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diff --git a/75671-0.txt b/75671-0.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..cc86b51 --- /dev/null +++ b/75671-0.txt @@ -0,0 +1,2899 @@ + +*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 75671 *** + + + + Essays + On Horse Subjects + + + BY + F. C. GRENSIDE, V. S. + + + [Illustration] + + + NEW YORK + PRIVATELY PRINTED + 1907 + + + + + Copyright, 1907, by + F. C. GRENSIDE + + + + + PREFACE + + +Having been requested to contribute from time to time, articles for +papers devoted to the horse, I have an accumulation of these that I +thought it might not be amiss to publish under the title of “Essays +on Horse Subjects.” + +Many of these subjects I have never seen any literature upon, and +these Essays are largely the result of twenty-eight years’ experience +as a practical horseman and veterinarian. Covering as they do the +borderland between the provinces of the veterinarian and horseman, +they relate to subjects which have been to a large extent neglected +by both. This fact is my excuse for publishing them. F. C. G. + + + + + CONTENTS + + + PAGE + + QUALITY IN HORSES 1 + + HEREDITARY UNSOUNDNESS IN HORSES 8 + + HITCHING IN HORSES 20 + + HORSESHOEING AND HORSES’ HOOFS 25 + + CORRECT ACTION IN HORSES 34 + + FORGING, OVER-REACHING AND CLICKING 41 + + INTERFERING, STRIKING, CUTTING OR BRUSHING IN HORSES 46 + + THE HORSE’S MOUTH 54 + + TURNING HORSES OUT 64 + + BITTING, SHOEING AND CONDITIONING FOR ACTION 69 + + EXERCISE FOR HORSES 90 + + THE HORSE’S COAT IN SPRING, SUMMER, AUTUMN AND WINTER 98 + + THE CAUSES OF DIGESTIVE DISORDERS 105 + + THE USE OF BURRS ON HORSES’ BITS 124 + + + + + QUALITY IN HORSES + + +There is no subject upon which there seems to be more diversity of +opinion amongst horsemen than as to what constitutes “quality” in a +horse. + +It is a term in very common use, but if you ask a number of horsemen +what they mean by it you are sure to get a variety of answers. One +will say it means breeding; another, conformation; another, finish; +another, “class”; another, symmetry; another, individuality; another, +an accentuation of all fine points; another, magnetism; another, +refinement of lines or perhaps a combination of some or all of these +attributes. Some say that quality is recognizable, but indefinable +and unexplainable. + +The term “quality” is an abstract one, indicating a special attribute +in an individual, just as being well bred, well conformed and +possessing finish are attributes of some individuals. When one says +that a horse has “quality,” one means that he has a special attribute +which may or may not be combined with any or all of the others +mentioned. Of course there are varying degrees of “quality,” so +that the term can only be used in a comparative sense. In the light +classes of horses it is very often used synonymously with breeding. +Certainly the more warm-blooded a horse is the higher the degree +of quality he is apt to possess, but one may take two equally well +bred thoroughbreds and find one showing evidence of the possession +of a higher degree of quality than the other. So that breeding and +quality do not mean the same thing. Neither does quality signify the +possession of symmetry, good conformation, finish or “class.” A horse +may be defective in any or all of these respects and still possess +a high degree of “quality.” He may be fiddle-headed, lop-eared, +ewe-necked, sway-backed, flat-sided, slack-loined, cow-hocked and +calf-kneed, and yet show much “quality.” + +Much confusion is caused by using the term “quality” synonymously +with “class.” Horses are spoken of as high-class, medium-class and so +on, indicating the degree of excellence which they possess for the +purpose for which they are best suited. Two individuals can be taken +as an example, showing equal “quality,” but one of them, on account +of better conformation, more style and action, may be worth twice +as much as the other. Consequently he is a higher-class individual, +although the two are equal in “quality.” So that “quality” and +“class” do not mean the same. + +If, then, “quality” does not mean breeding or conformation or +symmetry or finish or “class,” or a combination of any or all of +these, what does it mean? It is an easier matter to explain what +constitutes “quality” than it is to give a concise and at the same +time comprehensive definition of what it is. It may not inaptly +be defined as _fineness in contradistinction to coarseness_, or +as _fineness of texture_. How frequently one hears a prospective +purchaser say to a dealer: “He is a very nice horse, but very light +in bone.” The dealer almost invariably replies: “Yes, but his bone is +of good ‘quality,’” and still further endeavors to make the statement +more emphatic by saying that the bone is so dense, so compact, so +ivory-like, that a cubic inch of it will weigh more than a cubic inch +of some other horse that has indisputably more bone. It is a fact +that the bone of some horses is much more dense or compact, and is, +as the dealer expresses it, of better “quality” than that of some +others. + +What causes this greater density in the bones of some individuals +than in those of others? We have to look to the elements of which +bone is composed for the determining cause. The animal tissues are +made up of fluids and solids. The solids are composed of three +simple elements, viz.: granules, fibres and cells that are only +determinable by means of a microscope. This difference of quality +is most easily determinable with regard to the element fibres. +The fibres that form part of the tissues of an individual of high +“quality” are more slender, more compact and tougher than those of +one of less “quality.” One can appreciate this even with the naked +eye, in examining the walls of horses’ hoofs. In a horse possessing +a fairly high degree of “quality,” the fibres which run from the +coronet down, in forming the basis of the wall, are most palpably +finer than in those of the wall of a coarser individual. So with +the bone; the elements that combine to form it in a horse of high +“quality” are finer and more highly organized than in those of a +coarser individual. + +What you find in regard to quality in the bones of an individual, +you find pervading all the tissues of his organism. You do not +find a horse with coarse bone and fine skin, or coarse skin and +fine bone. If the bone is fine or has “quality,” the muscles, +tendons, ligaments, skin, hoofs, hair and all the other tissues +which enter into his composition are equally fine or are of equal +“quality.” The “quality” of a horse’s bone may be perfect, but +undue or disproportionate length or other defective form, or faulty +relationship of one bone to another, may make his conformation +very imperfect indeed, so that it is difficult to understand why +some horsemen think there is any relationship between “quality” and +conformation. + +A high degree of “quality” is apt to be associated with defects, so +that one might almost state that a horse can have too much quality. +Size, or more correctly, substance, is strength, other things being +equal. A horse with a high degree of quality may be so lacking in +substance as to impair his power for the performance of work or +for severe tests of endurance or speed. He may be so light-limbed +that he cannot stand the “wear and tear” of hard work and remain +practically sound. We often find horses that are superfine with +disproportionately small feet, and every experienced horseman knows +that it is seldom that such horses do much work and remain sound. +A horse, however, cannot have too much “quality,” providing it is +combined with sufficient substance for the purpose for which he is +required. A high degree of “quality” and sufficient substance are +most important attributes in contributing to perfection in horseflesh. + +There are many every-day evidences of the ill consequences of +deficient quality in horseflesh. You hear a horseman say that a horse +has soft legs, and he points out an individual inclined to fill +about the skin of the fetlocks, to show windgalls which extend up +the sheaths of his back tendons, and whose hocks are inclined to be +puffy throughout. If he gets a bruise or injury of any kind to the +skin of his legs, the consequent swelling is apt to extend and is +inclined to remain. Abrasions, cuts, cracks and scratches heal rather +tardily. Concussion and direct injury to bone are very much inclined +to result in bony enlargement, such as splints, that spread out and +have not well-defined limits. Standing in the stable too much readily +produces stocking of the legs; there is a predisposition to greasy +legs. The feet are inclined to be flat, large and easily bruised. + +These tendencies show coarseness of tissue and low organization, a +meagre blood supply and inactive nutrition. Horses with “quality” +also develop windgalls and splints if subjected to sufficient cause, +but their character differs from those of coarse horses in being +clean-cut and well-defined and not having the tendency to spread out. +A horse with “quality” may have a bog spavin, but it will show as +a well-defined prominence and not as a round puffiness of the hock +throughout. + +Draft horsemen talk “quality” just as much or more than those who +have to do with the light breeds. The difference in the “quality” +of individuals of the draft breeds is just as well marked as in the +light breeds. Take for instance a Clydesdale or Shire, both of which +breeds have a considerable quantity of long hair on the back of the +legs, which is often referred to as “feather.” If this hair is found +to be fine and silky, not coarse and wiry, you will find that it is +possessed by an individual that shows “quality” throughout. His skin +will not be coarse and beefy, his legs will be fluted, his bone will +have a tendency to flatness, showing density of structure. The hair +of his mane and tail will be fine, like that at the back of his legs. +The eminences and depressions formed by the bones of his head will +be comparatively finely chiseled. He, in fact, shows “quality” when +compared to other members of the same breed that are equally well +bred as far as possessing the characteristics of the breed, and as +far as the stud book is an indication of breeding. This is a further +example of the fallacy of the view that “quality” and breeding are +the same thing. + + + + + HEREDITARY UNSOUNDNESS IN HORSES + + +The question of hereditary unsoundness in all its aspects is by no +means an open book to the horse-breeder, but it is one well worth +studying by him, if as thorough a knowledge as is possible of this +subject will tend to lessen the percentage of unsound stock produced. +Of the various causes which tend to make horse-raising disappointing +and unprofitable, this is one of the important ones, if not the most +important. Literally speaking, it is not so much the inheritance +of a disease itself that we fear, but it is the tendency to the +development of this disease. Comparatively few foals are dropped +with unsoundnesses, that impair their value ultimately, but there +are many that are foaled with a predisposition to the development of +unsoundness. The study of this subject, then, practically resolves +itself into a consideration of what constitutes the predisposing +causes of unsoundness. + +They may be divided into several heads, viz: Defective formation, +defective quality, and insufficient quantity of tissue and +temperament. Within certain limits, the practised eye of the +observant horseman can determine in sire or dam the existence of +these defects that are transmissible to the offspring, and predispose +it to the development of unsoundness. + +It is claimed by some authorities that some horses and mares possess +a peculiar habit of body, an indefinable something about them which +predisposes them and also their progeny to the development of some +unsoundness. Such cases are rare, however, and their supposed +existence is very frequently the result of the inability of an +observer to appreciate the existence of detectible predisposing +causes. If this indefinable something is the determining cause of +predisposition in some cases, then the only positive evidence of +its existence is the developed unsoundness. This theory presupposes +that none of the detectible predisposing causes already mentioned +exist in sufficient degree in such cases, so that when subjects +of them are subjected to more than ordinarily exciting ones they +would develop unsoundness unless the peculiar habit of body exists. +It is also an acknowledgment of the helplessness of breeders in +a considerable degree to prevent breeding colts with an inherent +tendency to unsoundness. No matter how capable and careful a +breeder is he will produce a certain percentage of unsound stock, +due to heredity, but with care it can be reduced to a small one. +Many breeders use a sire from convenience or from some quality he +possesses, such as speed, action, style or disposition, knowing they +are taking a chance of perpetuating some tendency to unsoundness +that he possesses. Favorite mares are also bred, with a disregard +to the well-established principle that “like begets like,” even +when they are the victims of hereditary unsoundness or a strong +predisposition to it. The successful breeder must divest himself +of all sentiment and be capable of appreciating all defects which +constitute predisposition to unsoundness. Of the predisposing causes, +defective formation is the most fertile one. The predisposition to +navicular disease is hereditary. Horses with narrow, deep heels are +predisposed to it. Some observers may say: “But look at the large +number of horses one sees with narrow, deep heels that have not +got navicular disease.” Of course, such an argument is fallacious, +as there may be many compensating conditions that will tend to +neutralize the tendency to this disease in some subjects. A horse +with the formation of foot described, even although he is subjected +to the exciting causes of hard, fast and steady work, and irrational +and infrequent shoeing, may be endowed by nature with a very light +step. Nothing tends to prevent “wear and tear” of the legs and feet +like light stepping. Here, then, is an example of an influence which +tends to counterbalance the ill effects of a defective formation, +but renders complicated the study of formation as a predisposing +cause of unsoundness. One, then, has to weigh the influence of +compensating conditions in determining the ill-consequences likely +to result from defective formations of feet when transmitted to +offspring. That defective formation of feet is handed down to progeny +there is no manner of doubt. The predisposition to ringbone is +undoubtedly hereditary, and when the pastern is of good formation +one seldom finds it unless it is the result of some extraordinarily +exciting cause. The two extremes of long, light oblique pasterns, +and the short, straight coarse ones, are both predisposed, the +former from the tension to which the ligaments are subjected, and +consequent tendency to sprain, and the latter from the increased +tendency to concussion. As we proceed up the front leg we find +defective formation in the neighborhood of the knee, predisposing +to unsoundness. Many horses that are more or less knee-sprung +are practically sound. Others become progressively weak and are +decidedly unsound; so that we are not much amiss in characterizing +the condition called knee-sprung as an hereditary unsoundness. A +commission was appointed some years ago in England to make out a list +of hereditary unsoundnesses. The list included navicular disease, +ringbone, spavin, sidebone, periodic ophthalmia or