud but soothing + murmur that filled all the air with entreaty. + + 9. The things that Mowgli did and saw and heard when he was + wandering from one people to another, with or without his four + companions, would make many stories. + + 10. I drove the cows home through the sweet ferns and down the + rocky slopes. + + 11. The sucker’s mouth is not formed for the gentle angleworm + nor the delusive fly of the fisherman. + + 12. Our ancestors were very worthy people, but their wall + papers were abominable. + + 13. The keeper of the lodgings did not supply meals to his + guests; so we breakfasted at a small chophouse in a crooked + street. + + 14. The Northmen had no compass; they must steer by the sun or + by the stars, guess at their rate of sailing, and tell by that + how many more days distant was their destination. + + 15. Through this silence and through this waste, where the + sudden lights flapped and went out again, the sleigh and the + two that pulled it crawled like things in a nightmare. + + 16. There may be times when you cannot find help, but there is + no time when you cannot give help. + + 17. + + Over the meadows and through the woods, + To grandfather’s house we go. + + 18. The world has never had a good definition of the word + liberty, and the American people are much in want of one. + + + + +XVIII. CLAUSES. SIMPLE SENTENCES + + +=60.= We have learned that a sentence must contain a subject and a +predicate. We have another name for a combination of subject and +predicate. We call it a =clause=. + +=61.= When a sentence consists of but one clause, we call it a =simple +sentence=; and we say that this clause is =independent=, because it can +stand alone and make sense. + +=62.= A simple sentence may have a compound subject or a compound +predicate, or both, and yet so long as these subjects and predicates go +together, we say that there is only one clause; as in the sentence, “The +lion and the mouse helped each other and became friends.” + +=Summary.=—A =clause= is any combination of subject and predicate. + +An =independent clause= is one that can stand alone and make sense. + +A =simple sentence= contains but one independent clause. + +A simple sentence may have a compound subject or a compound predicate, or +both. + +=Exercise.=—Analyze the following simple sentences:— + +MODEL.—_Then a piece of mica, or a little pool, or even a highly polished +leaf will flash like a heliograph._ + +This is a simple, declarative sentence. + +The subject is _a piece of mica, or a little pool, or even a highly +polished leaf_. The predicate is _will flash like a heliograph then_. + +The subject is compound. The simple subjects are the nouns _piece_, +_pool_, and _leaf_, which are joined by the conjunction _or_. _Piece_ +is modified by the prepositional phrase _of mica_ and the adjective +_a_. _Pool_, is modified by the adjectives _little_ and _a_. _Leaf_ is +modified by the adjective element _highly polished_, and the adjectives +_a_ and _even_. The base word of the adjective element is the adjective +_polished_, which is modified by the adverb _highly_. + +The simple predicate is _will flash_. It is modified by the prepositional +phrase _like a heliograph_, and the adverb _then_. + + 1. Through three good months the valley was wrapped in cloud + and soaking mist. + + 2. In the very heart of London stands the great Bank of England. + + 3. Would not any boy respond to the sweet invitation of those + ripe berries? + + 4. A fool and his money are soon parted. + + 5. A large, warm tear splashed down on the program. + + 6. In the sunny days the sucker lies in the deep pools, by some + big stone or near the bank. + + 7. The feeling of a boy towards pumpkin pie has never been + properly considered. + + 8. Shall the adventures of the Peterkin family be published? + + 9. No healthy boy could long exist without numerous friends in + the animal kingdom. + + 10. No sound of joy or sorrow was heard from either bank. + + 11. At length has come the bridal day of beauty and of strength. + + 12. On one hot summer morning a little cloud rose from the sea + and floated lightly and happily across the blue sky. + + 13. Donkeys, horses, negroes of every age, size, and shade, + carts, crates, sacks, barrels, and boxes are mingled in + seemingly inextricable confusion. + + 14. In the midst of the wild confusion the voice of the Boots + was heard. + + 15. Then he strolled across the pasture, between the black + stumps, the blueberry patches, the tangles of wild raspberry; + pushed softly through the fringe of wild cherry and young + birch saplings, and crept silently under the branches of a low + hemlock. + + 16. The moss was supported by solid earth or a framework of + ancient tree roots. + + 17. Alas! with every blow of the chisel the brick crumbled at + my feet. + + 18. A dish of apples and a pitcher of chilly cider were always + served during the evening. + + 19. I sat down in the middle of the path and never stirred for + a long time. + + 20. The mayor and other civic authorities in London came down + to Greenwich in barges. + + + + +XIX. COMPOUND SENTENCES + + +=63.= We have seen that sentences may be joined together by conjunctions. +When two or more independent clauses are joined together in this way, we +say that the sentence is =compound=; as, “Coral reefs resemble great rock +ledges, and vessels are often wrecked upon them.” + +=64.= The conjunctions most used in compound sentences are _and_, _or_, +_but_, _yet_, _therefore_, and _so_. + +_And_ shows that two clauses are in the same line of thought; as, “His +eye was bright, and his face was ruddy.” + +_Or_ shows a choice between two clauses; as, “You must work, or you must +go hungry.” + +_But_ and _yet_ show a contrast; as, “I mailed the letter, but Uncle Joe +never received it.” + +_Therefore_ and _so_ show that the second clause is a consequence of the +first; as, “There are fires in the forests north of us, therefore the air +is full of smoke.” + +=65.= Sometimes when the relation between clauses is perfectly evident, +the conjunction is omitted; as, “I came; I saw; I conquered.” + +In order that the reader may have no doubt as to where a clause ends, it +is usually followed by a comma, which speaks to the eye of the reader +just as a pause speaks to the ear of the listener. When the clauses are +long or the conjunction is omitted, a semicolon may be used instead of +the comma. + +=Summary.=—A =compound sentence= contains two or more independent clauses. + +The clauses of a compound sentence are separated from each other by a +comma or a semicolon. + +=Exercise.=—Select all the clauses in the following compound sentences. +Tell the relation between them, and how they are joined. Tell the subject +and predicate of each clause. Account for the punctuation. + + 1. Over the porch grew a hop-vine, and a brandy-cherry tree + shaded the door, and a luxuriant cranberry vine flung its + delicious fruit across the window. + + 2. Mr. Peterkin liked to take a doze on his sofa in the room, + but the rest of the family liked to sit on the piazza. + + 3. Prosperity makes friends; adversity tries them. + + 4. The whole family planted the potatoes; George dug the holes + with his hoe, Mollie dropped into each one three pieces of an + old potato, Paul raked the black earth over them, and Mother + supervised and praised them all. + + 5. Some of the letter-carriers must take very long walks, but + English people do not appear to object to that sort of thing. + + 6. Oh, come ye in peace here, or come ye in war? + + 7. At the end of the first year the young lions shed their + teeth, the first indications of manes appeared on the males, + and the playfulness between brother and sister ceased. + + 8. The clumsy wheels of several old-fashioned coaches were + heard, and the gentlemen and ladies composing the bridal party + came through the church with the sudden and gladsome effect of + a burst of sunshine. + + 9. I had never been called pretty before, so I was flattered. + + 10. The yellow cur has not the speed of the greyhound, but + neither does he bear the seeds of lung and skin diseases. + + 11. The party did not return to Skarpsno until half-past eight + in the evening, yet the sun was still above the horizon. + + 12. We cherish every memorial of our worthy ancestors; we + celebrate their patience and fortitude; we admire their daring + enterprise; we teach our children to venerate their piety. + + 13. Every animal has some great strength, or it could not live; + every animal has some great weakness, or the other animals + could not live. + + 14. Human action can be modified to some extent, but human + nature cannot be changed. + + 15. Captain John Smith was exasperatingly sure of himself, and + older men found his pretensions well-nigh unbearable. + + + + +XX. DEPENDENT CLAUSES. COMPLEX SENTENCES + + +=66.= We have seen that in both simple and compound sentences the clauses +are independent. There is a third class of sentences, however, containing +=dependent clauses=. + +In the simple sentence, “At night his antelope skin was spread on the +ground,” the prepositional phrase _on the ground_ tells place, and +modifies the verb _was spread_. + +In the sentence, “At night his antelope skin was spread _where the +darkness overtook him_,” the group of words where the darkness overtook +him has the same use as the phrase _on the ground_, for it tells place +and modifies the verb _was spread_. + +But this group of words contains a subject and a predicate; hence it is +a clause. It could not stand alone and make sense; hence it cannot be +an independent clause. It could not be in the sentence at all unless +the verb _was spread_ were there too for it to modify. It is therefore +dependent on the verb, and so we call it a =dependent clause=. It has the +same use as an adverb, because it modifies a verb. We find many dependent +clauses used in this way, because our language does not afford enough +adverbs or even prepositional phrases to express our meaning. + +=67.= When dependent clauses modify verbs, they answer such questions as +these,—_was spread where?_ _was spread why?_ _how?_ _when?_ _under what +condition?_ _for what purpose?_ + +=68.= In the sentence, “They went into a small parlor, which smelt very +spicy,” the parlor is described by the adjective _small_ and by the group +of words _which smelt very spicy_. What is this group of words? How do we +know? What words does it modify? What, then, is the use of some dependent +clauses? When dependent clauses modify nouns, they point out or describe +objects just as adjectives do. + +=69.= In the sentences that we have just been studying there is an +independent clause as well as a dependent clause. A sentence of this kind +is called a =complex sentence=. + +A complex sentence may contain any number of dependent clauses, but +only one independent clause, for as soon as a sentence contains two +independent clauses it becomes a compound sentence. + +=Summary.=—A =dependent clause= is one that is used like a part of speech +and does not make sense when it stands alone. + +A dependent clause may be used like an adjective to modify a noun, or +like an adverb to modify a verb. + +A =complex sentence= consists of one independent clause and one or more +dependent clauses. + +=Exercise.=—Select all the clauses in the following sentences, and +classify them. Tell what the dependent clauses modify. Tell the subject +and predicate of each clause. + + NOTE.—Frequently a dependent clause modifies more than the + verb. In the sentence, “The little boys wanted a house with a + great many doors, so that they could go in and out often,” the + dependent clause _so that they could go in and out often_ tells + the purpose of their wanting a house with a great many doors; + hence, it modifies not merely the verb _wanted_, but the whole + predicate _wanted a house with a great many doors_. Try to tell + the exact truth about each sentence that you study. + + 1. He was always catching sculpins when every one else with the + same bait was catching mackerel. + + 2. If we cross the Atlantic by one of the fast steamships, we + shall make the voyage in about a week. + + 3. The Rotterdam quays, which stretch for more than a mile + along the river, are busy and lively places. + + 4. Every Sunday morning the wash boiler was filled with water, + and the largest tub was set in the middle of the kitchen floor, + so that the three children might have their weekly scrubbing. + + 5. People who devote themselves too severely to study of the + classics are apt to become dried up. + + 6. He charged upon the rows of the mullein stalks as if they + were rebels in regimental ranks, and hewed them down without + mercy. + + 7. Every boy who is good for anything is a natural savage. + + 8. Rude soldiers now eat, drink, and sleep, where popes and + cardinals once moved about in state. + + 9. Mowgli, who had never known the meaning of real hunger, fell + back on stale honey three years old. + + 10. Iron-clads are so called because their sides are covered + with thick plates of iron or steel, capable of resisting very + heavy shot. + + 11. Although many people ascend Mont Blanc every year, the + undertaking requires a great deal of muscular as well as + nervous strength. + + 12. If a boy repeats _Thanatopsis_ while he is milking, that + operation acquires a certain dignity. + + 13. The thrill that ran into my fingers’ ends then has not run + out yet. + + 14. Even a dog, who is very far removed from the wild wolf, + his ancestor, can be waked out of deep sleep by a cart wheel + touching his flank, and can spring away unharmed before that + wheel comes on. + + 15. The boys slipped off down the roadside to a place where + they could dig sassafras or the root of the sweet flag. + + 16. The little company of Englishmen who, in 1620, exchanged + Holland for America were not soldiers and traders like the men + who had led and established the colony at Jamestown. + + 17. Miles Standish came with the Pilgrims to America because he + liked both them and their enterprise. + + 18. The early settlers went to church in military array and + laid their arms down close by them while they worshiped and + heard the sermon. + + 19. The colonists chose for their place of settlement a high + bluff, which rose upon the eastern bank of a little stream. + +Tell the part of speech and use of _always_, sentence 1, _Sunday_ 4, +_too_ and _severely_ 5, _now_, _once_, and _about_ 8. + +Analyze the predicate _was set in the middle of the kitchen floor_. + +What is the grammatical use of the group of words _as well as_ in +sentence 11? + + + + +XXI. REVIEW: CLASSIFICATION OF SENTENCES + + +=70.= We have seen that sentences are classified according to =purpose=, +as declarative, interrogative, imperative, or exclamatory. + +A =declarative= sentence is one that states, or declares, something. + +An =interrogative= sentence is one that asks a question. + +An =imperative= sentence is one that expresses a command or an entreaty. + +An =exclamatory= sentence is one that expresses sudden or strong feeling. + +=71.= We have seen also that sentences may consist of one clause or of +several, and that clauses may be independent or dependent. Sentences are +therefore classified according to =structure=, as simple, compound, or +complex. + +A =simple= sentence is one that contains but one independent clause. + +A =compound= sentence is one that contains two or more independent +clauses. + +A =complex= sentence is one that contains one independent clause and one +or more dependent clauses. + +=Exercise 1.=—Write a complex declarative sentence, a compound +interrogative sentence, a complex imperative sentence, and a simple +exclamatory sentence. + +=Exercise 2.=—Classify the following sentences according to both purpose +and structure. Give the reasons for your classification. Tell what the +dependent clauses modify. Tell also the subject and predicate of each +clause. + + 1. The oxen sagged along in their great clumsy way. + + 2. Give me quickly my seven-league boots, that I may go after + those boys and catch them. + + 3. How sweet and demure the girls looked! + + 4. Within sight of that tall elm tree were passed my happiest + years. + + 5. Did you ever know a child who was not interested in animals? + + 6. My grandfather never skipped over an advertisement, even if + he had read it fifty times before. + + 7. + + Woodman, spare that tree! + Touch not a single bough! + + 8. Must I keep order along the whole line? + + 9. All the trees and the bushes and the bamboos and the mosses + and the juicy-leaved plants wake with a noise of growing that + you can almost hear. + + 10. + + How dear to my heart are the scenes of my childhood, + When fond recollection presents them to view! + + 11. Sometimes it is impolite to tell the truth, and then one + can only say nothing or talk of the weather. + + 12. Toll ye the church bell sad and slow. + + 13. Some boys go scowling always through life, as if they had a + stone bruise on each heel. + + 14. Proud bird of the mountain, thy plume shall be torn! + + 15. Mowgli had the good conscience that comes from paying debts. + + 16. Cease to do evil; learn to do well. + + 17. The first was a brass band, the second was a string band, + the third was a rubber band, and the fourth was a man who + played on the jew’s-harp. + + 18. + + Lo, all our pomp of yesterday + Is one with Nineveh and Tyre! + + 19. On Sunday the hens went silently about, and the roosters + crowed in psalm tunes. + + 20. + + Up! up! my friend, and quit your books, + Or surely you’ll grow double! + + 21. Is the world growing better or are we moving in a circle? + + 22. Remember thy Creator in the days of thy youth. + + 23. When a man has heard the great things calling to him, how + they call and call, day and night! + + 24. O ye who have young children, if it is possible, give them + happy memories. + +Find an interjection in this exercise. + +What independent elements do you find in sentences 7, 14, and 24? What is +the base word of each? + + + + +XXII. REVIEW: PARTS OF SPEECH + + +=72.= We have seen that words are classified according to their use into +eight parts of speech,—nouns, verbs, pronouns, adjectives, adverbs, +prepositions, conjunctions, and interjections. + +A =noun= is a name word. + +A =verb= is an asserting word. + +A =pronoun= is a word used instead of a noun. + +An =adjective= is a word used to point out or describe an object and +modify a noun or a pronoun. + +An =adverb= is a word that modifies a verb, an adjective, or another +adverb. + +A =preposition= is a word that is used with its object to form a phrase, +and shows the relation of its object to the word the phrase modifies. + +A =conjunction= is a word that joins sentences or parts of sentences. + +An =interjection= is a word used to express sudden or strong feeling. + +=Exercise.=—Tell what part of speech each word is in the following +sentences. Tell in each case how you know. + + 1. Toto’s good grandmother bore this commotion quietly for some + time. + + 2. “Now, set those baskets down.” He spoke sharply. + + 3. Mowgli knew the manners and customs of the villagers very + fairly. + + 4. No other mother ever made such deep, smooth, golden custard + pies, or fried such light and spicy doughnuts. + + 5. Queen Elizabeth and Mary Queen of Scots are strongly + associated together in the minds of all readers of English + history. + + 6. The tamest tiger is a tiger still. + + 7. The negro cleared for us a path to an enormously tall tree. + + 8. Nobody scolded me or laughed at me. + + 9. Then my eyes came back to the wall paper, and I studied out + figures in its spreading vines. + + 10. Perhaps a little starch would have some effect. + + 11. The roaring hot wind of the Jungle came and went between + the rocks and the rattling branches. + + 12. Ring-ting! I wish I were a primrose. + + 13. O love, they die in yon rich sky. + +=73.= In sentence 13 in the preceding exercise, it is evident that the +word _love_, which is often a verb, is used as a term of address, and +therefore is a noun. Many words may be used as verbs or as nouns. + +=Exercise.=—Tell what part of speech the italicized words are in the +following sentences. Give your reason in each case. + + 1. Don’t scour your porcelain _sink_ with sapolio. + + 2. When bodies _sink_ in Lake Superior, they never rise. + + 3. Oh, what _fall_ was there, my countrymen. + + 4. We _fall_ to rise, are baffled to fight better. + + 5. Alice gave the branch a vigorous _shake_. + + 6. Nay, do not _shake_ your gory locks at me. + + 7. Will you _show_ me your lineage book? + + 8. There are ten thousand moving picture _shows_ in the United + States. + + 9. What a good _catch_ our right fielder made. + + 10. Did you _catch_ this sturgeon last night? + +Make sentences in which the following words shall be used as nouns and as +verbs: _fight_, _pay_, _rap_, _shed_, _shoe_, _sting_, _tread_. + +=74.= Many words that are usually adjectives may also be used as nouns. +Such words fall into different classes:— + +(1) Adjectives denoting color; as, _black_, _white_, _red_. We may say, +“The blacks were once slaves of the whites.” We may also say, “Red and +green are complementary colors.” + +(2) Certain adjectives denoting qualities of persons, which may also +be used to name classes of persons having those qualities; as, _rich_, +_poor_, _old_, _young_, _bad_, _good_. We say, “The rich should not scorn +the poor,” “The good die young.” + +(3) Certain adjectives denoting qualities, which may also be used to name +classes of things having those qualities; as, _good_, _evil_, _true_, +_false_. We say, “Love the good, cherish the true, admire the beautiful.” + +(4) Certain other adjectives, such as _native_, _secret_, _fat_, _lean_, +_thick_. We say, “The natives had no secrets,” “Jack Sprat would eat no +fat,” “He was always in the thick of the fight.” + +=Exercise.=—Make sentences containing the following words used as +adjectives and as nouns: _purple_, _blue_, _brave_, _righteous_, _evil_, +_wet_, _cold_, _sweet_, _right_, _wrong_, _solid_, _strong_. + +=75.= Some words may be used both as adjectives and as adverbs. When +_well_ means the opposite of _sick_, as in the sentence, “Grace never was +a well child,” it is an adjective. When _well_ means in a good manner, as +in the sentence, “Esther sings well,” it is an adverb. + +=Exercise.=—Tell what part of speech the italicized words are in the +following sentences. Give your reason in each case. + + 1. The paper is large _enough_, but I have not _enough_ string. + + 2. As she came _near_ I recognized one of my _near_ neighbors. + + 3. _All_ flesh is grass. + + 4. The girls playing basket ball are _all_ tired out. + + 5. The doctor liked a _fast_ horse. + + 6. We must walk _fast_ this cold morning. + + 7. Nobody could play golf _worse_ than I. + + 8. May I never do a _worse_ deed! + + 9. Have you _any_ ribbon to match this sample? + + 10. Will this color do _any_ better? + + 11. Somebody _else_ will marry her then. + + 12. How _else_ could I get there in time? + +Make sentences containing the following words used as adjectives and +as adverbs: _high_, _last_, _long_, _low_, _much_, _round_, _slow_, +_straight_. + +=76.= Some words may be used both as adverbs and as prepositions. In the +sentence, “I looked in as I went by,” both _in_ and _by_ are adverbs. How +do we know this? In the sentence, “As I went by the house, I looked in +the window,” both _in_ and _by_ are prepositions. What are their objects? +What do the phrases modify? + +=Exercise.=—What part of speech are the italicized words in the following +sentences? Give your reason in each case. + + 1. _Beyond_ lay the city of their dreams. + + 2. Our house stands _beyond_ the church. + + 3. _Over_ the Alps lies Italy. + + 4. Come _over_ this evening if you can. + + 5. She fainted and did not come _to_ for an hour. + + 6. The granary is _behind_ the barn. + + 7. Ichabod looked _behind_ for an instant. + + 8. A storm of sleet was raging _without_. + + 9. Civilized man cannot do _without_ cooks. + +Make sentences in which the following words are used both as adverbs +and as prepositions: _about_, _above_, _along_, _down_, _off_, _on_, +_through_, _under_, _up_, _within_. + + + + +XXIII. TRANSITIVE VERBS. OBJECT OF VERB + + +=77.= We have seen that a noun may be related to a verb as its subject. +When the verb asserts action, as in the sentence, “Many birds eat flies,” +then the subject _many birds_ names the doer, or performer, of the action. + +There is another very common relation that a noun may bear to a verb. In +the sentence above, the verb _eat_ asserts an action that is not only +performed _by_ something, but is also performed _upon_ something. That +is, there is a doer of the action, many birds, and a receiver of the +action, flies. If we had merely the subject and the verb, our sentence +would be incomplete, and we should ask at once, _eat what?_ + +Since the word _flies_ completes the meaning of the verb _eat_, we call +it the =complement= of the verb. Since it names the receiver of the +action that is asserted by the verb _eat_, we call it the =object= or +=direct object= of the verb. + +=78.= Not all verbs require an object—only those which assert action +which the subject performs _upon_ some person or thing. Such verbs are +called =transitive= verbs. + +=79.= The object of a verb is not always a single word. The object may +be compound, as in the sentence, “Many birds eat flies and gnats and +mosquitoes.” Again, the object may be a group of words, of which a noun +is the base word. In the following sentence there are three transitive +verbs. What is the object of each verb? What is the base word of each +object?—“Miss Dorothea dusted the banisters round the porch, straightened +the rows of shoes in mother’s closet, and folded the daily papers in the +rack.” + +=80.= Just as we can find the subject of a verb by asking the question +made by placing _who_ or _what_ before the verb, so we can find the +object of a verb that asserts action by asking the question made by +placing _whom_ or _what_ after the verb. + +These questions are often a great help, especially if a sentence is long +or transposed. In the sentence, “A more miserable little beast I had +never seen,” what is the verb? Ask a question to find the subject. Ask a +question to find the object. + +=Summary.=—A =transitive verb= is one that asserts action performed upon +some person or thing. + +A =complement= is a word or a group of words used to complete the meaning +of a verb. + +The =direct object= of a verb is a word or a group of words that +completes the meaning of a transitive verb and names the receiver of the +action. + + NOTE.—Not all transitive verbs denote action that is + accompanied by motion. Some denote action of the senses; as, + “I _see_ the star,” “I _taste_ the pepper.” Others denote + action of the feelings; as, “I _love_ the truth,” “I _hate_ a + lie.” Still others do not denote action at all; as, “I _mean_ + you,” “Our forefathers _owned_ slaves,” “I _kept_ her letter.” + We must enlarge our notion of transitive verbs so as to make + it include all verbs that take a complement which denotes a + different person or thing from the subject. + +=Exercise 1.=—Select all the transitive verbs in these sentences. Find +both their subjects and their objects by asking the proper questions. + + NOTE.—A transitive verb may be modified before it is completed. + This is true of _lifts_ in sentence 2. Oftener the idea + expressed by the verb and its object together is modified; + as in sentence 1, where the phrase _in despair_ modifies not + _shook_ but _shook her head_. + + 1. Dotty Dimple shook her head in despair. + + 2. At the word of command, the two horsemen stop, each man + lifts up his right leg, throws it over the back of his horse, + and drops it to the ground so that the two boots tap the + pavement at the same instant. + + 3. Her father found a pleasant seat on the shady side, hung the + basket in a rack, and opened a window. + + 4. When the young surveyor left Detroit, he carried a huge + green bandbox, and his wife in her far frontier home received + in due time a beautiful blue bonnet. + + 5. I threw off an overcoat, took an armchair by the crackling + logs, and awaited patiently the arrival of my hosts. + + 6. All the world likes molasses candy. + + 7. The children brought home great bunches of the brilliant + leaves, and some they pressed and varnished, while others + Katherine dipped in melted wax. + + 8. John trod down the exquisite ferns and the wonderful mosses + without compunction. But he gathered from the crevices of the + rocks the columbine and the eglantine and the blue harebell; + he picked the high-flavored alpine strawberry, the blueberry, + the boxberry, wild currants and gooseberries and fox grapes; he + brought home armfuls of the pink and white laurel and the wild + honeysuckle; he dug the roots of the fragrant sassafras and of + the sweet flag; he ate the tender leaves of the wintergreen and + its red berries; he gathered the peppermint and the spearmint; + he gnawed the twigs of the black birch; he dug the amber gum + from the spruce-tree; he brought home such medicinal herbs for + the garret as the goldthread, the tansy, and the loathsome + “boneset,” and he laid in for the winter, like a squirrel, + stores of beechnuts, hazelnuts, hickorynuts, chestnuts, and + butternuts. + +=Exercise 2.=—Analyze the following sentences:— + + NOTE.—If any part of a sentence is compound, state that fact + before analyzing it. If the subject or object is compound, give + the base words first, and then the modifiers of each. If the + predicate is compound, analyze the first predicate completely, + then the second, and so on. If any adverb or prepositional + phrase modifies the idea denoted by the verb and the object, be + sure to say so in your analysis. For instance, in the sentence, + “We have seen his star in the east,” the predicate verb is + _have seen_. It is completed by the direct object _his star_, + and then modified by the prepositional phrase _in the east_. + + 1. Sometimes a perfume like absinthe sweetened all the air. + + 2. The little brown field mouse ran along in the grass, poked + his nose into everything, and finally spied a smooth, shiny + acorn. + + 3. My son, descend those steps and enter that door. + + 4. Many and many a pair of mittens had those busy fingers knit. + + 5. Always within a few moments the rabbits would resume their + leaping progress through the white glitter and the hard, black + shadows. + + 6. The visit of the tax collector seldom gives unmixed joy. + + 7. Scrooge took his melancholy dinner in his usual melancholy + tavern. + + 8. The first glimpse of a new country always quickens the sense + of the traveler. + + 9. Rebecca took off her hat and cape and hung them in the hall, + put her rubber shoes and umbrella carefully in the corner, and + then opened the door of paradise. + + 10. The scent of herbs and the fragrance of fruit filled the + great unfinished chamber. + + 11. A polished brazen rod on a broad wooden pedestal beside the + armchair held half a dozen lamps of silver on sliding arms. + + 12. Messala hugged the stony wall with perilous clasp. + + 13. Amrah rubbed her eyes, bent closer down, clasped her hands, + gazed wildly around, looked at the sleeper, then stooped and + raised his hand, and kissed it fondly. + + 14. The proprietor of the fruit stand has a bald head, a long + face, and a nose like the beak of a hawk. + + 15. Without more ado Mr. Cary grasped his arm firmly, and + fairly lifted him into the room. + + + + +XXIV. INTRANSITIVE VERBS ASSERTING ACTION + + +=81.= Transitive verbs, as we have seen, assert action performed upon +some person or thing. There are many other verbs in our language that +assert action, but the action is not performed _upon_ anything. On the +contrary, the action ends in itself; as in the sentence, “The wind in the +chimney sighed and moaned and shivered.” Here the wind is said to perform +three actions, but these actions were not received by anything. Verbs +like _sighed_, _moaned_, and _shivered_ are said to be =intransitive +verbs=. + +=82.= Not all intransitive verbs assert action. The verb _be_ and a +few others (see Lesson XXV) which assert merely _being_, are also +intransitive verbs; as, “I _am_ hungry,” “You _are_ kind,” “He _is_ +extravagant,” “They _were_ careless.” + +=83.= It frequently happens that the same verb may be used in one +sentence as a transitive verb, and in another as an intransitive verb. If +we say, “The horse kicked his master,” the verb _kicked_ is transitive. +Why? If we say, “The poor boy kicked and squirmed and groaned,” the verb +_kicked_ is intransitive. Why? + +We should always classify a verb as it is used in the particular sentence +under consideration. + +=Summary.=—An =intransitive verb= is one that asserts (1) being, or (2) +action that is not received by any person or thing. + +=Exercise 1.=—Select all the verbs in the following sentences, and +classify them as transitive or intransitive. Tell the subject of each +verb. If the verb is transitive, tell its object. + + 1. The princess sat at table next to the king and queen. + + 2. At these words a grave smile of approval lighted the gaunt + face of the Hindu. + + 3. The spring murmured drowsily beside him. The branches waved + dreamily across the blue sky overhead. A deep sleep fell upon + David Swan. + + 4. + + While shepherds watched their flocks by night, + All seated on the ground, + An angel of the Lord came down, + And glory shone around. + + 5. Mr. Jeremy stuck his pole into the mud, and fastened the + boat to it. + + 6. The cat got up and stretched herself, and came and sniffed + at the basket. + + 7. I would have spared the woman who gave thee the milk. + + 8. His hair had fallen about his shoulders. + + 9. They sang patriotic songs, they told stories, they fired + torpedoes, they frightened the cats. + + 10. I could have killed a buck while thou wast striking. + + 11. Away rolled the bogghun, away and away, over the meadows + and into the forest; away and away bounded the Princess in + pursuit. The golden nose ring flashed and glittered in the + sunlight, the golden bangles on her wrists and ankles tinkled + and rang their tiny bells as she went. The monkeys swinging + by their tails from the branches, chattered with astonishment + at us; the wild parrot screamed at us; all the birds sang and + chirped and twittered. + + 12. The chipmunk appeared at the mouth of his den, looked + quickly about, took a few leaps to a tussock of grass, paused a + breath with one foot raised, slipped quickly a few yards over + some dry leaves, paused again by a stump beside a path, rushed + across the path to the pile of loose stones, went under the + first and over the second, gained the pile of posts, made his + way through that, surveyed his course a half moment from the + other side of it, and then darted on to some other cover, and + presently beyond my range, where he must have gathered acorns, + for no other nut-bearing trees than oaks grew near. + +=Exercise 2.=—Tell whether the italicized verbs in the following +sentences are transitive or intransitive. Give your reason in each case. +If a verb is transitive, tell how it is completed. If it is intransitive, +tell how it is modified. + + 1. All the brooks _have burst_ their icy chains. + + 2. The boiler _burst_ with a tremendous noise. + + 3. _Do_ your duty; that is best. + + 4. Such language _will_ never _do_ for a teacher. + + 5. Miss Clarissa _draws_ and paints very well. + + 6. Giotto _drew_ a perfect circle with one sweep of his arm. + + 7. The swallow _flies_ with a graceful dipping motion. + + 8. The boys _are flying_ their kites on the common. + + 9. _Give_ us this day our daily bread. + + 10. The rope was stretched so tightly that it _did_ not _give_ + with his weight. + + 11. All day he sits in his arm chair and _reads_. + + 12. _Have_ you _read_ “The Man without a Country”? + + 13. The woodworkers _have struck_ for shorter hours. + + 14. David _struck_ Uriah Heep on the cheek. + + 15. Aunt Betsy _swept_ down upon the trespassers. + + 16. I _must sweep_ the spiders off the porch. + + + + +XXV. INTRANSITIVE VERBS ASSERTING BEING. NOUNS AS SUBJECTIVE COMPLEMENTS + + +=84.= There is no other verb used oftener than the verb _be_, with its +various forms,—_is_, _are_, _am_, _was_, _will be_, _has been_, etc. In +the sentence, “The lake is the mother of the great rivers,” there would +be no assertion without the verb _is_, and yet it does not assert action +of any sort. The sentence plainly means that the lake and the mother +of the great rivers are identical; that is, they are one and the same +thing. The verb _is_ enables us to assert identity. A verb of this kind +is intransitive. It is often called a verb of =being=, to distinguish it +from verbs that assert action. + +=85.= Some other verbs of this kind are _seem_, _appear_, _become_, +_grow_, _feel_, _look_, _smell_, _taste_, and _sound_. They are classed +as verbs of being because they mean—to be in appearance, in looks, in +smell, in taste, etc., as, “You appear ill,” “She looks young,” “The milk +tastes sour.” + +Verbs that assert being are intransitive verbs. + +=86.= Intransitive verbs of being usually need a complement. In the +sentence, “I am a spinner of long yarns,” if we had merely the subject +and the verb, _I am_, we should ask, _am what?_ The group of words _a +spinner of long yarns_ answers this question, and so completes the +predicate. It is not an object complement, however, for it cannot name +the receiver of an action since the verb does not assert action at all. +This complement denotes identity with the subject; hence it is called a +=subjective complement=. + +Often the subjective complement denotes the class to which the person or +thing named by the subject belongs; as, “Corn is a grain,” “My friend is +a farmer.” + +=87.= The subject and the object complement denote two different persons +or things, but the subject and the subjective complement always refer to +the same person or thing. + +=88.= The subjective complement is sometimes a single noun, as in the +sentence, “Stars are suns.” When the subjective complement is a group of +words, a noun is usually the base word; as, “Procrastination is the thief +of time.” + +In sentences containing a subjective complement, the subject comes before +the verb, and the subjective complement after the verb, unless the +sentence is transposed; as, “Lords of the sea are we.” + +=89.= Sometimes, instead of having a complement, a verb of being is +modified by a prepositional phrase, or even by an adverb, denoting place; +as, “My bark is on the sea,” “Yonder is my home.” + +=Summary.=—Verbs that assert =being= or =identity= are intransitive verbs. + +A =subjective complement= is a word or a group of words that completes a +verb and refers to the same person or thing as the subject. + +=Exercise.=—Select all the intransitive verbs of being in the following +sentences. Find their subjects and their complements, and the base words +of each. Analyze sentences 1, 3, 4, 5, 7, 9, 14. + + 1. This palace was the residence of the queen consort of + England. + + 2. + + The king was in his counting house, counting out his money, + The queen was in the parlor, eating bread and honey. + + 3. My name is Beautiful Joe, and I am a brown dog of medium + size. + + 4. Her worship of God was unselfish service, and her prayers + were worthy deeds. + + 5. The one great poem of New England is her Sunday. + + 6. This guinea pig’s name was Jeff, and he and I became good + friends. + + 7. Patient waiters are no losers. + + 8. In this fine open square are magnificent fountains, handsome + statuary on tall pedestals, and crowds of vehicles and foot + passengers crossing it in every direction. + + 9. A jackknife in his expert hand was a whole chest of tools. + + 10. One of the best things in the world to be is a boy. + + 11. Backbiting is the meanest kind of biting, not excepting the + bite of fleas. + + 12. The rattle of a bucket in a neighbor’s yard, no longer + mixed with other weekday noises, seemed a new sound. + + 13. + + Little Boy Blue, come blow your horn. + The sheep’s in the meadow, the cow’s in the corn. + + 14. I became an enthusiastic little cook. + + 15. King Arthur’s son was a handsome, polite, and brave knight. + + 16. The bees are abroad under the calling sky, and the red of + apple buds becomes a sign in the orchards. + + 17. Always darker turns the growing hemp as it rushes upward. + +Account for the punctuation of sentences 3, 4, 6, 8, and 15. + + + + +XXVI. ADJECTIVES AS SUBJECTIVE COMPLEMENTS + + +=90.= In the sentences, (1) “The tomato is a fruit,” (2) “That tall boy +is the winner of the race,” the base word of the subjective complement is +a noun, because we wish to assert (1) class, (2) identity. + +In the sentence, “The old gentleman’s face was serene and rosy,” the base +words of the subjective complement are the two adjectives _serene_ and +_rosy_, because we wish to assert the characteristics, or qualities, of +the old gentleman’s face. + +This is a very common use of the adjective, as seen in the familiar +sentences, “Grass is green,” “Honey is sweet,” “Ice is cold.” + +=91.= The verbs of being that were given in Lesson XXV,—_be_, _become_, +_look_, _seem_, _appear_, _feel_, _smell_, _taste_, _sound_, and +_grow_,—often take adjectives for subjective complements; as, “My head +feels dizzy,” “This sentence sounds queer,” “Mary grew plump and strong.” + +In some cases where the language affords no adjectives that exactly +express the meaning, we use a prepositional phrase as subjective +complement; as in the common expressions, “The house is _on fire_,” “The +girl is _in love_,” “The man is _in debt_.” None of these phrases denote +place, but each of them denotes a condition. + + NOTE.—An adjective used as a subjective complement is often + modified by a prepositional phrase. If we say “The bin is + full,” somebody will ask “full of what?” If we say “full of + apples,” it is evident that the phrase _of apples_ modifies + _full_. We also say _glad of it_, _tired of play_, _wild with + joy_, _green with envy_, etc. These expressions are different, + however, from what we find in the sentence, “I was tired in the + evening,” where the phrase _in the evening_, denoting time, + modifies not the adjective _tired_, but the two words _was + tired_. + +=Summary.=—An adjective, or a group of words of which an adjective is the +base word, may be the subjective complement of an intransitive verb. + +=Exercise.=—Select all the intransitive verbs of being in the following +sentences. Find their subjects and their complements, and the base words +of each. Analyze sentences 1, 2, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 13, 15. + + 1. The sting of a bee is sometimes deadly. + + 2. The woodchuck looked sulky, and scratched his nose + expressively. + + 3. The traveler’s limbs were numb, for the ride had been long + and wearisome. + + 4. She might be poor in purse and weak in body, this brave + young mother, but she was rich in hope and strong in spirit. + + 5. By the third day I felt too weak and sick to stir. + + 6. At these words the king grew purple in the face. + + 7. Conrad will keep quiet over his books. + + 8. Mary was beautiful, feminine in spirit, and lovely. + Elizabeth was talented, masculine, and plain. Mary was artless, + unaffected, and gentle. Elizabeth was heartless, intriguing, + and insincere. + + 9. Your grandfather looked very funny in his red nightcap, and + without his teeth. + + 10. Very few poetic people are good at arithmetic. + + 11. The garden at the back of the house was sweet with the + scent of newly blossomed lilacs and the freshness of young + grass. + + 12. Snow-white was the foam that flashed upward underneath the + curving prow. + + 13. Is not Little Annie afraid of such a tumult? + + 14. His mouth felt as dry and stiff and hard as a chip. + + 15. The people went nearly mad for joy. + +=92.= A common error is the misuse of an adverb for an adjective as the +subjective complement of a verb of being. We should say, “I feel _bad_, +or _ill_, or _unhappy_” (not _badly_). + +Another common error is the misuse of an adjective for an adverb as a +modifier of a verb of action. We should say, “The child learns _easily_” +(not _easy_). + +If we wish to tell a quality or condition of the subject, we should use +an adjective; as, “The oak leaves turned _brown_.” If we wish to tell +the manner of an action, we should use an adverb; as, “The leaves turned +_quickly_ this fall.” + +=Exercise 1.=—Tell the part of speech of each italicized word in these +sentences, and justify its use. + + 1. Mary dresses _neatly_ and always looks _charming_. + + 2. The children must keep _quiet_ to-night. + + 3. Stand _straight_ and breathe _deeply_. + + 4. Look at them _kindly_ and speak _gently_. + + 5. The old bishop looks _kind_ and _gentle_. + + 6. This pie tastes very _queer_. + + 7. Mother feels _uneasy_ if we are _out late_. + + 8. The boy seemed _nervous_ and felt _uneasily_ of his watch + chain. + + 9. Poor oil made the lamp smell very _disagreeable_. + + 10. All the doors stood _open_. + + 11. The air grew _cold steadily_. + + 12. Keep the box _carefully_ till I return. + +=Exercise 2.=—Select the right word for each of the following sentences, +and give your reason in each case:— + + 1. The light is so poor that I cannot see the picture (_plain_ + or _plainly_). + + 2. I am frightened when she speaks (_cross_ or _crossly_) to me. + + 3. Sit with me so that you can hear (_good_ or _well_). + + 4. Does he always deal (_honest_ or _honestly_) with you? + + 5. The miser died (_miserable_ or _miserably_). + + 6. You came so (_sudden_ or _suddenly_) that I was taken by + surprise. + + 7. No wonder you fell, you move too (_quick_ or _quickly_). + + 8. How (_stylish_ or _stylishly_) she dresses. + + 9. I (_sure_ or _surely_) mailed the letter. + + 10. Next time I shall act more (_sensible_ or _sensibly_). + + 11. Money comes (_easy_ or _easily_) to him, and is soon gone. + + 12. I felt so (_bad_ or _badly_) that I cried. + + 13. I was ill yesterday, but I feel pretty (_good_ or _well_) + this morning. + + 14. All my rose bushes look (_fine_ or _finely_). + + + + +XXVII. REVIEW OF VERBS + + +=93.= A =verb= is an asserting word. + +A =transitive verb= is one that asserts action performed upon some person +or thing. + +A transitive verb is completed by a =direct object=. + +The =direct object= of a transitive verb is a word or a group of words +that completes the meaning of the verb and names the receiver of the +action. + +The =base word= of a =direct object= is usually a noun. + +An =intransitive verb= is one that asserts, (1) being, or (2) action not +performed upon any person or thing. + +An =intransitive verb of action= needs no complement. + +An =intransitive verb of being= is usually completed by a subjective +complement. + +A =subjective complement= is a word or a group of words that completes a +verb and refers to the same person or thing as the subject. + +A subjective complement denotes identity with the subject, or tells the +class to which the subject belongs, or some quality of the subject. + +The =base word= of a =subjective complement= may be a noun or an +adjective. + +=Exercise.=—Select and classify all the verbs in the following sentences. +Tell the subject of each verb, and tell how each verb is completed or +modified. + + 1. As soon as he saw the cat in the soap barrel, he set the + lamp down on the cellar bottom, and laughed so that he could + hardly move. + + 2. When night came, I felt still more lonesome. + + 3. Little Toomai shall become a great tracker. + + 4. The wind whistled around the low, unplastered chamber, but + the beds were soft and warm, and the guests were ready for + sleep. + + 5. The youngest daughter was the gentlest and most beautiful + creature ever seen, and the pride of all the people in the land. + + 6. I am too stiff and sore from a terrible fall I have had, to + write more than one line. + + 7. Next month, when the city had returned to its sunbaked + quiet, the Hindu did a thing that no Englishman would have + dreamed of doing; for, so far as the world’s affairs went, he + died. + + 8. The knoll in the tamarack swamp was a haven of peace amid + the fierce but furtive warfare of the wilderness. + + 9. Beauty rose by four o’clock every morning, lighted the + fires, cleaned the house, and prepared the breakfast for the + whole family. + + 10. More years sped swiftly and tranquilly away. + + 11. What a place the old market must have been in the days of + Herod the Builder! + + 12. The lizard belonging to my mistress was a very beautiful + creature. + + 13. The rocky walls are red with the scarlet of the geranium, + aglow with the orange of the lantana, or they are hidden by the + purple veil of the wild convolvulus. The dainty sweet alyssum + clings to the rock in great patches, and the little rice plant + lays its pink cheek against it lovingly. + + 14. The spring had been a trying season for the lank she-bear. + + 15. Right proud the baron was of his gallant steed. + + 16. There is the house with the gate red-barred. + + 17. The big male cuffed the cubs aside without ceremony, + mounted the carcass with an air of lordship, glared about him, + and suddenly with a snarl of wrath, fixed his eyes upon the + green branches wherein the boy was concealed. + + 18. Rip Van Winkle was a kind neighbor and an obedient, + hen-pecked husband. + + 19. The great error in Rip’s composition was an insuperable + aversion to all kinds of profitable labor. + + 20. The same sweet clover smell is in the breeze. + + 21. David stooped down and piled the fagots in the hollow of + his arm. + + 22. Gentle are the days when the year is young. + + 23. The winter sunshine on the fields seems full of rest. + + 24. I feel out of place under this roof. + + 25. Strips of snow still whitened the fields, but on the stumps + were bluebirds, and they warbled of spring. + + 26. The great limb of the cedar snapped off, rolled over in the + air, and lay on the ground like a huge animal. + + + + +XXVIII. NOUNS: NUMBER + + +=94.