moonblindness, +and roaring. It will be observed that knee-sprung was not included. +In order not to complicate matters they made the list as short as +possible, and only included the most serious forms of unsoundness +or those that are very obstinate in yielding to treatment or are +incurable. Unsoundnesses such as knee-sprung, curb or splint, though +the tendency to them is undoubtedly hereditary, were not included. +This was because these conditions seldom permanently interfere with +a horse’s practical soundness. A horse is what is called “tied in” +below the knee when the leg immediately below that joint is narrower +from before backwards, than it is just above the fetlock. In this +condition the tendons behind the knee are not well developed, and +are placed too close to the shank-bone at this point. This imperfect +tendonous development in a front leg is not usually confined to the +tendons behind the leg, called the flexor tendons, as an imperfect +development of these tendons is usually associated with an impaired +development of the tendons running down the front of the leg called +the extensor tendons. Such a condition frequently results in shaky +knees, and if the subject experiences hard work, he is likely to +become progressively worse. In some cases the flexor tendons appear +to be much better developed than the extensors, and in an individual +so formed, particularly if he is inclined to stand with his forefeet +well back under him, there is an inordinate strain on the extensors, +leading to relaxation and a corresponding tendency to contraction of +the flexors. Here we have a lack of balance between the extensors +and flexors, and the result is a knee-sprung condition. Although +shaky-kneed or knee-sprung horses are not frequently incapacitated +for work, the breeder should not lose sight of the fact that this +condition is apt to considerably depreciate a horse’s value in the +market, particularly for some purposes, and he can seldom afford to +ignore this fact. It is not intended to advise breeders never to +breed to a sire that stands a little over in the knees, especially +if sufficient cause can be assigned for it, but we should recommend +them to be very wary about using sires and dams that show a +congenital tendency to this defect. Purchasers of horses usually look +with considerable disfavor on a horse that is at all knee-sprung. +Personally, the writer would rather buy a horse for his own use that +is a little forward in the knees than one that stands back in them +or is what is called calf-kneed. A horse with the former defect +is almost sure to be much more elastic in his step than one with +the latter and, consequently, will not suffer to the same extent +from the ill-effects of concussion. A calf-kneed horse is also much +more likely to suffer from strains. Knee-sprung, unlike the other +unsoundnesses given in the list of hereditary troubles, is not very +infrequently congenital. Swan-necked horses and those with thick, +coarse throttles are considered to be of the formations most liable +to develop the defect of the wind called “roaring.” In Great Britain +and Ireland and on the continent of Europe, breeders are usually very +particular about avoiding roarers for breeding purposes. The climatic +conditions there seem favorable to its development; but in this +country it is not nearly so much to be feared, and one should not +hold aloof from an otherwise desirable sire on account of his being +a roarer, though it must be admitted that the predisposition to the +trouble may be transmitted. The predisposition to periodic ophthalmia +or moonblindness is handed down from parent to offspring, but it +is not nearly so common in this country as it once was, when the +sanitary conditions were not so good; and it may be that some care +has been exercised in breeding, so as to avoid its propagation. The +only appreciable evidence of a predisposition to this unsoundness, +outside of the existence of the disease, is the small or what is +called “pig eye.” The writer knew a sire well that had “pig eyes” but +sound ones, and they remained sound throughout his long life, but +certainly ten per cent. of his progeny developed moonblindness. + +The tendency to string-halt is undoubtedly transmissible from +parent to offspring. Horses with snappy hock action are most likely +to develop it. Nowadays it is not feared nearly so much as it was +formerly, for if it should develop, a very large percentage of +cases are curable by a not very difficult and by no means dangerous +operation, which consists in the cutting of a tendon. A change has +taken place in the generally accepted view as to the nature of +string-halt. It was considered a purely nervous malady until it was +found that the cutting of a tendon would in many instances cure it. + +Curb, although not, as I remember it, included in the list of +hereditary unsoundnesses, is decidedly hereditary, as well as the +predisposition to it. It is not an infrequent occurrence to find +foals “dropped” with curbs which frequently disappear in a large +measure. But there is always some trace of them remaining. It is +the rarest possible occurrence to find a broad hock, and one with +the tendon standing well out behind, with any sign of curb. Narrow +hocks and those with the point dipped forward towards the body of the +joint; a leg with small circumference immediately below the hock, +or what is commonly called tied in; those with the back tendon +not standing out posterior to the bone at the back and outer part +of hock--in addition to these indications of weakness and tendency +to curb, if the joint is crooked, or what is called sickle-shaped, +the predisposition is much increased. Curb is not so very much +feared by some breeders, as it seldom causes permanent lameness. It +is, however, a great eyesore; it depreciates a horse’s value very +considerably, and it is liable to cause recurring lameness. + +Crooked hocks, unduly straight hocks, narrow hocks, small hocks, +those bent inwards or outwards, are all of weak formation, and are +consequently predisposed, amongst other unsoundnesses, to bone +spavin. Even though a horse should happen to have a bone spavin, +provided he has a strongly formed hock, it would be safer to take +a chance of breeding to him than one with a sound hock but of weak +formation. So far we have run over briefly most of the defective +formations that predispose to serious hereditary unsoundness. We +have divided the causes into four heads, the second one of which was +“insufficient quantity.” The old saying, “Size is strength, others +things being equal,” applies to a horse’s extremities. We frequently +hear it said that such and such a horse has “plenty of timber +under him.” By this is meant that the individual in question has +sufficient substance in the various structures that make up his legs +and feet to give them strength and ability to stand “wear and tear.” + +The practical horseman of experience learns that the horse with +disproportionately small feet seldom stands much work without +going sore from some unsoundness of these organs. So with the +slender-pasterned horse. He is not only subject to strain at that +point, but predisposed to ringbone. The horse light under the knee +is apt to suffer from strains of the tendons and ligaments in that +situation, as well as troublesome splints. Proportionately large +joints give wearing ability to the legs. This is well exemplified +in the case of hocks with plenty of tissue in them. The sire that +transmits small hocks to his offspring has handed down to him one of +the most prolific sources of unsoundness in these joints. Defects +of formation of these joints are often a cause of trouble, as has +already been pointed out, but not so much so in my experience as +lack of size. Stating that a horse has plenty of timber under him +does not cover all cases, as some horses have plenty of tissue in +their front legs and are deficient in their hind ones. In addition +to formation and quantity of tissue, “quality” is of vast importance +in influencing the wearing ability of the legs and feet. Parents +transmit with great faithfulness to their progeny defects in the +quality of the horn of hoofs. Shelly, brittle hoofs are strongly +predisposed to crack, developing sand and quarter cracks on slight +provocation, and giving rise to that very troublesome inability +of being unable to hold the shoes tightly. Brittle hoofs are not +necessarily coarse in fibre. Hoofs of coarse fibre lack the density +of structure which generally contributes to toughness. Undue size +of foot, low heels and flat soles, with a tendency to be easily +bruised, are apt to be associated with a lack of quality in the horn +structure. A horse with bone of a spongy character or lacking in +density is deficient in quality. Such an individual is predisposed to +inflammatory diseases of bone, such as splints, sore shins, ringbone +and spavin. The lack of quality in a horse is particularly well shown +in the skin of his legs. The tendency to the development of cracked +heels, stocked legs, mud fever and grease is very evident on slight +provocation. Sires deficient in quality are apt to transmit to their +progeny the tendency to what are called soft-legs, in which there is +not only the inclination of the skin to swell up from little cause, +but windgalls, puffy sheaths of tendons and boggy hocks are easily +induced. If, then, we accept these statements with regard to quality, +as it would appear that every practical horseman must, we must admit +that coarseness or lack of quality is by no means an unimportant +factor in contributing to hereditary predisposition to unsoundness. +Temperament is the last of the four heads into which we divided the +predisposing causes of hereditary unsoundness. Although it must be +admitted that it has an influence, we look upon it as the least +important of the four. The nervous horse that jumps and gets excited +on slight provocation; the anxious horse that is always up in his +collar and against the bit, are more taxing on the physical mechanism +than easier-going horses. We cannot afford to quite ignore this +question of temperament in selecting sires and dams, but if the legs +and feet are well formed, have sufficient substance, and are made up +of a good quality of tissue, they will generally stand any taxing +that may result from a high-strung temperament. + + + + + HITCHING IN HORSES + + +Of the many defects of action that horses show, one that detracts +very much from the gracefulness of movement in the trot and walk is +“hitching.” It is a peculiar hopping movement which results from a +lack of power, or from defective balance. It is said that good cooks +are born, not made. Exactly the opposite is the case with “hitchers”; +they are made, not born, although there is no doubt that some colts +are foaled with a predisposition to “hitch.” Still, even then, it may +be kept in abeyance by good handling. The causes of “hitching,” then, +may be said to be predisposing and exciting. Of the predisposing ones +the most prolific is the want of power and freedom of movement in +the hindquarter. Cat-hammed horses, those with short hindquarters, +and those that stand with their hocks too far behind them, are very +liable to “hitch.” Bad driving is a cause that frequently contributes +to this fault. Some drivers will make almost every young horse they +handle get into the habit, for it becomes almost a habit in some +individuals. + +Starting off at too fast a pace, urging a horse beyond his speed, +particularly if he has a heavy trap behind him, and allowing him +to go uncollectedly from driving with a loose rein, are causes. +Drivers that allow horses to rattle along with their heads loose, +particularly if they are inclined to be free, will make many +hitchers, especially amongst young horses and those in which there is +a predisposition to the fault. + +Besides the causes already discussed and really the most important +of all, is the mouth, for a very large percentage of “hitching” is +referable to that organ. Horses which carry their heads steadily, +hold them straight, with no crossing of jaws or opening of the +mouth, and which keep their tongues in position under the bit and +have responsive, firm mouths, never “hitch” when they have proper +driving. Any discomfort of the mouth caused by bruises, abrasions +or excoriations, making a horse sideline or bore, is very apt, in +the case of a very prompt horse, to cause “hitching.” On the other +hand, horses that do not face the bit firmly on account of soreness +of the mouth or from the bit being placed too low in the mouth or +from lack of courage, or any cause that makes them go with unsteady +heads, are apt to “hitch.” A driver or rider with what is called bad +hands is also apt to make a horse “hitch.” A driver with bad hands +either takes a heavy, unyielding grip of the reins, or else holds +them unsteadily, either of which causes is apt to put a horse off his +balance. + +The uninitiated are apt to mistake “hitching” for lameness, and it +is very hard to persuade them to the contrary, especially if a horse +keeps doing it persistently. It is not an unsoundness, however, for +there is no lesion necessarily of the extremity “hitched.” Habitual +“hitching” is a fault or defect, just the same as other defects of +action and “forging” are faults. + +If a horse is a persistent “hitcher,” however, he might almost as +well be lame, as far as the unsightliness of the gait is concerned. +In good hands, however, there is not much fear of it becoming +habitual, and if it has become so from any cause, it can usually be +remedied by good handling. + +In standing about sale and show rings, we frequently hear onlookers +say that such and such a horse is going lame behind, when in reality +he is only “hitching.” At sale and show times horses are frequently +urged and pulled together to a degree very apt to put them off their +balance, especially when they are called upon to keep making short +turns. Some horses, even at the walk, will persistently “hitch” in +being ridden in a ring when sharply bitted. Horses may be seen to +drag and hop on one hind leg in going around a ring at a walk when +ridden with bit and bridoon, but if a change is made to a snaffle +bit they will go squarely, thus showing how a sharp bit will cause +unsteadiness and irregularity of the gait in some light-mouthed +horses. + +In case there is any doubt as to whether irregularity of the gait is +due to lameness or to “hitching,” it is easily settled by jogging the +animal in question at a slow trot “in hand” without any bit in the +mouth, or at most a plain snaffle, with the head loose and carried +straight. It may be emphasized here that the only true test in the +determination of the question as to whether a horse goes sound or +not, unless the lameness is fairly pronounced, is to jog “in hand” +as already explained. Horses are sometimes condemned as going lame +in the show ring when it is impossible to determine with certainty +whether they are lame or not until taken out of harness and run +“in hand.” It is sometimes a help, in deciding whether a horse is +slightly sore forward or not, to get on his back, when the increased +weight on the legs will intensify the tenderness. + +The idea of a horse “hitching” in front is sometimes ridiculed, but +occasionally one may be seen to do it unmistakably, and it is usually +the result of some discomfort in connection with the mouth. As has +been already said, anything that puts a horse off his balance is +liable to make him “hitch.” A horse may be said to be “balanced” +when every leg bears its proper proportion of weight and also exerts +its share of propulsion. The position of the head is very important +in regulating balance. If it is carried too low, too much weight is +thrown on the fore extremities; if too high, too much strain is put +on the hind ones. It is most important that the head shall be carried +steadily and in proper position, for a want of firmness in its +carriage is apt to put a horse off his balance and consequently lead +to “hitching.” + + + + + HORSESHOEING AND HORSES’ HOOFS + + +As with many other subjects relating to horseflesh, there is a +wide diversity of opinion as to the treatment of the horse’s hoof, +particularly as to that phase of it which has to do with shoeing. In +New York, especially, there is a deeply rooted prejudice in favor of +allowing the hoofs to grow out to very considerable proportions. If +you ask some of the strong advocates of this practice their reason +for it, you get the nonexplanatory answer that they like to see a +horse with a good foot. The question then naturally presents itself: +Does a luxuriant growth of horn constitute a good foot, and is a long +hoof conducive to the welfare of the foot and that portion of the +extremity above it? There is no doubt you can take liberties with +a horse’s foot with impunity under some circumstances, but if you +want a horse to do everyday work, the nearer you get a hoof to its +proper dimensions the better for the foot and the leg above it. For +ordinary work the hoof should be kept of such dimensions that every +part of the lower surface of it shall bear its proportionate amount +of weight, and that there shall be no disturbance in the proper +relations of the various parts that make up the legs and feet. + +Dealers keep their horses’ toes long because length of toe increases +their action. A horse with long toes is bound to exert more muscular +force in order to raise his feet off the ground and extend them in +progression; consequently his action is increased. As they do not +work their horses hard, but merely give them exercise enough to keep +them well mannered to show to their customers, they do not as a rule +experience the ill-results they would if they were worked fairly +hard. The same remarks apply to heavy harness show horses, that are +simply kept in condition to show all the style and action possible. + +Everyday work, however, is another matter. The dealer and showman is +right from his standpoint, but not from the standpoint of the owner +who is looking for everyday service. + +Too long a toe acts as a lever and very much increases the tension of +the tendons and ligaments that support the fetlocks, rendering them +liable to strain, and also increasing the tendency to windgalls. + +Too long a toe is also a fertile cause of corns, as it increases very +much the pressure on the heels and consequent liability to bruise the +quick of the foot at that place, which bruise constitutes a corn. + +Besides having the toes too long, the heels are allowed to grow down, +taking all the pressure off the frog. Nature intended the frog to +bear its proper proportion of weight, and, if it doesn’t do so, it +shrinks, the heels contract, and the inner quarter curls in and acts +as a wedge between the shoe and the quick, and is thereby another +cause of corns. Too long a hoof hastens fatigue, as the increased +exertion necessary in raising and advancing the foot in progression +augments the expenditure of force. The tendency to “interfere” is +also much increased. + +This prejudice in favor of keeping the hoofs long has been brought +about and encouraged largely by the example and expressed opinions of +dealers. A dealer sells a horse with long hoofs, and the purchaser +sends him to the forge. The shoer, unless he has been otherwise +definitely instructed, and if he understands what is best for +the horse’s legs and feet, will reduce the hoofs to their normal +proportions. When the owner drives or rides his new purchase again, +he finds the action curtailed, and thinks the horse is going sore. He +applies to the seller of the horse, who tells him that he has had his +feet cut away so much that it has made him sore. This might be the +case in exceptional instances, but very rarely. + +In addition to reduction of the hoofs in size, the shoes may be +lightened, which further lessens the action. What are called “green +horses” are very apt to go sore if put abruptly into work, from the +fact that their tissues have not been by degrees hardened for work; +in other words, they are not in condition, and it will take some +weeks before they can be safely put into anything like hard work. + +After reading the foregoing, it will naturally be asked: What is +the guide in determining the dimensions to which the hoof should +be reduced at the time of shoeing? The practised eye of the man +who understands the natural poise of the horse’s leg can determine +at a glance how much to reduce the hoof so that every part of the +leg and foot will approximately bear its due proportion of weight. +The direction of the line of weight in the extremities varies in +different individuals and nature can be assisted by regulating the +direction of this line in order that no part shall be unduly taxed. +The horse with the straight pastern and high heel is apt to suffer +from the ill-effects of concussion, while the oblique-pasterned horse +is more likely to suffer from strain. The ill-consequences of these +defects of formation can be neutralized in a measure by regulating +the length of hoof according to circumstances. For instance, the +disadvantage of long and oblique pasterns can be overcome in a +measure by keeping the hoof shortened up as much as possible, +thereby reducing the tension on the supporting tissues of the +fetlock. In the same way the elasticity of tread can be promoted in a +straight-pasterned horse by reasonable length of toe. + +Nature in some instances supplies compensations for defects of +formation. In the fore extremity, the oblique shoulder, long arm and +forearm and smooth flexion of the joints may in a measure counteract +the injurious consequences of calf-knees and unduly short and +straight pasterns. Added to this there may be that lightness of step, +with which some horses are endowed, that has its determining cause in +the nervous system, and which so much aids the wearing ability of the +legs and feet. + +Fleming, who is a justly recognized authority on horseshoeing, gives +as a guide to determine the amount a horse’s hoof should be reduced +at the time of shoeing, that the hoof should be shortened by the rasp +until it is flush with what is called the “white line.” The “white +line” is that portion of the hoof that forms the connecting medium +between the outer margin of the sole and the inner and lower margin +of the wall. Its outline is very clearly defined in a freshly rasped +hoof. Fleming, doubtless, assumes that the sole and white line have +not been reduced with the knife, but have been allowed to remain, as +nature intended them, of their normal thickness. + +Just here it may be remarked that the practice of paring away the +sole of the foot, or in other words, thinning it, is a pernicious one. + +The shoer appears to like to do this, as it cuts very easily and +gives, as he thinks, a “neat” appearance to the hoof. The owner +appears to endorse this, as he is very careful to have his groom stop +the feet, forgetting that he has permitted the shoer to remove a much +more efficient stopping than any artificial one in the outer surface +of the sole. This is very easy of explanation and illustration if one +takes an unmutilated hoof. First of all it must be noted that the +outer hard and tough crust, called the wall, grows out indefinitely, +unless it is worn or broken off by contact with the ground or +reduced by the instruments of the former. This is not the case with +the sole, for it is so constituted that after it attains a certain +thickness, by a process of nature it exfoliates of its own accord, +thus maintaining its normal thickness. These outer scales that keep +coming off are nature’s stopping. Why? Because by protecting the +inner and deeper layer from the drying effects of the air, they +maintain moisture that is necessary in the sole. If, by paring, you +cut through and examine a normal sole, you will find that the part +next to the quick (the part freshly secreted by the quick) is moist, +and as you proceed to the surface of the sole it gradually gets +dryer, the outer part being almost entirely free from moisture and +admirably adapted to protect the inner and moister part until it is +gradually forced outward by fresh growth from within and becomes in +its turn a “stopping” for the inner and freshly formed layer of sole. +What happens if the knife is used instead of nature being allowed to +go on with its own process of desquamation? Why, the deeper parts +of the sole become exposed to the action of the air before they are +prepared for it by a gradual process of drying, and abruptly dry and +contract. This is what causes the sole to become increasedly cupped, +and the hoof to become contracted in a great measure. The stopping +of horses’ hoofs is not always necessary if the sole is left, as it +should be, in an unmutilated condition, unless horses are made to +stand a great deal upon dry floors. Much of the fuss and waste of +time and material involved in the stopping of horses’ hoofs are based +on error. All that is necessary to remove the sole in a normal foot +is accomplished when the rasp is flatly applied to the lower surface +of the wall in reducing it to its proper dimensions. The thicker the +sole the better, provided it does not project below the wall, or +receive too much pressure from the shoe. One can readily understand +how much more efficient a thick sole is as a protection to the +underlying quick, especially on rough, frozen and stony roads, than a +comparatively thin one. + +Now, if the sole is left thick, as it should be, and in which case +the white line would necessarily be, it is a good guide for the +shoer, in the majority of cases, to rasp down to the white line. +Another error frequently made, though not so common as mutilation +of the sole, is cutting away the frog. It does not require a deep +student of physiology of the foot to see almost at a glance the +function of the frog. Take a normal hoof and examine the frog and you +will observe that it is placed at the back of the hoof, where the +major portion of the pressure comes. You further find that, unlike +either the sole or the wall, it is endowed with elasticity equal to +india rubber. It is very evident that it is intended not only to come +in contact with the ground, but also to act as a buffer in lessening +concussion. Now, what happens if you cut it away and leave the heel +so high that it does not come in contact with the ground? Why, it +shrinks and becomes as hard as wood, entirely unsuited to stand +pressure without bruising the underlying quick, and no longer capable +of performing its office of breaking concussion. Not only that, but +with a thin, dried-up sole, the shrunken hoof draws the quarters +with it, and you have contracted feet or at least contracted heels. +After this mischief has been done through ignorance, then the horse +must have that curer of all ills of the foot (according to some wise +ones), spreaders, to overcome the contraction of the hoof. + +Although horses are largely kept under artificial conditions, there +is no reason why their hoofs should become contracted if rationally +treated, unless some disease of the foot develops, such as navicular +disease. Under such circumstances, the contraction is the result of +disease, not the cause of it. + +Another point that should be carefully watched in preparing the hoof +for the reception of the shoe is to have it level. If either inside +or outside of the hoof is left too long, it changes the direction +of the line of weight and subjects some portion or portions of the +extremity to undue strain or pressure and consequent liability to +injury. + +Horses that are turned out into soft fields or put into box stalls or +barnyards, where there is not sufficient attrition to wear the hoof +to its normal dimensions, should have it rasped down every month to +its proper proportions. This particularly applies to young colts, +and neglect of it is the initial step in causing hoofs of defective +formation. + + + + + CORRECT ACTION IN HORSES + + +While it is the intention of this article to endeavor to picture +ideally good action, by which wear and tear and loss of power are +reduced to a minimum, it is not intended to decry the possession for +certain purposes, by a horse, of what is usually called high action. +To render horses attractive for show and for pleasure purposes it +is a highly desirable quality and very much increases their market +value. The good horseman would much prefer, however, to sit behind a +horse with moderate action, that raises his feet, advances them in a +straight line with stride enough to insure desirable progress--yet +not so much that the feet cannot be put down squarely--every part +bearing its proper proportion of weight and striking the ground +lightly, than one with excessive but markedly defective action. High +action, like other qualities possessed in a high degree, is very +apt to be associated with defects that detract from its perfection +and lessen a horse’s wearing quality. The ill-consequences of these +defects are intensified in direct ratio to the excessiveness of the +action. The craze for high action at any cost is not so rampant as +it used to be some years ago. Horse-show promoters became wearied +of seeing their premiums for action carried off by acrobatic +monstrosities, and it caused them to modify the wording of their +prize lists and call for all-around goers with twenty-five per cent. +for conformation. The horse that winds his legs about, “straddles,” +“points,” “rolls,” “spreads behind,” “waddles,” or drags his hind +legs, is no longer in favor with the good judge, no matter how +excessive his action. + +The character of the action is a very important factor in determining +the amount of wear and tear a horse will stand. To become a good +judge of action is not such an easy matter as might be imagined. +There are many who have a good eye for a horse, and, in fact, are, +in a measure, good judges, who cannot intelligently criticize a +horse’s action from different standpoints. There are many who are +taken with flashy action, which, as a rule, enhances the market +value of a horse possessing it, but is very apt to be associated +with greater defects from a utilitarian standpoint than that which +is less attractive. In estimating the quality of action correctly +in different individuals one has to have an ideal. How seldom in +sitting behind a horse and closely observing his way of going at the +trot and walk, do we find action that comes up to our ideal! Perfect +action, as far as usefulness is concerned, is frictionless and light, +and the foot is placed on the ground squarely. There is no loss of +time or power in progression, or, in other words, the frictionless +mover does not labor, neither does the light-stepper experience +the ill-effects of concussion, which is the result of bringing the +foot to the ground in a pounding manner. What a saving of wear and +tear and power the smooth-mover and light-stepper experiences! One +is amazed in instances to observe how much work a weak-footed, +poor-legged horse will stand and still remain in workable condition. +It can be accounted for in many cases by the defects mentioned being +compensated for by light action. + +It is interesting and instructive to study the numerous and varying +conditions that conduce to defective action. Lightness of step +appears to be a quality not always dependent upon the conformation of +the