= When we wish a noun to denote more than one object, we often change +its form slightly. _Man_ becomes _men_, _child_ becomes _children_, +_river_ becomes _rivers_. + +This change in the form of a noun by which it denotes one object or more +than one is called =number=. + +Number is said to be one of the =properties= of a noun. + +=95.= When a noun denotes one object, it is said to be in the singular +number; as, _lion_, _mouse_, _knife_. + +When a noun denotes more than one object, it is said to be in the +=plural= number; as, _lions_, _mice_, _knives_. + +=96.= Most nouns form their plural by adding _s_ or _es_ to the singular; +as, _key_, _keys_; _hand_, _hands_; _rope_, _ropes_; _mass_, _masses_; +_fox_, _foxes_; _church_, _churches_; _bush_, _bushes_. + +This is said to be the =regular= way of forming the plural. Why is it +that some words add _es_ instead of _s?_ + +=97.= Nouns ending in _o_ preceded by a vowel form their plural by adding +_s_; as, _folio_, _folios_; _cameo_, _cameos_. + +Some nouns ending in _o_ preceded by a consonant add _es_, and others +_s_; as, _potato_, _potatoes_; _mosquito_, _mosquitoes_; _solo_, _solos_; +_piano_, _pianos_. + +=98.= Some nouns form their plural =irregularly=. + +(1) A few nouns change the vowel; as, _man_, _men_; _goose_, _geese_; +_mouse_, _mice_; _foot_, _feet_; _tooth_, _teeth_. + +(2) A few nouns add _en_; as, _ox, oxen_; _child, children_. + +(3) Nouns ending in _y_, preceded by a consonant sound, change _y_ to _i_ +and add _es_; as, _fly, flies_; _fairy, fairies_. + +(4) Some nouns ending in _f_ or _fe_ change _f_ or _fe_ to _v_ and add +_es_; as, _wolf_, _wolves_; _knife_, _knives_. + +=99.= Some nouns have the same form in both the singular and the plural; +as, _deer_, _grouse_, _salmon_. + +=100.= Some nouns ending in _s_ look like plural nouns, but are regarded +as singular; as, _news_, _athletics_, _gymnastics_. + +=101.= Some nouns are used only in the plural; as, _scissors_, _pincers_, +_thanks_. + +=102.= Compound nouns form their plural in three different ways:— + +(1) By adding _s_ to the last word; as, _forget-me-not_, _forget-me-nots_. + +(2) By adding _s_ to the principal word; as, _son-in-law_, _sons-in-law_. + +(3) By pluralizing both words; as, _manservant_, _menservants_. + +=103.= When a title is used with one name, we may pluralize either the +name or the title. We may say the _Misses Gray_ or the _Miss Grays_, the +_Messrs. Greenwood_ or the _Mr. Greenwoods_. + +When a title is used with more than one name, we pluralize the title. We +say the _Misses Morgan and Adams_. The title _Mrs._ has no plural, so we +must say _Mrs. Morgan and Mrs. Adams_. + +=104.= Letters, signs, or figures form their plurals by adding an +apostrophe and _s_; as, 6’s, i’s, _t_’s. + +=105.= A few foreign nouns have kept their foreign plurals. Some of these +in common use are _stratum_, _strata_; _alumnus_, _alumni_; _axis_, +_axes_. + +=106.= Some nouns have two plurals used with slightly different meanings; +as, _penny_ has _pennies_ and _pence_; _brother_ has _brothers_ and +_brethren_; _die_ has _dies_ and _dice_. Find out from the dictionary the +meanings of these plurals. + +The correct plural of a noun cannot always be reasoned out. It should +never be guessed. It can always be learned from a dictionary. + +=Summary.=—=Number= is that property of a noun by which it denotes one +object or more than one. + +A =singular= noun denotes one object. + +A =plural= noun denotes more than one object. + +Nouns form their plural =regularly= by adding _s_ or _es_ to the singular. + +Many nouns form their plural =irregularly=. + +=Exercise 1.=—Tell the plural of each of the following nouns. Tell how it +is formed. Consult the dictionary when you are in doubt. + + alto + apostrophe + box + brush + calf + chromo + crisis + cupful + deer + Dutchman + elf + enemy + fez + fife + foot + German + half + hero + hoof + lasso + lioness + loaf + monkey + motto + mouse + negro + noose + Norman + oasis + piano + pony + sheaf + size + soprano + tableau + tooth + vertebra + volcano + wharf + court-martial + Dr. Wright + eyelash + flagstaff + General Allen + hanger-on + jack-in-the-pulpit + Miss Davis + passer-by + postmaster general + will-o’-the-wisp + +=Exercise 2.=—Select all the nouns in the following sentences, and tell +whether they are singular or plural. Give the singular of each plural +word, and the plural of each singular word. + + 1. Listen! In yonder pine woods what a cawing of crows! + + 2. A washstand in the corner, a chest of carved mahogany + drawers, a looking-glass in a filigree frame, and a high-backed + chair studded with brass nails like a coffin constituted the + furniture. + + 3. There have always been medicine men, rain makers, wizards, + conjurers, sorcerers, astrologers, and fortune tellers, ready + to trade on the fears of the weak, the ignorant, and the + superstitious. + + 4. April brought the blue scylla and the sweet violet; May + brought the much-loved narcissus and lily of the valley. + + 5. In came the three Miss Fezziwigs, beaming and lovable. + + 6. People hardly ever do know where to be born until it is too + late. + + 7. The bell in the church tower was striking six, but I + undressed for the night and buried myself under the bedclothes. + + 8. As it fell out, the three princesses were talking one night + of whom they would marry. + + 9. Poor Mrs. Wise! I’m sure she’s to be pitied, living here + with all these grandchildren. + + 10. As soon as Pussy heard me shut the gate in the yard at + noon, when school was done, she would run up the stairs as hard + as she could go. + + 11. The puppy’s nightly couch was outside the stable, even + during the coldest weather. + + 12. The fish, strange creatures called groupers, with great + sluggish bodies and horribly human faces, come crowding up to + be fed. + + 13. What a hardy set of men they were, those Northmen of old! + + 14. The streams that have entered into our American life come + from springs very wide apart,—from the Puritan whom James I was + persecuting, and from the courtiers whom he was patronizing; + from the Dutchmen whom Charles II was fighting, and from the + Covenanters whom he was trying to convert at the pistol’s + point; from the Scotchmen who had captured the north of + Ireland, and from the Huguenots who had been driven out of the + south of France. + +What is the use of _listen_, sentence 1, _furniture_, 2, _horribly_, 12? + +How are the adjectives _weak_, _ignorant_, and _superstitious_ used in +sentence 3? + + + + +XXIX. NOUNS: GENDER + + +=107.= One of the characteristics of living things is sex; that is, all +living things are male or female. Many nouns that are names of living +things indicate sex. The noun _king_ indicates the male sex. The noun +_queen_ indicates the female sex. The property of a noun by which it +indicates the sex of the object named is called =gender=. + +=108.= Since there are two sexes, there must be at least two genders. +Nouns that indicate the male sex are said to be of the =masculine= +gender; as, _hero_, _grandfather_. + +Nouns that indicate the female sex are said to be of the =feminine= +gender; as, _hen_, _tigress_, _sister_. + +Note that sex, male or female, refers to a distinction, or difference, +in the living creatures themselves, while gender is merely a property +of their names that shows this distinction. It is absurd, therefore, to +speak of a person of the masculine gender, but it is allowable to speak +of masculine qualities, masculine attire, a masculine voice, etc. + +=109.= Since things without life have no sex, the nouns that name such +things have no gender; as, _sky_, _tent_, _pie_. Such words are said to +be of the =neuter= gender. _Neuter_ means _neither_. + +=110.= Some nouns that may be applied to persons of either male or female +sex are said to be of =common= gender; as, _child_, _cousin_, _parent_, +_clerk_. + +=111.= Gender is denoted in three ways:— + +(1) By a pair of words; as, _man_, _woman_; _bull_, _cow_; _lad_, _lass_. + +(2) By inflection, that is, by adding a syllable to the masculine noun +to form the feminine; as, _hero_, _heroine_; _lion_, _lioness_; _host_, +_hostess_. + +What can you say of the words _widow_ and _widower_? + +(3) By prefixing a word whose gender is well known; as, _bull moose_, +_maidservant_, _she bear_. + + NOTE. —Some feminine nouns are going out of use. We no longer + use the words _poetess_ or _authoress_. If a woman preaches, + she is a minister; if she practices medicine, she is a doctor, + not a “lady doctor.” + +=Summary.=—=Gender= is that property of a noun which indicates the sex or +non-sex of the object named. + +There are four genders:— + +A noun of the =masculine gender= indicates the male sex. + +A noun of the =feminine gender= indicates the female sex. + +A noun of the =neuter gender= indicates the absence of sex. + +A noun of =common gender= may indicate either the male or the female sex. + +Gender is denoted (1) by different words, (2) by inflection, (3) by +prefixing some gender word. + +=Exercise.=—Tell the gender of each noun in the following sentences. Tell +how its gender is denoted. If you are in doubt about any word, consult +the dictionary. + + 1. The she wolf lay agonizing in the darkest corner of the + cave, licking in grim silence the raw stump of her right + foreleg. + + 2. The wild goose winging at the head of the V knew of good + feeding grounds near by, which he was ready to revisit. + + 3. Not vague was the fear of the brooding grouse in the far-off + thicket, though the sound came to her but dimly. + + 4. At the captain’s signal the _Seabird_ came alongside, and + Mr. Wintermute left Mrs. Howe and her little family to go on + their journey alone. + + 5. Having sniffed the air for several minutes, without + discerning anything to interest him, the great bull moose + bethought him of his evening meal. + + 6. Here on the ridge a buck, with his herd of does and fawns, + has established his winter “yard.” + + 7. Without a second’s hesitation the cow flung up her tail, + gave a short bellow, and charged the bear. + + 8. Another thing that attracts attention is the animals + tethered here, there, and everywhere. You see donkeys, goats, + cows, even cats, hens, and turkeys, confined by the inevitable + tether. + + 9. Never before since the nestlings broke the shell had her + mate been so long away. + + 10. The pupils never entered the study except upon the most + formal occasions. + + 11. A fine cock grouse alighted on a log some forty paces + distant, stretched himself, strutted, spread his ruff and wings + and tail, and was about to begin drumming. + + 12. Pedestrians walk where they will, here, there, or yonder. + + 13. Several men-of-war, with a multitude of smaller craft, are + at anchor in Grassy Bay, and the admiral’s ship is lying on the + great floating dock for repairs. + + 14. Some civilians are buried here, and many little children; + and I came upon a pathetic memorial to a fair young English + wife, who followed her soldier husband hither with her little + child, only to die on these far-off shores. + + 15. Any animal that had died from natural causes the wolves + would not touch, and they even rejected anything that had been + killed by the stockmen. Their choice and daily food was the + tenderer part of a freshly killed yearling heifer. An old bull + or cow they disdained, and though they occasionally took a + young calf or colt, it was quite clear that veal or horseflesh + was not their favorite diet. It was also known that they were + not fond of mutton, although they often amused themselves by + killing sheep. + + + + +XXX. POSSESSIVE NOUNS + + +=112.= Instead of saying, “I borrowed the knife belonging to Will,” we +are likely to say, “I borrowed Will’s knife.” Here we have a new form of +the noun _Will_. It is used with the noun _knife_ to denote ownership of +the knife, and is called a =possessive= noun. + +=113.= Since a possessive noun denotes ownership, it must be used with +another noun, the name of the thing owned. The possessive noun is said to +modify this other noun. In the expression _doctor’s car_, the possessive +noun _doctor’s_ modifies the noun _car_. + +When the name of the thing owned is well known, it is often omitted. We +say, “I bought these skates at Percy’s,” and omit the word _store_. A +word omitted in this way is said to be “understood.” + +=114.= Possessive nouns have a certain form of their own. The possessive +singular of a noun is formed by adding to it the apostrophe and _s_; as, +_girl’s_ desk; _friend’s_ home; _George’s_ boat. + + NOTE.—In a few common expressions, like _for Jesus’ sake_, _for + conscience’ sake_, the possessive is formed, for the sake of + euphony, by adding merely the apostrophe. + +When the plural of a noun ends in _s_, the possessive plural is formed by +adding an apostrophe; as, _girls’_ league; _ladies’_ bonnets. + +When the plural of a noun does not end in _s_, the possessive plural is +formed by adding the apostrophe and _s_; as, _women’s_ shoes; _oxen’s_ +yokes. + +=115.= When two persons are joint owners of one thing, we give the +possessive form to the name of the second person only; as, _Lewis and +Fred’s_ boat. + +When two persons own separate things, the name of each person must have +the possessive form; as, I went to _Mandel’s_ and _Field’s_, meaning two +different stores. + +=116.= Compound nouns form the possessive by adding the sign of +possession to the last word; as, singular, _son-in-law’s_; plural, +_sons-in-law’s_. + +=117.= The possessive noun does not always express actual ownership. +Thus, “an _hour’s_ walk” means a walk lasting an hour, “_Lowell’s_ +poems,” means the poems written by Lowell, “a _child’s_ grief” means the +grief felt by a child. What is the meaning of _the day’s work_? _a good +night’s rest_? _a year’s vacation_? _the king’s death_? + +=118.= Possession may be denoted by a phrase beginning with the +preposition _of_. This phrase is much used. We say _the back of the +chair_, not _the chair’s back_; _the roots of the elm_, not _the elm’s +roots_. This phrase enables us to avoid some awkward possessives. What +may we say instead of _my cousin’s wife’s sister_? _the king of Greece’s +court_? + +=119.= In the expression “this book of John’s,” we have what is called a +=double possessive=, for we have the possessive noun _John’s_, and the +phrase introduced by _of_. We use the double possessive when the noun +denoting the thing owned is first modified by some adjective, as _a_, +_the_, _this_, _every_, _both_, _no_. + +=Summary.=—A =possessive noun= denotes ownership. + +A possessive noun modifies another noun, expressed or understood. + +The possessive singular is formed by adding the apostrophe and _s_. + +The possessive plural is formed by adding the apostrophe and _s_ if the +noun does not end in _s_, and the apostrophe alone if the noun does end +in _s_. + +A =double possessive= is a phrase consisting of the preposition _of_ +followed by some possessive word. + +=Exercise 1.=—Write the possessive of each of these nouns. Tell whether +it is singular or plural. + + attorney-general + chairman + city + colonies + Colonel Cleveland + commander in chief + Charles Dickens + daughters-in-law + dwarfs + foxes + geese + goddess + groomsman + Frenchman + John Keats + ladies + major generals + Miss James + mulatto + sailor boy + thief + witches + woodpecker + yeoman + +=Exercise 2.=—Select all the possessive nouns in the following sentences. +Tell what nouns they modify, and whether they are singular or plural. +Tell also the gender of each possessive. + + 1. The lady’s fondness and the gentleman’s blindness were + topics ably handled at every sewing circle in the town. + + 2. St. Paul’s is the largest Protestant church in the world. + + 3. Last year’s nuts are this year’s black earth. + + 4. On the way home we stopped at the baker’s to get some cream + puffs. + + 5. Every debt of my partner’s has been paid. + + 6. The woodsman’s aim was true. + + 7. The singers’ seats, where the pretty girls sat, were the + most conspicuous of all. + + 8. A half hour’s tramp through difficult woods brought him to + the nearest of the waters. + + 9. In August we had two weeks’ vacation. + + 10. This editorial of Roosevelt’s is attracting much attention. + + 11. Sulphur they could buy at the apothecary’s. + + 12. The horse is coal-black, which is the regulation color of + the Horse-Guards’ horses. + + 13. My clothes and my father’s were packed in a little leather + valise. + + 14. The backwoodsman cast a tender look on the sleepers’ faces, + and slipped out of the cabin door as silently as a shadow. + + 15. Just where we leave the highway to go to Gibbs’s Hill we + pass a ruined house. + + 16. He had melted up his wife’s gold thimble and his + great-grandfather’s gold-bowed spectacles. + + 17. I called on Nancy because she was a friend of Miss Davis’s. + + 18. Can you give a traveler a night’s lodging? + + 19. + + When beechen buds begin to swell, + And woods the bluebird’s warble know, + The yellow violet’s modest bell + Peeps from the last year’s leaves below. + +Analyze sentences 2, 3, 5, 6, 8, 9, 11, 16. + + + + +XXXI. NOUNS: CASE + + +=120.= We have seen that a noun may be used in different relations to +other words in the sentence. It may be related to a verb, for instance, +as subject, as object, and as subjective complement. That property of +a noun which shows its relation to some other word in the sentence is +called =case=. + +=121.= The three most important and striking relations that a noun may +bear are these: subject of a verb, object of a verb, and possessive +modifier. Hence there are three cases. + +When a noun is the subject of a verb, we say that it is in the +=nominative= case. + +When it is the object of a verb, we say that it is in the =objective= +case. + +When it is a possessive modifier, we say that it is in the =possessive= +case. + +The pronoun has the same three cases as a noun. + +=122.= A noun is said to be =declined= when we give its three case forms +in both the singular and the plural number. + + DECLENSION OF _child_ + + _Singular_ _Plural_ + + _Nom._ child children + _Poss._ child’s children’s + _Obj._ child children + +=123.= The noun in the nominative case is used in other relations besides +that of subject of a verb. The subjective complement is in the nominative +case, as well as the noun used independently. + +When a noun is object of a preposition, it is in the objective case. + +=Summary.=—=Case= is that property of a noun or a pronoun which shows its +relation to some other word in the sentence. + +There are three cases. + +A noun used as subject of a verb, as subjective complement, as an +exclamatory noun, or as a term of address is in the =nominative case=. + +A noun used as object of a verb or of a preposition is in the =objective +case=. + +A noun used as a possessive modifier is in the =possessive case=. + +=Declension= is the arrangement of the three case forms of a noun in the +two numbers. + +=Exercise.=—Tell the use, the case, the number, and the gender of every +noun in these sentences. + + 1. The chill glitter of the northern summer sunrise was washing + down over the rounded top of old Sugar Loaf. + + 2. Thank him according to our customs, Mowgli. + + 3. What a good draught the nag takes! + + 4. Alas! Kitty Clover, they say it is wicked; that I must not + catch grasshoppers for a pussy cat on Sunday. + + 5. Why doesn’t your mother make a fresh cup of coffee? + + 6. We might shovel off the snow, and dig down to some of last + year’s onions. + + 7. Pilgrim fathers! why should we not glorify the pilgrim + mothers? + + 8. What did Peterson Sahib mean by the elephant dance? + + 9. The boy is the shoemaker’s friend. + + 10. + + Mistress Mary, quite contrary, + How does your garden grow? + + 11. I didn’t ask the captain’s leave when I attended this + ceremony, for I had a general idea that he wouldn’t give it. + + 12. Cæsar is certainly the handsomest and most gentlemanly cat + I ever saw. + + 13. How was the Princess’s nose ring the cause of your + misfortune? + + 14. + + Comrade, where wilt thou be to-night. + When the loosed storm breaks furiously? + + 15. Indeed all the really pretty girls that you see are + Americans. + + 16. When I opened the goldfinch’s door on the morning of the + blackbird’s arrival, he paid no attention to his beloved + bath, but instantly flew over and alighted on the cage of the + newcomer. + + 17. These ten cows knew their names after a while, and would + take their places as I called them. + + 18. Oh! but he was a tight-fisted hand at the grindstone, was + Scrooge. + + 19. + + O time and change! how strange it seems + With so much gone to still live on! + + + + +XXXII. NOUNS: THE APPOSITIVE + + +=124.= It is frequently necessary to explain some term we use, and there +is a convenient way for doing this without making a new sentence. For +instance, an author writes, “One of these buildings belongs to the Horse +Guards.” Then, for fear we may not know who the Horse Guards are, he adds +these explanatory words, “a very fine body of English cavalry.” + +This group of words consists of the noun _body_ used as a base word, +modified by the prepositional phrase _of English cavalry_, the adjective +element _very fine_, and the article _a_. The whole group is placed +beside the term it explains, and is separated from it by a comma. Such +a group of words is called an =appositive=, and the base word _body_ is +called =a noun in apposition=. + +=125.= Sometimes we explain who a person is by using his name; as, “I +heard your friend, _John Richards_, say that he was going to write to +you.” + +Sometimes the name of a person or animal or place is used first, and then +explained by a group of words; as, “Akela, _the great gray Lone Wolf_, +lay out at full length on his rock.” + +=126.= The appositive and the term it explains are in reality two names +for the same person or thing. You might think that either one could be +called the appositive, but this is not so. It is the explanatory term +that is the appositive, and this is the second of the two terms. + +=127.= Sometimes, when there is no danger of any misunderstanding, the +appositive comes at a little distance from the word it modifies; as, +“Splendid buildings meet our eyes at every turn,—churches, private +residences, places of business, and public edifices.” Can you account for +this arrangement? + +=128.= Sometimes an appositive has been used so long with the word it +modifies that the two have become united into one name; as, Peter the +Hermit, Peter the Great, William the Conqueror. Such an appositive is not +set off by a comma. + + NOTE.—In the term Peter the Great, the adjective _great_ has + become a noun, and is modified by the adjective _the_. + +=129.= When ownership is to be denoted, the sign of possession is added +to the appositive instead of to the term that it explains; as, “The poet +Milton’s daughter,” “Mr. Taft, the president’s, cow,” “My friend Julia’s +husband.” + +=Summary.=—An =appositive= is a word or a group of words placed after a +term to explain it. + +When the base word of an appositive is a noun, it is called a =noun in +apposition=. + +The case of a noun in apposition is the same as that of the noun it +explains. + +An appositive is a modifier of a noun or a pronoun. + +An appositive is set off from the rest of the sentence by commas unless +it makes one term with the word it modifies. + +=Exercise.=—Select all the appositives in the following sentences, and +tell what they modify. Find the nouns in apposition. Tell the case of +each, giving the reason in each instance. Analyze sentences 1, 2, 3, 5, +6, 8, 9, 10, 11, 16. + + 1. Alfred the Great loved books and strangers and travelers. + + 2. In the neatest, sandiest hole of all lived Benjamin’s aunt + and his cousins,—Flopsy, Mopsy, Cottontail, and Peter. + + 3. The conversation turned to rheumatism, a subject of very + remote interest to Polly. + + 4. My son William became a telegraph operator before he was + seventeen. + + 5. James II, the bigoted successor of Charles I, had annulled + the charters of all the colonies. + + 6. The geography lesson that day was the rivers of Asia,—the + Obi, Yenisei, Lena, Amoor, Hoang Ho, and Yang-tse-kiang. + + 7. Some writers tell us that Edward the Confessor had made a + will appointing Duke William his successor. + + 8. Foremost among the envious ones was the Princess Panka, the + daughter of a neighboring king. + + 9. Close to Charing Cross is Trafalgar Square, a fine open + space with a fountain, and a column to Lord Nelson. + + 10. The body of Warwick the kingmaker was exposed for three + days on the pavement of St. Paul’s, and then deposited among + the ashes of his fathers in the abbey of Bilsam. + + 11. The pass was crowned with dense, dark forest,—deodar, + walnut, wild cherry, wild olive, and wild pear. + + 12. Kaa, the big Rock Python, had changed his skin for perhaps + the two hundredth time since his birth. + + 13. Eric the Red, a wandering Norseman who was dwelling in + Iceland, went to sea and discovered Greenland. + + 14. There are so many things to distract a boy’s attention,—a + chipmunk in the fence, a bird on a near tree, and a henhawk + circling high in the air over the barnyard. + + 15. Very soundly it slept, that doomed hare crouching under the + fir bush! + + 16. They had never been accounted for, Rebecca’s eyes. + + + + +XXXIII. APPOSITIVE ADJECTIVES + + +=130.= Adjectives are not always placed before the noun they modify. When +they are used as subjective complements, they follow the verb, although +they modify the subject; as, “Life is _real_,” “The air seems _moist_.” +We also find many sentences like the following, “The camel, restless and +weary, groans and occasionally shows his teeth.” + +Here it is evident that the adjectives _restless_ and _weary_ are in the +sentence to describe the camel; hence they modify the noun _camel_; but +instead of preceding this noun, they follow it. Because of their position +such adjectives are called =appositive adjectives=. + +=131.= An appositive adjective is usually set off by a comma or commas. +It is frequently modified by a phrase, as in the expressions, “restless +under his heavy load,” “weary with the long journey.” + +=Summary.=—An adjective with or without modifiers may be used as an +appositive. + +An appositive adjective is usually set off from the rest of the sentence +by a comma. + +=Exercise.=—Select all the appositive adjectives in these sentences, and +tell what they modify. Give the modifiers of each adjective. Account for +the punctuation. Analyze sentences 2, 4, 5, 6, 7, 11, 12. + + 1. His tunic, scarlet in color, is of the softest woolen fabric. + + 2. The skirt drops to the knee in folds heavy with embroidery. + + 3. Grandfather Nutter was a hale, cheery old gentleman, as + straight and as bald as an arrow. + + 4. The pink rose, dear for its old associations, was + transplanted to a sunny place close by the south door. + + 5. Presently the Colonel came in, bluff, warm, and hearty. + + 6. From the other window one saw the distant forest, so deep, + black, and mysterious. + + 7. The April night, softly chill and full of the sense of thaw, + was closing down over the wide salt marshes! + + 8. Presently, from far along the dark heights of the sky, came + voices, hollow, musical, confused. + + 9. Here is a foot passenger, dusty and tired, who comes with + lagging steps. + + 10. There is no nation known to history in which all citizens, + male and female, old and young, native and foreign born, have + had the suffrage. + + 11. Ginger hurried off into the darkness, wild with excitement. + + 12. The chief engineer entered the smoking room for a moment, + red, smiling, and wet. + + + + +XXXIV. INDIRECT OBJECT + + +=132.= We have seen that the direct object names the receiver of the +action asserted by the verb. In the sentence, “Kotuko made his dog a +tiny harness,” the direct object of the verb _made_ is a _tiny harness_, +for this group of words tells what received the making, and answers the +question _made what?_ + +If we go further and ask the question, _made a harness for what?_ the +answer is, _his dog_. This group of words is called the indirect object. +It names the receiver of the direct object; that is, the dog received the +harness. + +=133.= An indirect object is always in the objective case, but it is +not a complement of the verb, because it is not a necessary element of +a sentence. We call it a modifier of the verb. The sentence, “In the +morning the old wife gave the princess three nuts,” would be complete if +we left out the indirect object _the princess_, and merely told what the +old wife gave, namely, three nuts. + +Notice that the indirect object comes between the verb and the direct +object. If we place it after the direct object, we must supply the +preposition _to_ or _for_, and then instead of an indirect object we +shall have a prepositional phrase. + +=Summary.=—An =indirect object= is a word or a group of words that tells +to whom or for whom, to what or for what, something is done. + +An indirect object names the receiver of the direct object. + +An indirect object precedes the direct object. + +An indirect object is a modifier of a verb. + +An indirect object is in the objective case. + +Only a few transitive verbs take both direct and indirect objects. Some +of them are _bring_, _buy_, _do_, _get_, _give_, _lend_, _make_ _pass_, +_pay_, _promise_, _sell_, _send_, _show_, _take_, _tell_, _write_. + +=Exercise 1.=—Write sentences containing both direct and indirect +objects, using verbs in the list above. + +=Exercise 2.=—Select both the direct and the indirect objects in the +following sentences, giving reasons:— + + 1. Carry your grandmamma a custard and a little pot of butter. + + 2. Aladdin made his mother very little reply. + + 3. I showed my comrades a large heap of stones. + + 4. Mrs. Howe had promised the children presents, so she bought + George a gun, Mollie two gold rings, and Paul a checkerboard. + + 5. I wish the Lord would give horses voices for just one week. + + 6. Bring my mother six women slaves to attend her. + + 7. If you offer Dash a bit of sheep’s wool now, he tucks his + tail between his legs, and runs for home. + + 8. I never told my schoolmates that I was a Yankee. + + 9. I paid Gypsy a visit every half hour during the first day of + my arrival. + + 10. Then the magician gave Aladdin a handful of small money. + + 11. Father Andrew also taught Tom a little Latin. + + 12. The sultan granted Aladdin his request and again embraced + him. + + + + +XXXV. ADVERBIAL NOUN PHRASES + + +=134.= We have learned that a frequent modifier of a verb is a +prepositional phrase telling the place or time of an action; as, “So off +we go in the cool, clear morning.” + +Sometimes a noun, or a group of words of which a noun is the base word, +takes the place of this prepositional phrase; as, “_Last summer_ the +apple trees bore no fruit.” + +The words _last summer_ tell time, and modify the predicate _bore no +fruit_, but there is no preposition in this group of words. _Summer_ is a +noun modified by the adjective _last_. Such a group of words we call an +=adverbial noun phrase=. The noun used as base word we call an =adverbial +noun=. + +=135.= An adverbial noun phrase tells not only time and place, but it +often answers such questions as _how far?_ _how long?_ _how much?_ as, +“We walked _the whole distance_ before sunset.” “She stayed in London +_ten days_.” “One orange weighed _twelve ounces_.” + +=Summary.=—An =adverbial noun phrase= is a group of words of which a noun +is the base word, that tells the time or place of an action, or how long, +how far, or how much. + +An adverbial noun phrase modifies a verb. + +An =adverbial noun= is always in the objective case. + +=Exercise.=—Select the adverbial noun phrases and the nouns used as base +words. Tell what the phrases modify, and what questions they answer. +(Notice that these phrases often modify more of the predicate than just +the verb.) Analyze sentences 1, 3, 4, 5, 6, 9, 10. + + 1. He followed her to school one day. + + 2. Each boy who failed to report himself was fined one cent. + + 3. Elizabeth Eliza went home directly. + + 4. Morning, noon, and night, Dame Van Winkle’s tongue was + incessantly going. + + 5. His keen, sonorous, passionate cry rang strangely on the + night, three times. + + 6. The trail was an easy one this time. + + 7. There the wild plum each summer fruited abundantly; and + there a sturdy brotherhood of beeches each autumn lavished + their treasure of three-cornered nuts. + + 8. I worked a whole week to get the traps properly set out. + + 9. The next instant the panther received a smart blow on the + top of his head. + + 10. Kala Nag, the elephant, stood ten fair feet at the shoulder. + + 11. Ere the cow had gone twenty-five yards, Lobo was upon her. + + 12. The next morning Mrs. Peterkin began by taking out the + things that were already in her trunk. + + + + +XXXVI. ADVERBIAL NOUN PHRASES + + +=136.= When we wish to tell how long, or wide, or deep, or thick a thing +is, we frequently make use of such statements as these:— + + The valley is nine miles long. + + The street is sixty feet wide. + + The water is ten fathoms deep. + + The slices were an inch thick. + +It is evident that in the first sentence the question _how long?_ is +answered by the words _nine miles_. Hence this group of words modifies +the adjective _long_, having the same use as the adverb _very_ in, +“The valley is very long.” But the base word of this group is the noun +_miles_, hence the whole group must be an adverbial noun phrase. We +conclude from this familiar sentence that an adverbial noun phrase may +modify an adjective. + +What adverbial noun phrase modifies _wide_? _deep_? _thick_? + +Make sentences in which an adverbial noun phrase modifies the adjectives +_old_, _tall_, _high_. + +=137.= The adverbial noun phrase may also modify an adverb, as in the +sentence, “She came two hours afterward,” where _two hours_ answers the +question _how long afterward?_ How do we know that _afterward_ is an +adverb? + + NOTE.—A common illustration of this use is found in the + familiar expression _a short time ago_, where the adverb _ago_ + (which is never used by itself) is modified by the adverbial + noun phrase _a short time_. Think of five other noun phrases + often used to modify _ago_. + +=Summary.=—An adverbial noun phrase may modify an adjective or an adverb. +In such a case it denotes a measure of some sort. + +=Exercise.=—Select the adverbial nouns and the phrases of which they are +the base words. Tell what these phrases modify, and what questions they +answer. + + 1. About an hour later a big red fox came trotting into the + glade. + + 2. When the stone was pulled up, there appeared a staircase + about three or four feet deep, leading to a door. + + 3. The trail was perhaps an hour old. + + 4. After viewing old Fort Snelling, we walked a mile farther to + the parade ground, and watched the soldiers drill. + + 5. An ordinary wolf’s forefoot is four and one half inches long. + + 6. Lobo stood three feet high at the shoulder, and weighed one + hundred and fifty pounds. + + 7. If the crows do not kill the owl, they at least worry him + half to death and drive him twenty miles away. + + 8. It is a curious fact about boys that two will be a great + deal slower in doing anything than one. + + 9. When the eagle returned an hour later to the point of + shoals, the net looked less strange to him. + + 10. Twenty-five years ago the American minister at the court of + Turin was conversing with a young Italian of high rank from the + island of Sardinia. + + 11. The largest aboriginal structure of stone within the limits + of the United States has a circuit of 1480 feet, is five + stories high, and once included five hundred separate rooms. + + 12. How many years did Jacob serve for Rachel? + + 13. The week before the election one of the candidates for + mayor spoke to an audience of laboring men every evening. + + 14. That day I left the university, and my trial took place a + little while later. + + 15. David reflected a few moments longer. + + + + +XXXVII. OBJECTIVE COMPLEMENT + + +=138.= In the sentence, “The boys called the turtles Harry Blake’s +sheep,” the verb is followed by two noun elements. What are they? The +second element is not an appositive of the first, neither have we here a +direct and an indirect object. Prove this. + +If we ask the question, _What_ did the boys call Harry Blake’s sheep? +the answer is, _the turtles_; hence this must be the direct object of +_called_. But the sentence is not complete here. We do not mean that the +boys _called_ the turtles, that is, _summoned_ them. We mean that they +_named_ the turtles. If we ask the question, “What did the boys call the +turtles?” the answer is, “_Harry Blake’s sheep_.” This group of words is +necessary as a second complement of the verb, and at the same time it +tells what the turtles became as a result of calling, or naming, them. +Such an element is called an =objective complement=, because it tells +something about the direct object. + +The base word of an objective complement is in the objective case. + +=139.= Not all transitive verbs take an objective complement; but only +verbs of making or causing, such as _make_, _call_, _name_, _elect_, +_appoint_, _choose_. + +=140.= Sometimes the objective complement has an adjective for its base +word instead of a noun; as, “The great wood-fire in the tiled chimney +place made our sitting room _very cheerful_ of winter nights.” + +=Summary.=—An =objective complement= is a word or a group of words that +helps to complete the verb, and tells what the direct object becomes as a +result of the action asserted by the verb. + +The base word of an objective complement may be either a noun or an +adjective. + +=Exercise.=—Find all the objective complements in the following sentences +and tell about them in this way:— + +MODEL.—_Ben called this room his cabin._ + +_His cabin_ is a noun element used as objective complement of the verb +_called_, because it tells what the direct object, _this room_, becomes +as a result of the calling. The base word of this objective complement is +the noun _cabin_. + + 1. His blue beard made him so ugly and so terrible in + appearance that women and children fled from him. + + 2. She kept the cottage always as neat as a new pin. + + 3. By much trampling we had made the salt marsh a mere quagmire. + + 4. This mother, proud of her knowledge of French, always called + her little daughter Mademoiselle. + + 5. If ever I have a boy to bring up in the way he should go, I + shall make Sunday a cheerful day to him. + + 6. To the great amusement of my grandfather, Sailor Ben painted + the cottage a light sky-blue. + + 7. Then, inch by inch, the untempered heat crept into the heart + of the Jungle, turning it yellow, brown, and at last black. + + 8. The fish had buried themselves deep in the dry mud. + + 9. The natives of Bermuda call the tamarisk the “salt-cedar.” + + 10. Nature meant him for a frontiersman, but circumstances made + him an innkeeper. + + 11. The only way that they could set the king’s head straight + was to remove it. + + 12. Columbus rechristened the island San Salvador, but its + precise identity has always been a little doubtful. + + 13. A parrot would shriek me wild in a week. + + 14. Skin changing always makes a snake moody and depressed till + the new skin begins to shine and look beautiful. + + 15. The giver makes the gift precious. + + 16. The sound of a bell struck the merrymakers dumb. + + 17. Who appointed you judge of your brother? + + 18. The dim light of stars rendered large objects near at hand + visible in bulk and outline. + + 19. We call domestic animals dependent creatures; but who made + them dependent? + + + + +XXXVIII. PARSING OF NOUNS + + +=141.= When we tell all that is true about a noun from a grammatical +point of view, we are said to =parse= it. + +In parsing a noun we should tell:— + +(1) Its class,—common or proper. + +(2) Its person,—first, second, or third. (See Note.) + +(3) Its number,—singular or plural. + +(4) Its gender,—masculine, feminine, neuter, or common. + +(5) Its case,—nominative, possessive, or objective. + +(6) Its use in the sentence. + + NOTE.—Nouns do not change their _form_ for =person=. Since + they are almost always the names of persons or things spoken + of, they are usually in the _third person_. A noun is in the + _first person_ when it is used in apposition with a pronoun of + the first person. (See p. 98.) A noun is in the _second person_ + (1) when it is used in apposition with a pronoun of the second + person; (2) when it is used as a term of address. + +=Exercise.=—Parse each noun in the following sentences:— + + 1. All the great men of the neighborhood were there on + horseback,—militia officers in uniform, the member of Congress, + the sheriff of the county, the editors of newspapers, and many + a farmer, too, had mounted his patient steed or come on foot. + + 2. Next day Mowgli himself fell into a very cunning leopard + trap. + + 3. The Bermudas are, with the exception of Gibraltar, England’s + most strongly fortified hold. + + 4. Then Mrs. Howe graciously showed the admiring ladies her + collection of fine lace and embroideries. + + 5. The thoughtful, lonely ways of their admiral made Columbus + an object of terror to his ignorant seamen. + + 6. I thought that nothing in the world was so beautiful as the + sultan my father’s palace. + + 7. Perhaps your fish is eighteen inches long. + + 8. Here comes the boat! This is your waterproof, Hetty. Be + careful now, Miss Alice. Mrs. Blank, you will need your sun + umbrella. Hold on a minute, skipper, till I get that basket. + + 9. At nine o’clock, Williams, a bronze Hercules, low-voiced, + gentle-mannered, a trusty boatman, and an enthusiast in his + calling, met us at the dock. + + 10. The savage sticks bright feathers in his hair, carries a + tomahawk, and wears moccasins upon his nimble feet. + + 11. Some evenings afterward the same thing happened at another + corner of the pasture. + + 12. The innocent savages gave Columbus a new world for Castile + and Leon, and he gave them some glass beads and little red caps. + + 13. The sultan received the present from Aladdin’s mother’s + hand. + + 14. The elephant was thoughtfully chewing the green stem of a + young plantain tree. + + 15. In the good old days the boys on the coast ran away and + became sailors. + + 16. I was a favorite with the cooks, and so, although they + denied my cousins certain privileges of the kitchen, they + freely granted these to me. + + 17. The Norsemen called gold “the serpent’s bed.” + + +SUMMARY OF CASE RELATIONS + +Nominative. + + (1) Subject of a verb. + (2) Term of address. + (3) Exclamatory noun. + (4) Subjective complement of a verb. + (5) Appositive. + (6) Nominative absolute (see p. 237). + +Possessive. + + (1) Modifier of a noun. + +Objective. + + (1) Object of a verb. + (2) Object of a preposition. + (3) Appositive. + (4) Indirect object. + (5) Adverbial noun. + (6) Objective complement. + +Make an original sentence to illustrate each of the case relations of a +noun. + + + + +XXXIX. PERSONAL PRONOUNS + + +=142.= Certain pronouns, as _I_, _you_, _he_, _it_, etc., show by their +form that they refer to the person speaking, the person spoken to, or the +person or thing spoken of. + +The pronoun _I_ denotes the person speaking, and is said to be a pronoun +of the =first person=. + +The pronoun _you_ denotes the person spoken to, and is said to be a +pronoun of the =second person=. + +The pronouns _he_, _she_, and _it_ denote the person or thing spoken of, +and are said to be pronouns of the =third person=. + +Such pronouns are called =personal= pronouns. + +=143.= The noun that a pronoun stands for, whether it is expressed +somewhere in the sentence or merely understood, is called the +=antecedent= of the pronoun. + +=144.= All the personal pronouns have several different forms, and if we +wish to speak our language correctly, we must know these forms and be +careful in their use. The personal pronouns are declined as follows:— + + FIRST PERSON SECOND PERSON + + _Singular_ _Plural_ _Singular_ _Plural_ + + _Nom._ I we you you + _Poss._ my, mine our, ours your, yours your, yours + _Obj._ me us you you + + THIRD PERSON + + _Singular_ _Plural_ + + MASCULINE FEMININE NEUTER + + _Nom._ he she it they + _Poss._ his her, hers its their, theirs + _Obj._ him her it them + +=145.= There is another personal pronoun of the second person—_thou_. +It is not used in conversation nowadays, but is frequently found in the +Bible and in poetry. It is declined as follows:— + + _Singular_ _Plural_ + + _Nom._ thou ye + _Poss._ thy, thine your, yours + _Obj._ thee you + +=Summary.=—A =personal pronoun= is one that shows by its form whether it +denotes the person speaking, the person spoken to, or the person or thing +spoken of. + +The personal pronouns are _I_, _thou_, _you_, _he_, _she_, _it_, and +their various case forms in the two numbers. + +The =antecedent= of a pronoun is the word for which it stands. + +=Exercise.=—Select all the personal pronouns. Tell from the form of each +its person and number, and, if it is a pronoun of the third person, tell +also its gender. Where it is possible, tell the antecedent of the pronoun. + + 1. Hide me in the oven. + + 2. First lay aside your black veil, then tell us why you put it + on. + + 3. While we were following the direction of his finger, a sound + of distant oars fell on our ears. + + 4. If you want a thing, and have no money to buy it, go without + it until you can pay for it. + + 5. Though the Jungle People drink seldom, they must drink deep. + + 6. The whelps were evidently very young, but their ears were + wide open, and they stood up on strong legs when the boy + touched them gently with his palm. + + 7. “Well,” said grandfather, “I tell you one thing; the game + will last me till that poor cat gets well again.” + + 8. They sent him for troops only the sweepings of the galleys. + + 9. + + My driftwood fire will burn so bright! + To what warm shelter canst thou fly? + I do not fear for thee, though wroth + The tempest rushes through the sky. + + 10. Caught in a steel trap, she had gnawed off her own paw as + the price of freedom. + + 11. At recess he gave me the core of his apple, though there + were several applicants for it. + + + + +XL. USES OF PERSONAL PRONOUNS + + +=146.= The personal pronoun, since it takes the place of a noun, has +almost all the uses of a noun. It may be,— + +(1) The subject of a verb; as, “_I_ only know _I_ cannot drift beyond His +love and care.” + +The subject of an imperative sentence is always the pronoun _you_, +_thou_, or _ye_, but this pronoun is seldom expressed; as, “Telegraph +for staterooms at once.” + +(2) The base word of a term of address; as, “Ho, _ye_ who suffer, know +ye suffer for yourselves.” + +(3) The subjective complement of a verb; as, “This man, good Ilderim, is +_he_ who told you of me.” + +(4) The base word of an appositive phrase; as, “The fourth lackey, _he_ +of the two gold watches, poured the chocolate out.” + +(5) A possessive modifier; as, “All the harmless wood folk were _his_ +friends.” + + NOTE.—The possessive pronoun is often intensified by the + adjective _own_, which modifies the same noun that the + possessive pronoun modifies; as, “This is _my own_, my + native land.” + +(6) The direct object of a verb; as, “The farm boy spreads the grass +after the men have cut _it_.” + +(7) The object of a preposition; as, “What a new world did that party +open to _him_!” + +(8) An indirect object; as, “Here will the cattle come to drink, and I +will kill _me_ a yearling heifer.” + +=Exercise.=—Select and parse all the personal pronouns in the following +sentences. In parsing a personal pronoun we should tell its person, +number, gender, antecedent, case, and use in the sentence. + + 1. I verily believe that my ill looks alone saved me a flogging. + + 2. Taste the tamarisk, and you get the very flavor of the brine. + + 3. Then I swung my lasso, and sent it whistling over his head. + + 4. They worked together, read together, walked together, + planned together, she and her daughter, and in all things were + friends and companions. + + 5. Mother Wolf would throw up her head, and sniff a deep snuff + of satisfaction as the wind brought her the smell of the tiger + skin on the Council Rock. + + 6. The old crow spread the shells out in the sun, turned them + over, lifted them one by one in his beak, dropped them, nestled + on them as though they were eggs, toyed with them, and gloated + over them like a miser. + + 7. The spirits have spoken to Kotuko. They will show him open + ice. He will bring us the seal again. + + 8. The rank swamp grass concealed the nest where Raggylug’s + mother had hidden him. + + 9. + + Across the lowly beach we flit, + One little sandpiper and I. + + 10. Up jumped Scarface, for it was he, and ran. + + 11. + + And a voice that was calmer than silence said, + “Lo! It is I. Be not afraid.” + + 12. Nearly every cottage in England has its little garden full + of blooming plants and shrubs. + + 13. + + “Who gives himself with his alms feeds three,— + Himself, his hungering neighbor, and Me.” + + 14. This is he that was spoken of by the prophet. + + 15. Arise, and take the young child and his mother, and flee + into Egypt, and be thou there until I bring thee word. + + 16. + + I called my servant, and he came; + How kind it was of him + To mind a slender man like me, + He of the mighty limb. + + 17. Prepare ye the way of the Lord, make his paths straight. + + 18. It is so slippery and shiny down here, and the stage is so + much too big for me, that I rattle round in it till I’m almost + black and blue. + + 19. These are they who have passed through much tribulation. + + 20. O thou that rollest above, round as the shield of my + fathers, whence comes thy everlasting light? + +=147.= Many errors are made in the form of personal pronouns. + +(1) When a pronoun is used as the subject of a verb, it must have the +nominative form, hence the correct answer to the question, Who is there? +is _I_ (not _me_). + +(2) When several pronouns are used as the subject of the same verb, the +pronoun of the second person should come first, and the pronoun of the +first person should come last. We should say,— + + _You and he and I_ have been chosen. + + _You and I_ were on time. + + _He and I_ read the book. + +Can you justify Whittier’s lines? + + Ah, brother, only _I and thou_ + Are left of all that circle now. + +(3) For the subject of a sentence we may use the expressions _we boys_, +_we girls_, _we Americans_, etc. + + _We girls_ bought the pictures. + + _We boys_ set up the tents. + + _We Baptists_ had a church supper. + +(4) A pronoun used as the complement of an intransitive verb of being +must have the nominative form. We should say,— + + Yes, it was _I_. + + No, it was not _she_. + + Perhaps it is _he_. + + It is surely _they_. + +(5) A pronoun used as object of a verb must have the objective form. We +should say,— + + Mrs. Albee invited mother and _me_. + + Did you see Julia and _me_ in the gallery? + + Didn’t you expect _him and her_? + + She will never suspect _you and me_. + + That team can’t beat _us boys_. + +(6) A pronoun used as object of a preposition must have the objective +form. We should say,— + + Leo wrote first to _her_ and _me_. + + Father will call for _you_ and _me_. + + Between _you_ and _me_ he was afraid. + + There is a great difference between Carrie and _me_. + + They can never catch up with _us girls_. + +=Exercise.=—Fill each blank in the following sentences with a pronoun +having the correct case form. Give your reasons. + + 1. Mother says that it was —— and not —— that paid off the + mortgage. + + 2. Who left the room first? ——, but Mary was close behind ——. + + 3. —— fellows are going to have a debating society. + + 4. The German teacher gave you and —— the same passage to + translate. + + 5. There must be no secrets between —— and ——. + + 6. When do you expect Grandmother and ——? + + 7. Perhaps —— girls are most to blame. + + 8. Nobody chose —— or ——, so —— and —— sat on the stairs and + talked. + + + + +XLI. USES OF POSSESSIVE PERSONAL PRONOUNS + + +=148.= When we studied the declension of personal pronouns, we learned +that all of them except _it_ and _he_ have two forms in the possessive +case. These forms are _my_, _mine_; _our_, _ours_; _thy_, _thine_; +_your_, _yours_; _her_, _hers_; and _their_, _theirs_. There is a +difference in the use of these two forms. + +The pronouns of the first form,—_my_, _our_, _thy_, _your_, _her_, +and _their_, as well as _his_ and _its_, are used with nouns as +possessive modifiers. We say, _my father_, _our school_, _her hat_, _its +population_, etc. + +=149.= The pronouns of the second form,—_mine_, _ours_, _thine_, _yours_, +_hers_, _theirs_, and also _his_, are used alone, that is, they are not +followed by a noun, the name of the thing possessed. We say, “_Mine_ is +too heavy,” when the object spoken of—a waterproof, for instance—is well +known by both speaker and listener. Or we say, “Her writing is clear, +but I like _his_ better,” where it is unnecessary to repeat the noun +_writing_ after _his_. + +In the first sentence _mine_ is the subject of the verb is, and in +the second _his_ is the object of the verb _like_. We even find the +possessive form used as the object of a preposition; as, “If the book +isn’t in my desk, it must be in _yours_.” + +This use of the possessive forms _mine_, _his_, _yours_ as subject or +object is =idiomatic=; that is, it is peculiar to itself in grammatical +construction. The one word _mine_ really means _my waterproof_, _his_ +means _his writing_, and _yours_ means _your desk_. But we cannot say +that the noun is understood after these pronouns, for we cannot supply +it except after _his_. It is not English to say _mine waterproof_ or +_yours desk_. Instead of being understood, the nouns are included in +the pronouns. In speaking of such pronouns we may say that they are +possessive in form, but are used idiomatically as subject, object, etc. + + NOTE.—The two pronouns _mine_ and _thine_ are sometimes used + to modify a noun expressed, especially in poetry; as, “Mine + eyes have seen the glory of the coming of the Lord.” It is + worth noting that they are not used before words beginning with + a consonant sound. We do not say _mine country_, nor _thine + liberty_. + +=150.= In the expression “a friend of mine,” we have in the phrase _of +mine_ a “double possessive” (see § 119); for the preposition _of_ denotes +possession, and so does the object, the possessive pronoun _mine_. In +this use there is no noun included in the pronoun. _Mine_ does not mean +_my friends_. It means _me_. + +=Summary.=—The possessive pronouns _mine_, _ours_, _thine_, _yours_, +_hers_, _his_, and _theirs_ may be used idiomatically without a noun to +modify. These pronouns have then the same use that the noun would have if +it were expressed. + +These pronouns may be used as the object of the preposition _of_ to form +“double possessives.” + +_Mine_ and _thine_ are sometimes used to modify nouns expressed, the same +as _my_ and _thy_. + +=Exercise.=—Select all the possessive pronouns in these sentences, and +tell their use:— + + 1. You have no uncle by your father’s side or mine. + + 2. To thine own self be true. + + 3. The people of Europe did not know that America, this great + country of ours, was in the world at all. + + 4. This young girl came to Wisconsin to live with an uncle of + hers who had seven sons and no daughters. + + 5. Early in the spring I had begun Bingo’s education. Very + shortly afterward he began mine. + + 6. Stand! The ground’s your own, my braves! + + 7. A boy who lived in a street behind ours had an awkward + three-wheeled machine that he called a “verlosophy.” + + 8. + + He will say, “O Love, thine eyes + Build the shrine my soul abides in; + And I kneel here for thy grace.” + + 9. The boy saw big, clutching talons outstretched from + thick-feathered legs, while round eyes, fiercely gleaming, + flamed upon his in passing, as they searched the bush. + + 10. Time hath his work to do, and we have ours. + + 11. The sultan ordered that the princess’s attendants should + come and carry the trays into their mistress’s apartment. + + 12. Susie could sew like a woman, and her patchwork quilts were + masterpieces of their kind. Neither mine nor Marty’s were well + made. + + 13. Your worthy father was my own brother. + + 14. There was more joy in this little brown, battened house of + ours than in their mansion with its onyx mantels and mahogany + doors. + +Are the verbs in sentences 1, 7, 10, transitive or intransitive? How do +you know? + +Account for the punctuation of sentences 3, 6, 10, 12, and 14. + + + + +XLII. COMPOUND PERSONAL PRONOUNS + + +=151.= Besides the personal pronouns that have already been considered +there are certain other forms such as _myself_ and _ourselves_, formed +by uniting the noun _self_ to a singular personal pronoun, and the noun +_selves_ to a plural personal pronoun. + +These are called =compound personal pronouns=. + + _First person_ myself, ourselves + _Second person_ thyself, yourself, yourselves + _Third person_ himself, herself, itself, themselves + +What is the number of each of these pronouns? + +=152.= Compound personal pronouns are never in the possessive case. +They never change their form for case, but are in the nominative or the +objective case according to their use. They have two main uses:— + +(1) A compound personal pronoun may be used for emphasis, and is then in +apposition with the noun it makes emphatic; as, “Cæsar himself refused +the crown.” The pronoun does not always come next to the noun. We may +say, “Cæsar refused the crown himself.” The pronoun is in the same case +as the word it goes with. + +(2) It may be used reflexively, that is, to show that an action comes +back to the doer of it; as, “I scratched myself with a pin.” Here the +pronoun is object of a verb, hence in the objective case. + +It may also be the object of a preposition; as, “I was talking to myself.” + +It may even be an indirect object; as, “She bought herself a watch.” + + NOTE.—The compound personal pronoun is used as object of a + preposition in some familiar idiomatic expressions; as, “He was + _beside himself_ with joy.” “She was sitting _all by herself_.” + +=Summary.=—The =compound personal pronouns= are _myself_, _ourselves_, +_thyself_, _yourself_, _yourselves_, _himself_, _herself_, _itself_, and +_themselves_. + +They are commonly used for two purposes:— + +(1) For emphasis, (2) reflexively. + +=Exercise.=—Select and parse all the compound personal pronouns in the +following sentences. Tell their person, number, case, and use. + + 1. Love thyself last. + + 2. The men folks, having worked in the regular hours, lie down + and rest, stretch themselves idly in the shade at noon, or + lounge about after supper. + + 3. Very stupid people are never aware of their stupidity + themselves. + + 4. On cold, stormy evenings we would make ourselves toast at + the sitting room fire, and eat our supper on the little sewing + table. + + 5. At the more remote end of the island Legrand had built + himself a small hut. + + 6. A masterly retreat is in itself a victory. + + 7. Now make yourselves at home, and if you find an eel’s head, + you may bring it to me. + + 8. The little fox ground his pearly milk teeth into the mouse + with a rush of inborn savageness that must have surprised even + himself. + + 9. They were returning home for the holidays in high glee, and + promising themselves a world of enjoyment. + + 10. Pity for his gallant horse, rage and mortification at the + ridiculous plight he was in, anxiety lest he should be late + for the tournament, all combined to make the baron for a time + beside himself. + + 11. Rivermouth itself is full of hints and flavors of the sea. + + 12. I think the ugly duckling will grow up strong, and be able + to take care of himself. + + 13. With what awe, yet with what pride, did I look forward to + the day when I myself should enter the doorway of the high + school. + + 14. That I may have nobody to blame but myself should my + marriage turn out amiss, I will choose for myself. + + 15. Although the English and we ourselves both speak the same + tongue, we do not speak it in the same way. + + 16. Heaven helps those who help themselves. + +Analyze sentences 1, 3, 4, 6, 9, 11. + + + + +XLIII. INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS + + +=153.= If we ask the question, “Who killed cock robin?” the answer may be +the declarative sentence, “The sparrow killed cock robin.” The sentences +are alike, except that in the declarative sentence _the sparrow_ is the +subject, while in the interrogative sentence _who_ is the subject. It is +clear then that _who_ is used instead of the noun _sparrow_. _Who_ is +therefore a pronoun, and since it is used in asking a question, we call +it an =interrogative pronoun=. + +=154.= The other interrogative pronouns are _whose_, _whom_, _which_, and +_what_. _Whose_ is the possessive form of _who_, and is used, like other +possessive pronouns, to modify some noun expressed or understood; as, +“Whose house is the gray stone mansion on the corner?” + +_Whom_ is the objective form of _who_, and is used as the object of a +verb or of a preposition; as, “Whom did he marry?” “To whom did you +speak?” + + NOTE.—In conversation, the preposition governing an + interrogative pronoun is often placed at the end of the + question; as, “Whom did you come for?” + +=155.= _What_ is used when we inquire for the name, not of a person but +of a thing; as, “What did he have on his head?” + +=156.= _Which_ is used when we wish to know the particular one of several +persons or things; as, “Which of these moon-stones do you like best?” + +=157.= In a sentence like this, “Who is that tall man?” it may be +difficult at first thought to decide whether _who_ is the subject of _is_ +or the subjective complement. We can always tell by the answer. In this +case the answer is, “That tall man is Joseph Choate.” It is clear that +_Joseph Choate_ is the subjective complement, hence in the question the +word _who_, which means _Joseph Choate_, is the subjective complement. + +=Summary.=—An =interrogative pronoun= is one used in asking a question. + +The interrogative pronouns are _who_, _which_, and _what_. + +_Who_ is declined: Nominative, _who_; possessive, _whose_; objective, +_whom_. + +An interrogative pronoun has the same use in the question that the word +which takes its place has in the answer. + +=Exercise.=—Select all the interrogative pronouns in these sentences. +Tell the use and case of each. Determine this by answering the question +that is asked. + +Analyze sentences 1, 4, 6, 8, 10, 11, 12, 15. + + 1. What made you so late? + + 2. Who is there? + + 3. Who is this young and handsome officer now entering the door + of the tavern? + + 4. Whose work is this crayon drawing of a castle in the + moonlight? + + 5. What do you mean by telling me such nonsense as that? + + 6. What may so bold a hunter kill? + + 7. Who should know better than I? + + 8. What is all this talk about the Red Flower? + + 9. What is gingerbread? + + 10. Whose is this image and superscription? + + 11. With whom did you take that memorable trip on Lake Superior? + + 12. Whose little girl are you, with your rosy cheeks and pretty + red hood? + + 13. Whom did the superintendent mean when he announced that the + youngest pupil in the grammar school had made one hundred in + all her examinations? + + 14. Which should you rather be, an artist or a poet? + + 15. Which shall I take, a new piano or a trip to California? + +=158.= A common error in the use of interrogative pronouns is the use of +the nominative form _who_ when the objective _whom_ is required. This +error arises from the fact that the pronoun comes at the beginning of the +sentence, and is separated by intervening words from the verb or the +preposition of which it is the object, as in these sentences,— + + Whom did the ball hit? + + Whom do you sit with this term? + +=Exercise.=—Supply the proper pronoun, _who_ or _whom_, in each of the +following sentences, and give your reasons:— + + 1. —— does the baby look like? + + 2. —— do I see in the orchard? + + 3. —— did you go to the station for this morning? + + 4. —— are you smiling at, George? + + 5. —— does Mr. Coburn work for now? + + 6. —— will open this window for me? + + 7. —— can we depend upon? + + 8. —— is that child playing with? + + 9. —— have you invited to your party? + + 10. —— can keep a secret? + + + + +XLIV. DESCRIPTIVE ADJECTIVES + + +=159.= We learned in Lesson IX that adjectives are used (1) to describe +objects, (2) to point them out. Adjectives are therefore divided into two +classes,—(1) =descriptive adjectives=, and (2) =limiting adjectives=. + +=160.= Descriptive adjectives tell the qualities of objects. They are +very useful words, for they enable us to see things with the imagination. +In the following sentence the well-chosen adjectives make us feel that +we are looking into the very eyes of the eagle,—“His eyes, clear, +direct, unacquainted with fear, had a certain hardness in their vitreous +brilliancy, perhaps by reason of the sharp contrast between the bright +gold iris and the unfathomable pupil.” + +It is also through descriptive adjectives that we are able to identify +things when we do see them. After reading this sentence we could pick out +a moose calf from a score of other animals,—“The moose calf is uncouth, +to be sure, with his high, humped fore shoulders, his long, lugubrious, +overhanging snout, his big ears set low on his big head, his little +eyes crowded back toward his ears, his long, big-knuckled legs, and the +spindling lank diminutiveness of his hind quarters.” + +=161.= One variety of descriptive adjective is the adjective derived from +a proper noun; as, _Scotch_ from _Scotland_, _French_ from _France_, and +_Greek_ from _Greece_. These are called =proper adjectives=. + +Proper adjectives include within themselves many other adjectives. If +we speak of a Scotch collie, a French costume, or a Grecian nose, the +listener gets the same picture that he would get if we used a long series +of other adjectives. + +=162.= Many proper adjectives may be used as proper nouns, naming a class +of people, as when we speak of the Scotch, the French, the Russians, the +Americans. + +What proper noun have we to name the inhabitants of Spain? of Turkey? of +Denmark? of Sweden? + +What proper noun have we to designate one man who is a native of England? +of Scotland? of France? of China? Italy? Germany? What is the plural of +each of these nouns? + +=Exercise.=—Supply the correct word in each of the following sentences:— + + 1. Three (_French_ or _Frenchmen_) spent the evening at the + house. + + 2. The (_French_ or _Frenchmen_) are said to be very polite. + + 3. Why are so many (_Scotch_ or _Scotchmen_) captains of + steamships? + + 4. Are the (_Irish_ or _Irishmen_) as thrifty as the Germans? + + 5. Are there many (_Welsh_ or _Welshmen_) in this locality? + +=Summary.=—=Descriptive adjectives= are those which tell the qualities of +objects. + +=Proper adjectives= are those derived from proper nouns. They always +begin with a capital letter. + +=Exercise 1.=—Write a list of the proper adjectives derived from the +following proper nouns. Use them in sentences to modify appropriate nouns. + + Africa + Alaska + Asia + China + Christ + Denmark + England + Germany + India + Ireland + Italy + Japan + Jew + Malta + Norway + Paris + Portugal + Spain + Sweden + Turkey + +=Exercise 2.=—In the following sentences select all the descriptive +adjectives and tell what objects they describe. In so far as you can, +tell what qualities the adjectives denote, as color, size, form, +texture, surface, material, nature, etc. Account for the punctuation and +capitalization. + + 1. All the time the crocodile’s little eyes burned like coals + under the heavy, horny eyelids on the top of his triangular + head, as he shoved his bloated barrel body along between his + crutched legs. + + 2. It is a little village of great antiquity, having been + founded by some of the Dutch colonists in the early times of + the province. + + 3. The dog and his master hunted together, fur-wrapped boy and + savage, long-haired, narrow-eyed, white-fanged, yellow brute. + + 4. We always smiled to hear the judge’s wife talk about her + Turkish carpets, her little Chippendale chairs, her Wedgwood + china, and her Persian shawls. + + 5. This crowded, lively, and interesting thoroughfare is over + two miles long. + + 6. In queer little _châlets_, or Swiss huts, live the people + who attend to the cattle, and make butter and cheese. + + 7. The split and weatherworn rocks of the gorge had been used + since the beginning of the Jungle by the Little People of the + Rocks,—the busy, furious, black, wild bees of India. + + 8. At every stride the loose-hung, wide-cleft, spreading hoofs + of the moose came sharply together with a flat, clacking noise. + + 9. Out comes the negro pilot, and scrambles up on deck. + + 10. Yonder lies a Norwegian ship, with her sailors climbing the + shrouds like so many monkeys. + + 11. Mowgli’s voice could be heard in all sorts of wet, + starlighted, blossoming places, helping the big frogs through + their choruses, or mocking the upside-down owls that hoot + through the white nights. + + + + +XLV. LIMITING ADJECTIVES + + +=163.= Limiting adjectives are those which merely point out an object +without telling any quality of it. The most useful limiting adjectives +are _this_, _that_, and their plural forms _these_ and _those_. These +four words are often called =demonstrative adjectives=. + +Some limiting adjectives tell number or amount, but in a somewhat +indefinite way, as _all_, _some_, _several_, _few_, _much_, _little_, +_more_, _most_. + +Some tell number definitely, as _one_, _two_, _six hundred_, _three +million_, _first_, _second_, _fiftieth_. + +Number words, like _one_, _two_, _three_, _four_, _five_, etc., are often +called =numeral adjectives=. + +=164.= The limiting adjective _enough_ may precede or follow the noun it +modifies. We may say _enough butter_ or _butter enough_; _enough time_ or +_time enough_. + +The limiting adjective _else_ always follows the noun or pronoun that it +modifies. We say _who else_, _nobody else_, _everybody else_, _nothing +else_. + +=165.= When the interrogative pronouns _which_ and _what_ are used to +modify a noun, as in _which picture?_ _what city?_ they cease to be +pronouns, and become limiting adjectives. Since they are used to ask +questions, we call them =interrogative adjectives=. + + NOTE.—_Which_ and _what_, when used as adjectives, are + sometimes called =pronominal adjectives=. + +=166.= Three very common words, _a_, _an_, and _the_, are classed with +limiting adjectives. They are called =articles.= _The_ is a =definite +article=; _an_ and _a_ are the =indefinite article=. _A_ is really the +same word as _an_, but when it is used before a word beginning with a +consonant sound, as _bicycle_, the _n_ is dropped for the sake of a more +pleasing sound. + +=167.= We use _the_ when we wish to specify a particular object, and _an_ +or _a_ when we do not care to be specific. What is the difference between +these sentences? + + The man on horseback came to the turn in the road. + + A man on horseback came to a turn in the road. + +=168.= We use _the_ before a singular noun to designate a whole class of +objects; as, “The oak is a sturdy tree,” “The cow is a domestic animal.” + +=169.= We repeat the article when we wish to denote more than one person +or thing. What is the difference between these pairs of sentences? + + (_a_) The secretary and treasurer came late. + (_b_) The secretary and the treasurer came together. + + (_a_) I saw a red and green signal. + (_b_) I saw a red and a green signal. + +=170.= We use _an_ or _a_ after the adjectives _many_ and _such_ instead +of before them; as, _many_ a man, _such_ a storm. + +=171.= The sentence, “I have _few_ books,” means I have few compared +with many; but the sentence, “I have _a few_ books,” means I have a few +compared with none. What is the difference in meaning between these +sentences? + + I have little time for sewing. + + I have a little time for sewing. + +=Summary.=—=Limiting adjectives= are those which merely point out. + +Limiting adjectives that denote a definite number are called =numerals=. + +_Which_ and _what_ may be used as =interrogative adjectives=. + +The =articles= are _the_, _an_, and _a_. + +_The_ is a =definite article=. _An_ and _a_ are =indefinite articles=. + +=Exercise 1.=—Select all the limiting adjectives, including articles, and +tell what they modify. Give reasons for the articles used. + + 1. What business brings you here? + + 2. In that same village, and in one of these very houses, there + lived, many years since, a simple, good-natured fellow of the + name of Rip Van Winkle. + + 3. Every change of season, every change of weather, indeed, + every hour of the day, produces some change in the magical hues + and shapes of these mountains. + + 4. Which fan did your mother carry when she was a young lady in + Maine? + + 5. Lobo had only five followers during the latter part of his + reign. + + 6. What excuse shall I make to Dame Van Winkle? + + 7. The dog managed so that each fresh rush should be toward the + settlement. + + 8. No wild animal dies of old age. + + 9. Which part in the play of _Julius Cæsar_ did Edwin Booth + take? + + 10. When this dog of marvelous wind saw that the wolf was dead, + he gave him no second glance. + + 11. After much pains on my behalf and many pains on his, Bingo + learned to go at the word in quest of our old yellow cow. + + 12. + + I only ask a hut of stone, + A very plain brown stone will do, + That I may call my own; + And close at hand is such a one + In yonder street that fronts the sun. + + 13. No other living thing can go so slow as a boy sent on an + errand. + + 14. What courage can withstand the ever-during and + all-besetting terrors of a woman’s tongue? + +=Exercise 2.=—Classify the words _which_ and _what_ in the following +sentences as interrogative pronouns or interrogative adjectives. Where +they are pronouns, tell their case. Where they are adjectives, tell what +they modify. + + 1. What have you in your basket? + + 2. What manner of man is this? + + 3. Which of these pictures did you paint? + + 4. Which is it, a toadstool or a mushroom? + + 5. Which city has the larger population? + + 6. Which boy threw the stone? + + 7. What stone did he throw? + + 8. What did the man come for? + + 9. What do you want? + + 10. Which will you take? + + + + +XLVI. COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES + + +=172.= Since different objects may possess the same quality in different +degrees, there must be some means of telling this. We do it by changing +the form of adjectives. For instance, wool, snow, and feathers have +the same quality of softness, but not in the same degree, so we say +that wool is _soft_, snow is _softer_, and feathers are _softest_. This +change in the adjective soft to denote the degree of softness is called +=comparison=. + +=173.= Comparison is a =property= of adjectives. There are three +=degrees= of comparison,—the =positive=, the =comparative=, and the +=superlative=. + +The positive degree denotes the simple quality, the comparative degree +denotes more or less of this quality, and the superlative denotes most or +least of this quality. When we give the three forms of an adjective, we +are said to =compare= it. We compare _bold_ by saying: positive, _bold_; +comparative, _bolder_; superlative, _boldest_; or positive, _bold_; +comparative, _less bold_; superlative, _least bold_. + +=174.= Comparison is denoted in three ways:— + +(1) By adding the suffixes _er_ and _est_. These are added to adjectives +of one syllable, and to a few of two syllables; as, _fine_, _finer_, +_finest_; _lovely_, _lovelier_, _loveliest_. + +(2) By prefixing the adverbs _more_ and _most_. This method is used in +comparing longer adjectives; as, _spacious_, _more spacious_, _most +spacious_; _disagreeable_, _more disagreeable_, _most disagreeable_. + +(3) By prefixing the adverbs _less_ and _least_; as, _rough_, _less_ +_rough_, _least rough_; _elegant_; _less elegant_, _least elegant_. This +is a mode of comparing adjectives on a descending scale instead of an +ascending scale. + +=175.= Some adjectives cannot be compared at all; as, _asleep_, _dead_, +_correct_, _round_, _square_, _principal_. Instead of saying _rounder_, +we may say _more nearly round_. + +=176.= Some adjectives are compared irregularly. The following are +examples:— + + POSITIVE COMPARATIVE SUPERLATIVE + + good better best + ill worse worst + bad worse worst + many more most + much more most + little less least + far farther _or_ further farthest _or_ furthest + +=Summary.=—=Comparison= in an adjective is a change of form to express +quality or quantity in different degrees. + +There are three =degrees= of comparison,—=positive=, =comparative=, and +=superlative=. + +Short adjectives are compared by adding the suffixes _er_ and _est_. + +Longer adjectives are compared by prefixing _more_ and _most_. + +Many adjectives may be compared on a descending scale by prefixing _less_ +and _least_. + +=Exercise.=—Select all the adjectives, and tell the kind and the degree +of each. Compare each adjective. If any cannot be compared, state that +fact. + + 1. There was nothing in these woods bigger than a weasel. + + 2. The way led through the deepest and most perilous part of + the swamp. + + 3. This brother was younger and handsomer, and much more + amiable than William. + + 4. As she grew older, she became less exacting and more + tolerant, less certain and more hopeful, less vigorous in body, + but gentler in manner and sweeter in spirit. + + 5. The Hotel de Cluny is one of the quaintest, queerest, + pleasantest, and most homelike places we are likely to meet + with. + + 6. The other captive was of a more restless temperament, + slenderer in build, more eager and alert of eye, less + companionable of mood. + + 7. Least vague of all was the terror of the usually unterrified + weasel. + + 8. Those men are most apt to be obsequious and conciliating + abroad, who are under the discipline of shrews at home. + + 9. At the least flourish of a broomstick or a ladle, Wolf would + fly to the door with yelping precipitation. + + 10. The lynx was smaller than her mate, somewhat browner in + hue, leaner, and of a peculiarly malignant expression. + + 11. The women of the village used to employ Rip to do such + little odd jobs as their less obliging husbands would not do + for them. + + 12. The singing master’s hair was a little longer, his hands + were a little whiter, his shoes a little thinner, his manner a + trifle more polished than that of his soberer mates. + +Tell the use of adjectives in sentences 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 12. + +=177.= Sometimes errors are made in the use of adjectives. + +The comparative degree should be used in comparing two objects, the +superlative in comparing more than two. If only two roads are open to us, +we ought to say that we shall take the _shorter_. + +=Exercise.=—Select the proper adjective for each of these sentences, and +give your reasons:— + + 1. Which would be the (_cheapest_ or _cheaper_) route—by water + or by rail? + + 2. Prince is the (_swifter_ or _swiftest_) horse, but Pete is + the (_stronger_ or _strongest_). + + 3. Which is the (_higher_ or _highest_)—the Eiffel Tower or the + Washington Monument? + + 4. Of the two leading candidates, Wilson and Harmon, which is + (_more likely_ or _most likely_) to be nominated? + +Sometimes an ill-chosen adjective is used after the verb _feel_. The +sentence, “I feel _good_,” is correct only when it means “I feel +righteous,” while “I feel _well_,” means “I am in good health.” In this +sentence _well_ is an adjective meaning the opposite of _sick_. + + NOTE.—We also have the adverb _well_, denoting manner, as in + the sentence, “LaFollette spoke _well_.” + +The sentence, “Rufus looks _good_,” is correct when we mean that Rufus +looks as if he were a good man; but we should say, “Rufus looks _well_ +(not _good_) in gray.” Here _well_ is an adjective meaning pleasing or +acceptable. + +The limiting adjectives _this_ and _these_ should not be followed by the +word _here_. We point out sufficiently when we say _this book_, _these +books_. + +The personal pronoun _them_ should never be used for the limiting +adjective _those_. We should say _those horses_, _those wagons_, _those +tents_. + +If we modify a noun by the limiting adjective _each_, _every_, _either_, +_neither_, or _no_, we must use a singular pronoun to represent that +noun; as,— + + Each man took _his_ appointed place. + + Every girl made _her_ own costume. + + Neither man lost _his_ job. + +=Exercise.=—Supply the correct pronoun in each of these sentences:— + + NOTE.—The masculine pronoun should be used when there is no + word in the sentence that indicates whether the male or the + female sex is referred to. + + 1. Everybody came and brought —— appetite. + + 2. Each lady contributed whatever —— chose. + + 3. No young person can afford to waste —— time. + + 4. Neither doctor will give —— assistance. + + 5. No day is without —— disappointments. + + 6. If either man calls, tell —— that I am busy. + + 7. Every girl in the class said that —— did not understand the + lesson. + + 8. Every boy wishes that —— might be president. + + 9. No soldier acknowledged that —— was afraid. + + 10. Neither chair is in —— place. + + + + +XLVII. REVIEW OF ADJECTIVES + + +=178.= In our study of adjectives in Lessons IX, XXVI, XXXIII, XXXVII, +XLIV, XLV, and XLVI we have learned that adjectives may be classified +as limiting adjectives and descriptive adjectives; that _which_ and +_what_ are interrogative adjectives; that adjectives have the property +of comparison; and that adjectives may be used in four different ways: +(1) before a noun to modify that noun; (2) after a noun as an appositive +modifier; (3) as a subjective complement of certain intransitive verbs, +and (4) as the objective complement of certain transitive verbs. + +=Exercise.=—Make an outline of the subject, Adjectives, to recite from in +class. Illustrate each point you make with a good sentence of your own +composition. + +=179.= When we parse an adjective, we should tell:— + +(1) Its class,—descriptive, limiting, or interrogative. + +(2) Its degree (if it admits of comparison). + +(3) Its use, and what it modifies. + +=Exercise.=—Parse each adjective in the following sentences:— + + 1. The puppy grew bigger and clumsier each day. His most + friendly overtures to the cat were wholly misunderstood. + + 2. Paris is an immense city, full of broad and handsome + streets, magnificent buildings, grand open places with + fountains and statues, great public gardens and parks free to + everybody. + + 3. His gray eyes, clear and kind, flashed like fire when he + spoke of his adventures. + + 4. Which picture shall we hang between these two front + windows—the little Nydia or this pretty landscape? + + 5. It was clear that the whelps of last spring had betaken + themselves to other and safer hunting grounds. + + 6. For a moment the boy felt afraid—afraid in his own woods. + + 7. Below us lies a lake, clear and cold, whereon fairies might + launch their airy shallops. + + 8. Jo Calone threw down his saddle on the dusty ground, and + turned his horses loose. + + 9. What fun the rabbits must have been having! + + 10. The full moon of October, deep orange in a clear, deep sky, + hung large and somewhat distorted just over the wooded hills. + + 11. For a long time pain and hunger kept me awake. + + 12. How sweet and demure those girls looked! + + 13. Do you suppose that any old Roman ever had twenty-four + different kinds of pie at one dinner? + + 14. There was something in their cries that sounded strangely + wild and fierce. + + 15. The cardinal bird drew herself up very straight, raised her + crest, and opened her big beak. + + 16. What harm can a naked frog do us? + + 17. Land in London is so valuable that a single acre of it has + been sold for four and a half million dollars. + + 18. The old servant made our lives miserable by her + cantankerous ways. + + + + +XLVIII. ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS + + +=180.= When we say, “This ring was my mother’s,” we use the word _this_ +as an adjective modifying the noun _ring_. When we say, “This was my +mother’s ring,” we use the one word _this_ in place of _this ring_ as +subject of the sentence, hence _this_ is no longer an adjective, but has +become a pronoun. Since its ordinary use is that of an adjective, we call +it an =adjective pronoun=. + +Many limiting adjectives may be used as pronouns. We often make such +sentences as these:— + + _Few_ shall part where _many_ meet. + + If honor is lost, then _all_ is lost. + + When _two_ or _three_ are gathered together in Thy name, Thou + wilt grant their requests. + +=181.= The commonest adjective pronouns are _all_, _any_, _each_, +_either_, _few_, _first_, _former_, _last_, _little_, _many_, _more_, +_most_, _much_, _neither_, _one_, _other_, _several_, _some_, _this_, +_that_, _these_, _those_. + +Make sentences containing five of these adjective pronouns. + +=182.= Two adjective pronouns, _one_ and _other_, may be declined. + + _Singular_ _Plural_ _Singular_ _Plural_ + + _Nom._ one ones other others + _Poss._ one’s ones’ other’s others’ + _Obj._ one ones other others + +Sentences like these are common:— + + One sometimes tires of _one’s_ occupation. + + Each envied the _other’s_ good fortune. + +The two adjective pronouns, _one_ and _other_, may be modified by +adjectives; as, “Many others came,” “The green ones are the prettiest.” + +_Each other_ and _one another_, though consisting of two words, may be +considered as one adjective pronoun. + +=183.= Some adjective pronouns may be modified by articles. We say, “_The +last_ is the best of all the game,” “I like gooseberries, so I picked _a +few_.” + +=Summary.=—An =adjective pronoun= is a limiting adjective used in place +of a noun. + +The adjective pronouns _one_ and _other_ may be declined. + +Some adjective pronouns may be modified by adjectives. + +=Exercise.=—Select the adjective pronouns in these sentences. Tell the +use and case of each. Tell the noun that each pronoun stands for. Supply +this noun where you can. What part of speech does the adjective pronoun +become then? + + 1. This is the story of a bad boy. + + 2. Many of the protozoa are very beautiful. Some build shells + for themselves of strange and curious shapes. + + 3. The ham turned out to be a very remarkable one. + + 4. There is a vast difference between the styles of 1860 and + 1900. The former favored Paisley shawls and flounced skirts, + the latter sanctioned the tailor-made suit and the shirt waist. + + 5. A little made us very happy once. + + 6. From time to time one or another of the leaping rabbits + would take himself off through the fir trees, while others + continued to arrive along the moonlight trails. + + 7. All is of God that is or is to be. + + 8. A bluejay and a red squirrel were loudly berating each other + for stealing. + + 9. The convenience of resting one’s self in the open air is one + of the comforts of Paris. + + 10. Each of these was a wolf of renown; most of them were + above the ordinary size; one in particular, the second in + command, was a veritable giant. Several of the band were + especially noted. One of them was a beautiful white wolf, that + the Mexicans called Blanca; this was supposed to be a female, + possibly Lobo’s mate. Another was a yellow wolf of remarkable + swiftness. + + 11. It is not easy to change one’s life all in a minute. + + 12. It is a blessed fact that one’s own home is the hub of the + universe. + + 13. Every one said that I was a tomboy. + + 14. Some wore short doublets, others jerkins, with long knives + in their belts, and most of them had enormous breeches of + similar style with that of the guide’s. + + 15. The years hurry onward, treading in their haste on one + another’s heels. + +What noun is understood after _guide’s_ in sentence 14? + + + + +XLIX. VERBS: TENSE + + +=184.= Three very common words are _yesterday_, _to-day_, and +_to-morrow_. The word _yesterday_ refers to time that has gone, or +past time; _to-day_ refers to time that now is, or =present= time; and +_to-morrow_ refers to time that is to come, or =future= time. + +=185.= Every event takes place in time, and so when we tell of the +occurrence of any event, we must have some way of making clear whether +that event took place in the past, or is taking place in the present, or +will take place in the future. Of course, we might tell this by adverbs +or adverbial phrases, but we have a very much better way,—we tell it by +the form of the verb we use. What time do we think of when we see the +verbs _eats_, _works_, _plays_, _sleeps_? What time is told by the verbs +_ate_, _worked_, _played_, _slept_? What change is made in the form of +the two sets of verbs? What time is told by the verbs _will eat_, _will +work_, _will play_, _will sleep_? + +=186.= In the last group of verbs, where each verb consists of two words, +it is the first word _will_ that denotes future time. Such a word is +called a helping word, or =auxiliary= verb. + +=187.= The change in the form of a verb to denote time is called =tense=. + +=188.= Tense is a property of all verbs. It is evident that there must be +three tenses,—present, past, and future, as shown in the three sets of +verbs that have just been examined. These are called =primary= tenses. + +There are three other tenses, called =secondary= tenses. We may say, “I +_have eaten_ my supper,” “I _had eaten_ my supper,” “I _shall have eaten_ +my supper.” These verbs call attention not so much to the time of the +action as to the fact that it is completed, or perfected. + +_Have eaten_ means that a past action is completed at the present time. +This form is called the =present perfect= tense. + +_Had eaten_ means that a past action was completed before some particular +past time. This form is called the =past perfect= tense. + +_Shall have eaten_ means that an action will be completed before some +definite future time. This is called the =future perfect= tense. + +=Summary.=—=Tense= is that property of a verb which denotes the time of +an action or an event. + +There are six tenses:— + +(1) The =present tense= denotes that an action is taking place. It +usually consists of one word, the simplest form of the verb. + +(2) The =past tense= denotes that an action did take place. It usually +consists of one word. + +(3) The =future tense= denotes that an action will take place. It +consists of two words, one of which is the auxiliary _shall_ or _will_. + +(4) The =present perfect tense= denotes that a past action is now +completed. It consists of two words, one of which is the auxiliary _have_ +or _has_. + +(5) The =past perfect tense= denotes that a past action was completed +before a particular past time. It consists of two words, one of which is +the auxiliary _had_. + +(6) The =future perfect tense= denotes that a future action will be +completed before a particular future time. It consists of three words, +one of which is the auxiliary _have_, and another the auxiliary _shall_ +or _will_. + + NOTES.—1. The present tense is used also to denote (1) that + something is true at all times; as “Waste makes want,” and (2) + that something occurs habitually; as, “She teaches school.” + + 2. When a predicate consists of a series of verbs in the same + tense, the auxiliary is usually expressed only with the first + verb. In the sentence, “Now that he has eaten and slept, he + is ready for work,” the second verb is _has slept_, with the + auxiliary understood. + +=189.= A common error is the use of the present perfect tense for the +past tense. We say, “I _have been_ in Florida several times,” because +we mean several times before now; but we say, “I _was_ in Florida last +year,” because we mean that our being there occurred in past time with +no reference whatever to the present. If we are still in Florida we may +say, “I _have been_ in Florida a long time”; but if we are no longer in +Florida we say, “I _was_ in Florida a long time.” + +=Exercise 1.=—Justify the use of the past or the present perfect tense in +each of these sentences:— + + 1. I learned the poem last evening. + + 2. I have learned the poem already. + + 3. I bought my hat at Stone’s. + + 4. I have bought a new spring hat. + + 5. I came home last Monday. + + 6. I have come to stay a week. + + 7. I tried my skates this afternoon. + + 8. I haven’t tried my new skates. + + 9. I have walked ever since sunrise. + + 10. I walked from sunrise until noon. + + 11. I spoke to the President this morning. + + 12. I have never spoken to the President. + + 13. I spoke to him twice when I was in Washington. + + 14. I have spoken to him several times. + +=Exercise 2.=—Using the subject _I_, form the six tenses of the following +verbs. Consult the dictionary for forms of which you are not sure. + + break + bring + buy + come + drive + go + leave + love + run + see + sing + take + turn + wait + +=Exercise 3.=—Select all the verbs in these sentences, and tell the tense +of each:— + + 1. Trees wave, flowers bloom, and bright-winged birds flit from + palm to cedar. + + 2. The lynx turned to the right, along a well-worn trail, + ran up a tree, descended hastily, and glided away among the + thickets. + + 3. Tommy and I had played together till five o’clock that + Saturday afternoon. + + 4. The children thought, “how long the vacation will be!” but + the mother thought, “how soon it will have come and gone.” + + 5. He who knows nothing fears nothing. + + 6. The duck had never seen a guinea egg before in all her life. + + 7. The boy comes nearer to perpetual motion than anything else + in nature. + + 8. Nobody has yet discovered how many grasshoppers a turkey + will hold. + + 9. I have made no addition to my cabinet since we met. + + 10. The big black pots swinging from the cranes had bubbled and + gurgled and sent out puffs of appetizing steam. + + 11. “How many pieces shall I cut this pie into?” said she. + + 12. I have seen wild bees and butterflies feeding at a height + of 13,000 feet above the sea. + + 13. You shall go to bed, and I will remain with you a few days + until you get over this fever. + + 14. The daisies have shut up their sleepy red eyes. + +Analyze sentences 2, 3, 6, 9, 14. + + + + +L. THE INDICATIVE MODE + + +=190.= Each of the six verb forms that we have been studying,—I _eat_, +I _ate_, I _shall eat_, I _have eaten_, I _had eaten_, I _shall have +eaten_,—is used in the statement of a fact, and is said to be in the +=indicative mode=. + +Mode is that property of a verb which denotes the manner of an assertion. + +The indicative mode is used in the statement of a fact. + +=191.= In some tenses there is a slight difference between the singular +and the plural form of a verb, hence verbs are said to have the property +of =number=. We should always use the verb form that agrees with the +number of the subject. In the present tense, for example, we say in the +singular, “The man _goes_;” and in the plural, “The men _go_.” + +=192.= In some tenses there is a slight difference in the form of the +verb to denote person, hence verbs are said to have the property of +=person=. In the present perfect tense, we say in the first person, “I +_have_ gone;” and in the third person, “He _has_ gone.” + +=193.= When we give all the forms of a verb in the three persons and the +two numbers of each tense, we are said to =conjugate= the verb. + +=194.= Conjugation of the verb _be_ in the indicative mode:— + + PRESENT TENSE PAST TENSE + + _Singular_ _Plural_ _Singular_ _Plural_ + + I am we are I was we were + thou art you are thou wast you were + he is they are he was they were + + FUTURE TENSE PRESENT PERFECT TENSE + + _Singular_ _Plural_ _Singular_ _Plural_ + + I shall be we shall be I have been we have been + thou wilt be you will be thou hast been you have been + he will be they will be he has been they have been + + PAST PERFECT TENSE + + _Singular_ _Plural_ + + I had been we had been + thou hadst been you had been + he had been they had been + + FUTURE PERFECT TENSE + + _Singular_ _Plural_ + + I shall have been we shall have been + thou wilt have been you will have been + he will have been they will have been + +=195.= Conjugation of _see_ in the indicative mode:— + + PRESENT TENSE PAST TENSE + + _Singular_ _Plural_ _Singular_ _Plural_ + + I see we see I saw we saw + thou seest you see thou sawest you saw + he sees they see he saw they saw + + FUTURE TENSE PRESENT PERFECT TENSE + + _Singular_ _Plural_ _Singular_ _Plural_ + + I shall see we shall see I have seen we have seen + thou wilt see you will see thou hast seen you have seen + he will see they will see he has seen they have seen + + PAST PERFECT TENSE + + _Singular_ _Plural_ + + I had seen we had seen + thou hadst seen you had seen + he had seen they had seen + + FUTURE PERFECT TENSE + + _Singular_ _Plural_ + + I shall have seen we shall have seen + thou wilt have seen you will have seen + he will have seen they will have seen + +=Exercise.=—Conjugate the verbs in Exercise 2, p. 126, in the six tenses +of the Indicative Mode. + + + + +LI. THE INTERROGATIVE FORM OF THE INDICATIVE MODE + + +=196.= The indicative mode is used not only in stating facts, but also in +asking questions. In interrogative sentences the order of the words that +make up the verb is changed somewhat. In a simple statement we say, _I +have paid_. In a question we say, _Have I paid?_ putting the auxiliary +before the subject. + +=197.= Conjugation of _be_ in the indicative mode, interrogative form:— + + PRESENT TENSE PAST TENSE + + am I are we was I were we + art thou are you wast thou were you + is he are they was he were they + + FUTURE TENSE PRESENT PERFECT TENSE + + shall I be shall we be have I been have we been + wilt thou be will you be hast thou been have you been + will he be will they be has he been have they been + + PAST PERFECT TENSE + + had I been had we been + hadst thou been had you been + had he been had they been + + FUTURE PERFECT TENSE + + shall I have been shall we have been + wilt thou have been will you have been + will he have been will they have been + +=198.= When we use the present and past tenses of any verb except _be_ +for asking questions, we do not say _sings she?_ or _sang she?_ but _does +she sing?_ _did she sing?_ that is, we use the auxiliaries _do_ and _did_. + +Conjugate the verb _see_ in the indicative mode, interrogative form. + +=Exercise.=—Conjugate the verbs in Exercise 2, p. 126, in the indicative +mode, interrogative form. + +=199.= The use of the negative word _not_ after a verb gives rise to +many contractions which are permissible in familiar conversation. The +contractions for which incorrect forms are often used are the following:— + + isn’t + wasn’t + aren’t + weren’t + don’t + doesn’t + haven’t + hasn’t + +There is no contraction for _am not_; the word _ain’t_ is incorrect. + +Contractions are oftenest misused in questions. Notice the following +correct forms:— + + Isn’t it too bad? + Isn’t he tall? + Isn’t she pretty? + Aren’t you cold? + Aren’t they coming? + Wasn’t it long? + Weren’t you there? + Weren’t they slow? + Don’t you believe me? + Doesn’t it hurt? + Doesn’t she work hard? + Doesn’t he like it? + Haven’t you been there? + Hasn’t he any friends? + +We should be careful never to say, _you was_ or _was you_; for the +pronoun _you_, even when it denotes one person, is followed by a verb in +the plural form. We should say, “You _were_ late,” “_Were you_ late?” +“_Weren’t you_ late?” + + + + +LII. THE SUBJUNCTIVE MODE + + +=200.= When we say, “If I were you, I should be a doctor,” we have a +dependent proposition, _If I were you_, which states not a fact, but an +imaginary condition. This condition is, moreover, directly contrary to +fact, for I am not you, and never can be. The verb used in expressing +such a condition is said to be in the =subjunctive= mode. + +=201.= The subjunctive mode is found not only in dependent propositions +introduced by if, but in those introduced by _lest_, _whether_, +_although_, etc. + + (a) Be quiet lest the baby _wake_. + + (b) We cannot tell whether he _be_ the rightful heir or not. + + (c) Though he _wait_ long, yet he will come at last. + +In each of these sentences the subjunctive mode is used to express doubt +or uncertainty, or something imagined but not actually realized. + +=202.