individual. For instance, length and obliquity of the pasterns +are usually said to cause lightness and elasticity of the tread, but +do not always do so, for we find many heavy-going horses of this +formation. Mechanically, this should conduce to light-stepping, and +does in a measure, but the fact that horses with oblique pasterns +sometimes pound, leads us to look for another explanation. The +statement may be advanced, in explanation, that the elasticity +resulting from oblique pasterns may be neutralized by a straight +shoulder; but this theory will not hold, as one not infrequently +finds straight-shouldered, short-pasterned horses which step lightly. +Another explanation must be found. We have to seek elsewhere in +the animal economy than in the peculiar arrangement of the bones, +muscles, tendons and ligaments of the limbs to account for the light +step of some horses. + +The endowment with this desirable quality is undoubtedly referable to +the nervous system, just as speed is. We cannot determine the degree +of a horse’s speed by studying his external form. We have to subject +him to a test, and so we have in forming a conclusion as to the +degree of lightness or heaviness of his step. + +With regard to labored progression, the tendency to it is usually +determinable by an inspection of a horse’s conformation. All +deviations from the steadily carried top in the trot, in which there +is no rolling, jerking or waddling, and from the straight flexion +and extension of the forelegs, in which there is no straddling, +dishing or winding-in, and from the equally straight and easy flexion +of the hock, can, as a rule, be determined by an examination of an +individual’s conformation. The horse with thick or loaded shoulders +and wide chest is apt to roll; the one that stands with his forefeet +placed wide apart, straddles; the knock-kneed one, as well as the one +that toes-in, generally dishes, while the horse that toes-out, winds +in. The horse with his hocks wide apart and feet close together, +“screws” his hocks outwards and usually “plaits.” When the hocks +are placed behind instead of under the quarters there is likely +to be a dragging movement of the hind legs. It is therefore true +that faulty progression is usually determinable by conformation. +Defective conformation of the legs shows itself with almost unvarying +regularity in its effect upon the action. In order to have straight, +undeviating action a horse must flex and extend his legs during +progression in a line parallel to the long axis of the body. The +knock-kneed, bow-legged, or even calf-kneed horse cannot do this, and +consequently experiences the ill-results of loss of time and power in +progression. + +Apart altogether from the question of the degree of the lightness +or heaviness of the step, the manner in which the feet are placed +on the ground has a great influence in determining wear and tear, +and is consequently an important point to study. The horse that +toes-in usually has the inside quarter of his forefeet defectively +developed, which becomes more marked if he is not rationally shod. +This defect of formation of the inner quarter consists in a slanting +off of it from before backwards and outwards and from above downward +and toward the centre of the foot, causing this quarter to assume +a wedge-like form and literally to act as a wedge between the shoe +and the sensitive part of the inner quarter, thus predisposing it +to bruising. In addition to this, the horse that “dishes” usually +brings his foot down with force on the inner quarter. This manner of +planting the foot not only subjects the ligaments to undue tension, +but is a fruitful source of troublesome corns. + +On the other hand, a horse that toes-out is apt to come down with +most force on the outside of his foot. This is a much more defective +formation than the former, for it not only causes winding-in and +great liability to interfere, but the planting of the foot is +usually accomplished in a manner that results in the production of +considerable concussion, and also subjects the ligaments to great +tension, so that the legs soon begin to show the effects of wear and +tear. Some horses come down with most force on their toes, causing +them to stub their toes, as it is called. Such a manner of planting +the foot is apt to cause stumbling and increases concussion to a +marked extent. Short-pasterned, straight-shouldered, and short-gaited +horses often show this defect. + +Just the opposite manner of planting the foot or coming down with +the heel first is not at all uncommon. This defect of action is +not only likely to cause bruising of the heels, but subjects the +tendons and ligaments at the lower and back portion of the forelegs +to excessive strain. Ordinarily this imperfection is only observed +in long-gaited horses, but some that plant their feet in a favorable +manner when going at a slow pace, when forced to a faster one +lengthen their stride, and show this defect, often called “pointing,” +to a pronounced degree. Deep and oblique-shouldered horses with +little knee action, like thoroughbreds, often go in this way, but its +ill-effects are not so great as in those with a considerable amount +of knee action. + +“Threading” or “plaiting” are terms used to designate the swinging +of the elevated foot around the one that is placed on the ground in +progression. This ungraceful manner of going, which occasions a loss +of power, is most clearly shown in the walk or slow trot. + + + + + FORGING, OVER-REACHING AND CLICKING + +This Paper Won the Prize Given by _The American Veterinary Review_ +for the Best Essay on This Subject + + +That very disagreeable and annoying fault of striking the forefeet +with the hind ones during progression, variously referred to as +“clicking,” “over-reaching” and “forging,” is one to which some +horses are predisposed; but it is excited by a number of conditions +which can, as a rule, be remedied by rational treatment, even in some +instances where there is a predisposition. Forging is the result of +any cause that prevents a horse from getting his forefeet out of the +way of his hind ones, in progression. + +Undue shortness of body is a frequent predisposing cause, but one +must not fall into the error frequently made of assuming that a +short-backed horse is necessarily a short-bodied one. A horse may +have a short back but long quarters, causing him to stand over a lot +of ground or be what is called “long underneath,” and be anything but +short-bodied, and in fact possessing the ideal formation, as far +as this point is concerned, and be anything but inclined to forge. +Horses with the fore pasterns disproportionately long, when compared +to the hind ones, especially if the forefeet are also inclined to +unusual length, experience retardation in the flexion and extension +of the forelegs, to a degree that renders interference from the hind +ones liable. + +An important factor in good action is the straight advancing of the +forelegs in progression. Any deviation from this, as in wind-out or +winding-in, or a combination of these two defects, sometimes called +“wiggling,” retards sufficiently prompt action of the forelegs to +enable the feet to make way for the hind ones. These defects of +action are the result of the fact that the bones that make up the +foundation of the legs are defectively related to one another in +forming the joints. There are very palpable illustrations of these +defects of formation in horses with “knock-knees,” calf-knees, +turned-in or turned-out pasterns. We notice in individuals a lack +of harmony in formation between the fore and hind extremities. For +instance, some horses have the pasterns of the hind extremities of +a length disproportionate to those of the fore, and vice-versa. So +with action: some have quick and extensive flexion of the hock, out +of proportion to the degree of promptness of flexion and extension +of the forelegs. Such horses are liable to forge. Those that stand +lower at the withers than they do at the highest point of the croup +are also liable to this fault, as are also low-headed horses, +particularly if they are of a sluggish temperament, as they not only +lack “snap” in their action, but the lowness forward interferes with +the freedom of the forward action. + +In addition to the predisposing causes of forging there are a number +of exciting ones, and horses that cannot be said to be predisposed +may be found to forge under certain circumstances. Perhaps the +exciting cause most frequently in operation is the lack of strength +or condition. Many young horses forge for a time, or until they have +been fed and worked sufficiently to establish nervous force and +proper muscular development, so that they have perfect control of +their legs. + +Horses that are not in good condition may go a mile or two without +“clicking,” but as soon as they become fatigued or winded, begin to +forge. They are particularly apt to do this if driven or ridden fast +at first, and the more so if the weight they are drawing or carrying +is excessive for the pace at which they are traveling. + +Horses that are called upon to carry a rider--not being used to +it--may temporarily show this fault, particularly if the footing is +soft or going heavy. + +Those used to the hard footing and light draft of the pavement in +cities may never be heard to forge until driven on a country road +where the draft is greater and the going heavier. + +The mouth, too, is not without an exciting influence. The horse that +has a hard, unyielding, unresponsive mouth is much more liable to +forge than one that, at a touch of the whip or spur, will raise his +head, get his nose in, and respond to the pressure of the bit, so as +to go in a balanced manner. + +Indifferent riders and drivers that have bad hands, and do not know +how to keep their horses collected, will allow many to over-reach. + +One need never be discouraged about a young well proportioned horse, +but should wait until the mouth is made, the animal got into good +condition by steady judicious work, good feeding and grooming. + +In horses inclined to “click,” the forefeet should be kept as short +as possible, and the shoes for them should be as light as can be +used in order to conserve their normal condition. Very frequently +horse owners use an increased weight of shoe on forefeet as a remedy +for this fault, which is a palpable error, as undue weight is one +of the exciting causes. Rounding off the toes of the front shoes +has a tendency to enable a horse to raise his feet from the ground +more quickly, and is an aid. It is well, however, not to resort to +artificial measures more than necessary. It is best, in fact, to keep +the feet in as natural a condition as the circumstances of the case +will permit. But in order to overcome forging in some horses, either +as a temporary or permanent expedient, the principle to pursue is to +encourage slow or dwelling movement of the hind feet, in order to +allow the fore ones to get out of their way. + +The most effectual way of doing this is to raise the toes of the hind +feet and lower the heels. The toes can be raised either by thickening +the shoe at the toe or putting on a toe piece. Allowing the toes of +the hind hoofs to grow long is an aid, and gives opportunity for +setting the shoes back, so as to do away with or lessen the noise of +“clicking.” + +“Forging” is not an unsoundness, but it is a defect or fault, as bad +action is. + + + + + INTERFERING, STRIKING, CUTTING OR BRUSHING IN HORSES + + +Of the many faults, accidents or habits to which horseflesh is heir, +“interfering” is one of the most troublesome. Fortunately, however, +it is one that admits of a large measure of prevention, and the +ill-effects of it can, to a very considerable extent, be overcome. +In the consideration of this subject, one of the most important +points to thoroughly study is the causes. Of the somewhat numerous +influences which contribute to this fault, defective conformation is +a very important one in predisposing to it. It is important from the +fact that cases that are largely the result of defective formation +are the most difficult to successfully cope with. A horse of perfect +formation of limbs should raise, advance and put down his feet +approximately in a straight line in the walk or trot. Any deviation +inwards from the straight line renders him liable to strike if any +exciting cause is brought into operation. + +Narrow horses, particularly if they are leggy, are apt to go close +both behind and in front, and consequently to “brush.” Those that +“toe-out” either in the hind or fore extremities, usually wind +inwards in progression, and are consequently apt to interfere. In +fact, there is no formation of limb that so strongly predisposes +to this fault, in its most aggravated form, as the defect just +mentioned. Horses as a rule that “toe-in” in the fore limbs, wind +outwards, and consequently show no disposition to “brush.” In such +cases the “turning-in” of the toes is due to the position in which +the leg is fixed on to the body. It is due to the back part of the +leg showing a tendency to turn outwards from the body. This can +be most clearly observed at the elbow, where the point inclines +outwards. “Toeing-in,” however, is not always the result of a +malposition of the limb throughout, for sometimes the deformity is +confined to that portion of it from the fetlock down, constituting +what might be called a “club-foot.” This formation often predisposes +to “striking” to a marked degree, as in progression the foot comes +very close to the opposite limb. In spite of the predisposition many +horses show to interfering, from defective formation, such horses may +be seen working month after month without inflicting any injury to +themselves. + +Horses that are in good condition, well balanced in going, and +that have complete power of co-ordinating the movements of their +limbs, are the ones that are likely to escape the not infrequent +consequences of defective formation of limb. The exciting causes of +interfering are numerous, but the one most frequently heard spoken +of is defective shoeing, and it is no doubt sometimes a cause, but +not nearly so frequently as is sometimes supposed. The unfortunate +shoer is frequently maligned for what is no fault of his. It does not +matter how some horses are shod, or whether they are shod or not, +they will interfere under some circumstances. + +The best that we can do in the way of shoeing is to use a good, +rational shoe, properly applied on a suitably prepared foot. Too +heavy a shoe will sometimes act as a cause from the excessive weight +taxing the muscular control of the limb unduly, so that during quick +movements and sharp turns, “striking” is particularly apt to occur. +Leaving the hoofs too large is sometimes a cause, from the simple +consequence of its bringing the hoof closer to the opposite leg. +Not only that, but the increased length of toe resulting from too +large a hoof intensifies the tendency to winding either in or out in +progression, and consequently increases the tendency to “cut.” + +The first step, then, in the attempt to prevent striking, is to +reduce the wall to reasonable dimensions with the rasp. Defects +of the form and direction of hoof may sometimes be remedied in +a measure; as, for instance, in a horse that “toes-out,” shorten +the outer part of the toe to a greater extent than the inner. The +tendency of this is not only to correct the unsightliness of the +deformity, but also to remedy its ill-consequence in progression. +The same may be done, but just in the opposite way, in horses which +“toe-in.” In the hind legs it is generally the inner part of the +toe of the hoof that inflicts the injury. This can be rasped so as +to reduce its convex form to an approach to a straight line with +the rasp, which lessens somewhat the danger. The shoe should be of +reasonable weight, strong enough to keep it from breaking, and set +in as much as possible on the inside without running too much risk +of bruising the sole. Have the inside branch of the shoe narrow and +rounded, so that there will be as little danger of inflicting injury +as possible. The nails may also be withheld from the inside of the +toe, so that no injury may be done from the clinches. It is a good +plan to also shorten the inside of the hoof more than the outside and +compensate for this by deepening the inside branch of the shoe, so as +to keep the foot level and have even bearing. The inside branch of +the shoe may be made almost straight from the toe back, and the hoof +made to correspond pretty much in form. The following out of this +plan of shoeing will minimize the likelihood of injury being done by +striking. + +The weighting of the shoe on the outside is often recommended by +having the outer branch considerably heavier than the inner one, with +the idea that the weight on the outside makes a horse go wider. This +would, no doubt, be the tendency, and provided it does not increase +the weight of the shoe too much, there is no objection to it. + +Another plan sometimes followed is to raise the inside of the foot +higher than the outside, with the idea that the fetlock of the leg on +the ground will be thrown outwards, and thus be more likely to escape +injury from the opposite foot. This plan is irrational, from the fact +that it causes a horse to tread unevenly, and thus tends to result in +injury to some other part of the leg, disturbing the relations of the +various parts that make up the weight-bearing column. + +In the front legs a three-quarter shoe is sometimes used, the shoe +only coming half way round on the inside, and not covering the +ground surface of the inner quarter. The difficulty about this plan +is getting the shoe so applied that all the wall will bear its +normal amount of weight. It doesn’t do to leave the inner quarter +unsupported, for in that case there will be tilting of the leg +inwards when the foot is put on the ground, or, in other words, +uneven treading, with the ill-consequences already explained. + +Charlier shoes sometimes do very well and are much safer than a +three-quarter shoe. This is a light, narrow-webbed shoe, that only +comes half way round on either side of the hoof and is sunken into a +groove cut out of the plantar surface of the wall, so that the lower +surface of it is just flush with the quarters that are not grooved +out. By this plan there is an even bearing all round the hoof, a +light shoe, and one no more likely to cause injury to the opposite +leg than the natural unshod hoof. The drawback about this shoe for +general use on hard roads is that it has not strength enough to form +a substantial stay to the hoof. It also lessens the action, and +horses are apt to go sore with them on very hard roads. + +It is questionable if we have a much better device for shoeing +interfering horses than the rubber pads now so generally in use in +cities. Their use has a tendency to prevent interfering by virtue of +their effect in preventing slipping, which is one of the exciting +causes of this trouble. In the hind legs, where “cutting” is most +usual, the inner and back part of the fetlock is the common seat of +injury. Occasionally in horses with a good deal of hock action, they +will strike the leg higher up, and in very low, close-going horses +the inside of the coronet is scraped. + +In the front legs the injury may be anywhere from the fetlock to +the knee. When it is high up it generally gets the designation of +speedy-cut. Another cause of “striking” is fatigue. It has already +been pointed out that when a horse has not perfect control of his +legs he is apt to “brush,” so that horses that have not had regular +work and good feed for a length of time, or, in other words, are not +in good condition, are easily fatigued and consequently liable to +interfere. + +The uneven footing of rough roads, slippery roads or pavements, the +swaying of a two-wheeler, are all circumstances likely to interfere +with a horse’s equilibrium, and consequently are not infrequently +exciting causes of “striking.” + +Another very fertile exciting cause, particularly in cities, and +one which, strange to say, is never referred to in print, is the +influence of discomfort in connection with the mouth in causing +“interfering.” There is nothing that puts a horse out of balance more +completely than anything wrong with his mouth. Horses that cross +their jaws, open their mouths, put their tongues out or over their +bits, carry their heads sideways, fuss with their bits, slobber, +pull, etc., or “pull out” or “crowd” in double harness, generally +have some soreness of the mouth caused by their bits, and, if they +are at all predisposed, are very apt to “cut.” We see examples of +this every day in cities where dealers get horses from the country +that have been chiefly used to snaffle bits. They at once begin to +drive them with curb bits, and they nearly all show some discomfort +at the change in the various ways already mentioned. It is very +common to see a horse cut his legs badly, under such circumstances, +that showed no evidence of ever having struck before. The treatment +of “interfering” resolves itself largely into methods of prevention. +The most important point is to remove the cause, where practicable, +and if not, to endeavor to neutralize its operation as much as +possible. + +If a horse is in danger of “striking” himself on account of the +mouth not being in proper order, or from any other exciting cause +remaining in operation, protect the part or parts that are likely to +be injured, with a boot. If any part is injured from “cutting,” keep +that part protected until it has entirely recovered from the effects +of the injury. + +In a large majority of cases after a horse is in good condition, his +mouth well made, and he is properly shod, there will be no need for +boots, unless he is subjected to some exciting cause, or unless he is +markedly predisposed from defective formation. + + + + + THE HORSE’S MOUTH + + +The discussion of the subject of the horse’s mouth has been prompted +by observing the thoughtlessness and carelessness of otherwise good +horsemen and lovers of horseflesh with regard to the horse’s mouth. +If a horse has a sore mouth he manifests it in some way unpleasant +to his driver or rider, but it is rarely that an examination of that +organ is made in order to determine the nature and extent of the +trouble. Such an examination is not difficult to make by one at all +accustomed to the handling of horses, and can be made as follows: +Take the horse into a place in which the light is good. To examine +the near side of the mouth, pass the left hand into the off side of +it, grasp the tongue gently, and pull it a little to one side--it is +not necessary to pull it out of the mouth--in order to expose the +branch of the lower jaw, or bar, as it is sometimes called. The thumb +of the right hand should be placed in the roof of the mouth so as +to separate the jaws, when the part that the mouthpiece of the bit +presses on can be easily scrutinized. The other side can be examined +in the same manner by using the hands in the opposite way. + +The soreness, however, is not always confined to the bars of the +lower jaw, the result of the pressure of the bit, for it is not +infrequently found that the lining membrane of the cheeks is +excoriated by the bit forcibly pressing the cheeks against the +anterior grinders. This form of injury is seldom found in a horse +that readily bends his head upon his neck or “gets his nose in,” +as it is often expressed, unless it is from the use of tight +pulley-bridoon bearing reins, which is almost certain to cause it, +particularly if a horse bores on it. In the majority of instances +it is where a jointed or snaffle bit is used, when a horse “takes +hold,” and in the case of one not inclined to “bend,” that the lining +of the cheeks is injured. It can be readily understood, where a +jointed bit is used on a horse that does not get his nose in, that +when force is exerted upon the reins, it presses the cheeks directly +against the teeth, and we can at once realize the great liability to +injury of the soft and sensitive cheeks when pressed between two hard +bodies, such as an iron bit and unyielding teeth, which frequently +have sharp projecting hooks and angles at the very point at which +pressure is brought to bear. Horses driven with tight over-checks are +particularly subject to this form of injury to the mouth, as can be +understood from the explanation already given. In horses that cannot +be made to get their noses in, in riding or driving, and which show +evidence of soreness of the mouth in the lining of the cheeks, the +front grinders should be kept as smooth as possible. It is impossible +for a horse to have a pleasant responsive mouth when the pressure +comes upon the cheeks. Nature evidently intended the yielding lower +jaw to bear the pressure of the bit, with the soft and elastic tongue +to aid in avoiding injury to the sensitive structure which covers the +branches of that jaw. Many horses which do not bend their heads upon +their necks, when used with a snaffle bit can be made to get their +noses in with a curb, which is consequently, when rationally used, +the more humane and also the much more effectual in promoting style +and action. Occasionally, however, one finds that a horse goes better +in a snaffle than in any other kind of bit unless it is one with a +smooth and slightly curved, unjointed mouthpiece. + +In addition to those already referred to there are many other +ill-results from sore mouths, and among the more serious of these are +the restless and irritable habits horses develop when being ridden +or driven out of the stable, such as going off with a rush, rearing, +plunging and balking. A great deal depends upon the sensitiveness +of the individual as to the manner in which he shows his restiveness +and irritability when with a sore mouth again facing the bit. A horse +of a good, mild temperament may do nothing but show a hesitation in +going into the bit and if in double harness hang back for a time, +or he will not go up with his mate. Others will go sideways, cross +their jaws, press on one side of the bit, or toss their heads in +an irritable manner that makes it almost impossible to guide them. +High-strung, nervous, determined horses may show their irritability +in the more dangerous manner of rushing, plunging or rearing. Drivers +of horses are sometimes very much astonished to find a previously +well-mannered horse go off with a rush, rear or plunge, but it is +remarkable how seldom they think of looking to the mouth to find out +the cause for the unexpected display of ill-manners, when in the +majority of instances it is to be found there. Even when the lips +are tinged with blood from the injured lining membrane it is seldom +that an examination is made to determine the extent of the injury. +Frequently when an injury to the mouth is pointed out to an owner it +is thought lightly of, the extreme sensitiveness of that organ not +being realized. + +Pinches, abrasions and cracks about the commissures of the lips +usually attract attention because they are easily observed, but they +really, as a rule, do not cause nearly the amount of irritation and +pain that an internal injury to the mouth does, and they are easily +prevented by the use of a circular leather cheek piece on the bit. +Some horses that show a disinclination to go into the bit for the +first mile or two, after a time begin to pull, and the farther they +are driven the more they pull. This is usually the result of a sore +mouth, and veterinarians frequently have to remove small portions of +bone which have been detached from the jaw by the extreme pressure +of the bit. Bad “side-liners” are caused by a chipped jaw or else +an extensive excoriation of the soft tissues on one side of the +mouth where the bit exerts its pressure. In the healing up of such +injuries the tissue with which nature repairs the breach seldom +seems to attain the ability to stand the pressure of the bit to the +same extent that one not so severely injured does. The fact that +such permanent ill-effects are apt to follow injuries to the mouth +from the bit should cause the exercise of due care when there is any +evidence of soreness. Certainly high-couraged, ambitious horses are +predisposed to injuries of the mouth, but they can be largely guarded +against by the exercise of care, and it is very important never to +disregard “soreness,” however slight. + +There is probably no animal in which a bad habit is more apt to +become confirmed than the horse, and the restless, irritable habits +he is liable to develop on leaving the stable are among the most +disagreeable. Some horses do not what is called “settle down” when +first driven out, but either prance, hop or canter for a varying +distance. This is generally accounted for by the owner as being +evidence that the animal in question is “feeling too well,” or, in +other words, is suffering from an exuberance of spirits. This may be +the cause, but in the large majority of cases it is attributable to +uneasiness in connection with the mouth. Sometimes this discomfort +may not be the result of absolute soreness, as a change of bit may +cause it. It may be noticed in an otherwise well broken horse where +a curb bit is first substituted for a snaffle, particularly if it +is placed too low in the mouth and if, as very often happens, the +tongue is put over it, in which case a horse is very unlikely to go +steadily, and his mouth is almost sure to get sore in a very short +time. + +The placing of the bit in a horse’s mouth is a very important matter +in influencing his manner of going. Some horsemen say there is one +proper position for a bit in a horse’s mouth and that it should +always be placed in that position. My experience is that this is best +determined by experiment with each individual, and one can tell, by +driving or riding a horse a few minutes, as to where the bit should +be placed in his mouth. It is usually best to place it rather high at +first, particularly when changing to a curb bit, but if he keeps his +tongue under it and does not respond readily to pressure, lower it as +much as he will stand without showing restlessness. The lower the bit +in the mouth, within certain limits, the better, provided the horse +will keep his tongue under it and not fuss with it, and face it with +a reasonable degree of firmness. + +How frequently we see horses go off their feet when going well +within their speed at the trot. Sometimes this is the result of +excitability, but in nine cases out of ten it is due to a feeling of +discomfort or want of confidence in connection with the mouth. Very +often this is caused by the arrangement of the curb in giving too +much leverage, especially if the hands of the driver are not good. +Some horses that go unsteadily with the reins in the bar will go much +better in the half-check, or it may be in the plain check, but very +often the breaking at the trot is due to an injured mouth. Horse +owners sometimes endeavor to overcome this tendency to breaking by +giving long drives, and fatigue will temporarily overcome it as a +rule, but there are horses that go unsteadily when almost jaded. This +tendency can usually be overcome in a moderately worked horse if the +bitting is made comfortable for him and the soreness of the mouth +relieved. + +Soreness of the mouth is by no means an uncommon