= The subjunctive mode is so named because it is found principally +in dependent, or subjoined propositions. It is, however, found also in +independent propositions expressing a wish; as, “Long _live_ the King!” +“God _bless_ thee, dear!” + +=203.= The subjunctive mode is used in the statement of something that +is uncertain; as, “If he _come_ in time, dinner will be served at six.” +This sentence means that his coming is to take place in the future, hence +we cannot tell whether it will be a fact or not. In the sentence, “If he +_comes_ in time, dinner is served at six,” we use the indicative mode +because we mean that sometimes he really does come in time. + +=204.= The subjunctive mode is little used, especially in conversation; +but we find many instances of it in the Bible and in the works of +Shakespeare, hence we should understand its meaning. Nowadays, except to +express a wish, as, “Heaven _defend_ thee!” and to express a condition +contrary to fact, as, “If the ring _were_ gold, it would not discolor +your finger,” most persons use the indicative mode or some other verb +phrase. Instead of saying, “If to-morrow _be_ fair,” most persons say, +“If to-morrow _is_ fair,” or “If to-morrow _should be_ fair.” (See Lesson +LXI.) + +=205.= There are four tenses in the subjunctive mode, but the forms +do not differ greatly from those of the indicative mode. There is no +interrogative form. + +=206.= Conjugation of _be_ in the subjunctive mode:— + + PRESENT TENSE PAST TENSE + + I be we be I were we were + you be you be thou were you were + he be they be he were they were + + PRESENT PERFECT TENSE PAST PERFECT TENSE + + I have been we have been I had been we had been + thou have been you have been thou had been you had been + he have been they have been he had been they had been + +=207.= Conjugation of _see_ in the subjunctive mode:— + + PRESENT TENSE PAST TENSE + + I see we see I saw we saw + thou see you see thou saw you saw + he see they see he saw they saw + + PRESENT PERFECT TENSE PAST PERFECT TENSE + + I have seen we have seen I had seen we had seen + thou have seen you have seen thou had seen you had seen + he have seen they have seen he had seen they had seen + +=Summary.=—The =subjunctive mode= is used in an exclamative sentence +to express a wish, and in a dependent proposition to express something +contrary to fact or something uncertain. + +The subjunctive mode has no future tenses. + +=Exercise 1.=—Conjugate all the verbs in Exercise 2, p. 126, in the +subjunctive mode. + +=Exercise 2.=—Select all the verbs in the subjunctive mode in these +sentences, and tell why that mode is used:— + + 1. Misery loves company—even though it be very poor company. + + 2. If the weather be fine, there breaks upon the eye, as + we rise higher and higher, a succession of those views of + mountain, lake and forest, which can be had only from an + elevated position. + + 3. The Lord be between thee and me when we are absent one from + the other. + + 4. If the whole world were put into one scale and my mother + into the other, the world could not outweigh her. + + 5. If a boy were obliged to work at nut gathering in order to + procure food for the family, he would find it very irksome. + + 6. + + Green be the turf above thee, + Friend of my better days! + + 7. John convinces himself that he must watch the hawk lest it + pounce upon the chicken. + + 8. If chicadee seem preoccupied or absorbed, you may know that + he is building a nest. + + 9. If I were a millionaire, city life would be agreeable + enough, for I could always get away from it. + + 10. + + And Death, whenever he come to me, + Shall come on the wide, unbounded sea. + + 11. In their hands they shall bear thee up, lest at any time + thou dash thy foot against a stone. + + 12. + + Christ save us all from a death like this, + On the reef of Norman’s Woe! + + 13. If wishes were horses, beggars might ride. + + 14. God be merciful to us, and bless us, and show us the light + of his countenance. + + 15. If a man say that he hath no sin, he deceiveth himself, and + the truth is not in him. + + 16. If he had told the truth, somebody would have believed him. + + 17. If impressment were the law of the world, if it formed part + of the code of nations and were usually practiced, then it + might be defended as a common right. + + + + +LIII. THE IMPERATIVE MODE + + +=208.= We learned in Lesson XIV that sentences expressing a command or an +entreaty are called imperative sentences; that the subject of the verb in +an imperative sentence is a pronoun of the second person,—_you_, _thou_, +or _ye_; and that this subject is seldom expressed. The verb in an +imperative sentence is said to be in the =imperative mode=; as, “_Sleep_, +baby, _sleep_.” + +=209.= There is only one form for the imperative mode, hence it is not +said to have tense at all. + +Conjugation of _be_ in the imperative mode:— + + _Singular_ _Plural_ + + be (_you_ or _thou_) be (_you_ or _ye_) + +Conjugation of _see_ in the imperative mode:— + + _Singular_ _Plural_ + + see (_you_ or _thou_) see (_you_ or _ye_) + +=Summary.=—The =imperative mode= is used in expressing a command or an +entreaty. It has but one form. Its subject is always the pronoun _you_, +_thou_, or _ye_. + +=Exercise.=—From these sentences select the verbs in the imperative mode. +Conjugate these verbs in the indicative, subjunctive, and imperative +modes. + + 1. Ring, happy bells, across the snow. + + 2. Break, break, break, on thy cold, gray stones, O sea! + + 3. Repent ye, for the kingdom of heaven is at hand. + + 4. Run upstairs and get my glasses. + + 5. Blow, winds, and crack your cheeks. + + 6. + + Build thee more stately mansions, O my soul! + As the swift seasons roll. + Leave thy low-vaulted past, + Let each new temple, nobler than the last, + Shut thee from heaven with a dome more vast.... + + 7. Laugh, and the world laughs with you. + + 8. + + Work till the last beam fadeth, + Fadeth to shine no more. + + 9. Come unto me, all ye that labor and are heavy laden, and I + will give you rest. + + 10. Whatsoever thy hand findeth to do, do it with thy might. + + 11. Suffer the little children, and forbid them not to come + unto me, for of such is the kingdom of heaven. + + 12. Honor thy father and thy mother. + + 13. + + Tell me not in mournful numbers + Life is but an empty dream. + +Find all the terms of address in the sentences above. + + + + +LIV. PRINCIPAL PARTS OF VERBS. REGULAR AND IRREGULAR VERBS + + +=210.= If we examine the conjugation of the verb _see_, we shall discover +that most of the tenses are formed by the use of auxiliary verbs, and +that only four forms of the verb _see_ itself are made use of; namely, +_see_, _sees_, _saw_, _seen_. The form _sees_ occurs only once, but the +other three forms occur often. These three forms—_see_, _saw_, _seen_—are +called the =principal parts= of the verb _see_. + +The principal parts of any verb are the present indicative, as, _go_, +_take_; the past indicative, as, _went_, _took_; and another form, as, +_gone_, _taken_, called the =past participle=. + +=211.= The past participle is used in forming all the perfect tenses. +It is plain, then, that we should say _I have gone_ (not _have went_), +_I had taken_ (not _had took_); since _went_ and _took_ are past tense +forms, not past participles. + +The past participle is never used in the primary tenses. That is why we +say _I saw_ (not _seen_), _I did_ (not _done_). + + NOTE.—The very common word _ought_ is, as we use it to-day, + an old past tense form of the verb _owe_, and not a past + participle. Hence, we should say _ought to go_, or _ought not + to go_ (not _had ought to go_ or _hadn’t ought to go_). + +=212.= Most verbs form their past tense and past participle by adding _d_ +or _ed_ to the present tense. The past tense and the past participle of +_move_ are _moved_ and _moved_; of _plow_ are _plowed_ and _plowed_; of +_lift_ are _lifted_ and _lifted_. Such verbs are called =regular verbs=. + +=213.= Many verbs in very common use form their past tense or past +participle, not by the addition of a suffix, but by some change within +the word, such as a change in the vowel. The past tense and past +participle of _sing_ are _sang_ and _sung_ respectively; of _leave_ are +_left_ and _left_; of _write_ are _wrote_ and _written_. These verbs are +called =irregular verbs=. + +=214.= Some verbs, like _put_ and _set_, have the same form for each of +their principal parts. These also are irregular verbs. + +=215.= The verb _be_ is very irregular. Its principal parts are: present +tense _am_, past tense _was_, past participle _been_. + +=216.= If we know the proper auxiliaries for the different tenses, we can +conjugate any verb correctly by first ascertaining its principal parts. +These can always be found in a dictionary. + +=Summary.=—The =principal parts= of a verb are the present tense, the +past tense, and the past participle. + +A =regular verb= is one that forms its past tense and past participle by +adding _d_ or _ed_ to the present tense. + +An =irregular verb= is one whose past tense or past participle is formed +in some other way than by adding _d_ or _ed_ to the present tense. + + NOTE.—Webster’s New International Dictionary gives the present + tense form of every verb. If the verb is irregular, the + dictionary gives also the past tense form preceded by _pret._, + and the past participle preceded by _p.p._ The abbreviation + _pret._ stands for _preterit_, which means past tense. If the + verb is regular, the abbreviations are omitted, and the form + _d_ or _ed_ is printed but once. + +=Exercise.=—Find in the dictionary the past tense and the past participle +of each of the following verbs. Use the three forms of each verb +correctly in sentences. + + awake + bear + beat + begin + bid + bind + bite + bleed + blow + break + bring + build + buy + catch + choose + cling + come + cost + creep + cut + dare + dig + do + draw + drink + drive + eat + fall + feed + fight + find + flee + fling + fly + forget + freeze + get + give + go + grind + grow + hang + have + hide + hit + hold + hurt + keep + kneel + knit + know + lay + lead + lend + let + lie + lose + make + meet + pay + read + ride + ring + rise + run + say + seek + sell + shake + shed + shine + shoot + show + shrink + shut + sink + sit + slay + sleep + slide + sling + smite + speak + spend + spin + spread + spring + stand + steal + stick + sting + stride + strike + string + strive + swear + sweat + sweep + swim + swing + take + tell + think + throw + tread + wear + weave + weep + wet + win + wind + wring + +=217.= Many errors are made in using the different forms of irregular +verbs. + +Certain verbs, the meaning and principal parts of which are somewhat +alike, occasion a good deal of trouble to some persons. The most +important of these are _lie_ and _lay_, _sit_ and _set_, and _rise_ +and _raise_. The first word of each pair, _lie_, _sit_, and _rise_ is +an intransitive verb. The second verb of each pair, _lay_, _set_, and +_raise_, is a transitive verb. + +=Exercise 1.=—Supply the correct form of _lie_ or _lay_ in each of these +sentences, and give your reason in each case. + +_Lie_ means to be at rest in a reclining position. + +_Lay_ means to place a thing down in a reclining position. + + 1. —— down, Phiz, and be a good dog. + + 2. Phiz —— at the foot of my couch and gazed out of the nearest + window. + + 3. After he had —— there an hour or more, he whined to go out + on the street. + + 4. Phiz brought in a notebook and —— it at my feet. + + 5. Go and —— it on your master’s chair, Phiz. + + 6. Did the soldiers —— on the damp ground? + + 7. This land —— too low for grain fields. + + 8. How long has my fan been —— on the window sill? + + 9. Grant —— in bed dictating his Memoirs. + + 10. The tools have —— here in the wet and are rusted. + +=Exercise 2.=—Supply the correct form of _sit_ or _set_ in each of these +sentences, and give your reason in each case. + +_Sit_ means to be in a sitting position. + +_Set_ means to place a thing down in a position of rest. + + 1. By and by we looked in, and there —— Miss Eugene. + + 2. Have you —— here long, or did you just come? + + 3. I will —— my suit case here, and then —— in your seat. + + 4. Why did you —— there so long without speaking? + + 5. Father —— the white hen to-day, so she will be —— for about + three weeks. + + 6. The little bird —— and sings at his door in the sun. + + 7. Who has been —— in my chair? + +=Exercise 3.=—Supply the correct form of _rise_ and _raise_ in each of +these sentences, and give your reason in each case. + +_Rise_ means to move from a lower to a higher position. + +_Raise_ means to cause to rise. + + 1. The bread —— very slowly that cold day. + + 2. Bread —— because of the yeast in it. + + 3. After the bread had ——, we set the pans in the oven. + + 4. They —— the old house so as to put a furnace in the cellar. + + 5. The Black River —— sixteen inches yesterday. + + 6. If the river continues to ——, the dam will go out. + + 7. Shall we —— the flag at sunrise? + +The present tense form of some verbs is misused for the past tense. We +should say, “The tailor _came_ (not _come_) last night,” “I _ran_ (not +_run_) a mile yesterday,” “And then he _said_ (not _says_), ‘Hurry up.’” +The verbs oftenest misused in this way are _come_, _give_, _run_, _say_, +and _see_. + +Study the following correct sentences:— + + He _came_ last night. + + She _came_ to meet me. + + It _came_ without warning. + + I _ran_ a mile yesterday. + + He _ran_ in front of me. + + She _ran_ out of sugar. + + At last he _said_, “I will go.” + + John _said_, “The schoolhouse is on fire.” + + I _said_, “Ring the bells.” + + He _gave_ me a dollar. + + I _gave_ the child a penny. + + She _gave_ it to me. + + They _ran_ up a bill. + + The dog _ran_ behind. + + The baby _ran_ to his mother. + + I _saw_ the parade yesterday. + + He _saw_ me go out. + + She _saw_ them at the window. + + I _came_, I _saw_, I _conquered_. + +Some persons make a wrong past tense for certain verbs, and use such +forms as _blowed_ and _drawed_, when they should use _blew_ and _drew_. + +=Exercise 4.=—Supply the correct form for the past tense in each of these +sentences:— + + 1. _Blow._ The wind soon —— the smoke away. + + 2. _Draw._ The boat —— four feet of water. + + 3. _Grow._ Lucy —— too fast to be strong. + + 4. _Know._ Nobody —— the right date but me. + + 5. _Throw._ Who —— the ball last? + +Some persons use the past participle of _see_ and _do_ for the past +tense. We should say, “I _saw_ (not _seen_) my duty, and I _did_ (not +done) it.” + +Study these correct sentences:— + + I _saw_ the boat go down. + + Who _saw_ the star first? + + We _saw_ the elephant dance. + + He _did_ his own work. + + She _did_ it too fast. + + Everybody _did_ what he could. + +Another common error is the use of the past tense of a verb for the past +participle, as in the expressions _is broke_ and _had froze_. + +=Exercise 5.=—Supply the correct form in each of these sentences:— + + 1. _Begin._ First we must finish what we have ——. + + 2. _Break._ Dear me! I have —— the bird’s seed dish. + + 3. _Drink._ Have you —— all the milk? + + 4. _Freeze._ If the lagoon is ——, we can go skating. + + 5. _Steal._ Why do you think that the purse was ——? + + 6. _Swim._ Have you ever —— out to the island? + + + + +LV. VOICE + + +=218.= When we say, “The fish swallowed the worm,” we have a sentence +made up of a subject, a verb, and an object complement. The subject +names the doer of the action, while the object names the receiver of the +action. The verb _swallowed_ could have nothing for subject but some word +that indicates the doer of the action. How is it with the verbs _broke_, +_struck_, _whittled_? A verb that requires for its subject the name of +the doer of an action is said to be in the =active voice=. + +=219.= When we say, “The worm was swallowed by the fish,” we have a +sentence made up of a subject, a verb, and a prepositional phrase. The +subject names the receiver of the action, and the phrase tells by whom +the action was performed. The verb _was swallowed_ could have nothing for +subject but some word that indicates the receiver of the action. How is +it with the verbs _was swept_, _has been eaten_, _will be cut_? A verb +that requires for its subject the name of the receiver of the action is +said to be in the =passive voice=. + +=220.= When a verb is changed from the active to the passive voice, the +object of the active verb becomes the subject of the passive verb. Hence +it is evident that only transitive verbs can have the passive voice. + +=221.= A verb is conjugated in the passive voice by adding the past +participle of the verb to the conjugation of the verb _be_. + +=222.= Conjugation of the verb _see_ in the passive voice:— + + INDICATIVE MODE + + PRESENT TENSE PAST TENSE + + I am seen we are seen I was seen we were seen + thou art seen you are seen thou wast seen you were seen + he is seen they are seen he was seen they were seen + + FUTURE TENSE + + I shall be seen we shall be seen + thou wilt be seen you will be seen + he will be seen they will be seen + + PRESENT PERFECT + + I have been seen we have been seen + thou hast been seen you have been seen + he has been seen they have been seen + + PAST PERFECT + + I had been seen we had been seen + thou hadst been seen you had been seen + he had been seen they had been seen + + FUTURE PERFECT + + I shall have been seen we shall have been seen + thou wilt have been seen you will have been seen + he will have been seen they will have been seen + + SUBJUNCTIVE MODE + + PRESENT PAST + + I be seen we be seen I were seen we were seen + thou be seen you be seen thou were seen you were seen + he be seen they be seen he were seen they were seen + + PRESENT PERFECT + + I have been seen we have been seen + thou have been seen you have been seen + he have been seen they have been seen + + PAST PERFECT + + I had been seen we had been seen + thou had been seen you had been seen + he had been seen they had been seen + + IMPERATIVE MODE + + be seen (_you_ or _thou_) be seen (_you_ or _ye_) + +=223.= Conjugation of the verb _see_ in the passive voice, indicative +mode, interrogative form:— + + INDICATIVE MODE + + PRESENT PAST + + am I seen are we seen was I seen were we seen + art thou seen are you seen wast thou seen were you seen + is he seen are they seen was he seen were they seen + + FUTURE + + shall I be seen shall we be seen + shalt thou be seen shall you be seen + will he be seen will they be seen + + PRESENT PERFECT + + have I been seen have we been seen + hast thou been seen have you been seen + has he been seen have they been seen + + PAST PERFECT + + had I been seen had we been seen + hadst thou been seen had you been seen + had he been seen had they been seen + + FUTURE PERFECT + + shall I have been seen shall we have been seen + shalt thou have been seen shall you have been seen + will he have been seen will they have been seen + +=Summary.=—=Voice= is that property of a verb which shows whether the +subject names the doer or the receiver of an action. + +The =active voice= shows that the subject names the doer of an action. + +The =passive voice= shows that the subject names the receiver of an +action. + +A verb is conjugated in the passive voice by adding the past participle +of the verb to the conjugation of the verb _be_. + +No intransitive verb has a passive voice. + +=Exercise 1.=—Conjugate the verbs _draw_, _take_, _find_, _forget_, and +_leave_ in the passive voice, both declaratively and interrogatively. + +=Exercise 2.=—Select the verbs in the following sentences. Tell whether +they are transitive or intransitive. Give the tense, mode, voice, and +subject of each. Change the active verbs to the passive voice and the +passive to the active. + + NOTE.—When the verb is passive, the name of the doer of the + action is often omitted. Sometimes we do not know who the doer + is; as, “The art of printing was invented in China long ago.” + Sometimes we do not wish to tell who the doer is; as, “A window + was broken in the basement yesterday.” Sometimes the subject is + so obvious as not to be worth telling; as, “Lying is despised.” + In changing sentences like these three to the active voice, we + must supply a subject for the verb. For instance, in changing + the sentence, “The pie was cut into four pieces,” we might say, + “Mother cut the pie into four pieces.” + + 1. The babe was conveyed to the church in a grand procession. + The road, all the way, was carpeted with green rushes. Over + this road the little infant Elizabeth was borne by one of her + godmothers. She was wrapped in a mantle of purple velvet, with + a long train. This train was trimmed with ermine, a very costly + kind of fur, and was borne by lords and ladies of high rank. + These dignitaries were appointed for the purpose by the king. + + 2. The height of the pinnacle is determined by the breadth of + the base. + + 3. Leicester Hospital supports twelve old soldiers and their + wives. + + 4. After the housework had been done, they went out to the + sunny garden, and picked the luscious red raspberries, not + forgetful of the time when Mrs. Howe had set out the bushes + with her own hands. + + 5. Many of these splendid castles on the Rhine have been + destroyed in modern times. + + 6. It is wonderful and beautiful how a man and his dog will + stick to one another through thick and thin. + + 7. The door had been very firmly fastened, but the crowd tore + it away bodily, and the light of the torches streamed into the + room. + + 8. This garden is shaded by long lines of trees, and adorned + with fountains and statues. + + 9. + + Away to the window I flew like a flash, + Tore open the shutters, and threw up the sash. + + 10. Elephants are very strictly preserved by the English + government. + + 11. The farm boy picks up the potatoes after they have been + dug; he drives the cows night and morning; he brings wood and + water and splits kindling; he gets up the horse and puts out + the horse; whether he is in the house or out of it, there is + always something for him to do. + + 12. + + They who do their souls no wrong, + But keep at eve the faith of morn, + Shall daily hear the angel song, + “To-day the Prince of Peace is born.” + + 13. Mr. Marley has been dead these seven years. + + 14. The Peterkins told how their mother had put salt in the + coffee, and how the chemist had made it worse instead of better. + + 15. We climbed the Alps, veiled our faces before the awful + splendors of Mont Blanc, trembled on the verge of dizzy + heights, shrank back from fathomless abysses, picked our way + across the _Mer de Glace_, and cowered beneath the weight of + the whole incumbent mass of mountains as we went through the + tunnel. + +Tell the part of speech and use of _way_, sentence 1, _forgetful_ 4, _one +another_ 6, _open_ 9, _up_ 9, _souls_ 12, _years_ 13, _worse_ 14. + + + + +LVI. THE PASSIVE VOICE + + +=224.= Every combination of some form of the verb _be_ with the past +participle of a transitive verb is not necessarily a passive verb. + +For example, one passive form of the verb _do_ is _is done_, but it does +not follow that _is done_ is always a passive verb. In the sentence, “The +meat is done now,” we do not mean that the meat is receiving an action, +hence _is done_ cannot be a passive verb. We mean to tell the condition +of the meat, that it is _done_ meat. The word _done_ is used in precisely +the same way as an adjective; as if we should say, “The meat is _good_ +now,” In other words, the participle _done_ is a subjective complement. + +Past participles are used as subjective complements to tell the condition +of something _after_ an action has been performed on it; as, “Every +window in the house is _broken_,” “My dress is badly _torn_,” “The old +house is _deserted_.” + +=225.= When we are in doubt as to whether we have a true passive verb +or not, we may apply these tests: (1) Does the sentence mean that the +subject is acted upon? (2) Can we add a phrase, telling the performer of +the action? (3) Can we change the sentence to the active voice, keeping, +of course, the same tense? + +Let us take, for instance, the sentence, “Courage is praised.” We do mean +that courage receives the praising. We can add the phrase _by everybody_. +And we can change the sentence to the active sentence, “Everybody praises +courage.” Hence _is praised_ is the verb, and is in the passive voice. + +But in the sentence, “Every seat in the balcony is taken,” if _is taken_ +is a passive verb, it must mean, since it is present tense, that every +seat is receiving an action now. It does not mean this, but it does mean +that every seat is a _taken_ seat, hence _taken_ is used as a subjective +complement, and the verb is just the one word _is_. + +=226.= We learned in Lesson XXXVII that some verbs like _make_, _elect_, +_appoint_, and _call_, are often followed by a direct object and an +objective complement; as, “We called our canary Buttercup.” + +When such a sentence is changed to the passive voice, the direct object +becomes, of course, the subject, and we have the sentence, “Our canary +was called Buttercup.” The word _Buttercup_ has now become a subjective +complement. How do we know this? + +When the objective complement is an adjective, as in the sentence, +“She kept the polished floor as _bright_ as a mirror,” if we change +the sentence to the passive voice, the adjective becomes a subjective +complement; as, “The polished floor was kept as bright as a mirror.” + +=227.= We learned in Lesson XXXIV that certain verbs may be followed by +both an indirect and a direct object; as, “Fred told Arthur the news.” + +In changing this sentence to the passive voice we may use the direct +object for the subject of the passive verb; as, “The news was told to +Arthur by Fred”; or we may use the indirect object for the subject of +the passive verb; as, “Arthur was told the news by Fred.” In the latter +case we have an idiomatic construction—a passive verb _was told_ taking +a direct object _the news_. The direct object of a passive verb is often +called a =retained object=, because it remains as an object after the +sentence has been changed to the passive voice. + +Not all sentences containing a direct and an indirect object can be +changed to the passive voice in two ways. We say, “A rose was given to +me,” or “I was given a rose.” We say, “A holiday was promised to the +children,” or “The children were promised a holiday.” But we do not say, +“I was passed the bread,” “I was written a note,” or “I was poured a cup +of tea.” + +=Summary.=—The past participle of a transitive verb may be used as the +subjective complement of some form of the verb _be_. In such a case it +denotes the condition of the subject. + +When a sentence containing a direct object and an objective complement is +changed to the passive voice, the direct object becomes the subject, and +the objective complement becomes a subjective complement. + +Some sentences containing both an indirect and a direct object may be +changed to the passive voice in two ways, either the direct object or +the indirect object becoming the subject. + +=Exercise 1.=—Select each verb in the following sentences. Tell its +voice, and how it is completed. + + 1. The time of the singing of birds is come, and the voice of + the turtle is heard in the land. + + 2. Queen Elizabeth is often familiarly called Queen Bess. + + 3. Rebecca’s face was so swollen with tears and so sharp with + misery that for a moment Uncle Jerry scarcely recognized her. + + 4. To put it mildly, Mrs. Howe was greatly pleased when she was + elected first president of the Murray Hill Society. + + 5. When the eggs had been beaten stiff, the little cook sifted + the sugar. + + 6. Christ the Lord is risen to-day. + + 7. The colonists were so disheartened and alarmed that they + sailed at once for England. + + 8. The youngest girl in the senior class was chosen + valedictorian. + + 9. When the automobile ran off the bridge, every one was + surprised at the driver’s escape. + + 10. The black colt had been named Odin, but he was always + called Teddy. + + 11. + + The day is past and gone, + The evening shades appear. + + 12. Those people are mistaken who say that hard work does not + pay—they have never really tried it. + + 13. The room was made cool and dark, so that the lady might + sleep. + + 14. The roofs of the long red barns, which had been stained + green by the weather, were struck by the level rays of the low, + western sun. + + 15. The fabric of common order in America is sound and strong + at the center; the pattern is well marked, and the threads are + firmly woven. + + 16. Harvard College may be regarded as the legitimate child of + Emmanuel College at Cambridge in England. + +=Exercise 2.=—Make either one or two passive sentences out of each +sentence in Exercise 2, page 90. Tell in each case what becomes of the +subject, the direct object, and the indirect object. + + + + +LVII. THE PROGRESSIVE CONJUGATION + + +=228.= We have learned to conjugate verbs both declaratively and +interrogatively, in both the active and the passive voice. There is +another form of conjugation, as shown in the statements, _I am laughing_, +_I was laughing_, _I shall be laughing_, _I have been laughing_, etc. + +We use this form of conjugation when we wish to call attention to the +_continuance_ of the action asserted by the verb, and we call it the +=progressive conjugation=. + +=229.= Just as we use the past participle in conjugating a verb in the +passive voice, so we use the =present participle= in conjugating a verb +in the progressive form. _Laughing_ is the present participle of the +verb _laugh_. The present participle of every verb ends in _ing_; as, +_running_, _hoping_, _tying_. + +=230.= Synopsis of the progressive conjugation of the verb _see_:— + + NOTE.—In the =synopsis= of a conjugation we give only one form + for each tense, instead of six forms. + + INDICATIVE MODE + + _Present_ I am seeing + _Past_ I was seeing + _Future_ I shall be seeing + _Present Perfect_ I have been seeing + _Past Perfect_ I had been seeing + _Future Perfect_ I shall have been seeing + + SUBJUNCTIVE MODE + + _Present_ I be seeing + _Past_ I were seeing + _Present Perfect_ I have been seeing + _Past Perfect_ I had been seeing + + IMPERATIVE MODE + + be seeing (you, thou, ye) + +=231.= The progressive conjugation may be made interrogative by changing +the position of the auxiliary; as, _am I seeing?_ _was I seeing?_ etc. + +=Summary.=—The =progressive conjugation= is used to denote a continued +action. + +It is made by joining the present participle of a given verb to the +conjugation of the verb _be_. + +=Exercise.=—Conjugate the verbs _lift_, _dine_, and _get_ in the +progressive form, both declaratively and interrogatively. + + + + +LVIII. THE EMPHATIC CONJUGATION + + +=232.= In the indicative mode, present tense, we may say, _I study_, +which is the common form, or _I am studying_, which is the progressive +form, or _I do study_, which is the =emphatic form=. + +=233.= The emphatic conjugation is made by using the auxiliary verb _do_. +It is found only in the present and past tenses of the indicative mode, +and in the imperative mode. + +=234.= Conjugation of the verb _try_ in the emphatic form. + + INDICATIVE MODE + + PRESENT TENSE + + I do try we do try + thou dost try you do try + he does try they do try + + PAST TENSE + + I did try we did try + thou didst try you did try + he did try they did try + + IMPERATIVE MODE + + do try (thou, you, or ye) + +=235.= The two tenses of the indicative mode, emphatic form, may be made +interrogative, as we learned in Lesson LI. + +=236.= The emphatic form is used for other purposes than for emphasis. +It is generally used instead of the ordinary forms when the adverb _not_ +modifies the predicate. We say, “I do not love thee, Dr. Fell,” instead +of “I love thee not.” And in the imperative mode with _not_ we say, “Do +not run with the ball,” instead of “Run not with the ball.” + + + + +LIX. PARSING OF VERBS + + +=237.= When we parse a verb, we should tell,— + +(1) Its class as to form,—regular or irregular. + +(2) Its principal parts. + +(3) Its class as to use,—transitive or intransitive. + +(4) Its voice,—active or passive. + +(5) Its mode,—indicative, subjunctive, or imperative. + +(6) Its tense. + +(7) Its person. + +(8) Its number. + +(9) Its form of conjugation,—interrogative, progressive, or emphatic. + +(10) Its simple subject. + +(11) Its complement (if any),—direct object, subjective complement, or +objective complement. + +=Exercise.=—Parse each verb in the following sentences:— + + 1. What are you smiling at, Lady Mother? + + 2. The shades were lowered at the windows, the lamps were + lighted, the great family table was drawn towards the fire. + + 3. When he went out from the village at the head of his men one + fine day, while the sun was shining brightly, and the birds + were singing, he did not neglect a single one of the many + things which he had been told always brought good luck to the + hunting. + + 4. “No,” said Mrs. Howe, “I don’t enjoy moving, but the + children do. They have been transporting clocks, and pictures, + and lamps all the forenoon, when they haven’t been loading the + dray, but they don’t seem a bit tired.” + + 5. What shall it profit a man if he gain the whole world and + lose his own soul? + + 6. Child, was not your father called Mustapha the tailor? + + 7. Do look at those gateposts! + + 8. The hens had been mysteriously disappearing for over a month. + + 9. Stir not a step till I come again. + + 10. Do you wonder that I missed a word in spelling? + + 11. Son, have any told thee that thou art beautiful beyond all + men? + + 12. Hadn’t you been putting on airs? + + + + +LX. THE AUXILIARY VERBS _SHALL_ AND _WILL_ + + +=238.= In conjugating a verb in the future tense, indicative mode, we +make use of the auxiliaries _shall_ and _will_. + + _Singular_ _Plural_ + + I shall go we shall go + thou wilt go you will go + he will go they will go + +These verb phrases express simple futurity,—they assert an intention on +the part of the person indicated by the subject, but not a promise. + +=239.= We have another set of verb phrases belonging to the future tense, +indicative mode:— + + I will go we will go + thou shalt go you shall go + he shall go they shall go + +These phrases are used to express a promise, a vow, or a threat on the +part of the speaker; that is, the speaker will see to it that the action +is carried out. There is more of certainty in these phrases than in those +of the first set. + +=240.= _Shall_ and _will_ with _have_ are used also in forming the future +perfect tense; as, _I shall have gone_, _he will have come_, etc. There +is much less occasion to use the future perfect tense than there is to +use the simple future tense, so we shall discuss the use of _shall_ +and _will_ only in the future tense. When that is mastered, the future +perfect tense will present no difficulties. + +=241.= Frequent errors are made in the use of _shall_ and _will_. +Perhaps the commonest occur in interrogative sentences. Many persons +say carelessly, “Will I open this window for you?” This question means, +“Am I going to open this window for you?” and the only possible answer +is, “I am sure I don’t know.” What is really intended by the question +is this, “Do you wish me to open this window?” hence we should say, +“_Shall_ I open this window for you?” The rule is,—When the subject of an +interrogative sentence is _I_ or _we_, the auxiliary _shall_ should be +used instead of _will_. + +=242.= In questions where the subject is a word of the second or the +third person, we should use in the question the form we expect in the +answer. A boy should say to his employer, “Shall you be in your office +this afternoon?” because he expects the reply, “I shall,” meaning, “I +intend to be there.” But a boy says to another boy, “Will you pitch +for us to-morrow?” because he expects the reply, “I will,” meaning “I +promise.” + +=Summary.=—Rules for the use of _shall_ and _will_:— + +(1) To assert simple futurity use _shall_ in the first person, and +_will_ in the second and third persons. + +(2) To assert determination, a promise, or a threat, use _will_ in the +first person, _shall_ in the second and third persons. + +(3) In questions use _shall_ in the first person. In the second and third +persons use _will_ or _shall_ according to the answer you should get. The +form of the answer is to be determined by rules 1 and 2. + +=Exercise 1.=—Account for the use of _shall_ and _will_ in the following +sentences:— + + 1. “What shall we do next?” said I, with a long breath. + + 2. Thou shalt hang for laying thy hand upon me. + + 3. Will you please tell me whether Mrs. Josiah Wheeler lives on + this road? + + 4. You shall have a birthday party on the lawn, and I will + make you a soldier suit, and papa will get you a drum, and the + supper table shall be set under the balm-of-Gilead tree. + + 5. “No,” said the fairy, “this is my ax, and it shall lie upon + the shelf, while you must dive for yours, yourself.” + + 6. “We will come into the crop lands to play with thee by + night,” said Gray Brother to Mowgli. + + 7. Blessed are the peacemakers; for they shall be called the + children of God. + + 8. The first social problem is the problem of rule: who shall + exercise it, how far shall it go, and by what means shall it be + enforced? + + 9. Whosoever will lose his life for my sake shall find it. + + 10. Let us rest ourselves, and then we shall be better able to + pursue our walk. + + 11. + + When shall we three meet again + In thunder, lightning, or in rain? + + 12. I will lift up mine eyes unto the hills, whence cometh my + strength. + + 13. + + Who will fill our vacant places? + Who will sing our songs to-night? + + 14. + + The daisies will be there, love. + The stars in heaven will shine; + But I shall not feel thy wish, love, + Nor thou my hand in thine. + +Tell the part of speech and use of _thy_, sentence 2, _me_ 3, _you_ 4, +_this_ 5, _yours_ 5, _yourself_ 5, _children_ 7, _we_ 11, _mine_ 12. + +=Exercise 2.=—Fill the blanks with the proper auxiliary, and give your +reason in each case. + + 1. O mother dear, Jerusalem, when —— I come to thee? + + 2. + + We —— meet, but we —— miss him, + There —— be one vacant chair. + + 3. There is no market in the world in which money —— buy brains. + + 4. You —— always have this little blue Wedgwood tea set to + remember her by. + + 5. —— you wear the hat even if it is not becoming? + + 6. I —— know him when he comes, happy youth. + + 7. —— you get my watch that was left at the jeweler’s? + + 8. + + Oh, who —— walk a mile with me + Along life’s merry way? + + 9. If you do not promise to be home before midnight, you —— not + go to the ball. + + 10. + + Three years she grew in sun and shower, + Then Nature said, “A lovelier flower + On earth was never sown; + This Child I to myself —— take; + She —— be mine, and I —— make + A Lady of my own. + + “The stars of midnight —— be dear + To her; and she —— lean her ear + In many a secret place + Where rivulets dance their wayward round, + And beauty born of murmuring sound + —— pass into her face. + + “And vital feelings of delight + —— rear her form to stately height, + Her virgin bosom swell; + Such thoughts to Lucy I —— give + While she and I together live + Here in this happy dell.” + + + + +LXI. DEFECTIVE VERBS. VERB PHRASES + + +=243.= Some verbs lack one or more of their principal parts. Such verbs +are called =defective verbs=. + +A very common defective verb, which has only one form, is _ought_. (See +page 135.) + +Other defective verbs are _can_, _may_, _must_, _shall_, and _will_. The +past tense forms of these verbs are _could_, _might_, _must, should_, +and _would_, respectively. No one of these verbs is ever used as a +principal verb, except _would_, as in the familiar expressions, “I +_would_ I were a bird,” “_Would_ that he were here!” + +=244.= _Shall_ and _will_ are used as auxiliary verbs to form the future +tenses. _Can_, _could_, _may_, _might_, _must_, _should_, and _would_ are +used to form certain very useful verb phrases that are in the present, +the past, or the future perfect tense, and in either the indicative or +the subjunctive mode according to their meaning. + +=245.= Using these verb phrases in the indicative mode we say,— + + I _may go_ to Japan. He _may have gone_ home early. + I _can see_ seven stars. It _cannot have come_ yet. + We _must go_ early. He _must have sold_ it. + You _might hurry_ a little. We _might have hurried_. + He _could not tell_ a lie. I _could have eaten_ more. + She _would talk_ in church. He _would have helped_ me. + We _should honor_ the flag. You _should have earned_ it. + +If we look closely at the meaning of these sentences, and think of others +containing the same auxiliaries, we shall conclude (1) that _may_ and +_might_ denote possibility or permission, (2) that _can_ and _could_ +denote power or ability, (3) that _must_ denotes necessity, (4) that +_would_ denotes determination, (5) that _should_ denotes obligation or +duty. + +Any one of the verb phrases just studied may be made interrogative by +transposition; as,—_May I borrow_ your knife? + +=246.= _Can_ and _must_ are used only in the indicative mode. Using +_may_, _might_, _could_, _would_, and _should_ in subjunctive verb +phrases, we say,— + + Long _may_ it _wave_! + + Oh, that he _would help_! + + Though he _might be telling_ the truth, he would not be + believed. + + If I _could go_ with father, I should be happy. + + If it _should freeze_, we could go skating. + +If we look closely at these sentences, we shall see that the verbs denote +(1) a wish, (2) something contrary to fact, (3) something uncertain. (See +Lesson LII.) + +=247.= The seven auxiliaries just studied may be used in making passive +verb phrases. Use the following phrases or similar ones in sentences:— + + may be broken may have been taken + can be cut can have been heard + must be paid must have been bought + might be driven might have been kept + could be seen could have been done + would be hurt would have been stung + should be met should have been thrown + +=248.= Other verb phrases in very common use in speech are formed by +means of the participle _going_. It is easy to imagine the following +conversation as really taking place. + + “I _am going to go_ to Niagara Falls next summer.” + + “Why, _you were going to go_ there last summer. In fact, you + _have been going to go_ there every summer since I have known + you.” + + “True enough. My intentions are good, but my purse is light. + Perhaps I _shall be going to go_ all my life, and then get to + heaven first after all.” + +Each of the four groups of italicized words is a verb phrase denoting an +intention. Make ten similar phrases; as, _am going to sing_, _was going +to eat_. Notice that _going_ does not denote the act of going anywhere to +sing or to eat, as it does in “I am going to the Park to hear the band +play,” but only the _purpose_ or _intention_ of singing or eating. + +=249.= Just as we denote an intended future action by using the word +_going_, so we often denote a customary past action by a phrase in which +we employ the verb _used_; as, “She _used to wear_ a little red cape,” +“Johnson _used to touch_ every fence post that he passed.” The italicized +words should not be separated here, but should be considered as one +group or verb phrase. + +=250.= In speaking of any of the verb phrases described in this lesson, +we may call them verbs; we decide their person and number by their +subject, their voice and mode by their meaning, and their tense by their +form. + +=251.= The verbs _have_ and _do_ are not always auxiliaries. They are +sometimes principal verbs, and as such are conjugated in the various +ways. What are the principal parts of _have?_ of _do_? + +Conjugate _have_ in the indicative mode; _do_ in the emphatic form; +_have_ in the progressive form; _do_ in the passive voice, in the third +person, singular number, using _it_ for the subject. + +=252.= Verbs like _rain_, _snow_, _hail_, etc., are sometimes called +=impersonal verbs=, because they are used only in the third person +singular with the pronoun _it_. + +=Summary.=—A =defective verb= is one that lacks one or more of its +principal parts. + +Defective verbs are used as auxiliary verbs. + +The auxiliaries _may_, _can_, _must_, _might_, _could_, _would_, and +_should_ are used to form certain common verb phrases. + +These verb phrases may be active or passive, declarative or +interrogative, indicative or subjunctive mode, present, past, or present +perfect tense. + +_Going_ is used to form verb phrases that denote a future or intended +action. + +_Used_ is employed to form verb phrases that denote a customary past +action. + +_Have_ and _do_ may be principal verbs as well as auxiliary verbs. + +=Impersonal verbs= are used only in the third person singular, with the +neuter pronoun _it_. + +=Exercise 1.=—Select all the verb phrases in the following sentences. +Tell their voice, person, number, subject, and complement if they have +any. + + 1. What a bird it must be that could utter such wondrous sounds! + + 2. From time to time the two rabbits would halt, sit up on + their hind quarters, erect their long, attentive ears, and + glance about warily with their bulging eyes. + + 3. + + The rich man’s son inherits cares; + The bank may break, the factory burn, + A breath may burst his bubble shares, + And soft white hands could hardly earn + A living that would serve his turn. + + 4. All the girls in the class are going to wear pink chambray + dresses, and mother is going to make mine by hand. + + 5. We can go by the North Road, the South Road, or the Middle + Road. + + 6. Instead of candy, mother used to give him sugar in a cup, + and then he would stretch out on the sunny doorstep and feed + his sweet crystals to the flies. + + 7. The Cottontails were now sole owners of the holes, and did + not go near them when they could help it, lest anything like a + path should be made that might betray their last retreats to an + enemy. + + 8. If you are going to make orange marmalade to-morrow, you + must peel the oranges this evening. + + 9. I should think that something might be done about covering + the cow’s horns; perhaps they might be padded with cotton. + + 10. Governor Winthrop wrote his third wife tender messages in a + way that could only have come of long practice. + + 11. The children used to stand at the window in the twilight, + and watch the lights appear in the houses; and when they had + counted ten, they used to clap their hands, and say, “Now, + mother, it is time to light the lamp.” + + 12. On the usual crisp mornings of sugar season the snow at + such an hour would have borne a crust to crackle sharply under + every footstep. + + 13. I had not told the horse that I was going to whip him, so + he was taken by surprise and started forward. + + 14. Grandpa would not be helped into his overcoat. + +=Exercise 2.=—Select all the verb phrases containing any form of _have_ +or _do_. Tell whether this form is used as an auxiliary or as a principal +verb. + + 1. Shere Khan does us great honor. + + 2. Whoever has made a voyage up the Hudson must remember the + Kaatskill Mountains. + + 3. Do you ever wonder how so much sin and wrong and suffering + can be in God’s world? + + 4. Mother never forgot the millionaire’s daughter who said that + she did up her father’s shirts. + + 5. All the Offal Court boys had this same hard time, so Tom + supposed it was the correct and comfortable thing. + + 6. Where does amber get its strange, poetic charm? + + 7. I never had the pleasure of meeting a crowing hen; but I + have known a great many whistling girls, and I cannot recall an + instance where their ends were any worse than those of other + girls. + + 8. If I could have committed suicide without killing myself, I + should certainly have done so. + + 9. She had eaten as many mouthfuls of breakfast as she possibly + could in her excited condition, had kissed everybody good-by + twice over, and now thought it was time to be starting. + + 10. I can’t write a composition unless I have something to say, + can I? + + 11. On these hard, smooth roads one horse will do the work of + two. + + 12. I do not feel wholly sure that my Pussy wrote these letters + herself. + + 13. The Boy had no fear of the undisputed Master of the Woods, + the big black bear. + + 14. Do the duty that lies nearest thee; thy second duty will + already have become clearer. + + 15. Jakie had been stolen from the nest before he could fly. + + 16. I do wish that you and your father would turn around + directly and come home. + + 17. Jane had had the inestimable advantage of a sorrow. + + 18. The old bell had things all its own way up in the steeple. + + 19. Boys always do the nice splendid things, and girls can only + do the nasty dull ones that get left over. + + 20. After the twins had had measles and mumps, whooping cough + descended on the household. + +Tell the part of speech and use of _us_, sentence 1, _honor_ 1, _shirts_ +4, _same_ 5, _great_ 7, _two_ 11, _wholly_ 12, _herself_ 12, _bear_ 13, +_clearer_ 14, _father_ 16, _home_ 16. + +=253.= Many errors are made in the use of the auxiliaries _may_ and +_can_, _would_ and _should_. + +We should use _may_ to denote permission, liberty, or possibility, and +_can_ to denote power or ability. + +=Exercise 1.=—Supply the correct word in each of these sentences, and +give your reason in each case:— + + 1. What —— I do to help you? + + 2. You —— have a watch when you graduate. + + 3. I —— go by boat, but it is doubtful. + + 4. —— you run an automobile? + + 5. —— we have a school paper? + + 6. Do you think that I —— earn ten dollars a week? + + 7. Fred, you —— open the east windows. + + 8. If we walk fast, we —— surely get there in time. + + 9. We —— get there in time, but we shall have to hurry. + +Make three good sentences containing _may_ and three containing _can_. + +_Would_ is used to denote,— + +(1) Determination; as, “Albert _would_ leave school.” + +(2) Inclination; as, “I _would_ read more if I could.” + +(3) Customary past action; as, “We _would_ listen to her songs hour after +hour.” + +_Should_ is used to denote,— + +(1) Simple intention; as, “I _should_ come often if you did not live so +far.” + +(2) Obligation or duty; as, “We _should_ honor our parents.” Perhaps +these auxiliaries are oftenest misused when associated with the verb +_like_. The expression, “I would like to go,” is wrong, because it means +“I am inclined or determined to like something,” which is not good +sense. We should say,— + + I should like to go We should like to go + You would like to go You would like to go + He would like to go They would like to go + +In a dependent clause _should_ denotes merely an imaginary condition, and +_would_ denotes inclination as well as an imaginary condition. + +The clauses, “If I should lose my watch,” “If you should lose your +watch,” “If he should lose his watch,” are equivalent to the present +tense of the subjunctive mode, and denote merely an imaginary condition. + +The clauses, “If I would study harder,” “if you would study harder,” “if +he would study harder,” denote an imaginary condition that may become +real according to the inclination of the subject. + +What is the meaning of the familiar dependent clause in the following +sentence: “If it would only snow, we could have a sleigh ride?” + +=Exercise 2.=—Supply the correct word in each of these sentences, and +give your reason in each case:— + + 1. You —— study the text before you undertake the exercise. + + 2. What —— you do with him, Mr. Dick? + + 3. I —— wash him and put him to bed. + + 4. Neither of the boys —— obey me. + + 5. As soon as day broke, the canary —— begin to sing. + + 6. I —— like to meet your grandfather. + + 7. Any girl —— be satisfied with two new hats. + + 8. They —— all like to come, I am sure. + + 9. I —— not take one cent of his money. + + 10. I —— think that you —— be glad to work. + + 11. Each man —— keep himself loyal to truth. + + 12. If I —— tell the story, the children —— not be satisfied. + + 13. If I —— tell them stories all day long, they —— not be + satisfied. + +Make five good sentences containing _would_, and five containing _should_. + +The verb _have got_ is often misused for the verb _have_. “I have it” +means “I possess it,” while “I have got it” means “I have procured +it.” “I have to go” means “I must go,” while “I have got to go” is an +incorrect expression. + +=Exercise 3.=—Supply _has_ or _have_, _has got_, or _have got_ in each +of the following sentences, and give your reason in each case. Use the +negative word _not_, if necessary. + + 1. —— you tickets for the entertainment? + + 2. No, I —— them yet. + + 3. Can he buy a farm if he —— no money? + + 4. —— you a chisel, Albert? + + 5. No, I —— one, but Herman —— one. + + 6. At last he —— a position on the police force. + + 7. We —— a fruit farm and father —— a new tenant on it. + + 8. We —— to practice at four o’clock. + + 9. I can’t go to the football game for I —— to work Saturday + afternoons. + + 10. Nobody —— to leave before nine o’clock. + +What correct expressions can you substitute for _has got_ in the familiar +sentence, “Madge has got to do as I say”? + + + + +LXII. DIRECT AND INDIRECT DISCOURSE + + +=254.= In the sentence,—Ruth said, “_I like your cake_,” we have a +=direct quotation=, the exact words spoken by Ruth. A direct quotation is +often called =direct discourse=. + +In the sentence,—_Ruth said that she liked my cake_, we have an =indirect +quotation= containing the substance, or thought, of Ruth’s remark, but +not her exact words. An indirect quotation is often called =indirect +discourse=. + +=255.= In changing from direct to indirect discourse, we are likely to +make a change in personal pronouns, as well as in the tense of verbs. +An indirect quotation usually takes the form of a dependent clause +beginning with the word _that_. If the verb of saying that usually +precedes an indirect quotation is in the present tense, then the verb in +the quotation is likely to be in the present or the future tense; but if +the verb of saying is in the past tense, then the verb in the quotation +is likely to be in the past tense; as, + + Father _says_ that he _is_ on the jury. + + Father _said_ that he _was_ on the jury. + +Can you account for the tense of the verb in the indirect quotation in +this sentence,—Somebody once said that the pen is mightier than the sword? + +=256.= When a direct quotation containing the word _shall_ is changed +to an indirect quotation, _shall_ is retained if the verb of saying +preceding the quotation is in the present tense; but if this verb is +in the past tense, then _shall_ is changed to _should_. In like manner +_will_ is changed to _would_; as,— + + Mother says, “I shall be voting soon.” + + Mother says that she shall be voting soon. + + Mother said that she should be voting soon. + + Mother says, “I will make him a pillow.” + + Mother says that she will make him a pillow. + + Mother said that she would make him a pillow. + +=257.= If a direct quotation is a question, it becomes an indirect +question when changed to indirect discourse; as,— + + He asked, “Why do you tremble so?” + + He asked me why I trembled so. + +=258.= A command may be changed from direct to indirect discourse; as,— + + Christ said, “Love your enemies.” + + Christ said that we should love our enemies. + +=Exercise 1.=—Account for the use of _shall_, _will_, _should_, and +_would_ in the following sentences:— + + 1. The teacher said, “I shall be pleased to go.” + + 2. The teacher said that she should be pleased to go. + + 3. Aunt Elsie said, “I will tell you the story to-morrow.” + + 4. Aunt Elsie said that she would tell us the story to-morrow. + + 5. The principal said, “You shall have no recess to-day.” + + 6. The principal said that we should have no recess to-day. + + 7. Mother said, “You will be late.” + + 8. Mother said that I should be late. + + 9. The mayor said, “The matter shall be investigated.” + + 10. The mayor said that the matter should be investigated. + + 11. The director said, “The celebration will be on Tuesday.” + + 12. The director said that the celebration would be on Tuesday. + + 13. The teacher said, “David and Harry shall not take part.” + + 14. David and Harry, the teacher said that you should not take + part. + + 15. The boys said, “David and Harry will be sorry.” + + 16. David and Harry, the boys said that you would be sorry. + +=Exercise 2.=—Change the following sentences from direct to indirect +discourse:— + + 1. Longfellow said, “Life is real, life is earnest.” + + 2. John wrote, “I know that Shep will give you a warm welcome + when you come.” + + 3. The lawyer demanded, “Mr. Christoff, what have you done with + the company’s books?” + + 4. The Bible says, “Give to him that asketh.” + + 5. Patrick Henry asked, “When shall we be stronger?” + + 6. The eloquent speaker said, “The declaration of our + independence will strengthen us at home, and give us character + abroad.” + + 7. The great orator declared, “If we fail, it can be no worse + for us. But we shall not fail. The cause will raise up armies.” + + 8. He admitted, “We may not live to the time when this + declaration shall be made good.” + + 9. Then he uttered this prophecy: “This declaration must cost + treasure, and it may cost blood; but it will stand, and it will + richly compensate for both.” + + 10. Every listener was moved when the statesman said, “If it + be the pleasure of Heaven that my country shall require the + poor offering of my life, the victim shall be ready at the + appointed hour of sacrifice.” + + 11. His closing words were these: “All that I have, and all + that I am, and all that I hope, in this life, I am now ready + here to stake upon it; and I leave off as I began, that live or + die, survive or perish, I am for the declaration.” + +=Exercise 3.=—Make the following sentences clear by changing them from +indirect to direct discourse:— + + 1. The teacher told Mrs. Gray that her little girl lost the + report she had given her. + + 2. Jennie told Ada that her mother was willing that she should + go to the concert with her and her brother. + + 3. Bertrand told George that he ought to sell his sailboat and + buy his launch. + + 4. The teachers asked the young men why they had made such a + disturbance in the corridor when they had forbidden them to + congregate there. + + + + +LXIII. AGREEMENT OF VERB AND SUBJECT. COLLECTIVE NOUNS + + +=259.= A verb must agree with its subject in number, and since the verb +changes its form sometimes to denote number, we must be careful to employ +the correct form. We should say, “The rose _is_ red, the roses _are_ red; +the wind _does_ blow, the winds _do_ blow; the bird _flies_, the birds +_fly_.” + +=260.= This agreement of the subject and the verb is a simple matter in +English, for in our language verbs have the same form in the singular and +the plural, except in four cases:— + +(1) The verb _be_, which changes its form considerably to indicate +number, in the present and past tenses. See page 128. + +(2) Any verb in the second person conjugated in the solemn style. See +page 128. + +(3) Any verb in the third person of the present tense, indicative mode; +as, he _speaks_, they _speak_. + +(4) Any verb in the third person of the present perfect indicative; as, +he _has_ spoken, they _have_ spoken. + +=261.= As _don’t_ is a contraction of _do not_, it should be used only +with a plural subject, or with the singular pronouns _I_ and _you_. We +say, “I _don’t_ know,” “You _don’t_ know,” “They _don’t_ know,” but “He +_doesn’t_ know,” “She _doesn’t_ know,” “It _doesn’t_ come.” + +=262.= A compound subject composed of two or more singular nouns should +have a plural verb when the parts are joined by any conjunction but _or_ +or _nor_. We say, “Either John or Byron _is_ her cousin,” and “Both John +and Joe _are_ her cousins.” + +When two singular subjects refer to one person, the verb, of course, +should be singular. We say, “The secretary and treasurer _was_ absent.” + +=263.= When a singular noun is modified by the limiting adjective _each_, +_every_, _either_, _neither_, _any_, or _no_, and used as subject of +a clause, its verb must be singular; as, “Each flower _is_ a thing of +beauty,” “No man _lives_ but loves something.” + +In declarative sentences this rule is not likely to be violated, but it +is often violated in interrogative sentences, where the verb precedes the +subject. We should say, “_Has_ either book been returned?” “_Is_ either +of you willing to stay?” “_Was_ neither of the speakers on time?” + +=264.= There is a class of nouns like _flock_, _army_, _herd_, _company_, +which mean a collection of individuals, and so seem to be plural; but +since the individuals forming the collection are thought of as one body, +these nouns are in reality singular. They are =collective nouns=. + +=265.= The verb of which a collective noun is subject is a singular verb, +and the pronoun that stands for a collective noun is the neuter singular +pronoun _it_. We say, “The company _is_ on _its_ way to the Philippines.” + + NOTE.—When a collective noun is plural in meaning, that is, + when the individuals are thought of as acting separately, + it takes a plural verb; as, “The faculty _are_ not going to + trouble _their_ heads about the kind of shoes we wear.” + +=Summary.=—A verb must agree with its subject in person and in number. + +A =collective= noun is one that names a group of individuals considered +as one body. + +A collective noun is usually singular and neuter. + +=Exercise 1.=—If you do not already know, find out from the dictionary to +what sort of individuals each of these collective nouns is applied. + + bevy + choir + committee + constellation + covey + crew + drove + family + fleet + flock + gang + hive + horde + jury + mob + orchestra + regiment + swarm + tribe + troop + +=Exercise 2.=—Find all the collective nouns in these sentences. Find +evidence as to whether they are singular or plural. If they are plural, +tell why. Give the reason for the number of each verb. + + 1. Forty wolves make a very fair pack indeed. + + 2. At the edge of the thicket was a straggling colony of low + blueberry bushes. + + 3. Here, in course of days, there accumulated a shining cluster + of six large white eggs. + + 4. At last cousin Eben came with a double sleigh and the team + of prancing grays, and then the whole family was off for + Christmas dinner at Aunt Mary’s. + + 5. Has either of the critics ever heard the new organ? + + 6. No man in his senses takes such a risk. + + 7. A school of porpoises were ducking and tearing through the + water. + + 8. Through the ancient forest, which was a mixed growth of + cedar, water ash, black poplar, and maple, with here and + there a group of hemlocks on a knoll, the light drained down + confusedly. + + 9. The opinions of this junto were completely controlled by + Nicholas Vedder. + + 10. Is either of you going up the river in the houseboat? + + 11. This band of crows numbered about two hundred. + + 12. Each year the old crow came with his troop, and for about + six weeks took up his abode on the hill. + + 13. Here and there a band of chimney sweeps were staring in + stupid wonder at the miracle of a showman’s box. + + 14. Butler tells of an Indian tribe in the Far North that was + all but exterminated by a feud over a dog. + + 15. On a level spot was a company of odd-looking personages + playing at ninepins. + + 16. Every word on his papers was correctly spelled. + + 17. The rest of the horses swept dutifully into line, and the + herd was off. + + + + +LXIV. REVIEW OF VERBS: PARSING + + +=266.= Study again Lessons XXIII-XXVII, XLIX-LXIII. Make an outline of +verbs, having the following main topics:— + +(1) Classification. + +(2) Properties. + +(3) Conjugation. + +(4) Principal Parts. + +(5) Auxiliaries. + +(6) Agreement. + +Fill in the subtopics and recite in detail from your outline with +illustrations of every point. + +=Exercise.=—Parse the verbs in the following sentences according to the +outline on p. 150:— + + 1. If you have a Halloween party, shall you invite the Cromers? + + 2. At first the chemist said he couldn’t do anything about it; + but when Agamemnon said they would pay in gold if he would only + go, he packed up his bottles in a leather case, and went back + with the Peterkins. + + 3. + + Faith’s journeys end is welcome to the weary, + And heaven, the heart’s true home, will come at last. + + 4. We are going to have a tile well, and Mr. Jones is going to + oversee the men who dig it. + + 5. This woodchuck was neither handsome nor interesting, but he + knew how to take care of himself. + + 6. Sheep are usually kept in flocks of from one thousand to + three thousand under one or more shepherds. + + 7. Rabbits telegraph each other by thumping on the ground with + their hind feet. + + 8. Lady Moon, Lady Moon, where are you roving? + + 9. + + Breast the wave, Christian, when it is strongest. + Watch for day, Christian, when the night’s longest. + + 10. Even so did men talk round the king’s cages at Oodeypore. + + 11. Your Uncle Nathan and I used to be called the bothering + Bodleys, because we were always teasing to find out something. + + 12. The Peterkins had been so busy inside the house that they + had not noticed the ceasing of the storm outside. + + 13. For thou, Lord, wilt give thy blessing unto the righteous, + and with thy favorable kindness wilt thou defend him as with a + shield. + + 14. My father’s, like every other young ladies’ school near + a village, was very much disturbed by the attentions of the + village young men. + + 15. If any man have a hundred sheep, and one of them be gone + astray, doth he not leave the ninety and nine and go into the + mountains and seek that which goeth astray? + + 16. They were sitting round the breakfast table and wondering + what they should do because the lady from Philadelphia had gone + away. + + + + +LXV. CLASSIFICATION OF ADVERBS. SIMPLE ADVERBS + + +=267.= In Lesson X it was shown that an adverb modifies a verb, an +adjective, or another adverb. Select the adverbs in the following +sentences, and tell what words they modify:— + + We proceeded through a tract of country excessively wild and + desolate. + + People with lanterns rushed hither and thither. + + John knew that he could spend a day very pleasantly in going + over to that pasture. + +All the adverbs in these sentences are called =simple adverbs= because +they have but one office in the sentence,—they merely modify the word +they go with. + +=268.= In the sentence, “Perhaps my pony can carry the load,” the word +_perhaps_ tells nothing whatever about the action of carrying, but +rather serves to make the whole statement doubtful. Such a word is said +to modify the whole sentence. Some other adverbs used in this way are +_certainly_, _indeed_, _fortunately_, and _not_. + +The common use of the adverb _not_ is to change an affirmative statement +to a negative statement, as in the sentence, “I will not wear my heart +upon my sleeve.” + +=269.= The simple adverbs, _when_, _where_, _why_, _how_, _whence_, +_whither_, are used in asking questions; as, “_When_ shall we be +stronger?” “_Why_ do you answer me so?” Such adverbs modify the whole +predicate. They are called =interrogative adverbs=. + + NOTE.—_The_ is sometimes used as an adverb before comparatives; + as, “_The_ more you have, _the_ more you want.” + +=270.= When the meaning permits, adverbs may be compared in the same +manner as adjectives; as, _fast_, _faster_, _fastest_; _pleasantly_, +_more pleasantly_, _most pleasantly_; _fortunately_, _less fortunately_, +_least fortunately_. + +=Summary.=—A =simple adverb= is one that merely modifies the word or the +group of words that it goes with. + +Some simple adverbs, like _not_, _perhaps_, _certainly_, modify the whole +sentence. + +An =interrogative adverb= is a simple adverb that is used in asking a +question. + +Some adverbs may be compared. + +=Exercise.=—Select all the simple adverbs in the following sentences, +and tell what each modifies. In so far as you can, tell what each adverb +denotes. (See Lesson X.) + + 1. How the huge breakers foam and fret! + + 2. People living by the sea are always more or less + superstitious. + + 3. No one can work well without sleep. + + 4. Whence came that blessed mother love, so strong, so + dauntless, so pure, and whither has it fled? + + 5. Where had the stone been before? Why did it come there? When + would it go away? + + 6. Heaven is not reached at a single bound. + + 7. Luckily, poor Pepper was not seriously hurt. + + 8. Meanwhile Mrs. Peterkin was getting quite impatient for her + coffee. + + 9. How do you like to go up in a swing, up in the air so blue? + + 10. Why should one hurry when days are long and calm and sweet? + + 11. You may lead a horse to water, but you cannot make him + drink. + + 12. Presently a huge black bear poked his nose out of the + bushes, and sniffed inquiringly. + + 13. How quickly we learn to claim as our own that in which we + delight! + + + + +LXVI. CONJUNCTIVE ADVERBS + + +=271.= In Lesson XX we learned that a dependent clause is one that does +not make sense when standing alone; also that such a clause sometimes has +the office of an adverb, modifying a predicate, and sometimes that of +an adjective, modifying a noun. It is, therefore, called an =adverbial +clause= or an =adjective clause=. + +Select and classify the dependent clauses in each of the following +sentences:— + + (_a_) Old Stony Phiz set out on a visit to the valley where he + was born. + + (_b_) When I first came to Rivermouth, I looked upon girls as + rather tame company. + +=272.= A dependent clause is usually introduced by some word which +indicates that it is a dependent clause. In the clause _where he was +born_, this introductory word is _where_. What is the introductory word +in the clause in sentence (_b_)? + +This introductory word does more than introduce the clause; it joins the +clause to the word the clause modifies. What does _where_ join in (_a_)? +What does the introductory word in (_b_) join? + +But these words do more than join. _Where_ denotes place, and modifies +the verb _was born_. Hence it is an adverb. What does _when_ denote? What +does it modify? + +Since these words have two uses, that of an adverb and that of a joining +word, we call them =conjunctive adverbs=. + +=Summary.=—A =conjunctive adverb= is one that introduces a clause, +modifies some part of the clause, generally the predicate, and joins the +clause to that part of the sentence which the clause modifies. + +Some common conjunctive adverbs are _when_, _where_, _whence_, +_whenever_, _wherever_, _while_, _why_, _how_. (See note, p. 177.) + +An =adverbial clause= is a dependent clause that is used like an adverb. + +An =adjective clause= is a dependent clause that is used like an +adjective. + +Both the adjective and the adverbial clause may be introduced by a +conjunctive adverb. + +=Exercise.=—Select all the conjunctive adverbs in the following +sentences. Tell what clause they introduce, what they join, what they +denote, and what they modify. + + 1. When his eyes got command of the dusk, he saw to his + surprise that the den was empty. + + 2. Mr. Gathergold bethought himself of his native valley, and + resolved to go back thither, and end his days where he was born. + + 3. The canals in Amsterdam are crossed by a great many + drawbridges, and the people must sometimes wait while a ship or + barge is passing. + + 4. Our lunch was only bread and tea and blueberries and cream, + but do you remember how delicious it tasted that day when you + came home from the circus as tired as a dog and as hungry as a + bear? + + 5. + + Whenever I cross the river + On its bridge with wooden piers, + Like the odor of brine from the ocean, + Comes the thought of other years. + + 6. The reason why men succeed who mind their own business is + because there is so little competition. + + 7. + + The frugal snail, with forecast of repose, + Carries his house with him where’er he goes. + + 8. When all the trees in the forest have the same number of + leaves, then will all men be alike in their power and skill. + + 9. + + While the breath’s in his mouth, he must bear without fail, + In the name of the Empress the Overland Mail. + + 10. + + Where’er our footsteps range, + Comes the chilling breath of change, + And the best of friends look strange + When the purse is low. + + 11. The reason why men do not obey us is because they see the + mud at the bottom of our eye. + + 12. + + So shut your eyes while mother sings + Of wonderful sights that be. + + 13. Chip answered me with a cheery little note or two whenever + I spoke to him. + + 14. + + My heart leaps up when I behold + A rainbow in the sky. + + + + +LXVII. SUMMARY OF ADVERBS + + +=273.= We have learned,— + +(1) That adverbs may be simple adverbs or conjunctive adverbs. + +(2) That simple adverbs merely modify some word or group of words. + +(3) That conjunctive adverbs modify, and at the same time introduce a +dependent clause and join it to whatever the clause modifies. + +(4) That one kind of simple adverb is the interrogative adverb, which +is used in asking a question. + +(5) That an adverb may modify a verb, an adjective, an adverb, a whole +predicate, or even a whole statement. + +(6) That adverbs may denote time, place, manner, degree, and direction. + +(7) That some adverbs may be compared. + +Give a good illustration of each point in this summary. + +=274.= When we parse an adverb we should tell,— + +(1) Its class as to use,—simple, interrogative, conjunctive. + +(2) Its class as to meaning,—time, place, manner, etc. + +(3) Its degree (if it admits of comparison). + +(4) Its use, and what it modifies. + +=Exercise.=—Parse each adverb in the following sentences:— + + 1. Virtue and intelligence will lead our country ever onward in + her happy career. + + 2. Oh, why should the spirit of mortal be proud? + + 3. The man in the moon came down too soon. + + 4. Fortunately, what seemed to be a barrel of apples turned out + to be an electric lamp. + + 5. The old horse cars rocked along scarcely faster than we + could walk. + + 6. Calmly I await the hour when the summons comes for me. + + 7. Somewhere the birds are singing evermore. + + 8. I will lock the door most willingly, but I will not cover + the bird. + + 9. Probably Frank was mightily relieved when he saw the mayor’s + automobile. + + 10. Our side made a remarkably good score. + + 11. Where shall we sit in the new church? + + + + +LXVIII. COÖRDINATE CONJUNCTIONS + + +=275.= We have learned that such words as _and_, _but_, and _or_ are +conjunctions. Their use is merely to join, and they may join either +words, phrases, or clauses. Since they join like elements,—a word to +a word, a phrase to a phrase, a clause to a clause, a sentence to a +sentence, we call them =coördinate= conjunctions. + +=276.= In the sentence, “Either the well was very deep or she fell very +slowly,” the coördinate conjunction _or_, which joins two sentences, is +preceded by the word _either_, which hints that _or_ is coming. When +_either_ and _or_ are used in this way, they are called =correlatives=; +that is, they are words related to each other. Other correlatives are +_neither_, _nor_; _not only_, _but_; _both_, _and_. It is always the +second word of these pairs that does the joining. The first merely tells +the listener or reader what sort of sentence is to follow. + + NOTE.—Frequently a coördinate conjunction has another word + going with it to change or emphasize its meaning. In the + sentence, “He is rich and yet he is not generous,” the word + _yet_ going with _and_ changes its meaning to _but_. In the + sentence, “He is poor, but still he is generous,” the word + _still_ reinforces the meaning of _but_. Such a word associated + with a conjunction may be said to be a part of the conjunction, + that is, the two words together do the joining. In the same way + the two words _not only_ form the correlative of _but_ or _but + also_; as, “He is not only a teacher but also a student.” What + does _but also_ join here? + +=Summary.=—A =coördinate conjunction= is one that joins like elements. It +is sometimes more than one word. + +=Correlative coördinate conjunctions= are pairs of words, the second of +which does the joining. + +=Exercise.=—When we parse a coördinate conjunction we tell its class and +what it joins. If it has a correlative, we state that fact. Parse the +coördinate conjunctions in the following sentences:— + + 1. The writer who professes to care nothing for fame is + probably deceiving himself, or else his liver is out of order. + + 2. Everybody took a holiday, and high and low, rich and poor, + feasted and danced and sang, and got very mellow. + + 3. There was neither dust nor mud nor noise to annoy one. + + 4. The mahogany arm chair is very handsome, and the green plush + rocker is very comfortable, but still I choose this little + chair with the flowers painted on the back, that mother gave to + me when I was only five. + + 5. On its southern side is an elevated walk, or terrace, very + broad and handsome, and about half a mile long. + + NOTE.—In the preceding sentence, try to discover under + what circumstances an appositive is joined to the word it + explains by _or_. Notice the punctuation. Make other + sentences illustrating this use of _or_. + + 6. The road to Paradise is rough and thorny. + + 7. His chief amusements were gunning and fishing, or sauntering + along the beach and through the myrtles. + + 8. Neither hare nor grouse was stirring in the brushy opens. + + 9. You know Mary always bangs things when she is cross, but I + never could see what good it does. + + 10. When the two children went down to the river to play, they + not only disobeyed their mothers, but they also ran away from + school. + + 11. I never looked either neat or clean, though I had my daily + bath and a generous allowance of clothes. + + 12. Over the tree tops and from the open spaces in the wood + could be seen the first pallor of approaching day. + + 13. In deep snow the moose can neither flee nor fight. + + 14. They always put Mammy Tittleback in the carriage too; but + before they had carried her far, she generally jumped out, and + walked the rest of the way by their side. + + 15. These Spaniards wished to build ships and to get away; but + they had neither knowledge nor tools nor iron nor forge nor tow + nor resin nor rigging. + + 16. + + He prayeth best who loveth best + All things both great and small. + +Tell the part of speech and use of _himself_, sentence 1, _high_, _low_ +2, _mellow_ 2, _when_ 4, _neat_ 11, _allowance_ 11, _pallor_ 12. + + + + +LXIX. SUBORDINATE CONJUNCTIONS + + +=277.= We have learned that a dependent clause is often used as an adverb +to modify a predicate. When so used, it is joined to the predicate it +modifies by some connecting word. + +Sometimes this connecting word is a conjunctive adverb, as was pointed +out in Lesson LXVI, but more often it is some other word, as in the +following sentences:— + + Sheep are such senseless creatures _that_ they are liable to be + stampeded by the veriest trifle. + + You cannot catch a muskrat _unless_ you put tar on his nose. + + I love hens _because_ they are such good mothers. + +What is the dependent clause in each of these sentences? What does it +modify? What word joins it to that part of the sentence which it modifies? + +These connecting words,—_that_, _unless_, and _because_,—are not adverbs, +for they do not modify any word. They merely connect, hence they are +conjunctions. Since they connect elements not alike, not equal in rank, +they are called =subordinate conjunctions=. + +=278.= There are many subordinate conjunctions. The most common are +_after_, _although_, _as_, _because_, _before_, _for_, _if_, _in order +that_, _lest_, _provided_, _since_, _so that_, _than_, _that_, _though_, +_till_, and _unless_. + + NOTE.—There is little distinction between the subordinate + conjunction and the conjunctive adverb. Both connect a + dependent to a principal clause; and some subordinate + conjunctions, like conjunctive adverbs, express time, cause, or + manner, etc. For this reason, _as_, _after_, _before_, _since_, + _till_, etc. are included by some authors among conjunctive + adverbs. Compare, “I came _when_ you called me” with “I came + _before_ you called me.” + +=Summary.=—A =subordinate conjunction= is one that introduces a dependent +clause, and joins it to that part of the sentence which it modifies. + +=Exercise.=—Parse the conjunctions in the following sentences. Tell their +class and what they join. + + 1. The four cubs, running down hill on their bellies, melted + into the thorn and underbrush as a mole melts into a lawn. + + 2. Boys will do any amount of work provided it is called play. + + 3. The great horned owl stood so erect and motionless that he + seemed a portion of the pine trunk itself. + + 4. Since the maples were cut down, the elms have flourished. + + 5. Androclus had not lain long quiet in the cavern, before he + heard a dreadful noise, which seemed to be the roar of some + wild beast, and terrified him very much. + + 6. Harry laughed till the tears ran down his cheeks. + + 7. Unless you have sat on a stone fence and beaten russet + apples soft on its hard top, you have missed one of the + greatest delicacies that the orchard gives. + + 8. I liked the doctor very much, for he would let me drive + around with him, and hold his horse while he made his + professional calls. + + 9. Fast the ivy stealeth on, though he wears no wings. + + 10. Even after the invitations were sent out, it seemed to + Dolly that the party day would never come. + + 11. The shawl doll was my favorite because it was more nearly + the size of a real baby. + + 12. The two young Cratchits crammed spoons into their mouths + lest they should shriek for goose before their turn came to be + helped. + + 13. A man would laugh if you told him that he had never really + seen a burdock. + +Select all the verbs in the sentences above. Classify them as transitive +or intransitive. Tell their voice, mode, and tense. + +=279.= Some words may be used as conjunctions, as prepositions, or as +adverbs. + + =After.= + + Conj.—I came _after_ you called me the second time. + + Adv.—We look before and _after_, and pine for what is not. + + Prep.—Let us walk to the lake _after_ school. + + =Before.= + + Conj.—The roosters woke me _before_ the sun rose. + + Adv.—They had never seen mountains _before_. + + Prep.—In winter we get up _before_ daylight. + + =But.= + + Conj.—I am weak, _but_ Thou art mighty. + + Prep.—He relishes no fruit _but_ apples. + + Adv.—We can _but_ die. + + =Else.= + + Conj.—You must tell the truth, _else_ you will not be trusted. + + Adv.—How _else_ can we get to Berlin? + + Adv.—Where _else_ shall I look for your glasses? + + NOTE.—What part of speech is _else_ in the sentences, “What + _else_ can I do for you?” “Who _else_ was there?” + + =For.= + + Conj.—Work _for_ the night is coming. + + Prep.—The faithful slave died _for_ his young master. + + =Hence.= + + Conj.—Smoke is coming out of the chimney, _hence_ the house + must be occupied. + + Adv.—Let me go _hence_ and be no more seen. + + =Only.= + + Conj.—I should be glad to go, _only_ I have nothing to wear. + + Adv.—I made the cake; mother _only_ baked it. + + NOTE.—What part of speech is _only_ in the sentence, “Grace + is an _only_ child”? + + =Since.= + + Conj.—I have been happy _since_ you became my friend. + + Prep.—Prices have never gone down _since_ the war. + + Adv.—One day the dog disappeared, and he has never been heard + of _since_. + + =So.= + + Conj.—The baby monopolized her time, _so_ she withdrew from the + club. + + Adv.—Don’t speak _so_ loud, Caroline. + + =Till= or =Until.= + + Conj.—Tarry thou _till_ I come. + + Prep.—We work hard _until_ noon. + + =Yet.= + + Conj.—She speaks much, _yet_ she says very little. + + Adv.—Has the case been settled _yet_? + +Explain the use of each italicized word in the sentences above. + +=280.= When we parse a preposition, we tell (1) what phrase it +introduces, and (2) what words it shows a relation between; thus, “In +the sentence, ‘I bring you tidings of great joy,’ the preposition _of_ +introduces the adjective phrase _of great joy_, and shows a relation +between its object _great joy_ and the noun _tidings_.” + +=Exercise.=—Parse all the conjunctions, adverbs, and prepositions in the +following sentences:— + + 1. Roger Conant came over from England before 1630. + + 2. We had a cold spell in April, so the peach crop is small. + + 3. Our flag was still there. + + 4. The barn was strongly built, so it was made over into a good + house. + + 5. Ours is a government of the people, for the people, and by + the people. + + 6. Look before you leap. + + 7. Years have passed since anybody remembered my birthday. + + 8. The poet saw the daffodils beside the lake. + + 9. After the boy arrived in Richmond, he slept under a sidewalk. + + 10. Did anybody besides Rufus go with you to Janesville? + + 11. Mr. Micawber would pay his debts if something would only + turn up. + + 12. Jill came tumbling after. + + 13. The turkey was steamed first, else it would not have been + so tender. + + 14. The fern has grown fast since Easter. + + 15. I can’t paint well if you look over my shoulder. + + 16. There is nothing to breathe but air. + + 17. Wait till the clouds roll by. + + 18. Disappointments will surely come, yet they need not crush + us. + + 19. I will go before the king. + + 20. Did you make your will before you went round the world? + + + + +LXX. ADVERBIAL CLAUSES OF TIME, PLACE, AND MANNER + + +=281.= Adverbial clauses are used in many different relations. Frequently +they denote the =time= when an action is performed; as, “When the pie was +opened, the birds began to sing.” Here the clause tells when the birds +began to sing, and hence modifies the predicate. It is joined to _began +to sing_ by the conjunctive adverb _when_. + +A subordinate connective does not have to come _between_ the elements +that it joins. This enables us to put a dependent clause at the beginning +of a sentence. What is the advantage of such an arrangement? + +An adverbial clause of time answers such questions as _when?_ _how +often?_ _how long?_ It is joined to what it modifies by the conjunctive +adverbs _when_, _while_, _whenever_, or by the subordinating conjunctions +_before_, _after_, _till_, _until_, _since_, _as_. + +Sometimes, if the connective is _when_, and the clause comes first, we +begin the principal proposition with the simple adverb _then_, which we +call a correlative of _when_. Illustrate this. + +=282.= The adverbial clause may be used to tell the =place= where some +action is performed; as, “The maid is standing with reluctant feet +where the brook and river meet.” Here the clause tells where the maid +is standing, and is joined to _is standing_ by the conjunctive adverb +_where_. + +An adverbial clause of place answers such questions as _in what place?_ +_to what place?_ _from what place?_ It is introduced by the conjunctive +adverbs _where_, _whence_, _whither_, _wherever_. Sometimes _there_ is +used in the principal proposition as a correlative of _where_ in the +clause. Which of these correlatives is the connective? + +=283.= Frequently the =manner= of an action, the way in which it was +performed, is told by an adverbial clause; as, “Not as the conqueror +comes, they the true-hearted came.” What is the clause here? What does +it tell? What does it modify? What is the connective? What is the use of +_not_? + +A clause of manner answers the question _in what way?_ It is joined to +what it modifies by the subordinate conjunction _as_, _as if_, or _as +though_. The simple adverb _so_ may be used as a correlative of _as_. + +=284.= The word _like_ is never a subordinate conjunction, hence it +cannot properly be used for _as_ or _as if_. We should say, “Walk _as_ +(not _like_) I do;” “She walks _as if_ she were tired (not _like_ she was +tired).” _Like_ may be used as a preposition to introduce a phrase; as, +“Elizabeth walks _like him_.” + +=Exercise 1.=—Fill the blank in each of these sentences with the proper +word, and explain your choice:— + + 1. Mary sings —— a bird. + + 2. It looks —— it would rain. + + 3. The man speaks —— he knew his subject. + + 4. March came in —— a lion. + + 5. You knit just —— my grandmother does. + + 6. The children ate —— they were hungry. + + 7. Can you dance —— the gypsies do? + + 8. Plant the seeds exactly —— I told you to. + +=Summary.=—An adverbial clause of =time= tells when a condition exists, +or when an action was performed. + +An adverbial clause of =place= tells where a condition exists, or where +an action was performed. + +An adverbial clause of =manner= tells in what way something was done. + +The connectives _when_, _where_, and _as_ are sometimes accompanied by +the correlatives _then_, _there_, and _so_ respectively. + +=Exercise 2.=—Select all the adverbial clauses in the following +sentences. Tell what each clause denotes, what it modifies, and what its +connective is. Study the punctuation of these sentences, and make a rule +for the punctuation of adverbial clauses:— + + 1. Your bicycle is a stationary bit of iron and india rubber, + until you put your feet upon the pedals and use your mind to + guide the wheel. + + 2. The old man sits as if he were carved in stone. + + 3. Where the snowflakes fall thickest, there nothing can freeze. + + 4. When mother awoke and saw the burglar, she quietly ordered + him to leave; and only after she had pursued his obedient + figure to the door did it occur to her that the proper thing to + do was to scream. + + 5. Where the peak leaned to the valley, the trunk of a giant + pine jutted forth slantingly from a roothold a little below the + summit. + + 6. As we came up the harbor I had noticed that the houses were + huddled together on an immense hill. + + 7. + + I have come to meet judges so wise and so grand + That I shake in my shoes while they’re shaking my hand. + + 8. + + She struck where the white and fleecy waves + Looked soft as carded wool. + + 9. Whither thou goest, I will go; and where thou lodgest, I + will lodge. + + 10. When the blackbird approached that side of the cage, the + goldfinch dashed away as though he feared his strange neighbor + might come through. + + 11. + + I love to hear thine earnest voice wherever thou art hid, + Thou testy little dogmatist, thou pretty Katydid! + + 12. At every little station a man popped out as if he were + worked by machinery, and waved a red flag, and appeared as + though he would like to have us stop. + + 13. The little bandy-legged dogs had been trotting steadily for + many an hour, until their tongues hung out for want of breath. + + 14. Years had passed since that particular panther had strayed + from his high fastnesses, where game was plentiful and none + dared poach on his preserves. + + 15. I stood up and “hollered” with all my might, as everybody + does with oxen, as if they were born deaf, and whacked them + with the long lash over the head, just as the big folks did + when they drove. + + + + +LXXI. ADVERBIAL CLAUSES OF CAUSE, PURPOSE, AND RESULT + + +=285.= One action or condition may cause some other action or condition, +and when we tell this, we often make such a sentence as the following, +“Most caged birds are not happy, because few of them are well cared for.” +Here the dependent proposition, _because few of them are well cared for_ +is an adverbial clause of =cause=, for it tells the cause of the fact in +the principal clause, or why most caged birds are not happy. + +The adverbial clause of cause answers the question _why?_ or _how do you +know?_ and is usually joined to the predicate that it modifies by the +subordinate conjunction _for_, _because_, or _since_. + +=286.= Sometimes an action is performed in order that some other action +or condition may come to pass. We say then that the action is performed +for a =purpose=, and we express this purpose by means of an adverbial +clause; as, “Leonardo da Vinci would walk the whole length of Milan that +he might alter a single tint in his picture of the Last Supper.” Here +the clause _that he might alter a single tint in his picture of the Last +Supper_ tells the purpose that the artist had in walking the whole length +of Milan. What does this clause modify? What is it introduced by? + +A clause of purpose answers the question _what for?_ It is usually joined +to the predicate that it modifies by the subordinate conjunction _that_, +_so that_, or _in order that_. + +=287.= A clause of purpose tells an intention without saying that this +intention ever really comes to pass. But there is another clause which +tells what really happens as an outcome of the action or condition in the +principal clause. This is called a clause of =result=; for instance, “So +porous is the limestone of the roads that in five minutes after a brisk +shower one has no need of overshoes.” Here the principal clause tells us +that the roads are porous, and the clause tells us what is the result, or +outcome, of their being porous. What is the clause in this sentence? What +does it modify? What is it introduced by? + +A clause of result answers the question _what of it?_, and is generally +introduced by the subordinate conjunction _that_. + +=Summary.=—A clause of =cause= tells what produces a certain act or +condition. + +A clause of =purpose= tells the intended consequence of some action. + +A clause of =result= tells the real consequence of some action or +condition. + +=Exercise.=—Select the adverbial clauses, classify them, giving your +reason in each case, tell what they modify, and what they are joined by. +Account for the punctuation. + + 1. I have explained thus carefully about my Bird Room because I + do not approve of keeping wild birds in cages. + + 2. When Chipee had eaten all she could, she would quietly sit + down in the seed dish so that Chip couldn’t get any. + + 3. Of course this bird could not be set free, for he did not + know how to take care of himself. + + 4. One little nugget of purest gold the surveyor carefully + preserved, that it might one day become a wedding ring for the + gray-eyed girl in Maine. + + 5. Had his nerves grown so sensitive that the staring of a + chipmunk or a rabbit had power to break his sleep? + + 6. So strong was Polly’s liking for green peas that the sight + of raw peas made her wild till some were given to her. + + 7. Master Fox said to the Crow, “Sing but one song to me, that + I may greet you as the Queen of Birds.” + + 8. It is very convenient to be a reasonable creature, since it + enables you to find or make a reason for everything you have a + mind to do. + + 9. Rebecca left the screen door ajar, so that flies came in. + + 10. Rolf was called the Goer because he had such long legs that + when he mounted one of the little Norwegian horses, his feet + touched the ground. + + 11. Dikes are built that the spread and flow of the water may + be regulated, and the land protected from destructive floods. + + 12. The sun burned down so fiercely that the people were + fainting in its rays; it seemed as if they must die of heat, + and yet they were obliged to go on with their work, for they + were very poor. + + 13. Then the people ran as only hill folk can run, for they + knew that in a landslip you must climb for the highest ground + across the valley. + + 14. + + Lord God of Hosts, be with us yet, + Lest we forget, lest we forget! + + 15. I go to prepare a place for you, that where I am there ye + may be also. + + + + +LXXII. ADVERBIAL CLAUSES OF CONDITION AND CONCESSION + + +=288.= Very often an action cannot take place except under a certain +condition, and this condition is often expressed in a dependent clause; +as in the sentence, “A man can buy a vote only if some other man is +willing to sell a vote.” Here the one condition under which a man can buy +a vote is told in the adverbial clause, _if some other man is willing to +sell a vote_. This is called a clause of =condition=. It is generally +introduced by _if_, _unless_ (which means _if not_), _provided_, or +_providing_. In the illustration what does the clause modify? What is the +use of _only_? + +=289.= Sometimes an action takes place in spite of something else, and we +tell this in such a sentence as the following, “Though He slay me, yet +will I trust Him.” Here the fact that I trust Him is true in spite of the +fact that He may slay me. Such a clause as _though He slay me_ is called +a clause of =concession=, for it concedes, or grants, something that +seems to be in direct opposition to what is in the principal clause. What +does it modify? What can you say of the word _yet_? + +A clause of concession is generally joined by the subordinate conjunction +_though_, or by some such word as _notwithstanding_, or _even if_, which +means _though_. + +Sometimes _though_ has a correlative, the word _yet_, _still_, or +_nevertheless_ used at the beginning of the principal clause. + +=Summary.=—A clause of =condition= answers the question _provided what?_ +It tells the circumstance under which the principal statement is true. + +A clause of =concession= answers the question _in spite of what?_ It +tells the circumstance in spite of which the principal statement is true. + +=Exercise.=—Select all adverbial clauses. Tell what each clause denotes, +what it modifies, what it is joined by. Account for the punctuation. + + 1. If your everyday language is not fit for a letter or for + print, it is not fit for talk. + + 2. In Bermuda, if you are in want of some choice cologne, do + not fail to ask for it at the nearest shoe shop. + + 3. Though delicate in his tastes, an elephant likes quantity as + well as quality, and at his meals makes nothing of bales of hay + and gallons of water. + + 4. Though the weeping willow and the mountain ash could not + endure the cold northeast storms, yet the sturdy elms grew + apace and soon spread their branches far. + + 5. Half the pleasure in going out to murder another man with a + gun would be wanting, if one did not wear feathers, and gold + lace, and stripes on his pantaloons. + + 6. There is something queer about thoughts; you cannot have a + good time with them if you have done anything naughty. + + 7. + + Though watery deserts hold apart the worlds of East and West, + Still beats the selfsame human heart in each proud Nation’s breast. + + 8. If our forefathers had not chosen to emigrate to America, we + should now be English people ourselves. + + 9. Rebecca was so slender and so stiffly starched that she slid + from space to space on the leather cushions, though she braced + herself against the middle seat with her feet, and extended her + cotton-gloved hands on each side. + + 10. + + If the men were so wicked, I’ll ask my papa + How he dared to propose to my darling mamma. + Was he like the rest of them? Goodness! Who knows? + And what should I say if a wretch should propose? + + 11. Though he looked like a bird, he behaved like a monkey. + + 12. + + Though the mills of God grind slowly, yet they grind exceeding small, + Though with patience he stands waiting, with exactness grinds he all. + + 13. If the scythes cut well and swing merrily, it is due to the + boy who turned the grindstone. + + 14. If a man write little, he had need have a great memory; if + he confer little, he had need have a present wit; and if he + read little, he had need have much cunning to seem to know + that he doth not. + + 15. + + Men must work and women must weep. + Though storms be sudden and waters deep. + And the harbor bar be moaning. + +Account for the mode of the verb in each dependent clause in the +preceding sentences. + + + + +LXXIII. ADVERBIAL CLAUSES OF COMPARISON + + +=290.= Often we are not satisfied to say, “Cousin John is good.” We wish +to tell _how_ good he is, and a common way of doing this is by means of a +comparison. We say, “Cousin John is as good as gold.” Here the group of +words _as gold_ is a clause with the word _is_ omitted. It is called a +clause of =comparison=. It denotes an =equality= between John’s goodness +and that of gold. Since this clause answers the question _how good?