one among the +exciting causes of “interfering” and may frequently be observed +even in well broken horses when a change of bit, particularly a +change to a severe one, has produced some injury to the mouth. +Fatigue, bad shoeing, rough or slippery roads, and the swaying of +a heavy two-wheeler are all exciting causes of “striking,” and the +awkwardness arising from an imperfectly made (not thoroughly bitted) +mouth, with the incidental soreness, is an important factor. + +Driving green horses in double harness is a very fertile cause of +sore mouths. There are undoubted advantages in handling green horses +in double harness, particularly shy, nervous ones, as the break horse +inspires confidence in the green one and he is more easily controlled +if badly frightened; but one can make more rapid progress in making +a mouth in single harness, or in the saddle, than in double harness, +for the opportunity of humoring it is better, and there is only one +temper to consider. Trainers of green horses usually change the side +horses are driven on every day, which is a good plan, as it tends +to make them drive straight; but it is a tacit acknowledgment that +there is more or less soreness of the mouth. + +If the mouth is bruised or excoriated on the portion of the bars +of the lower jaw where the bit presses, keep the bit out of it, if +possible, until it heals. This need not prevent the horse being +exercised, for if a suitable place is available, he can be lunged a +sufficient time daily to keep him in condition and under control. The +lunging line can be buckled in the noseband of the halter, and no +bit need be used. If a suitable place for lunging is not available +and it is necessary to lead the horse alongside of another that is +ridden, it can be done without the use of a bit by using a tightly +applied standing martingale, made with a headpiece and attached to +a girth that is kept in its place by a crupper. The headline should +be attached to the noseband of the headstall. In some instances +changing to a bit that exerts its pressure so as not to interfere +with the sore part will answer, as, for instance, the substitution of +a snaffle for a Liverpool; but in most instances it is better to keep +the bit out of the mouth altogether until it heals. When the mouth +is sufficiently healed to stand the pressure of the bit again it is +a very necessary precaution before driving for the first few times +to take the sharp edge off the spirit of the horse by lunging him +so that the sore part will not be so likely to be reinjured by the +animal’s “taking hold.” + +It is well to emphasize what has already been stated, that the front +grinders should be kept in condition, so that they can inflict no +injury to the cheeks, by having them thoroughly beveled or rounded +off with the tooth rasp. This does no harm, provided it is done in a +rational way, and is frequently of much benefit in preventing injury +to the lining of the cheeks. + + + + + TURNING HORSES OUT + + +In the large Eastern cities the practice of horse owners turning +all or some of their horses out for a portion of the year is a very +common one. Consequently it is an important matter for them to study +this question from every standpoint. For instance, is it wise to turn +a horse out if he is going sound, and is in good working condition? +Many owners express themselves and act as if it were a benefit to a +horse to be thrown into complete idleness at intervals for a time. +Others do it with the object of saving expense. Mr. C. J. Hamlin, +of Buffalo, whom everybody knows as a gentleman of long experience +and also as one of good judgment in horse matters, is said to have +given expression to the following aphorism, viz., that “two let-ups +are as bad as a break-down.” This statement may be considered rather +an exaggeration by some, but those who have had an opportunity for +fully observing the effects of “turning out” on horseflesh will +agree that there is a large measure of truth in it. If you throw a +horse into complete or comparative idleness for any length of time, +every active tissue of the body becomes relaxed and incapable of +standing anything like severe work. The tendons and ligaments lose +their strength, the muscular fibres their tone, the nervous system +its power of supplying energy for any lengthened exertion. The +relaxing effect of idleness on muscular fibre is well exemplified in +connection with the circulation. Take, for instance, a saddle-horse +that has been carrying 200 pounds on his back every day all winter +and well into the spring, with impunity. The owner is going abroad +for three months and turns his horse out. When he comes back he +thinks that his horse has had a long rest, and should therefore carry +him particularly well. In a short time, however, the horse begins to +show signs of fatigue by dropping his head, going heavy in hand, and +very likely by “forging.” + +The next morning the owner goes to look at him and finds he backs out +stiffly, and is more or less swollen about the fetlocks, and his feet +may feel a little warmer than usual. He is suffering from muscular +soreness, the tissues about the fetlocks are congested, the coats of +the blood-vessels in the extremities have not tone enough to return +the blood with proper force to the heart, so there is stagnation of +a portion of it in the dependent parts. That delicate and intricate +network of blood-vessels in the feet, from long and comparative +inactivity, cannot carry on their function with integrity, so we get +congestion and consequent stiffness and shortening of the gait. + +“Ah, but,” someone explains, “this is only temporary. If you bandage +his legs, give him laxative food and light walking exercise for a +few days he will be all right again.” The chances are he will, but +two or three days’ work have been lost, and if you then subject him +to the same course you will very likely have a repetition of the +condition. Yes, and it will be several weeks and more likely months +before he is in as good condition to stand work as he was before he +went out. During all these weeks or months that have been spent in +reconditioning, the muscles, ligaments and tendons are more or less +soft and consequently susceptible to strains of varying intensity +which may necessitate lying up for treatment. It is not only strains +we have to fear, but the comparative inactivity of the circulation +during rest renders the legs and feet subject to congestion and +inflammation at various susceptible points when abruptly called into +activity in doing hard work. + +No doubt, by taking time and bringing a horse gradually into work he +can be restored to good condition, but to do this there is required +management, some expense and tantalizing delay. + +When owners are not prepared to bring their horses gradually back +into condition, they will soon have stale-legged and lame horses. +One or two seasons of “turning out” and bringing up and abruptly +putting into work will often transform a valuable, sound horse into +a “screw.” Although the legs and feet are the parts that suffer most +from this treatment, a horse shows it also in his “top,” for it takes +a long while to bring back the bloom and finish that go with good +condition, after being turned out. + +Of course it is a problem for many owners difficult to solve +satisfactorily, what to do with their horses when they go away for +three months, particularly those horses that are practically sound +and in good working condition. It is such an easy solution of the +problem to turn them out at some good farm, where they will be +sufficiently fed, and kept in safety in a loose box and have a run +in a paddock, and only cost fifteen dollars per month apiece. The +question is: Wouldn’t it pay better to give thirty dollars and have +the horses kept in condition, so that they are ready to work as soon +as their owners need them? When we come to consider the danger, +loss of time, and wear and tear incidental to reconditioning, we +must emphatically answer, yes. In the above remarks we have only +considered this question from the standpoint of horses that are +practically sound and in good condition, but it is quite another +matter when we have to deal with horses that are run down from +overwork and other unfavorable conditions, or with pavement-sore and +lame horses. + +In horses that are run down comparative idleness is almost +imperative, and there is nothing much better than a run in a good, +shady, well-watered pasture in the early summer, before the flies get +too bad. In that way they get the gentle exercise they voluntarily +take and get the advantage of the alterative effect that good, fresh +grass has upon the system. This, too, is good treatment for slightly +pavement-sore horses, particularly if the pasture land is not too +dry. Lame horses are, in almost all cases, benefited by rest, and if +it is necessary that the rest shall be at all prolonged, the most +economical and favorable place to treat them is in a loose box in the +country. A horse is bound to get out of condition, anyway, if resting +for lameness, and he is usually better in the country, getting lots +of pure air and sufficient space for comfort. The beneficial effects +of treatment and rest must be followed up by a very gradual process +of reconditioning after the lameness has subsided, otherwise the +lameness will be apt to recur. + + + + + IMPROVING ACTION + + BITTING, SHOEING AND CONDITIONING FOR ACTION--I + + +Horses that have a tendency to show action can undoubtedly have it +very much increased by the adoption of a proper system of training, +but there are many without this inclination which it is hopeless +to develop to a degree that makes it worth while spending time +and effort on them. The influence which contributes most to the +development of action is bitting. This requires knowledge, time and +patience. Some horses’ mouths are much more easily made than others, +and there are some it is almost hopeless to try to make anything like +perfect. A good mouth is a responsive one. Pressure from both reins +should cause the head to bend readily on the neck, while that from +either near or off-rein should cause correspondingly prompt flexion. +There are some horses that it is almost impossible to bend, owing to +the defective anatomical relations of the head and neck, and unless +they naturally have a lot of action, they are not likely, even in +the best hands, ever to show very much. A horse with his head well +put on his neck, that has a responsive mouth and some ambition, will, +when urged, get his head up and nose in, and if restrained at the +same time by moderate pressure of the bit, will step much higher than +if he has a free head when going at the same rate of speed. Some +horses, when going fast, show a considerable amount of action, that +at a slow pace will exhibit very little. If such horses have their +mouths well cultivated, so that when restrained their force will be +exerted to step up instead of stepping on, their action, in front at +least, will be much increased. If, however, a horse’s mouth is not +cultivated to a proper degree of responsiveness, and he is urged into +the bit, he will lug or bore and go ahead instead of going up. + +To those who are anxious, then, to develop action in their horses, +the first step is to endeavor to cultivate a responsive mouth. As has +been stated, this requires time and skill. Many horses’ mouths are +frequently permanently injured by insufficient time being taken for +this process. It is a very similar one to teaching a child to write. +The tyro at writing cannot regulate the movements of his hand and arm +so as to make smooth and regular lines in an easy, flowing manner. +The nerves and muscles of his hand and arm have to be cultivated by +degrees to be able to accomplish this. So with the horse’s mouth; the +nerves of it have to be educated to make prompt and easy response +to pressure, and the muscles, acting under the influence of the +nerves, have to be strengthened and developed, so that the head +can be bent on the neck and properly carried without discomfort to +the individual. The head should not only be bent on the neck to a +reasonable degree, but should also be steadily carried. + +The first step in the process of making a horse’s mouth is to get +him used to the pressure of the bit without showing restlessness. +No pressure should be brought to bear upon the tongue by means of +the reins until the horse will stand a bit in his mouth without +fussing. The bit should be placed sufficiently high in the mouth, +so that there is no temptation for the horse to get his tongue over +it. The old-fashioned plan of putting a big, thick bit, with keys +hanging from it, placed low in the mouth, is entirely erroneous, as +it gets the colt into the way of fussing with his tongue all the +time, which is a habit to be avoided. In a good mouth, if the horse +is comfortable, his tongue lies quietly in the groove formed by +the branches of the lower jaw, and acts as a protective cushion in +preventing injury to the delicate and sensitive covering of the bars +and the bars themselves. If, then, through faulty management, the +tongue is not by degrees trained to stand the pressure of the bit, +the horse is sure to develop some irritable habit with that organ, +such as putting it over the bit, drawing it up in the mouth, or +“lolling” it. The result of the two former habits is that the bars of +the jaw lose the protection of the tongue and become exposed to the +pressure of the bit, which they cannot stand without suffering pain +and injury. Consequently the mouth becomes very unsteady, loses its +responsiveness, and the horse is put off his balance, so that he is +apt to go off his feet, hitch, and go cornerwise instead of straight. + +Putting the tongue over the bit and retracting it in the mouth +has the further ill-effect of making a horse show irritability in +a variety of ways, such as crossing the jaws, carrying the head +sideways, throwing the head up, keeping the mouth open, slobbering, +frequent movement of the head instead of a steady carriage of it, +which is so important in conducing to a responsive mouth. Putting the +tongue over the bit soon becomes habitual with some horses, and it is +quite a difficult matter to remedy effectually. Spoon bits and all +such mechanical contrivances to prevent it are very unsatisfactory, +as a horse is never comfortable with them, and never carries a steady +head with any of them in his mouth. It can, however, be cured by +gradually getting a horse used to the presence and pressure of the +bit on his tongue. Putting the tongue over the bit becomes such a +confirmed habit that some horses will do it as soon as the bit is +put in the mouth and before any pressure whatever is brought to bear +on the tongue by the bit. This aggravated form of the habit can be +remedied by using an ordinary ring bit with a straight mouthpiece. +This should be placed high in the mouth, so that it is impossible to +put the tongue over it, and left in all day except when the horse is +feeding. In two or three weeks’ time the horse will become accustomed +to keeping his tongue in its proper position with respect to the bit +and stop trying to get it over. + +This, however, is only the first step, and the next and most +important one is to get the tongue used to pressure. To accomplish +this, attach reins to the bit and buckle them to a roller at the +withers. For some time they must be left very loose, so that the +bit will exert no pressure unless the horse extends his nose beyond +its usual position. In this way he will be brought to experience, +by degrees, a little pressure on the tongue. For a time he should +be lunged daily with the reins loose, so that he will get used to +the presence and occasional pressure of the bit when in motion. Very +gradually indeed the reins may be tightened, so that after some weeks +the subject may gradually be brought to stand moderate pressure on +the tongue, and by still slower degrees may the bit be lowered in the +mouth until it reaches the lowest position the individual will stand +and still keep his tongue in place and carry his head steadily. Very +great vigilance must be exercised to see that the tongue never goes +over; if it does so by any chance, immediately raise the bit, and +lessen the pressure. + +When sufficient progress has been made, as evidenced by the ability +of the tongue to stand pressure when the subject is in motion, he +may be ridden or driven. A rider with good hands can accomplish +much in cultivating the mouth and can humor it so that the horse +may gradually be brought to stand pressure. It is better to use the +horse in single harness than in double, as his mouth can be better +humored where there is only one temper and mouth to consider. The +necessity for getting the tongue used to standing the pressure of the +bit cannot be too much emphasized, but of course there is a limit +to this, and some horses that are lacking in sensitiveness will +stand pressure on their tongues until they become black and blue, +thoroughly dried up in some cases, projected from the mouth, and the +mouth kept more or less open. The most important exciting cause of +this fault is placing the bit so high in the mouth that the horse +will not bend his head upon his neck in response to the pressure of +the bit. All this may be overcome in many instances by lowering the +bit an inch or two in the mouth, when pressure of the bit will cause +responsive giving of the jaw and thus relieve the tongue of undue +pressure. + +A horse should never be allowed to go with his mouth open, as it +becomes dried, which lessens the sensitiveness and responsiveness of +that organ and encourages pulling. If a horse shows a tendency to +keep his mouth open, try to determine the cause, as it is sure to +be due to some discomfort in connection with the mouth. In addition +to removing the cause, any tendency to this fault should be checked +by the use of a tight noseband. The mouth must be kept closed, as +a horse never goes nicely with it open. Although faulty mouths are +usually the result of careless, thoughtless, unskilful management, it +must be acknowledged that there is a decided predisposition in some +horses to what are called bad mouths. When this tendency does exist, +however, it can usually be overcome by rational management and a +pleasant, valuable, useful horse kept from becoming an uncomfortable +brute, much lessened in value from the possession of a bad mouth. + +The horse with a small tongue and narrow, sharp bars, is apt to be +very sensitive to pressure and easily made to develop irritability +and unsteadiness of the mouth; but if he is taken cautiously and +carefully with easy bits, and gradually brought to stand pressure, he +is likely to develop a delightfully responsive mouth. Some horses, +on the other hand, have thick, leathery tongues, which it is almost +impossible to make responsive, owing to their lack of sensitiveness. +This inherent lack of sensitiveness of mouth is occasionally +associated with a corresponding lack of sensitiveness of the skin, +so that the horse does not feel the whip. I have had experience with +individuals of that sort that were free-goers and determined pullers, +in which there was something evidently lacking in the nerves of +sensation. Cases are, of course, exceptional, where there seems to be +a general lack of sensation, but it is not so rare to find a leathery +mouth. + +In addition to the hyper-sensitiveness of the mouth in some horses +and the lack of sensitiveness in others, necessitating unusual care +in making their mouths, some horses have anatomical defects which +preclude the possibility of them ever having anything like perfect +mouths. Those with necks below of a length disproportionate to the +length of the necks above, particularly if such necks are deep at +their points of attachment to the head, it is impossible for the head +to be bent upon the neck so that the mouth may be responsive. A horse +formed in this way is bound to stick his nose out, and when pressure +is brought to bear upon the lower jaw with the bit it slips up in the +mouth towards the grinders, and does not exert leverage upon the jaw +at a place of vantage or so that the head can be bent upon the neck. +As a rule, ewe-necked horses show this inability, but not all, by any +means, for some of them are clean-cut in the throttle, and the neck +just above the throttle is light, so that it can bend with ease. + +In addition to the causes already explained, temperament predisposes +to pulling. A free, courageous, determined horse is much more apt to +get into the way of pulling than one not over-burdened with energy. +Of the exciting causes of pulling, insufficient work and over-feeding +are important; but really the most fruitful one is the unskilful and +heavy-handed driver. Some drivers will make almost any horse pull. +Many have no sympathy with a horse, and if they do observe evidences +of discomfort in connection with the mouth, which may be shown in +some of the ways already explained, they do not endeavor to remove +the cause. It is most important in bitting horses to prevent them +from getting into bad habits of any kind. They get into bad habits +very quickly, which it may take a long time to eradicate. The most +rational principle to proceed on is not to allow them to learn bad +habits. Do not place them in a position to learn bad habits. + + + + + IMPROVING ACTION + + BITTING, SHOEING AND CONDITIONING FOR ACTION--II + + +In my last article on this subject I drew attention to the fact that +bitting, or “making the mouth,” is by far the most important matter +to attend to in contributing to action. You must get the head up and +the nose in, and cultivate a responsive mouth, so that when a horse +is urged and restrained, he will step up instead of stepping on. +It was urged that care should be used against getting horses into +bad habits in connection with the mouth in the process of bitting, +such as getting the tongue over the bit, retracting the tongue, +side-lining, going with the mouth open, tossing the head, carrying +the head unsteadily, and so forth. If some of these habits are +developed, they will tend to neutralize any beneficial efforts that +have been made in the cultivation of the mouth. + +An easy bit should first be used, such as a straight-barred ringed +one or a snaffle, so that the colt will face it firmly and carry +a steady head. In the development of speed, it is also imperative +to use an easy bit, but for the production of style and action, a +curb bit is almost indispensable for the majority of horses. The +inexperienced ones are apt to think that a curb bit is an instrument +of torture. The ignorant, thoughtless and rough handler of horses +can easily make it so, but if it is properly used it is really more +humane for use in many mouths, than a less severe one. The curb bit +gives very much increased leverage, and will make some horses bend +that cannot be made to do so without it. As soon as they bend, it +requires very little force to keep their noses in, and very little +pressure need be exerted, so that there is no injury nor irritation +resulting. In addition to this, the pressure is divided between the +interior and exterior of the mouth, the curb chain exerting its share +of the pressure just behind the lower lip. + +Some free, courageous horses, especially if short of work, will +pull to a most uncomfortable extent, both to themselves and their +drivers, if driven with a snaffle bit. The same horses, if used with +curbs, will go without taking hold, and with the exertion on the +part of their drivers of very slight restraining force. The perfect +handling of a horse with a curb bit is a very fine art, by which are +produced the perfection of carriage and the maximum of style and +action. To realize fully what the perfect handling of a curb bit +means in promoting style and action, one has only to observe a horse +skilfully handled with one, especially if he has a good mouth. The +dexterous rider or driver brings out all the responsiveness there +is in the horse without causing him to fight, while the unskilful +handler allows a horse to carry himself imperfectly and gets him off +his balance, thereby lessening his gracefulness, style and action. +The change from a snaffle to a curb bit should be made carefully and +discreetly, as it takes a horse some time to get used to the change. +We have good opportunities in the city of observing the ill-effects +of the abrupt change. A dealer gets in from the country a horse that +is possibly well broken, but has never had a curb bit in his mouth. +He hitches the horse, puts a curb bit in his mouth, and “pulls him +together,” as it is expressed; that is, he urges him with the whip +and restrains him to get all the style and action he can out of him. +He is very much encouraged to see his new purchase make such a good +showing. The next day he puts the horse in harness, but finds that +he does not go so well, showing irritability in connection with +his mouth. The horse may hold his head sideways, open his mouth +more or less, put his tongue over the bit, toss his head or carry +it unsteadily, pull, hitch, go off his feet, or interfere. He may +display any one or a combination of these faults, showing that he is +uncomfortable and out of balance. + +Why this quick alteration in the manner of going between the first +and second hitching? It is simply due to the fact that the delicate +tissues of the mouth have become bruised or abraded from the rough +handling of a bit with powerful leverage. The horse’s mouth is sore, +and he cannot face the bit without showing irritability, which he +manifests in the ways described. The curb bit feels different in +his mouth, the pressure on the tongue is greater, and if the curb +chain is tightened and reins buckled to the bit, so as to give +much leverage, many horses will chafe under the newly experienced +increased restraint, and will pull, thereby greatly increasing the +injury to the mouth. If this is repeated, the mouth is spoiled and +bad habits produced. + +In getting a horse accustomed to the curb bit, it is a good plan to +let him stand with it in his mouth in the stable for a few hours a +day. This gets him used to the shape and size of the new bit, after +which pressure can by degrees be brought to bear on it. Some trainers +are opposed to the use of a dumb jockey. Of course, the mouth cannot +be perfected by the use of this device alone, but it is a very useful +auxiliary to other measures. The dumb jockey is a rubber contrivance +attached to a girth and crupper and with elastic reins to buckle +to the bit. The prejudice against it is largely the result of the +irrational manner in which it is used. In the majority of instances +the reins are buckled too tightly at first, causing too much pressure +on the mouth, and forcing the head and neck into an unnaturally +constrained position. This, instead of cultivating responsiveness of +the mouth, causes irritation of that organ, gets a horse into fussy +habits, and makes him lie on the bit, doing more harm than good. +One not infrequently sees a horse standing in a stall with a dumb +jockey on him, his mouth partly open, his tongue over the bit, and +boring down on it, and sweating profusely from the discomfort he is +suffering. A dumb jockey used in this way is worse than useless. One +of the objects of using a jockey is to get the nose in, and from the +manner in which it is used by many it is evident that they seek to +accomplish this by sheer mechanical force, forgetting that they are +training nerves and muscles to responsiveness, which can only be done +by degrees. + +As soon as a horse shows evidence of discomfort, loosen the reins and +tighten them gradually again. If the subject draws his tongue up in +his mouth, or puts it over the bit, raise the bit in his mouth. Some +horses get their heads too low with a dumb jockey on. In such it is +of much benefit to use a bearing-rein attachment to keep their heads +in proper position. The benefit from a dumb jockey used in a stable +is enhanced by using it when a horse is in motion. Some horses will +bend when standing that will not do so when moving, and so have to +be trained to it. Beneficial as a dumb jockey may be, a rider with +good hands, that can use his legs on the horse’s sides, urging him +by degrees into proper position with hind legs well under him, and +head up and nose in, can accomplish more, as he can humor the horse +at will. Next to riding, driving in single harness is best, as it +is hardly possible to humor a horse’s mouth as well in double as in +single harness. The tendency with most trainers is to hurry matters +too much. Urging a horse into the bit too soon causes him to fuss +with his mouth and is apt to make him fight the bit. The successful +trainer needs a lot of patience and perseverance. + +If, in the process of bitting, the mouth by accident gets sore, +rest it by keeping the bit out of it until it is better. This can +be accomplished in the country or in a small town, without keeping +a horse altogether out of work, by putting on the cavesson and dumb +jockey and having the reins tightly buckled to the cavesson and led +alongside of another horse in this way or lunged. It is a bad plan to +let a horse that is in the process of bitting or breaking get too +fresh, as he is apt to reinjure his mouth when he is put in harness +again. + +Curb bits for driving are so made that different degrees of leverage +can be exerted. It can be laid down as a rule that it is not wise to +use anymore leverage than is essential, otherwise the mouth is apt to +become sore and carried unsteadily. + +There is some diversity of opinion as to the wisdom of using bearing +reins. Some people, particularly the inexperienced, are very much +opposed to their use. Occasionally one finds a horse--much more +rarely a pair--that carries himself so well--head up, nose in and +head steady--that a bearing rein is superfluous. The majority of +horses, however, carry themselves better, drive more comfortably, +and are really more comfortable themselves when driven with bearing +reins. They can, of course, be made instruments of torture, if used +too tightly buckled up and for too long periods at a time, but most +horses will not only carry their heads too low, but bore, pull and +“duck” if not “borne up.” The low carriage of the head is not only +unsightly in a carriage horse, but causes too much weight to be +thrown on the forelegs for their welfare. The French check is very +much better than the pulley bridoon. The bearing rein should not be +used so tightly that a horse cannot bend his head upon his neck, if +he is capable of doing so. The bearing reins should seldom, if ever, +be used on the driving bit; if it is at all tight, it pulls the bit +too high in the mouth, causing a horse to bore and usually to bruise +the bars severely immediately in front of the grinders. A jointed bit +should be used in the mouth in addition to the driving bit and the +bearing rein buckled to it. + +So far we have been referring to bitting only as having a +contributing influence in increasing the forward or knee action; +but it has also a marked effect in improving the hock action. It is +remarkable how much the hock action can be increased by cultivating a +responsive mouth, dropping the nose into its proper position, or, in +other words, balancing a horse. + +Before