_ it +must modify the adjective _good_. + +What is the introductory word of the clause of comparison? + +=291.= Sometimes we compare two things and yet denote an =inequality= +between them; as in the sentence, “The river is bluer than the sky.” Here +the clause of comparison is introduced by the subordinating conjunction +_than_. It modifies the word _bluer_. We know this because it is the word +_bluer_ that needs the clause, and without the word _bluer_ the clause +would not be in the sentence at all. + +Notice that a clause of equality modifies an adjective in the positive +degree, while a clause of inequality modifies an adjective in the +comparative degree. + +=292.= A clause of comparison may modify an adverb as well as an +adjective, as in these sentences:— + + The old man moved as slowly as a cloud. + + More swiftly than eagles, his coursers they flew. + + NOTE.—The adverb _rather_ is seldom used without being modified + by a clause of comparison; as, “Henry Clay said that he would + rather be right than be president.” When we supply the words + understood, the clause reads, _than he would be president_. + +Complete the clauses in the following sentences:— + + Some people would rather have money than brains. + + I should rather earn a college education than go without it. + + A wise American would rather go to Yellowstone Park than to + Switzerland. + +=Summary.=—A clause of =comparison= tells the degree of some quality or +quantity by pointing out a likeness or a difference. + +A clause of comparison pointing out a =likeness= is introduced by _as_, +and modifies an adjective or an adverb in the positive degree. + +A clause of comparison pointing out a =difference= is introduced by +_than_, and modifies an adjective or an adverb in the comparative degree. + +A clause of comparison is seldom completely expressed. + +=Exercise.=—Select all the clauses of comparison. Tell what they denote, +what they modify, and what they are introduced by. + + 1. Sitting up on the driver’s high seat is almost as good as + climbing the meeting-house steeple. + + 2. + + The muscles of his brawny arms + Are strong as iron bands. + + 3. The loons could dive quicker than the eagle could swoop and + strike. + + 4. Gertrude was prouder than ever when the president of the + college said, “Your mother is handsomer than you will ever be, + young lady.” + + 5. + + The hearts that were thumping like ships on the rocks + Beat as quiet and steady as meeting-house clocks. + + 6. Truth is stranger than fiction. + + 7. I had rather have a fool to make me merry than experience to + make me sad. + + 8. + + Blue were her eyes as the fairy flax, + Her cheeks like the dawn of day, + Her bosom white as the hawthorn buds, + That ope in the month of May. + + 9. One syllable of woman’s speech can dissolve more love than a + man’s heart can hold. + + 10. + + I am nearer my home to-day + Than I ever have been before. + + 11. Whiter than snow were his locks, and his cheeks were as + brown as the oak leaves. + + 12. + + A steed as black as the steeds of night + Was seen to pass as with eagle flight. + + 13. Weeds are sure to grow quicker in my garden than anywhere + else. + + 14. + + Dark as winter was the flow + Of Iser rolling rapidly. + + 15. I should rather see the friezes of the Parthenon molder to + dust under the blue veil of the Grecian atmosphere than have + them preserved in the grand halls of the British Museum. + + 16. The huge body of the elephant needs less sleep than + anything else that lives. + +=293.= Since the predicate is usually omitted in clauses of comparison, +it follows that these clauses often consist of only two words; as, “I +am as old as Mary.” “I am older than Mary.” One of these words is the +connective, and the other is often the subject of the clause. When the +subject is a pronoun, we must be careful to use the nominative form. We +should say, “Are you older than _I_? than _he_? than _she_?” + +=Exercise 1.=—Fill the blank in each of these sentences. Then supply the +words omitted, and thus show that you have chosen the right pronouns:— + + 1. Our parents are wiser than (_we_ or _us_). + + 2. You are not always so careful as (_she_ or _her_). + + 3. Who knows the day better than (_me_ or _I_)? + + 4. What! You are stronger than (_who_ or _whom_)? + + 5. The Preston girls were just as friendly as (_me_ or _I_). + + 6. No man could be more faithful than (_him_ or _he_). + + 7. Who stands higher in this city than (_they_ or _them_). + + 8. Are you older or younger than (_her_ or _she_)? + + 9. Well, perhaps I am not so polite as (_he_ or _him_). + + 10. Our geese are whiter than (_them_ or _they_). + +=Exercise 2.=—Justify the case of the italicized pronoun in each of these +sentences:— + + 1. Jessie likes Julia as well as _me_. + + 2. I found her brother more easily than _her_. + + 3. I expect an angel sooner than _them_. + + + + +LXXIV. ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES + + +=294.= We are ready now to analyze sentences containing adverbial +clauses. In analyzing such sentences we should state as soon as we come +to an adverbial clause, (1) what it denotes and (2) what part of speech +its introductory word is. We should not analyze any dependent clause in +detail, however, until we have completed our analysis of the principal +clause. + +MODEL.—_The lion fixed his great hind claws in the softer skin of the +crocodile’s throat, and ripped it open as one would rip a glove._ + +This is a complex, declarative sentence. + +The subject is _the lion_. The predicate is _fixed his great hind claws +in the softer skin of the crocodile’s throat, and ripped it open as one +would rip a glove_. + +The predicate is compound, the two parts being joined by the conjunction +_and_. The first predicate verb is _fixed_. It is completed by the direct +object _his great hind claws_, and then modified by the prepositional +phrase _in the softer skin of the crocodile’s throat_. The base word +of the object is _claws_; it is modified by the adjectives _hind_ and +_great_, and by the possessive pronoun _his_. The base word of the object +of the preposition _in_ is _skin_. It is modified by the adjectives +_softer_ and _the_, and by the prepositional phrase of _the crocodile’s +throat_. The base word of the object of the preposition _of_ is _throat_; +it is modified by the possessive noun _crocodile’s_, which is modified by +the adjective _the_. + +The second predicate verb is _ripped_. It is completed by the direct +object _it_ and the objective complement _open_, and then modified by +the adverbial clause of manner _as one would rip a glove_, which is +introduced by the subordinate conjunction _as_. + +The subject of this clause is the adjective pronoun _one_. The predicate +is _would rip a glove_. The predicate verb is _would rip_. It is +completed by the direct object _a glove_. + +=Exercise.=—Analyze the following sentences. When you write the analysis +of a sentence, use abbreviations, and instead of writing out a group of +words in full, as is done in the model, write only the first and last +words of the group with a dash between them. Be sure to underline all +words quoted from the sentence. + + 1. + + He looks the whole world in the face, + For he owes not any man. + + 2. The young lion was growing so fast that the milk of three + goats was scarcely sufficient for him. + + 3. + + When the glorious sun is set, + When the grass with dew is wet, + Then you show your little light. + + 4. When Charles was studying shorthand, his mother read sermons + to him for an hour every morning, so that he might have + practice in the writing of long words. + + 5. If you save the pennies, the dollars will take care of + themselves. + + 6. + + Where the purple violet grows, + Where the bubbling water flows, + Where the grass is fresh and fine, + Pretty cow, go there and dine. + + 7. Tommy, though he was getting a big boy, retained some of the + habits of a baby. + + 8. I was sitting on the top rail of the front fence, when a + party of gypsies went by on their way to a camp. + + 9. + + The day is done, and the darkness + Falls from the wings of night, + As a feather is wafted downward + From an eagle in his flight. + + 10. Whenever you see many drones, you will find plenty of young + bees. + + 11. After the robins have pinched and shaken all the life + out of an earthworm, as Italian cooks pound all the spirit + out of a steak, and then gulped him, they stand up in honest + self-confidence, expand their red waistcoats with a virtuous + air, and outface you with their bold calm eyes. + + 12. Moti Guj, the elephant, never trampled the life out of his + master Deesa, for, after the beating was over, Deesa would + embrace his trunk, and call him his love and his life and the + liver of his soul, and give him some liquor. + + 13. If imitation be the sincerest form of flattery, the + mischief of the monkey should be regarded more leniently. + + 14. I liked dolls well enough, though my assortment was not a + choice one. + + 15. Her nails were so hard that they would yield to the + scissors only after a day’s soaking in hot soapsuds. + + 16. + + His words were shed softer than leaves from the pine, + And they fell on Sir Launfal as snows on the brine. + + + + +LXXV. ADJECTIVE CLAUSES + + +=295.= We learned in Lesson XX that a dependent clause often has the use +of an adjective, that is, it modifies a noun; as in the sentence, “This +is the house that Jack built.” Such a clause as _that Jack built_ is +called an adjective clause. Why? + +=296.= An adjective clause may be used for two different purposes. + +(1) It may serve to point out a particular person, place, or thing; as, +“This is the maiden all forlorn that milked the cow with the crumpled +horn.” Here the clause tells what particular maiden is meant. A clause +of this sort is called a =restrictive= clause, because it limits, or +restricts, the application of the word it modifies. + +(2) An adjective clause may serve merely to bring in a new thought, +something that is worth telling, of course, but still not necessary to +the truth of the sentence; as, “My father had ten cows, which I had to +escort to and from pasture night and morning.” This clause does not tell +what particular cows my father had, but merely tells an additional fact +about them. Such a clause as this is called an =unrestrictive= clause. It +is set off by a comma. + +=297.= A restrictive clause is usually necessary to the truth of a +sentence; as, “A city that is set on a hill cannot be hid,” “A prince +that is a tyrant is unfit to rule.” + +To find out whether a clause is restrictive or not, determine first what +word it modifies; then ask yourself the question, Did the author put this +clause into the sentence to point out a particular object? + +Could such a term as _The Declaration of Independence_, _my mother’s +father_, _Theodore Roosevelt_, _the planet Mars_, or _Boston_ be modified +by a restrictive adjective clause? + +=Summary.=—An =adjective clause= is a dependent clause that modifies a +noun or a pronoun. + +A =restrictive= adjective clause is one that points out a particular +person, place, or thing. A restrictive clause is not set off by commas. + +An =unrestrictive= adjective clause is one that merely adds a new thought +to the sentence. An unrestrictive clause is set off by a comma. + +=Exercise 1.=—Select the adjective clauses. Tell what they modify. Then +find out whether they are restrictive or not, and why. + + NOTE.—Always test an adjective clause first to find out whether + it is restrictive. If you decide that it is not restrictive, + then it must be unrestrictive. + + 1. Charley Marden, whose father had promised to cane him if he + ever set foot on sail or row boat, came down to the wharf in a + sour-grape humor to see us off. + + 2. A sharp tongue is the only edged tool that grows keener with + constant use. + + 3. From one corner of St. Paul’s churchyard runs the lively + street called Cheapside, from which John Gilpin started on his + famous ride. + + 4. The reason why the women and children slept upon the floor + was their fear lest the Indians should fire through the windows + and kill them in their beds. + + 5. The king whose despotic power was felt over the entire + extent of the cattle range was an old gray wolf. + + 6. The monks who put peas in their shoes as a penance do not + suffer more than the country boy in his penitential Sunday + shoes. + + 7. There is a girl in the carriage, who looks out at John, who + is suddenly aware that his trousers are patched on each knee + and in two places behind. + + 8. He could see the pale and naked trunk of a pine tree, which + the lightning had shattered. + + 9. The night that was so favorable to the wild rabbits was + favorable also to the fox, the wildcat, and the weasel. + + 10. The only days that I can remember in Yonkers were hot. + + 11. + + All things that are on earth shall wholly pass away, + Except the love of God, which shall live and last for aye. + + 12. Sleek, unwieldy porkers were grunting in the repose and + abundance of their pens, whence sallied forth, now and then, + troops of sucking pigs, as if to snuff the air. + +=Exercise 2.=—Write sentences containing restrictive adjective clauses +pointing out a certain river, a certain boy, a certain bridge, a certain +house, a certain day. + +Write sentences containing unrestrictive clauses that tell something +about the moon, the President of the United States, Salt Lake City, the +Sistine Madonna, the Eiffel Tower. + +Write sentences containing adjective clauses introduced by the +conjunctive adverbs _when_, _where_, and _why_. (See Lesson LXVI.) Tell +whether your clauses are restrictive or unrestrictive. + + + + +LXXVI. RELATIVE PRONOUNS + + +=298.= Just as an adverbial clause is joined to what it modifies by a +conjunctive adverb or a subordinate conjunction, so an adjective clause +must be joined to the noun it modifies by some connecting word. + +In Lesson LXVI it was shown that this word may be a conjunctive adverb, +as in the sentence, “I can never forget the night when I first heard the +whippoorwill sing.” What is the clause here? What does it modify? How is +it joined to the word that it modifies? + +=299.= Most adjective clauses are introduced by some other word than a +conjunctive adverb. In the sentence, “The hand that rocks the cradle +rules the world,” the adjective clause _that rocks the cradle_ is joined +to the noun _hand_, which it modifies, by the word _that_. This word +is used as subject of the verb _rocks_, and really means _hand_. Since +it takes the place of a noun, it is a pronoun; and since this noun, or +antecedent, precedes the pronoun, we say that the pronoun _relates_ to +its antecedent, and we call it a =relative= pronoun. + +=300.= The relative pronouns that introduce adjective clauses are _who_, +_which_, and _that_. + +_Who_ has three case forms: nominative, _who_; possessive, _whose_; +objective, _whom_. + +_Which_ has the possessive form _whose_; _that_ has no possessive form. + +_Which_ and _that_ do not change their form for the objective case. + +=301.= A relative pronoun always has a use in the adjective clause that +it introduces. This is the same use that the antecedent would have if it +were used in place of the pronoun. + +The four common uses are:— + +(1) Subject of a verb; as, “He who fights and runs away may live to fight +another day.” + +(2) Object of a verb; as, “This is the day that the Lord hath made.” + +(3) Object of a preposition; as, “I saw the room in which Shakespeare was +born.” + + NOTE.—Sometimes the pronoun comes before the preposition; as, + “The buggy that we rode in was low and light.” + +(4) Possessive modifier; as, “Any boy whose memory is good can learn a +history lesson.” + +=302.= The relative pronoun _that_ introduces only restrictive adjective +clauses. The pronouns _who_, _whose_, _whom_, and _which_ may introduce +either restrictive or unrestrictive clauses. + +=303.= _Who_ has for its antecedent the name of some person; _which_ has +for its antecedent the name of some thing. The antecedent of _that_ may +be the name of a person or a thing. + +=304.= The word _but_ may be used as a relative pronoun as a substitute +for the two words _that not_. Instead of saying, “There is no day that +has not an end,” we may say, “There is no day _but_ has an end.” This is +a better sentence than the first because it contains only one negative +word. + +=305.= The word _as_ may be used as a relative pronoun following the +words _such_, _same_, or _as many_. We say,— + + I like _such_ flowers _as_ you sent me. + + Your dress is the _same_ color _as_ mine. + + I will take _as many_ apples _as_ will fill this basket. + + I want _such_ a chair _as_ you are sitting in now. + +In each of the sentences above, what is the use of the relative pronoun +_as_ in the clause that it introduces? + +=Summary.=—A =relative pronoun= is one that refers to a preceding noun or +pronoun, and joins to it an adjective clause. + +The relative pronouns that introduce adjective clauses are _who_, +_which_, and _that_. + +_As_ and _but_ are sometimes used as relative pronouns. + +=306.= When we parse a relative pronoun we tell,— + +(1) Its antecedent. + +(2) What adjective clause it joins to its antecedent. + +(3) Its case. + +(4) Its use in the adjective clause. + +=Exercise 1.=—Parse all the relative pronouns in the following sentences:— + + 1. In came the six young followers whose hearts the Misses + Fezziwig broke. + + 2. There were the wide sweeps of forest through which the + winter tempests howled, upon which hung the haze of summer + heat, over which the great shadows of summer clouds traveled. + + 3. Susie was a well-behaved child, who took care of her clothes + and played quiet games. + + 4. And now the dandelion is a pest—the same yellow dandelion + with its long, bitter, milky stem that we children sought for + in the shady fence corners to make into spiral curls. + + 5. Buffers had a small moustache, which he fostered much, and a + cane with which he was not yet very familiar. + + 6. She bade me good-by as if I were a friend of her family whom + she would gladly meet again. + + 7. There is only one bird that terrifies the crow, and that is + the owl. + + 8. Solomon John proposed that they should open the window, a + thing which Agamemnon could easily do with his long arms. + + 9. There was one lady whose conversation at the best of times + made my mother sleepy. + + 10. The two men shared those mysterious rites of smoking and + shaving and discussing stocks which occupy men when they are + left to themselves. + + 11. The turkey cock, who had been born into the world with + spurs, and thought he was a king, puffed himself out like a + ship with full sails, and flew at the duckling. + + 12. In a few moments Ned arrived at a small open glade in the + middle of the forest, in which, to his horror, he saw a lion + upon the body of a man, whom he seized by the throat, while + Nero stood within a few yards, baying him furiously. + + 13. He lives longest who does most. + +=Exercise 2.=—Analyze the following sentences:— + + 1. + + No time is like the old time when you and I were young, + When the buds of April blossomed, and the birds of spring-time sung. + + 2. + + No place is like the old place, where you and I were born, + Where we lifted first our eyelids on the splendor of the morn. + + 3. No friend is like the old friend, who has shared our morning + days. + + 4. At the teachers’ meeting, which she regularly attended with + her mother, Gertrude saw the pale-faced little lady whom the + children called a “Grahamite.” + + 5. The old broken gate which a gentleman would not tolerate an + hour upon his grounds is a great beauty in the picture which + hangs in his parlor. + + 6. Often the road passes between lofty walls of solid rock, + from the crevices of which all lovely growths are springing. + + 7. + + Read from some humbler poet, + Whose songs gushed from his heart, + As rain from the clouds in summer, + Or tears from the eyelids start. + + 8. Michel was a vivacious, lean little Frenchman, who fulfilled + the duties of a chambermaid very adroitly. + + 9. The first thing that my pet starling imitated was the + rumbling of carts and carriages on the street. + + 10. In one corner of the fireplace sat a superannuated crony, + whom the sexton called John Ange, and who had been his + companion from childhood. + + 11. The good ship _Humber_ is taking home a regiment whose term + of service has expired. + + 12. Madame took for breakfast two fresh eggs, which her two + hens laid for her every morning with the perfect regularity + that is the politeness of all well-bred poultry. + + 13. + + The boy stood on the burning deck, + Whence all but him had fled. + + 14. Lay up for yourselves treasures in heaven, where neither + moth nor rust doth corrupt, and where thieves do not break + through and steal. + + 15. Sycamore Ridge might have been one of the dreary villages + that dot the wind-swept plain to-day, instead of the bright, + prosperous elm-shaded town that it is. + + + + +LXXVII. NOUN CLAUSES + + +=307.= We have seen that a dependent clause may have the use of an +adverb or of an adjective. It may also have another use, as may be seen +in the sentence, “Whatever Midas touched with his finger immediately +glistened and grew yellow.” If we ask the question, _What glistened +and grew yellow?_ we get the answer, _Whatever Midas touched with his +finger_; hence this group of words must be the subject. But this group is +a clause, for it contains the subject _Midas_ and the verb _touched_. A +clause used as the subject of a predicate is used like a noun, hence we +call it a =noun clause=. + +=308.= The noun clause has several other uses of a noun besides that of +subject. It may be,— + +(1) Object of a verb; as, “I think that life would be very dull without +meals.” + +(2) Subjective complement; as, “The sad part of this tale is that the +trouble was not with poor little Quackalina’s eyes at all.” + +(3) In apposition; as, “He had a theory that the big horned owl might be +tamed.” Here the clause explains the noun _theory_ telling exactly what +the theory is. This may seem at first like an adjective clause, but there +is a clear difference. We can make a sentence by putting the verb _is_ +between the noun _theory_ and the clause. This shows that the two are +identical, but we cannot do this with the noun _theory_ and an adjective +clause, as in this sentence, “I do not believe in the theory that he sets +forth in his book.” + +(4) Object of a preposition; as, “Aladdin’s mother listened with surprise +to what her son told her.” If you ask the question, _listened to what?_ +you get the answer, _what her son told her_. Therefore, the group of +words _what her son told her_, which is a dependent proposition, must be +the object of the preposition _to_. + +(5) Some adjectives, like _anxious_, _aware_, _careful_, _certain_, +_glad_, _hopeful_, _sorry_, and _sure_, especially when used as +subjective complements, are modified by noun clauses that take the place +of adverbial prepositional phrases. We may say,— + + I am sure _of his election_. + + I am sure _that he will be elected_. + +In the first sentence the adjective _sure_ is modified by the phrase _of +his election_. In the second sentence the adjective _sure_ is modified +by the noun clause _that he will be elected_, which answers the question +_sure of what?_ This may be called the adverbial use of the noun clause. + +=309.= Often, when a noun clause is used as subject, it is placed after +the predicate, and the sentence begins with the word _it_; as, “It is +curious that almost every nation on earth has some particular traditions +regarding the dog.” If we ask the question, _what is curious?_ the answer +is not _it_, for that tells nothing, but the clause. The word _it_ is +called an =anticipative subject=, because it comes before the real +subject, and signifies also to the reader that the real subject may be +expected after the predicate. + +=310.= The tense of the verb in a noun clause is determined partly by +the meaning of the sentence and partly by the tense of the verb in +the independent clause. What is the meaning of each of the following +sentences, and what is the tense of each verb? + + I understand that he builds bridges. + + I understand that he will build the bridge. + + I understand that he has built the bridge. + + I understood that he builds bridges. + + I understood that he would build the bridge. + + I understood that he had built the bridge. + +=Summary.=—A noun clause is a dependent clause having the use of a noun. + +The noun clause may be used adverbially to modify certain adjectives. + +The word _it_ may be used as an anticipative subject to throw the real +subject, a noun clause, after the verb. + +=Exercise 1.=—Select all the noun clauses, and explain the use of each. + + 1. Just then a shout from the boys’ tent proclaimed that the + twins were awake. + + 2. There were two summer houses at one end of what we called a + park. + + 3. The probability is very great that the Vikings did land on + our coast. + + 4. What made the little silver teapot so alluring was that it + held just enough for two. + + 5. Be careful how you handle my razor. + + 6. It so happened that one of his neighbors had two very + beautiful daughters. + + 7. I discovered that the world was not created exclusively on + my account. + + 8. Mr. Cobb had a feeling that he was being hurried from peak + to peak of a mountain range without time to take a good breath + in between. + + 9. That supply follows demand is a sure rule of political + economy. + + 10. The truth is that my dancing days are over. + + 11. In choosing words it is to be remembered that there is not + a really poor one in any language. + + 12. Are you aware that Phio has gone to the hospital? + + 13. On the very day of his inauguration Jefferson took a step + toward what he called simplicity, and what his opponents + thought vulgarity. + + 14. I knew that I was born at the North, but I hoped that + nobody in New Orleans would find it out. + + 15. The Austrian commander noticed this peculiarity about the + firing,—that every shot seemed to come from the same place. + + 16. That the monkeys had stolen the snuffbox was obvious, for + both of them were seized with convulsions of sneezing. + + 17. I am glad that you are going to talk on the peace movement. + + 18. The disadvantage of being a boy is that it does not last + long enough. + + 19. We are all sorry that some days never come but once. + +=Exercise 2.=—Justify the tense of the verb in the noun clause in each of +these sentences— + + I know that fever produces thirst. + + I knew that tennis is a healthful sport. + + I know that the lake will freeze to-night. + + I knew that the lake would freeze last night. + + I know that my turn comes next. + + I knew that my turn came next. + + I know that she has heard the news. + + I knew that she had heard the news. + + + + +LXXVIII. INTRODUCTORY WORDS OF NOUN CLAUSES + + +=311.= We have learned that adjective clauses and adverbial clauses are +joined to what they modify by some connective. This word also serves to +show that the clause it introduces is not independent but dependent. + +The noun clause also is introduced by some connecting word. In the +sentence, “That you have wronged me doth appear in this,” the first word +_that_ could be placed nowhere in the clause except at the beginning, and +it reveals at once that the clause it introduces is dependent. + +=312.= The introductory word of a noun clause may be several parts of +speech: + +(1) The subordinating conjunctions _if_, _that_, and _whether_. + + Go and see _if_ your father is coming home. + + I believe _that_ all men are created free and equal. + + I do not know _whether_ Mary is a suffragist or a suffragette. + +Often the connective _that_ is omitted; as, “You said you were coming +home early,” “David thought Dora was an angel.” + +(2) The interrogative pronouns _who_, _whose_, _whom_, _which_, _what_. + + Nobody knows _who_ first wrote the story of little Red Riding + Hood. + + Can you tell _whose_ picture this is? + + We cannot tell _whom_ the baby looks like. + + Have you heard _which_ came out ahead? + + Tell me _what_ you like, and I will tell you _what_ you are. + +In sentences of this sort the interrogative pronoun is not used in a +direct question, but always when a noun clause is introduced by an +interrogative pronoun there is an indirect, or implied question. Make a +direct question out of each of the noun clauses above. + +The interrogative pronoun always has a use in the noun clause that it +introduces, just as the relative pronoun has a use in the adjective +clause. What is the use of each interrogative pronoun in the preceding +sentences? + +(3) The relative pronoun _what_. This pronoun is always equivalent to the +two words _that which_, and there is no question implied in a noun clause +introduced by this pronoun. + + _What_ Martha told me about the will did not surprise me. + + Getting dinner is _what_ takes most of my time. + +(4) The indefinite pronouns _whoever_, _whichever_, _whatever_, etc. + + _Whoever_ came was made welcome. + + Take _whichever_ you like. + + _Whatever_ is, is right. + +What is the use of each noun clause in these sentences? What is the use +in the clause of each indefinite pronoun? + +(5) The conjunctive adverbs _when_, _where_, _why_, _how_, _whither_, etc. + + Do you know _when_ the steamer sails? + + I cannot remember _where_ I put my spectacles. + + Can you tell _why_ he never wears a muffler? + + I never understood _how_ the purse was returned. + + It is strange _how_ the memory clings to some things. + + Who knows _whither_ the clouds have fled? + +The adverb introducing a noun clause modifies some word within the +clause, usually the verb. + +=Summary.=—The noun clause may be introduced by (1) a subordinate +conjunction, (2) an interrogative pronoun, (3) the relative pronoun +_what_, (4) an indefinite pronoun, (5) a conjunctive adverb. + +=Exercise.=—Select all the noun clauses, and tell the use of each in the +sentence. Tell the introductory word of each clause, and its use in the +clause. + + 1. What disgusted them still more was that Bluebeard had + already been married several times, and no one knew what had + become of his wives. + + 2. Ernest was always ready to believe in whatever seemed + beautiful and good. + + 3. We asked the boatman why he did not speak Gaelic to his dog + as well as to his family. + + 4. Whoever has been hypnotized by a book agent will understand + how mother felt about the spectacles that she bought and could + not wear. + + 5. I wonder if Burbank ever really produced a deodorized onion. + + 6. Shakespeare’s chair stands in the chimney nook of a small + gloomy chamber, just behind what was his father’s shop. + + 7. Whatever was iron or brass in other houses was silver or + gold in this. + + 8. The apothecary listened as calmly as he could to the story + of how Mrs. Peterkin had put salt in her coffee. + + 9. The lady from Philadelphia asked where the milk was kept. + + 10. Fortunately, what God expects of us is not _the_ best, but + _our_ best. + + 11. Why this spot was selected for a mansion was always a + mystery, unless it was that the newcomer desired to isolate + himself completely. + + 12. Whether the Indians were not early risers, or whether they + were away just then on a warpath I couldn’t determine. + + 13. What passes for laziness in a boy is very often an + unwillingness to farm in a particular way. + + 14. The direction of a man’s life follows the unseen influence + of what he admires and loves and believes in. + + 15. Her only noteworthy achievement was that she had named her + twin sons Marquis de Lafayette Randall and Lorenzo de Medici + Randall. + + 16. I wonder who could describe those wonderful coral gardens + on which we gazed through twenty fathoms of crystal water. + + + + +LXXIX. REVIEW OF CLAUSES + + +=313.= We have learned that clauses may be independent or dependent; that +dependent clauses may be used like nouns, adjectives, or adverbs; that +adjective clauses may be restrictive or unrestrictive; that adverbial +clauses may denote various circumstances, such as time, place, manner, +etc.; that dependent clauses are introduced by some word that indicates +their dependence. + +=Exercise 1.=—Study again Lessons XVIII, XX, LXVI-LXXVIII, and then make +an outline of the subject, Clauses, having for your main topics,— + +(1) Classification. + +(2) Introductory word. + +(3) Use. + +Make a good original sentence to illustrate each point. + +=Exercise 2.=—Analyze the following sentences:— + + 1. Though Diana looked very old, she looked exactly the same + during all the years in which I knew her; and Aunt Maria, who + had known her all her life, said that she had never looked any + younger. + + 2. The only difference between the sisters was that while + Miranda only wondered how they could endure Rebecca, Jane had + flashes of inspiration in which she wondered how Rebecca would + endure them. + + 3. Whether the pigeons dropped exhausted on some ship and were + helped across the ocean, or whether some storm at sea swept + them away forever, no one ever knew. + + 4. Did mother know who brought the scarlet-runner seeds from + Whittier’s birthplace? + + 5. I never quite understood why a girl who climbed trees, clung + to the tail end of carts, and otherwise deported herself as a + well-conditioned girl should not, was called a tomboy. + + 6. The boy remembers how his mother’s anxiety was divided + between the set of his turn-over collar, the parting of his + hair, and his memory of the Sunday-school verses. + + 7. Most people think that the best thing they can give to a + caged bird is his liberty. + + 8. The horrible thought came coldly over me that the tiger was + keeping me company until a good chance offered for a spring. + + 9. Possibly the reason why monkeys have been so little on + the stage is that their appearance there would emphasize too + strongly the striking similarity between man and monkey. + + 10. An elephant who will not work and is not tied up is about + as manageable as an eighty-one ton gun in a heavy seaway. + + 11. Nothing cleverer than was Moufflou had ever walked upon + four legs. + + 12. The truth is that boys have always been so plenty that they + are not half appreciated. + + 13. The professor was so pleased with his witticism that I was + let off without even a scolding. + + 14. Those Indian nations who still preserve their ancient mode + of life, have dogs which bear a strong resemblance to wolves. + + 15. The partridge remembered the time when the chickadees had + seemed such big, important creatures. + +Criticize the use of _between_ in sentence 6. + + + + +LXXX. REVIEW OF PRONOUNS + + +=314.= We have learned that pronouns may be classified as follows:— + +(1) Personal pronouns. + +(2) Compound personal pronouns. + +(3) Interrogative pronouns. + +(4) Adjective pronouns. + +(5) Relative pronouns. + +(6) Indefinite pronouns. + +=Exercise 1.=—Study again Lessons V, XXXIX-XLIII, XLVIII, LXXVI, LXXVIII, +and then be prepared to explain each class of pronoun, and to tell the +various uses of each class. Illustrate each point with an original +sentence or with one that you yourself have found in some book. + +=Exercise 2.=—Parse all the pronouns in the following sentences. If there +is anything peculiar in the use of any pronoun, comment upon it. (See pp. +100, 106, 108, 122, 197.) + + 1. What was the Great Stone Face? + + 2. To make a quarrel needs, indeed, two; but to make peace + needs only one. + + 3. When the swarm comes out, it consists of both old and young + bees, and, indeed, some say that the old queen leads them, and + the young one takes her vacant throne. + + 4. We could easily surmise who the Halloween rascals were, but + what was the terrifying apparatus they applied to our window + panes we could not imagine. + + 5. All of this is mine and thine. + + 6. Attracted by the smell either of the newly killed waterbuck + or of ourselves, the hungry lions were storming our position. + + 7. Oh, give me my lowly thatched cottage again. + + 8. The interior of St. Paul’s is just what one would expect + after viewing the outside. A maze of grand arches on every side + encompasses the dome, which you gaze up at as at the sky; and + from every pillar and wall look down the marble forms of the + dead. + + 9. By the wholesome law of the prairie, he who falls asleep on + guard is condemned to walk all day. + + 10. + + Who has sight so keen and strong + That it can follow the flight of song? + + 11. The schoolhouse was a high brick building, and the yard + itself was made of brick. + + 12. The Eskimo dogs are of great use to their masters in + discovering by the scent the winter retreats which the bears + make under the snow. + + 13. The Taj Mahal is a Mohammedan tomb, the tomb of the + favorite wife of an Indian Mogul. It is her tomb, and also his + own, for he lies beside her, and it was built in compliance + with a request of hers before she died. + + 14. I procured a bowl of soup from the steward, but as I was + not able to eat it, I gave it to an old man whose hungry look + and wistful eyes convinced me it would not be lost on him. + + 15. + + What’s a fair or noble face + If the mind ignoble be? + + 16. + + Keep fresh the grass on Wordsworth’s grave, + O Rotha, with thy living wave! + Sing him thy best! for few or none + Hears thy voice right, now he is gone. + + + + +LXXXI. INFINITIVES + + +=315.= Look at the following sentences:— + + Dare _to be_ true. + + It is high time _to go_. + + The bishop seemed _to have talked_ with angels. + + You ought _to have been paying_ attention. + +We have here certain verb forms,—_to be_, _to go_, _to have talked_, _to +have been paying_,—which are very familiar to all of us, but which we +have not yet studied. They are not forms of the indicative, subjunctive, +or imperative mode, nor are they like any of the verb phrases that we +have examined. They all begin with the word _to_, and they contain two, +three, or four words, the last of which is the important one. We call +these groups of words =infinitives=. + +=316.= An intransitive verb has four infinitives, two of them denoting +a present action, hence called =present infinitives=; and the other two +denoting an action already completed, hence called =perfect infinitives=. + +The four infinitives of the intransitive verb _laugh_ are these:— + + PRESENT PERFECT + + to laugh to have laughed + to be laughing to have been laughing + +Which two of these infinitives belong to the progressive conjugation? + +=317.= Transitive verbs have six infinitives. The infinitives of the +transitive verb _eat_ are these:— + + PRESENT PERFECT + + _Active_ to eat to have eaten + _Active Progressive_ to be eating to have been eating + _Passive_ to be eaten to have eaten + +=318.= The infinitives above are called =infinitives with _to_=, because +they begin with the word _to_. This word is not used as a preposition, +but merely as a sort of handle, or introduction, to the infinitive. + +=319.= Besides the infinitive with _to_ there is another form called the +=infinitive in _-ing_=. The infinitives in _-ing_ of the verb _eat_ are +these:— + + PRESENT PERFECT + + _Active_ eating having eaten + _Active Progressive_ having been eating + _Passive_ being eaten having been eaten + +What are the infinitives in _-ing_ of the verb _laugh_? Which two forms +does it lack? + +Find the infinitives in _-ing_ in these sentences:— + + He was fined for losing his temper. + + “Being a Boy” is the title of a book. + + He was vexed at having misspelled so many words. + +=320.= All infinitives are forms of verbs, but they cannot be predicate +verbs because they do not assert. They are spoken of as =verbals=. + +=321.= A verbal is used in a sentence like some part of speech,—a noun, +an adjective, or an adverb. The infinitive is most frequently used like +a noun. The infinitive in _-ing_ is very much like a noun in another +respect too,—it _names_ the action or state that the predicate verb +_asserts_. If we should ask for the name of any action that we saw a +person performing, the answer would be an infinitive in _-ing_; as, +_reaping_, _mowing_, _plowing_, _driving_. + +=322.= The infinitive in _-ing_ is so much like a noun that it can be +modified by a possessive noun or pronoun. We say, “_Your_ winning the +victory depends on your keeping cool.” “The farmer’s chagrin was due to +his _hay’s_ having spoiled.” Explain the use of all the possessives in +these sentences. + + NOTE.—The infinitive in _-ing_ is often called a =gerund=. + +=323.= The infinitive may take the same complements and modifiers that +any other form of the same verb might take. The infinitive, together +with all the words associated with it, makes an =infinitive phrase=. The +base word of an infinitive phrase is always an infinitive. What are the +infinitive phrases in all the illustrative sentences in this lesson? + +=Summary.=—A =verbal= is a verb form that denotes action or being without +asserting it. + +A verbal is used in a sentence as a noun, an adjective, or an adverb. + +An =infinitive= is a verbal that is generally used as a noun. + +There are two classes of infinitives,—the infinitive with _to_, and the +infinitive in _-ing_. + +The infinitive has two tenses,—present and perfect. + +The infinitive may be active or passive or progressive. + +An =infinitive phrase= is a group of words consisting of an infinitive +together with its complement and modifiers. + +=Exercise 1.=—Write all the infinitives of the verbs _be_, _bring_, +_come_, _find_, _freeze_, _go_, _leave_, _seem_, _taste_, _turn_. + +=Exercise 2.=—Select all the infinitive phrases in the following +sentences. Tell the voice and tense of each infinitive. + +MODEL—_It is hard to teach an old dog new tricks._ _To teach an old dog +new tricks_ is an infinitive phrase. _To teach_ is the present active +infinitive of the transitive verb _teach_. + + 1. Am I to give a reason for all I choose to do? + + 2. The cherry pie seemed to have been left in the refrigerator + for that hungry young pair. + + 3. Driving between these long lines of dainty-flowering and + sweet-smelling rows of hedges is very delightful. + + 4. All the lines of pain smoothed out of her brow, and she + seemed to be peacefully sleeping. + + 5. The lights had been extinguished, the buoys removed, and the + whole coast seemed to have gone back hundreds of years. + + 6. Your having given me the opera glasses is no reason that you + have a right to borrow them continually. + + 7. Any child should know that a hot stove is a thing to be + avoided, but I did not seem to realize the fact. + + 8. The boy would like to have thrown a stone at the wagon. + + 9. Did you mind being reproved by your mother for sitting up so + late? + + 10. It was already past the appointed hour for Mr. Cobb and his + coach to be lumbering down the street. + + 11. From her having been staying at the Antlers the entire + season, I should judge her to be wealthy. + + 12. Scrooge was not a man to be frightened by echoes. + + 13. There’s no use in making two bites of a cherry. + + 14. The fact of the letter’s having been opened was evident, + but it could not be proved against the mail carrier. + +Tell the part of speech and use of _your_, sentence 6, _her_ 11, +_letter’s_ 14. + + + + +LXXXII. INFINITIVES AS SUBJECTS OR COMPLEMENTS + + +=324.= If we wish to make an assertion about a person, a place, or an +object, we use a noun for the base word of our subject; but if we wish to +make an assertion about an action, we use an infinitive or an infinitive +phrase for subject; as, “Just to breathe the air and feel one’s self +alive was enough,” “Going after the cows was a serious thing in my day.” + +=325.= We have seen that a noun clause used as subject may be thrown to +the end of the sentence by means of the anticipative subject _it_; as, +“It is a good thing _that somebody likes to cook_.” In the same way an +infinitive phrase used as subject may come after the predicate; as, “It +pleased the jackal to see Mother and Father Wolf look uncomfortable.” +Recast this sentence, omitting _it_. + +=326.= The infinitive phrase is often used as the object of a verb. Not +all transitive verbs, however, can be completed by infinitives—only those +which can take for an object the name of an action or a condition; as, +“The cloud began to sink softly down to the earth,” “After a struggle +Bess gave up using two lumps of sugar in her coffee.” + +Why cannot the verbs _break_, _bring_, _buy_, _cut_, _eat_, and _plow_ +take infinitives for objects? + +=327.= The infinitive is used as a subjective complement of an +intransitive verb in two ways that differ slightly; as, “The hunter’s +first impulse was to laugh at his own folly,” “No trees of any magnitude +were to be seen.” + +In the first sentence the infinitive phrase, _to laugh at his own folly_, +completes the verb _was_ and explains just what the impulse was, hence it +denotes identity with the subject. Its use is precisely like that of the +word _dime_ in the sentence, “My ‘lucky penny’ is a silver _dime_,” hence +we say that it is used like a noun. + +In the second sentence it is clear that the infinitive _to be seen_ +completes the verb _were_ and tells something about the subject, hence it +must be a subjective complement. But instead of being used like a noun +to denote identity with the subject, it is equivalent to the adjective +_visible_, hence may be said to be used like an adjective. + +=Summary.=—The infinitive phrase may be the subject of a verb, the object +of a verb, or a subjective complement. + +By means of the anticipative subject _it_, the real subject, an +infinitive phrase, may be placed at the end of the sentence. + +As subjective complement the infinitive phrase may have the use of a noun +or of an adjective. + +=Exercise.=—Tell the grammatical use of all infinitive phrases in these +sentences, and classify all infinitives:— + + 1. Mowgli said that he never wished to see, or hear, or smell + man again. + + 2. That which most resembles living one’s life over again is + recalling all the circumstances of it and recording them in + writing. + + 3. To fit out a fleet, and to levy and equip an army, and to + continue the forces thus raised in action during a long and + uncertain campaign would cost a large sum of money. + + 4. + + When the days begin to lengthen, + Then the cold begins to strengthen. + + 5. It is delightful to look upon the charming country which + springs up under a watering-pot sky. + + 6. One of the best things in farm life is gathering the + chestnuts, hickory nuts, butternuts, and beechnuts. + + 7. Speaking of Latin reminds me that I once taught my cows + Latin. + + 8. The quaint, picturesque old town seems to bristle with forts. + + 9. When I wanted to hit a mark, my usual way was to aim at + something else. + + 10. The one idea in Mowgli’s head was to get Messua and her + husband out of the trap. + + 11. This boy was so forward in domestic arts that he undertook + sewing on the machine when he was only five years old. + + 12. It is bad manners to find fault with your food at the table. + + 13. To climb a tree and shake it, to club it, to strip it of + its fruit, and pass to the next, is the sport of a brief time. + + 14. One of Jakie’s amusements was dancing across the back of + a tall chair, taking funny little steps, coming down hard, + jouncing his body, and whistling as loud as he could. + + 15. The Englishman learned to fight from behind a tree, to + follow a trail, and to cover his body with hemlock boughs for + disguise. + + 16. It exactly suits the temperament of a real boy to be very + busy about nothing. + + 17. Trotting on city pavements is very hard on the dray horses. + + 18. The reward of a good sentence is to have written it. + +Tell the part of speech and use of _that_ and _which_ in sentence 2, +_sum_ 3, _then_ 4, _years_ 11. What is the object of _from_ in sentence +15? Think of similar expressions. + + + + +LXXXIII. INFINITIVES AS MODIFIERS OF NOUNS + + +=328.= The infinitive phrase is often a modifier of a noun, and may be +used either like an adjective or like an appositive. + +In the sentence, “Ulf still had a name to win,” what noun does the +infinitive modify? How do you know? + +In the sentence, “The mayor gave the order to close the skating rink,” +the infinitive phrase _to close the skating rink_ modifies the noun +_order_ by telling exactly what the order was; hence we must say that it +is in apposition with _order_. + +=329.= The infinitive in _-ing_ is not used as an adjective modifier +of a noun except in some compound words like these: _rolling-pin_, +_laughingstock_, _meetinghouse_, _drawing-room_. + +=330.= Often the infinitive in _-ing_ is used in apposition, as in the +sentence, “Her household tasks, keeping the bedrooms tidy and caring for +the canary birds, left her little time for music practice.” + +=Summary.=—The infinitive phrase may modify a noun either as an adjective +or as an appositive. + +=Exercise.=—Select all the infinitive phrases, and explain the use of +each. Classify also each infinitive, as in the preceding exercise. + + 1. + + Is this a time to be cloudy and sad + When our Mother Nature laughs around? + + 2. As the Cloud became larger, this wish to do something for + the people of earth was ever greater in her heart. + + 3. This is your last chance to see Chicago, Tom. + + 4. Day after day mother sat at the east window engaged in her + favorite pastime—making something dainty and beautiful with her + needle. + + 5. Almost all persons who travel in Switzerland have a great + desire to go to the top of at least one of the towering peaks + they see about them. + + 6. Now bring us something to eat. I have not patience to wait, + for I am ravenously hungry. + + 7. The first tracks to meet our eyes were the delicate + footprints of the red squirrel. + + 8. The Colonel’s only form of exercise, riding horseback every + evening, made him a familiar figure throughout the city. + + 9. Nothing pleased the dog more than an order to go and fetch + the cow. + + 10. To the deer a mystery means something to be solved. + + 11. A strange longing to follow the swan took possession of + each of the young birds. + + 12. A queer freak of my chewink was her determination to get + her feet into her food. + + 13. Never lose an opportunity to see anything beautiful. + + 14. This father was the comrade of his son, made so by the + memory of his own boyhood sports,—playing baseball on the + common, swimming in the lake off Miller’s Point, skating out to + Garlic Island, and gathering hickory nuts and hazelnuts in the + autumn woods. + +Classify the dependent clauses in sentences, 1, 2, 5, 9. Tell the part of +speech and use of _figure_, sentence 8. + + + + +LXXXIV. INFINITIVES AS PARTS OF “DOUBLE OBJECTS.” AS MODIFIERS OF VERBS + + +=331.= In the sentence, “I want my friends to believe in me,” we find the +verb to be _want_. If we ask the question _want what_? the answer is the +group of words _my friends to believe in me_; hence we are sure that this +group of words is the object. + +But this object is different from any group of words that we have studied +hitherto. It does not consist of a base word and modifiers, but instead +it consists of two parts that are equally important. These are _my +friends_ and the infinitive phrase _to believe in me_. The phrase is not +a modifier of _friends_, but has the logical relation of predicate to +_friends_, as may be proved by changing the whole group of words to a +noun clause, _that my friends should believe in me_. + +When the object of a verb consists of two parts, a noun element and an +infinitive, having to each other the logical relation of subject and +predicate, we call the whole group a =double object=. + +=332.= Although the relation between the two parts of a double object +is logically that of subject and predicate, still this relation is not +grammatically expressed. A double object does not make sense standing +alone, and we cannot speak of the infinitive in a double object as a +predicate, for an infinitive cannot assert. It is customary, however, +to speak of the noun element in a double object as the subject of the +infinitive. The subject of an infinitive is always in the objective case, +as may be plainly seen by substituting a pronoun for the noun used as +subject. In the sentence quoted, the pronoun that might take the place of +_my friends_ is the objective pronoun _them_. + +=333.= An infinitive in _-ing_ is often used as part of a double object; +as, “I hear their voices _ringing_ in merry childish glee,” “I can see +his gallant figure _coming_ down the road.” + +=334.= Notice that a double object is not two objects of equal rank, as +in the sentence, “I want _peace and quiet_;” but is one object consisting +of two equal parts so closely related, that neither of these parts could +be the object if used without the other. + +=335.= When the infinitive with _to_ is used after the verbs _hear_ and +_see_, as well as after _feel_, _let_, _make_, the _to_ of the infinitive +is omitted; as, “Did you hear me (_to_) _rap_ at your door?” “Let us +(_to_) _be_ true to one another,” “The mosquitoes made us (_to_) _go_ +indoors.” + +Find and explain the double objects in each of these three sentences. + +=336.= When a sentence containing a double object is changed to the +passive voice, the noun element of the double object becomes the subject +of the passive verb, and the infinitive phrase becomes the subjective +complement of the verb. Change this sentence to the passive voice and +explain the change, “We expected John to decorate the banquet room.” + +=337.= We have seen that the infinitive may be used as the complement of +a verb in several ways: it may be the direct object of a verb, or the +subjective complement, or part of a double object. There is another very +common relation of the infinitive to a verb, as shown in the sentence, +“Some persons live to eat.” The infinitive _to eat_ is in the predicate, +but it is not an object of the verb _live_, neither is it a subjective +complement. How do we know this? As the infinitive answers the question +_for what purpose_? we conclude that it is a modifier of the verb _live_. +Furthermore, it could be expanded into the adverbial clause of purpose, +_that they may eat_. + +The infinitive denoting purpose is very common, as seen in the familiar +sentences: “We go to school to learn,” “We stood up to see,” “I sat down +to rest.” + +=Summary.=—An infinitive phrase and a noun, having the logical relation +of subject and predicate, may form the =double object= of some transitive +verbs. + +An infinitive phrase denoting the purpose of an action may be used to +modify a verb. + +=Exercise 1.=—Write sentences containing double objects of the verbs +_cause_, _desire_, _expect_, _feel_, _hear_, _let_, _make_, _order_, +_see_, _wish_. + +Explain why there are no double objects in these sentences:— + + 1. They could get no water to drink. + + 2. He has an ax to grind. + + 3. We found plenty to eat. + + 4. She bought a rose to wear. + + 5. I made a cake to sell. + +=Exercise 2.=—Explain the use of all infinitive phrases in these +sentences. Classify the infinitives. + + 1. The boy made up his mind that he would take two of + the whelps home with him to be brought up in the ways of + civilization. + + 2. + + In happy homes he saw the light + Of household fires gleam warm and bright. + + 3. More rarely a fox or a hyena quickened his gallop to study + the intruder at a safe distance. + + 4. When the car stopped and I looked up at the window with the + pink geranium, I saw mother waiting to welcome me. + + 5. The whole family went to the station to see us off. + + 6. I do not quite know what caused me to lift my head from the + friendly shelter of the blanket. + + 7. He felt his swift craft quiver with life beneath him in + response to the rhythmic stroke of the oarsmen. + + 8. Jupiter bustled about to prepare some marsh hens for supper. + + 9. To keep the artillery dry, we stuffed wads of loose hemp + into the muzzles, and fitted wooden pegs to the touch holes. + + 10. Down the elm-bordered road we two walked toward the sunset, + and watched the mists rising ghostlike from the fields. + + 11. Mowgli heard the sound rumble, and rise, and fall, and die + off in a creepy sort of whine behind him. + + 12. At recess the next noon the Centipedes met in a corner of + the schoolyard to talk over the proposed lark. + + 13. Our Heavenly Father himself has planted that pea, and made + it grow and blossom to bring joy to you and hope to me, my + blessed child. + + 14. Nearly all the finest diamonds in the world are brought to + Amsterdam to be cut into shape. + + 15. It was Long Tom who taught Harvey to shoot at a mark with a + revolver. + + 16. He’s gone to fight the French for King George upon his + throne. + + 17. We heard the meadow larks singing their wistful songs, but + always instead of the black hearts upon their yellow breasts + they showed us just the two white feathers in their tails. + +Change sentences 2, 4, 10, 11, 13, 17 to the passive voice, and explain +the change in the use of the infinitive. + + + + +LXXXV. OTHER USES OF INFINITIVES + + +=338.= The most frequent use of the infinitive in _-ing_ is as the object +of a preposition; as, “I am tired of _doing_ nothing,” “He earned a +living by _sharpening_ scissors.” + +=339.= The infinitive in _-ing_, like the noun, may be the object of any +preposition, but the infinitive with _to_ is used as the object of very +few prepositions, only _about_, _except_, _but_, and _save_, the last two +meaning _except_. + +In the sentence, “He ate nothing but bananas,” the object of the +preposition _but_ must be a noun because it must be the name of a food. +But in the sentence, “He did nothing but play tennis,” the object of +_but_ must be an infinitive because it must be the name of an action. + + NOTE.—We often hear the expression “I was about to say.” In + this familiar idiom the prepositional phrase _about to say_ is + used as the subjective complement of the verb _was_. How do we + know this? What is the use of the infinitive _to say_? + +=340.= In the sentence, “The gentleman drew out the chair for the lady to +sit down,” if we ask the question _for what?_ we get the answer _the lady +to sit down_, hence the group of words _the lady to sit down_ must be the +object of the preposition _for_. But this group of words consists of two +parts, _the lady_ and the infinitive phrase _to sit down_, which have the +logical relation of subject and predicate, hence we conclude that the +preposition _for_ may take a double object. + +=341.= The sentences, “Sheep are apt,” “I am sorry,” “The traveler was +glad,” are all incomplete. We wish to know in what respect sheep are apt, +what I am sorry about, what the traveler was glad of. In other words, +the adjectives _apt_, _sorry_, and _glad_ need a modifier to make the +sentence complete in meaning. This modifier may be an infinitive, “Sheep +are apt _to get lost_,” “I am sorry _to leave Warwick_,” “The traveler +was glad _to see his home again_.” We learn from these sentences that an +infinitive phrase may modify an adjective. + +=Exercise.=—Complete the following sentences by infinitive phrases. What +do your phrases modify? How do you know? + + 1. This child is too young— + + 2. A man of twenty-five is old enough— + + 3. The water was so deep as— + + 4. The general was anxious— + + 5. Some lessons are not easy— + +=342.= The infinitive may be used independently; as, “_To be frank_, I do +not like it.” “_To make a long story short_, we were utterly defeated.” + +=343.= A common error is the use of the perfect infinitive for the +present. It is proper to say, “I ought to have gone,” when we mean that +the time of the going was in the past; as, “I ought to have gone then, +or yesterday, or a year ago.” But when we mean that the going is at the +present time or is to be in the future, then we should use the present +infinitive, and say, “I ought to go.” + +What is the difference in the meaning of the following pairs of sentences? + + 1. I am sorry to offend you. + I am sorry to have offended you. + 2. I am glad to see you. + I am glad to have seen you. + 3. The train is reported to be late. + The train is reported to have been late. + 4. The man is said to be a candidate. + The man is said to have been a candidate. + +It is evident from the four pairs of sentences above that some verbs +in the present tense may be followed by either a present or a perfect +infinitive. This is likewise true of some verbs in the past tense. We +say, “He seemed to be sleeping,” meaning that he was sleeping at the time +we noted his appearance. We also say, “He seemed to have been sleeping,” +meaning that he had slept before we noted his appearance. + +What is the difference in the meaning of the following pairs of +sentences:— + + 1. Washington was never known to fight a duel. + Hamilton was known to have fought a duel. + 2. The ship was reported to be wrecked. + The ship was reported to have been wrecked. + 3. The child appeared to lead the old man. + The child appeared to have led the old man. + +Since the verbs _desire_, _expect_, _hope_, _want_, and _wish_ refer +to something in the present or the future, but never in the past, they +cannot be followed by a perfect infinitive. It is absurd to say, “I hoped +to have seen you,” “I expected to have gone,” “I wished to have stayed.” +We should say:— + + I desire to go. I desired to go. + + I expect to be there. I expected to be there. + + I hope to pass. I hoped to pass. + + I want to know. I wanted to know. + + I wish to speak. I wished to speak. + +=Summary.=—The infinitive phrase may be used as the object of a +preposition. The preposition _for_ may take a double object. + +The infinitive phrase may modify an adjective. + +The infinitive phrase may be used independently. + +=Exercise.=—Explain the use of each infinitive phrase. Classify each +infinitive. + + 1. The cat was just about to spring upon the window sill where + the bird cage sat, when Paul shouted out a warning. + + 2. I am perfectly willing to dine in the kitchen beside this + cool north window. + + 3. The gay youths spent their time in walking, hunting, + fishing, feasting, and dancing. + + 4. It was so cold at Petoskey in July that the hotel proprietor + furnished a large lamp for us to heat our room by. + + 5. The cherries grew too high to be picked except by the robins. + + 6. My lot was indeed a hard one; I was too old to play out of + doors with my brothers, and too young to go to parties with my + sisters. + + 7. After supper, the boy who has done nothing all day but + turn grindstone, and spread hay, and run his little legs off + at everybody’s beck and call, is sent on some errand or some + household chore lest time may hang heavy on his hands. + + 8. Bark is only good to sharpen claws. + + 9. John was hungry enough to have eaten the New England Primer. + + 10. Franklin was employed in cutting wicks for the candles, + filling the molds for cast candles, attending the shop, going + of errands, etc. + + 11. To tell the truth, I prefer to stay at home. + + 12. The only way to make the world better is for each man to do + his best. + + 13. A dog is good to bite peddlers and small children, and to + run out and yelp at wagons that pass by, and to howl all night + when the moon shines. + + 14. To sum up, the infinitive is used chiefly as a noun, but + also as an adjective and an adverb. + + 15. The teacher’s eyes glanced half a dozen different ways at + once,—a habit probably acquired from watching the boys. + + 16. + + None knew thee but to love thee, + Nor named thee but to praise. + + 17. To see the sparks rush like swarms of red bees skyward + through the smoke is an experience long to be remembered. + + 18. To make way for hemp the magnificent forests of Kentucky + were felled. + + 19. The crow and the blackbird seem to love these plants. + + 20. It takes a hundred days to lift out of the tiny seed these + powerful hollow stalks. + + 21. The seeds fall to the ground, there to be folded in against + the time when they shall rise again. + +Classify the dependent clauses in sentence 1. What is the object of +_except_ in sentence 5? + + + + +LXXXVI. SUMMARY OF INFINITIVES + + +=344.= + + I. DEFINITION.—An infinitive is a verbal noun. + + II. FORMS. + 1. The infinitive with _to_. + (a) Intransitive verbs. + _Present_, to go, to be going. + _Perfect_, to have gone, to have been going. + (b) Transitive verbs. + _Present_, to see, to be seeing, to be seen. + _Perfect_, to have seen, to have been seeing, to have been + seen. + 2. The infinitive in _-ing_. + (a) Intransitive verbs. + _Present_, going. + _Perfect_, having gone, having been going. + (b) Transitive verbs. + _Present_, seeing, being seen. + _Perfect_, having seen, having been seeing, having been + seen. + III. USES. + 1. As a =noun=. + (a) _Subject of a verb._ + To err is human. + Hunting is a sport. + (b) _Object of a verb._ + He expects to win. + They stopped working. + (c) _Subjective complement._ + My desire is to own a boat. + His task is feeding the sheep. + (d) _Appositive._ + His idea, to use coal ashes, was carried out. + His work, running a machine, is monotonous. + (e) _Object of a preposition._ + The patient did nothing but eat and sleep. + The child was praised for telling the truth. + 2. As an =adjective=. + (a) _Modifying a noun._ + I have a garden to make. + (b) _Completing a verb._ + These boats are not to let. + 3. As an =adverb=. + (a) _Modifying a verb._ + I went back to get some matches. + (b) _Modifying an adjective._ + We are sure to succeed. + 4. As part of a =double object=. + (a) _Of a verb._ + I made her tell me. + (b) _Of a preposition._ + I made room for her to sit with me. + 5. =Independent use.= + To speak plainly, I don’t believe it. + + + + +LXXXVII. ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES CONTAINING INFINITIVE PHRASES + + +=345.= The infinitive phrase is analyzed very much like a predicate. +First, the infinitive should be given as the base word; then its +complement and modifiers should be given. + +MODEL.—_By the law of the jungle the tiger has no right to change his +quarters without fair warning._ + +This is a simple, declarative sentence. + +The subject is _the tiger_. The predicate is _has by the law of the +jungle no right to change his quarters without fair warning_. + +The predicate verb is _has_; it is completed by the direct object _no +right to change his quarters without fair warning_, and then modified by +the prepositional phrase _by the law of the jungle_. + +The base word of the object is the noun _right_; it is modified by the +infinitive phrase _to change his quarters without fair warning_, and then +denied by the adjective _no_. + +The base word of the infinitive phrase is the infinitive _to change_; +it is completed by the direct object _his quarters_ and modified by the +prepositional phrase _without fair warning_. The base word of the object +is the noun _quarters_, modified by the possessive pronoun _his_. The +base word of the object of the preposition _without_ is the infinitive +_warning_, which is modified by the adjective _fair_. + +The base word of the object of the preposition _by_ is the noun _law_, +which is modified by the prepositional phrase _of the jungle_ and the +article _the_. + +=Exercise.=—Analyze the following sentences:— + + 1. Turning grindstones to grind scythes is one of those heroic + but unobtrusive occupations for which one gets no credit. + + 2. Some books are to be tasted, others to be swallowed, and + some few to be chewed and digested. + + 3. When Kotick felt his skin tingle all over, his mother told + him he was learning the feel of the water. + + 4. Mother made and embroidered a white linen pocket for me to + wear at my belt. + + 5. The neighbors and friends did not wait for an invitation to + go to the house of the young wife, so impatient were they to + see her treasures. + + 6. The Boy had no desire to investigate further, with the risk + of finding the lynx at home. + + 7. It seems hard any day to think what to have for dinner. + + 8. The next thing was to cord up the trunk, and Mr. Peterkin + tried to move it. + + 9. I have seen wild bees and butterflies feeding at a height of + 13,000 feet above the sea. + + 10. If you wear an automobile veil to pick cherries in, I must + get an automobile to take you to the cherry trees. + + 11. No person but yourself is permitted to lift this stone or + enter the cave. + + 12. Very sweet were the child’s ways of loving her + father,—putting flowers on his study table, learning to read + so that she could read his books, reaching up to rub her cheek + against his, praying for him, and letting him put her to bed. + + 13. The Oldest Inhabitant refused to go to bed on any terms, + but persisted in sitting up in a rocking-chair until daybreak. + + 14. The Eskimo never knows when his own time may come to beg. + + 15. Fate tried to conceal him by naming him Smith. + + 16. The only department of life in which Mr. Randall failed to + shine was the making of sufficient money to live upon. + + 17. He saw an eagle swoop across the gigantic hollow, but the + great bird dwindled to a dot ere it was halfway over. + + 18. After she began wearing the bracelet, she was unwilling to + go without it even for a day. + + 19. Hewing wood and sawing plank leave me no time to take part + in disputes. + + 20. The one object of Polly’s life was to get out of her cage. + + 21. The skipper had taken his little daughter to bear him + company. + + 22. Every boy is anxious to be a man. + + 23. A man has no more right to say a rude thing to another than + to knock him down. + + 24. To travel in Switzerland it is generally necessary to cross + the mountains, to go around the sides, or to go through them. + + 25. Even the blind men’s dogs appeared to know Scrooge. + + 26. Let dogs delight to bark and bite. + + 27. When a bear kills a sheep, he skins it deftly and has the + politeness to leave the pelt in a neat bundle, just to indicate + to the farmer that he has been robbed by a gentleman. + + 28. The first tracks to meet their eyes were the delicate + footprints of the red squirrel. + + 29. It is not good to make a jest of thy teacher. + + 30. Angels seemed to have sat with Ernest by the fireside. + + 31. My joy was greater than I can express when I saw the tiger + rise and slink into the jungle. + + + + +LXXXVIII. PARTICIPLES + + +=346.= In Lesson LIV we learned that the perfect tenses of any verb are +formed by combining certain auxiliaries with the =past participles= of +the verb; as, “I have _heard_,” “I had _heard_,” “I shall have _heard_.” +We learned also that the past participle is one of the principal parts of +a verb. + +In Lesson LV we learned that the passive voice of any transitive verb is +formed by adding its past participle to the conjugation of the verb _be_; +as, “It is _caught_,” “It was _caught_,” “It will be _caught_.” + +In Lesson LVI we learned that the past participle of a verb may be used +like an adjective as the subjective complement of a verb; as, “The +potatoes seem _done_,” “The flowers are _withered_ now.” + +=347.= In Lesson LVII we learned that the =present participle= of a verb +always ends in _-ing_, and that this participle is used in forming the +progressive conjugation, as, “I am _sleeping_,” “I was _sleeping_,” “I +shall be _sleeping_.” + +We are ready now to study participles in all their relations. + +=348.= Intransitive verbs have four participles:— + + PRESENT PAST PERFECT + + coming come having come + _Progressive_ having been coming + +Transitive verbs have six participles:— + + PRESENT PAST PERFECT + + _Active_ writing having written + _Active Progressive_ having been writing[1] + _Passive_ being written written having been written + +[1] This form is rarely used. + +The active participles denote action performed; they make us think of the +doer of the action. On the other hand, the passive participles denote +action received; they make us think of the receiver of the action. + +The present participle expresses action as still in progress; the +past participle expresses action completed in past time; the perfect +participle expresses past action completed before some particular past +time. + +=349.= The participle, like the infinitive, is a verbal, because it is a +verb form without the power to assert. Just as an infinitive is oftenest +used as a noun, so the participle is oftenest used as an adjective; +that is, it is usually associated with some noun. Indeed, it is by +their adjective use that we are able to distinguish participles from +infinitives in _-ing_, for in form they are almost exactly the same. + +What nouns do the participles belong with in the following sentences? + + I hear the sound of trickling water. + + The lost child had wandered far. + + The diamonds sparkling in her dark hair rivaled the stars. + + The chair made two hundred years ago tilted one forward very + uncomfortably. + +=350.= The participles used oftenest are the simplest of all, the present +active participle and the past passive participle. + +=351.= A participle, like an infinitive, may have all the complements +and modifiers that a verb may have; as, “The man _turning the switch_ is +faithful,” “_Feeling sleepy after lunch_, I took a nap.” + +The participle and all its accompanying words form together a +=participial phrase=. + +=Summary.=—A =participle= is a verbal that is generally used as an +adjective. + +Participles may be active or passive or progressive in meaning. + +Participles have three tenses,—present, past, and perfect. The present +participle expresses continuing action, the past participle completed +action, and the perfect participle past action completed before a +particular time. + +Participles have the same complements and modifiers as verbs. + +A =participial phrase= is a group of words consisting of a participle and +its complement and modifiers. + +=Exercise 1.=—Form all the participles of the verbs _choose_, _draw_, +_drink_, _go_, _find_, _know_, _tell_, _think_, _turn_, _shine_. + +=Exercise 2.=—Select all the participial phrases in these sentences. Tell +what noun or pronoun they belong with. Classify the participles. + + 1. Two children sat on the grass under the lilacs, making + dandelion chains and talking happily. + + 2. Those three tall poles now being lifted to position will + enable us to have a telephone. + + 3. From a little hill called Hutchinson’s Hill you could look + over three and a half miles of ground covered with fighting + seals. + + 4. Having given away the old candle mold, she was anxious to + get it back again. + + 5. Mrs. Merrithew, knowing well that little folk are generally + troubled with a wonderful thirst, had also brought a cup and a + bottle of lemonade. + + 6. The floors were bird’s-eye maple, and having been lately + waxed, they looked too fine for my desecrating tread. + + 7. The workmen, having been painting for hours on the sunny + side of the house, grew faint and dizzy. + + 8. The boy took his seat, frowning and blinking at the candle + light, while his mother, placing his coffee before him, let her + hand rest on his shoulder. + + 9. Having passed at the turnstile into the campus, David stood + before the college. + + 10. In one hand he carried a faded valise made of Brussels + carpet sprinkled with pink roses. + + 11. The old peasant woman, having eaten three meals with the + servants and three with the mistress, declared at evening that + she was satisfied. + + 12. If all the money being spent for ice-cream sodas were put + to some useful purpose—cement sidewalks, for instance,—few of + us would be stubbing our toes on old board walks. + + 13. A snowball soaked in water and left out to cool was a + projectile which had been resorted to with disastrous results. + + 14. No flying or crawling creature escapes the sharp little + eyes of the birds. + + 15. Its roots having been cut, the top of the tree suffered. + + 16. The tourists, having watched the bears nose about among the + tin cans in the garbage piles, went back to the hotel to avoid + being devoured by mosquitoes. + + 17. Very soon their path led them out into a wide glade, fenced + all about with the serried and formal ranks of the young firs. + + 18. That log just being sawed will produce eight hundred feet + of lumber. + + 19. The whale is the largest animal now living in the world. + + 20. Having been told by his master that he too could go to the + village, Shep bounded away down the road like mad. + + 21. Sleep, having descended upon him, spread a quiet mist + through his brain. + + 22. Having been tramped down by the cattle, the snow was smooth + like a floor. + +Tell the use of all the infinitive phrases in sentences 2, 4, 10, 13. + + + + +LXXXIX. PARTICIPLES MODIFYING NOUNS + + +=352.= The participle may be associated with a noun in several ways. + +(1) The participle may modify a noun precisely like an adjective, as when +we say _boiling_ water, _pleading_ eyes, _revolving_ turret, _educated_ +men, _hammered_ brass, _plowed_ land, _dried_ apples. + +The participle in this use can be distinguished from a real adjective in +two ways:—(_a_) it comes from a verb, (_b_) it cannot be compared. + +Apply these two tests to the seven participles just given. + +Some participles have become real adjectives, as _loving, learned_, +_striking_ (in _striking appearance_), _annoying_, _exciting_. Any one of +these adjectives may be compared. + +(2) The participle or participial phrase may take the place of an +adjective clause. Sometimes it is used instead of a restrictive clause, +thus pointing out a particular thing or class of things; as, “The men +_shoveling coal on the docks_ were prostrated by the heat.” Sometimes +the participial phrase takes the place of an unrestrictive clause, thus +adding a new thought to the sentence; as, “Here comes a turbaned negress, +_balancing a basket of lemons on her head_.” + +In both the sentences just given the participial phrase comes after the +noun it modifies, thus taking in the sentence the same position as the +appositive adjective. + +The restrictive participial phrase is not set off by a comma. The +unrestrictive participial phrase is set off by a comma. + +(3) The participial phrase may take the place of a clause of time or +cause, and yet modify a noun, as in the following sentences:— + + Those pens, _having been given to me by my dear master_, were + never put to any common uses. + + _Having said these words_, Beowulf plunged into the water and + disappeared among the dark waves. + +In the first sentence, change the phrase to a clause of cause. What noun +does the phrase modify? + +In the second sentence, what does the participial phrase modify? What can +you say of its position? Change it to a clause of time. + +Note that although the participial phrase may take the place of a clause +of time or cause, it is still an adjective element; for, as shown in the +sentences just studied, such a participial phrase may modify a noun. + +=Summary.=—The participle may be used alone to modify a noun precisely +like an adjective. + +The participial phrase may modify a noun, taking the place of a clause. + +The participial phrase sometimes comes before, and sometimes after, the +noun it modifies. + +A participial phrase is set off by a comma when it is unrestrictive, +whether it follows or precedes the word it modifies. + +=Exercise.=—Explain the use of all the participial phrases. Classify the +participles. Account for the punctuation. + + 1. + + The breaking waves dashed high + On a stern and rock-bound coast. + + 2. Being direct descendants of Adam and Eve, we had much of + their inquiring turn of mind. + + 3. Worms are elongated, soft-bodied animals, differing greatly + in form and habits. + + 4. The books bound in red morocco belonged to my mother, and + the “Iliad” illustrated by Flaxman was one of my father’s + treasures. + + 5. The Temple School was a two-story brick building, standing + in the center of a great square piece of land, surrounded by a + high picket fence. + + 6. + + Then [comes] the whining schoolboy with his satchel + And shining morning face, creeping like snail + Unwillingly to school. + + 7. That tree toad squatting on the trellis and peering down at + us reminds me of the gargoyles on the Cathedral of Notre Dame. + + 8. The boys looked like a legion of imps, coming and going in + the twilight, busy in raising some infernal edifice. + + 9. At last, finding himself hungry and weary, and seeing that + there were herds of wild asses in the plain which he was + traversing, Rustum thought that he would catch one of them for + his meal, and rest for the night. + + 10. It is only he who is weary of life that throws himself in + the way of a roaring lion. + + 11. Like most things connected in their first associations with + schoolbooks and schooltimes, the Leaning Tower of Pisa seemed + much too small. + + 12. In the morning it was raining, with little prospect of fair + weather, but having expected nothing better, we set out on foot + for the Causeway. + + 13. In this tavern the visitor may derive good entertainment + from real Genoese dishes,—sausages, strong of garlic, sliced + and eaten with fresh green figs; cocks’ combs and sheep + kidneys, chopped up with mutton chops and liver; small pieces + of some unknown part of a calf, twisted into small shreds, + fried, and served up in a great dish; and other curiosities of + that kind. + + 14. Having supposed the Giant’s Causeway to be of great height, + I was somewhat disappointed at first for I found the Loom, + which is the highest part of it, to be but fifty feet from the + water. + + + + +XC. PARTICIPIAL PHRASES IN THE PREDICATE + + +=353.= Although the participial phrase is in the sentence for the purpose +of telling something about some person or thing, still it does not always +go with the noun that names that person or thing. In the sentence, “The +children stood watching them out of the town,” the participial phrase +_watching them out of the town_ tells something about the _children_, but +it is not a direct modifier of the noun _children_, for it belongs in +the predicate of the sentence. It does not modify the verb _stood_, for +it does not tell how the standing was done. It really takes the place of +a second predicate, _watched them out of the town_, but participles are +not asserting words, hence we cannot call this phrase a predicate. The +best way to tell about it is this: The verb _stood_ is accompanied by +the participial phrase _watching them out of the town_, which denotes an +action taking place at the same time as the standing. + +Tell about the participial phrases in these sentences:— + + Fred entered the house _calling as usual for his mother_. + + The Indians advanced, _shouting their war cries_. + + She gazed forward, _shading her eyes with both hands_. + + NOTE.—Sometimes the participle is used adverbially to modify a + verb; as in the sentence, “The children went scampering off to + the woods.” This sentence does not mean that the children went + _and_ scampered. They only scampered, and the scampering was + what made them go. Since the participial phrase tells just how + the children did the going, it must be a modifier of the verb + _went_. + + What is the difference between the sentence just given and + the following?—“The children went singing to the woods.” It + is plain that not every verb can be modified by a participle. + Usually only a verb meaning _come_ or _go_ may be so modified. + +=354.= In Lesson LV it was shown that the past participle is often used +as a subjective complement; as, “This dress is _soiled_,” “My money is +_spent_.” + +=355.= In a few idiomatic expressions the participle is used adverbially +to modify an adjective; as, _freezing_ cold, _steaming_ hot, _hopping_ +mad, _dripping_ wet. Here the participle tells how cold, how hot, etc., +and thus denotes degree. + +=356.= Sometimes the noun that a participle modifies is omitted, and the +participle is said to be used as a noun; as, “The loving are the daring,” +which means that loving persons are daring persons. We also speak of the +_killed_ and _wounded_. + +=Summary.=—The participle or the participial phrase may be a part of the +predicate in three ways. + +(1) It may be an accompaniment of the verb. + +(2) It may be a subjective complement of the verb. + +(3) It may be a modifier of a few verbs, denoting the way in which an +action was performed. + +The participle may be used adverbially to modify an adjective and thus +denote the degree of some quality. + +The participle may be used as a noun. + +=Exercise.=—Explain the use of all participles and participial phrases. +Classify the participles. + + 1. The little mare gave me all the sympathy I could ask, + repeatedly rubbing her soft nose over my face, and lapping up + my salt tears with evident relish. + + 2. + + Three fishers went sailing out into the west, + Out into the west as the sun went down. + + 3. The warriors of the king were little pleased to hear such + talk from his lips. + + 4. After her conference with the superintendent, this + undignified young schoolmistress went dancing and skipping home + to tell her mother of her promotion. + + 5. The sun shining on the rippling water made it so dazzling + bright that we were almost blinded. + + 6. + + Little white Lily sat by a stone, + Drooping and waiting till the sun shone. + + 7. On my first day in Tangiers the spectacle was bewildering, + and only by concentrating my attention on detached groups could + I form any distinct impression of it. + + 8. Then Rustum made his way to the bazaar, taking his camel + drivers with him. + + 9. After licking his lips and polishing his whiskers, the lynx + went loping off through the woods with the limp body of the + mink in his jaws, to eat it at leisure in his lair. + + 10. In October the woods were a blaze of color,—clear gold, + flaming scarlet, crimson, amber, and coppery brown. + + 11. + + I watch him as he skims along, + Uttering his sweet and mournful cry. + + 12. Society may be divided into two classes—the bores and the + bored. + + 13. + + O Captain! my Captain! our fearful trip is done, + The ship has weathered every rock, the prize we sought is won. + + 14. Three kings came riding from far away. + + 15. One day as the king sat drinking in one of the chambers of + his palace, and boasting after his custom, a genius, disguised + as a minstrel, desired to be admitted to the royal presence. + + 16. The underfed dogs snapped and growled in the passages, + glaring at the cold stars, and snuffing into the bitter wind, + night after night. + + 17. Drops of nightly dews trickle down to the seeds, moistening + the dryness, closing up the little hollows of the ground, + drawing the particles of maternal earth more closely. + + 18. The barley and the rye are garnered and gone, the landscape + is bare and deserted. + + 19. The air was stinging cold and felt like ice upon the boy’s + bare, hot throat. + + 20. Her heart overflowed with sympathy for all the weary, the + beaten, the oppressed. + +Explain the use of the infinitive phrases in sentences 3, 4, 7, 9, 15. + + + + +XCI. ABSOLUTE PARTICIPIAL PHRASES + + +=357.= In the sentence, “When the snow had left the lawns bare, the +crocuses appeared,” we have an adverbial clause. What is it? What does it +denote? Such a clause is frequently condensed into a group of words like +this, _the snow having left the lawns bare_. In this group there are two +parts,—the noun element _the snow_, which was subject of the clause, and +the participial phrase _having left the lawns bare_, which is made out of +the predicate of the clause. It is clear then that the two parts of this +group of words have the logical, though not the grammatical, relation of +subject and predicate. + +Such a group of words is called an =absolute phrase=. + +=358.= The absolute phrase is generally spoken of by grammarians as an +independent element; that is, it is not a modifier of any part of the +sentence. + +=359.= Occasionally, as in the example given, the absolute phrase is an +abridgment of an adverbial clause of time. Oftener it is used instead of +a clause of cause, as in the sentence, “_The drought having lasted so +long_, the foliage began to turn yellow.” + +=360.= Sometimes an absolute phrase is used instead of an independent +clause, thus changing a compound sentence to a simple sentence; as, “The +crew escaped from the ship in three boats, _only two reaching Siberia_.” +What clause would you make out of the absolute phrase here? By what +conjunction would you join it to the first independent proposition? + +=361.= The noun or the pronoun that is the base word of the noun element +in an absolute phrase is said to be in the =nominative case=, used +=absolutely=. + +=Summary.=—An =absolute phrase= is a group of words used independently +and consisting of a noun or a pronoun and a participle, having to each +other the logical relation of subject and predicate. + +An absolute phrase is an abridgment of an adverbial clause or an +independent clause. + +=Exercise.=—Select all the absolute phrases. Separate them into their two +parts. Expand them into adverbial clauses or independent clauses. + + 1. His feet were clad in half slippers of red leather, the toes + being pointed and turned upward. + + 2. She had paused in reverie, her hands clasped behind her head. + + 3. Jack telling his condition, the giant bade him welcome. + + 4. Grandma and Norman were sitting on the floor in front of the + ice box, the child having manifested a peculiar desire for cold + boiled potato. + + 5. From a balcony above leaned the lovely Ermengarde, her + golden tresses crowned with a nightcap of rare and curious + design. + + 6. The Frey home was made up of cheery workers, even little + Dorothea having her daily self-assumed tasks. + + 7. The laws of that country being very severe against slaves, + Androcles was sentenced to be torn in pieces by a furious lion. + + 8. Through wild and desolate scenes, by forests, rocks, and + waterfalls, we pass, the little locomotive always puffing and + pushing vigorously behind us. + + 9. Mowgli had been looking from one to the other of his + friends, his chest heaving and his eyes full of tears. + + 10. These eggs being sold, Jack and his mother got plenty of + money. + + 11. Everywhere, scattered about the country, we have seen + windmills, their great arms moving slowly around. + + 12. Under Rebecca’s delicately etched brows her eyes glowed + like two stars; their dancing lights half hidden in lustrous + darkness. + + 13. The eagerness of Barnum to obtain a white elephant is + easily understood, that animal being considered by showmen the + greatest attraction in the country. + + + + +XCII. AGREEMENT OF PARTICIPLES. OTHER WORDS IN -ING + + +=362.= A sentence containing a participial phrase should be so +constructed that there is no doubt as to what noun or pronoun the phrase +modifies. + +In the sentence, “I had a fine view of your new hospital coming in on +the train this morning,” the participial phrase seems by its position to +modify the noun _hospital_; but it really modifies the pronoun _I_, and +hence should be placed at the beginning of the sentence. If the phrase is +expanded into an adverbial clause of time, it may remain where it is. + +=363.= In the sentence, “_Opening the door_, my lamp went out,” the +participial phrase has nothing to modify. + +This is called a =dangling= or a =floating participle=. The best way to +deal with such a sentence is to expand the participial phrase into an +adverbial clause,—“When I opened the door.” + +=Exercise.=—Point out the error in each of these sentences. Reconstruct +each sentence. + + 1. We never once thought of the baby, rushing out of doors to + see the fire. + + 2. I heard the whistles plainly, sailing across the bay. + + 3. I met your sister coming home from my music lesson. + + 4. Mother saw the flames first sitting on the veranda. + + 5. Entering the hall, her foot slipped on the waxed floor and + she fell. + + 6. Putting two and two together, it is quite plain that he + wants an appointment. + + 7. Knitting mittens and piecing quilts, I think Grandmother is + very happy. + + 8. Having been recently painted, Mr. Graham did not recognize + his own house. + + 9. Grasping the rope and plunging into the surf, the huge + receding wave carried him out almost to the wreck. + +=364.= We have seen that certain participles are in form precisely like +infinitives in _-ing_, and can be distinguished from them only by their +use. The participle is used like an adjective, and the infinitive in +_-ing_ is used like a noun. + +Take, for instance, the word _running_ in the following sentences:— + + Water _running_ down hill acquires great force. + + _Running_ races is a small boy’s pastime. + + _Running_ water is clear. + + I shall never forget the _running_ of that race. + +In the first sentence it is clear that _running_ is a participle, because +the participial phrase _running down hill_ modifies the noun _water_ and +is, therefore, used like an adjective. + +In the second sentence it is equally clear that _running_ is an +infinitive, for the infinitive phrase _running races_ is subject of the +sentence and is therefore used like a noun. + +In the third sentence _running_ is a participle, because it is derived +from a verb and cannot be compared. (See § 352.) In other respects it +resembles a pure descriptive adjective. In the phrase “an interesting +book” _interesting_ is a pure adjective; it can be compared. + +In the fourth sentence _running_ is an infinitive in _-ing_. It is +modified by an article and is used, like a noun, as the object of the +verb. + +In the sentences, “It is a wise _saying_,” “Take my _blessing_,” _saying_ +and _blessing_ are pure nouns without verbal force, as is shown by the +fact that they have plural forms. + +=Exercise 1.=—Classify the _-ing_ words in the following sentences as +infinitives, participles, adjectives, or nouns:— + + 1. The half back was cheered by the admiring crowd. + + 2. The time of the singing of birds is come. + + 3. I distinctly said that I wanted a singing bird. + + 4. Singing hymns was her favorite diversion. + + 5. Painting high buildings is a dangerous occupation. + + 6. The old lady painting in the Louvre was an excellent copyist. + + 7. Mr. Morgan paid a large sum for this small painting. + + 8. The child was pleased with the painting book. + + 9. A setting hen looks very placid. + + 10. They should have been arrested for setting fire to the old + house. + + 11. I will ask the photographer when he can give you a sitting. + + 12. The child sitting on the curbing said sweetly, “Hello, old + lady.” + + 13. The smiling days are not always the friendliest. + + 14. “I am better,” said Agnes, smiling brightly. + + 15. A short saying oft contains much wisdom. + + 16. Ever charming, ever new, when will the landscape tire the + view? + + 17. Health is a blessing that money cannot buy. + + 18. Another duty the robin took upon himself,—to assist me in + seeing that every bird in the room had his daily outing. + + 19. Turning a canary out into the world is about like turning a + two-year old baby out to get its own living. + + 20. We require from buildings as from men two kinds of + goodness: first, the doing their practical duty well; then that + they be graceful and pleasing in doing it. + +=Exercise 2.=—Explain the use of each verbal in the following sentences. +Analyze sentences 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 10, 13, 16, 17, 18, 20, 21. + + 1. The garret is a fine place to sit of an afternoon and hear + the rain pattering on the roof. + + 2. To be called to the principal’s office filled the stoutest + heart with alarm. + + 3. + + The curfew tolls the knell of parting day, + The lowing herd wind slowly o’er the lea. + + 4. The old German carpenter packed Mrs. Howe’s heavy furniture + in an empty store beneath her apartment, and when she refused + to pay him an exorbitant sum, he locked the door on her and her + boxes and went off to find a policeman. + + 5. I had views of many interesting scenes in this family of + crows, supposed by the wary parents to be visible only to the + cows stolidly feeding on the hillside. + + 6. The chickens seemed to be well cared for by the women; but + the men appeared to be the laziest of mortals. + + 7. Let us stand on the long iron bridge that spans the St. + Lawrence just above Montreal, the very place to study the river + as it narrows and runs swifter for its smashing plunge through + yonder rapids to the east,—the dreaded Lachine Rapids, whose + snarling teeth flash white in the sun. + + 8. To keep Jim from following the regiment or from staying and + getting lost in search of it, the wagoner had tied him to the + rear axle of his wagon with a strong twine. + + 9. The engine mounted the curve faster and faster, roaring + through a tunnel, growling over a bridge, and snarling at a + paling alongside, but no glimpse of the runaway locomotive + could the pursuers get. + + 10. Daddy felt, like the midshipman, sadly perplexed when + the dog was finally missing, but he could suggest no mode of + revenge which was not too dangerous for them to put in practice. + + 11. The thought of my shortcomings in this life falls like a + shadow on my life to come. + + 12. Launching majestically from the edge of the nest, the great + eagle had swooped down into the cold shadow, and then, rising + into the light by a splendid spiral, he had taken a survey of + the empty, glimmering world. + + 13. Our terrier was never known to spend a night away from home. + + 14. It is inexplicable to me that any bird should be either so + unobservant as not to recognize a foreign egg at sight, or so + easy-tempered as not to insist on straightway being rid of it. + + 15. It is easier to do what you please than to do what you + ought. + + 16. The blue-white moon of midwinter, sharply glittering like + an icicle, hung high in a heaven clear as tempered steel. + + 17. Sometimes the fox resorts to numerous devices to mislead + and escape the dog altogether,—walking in the bed of a small + creek, running along a rail fence, or leaping into a hollow + stump. + + 18. The elephants simply moved their legs mechanically up + and down, and swung their trunks to and fro; but they were + determined not to pull or exert the slightest power, neither + did they move forward a single inch. + + 19. The only way to mitigate the hard lot of a canary is to + make him so happy that he will not wish to be free. + + 20. The best part of a journey is getting home again. + + 21. Jefferson sent Lewis and Clark to penetrate the vast + regions west of the Mississippi. + + 22. While the old turkey perched upon a tree top to keep an eye + on the enemy, the brood went sailing over the trees toward home. + + 23. The officers ordered the crape to be instantly cut off from + the dogs’ legs. + + + + +XCIII. SUMMARY OF PARTICIPLES + + +=365.= + + I. DEFINITION.—A participle is a verbal adjective. + + II. FORMS.— + 1. Of =intransitive verbs=. + _Present_, going. + _Past_, gone. + _Perfect_, having gone, having been going. + 2. Of =transitive verbs=. + _Present_, seeing, being seen. + _Past_, seen. + _Perfect_, having seen, having been seeing, having been + seen. + + III. USES. + 1. To form the =perfect tenses=, the =passive voice=, and the + =progressive conjugation=. + I have trusted you. + You were trusted by me. + I am trusting you. + 2. As an =adjective modifier= of a noun or a pronoun. + (a) _Restrictive._ + Barking dogs seldom bite. + The picture painted by Leonardo da Vinci was stolen. + (b) _Unrestrictive._ + (1) Used in place of an adjective clause. + The silver moon, shining in the rosy eastern sky, + must have looked upon the setting sun. + (2) Used in place of a clause of time or cause. + Having built a magnificent church, we had to have + a magnificent organ. + 3. As =subjective complement of a verb=. + Christ is risen. + Everybody is gone. + 4. As an =accompaniment of a verb=. + Then the blind girl came nearer, reaching out her hands + toward my face. + 5. As part of an =absolute phrase=. + The roast turkey having received due attention, the boys + were ready for mince pie. + IV. MODIFIERS AND COMPLEMENTS. + Participles have the same modifiers and complements as verbs. + Having earned the money, I spent it. + Growing tired, we walked slower. + Calling me a coward, he went on. + Turning sharply to the right, he struck the tree. + V. AGREEMENT. + 1. The construction of a sentence should leave no doubt as to + what word a participial phrase modifies. + 2. Dangling participles should be avoided. + +Make two good sentences to illustrate each use of the participle. + + + + +XCIV. ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES + + +=366.= A participial phrase is analyzed very much like an infinitive +phrase. First the participle should be given as the base, then its +complement and modifiers. + +MODEL.—_Behind each islet of tall reeds is a fishing boat held fast by +two poles stuck in the bottom of the river._ + +This is a simple, declarative sentence. The subject is _a fishing boat +held fast by two poles stuck in the bottom of the river_. The predicate +is _is behind each islet of tall reeds_. + +The base word of the subject is _boat_. It is modified by the infinitive +_fishing_, the article _a_, and the participial phrase _held fast by two +poles stuck in the bottom of the river_. + +The base word of this phrase is the participle _held_. It is modified +by the adverb _fast_ and by the prepositional phrase _by two poles +stuck in the bottom of the river_. The base word of the object of the +preposition _by_ is the noun _poles_. It is modified by the adjective +_two_ and the participial phrase _stuck in the bottom of the river_. The +base word of this phrase is the participle _stuck_. It is modified by the +prepositional phrase _in the bottom of the river_, etc. + +=367.= A sentence containing an absolute phrase should be analyzed as +follows:— + +MODEL.—_Amy having gone to Vermont, the lady was lonely._ + +This is a simple, declarative sentence containing the absolute phrase +_Amy having gone to Vermont_, which is used instead of the adverbial +clause of cause, _since Amy had gone to Vermont_. + +The subject is _the lady_. The predicate is _was lonely_, etc. + +The absolute phrase consists of the noun _Amy_ and the participial phrase +_having gone to Vermont_, which have the logical relation of subject and +predicate. The base of the participial phrase is the participle _having +gone_, etc. + +=Exercise.=—Analyze the following sentences:— + + 1. In one store I would find a catbird moping on a high shelf + or in a dark back room; in another a bluebird scared half to + death, and dumb in the midst of squawking parrots and singing + canaries. + + 2. In that first battle, Jim ran barking after the very first + shell that came screaming over our heads. + + 3. The island is supplied with the best water imaginable, small + streams leaping down from the sides of the hills and running + through every valley. + + 4. The biting cold wind that shrunk our faces and pinched our + noses blue only brought a wild-rose bloom to mother’s delicate + cheeks. + + 5. The doings of the people thus suddenly become his neighbors, + Bobby studied with all a bird’s curiosity. + + 6. Coming out into the road on my way home again, I fell in + with an old friend. + + 7. The soldiers were miserably clad, and asked whether we had + shoes to sell. + + 8. It is difficult to describe the left-half’s agony as he + picked himself up and went limping back to his place. + + 9. At daylight, directly ahead of us was the island of Juan + Fernandez, rising like a deep blue cloud out of the sea. + + 10. Long ears twinkling, round eyes softly shining, the rabbits + leaped lightly hither and thither, pausing every now and then + to touch each other with their sensitive noses, or to pound on + the snow with their strong hind legs in mock challenge. + + 11. In long, graceful leaps, barely touching the fence, the fox + went careering up the hill as fleet as the wind. + + 12. Joel’s long legs began to ache, and seemed stiffening at + the thighs and knees. + + 13. After their supper of milk and oatmeal porridge, the + children sat down, waiting and watching, and fancying they + heard sounds in the hills. + + 14. Hearing loud cries of distress coming from the lawn, the + gardener rushed across and found the crow lying on his back, + his claw tightly gripping the end of one of the wings of a + large hawk. + + 15. We soon found the vireo’s nest, suspended within the angle + of two horizontal twigs, and trimmed outwardly with some kind + of white silky substance. + + 16. He lay like a warrior taking his rest. + + 17. For four miles the pilot must race along a squirming, + twisting, plunging thread of water, that leaps ahead like a + greyhound, and changes its crookedness somewhat from day to day + with wind and tide. + + 18. For centuries the trees had developed strength to resist + the winds when they were clad in all their leaves, or to carry + the load of those leaves weighted with raindrops, or to bear + the winter snows; but they had no strength that would enable + them to be coated thick with ice and then wrenched by angry + blasts. + + 19. The servants having gone to their cabins, the great house + was filled with the quiet of a Sunday afternoon. + + + + +XCV. ANTICIPATIVE SUBJECT + + +=368.= We have learned that the pronoun _it_ may be used as an +anticipative subject to throw the real subject after the predicate. This +real subject may be a noun clause or an infinitive phrase. + + It will never be known whether the lady came out of that door + or the tiger. + + It is a mistake to suppose that the fox cannot be tamed. + +=369.= We must not conclude that the word _it_ at the beginning of +a sentence is always an anticipative subject. Sometimes it is the +real subject, that is, it is a neuter personal pronoun having for its +antecedent some term perfectly understood by both speaker and listener; +as, “Have you read ‘The Call of the Wild’? _It_ is the story of a dog +that reverted.” + +=370.= Sometimes _it_ is used for subject with no special word for +antecedent; as when we say, “It was blowing great guns.” (See § 252.) + +=371.= In the familiar expression, “It is time to get up,” the antecedent +of _it_ is the word _now_ or the term _the present moment_. + +=372.= _It_ is not the only word used as anticipative subject. Another +word is _there_; as in the sentence, “There is snow on the top of Pike’s +Peak.” If we ask the question, _What is on the top of Pike’s Peak?_ the +sensible answer is not _there_, but _snow_, hence _snow_ is the subject. +The word _there_ does not denote place, hence it is not an adverb. It is +used merely to fill a gap in a declarative sentence in which the subject +has been placed after the verb, for if the gap were not filled and the +sentence began with a verb, it would seem to be interrogative. When so +used the word _there_ is called an =expletive=, which means a word used +to fill up a gap. + +=373.= Of course _there_ at the beginning of a sentence is not always an +expletive. Sometimes it is an adverb denoting place; as, “There will I +build me a nest.” + + NOTE.—When _there_ is an adverb we pronounce it distinctly, but + when it is an expletive used as anticipative subject, we slur + it. + +=Summary.=—The word _it_ is often used as an anticipative subject so that +the real subject may come after the verb. The word _there_ may be an +anticipative subject. It is then called an expletive. + +=Exercise.=—Analyze the following sentences. If there is an anticipative +subject, state that fact before giving the real subject; thus,—In +the sentence, “Once upon a time there were four little rabbits,” the +anticipative subject is the expletive _there_; the real subject is _four +little rabbits_. The predicate is _were once upon a time_. + + 1. There would be several insuperable difficulties in adopting + the moon as a residence. + + 2. Every object on the moon would be only one sixth as heavy as + the same object on the earth. There a box containing a pound of + chocolate bonbons would weigh only two or three ounces. + + 3. It is a little curious that the effect of a short allowance + of food does not show itself in hunger. + + 4. There never was such a hailstorm in Wisconsin. + + 5. It is just the right time of the moon for planting sweet + peas. + + 6. There were dances, theatricals, and sleighrides that winter. + + 7. It would amuse me very much to sing while I am hunting. + + 8. A cannon that breaks loose from its fastenings on a ship is + suddenly transformed into a supernatural beast. It is a monster + developed from a machine; it has the weight of an elephant, the + agility of a mouse, the obstinacy of the ox; it takes one by + surprise, like the surge of the sea; it flashes like lightning; + it is deaf as the tomb; it weighs ten thousand pounds, and it + bounds like a child’s ball. + + 9. That day there came our first great snowstorm. + + 10. There lay the beautiful piece of embroidery that mother had + put away so carefully and forgotten so completely. + + 11. There’s a special providence that watches over idiots, + drunken men, and boys. + + 12. There came to the beach a poor exile of Erin. + + 13. + + It made the children laugh and play, + To see a lamb at school. + + 14. In the reign of King Arthur, and in the county of Cornwall, + near to the Land’s End in England, there lived a worthy farmer, + who had an only son, named Jack. + + 15. There the two old dogs sat and talked of the wonderful + tenacity of rheumatism that has once settled in a dog’s + shoulder. + + 16. There was one passenger in the coach,—a small, dark-haired + person in a glossy buff calico dress. + + 17. Professor Boyesen describes what he calls the _saeter_, the + spring migration of the dairy and dairymaids. It is the great + event of the year in all the rural districts. + + 18. There were three Catherines, two Annes, and a Jane. + + 19. It is said in Ceylon that the cocoanut, like the magpie and + the robin, will flourish only within sound of the human voice. + + 20. There is always a sad element in the departure of a steamer. + + + + +XCVI. ELLIPTICAL SENTENCES + + +=374.= We have noted several constructions in which there is an ellipsis, +or omission of some word or words necessary to the grammatical structure +of the sentence. + +(1) The subject of an imperative sentence, the pronoun _you_, _thou_, or +_ye_ is usually omitted; as, “(_You_) Honor the flag.” + +(2) A noun is often omitted after a possessive modifier; as, “Let us go +over to Baker’s (_house_) this evening.” + +(3) An auxiliary verb is often omitted; as, “Somebody has entered the +hall and (_has_) taken my umbrella.” + +(4) The predicate is often omitted in a clause of comparison; as, “I am +not so tired as you (_are_ or _are tired_).” “He has no better right than +I (_have_ or _have right_).” + +(5) The relative pronoun _that_ is often omitted in an adjective clause; +as, “The ring (_that_) you gave me is too small.” + +(6) The subordinate conjunction _that_ is often omitted in a noun clause; +as, “You said (_that_) I might take your skates.” + +=375.= The elliptical sentence is very common, especially in +conversation, where we do not have to depend entirely upon words to +convey our meaning, as we have the help of emphasis, tone of voice, and +gesture. It follows that in oral language we leave out many words that +can easily be supplied by our listeners. + +(1) In answering questions, we seldom make complete statements, as,— + + What is your name? (_My name is_) Donald. + + Whose boy are you? (_I am_) Mr. Hill’s (_boy_). + + Where do you live? (_I live_) On Jackson Street. + +(2) We often omit a word that has already been expressed in the sentence; +as, “Our first maid was an Irish girl; our second (_maid was_) a +Norwegian (_girl_).” + +(3) In sentences beginning with _no wonder_ or _no matter_ we omit the +main verb and the anticipative subject _it_. + + “No wonder he died,” means “It is no wonder that he died.” + + “No matter what I said,” means “It is no matter what I said.” + +(4) Two very common questions are _What of it?_ and _What if I do?_ We +may expand the first question thus, “What (_will come_) of it?” and the +second thus, “What (_difference will it make_) if I do?” + +(5) In adverbial clauses we find many cases of ellipsis, but the words +omitted can readily be supplied; as,— + + I lived on the south side when (_I was_) a child. + + I cut my finger while (_I was_) paring an apple. + + She sings as if (_she were singing_) by note. + + I will be there if (_it is_) possible. + + Though (_we were_) tired and hungry we plodded on. + + I will go (_though it_) rain or (_though it_) shine. + +=Exercise.=—Analyze the following sentences, supplying the words omitted +wherever there is an ellipsis. + + 1. Wisdom is better than rubies. + + 2. A song to the oak, the brave old oak! + + 3. The sun shall not smite thee by day nor the moon by night. + + 4. She will close the house and go to her son’s. + + 5. Cæsar had his Brutus; Charles the First his Cromwell. + + 6. It is more blessed to give than to receive. + + 7. And then to breakfast with what appetite you have. + + 8. To-day he puts forth the tender leaves of hope; to-morrow + blossoms. + + 9. Love’s wing moults when caged and captured. + + 10. He that is slow to anger is better than the mighty, and he + that ruleth his spirit than he that taketh a city. + + 11. Few and short were the prayers we said. + + 12. All the world’s a stage and all the men and women merely + players. + + 13. + + Stone walls do not a prison make, + Nor iron bars a cage. + + 14. Though mild, Calvin was also intolerant. + + 15. + + Happy the man whose wish and care + A few paternal acres bound. + + 16. Drink to me only with thine eyes. + + 17. + + True hope is swift and flies with swallow’s wings, + Kings it makes gods and meaner creatures, kings. + + 18. My true love hath my heart, and I have his. + + 19. + + Lives of great men all remind us + We can make our lives sublime. + + 20. What if the river is too deep for the cattle to ford? + + 21. + + If all the year were playing holidays + To sport would be as tedious as to work. + + 22. My kingdom for a horse! + + 23. + + No matter what the daisies say, + I know I’ll be married some fine day. + + 24. Blessings on thee, little man! + + 25. + + Six white eggs on a bed of hay, + Flecked with purple, a pretty sight. + + 26. + + “Lady Moon, Lady Moon, where are you roving?” + “Over the sea.” + + 27. The wind has a language, I would I could learn. + + + + +XCVII. REVIEW OF ANALYSIS + + +=Exercise.=—Analyze the following sentences. These sentences contain +examples of the various constructions that have been presented in this +book. If there is any doubt as to what part of speech a certain word +is, the dictionary will usually enable you to decide. Where an ellipsis +occurs, the word or words omitted should be supplied. + + 1. How the black cat had captured the alert and restless + squirrel so quickly was a great mystery to me. + + 2. If a woman puts on airs with her equals, she probably has + something about herself or her family that she is ashamed of. + + 3. In writing these memoirs I shall yield to the inclination + so natural to old men, of talking of themselves and their own + actions. + + 4. + + When ye come where I have stepped, + Ye will wonder why ye wept. + + 5. I sought out one of these few, Fred Ouillette, pilot and + son of a pilot, an idol in the company’s eyes, a hero to the + boys of Montreal, a figure to be stared at always by anxious + passengers. + + 6. Must we conclude that the dignity of a bird depends upon the + length of his tail? + + 7. During these gales, the top of the tableland is enveloped + in thick clouds, which the people of the Cape call the Devil’s + Table Cloth. + + 8. The sand-hills were gashed with numberless ravines; and as + the sky had suddenly darkened, and a cold gusty wind arisen, + the strange shrubs and the dreary hills looked doubly wild and + desolate. + + 9. + + Floweret and hope may die, + But love with us shall stay. + + 10. There are three beautiful dandelions out on the terrace. + + 11. + + I hope to see my Pilot face to face + When I have crossed the bar. + + 12. Gray Brother did not come upon the night when I sent him + the word. + + 13. The beasts cannot use me more cruelly than I have been used + by my fellow creatures. + + 14. If I stroked the cat in my pet monkey’s presence, he would + get into a paroxysm of rage and make great efforts to bite me. + + 15. + + The spangled heavens, a shining frame, + Their great Original proclaim. + + 16. He was a strange figure, this tattered, long-haired man, + with the spear and wallet, and his boots cut down into sandals. + + 17. Gordon waited long for an opportunity to sing in the choir + at old St. George’s. + + 18. When shall you leave Yarmouth? On the fifteenth, if + possible. + + 19. The captain, whose ideas of hard riding were all derived + from trans-Atlantic sources, expressed the utmost amazement at + the feats of Sorel, who went leaping ravines, and dashing at + full speed up and down the sides of precipitous hills, lashing + his horse with the recklessness of a Rocky Mountain rider. + + 20. The Great American Desert is a land where no man + permanently abides; for in certain seasons of the year there is + no food either for the hunter or his steed. + + 21. + + One constant element in luck + Is genuine, solid, old Teutonic pluck. + + 22. Did you ever think why a dog’s nose is always wet? + + 23. One of the most difficult things is to get any wild animal + to allow himself to be touched with the human hand. + + 24. Old Trinity’s steeple probably sways eighteen inches + whenever an elevated train passes. + + 25. Do steeple climbers always work in pairs? + + 26. The chipmunk had made a well-defined path from his door out + through the weeds and dry leaves into the territory where his + feeding ground lay. + + 27. No wonder Eve ate the forbidden fruit. + + 28. In Bermuda the banana is as omnipresent as the onion. + + 29. We called the mice Jack, Jill, and Jenny, and they seemed + to know their names. + + 30. Shooting the Lachine Rapids is like taming a particularly + fierce lion. + + 31. Turk slept at night outside his master’s door, and no + sentry could be more alert upon his watch than this faithful + mastiff, who had apparently only one ambition,—to protect and + to accompany his owner. + + 32. We fancied we could hear the huge bodies of the whales + burrowing through the water. + + 33. At length, finding my life very solitary, I accepted the + claw and heart of a rich and respectable green parrot, who + offered me a good home and the devotion of a lifetime. + + 34. Be it ever so humble, there’s no place like home. + + 35. Presently the doe stepped away, and left her little one + lying on a spotted heap of dead leaves and moss. + + 36. While traveling along the Rhine, we observed that when the + German has nothing else to do, he eats and drinks. + + 37. The Spaniards changed the whole character and habits of the + Indians when they brought the horse among them. + + 38. The fires in the Australian bush are often the work of the + natives, to frighten away the white men; and sometimes the work + of the shepherds, to make the grass sprout afresh. + + 39. Near the Pyramids, more wondrous and more awful than all + else in the land of Egypt, there sits the lonely Sphinx. + + 40. The sexton had lived in Stratford for eighty years, and + seemed still to consider himself a vigorous man, with the + trivial exception that he had nearly lost the use of his legs. + + 41. What if this were my last day at school? + + 42. It was something to have seen the dust of Shakespeare. + + 43. A queen bee will lay two hundred eggs in a few hours, and + in the year she will generally have laid twenty or thirty + thousand. + + 44. The ground was carpeted with softest moss, into which the + boy’s feet sunk so deep that they were almost covered; and all + over the moss were sprinkled little star-shaped pink flowers. + + 45. The wolf asked little Red Riding Hood whither she was going. + + 46. + + O happy harbor of God’s saints! + O sweet and pleasant soil! + In thee no sorrow can be found, + Nor grief, nor care, nor toil. + + 47. She fell back upon the floor as if by the stroke of an + unseen hand. + + 48. Whether she was attended by a physician from Canton or from + Milton, I was unable to say; but neither the gig with the large + allopathic sorrel horse, nor the gig with the homœopathic white + mare was ever seen hitched at the gate during the day. + + 49. No sooner did I open their door than out the little + starlings would all fly, and seat themselves on my head and + shoulders. + + 50. Neither eye nor ear revealed him anything. + + 51. Small leisure have the poor for grief. + + 52. By a flight of winding stairs we reached a covered balcony, + over which a tropical vine wanders at will. + + 53. Dora heard Marjorie singing, laughing, chatting, as she + flashed here and there, helping and hindering in about equal + proportions. + + 54. No matter what honors your ancestors attained, make your + own name honorable. + + 55. As I trod the sounding pavement, there was something + intense and thrilling in the idea that the remains of + Shakespeare were moldering beneath my feet. + + 56. The lark, springing up from the reeking bosom of the + meadow, towered away into the bright fleecy cloud, pouring + forth torrents of melody. + + 57. I now found myself among noble avenues of oaks and elms, + whose vast size bespoke the growth of centuries. + + 58. The air within the tunnel is somewhat damp, but fresh and + agreeably cool, and one can scarcely realize in walking along + the light passage, that a river is rolling above his head. + + 59. No frog egg may hope to develop into a turtle, or a bird, + or anything but a frog. + + 60. I heard my own mountain goats bleating aloft. + + 61. Everybody knows that the porcupine is ridiculously + fastidious in his choice of food. + + 62. + + The daisy, by the shadow that it casts, + Protects the lingering dewdrop from the sun. + + 63. If I choose to work eleven hours a day, what of it? + + 64. Far below lay the earth, brown, dry, and desolate, from + drouth. + + 65. There was no sleep that long night for the little duck + mother Quackalina. + + 66. One evening, after the ice of a sleet storm had clogged + their wings, the pigeons settled on one of the highest + buildings they could find, and sat and shivered through the + long night. + + 67. The taking down of a steeple two hundred and thirty-eight + feet high, that rises on a closely built city street, is not a + simple proceeding. + + 68. + + The legend of Felix is ended, the toiling of Felix is done; + The master has paid him his wages, the goal of his journey is won. + + 69. There we were shown the chair on which the English monarchs + have been crowned for several hundred years. + + 70. Under the seat is the stone brought from the Abbey of + Scone, whereon the kings of Scotland were crowned. + + 71. Sleeping or waking, my thoughts are all of Ireland and of + you. + + 72. Fortunately for us, our two lean, wiry little horses did + not object to being used as aquatic animals. + + 73. Many Russian villages possess a public bath of the most + primitive construction, but in some parts of the country the + peasants take their vapor bath in the household oven in which + the bread is baked! + + 74. This aptly illustrates a common Russian proverb, which says + that what is health to the Russian is death to the German. + + 75. Scarfs, shawls, stuffs for dresses, morning gowns, and + vests, handkerchiefs, sashes, purses, and tobacco bags are + heaped in rich profusion. + + 76. When a man of fourscore, he continued his weekly visits to + the schools. + + 77. His master having been honorably discharged before the + close of the war, Jim was left with the regiment in care of + Wiggins, the wagoner. + + 78. No other pigeon is so bold and fearless, so full of bulldog + tenacity, so full of royal courage, as the homer. + + 79. The French carried their imitation of Indians so far that + they often disguised themselves to resemble their allies, with + paint, feathers, and all. + + 80. It was sometimes impossible to tell in an attacking party + which were French and which were Indians. + + 81. The sea was dotted everywhere with the heads of seals + hurrying to land and begin their share of fighting. + + 82. Old Marley was as dead as a door-nail. + + 83. + + If eyes were made for seeing, + Then beauty is its own excuse for being. + + 84. + + Out on the lawn there arose such a clatter + I sprang from my bed to see what was the matter. + + 85. + + There is a pleasure in the pathless woods, + There is a rapture on the lonely shore. + + 86. How I wish that when the Angel comes for me, I might reach + out and feel your hand! + + + + +GENERAL REVIEW + + +Exercise 1 + + (1) The family of the Lambs had long been among the most + thriving and popular in the neighborhood; the Miss Lambs + were the belles of Little Britain, and everybody was pleased + when old Lamb had made money enough to shut up shop, and put + his name on a brass plate on his door. (2) In an evil hour, + however, one of the Miss Lambs had the honor of being a lady in + attendance on the Lady Mayoress, at her great annual ball, on + which occasion she wore three towering ostrich feathers on her + head. (3) The family never got over it; they were immediately + smitten with a passion for high life; set up a one-horse + carriage, put a bit of gold lace round the errand-boy’s + hat, and have been the talk and detestation of the whole + neighborhood ever since. (4) They could no longer be induced + to play at Pope-Joan or blindman’s buff; they could endure no + dances but quadrilles, which nobody had ever heard of in Little + Britain; and they took to reading novels, talking bad French, + and playing upon the piano. (5) Their brother, too, who had + been articled to an attorney, set up for a dandy and a critic, + characters hitherto unknown in these parts; and he confounded + the worthy folks exceedingly by talking about Kean, the opera, + and the “Edinburgh Review.” + + —WASHINGTON IRVING, _Sketch Book_. + +1. Consult the dictionary for the meaning of all words in this paragraph +that you do not understand. + +2. Account for the capitalization and punctuation. Why is the term +_Edinburgh Review_ inclosed in quotation marks? + +3. What kind of noun is _family_ in sentence (1)? Use it in a sentence so +as to reveal its number and its gender. What is its number in sentence +(3)? How do you account for it? + +4. What two plural forms has the term _Miss Lamb_? What is the plural +of _Lady Mayoress_? What does the dictionary say about the plural form +_folks_? What is the number of _everybody_ in sentence (1)? What is the +plural of _attorney_? of _dandy_? + +5. Tell the part of speech and use of _long_, _enough_, sentence (1); +_however_, _one_, _which_, sentence (2); _ever_, _since_, sentence (3); +_no_, _longer_, _no_, _but_, sentence (4); _too_, _up_, _hitherto_, +sentence (5). Which of these words can be used as other parts of speech? +Illustrate in sentences. + +6. Are _thriving_ in sentence (1) and _towering_ in sentence (2) +participles or adjectives? How do you decide? Is _pleased_ in sentence +(1) a complement of _was_ or a part of a passive verb _was pleased_? How +do you decide? How is _smitten_ used in sentence (3)? Find two passive +verbs, and prove that they are passive. + +7. Supply the ellipsis before and after _popular_ in sentence (1); before +_put_ in sentence (1). + +8. Tell the use of each of the following verbals: _being_ (2); _reading_, +_talking_, _playing_ (4); _talking_ (5). Tell how each of these verbals +is modified or completed. + +9. Select each prepositional phrase and tell what it modifies. + +10. Select all the infinitives with _to_ and tell the grammatical use of +each. + +11. Parse the relative pronouns in sentences (4) and (5). Are the clauses +that they introduce restrictive or unrestrictive? + +12. Tell the use and case of each of the following nouns: _belles_ (1); +_talk_, _detestation_ (3); _characters_ (5). + +13. Tell the principal parts of each of these verbs: _put_ (1); _had_, +_wore_ (2); _got_, _set_ (3); _took_ (4). + + +Exercise 2 + + (1) Ahem! Dry work, this speechifying, especially to an + unpracticed orator. (2) I never conceived till now what toil + the temperance lecturers undergo for my sake; hereafter they + shall have the business to themselves. (3) Do, some kind + Christian, pump a stroke or two, just to wet my whistle. (4) + Thank you, sir! (5) My dear hearers, when the world shall have + been regenerated by my instrumentality, you will collect your + useless vats and liquor casks into one great pile and make a + bonfire in honor of the town pump. (6) And when I shall have + decayed like my predecessors, then, if you revere my memory, + let a marble fountain, richly sculptured, take my place upon + this spot. (7) Such monuments should be erected everywhere and + inscribed with the names of the distinguished champions of my + cause. + + (8) One o’clock! (9) Nay, then, if the dinner bell begins to + speak, I may as well hold my peace. (10) Here comes a pretty + young girl of my acquaintance with a large stone pitcher for me + to fill. (11) May she draw a husband while drawing her water, + as Rachel did of old! (12) Hold out your vessel, my dear! (13) + There it is, full to the brim; so now run home, peeping at your + sweet image in the pitcher as you go, and forget not, in a + glass of my own liquor, to drink “Success to the town pump.” + + —NATHANIEL HAWTHORNE, _Twice Told Tales_. + +1. Consult the dictionary for the meaning of words in these paragraphs +that you do not understand. + +2. Classify each sentence both as to purpose and structure. + +3. What part of speech is _ahem_? What feeling does it express in +sentence (1)? + +4. Supply the ellipsis in sentence (1). What part of speech is +_speechifying_? What is its grammatical use? + +5. What does the adverb _especially_ in sentence (1) modify? + +6. Account for the use of _shall_ and _will_ in these paragraphs. + +7. Select all the dependent clauses. Tell the class and use of each, and +the introductory word. + +8. Select all the terms of address. What is the base word of each? + +9. What is the use of _now_ sentence (2)? _old_ (11)? _dinner_ (9)? + +10. Parse each predicate verb in sentences (3), (5), (6), (7). + +11. Tell the part of speech and use of _themselves_, sentence (2); +_stroke_, _two_ (3); _there_, _full_, _peeping_, _glass_, _own_ (13). + +12. Tell the use of all infinitive phrases in sentences (3), (6), (9), +(10), (13). + + +Exercise 3 + + (1) Once upon a time there came to this earth a visitor from a + neighboring planet. And he was met at the place of his descent + by a great philosopher, who was to show him everything. + + (2) First of all they came through a wood, and the stranger + looked upon the trees. “Whom have we here?” said he. + + (3) “These are only vegetables,” said the philosopher. “They + are alive, but not at all interesting.” + + (4) “I don’t know about that,” said the stranger. “They seem to + have very good manners. Do they never speak?” + + (5) “They lack the gift,” said the philosopher. + + (6) “Yet I think I hear them sing,” said the other. + + (7) “That is only the wind among the leaves,” said the + philosopher. “I will explain to you the theory of winds; it is + very interesting.” + + (8) “Well,” said the stranger, “I wish I knew what they are + thinking.” + + (9) “They cannot think,” said the philosopher. + + (10) “I don’t know about that,” returned the stranger; and + then laying his hand upon a trunk: “I like these people,” said + he. + + (11) “They are not people at all,” said the philosopher. “Come + along.” + + (12) Next they came through a meadow where there were cows. + + (13) “These are very dirty people,” said the stranger. + + (14) “They are not people at all,” said the philosopher; and + he explained what a cow is in scientific words which I have + forgotten. + + (15) “That is all one to me,” said the stranger. “But why do + they never look up?” + + (16) “Because they are graminivorous,” said the philosopher; + “and to live upon grass, which is not highly nutritious, + requires so close an attention to business that they have + no time to think, or speak, or look at the scenery, or keep + themselves clean.” + + (17) “Well,” said the stranger, “that is one way to live, no + doubt. But I prefer the people with the green heads.” + + (18) Next they came into a city, and the streets were full of + men and women. + + (19) “These are very odd people,” said the stranger. + + (20) “They are the people of the greatest nation in the world,” + said the philosopher. + + (21) “Are they indeed?” said the stranger. “They scarcely look + so.” + + —R. L. STEVENSON, _Fables_. + +1. Rewrite this selection, changing the direct to indirect discourse and +noting the changes made in verbs, pronouns, and other words. + +2. Fill out the elliptical sentences, and tell the grammatical use of +each of the words that you supply. + +3. Comment on the use of _and_ (1), _but_ (15), and _but_ (17). + +4. Explain how each of the following verbs and verbals is completed and +modified: _was_, _to show_, paragraph (1); _have_ (2); _are_, and _are_ +(3); _seem_ (4); _lack_ (5); _think_, _hear_, _said_ (6); _wish_, _knew_, +_are thinking_ (8); _laying_ (10); _explained_, _is_, _have forgotten_ +(14); _is_ (15); _keep_ (16). + +5. Find the subject of _came_ in the first sentence, and explain the use +of _there_. Prove that _was met_ in paragraph (1) is a true passive verb. + +6. Tell the grammatical use of each infinitive in paragraphs (16) and +(17). + +7. Tell the part of speech and use of _once_, paragraph (1); _first_ (2); +_highly_, _so_ (16); _well_ (17); _next_ (18); _very_ (19); _indeed_, +_scarcely_, _so_ (21). + +8. Parse all the adjective pronouns, interrogative pronouns, and relative +pronouns. + +9. Find all the prepositional phrases, and tell what each phrase +modifies. Tell the object of each preposition, and if there is anything +peculiar about any object, comment upon the peculiarity. + +10. Select all the dependent clauses. Tell the kind and use of each +clause, and its introductory word. Classify the adjective clauses as +restrictive or unrestrictive, and tell what the adverbial clauses denote. + +If a word is used in a peculiar or uncommon way, consult the dictionary +for information regarding it. + + +Exercise 4 + + (1) There troop the three most roguish boys that ever made + parents scold or laugh. (2) They have nothing to do but to + set each other on to mischief. (3) They pull off buds from + the unblossomed rose bushes; they pick cucumbers by the half + bushel that were to have been let alone; they break down rare + shrubbery to get whips, and instead get whippings; they kill + the guinea-pigs; chase the chickens; break up hens’ nests; get + into the carriages and wagons only to tumble out, and set all + the nurses a-running; they study every means of getting under + the horses’ feet, and, as the more dangerous act, they are + fond of tickling their hind legs, and pulling at their tails; + they fill the already fed horses with extra oats, causing the + hostler to fear for his charges’ health, since they refuse oats + at the next regular feeding; they paddle in all the mud on the + premises; sit down in the street and fill their pockets with + dirt; they wet their clothes in the brook, tear them in the + woods, lose their caps a dozen times a day, and go bare-headed + in the blazing sun; they cut up every imaginable prank with + their long-suffering nurses when meals are served, or when + bedtime comes, or when morning brings the washing and dressing. + (4) They are little, nimble, compact skinfuls of ingenious, + fertile, endless, untiring mischief. (5) They stub their toes, + or cut their fingers, or get stung, or eat some poisonous + berry, seed, or root, or make us think that they have, which + is just as bad; they fall down stairs, or eat green fruit till + they are as tight as a drum; and yet there is no peace to us + without them, as there certainly is none with them. Mischievous + darlings! Joyful plagues! Loving, rollicking, laughing rogues! + + —HENRY WARD BEECHER, _Star Papers_. + +1. Give the principal parts of each predicate verb in this selection; its +tense. Read the selection with the predicate verbs in the past tense. + +2. Explain how the following verbs are completed and modified: _made_, +sentence (1); _have_ (2); _pull_, _were_, _lose_, _go_, _cut_ (3); _are_ +(4); _get_, _make_ (5). + +3. Select all the adjectives and tell what they modify. Classify them as +limiting or descriptive. Compare them, if possible. If any of them do not +admit of comparison, tell why. + +4. Tell the use of _there_, sentence (1) and _there_ (5). + +5. Tell the use and case of each of the following nouns: _boys_, sentence +(1); _legs_ (3); _hostler_ (3); _times_ (3); _day_ (3); _drum_ (5); +_darlings_ (5). + +6. Find three nouns in the possessive case, and tell what each of them +modifies. Decline each of these nouns. + +7. Select all the infinitives with _to_ and tell the use of each. + +8. Select and classify all the words in _-ing_. + +9. Account for the punctuation of this selection. + +10. Select all the dependent clauses. Tell the kind and use of each, and +the introductory word. + +11. Tell the part of speech and use of _on_ (2); _off_, _alone_, _down_, +_up_, _already_ (3); _just_, _down_, _certainly_ (5). + +12. Select all the coördinate conjunctions in sentences (3) and (5) and +tell what each conjunction joins. + + + + +INDEX + + + Absolute phrases, 237. + + Absolute use of noun, 237. + + Abstract nouns, 14. + + Active voice, 40. + + Address, term of, 39, 40. + + Adjective clauses, 171. + restrictive, 193. + unrestrictive, 194. + + Adjective elements, 29. + + Adjective phrases, 31. + + Adjective pronouns, 121. + declension of, 122. + + Adjectives, appositive, 88. + classified, 110. + comparison of, 116, 117. + defined, 25. + errors in use of, 118, 119. + misused for adverbs, 70, 71. + modifying pronouns, 26. + objective complement, 94. + parsing of, 120. + review of, 120. + subjective complement, 69. + + Adverbial clauses, of cause, 183. + of comparison, 188, 189. + of concession, 186. + of condition, 186. + of manner, 181. + of place, 181. + of purpose, 184. + of result, 184. + of time, 180, 181. + office of, 171. + + Adverbial nouns, 91. + + Adverbial noun phrases, 91. + modifying adjectives or adverbs, 92. + + Adverbial noun phrases, modifying verbs, 91. + what they denote, 91. + + Adverbial phrases, 31. + + Adverbs, comparison of, 170. + conjunctive, 172. + defined, 28. + formation of, 31. + interrogative, 170. + introducing noun clauses, 204, 205. + meaning of, 28. + misused for adjectives, 70, 71. + modifying adjectives, 29. + modifying adverbs, 29. + modifying sentences, 175. + modifying verbs, 28. + parsing of, 174. + simple, 170. + summary of, 173. + + _After_, 178. + + Agreement, of participle and noun, 239. + of subject and verb, 165, 166. + + _Among_, 37. + + Analysis, models for, 34, 48, 191, 225, 244. + + Antecedent, of personal pronoun, 98. + of relative pronoun, 197. + + Anticipative subject, 201, 212, 247. + + Appositive, adjective, 88. + case of, 87. + in possessive case, 86. + infinitive, 215. + noun, 85, 86. + + Appositive, noun clause, 201. + position of, 86. + punctuation of, 86, 87. + + Articles, definite and indefinite, 113. + uses of, 114. + + _As_, relative pronoun, 197. + + _At_, 37. + + Auxiliary verbs, 124. + _can_, _could_, etc., 154-156. + _shall_ and _will_, 151, 152. + + + _Before_, 178. + + _Beside_, 38. + + _Besides_, 38. + + _Between_, 37. + + _But_, conjunction and preposition, 46. + relative pronoun, 197. + uses of, 178. + + _By_, 38. + + + _Can_ and _could_, 155, 156. + + Capitalization, of proper adjectives, 111. + of proper nouns, 13, 14. + + Case, 83-95, 100, 108, 196. + + Cause, clauses of, 183. + + Clauses, adjective, 171, 193-197. + adverbial, 171, 180-191. + defined, 48. + dependent, 52, 53. + independent, 48. + noun, 200, 201. + review of, 206. + + Collective nouns, 166. + + Common gender, 78. + + Common nouns, 13, 14. + + Comparative degree, 116. + + Comparison, clauses of, 188, 189. + of adjectives, 116. + of adverbs, 170. + how denoted, 116, 117. + irregular, 117. + + Complement, defined, 61. + + Complement, direct object, 61. + double object, 216. + objective, 94, 145. + subjective, 67, 68. + + Complex sentences, 53. + + Compound personal pronouns, 106. + uses of, 106. + + Compound predicate, 19, 20. + + Compound sentences, 50. + + Compound subject, 20. + + Concession, clauses of, 186. + + Condition, clauses of, 186. + + Conjugation, active voice, 128-130, 132, 134. + defined, 127. + emphatic, 149. + imperative mode, 134. + indicative mode, 128-130. + interrogative, 129. + passive voice, 140-142. + progressive, 148. + subjunctive mode, 132. + + Conjunctions, 46. + coördinate, 174. + correlative, 175. + in compound sentences, 50. + subordinate, 176, 177. + + Conjunctive adverbs, 172. + in noun clauses, 204. + + Contractions, 130. + + Coördinate conjunctions, 174. + + Correlative conjunctions, 175. + + + Dangling participles, 239. + + Declarative sentences, 9, 10. + + Declension, of nouns, 84. + of personal pronouns, 98. + of relative pronouns, 196. + + Defective verbs, 154-157. + + Demonstrative adjectives, 113. + + Dependent clauses, 52. + + Descriptive adjectives, 110, 111. + + Direct and indirect discourse, 162-165. + + Direct and indirect quotations, 162-165. + + _Do_, as principal verb, 157. + + Double object, of preposition _for_, 220. + of verb, 216-218. + + Double possessive, 81, 104. + + + _Each other_, 122. + + Elliptical sentences, 249, 250. + + _Else_, as limiting adjective, 113. + uses of, 178. + + Emphatic conjugation, 149, 150. + + _Enough_, 113. + + Errors, in adjectives, 70, 71, 118, 119. + in adverbs, 70, 71. + in infinitives, 221, 222. + in interrogative pronouns, 109, 110. + in participles, 239. + in personal pronouns, 101, 103. + in verbs, 130, 137-142. + + Exclamatory nouns, 40. + + Exclamatory sentences, 44, 45. + + + Feminine gender, 78. + + Floating participle, 239. + + _For_, 179. + + + Gender, 77, 78. + how denoted, 78. + + Gerund, 211. + + _Going_, in verb phrase, 156. + + + _Have_, as principal verb, 157. + + _Hence_, 179. + + + Idiomatic expressions, 104, 201, 220, 235, 247. + + Imperative mode, 134. + conjugation of, 134. + + Imperative sentences, 41. + subject omitted, 42. + + Impersonal verbs, 157. + + _In_, 37, 38. + + Independent elements, 39, 40. + + Indicative mode, 127. + + Indirect discourse, 162-165. + + Indirect object, 89, 90. + becoming subject of passive verb, 141. + position of, 90. + + Infinitive phrases, 211. + + Infinitives, defined, 209. + errors in use of, 221, 222. + in apposition, 215. + in _-ing_, 210. + modified by possessive, 211. + modifier of adjective, 220, 221. + modifier of noun, 215. + modifier of verb, 218. + object of preposition, 220. + object of verb, 213. + part of double object, 216-218. + subjective complement, 213. + summary of, 224, 225. + used independently, 221. + with _to_, 209, 210. + + Interjections, 43. + + Interrogative adjectives, 113. + + Interrogative adverbs, 170. + + Interrogative conjugation, 129. + + Interrogative pronouns, 108. + errors in use of, 109, 110. + in noun clause, 204. + uses of, 108. + + Interrogative sentences, 23, 24. + order of, 24. + + _Into_, 38. + + Intransitive verbs, of action, 64. + of being, 64, 66, 67. + + Irregular verbs, defined, 135, 136. + errors in use of, 137-140. + principal parts of, 137. + + _It_, as anticipative subject, 201, 212, 247. + + + _Lay_ and _lie_, 137. + + _Like_, 181. + + Limiting adjectives, 110, 113, 114. + + + Manner, clauses of, 181. + + Masculine gender, 77. + + _May_ and _might_, 155, 156. + + Mode, defined, 127. + imperative, 134. + indicative, 127. + subjunctive, 131, 132. + + Modifier, 26. + + _Must_, 155, 156. + + + Natural order, 22. + + Neuter gender, 78. + + Nominative case, 83, 84, 100. + + Noun clauses, 200. + introductory word of, 203, 204. + uses of, 200, 201. + + Nouns, abstract, 14. + adverbial, 91, 92. + as adjectives, 27. + as interjections, 43. + case of, 83, 84. + collective, 166. + common, 13, 14. + compound, 81. + declension of, 84. + defined, 11, 12. + direct object, 61. + gender of, 77, 78. + in apposition, 85-87. + in exclamation, 40. + in _-ing_, 240. + indirect object, 89. + number of, 74-76. + object of preposition, 35. + objective complement, 94. + parsing of, 96. + possessive, 79-82. + proper, 13, 14. + term of address, 39, 40. + used absolutely, 237. + + Number, defined, 74. + singular and plural, 74, 75. + + Numeral adjectives, 113. + + + _O_, 43. + + Object, double, 216. + indirect, 89, 90, 141. + of preposition, 35, 36. + of verb, 61. + retained, 146. + + Objective complement, 94. + becoming subjective complement of passive verb, 145. + + _Off_, 38. + + _One_, declined, 122. + + _One another_, 122. + + _Only_, 179. + + _Other_, declined, 122. + + _Own_, with possessives, 100. + + + Parsing, of adjectives, 120. + of adverbs, 174. + of nouns, 96. + of prepositions, 179. + of pronouns, 100, 208. + of verbs, 150, 168. + + Participial phrases, 229. + + Participles, agreement of, 239. + dangling, or floating, 239. + defined, 228, 229. + differing from adjectives, 231. + errors in use of, 239. + forms of, 228. + summary of, 243, 244. + uses of, 140, 144, 145, 148, 228, 229, 231, 235, 237. + + Parts of speech, summary of, 57. + + Passive voice, 140-142. + + Past participle, 135, 228. + as subjective complement, 144, 145. + in passive conjugation, 140. + + Person, of nouns, 98. + of pronouns, 98. + of verbs, 127. + + Personal pronouns, 98. + compound, 106. + declension of, 98. + errors in use of, 101-103. + uses of, 100, 103-105. + + Phrases, 31, 33. + absolute, 237. + adjective, 31. + adverbial, 31. + as subjective complement, 69. + defined, 33. + denoting possession, 81. + in a series, 32. + infinitive, 211. + participial, 229. + position of, 32. + prepositional, 35, 36. + + Place, clauses of, 181. + + Plurals, foreign, 75. + formation of, 74, 75. + compound nouns, 75. + letters and figures, 75. + titles, 75. + regular and irregular, 74. + same as singular, 74. + + Positive degree, 116. + + Possessive case, 83. + of compound nouns, 81. + + Possessive nouns, 80, 83. + form of, 80, 81. + in double possessives, 81. + what they denote, 81. + + Possessive pronouns, 103. + how used, 104. + in double possessives, 104. + + Predicate, compound, 19, 20. + defined, 9, 10. + simple, 16. + transposed, 22. + + Prepositions, 34, 35. + correct use of, 37-39. + parsing of, 179. + + Present participle, in progressive conjugation, 148, 228. + + Principal parts, 135. + + Principal parts, of irregular verbs, 137. + + Progressive conjugation, 148. + + Pronouns, adjective, 121. + compound personal, 106. + defined, 18. + in clauses of comparison, 190, 191. + indefinite, 204. + interrogative, 108. + parsing of, 100, 208. + personal, 98, 100, 103. + + Pronouns, relative, 196, 197. + review of, 207. + + Proper adjectives, 111. + + Proper nouns, 13, 14. + + Punctuation, of a series, 20, 25, 26, 32. + of appositives, 86-88. + of compound sentences, 50. + of compound subject and predicate, 20. + of declarative sentences, 10. + of exclamatory sentences, 44. + of interrogative sentences, 24. + of phrases, 32. + + Purpose, clauses of, 184. + + + _Raise_ and _rise_, 138. + + Reflexive use of pronouns, 106. + + Regular verbs, 135, 136. + + Relative pronouns, 196, 197. + _what_, 204. + + Result, clauses of, 184. + + Retained object, 146. + + Review, general, 257-264. + of adjectives, 120. + of adverbs, 173. + of analysis, 252. + of clauses, 206. + of infinitives, 224, 225. + of nouns, 96, 97. + of participles, 243. + of parts of speech, 57. + of prepositions, 179. + + Review, general, of pronouns, 207. + of sentences, 55. + of verbs, 72, 168. + + + Sentences, complex, 53. + compound, 50. + declarative, 9, 10. + defined, 9, 10. + elliptical, 249, 250, + exclamatory, 44, 45. + imperative, 41. + interrogative, 23, 24. + review of, 55. + simple, 48. + + Sequence of tenses, 125, 163. + + Series, of adjectives, 25. + of phrases, 32. + of predicates, 20. + + _Set_ and _sit_, 138. + + _Shall_ and _will_, 151. + in indirect discourse, 163. + in interrogative sentences, 152. + rules for use of, 152. + + _Should_ and _would_, 160-162. + in subjunctive mode, 155. + + Simple adverbs, 170. + + Simple predicate, 16. + + Simple sentences, 48. + + Simple subject, 11. + + _Since_, 179. + + Singular number, 74. + + _So_, 179. + + Subject, compound, 20. + defined, 9, 10. + how found, 16. + simple, 11. + transposed, 22. + + Subjective complement, 67, 68. + adjective, 69. + infinitive, 213. + noun, 67, 69. + participle, 144, 145. + prepositional phrase, 69. + + Subjunctive mode, 131. + conjugation of, 132. + + Subjunctive mode, tenses of, 132. + + Subordinate conjunctions, 176, 177. + + Summary, of adverbs, 173. + of case relations, 97. + of infinitives, 224, 225. + of participles, 243, 244. + + Superlative degree, 116. + + + Tense, 123. + errors in, 125, 126. + in noun clauses, 201. + primary, 124. + secondary, 124. + sequence of, 125, 163. + + Term of address, 39. + + _The_, an adverb, 170. + + _There_, 247, 248. + + _Till_, 179. + + Time, clauses of, 180, 181. + + _To_, omitted in infinitives, 217. + + _To_, use of, 37. + + Transitive verbs, 60, 61. + followed by indirect object, 90. + followed by objective complement, 94. + what they denote, 62. + + Transposed order, 22. + + + _Until_, 179. + + _Used_, in verb phrases, 156. + + + Verb phrases, 155, 156. + + Verbals, 210, 211. + + Verbs, defective, 154-157. + defined, 16. + errors in use of, 130, 137-142. + intransitive, 64, 66, 67. + mode of, 127, 131, 134. + parsing of, 150, 168. + principal parts of, 135, 137. + regular and irregular, 135, 136. + review of, 72, 168. + tense of, 123-126. + transitive, 60, 61. + used as interjections, 43. + used transitively or intransitively, 64, 66. + voice of, 140-142. + + Voice, active and passive, 140. + conjugation of passive, 140-142. + test for passive, 145. + + + _With_, 38. + + Words in _-ing_, 240. + + Words used, as adjective or adverb, 59. + as adverb or preposition, 60. + as noun or adjective, 58. + as noun or verb, 58. + as preposition, conjunction, or adverb, 179. + + _Would_, as principal verb, 155. + + + _Yet_, 179. + + + +*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 76768 *** |