we leave the subject of the mouth and bitting altogether, we +must refer to condition as an important factor in contributing to +action. Before a horse can be made to show all the action there is +in him, he must be toned up to the highest pitch. He must be full of +nervous energy, and his muscles thoroughly developed. He must not +only feel like doing it, but must also have the power. It takes time +to bring this about. The cultivation of the mouth and the toning up +of the system should proceed together, but never let the toning up +get ahead of the education of the mouth. It is better not to have a +horse feeling too well while you are cultivating his mouth, for, +if his spirits are too exuberant, he will not learn so fast, and is +apt to fight and increase his chances of developing bad habits. In +cases in which action contributes to a horse’s value, he must also +look well. Without being too gross, he should be in full flesh; it +should be well put on, and there is nothing like a lot of slow work +for this. From an hour to two hours’ walking exercise every day will +make the flesh look solid and give a finish which a horse merely +fattened up without work never shows. Slow work, if a horse gets a +sufficiency of good feed and proper grooming, will not prevent the +accumulation of flesh as fast work does, and it keeps the manners +of the individual good. The development of speed in trotting-bred +horses is a slow process with many of them. It takes several years +in some individuals to bring it to its zenith. This is in a measure +also true of action, if we look to perfecting it. A good deal can be +accomplished in a couple of months with some horses, but much more +can be attained in two years. We have examples of horses well known +in the show rings of this country to-day that have gone on improving +in brilliance of style and action for years. Bitting and conditioning +are the chief contributing factors. + +The practical man who is conditioning and developing horses’ action, +for sale, is limited as to time. He cannot afford to spend it and +he has to be guided too much by circumstances, but the principle of +development is the same, whether for the market or show ring. A great +deal is said about shoeing in contributing to action, and it is a +point that should be studied and carefully attended to, but it is +decidedly secondary in importance to either bitting or conditioning. +Some years ago a great deal of weight was used in shoeing show and +sale horses. You would frequently see a horse weighing from 1,000 to +1,100 pounds carrying on each forefoot from one pound and a half to +two pounds weight, and even more. This answers for some purposes and +before some judges, but if an owner wishes to sell or show a horse on +his merits, it does not do. A lot of weight on a horse’s feet will +make him show more action for a short time, particularly if shown in +hand and if he is feeling fresh and well. If, however, he is called +upon to exert himself for any length of time, especially if the going +is heavy, and if he has to draw any weight, he will soon begin to +labor, pound the ground, very likely forge, and the character of his +action will be destroyed. With a good judge, the character of the +action is of more importance than the amount of it, and he would not +look a second time at a horse that labors and pounds, no matter how +high he goes. One has to be guided by the individual, and the object +in view in determining the amount of weight to put in a horse’s +shoes, in order to get the best results in the way of action. From 16 +to 22 ounces is usually sufficient, but there are horses for which a +little less or a little more may be carried with advantage for sale +or show purposes. + +In addition to carrying a moderate amount of weight, the hoofs should +be allowed to grow to a fair length. Length of toe causes a horse +to exert increased effort in raising and extending the forelegs; so +the tendency is to increase the action. Defects of action can in a +measure be corrected by modifying the shoes and form of the hoof. +For instance, some horses extend too much and do not fold or bend +their knees sufficiently, but what is called “point,” and are apt +to go on their heels, or come down heel first, instead of planting +the foot squarely, heel and toe at the same time. For this defect, +have the toes fairly short, lighten the web of the shoe at the toe, +and increase its weight gradually towards the heel. With a horse +that folds too much and does not extend sufficiently, put the weight +towards the toe and lighten the heel. In a horse that “dishes” or +“winds out,” the heavy portion of the web should be in the inside +branch; while in a horse that “winds in,” just the opposite should be +done. + +In carrying out these modifications, they must be done so as not +to interfere with the level of the foot. If a horse does not tread +level, ill-results, in the shape of lameness or wear and tear of the +leg and foot, are likely to follow. + + + + + EXERCISE FOR HORSES + + +Everybody who owns or has to do with horses in any way, recognizes +that exercise is necessary for them in some way or other. Judging, +however, from the practice pursued by many persons, one cannot but +conclude that opinions differ widely as to the amount necessary, the +manner in which it should be given, the character of it, and the +circumstances which should guide one in prescribing it. + +In giving the subject reasonable thought we must first of all +recognize the fact that the horse is so constituted that he is +naturally an active animal. In fact, activity is his paramount +characteristic. If from any cause he is brought to lead the +comparatively vegetable existence of the sheep or cow, his powers +become more or less impaired, temporarily though it may be. + +Recognizing as we must the basic principle of a horse’s inherent +activity, we can make deductions as to his reasonable treatment +which are borne out by experience. It is not my intention to +make theoretical statements in treating of this subject, but to +endeavor to give some practical hints that may be of some use in the +everyday treatment of horses. It is not convenient to draw a line of +demarcation, in the treatment of this subject, between exercise and +work, though one might be able to define the difference to suit one’s +views. + +If one were asked to explain the effects of reasonable work on +a horse’s system, one might truthfully state that there is no +healthy part of his organism that is not beneficially affected by +it. Judicious work stimulates the appetite, promotes digestion, +encourages assimilation or the conversion of food into nutritive +material. It not only has an important influence on these functions +already mentioned, but in a greater degree it aids the various +tissues of the animal to take from the blood those elements required +to restore the loss which is going on all the time, and also to +promote their growth and development. Further than that, it helps the +system to get rid of material that it has no further use for, and +which, if allowed to remain, will prove prejudicial to it. + +The casual observer will almost be able to determine the change which +takes place in a horse, when not sufficiently worked, if he will +give it a little thought. If he is at all liberally fed, he will not +only retain his flesh, but will gain in weight. But what about his +muscular tissue? It apparently looks as bulky as ever. So it is and +possibly more so, but that it has become impaired in muscular power +can easily be demonstrated by an hour’s brisk work in the case of a +driving horse. He goes out full of life, and possibly shows to the +best advantage for a short time, but soon begins to drop his head, +go heavy in hand, in fact to lag, loses his action, and very likely +forges. This demonstrates the fact that, no matter how well a horse +may seem nourished, he cannot maintain his muscular tone and muscular +power without adequate work. + +The changes that take place in the muscles of locomotion also take +place in the muscular tissue of other parts of the individual. The +central organ of the circulation, the heart, is a hollow muscle, and +the blood vessels have muscular fibres in their coats. If a horse +is insufficiently exercised, the muscular tissue of the heart and +blood vessels becomes impaired in power, as that of the muscles +of locomotion does. If a horse in such condition is abruptly put +to brisk work, the circulation is apt to show weakness, and there +is danger of congestive and inflammatory attacks. A horse out of +condition and lacking in muscular tone will develop congestion of the +lungs, from an amount of exertion that would have no injurious effect +upon one in moderately good condition. If the muscular tissue of +the heart is weak, that organ lacks the power under severe exertion +to force the blood through the lungs, when stagnation and congestion +follow. + +Horses in the condition just described, if given a long, quick +journey on a hard road, are apt to develop founder or inflammation of +the quick of the feet in its most intense form. The circulation being +weak, the concussion resulting from the pounding on the hard road +interferes with it, and congestion and inflammation are apt to result. + +The amount and the character of exercise to be given during +convalescence is an important point in influencing the hastening +of that process, as well as in determining the completeness of the +recovery and the prevention of untoward sequels. Even during sickness +the restricted and gentle movements possible in a box stall of fair +size not only contribute to the patient’s comfort by admitting of +freedom and comfortable attitudes, but the slight exercise has a +beneficial effect upon the circulation, particularly that of the legs. + +After attacks of influenza, strangles, laryngitis or pneumonia, +and as soon as the temperature has regained its normal condition, +the question of exercise should be considered, and judgment should +be used in determining how soon the patient can stand exercise. +Sometimes a couple of days after the temperature has become normal +and the appetite is regained in a measure, the patient shows strength +enough in movement to justify one in concluding that he can stand +a short walk. He may be only able to stand a few minutes’ or he +may be able to stand ten minutes’ gentle leading, but usually each +succeeding day it will be found he can stand a little more. If he +can stand ten minutes a day, it is better, if possible, to divide it +into two periods of five minutes each. In my opinion this applies to +all exercise, whether that given during convalescence or conditioning +for market, for the show ring, or for the race track. Exercise rouses +the circulation, and in fact all the activities of the organism, with +beneficial results. + +Much better results can be attained by stimulating the functional +activity of all the organs of the body twice in the twenty-four +hours, than once. The period of convalescence is very much shortened +by pursuing this plan, and the horse can be put to work much sooner, +and with less danger of relapse. Those in charge of horses will +often keep a convalescent one in a box stall until he gets full of +life, then hitch him up. He will be for a few minutes full of vim +and go, but will soon begin to sweat from the too violent exertion +he gives himself. Violent exertion abruptly given is very apt to be +followed by a relapse after the weakening effects of illness and the +consequent inactivity. + +Plenty of walking exercise during convalescence from affections of +the breathing organs is the only course likely to ward off defective +wind, which so frequently occurs as a sequel to these affections. +One often hears it advised to turn a horse out for a few weeks after +attacks such as referred to. This means a run at grass in the summer, +and in the winter turning in to a box stall. In either case too +much bulky food is apt to be consumed to be favorable to good wind, +and systematic exercise is not given. Of the two courses, turning +out to grass is the better, as the food is of a laxative character, +and the animal takes some exercise. But the best of all is to keep +the horse up so that the amount and character of the food can be +regulated and a definite amount of exercise given. Walking exercise +during convalescence from acute affections of the breathing organs +brings these organs gently into play, rouses mildly their functional +activity, and is the only safe way to tone them up, and prepare them +by degrees for more violent exertion, which they can then perform +without showing any unsoundness of wind. + +Swelling of the legs occurring from any cause--for instance, as +a sequel to pink-eye--can be got rid of much more promptly by +judicious exercise than by allowing the horse to stand; and much time +can thus be saved. Keeping in a box stall facilitates and hastens the +process, but half an hour’s walking exercise should be given twice a +day. When the horse is not being walked, his legs should be properly +bandaged with cotton batting and in the majority of instances the +swelling will be practically gone in a few days. + +For sale horses and for show horses, walking exercise is a most +important factor in enabling those in charge of them to attain their +objects. A sale horse must be fleshy to attract most purchasers. +Dealers all over the world recognize this fact, as well as the one +that good, fresh-looking legs contribute in a marked degree to a +horse’s saleableness. + +Walking exercise does not to any appreciable extent take the flesh +off a horse, nor does it make the legs stale. Flesh put on under +walking exercise is harder and gives a more finished appearance to a +horse. This form of exercise also stimulates the circulation of the +legs, keeps them clean and renders them hard, so that when a horse so +treated is put to more violent work the tissues of the legs can stand +it without showing wear and tear. + +In the case of show horses, plenty of walking exercise is of even +more importance than in sale horses. Show horses must be fit to do +themselves and their handlers credit. In many of the rings the going +is heavy and horses that are likely to be in the ribbons should +be in shape to stand a severe test. If they are not fit when they +are called upon to make a final effort, they will not be equal to +doing their best. Many a ribbon is lost through a horse becoming +fatigued and losing his action and brilliancy in consequence. This +is particularly the case in heavy harness horse classes. Walking +exercise will do for a good deal more than half of it. After a show +horse is well broken, three times a week is plenty to hitch him, and +the day he is hitched he should also be walked once, and all other +days twice. This plan will get him fit, allow him to keep in flesh, +keep his mouth fresh, and his legs from getting stale, all of which +are important points to consider in a show horse. Exercise twice +a day contributes in a large measure to good manners. This is not +an important point in some well broken horses of easy disposition, +but in others that are apt to “get above themselves” if not well +exercised, it is an important one. Nothing helps to improve a +half-broken horse more than to go out twice a day. + + + + + THE HORSE’S COAT IN SPRING, SUMMER, AUTUMN AND WINTER + + +The state of a horse’s coat indicates, in a considerable measure, +the general condition of the individual. If the coat gets into bad +condition in a horse that is worked, it will soon injuriously affect +his general health, which will show itself by loss of flesh, life +and vigor. The care of the coat then, outside of the question of +appearance, has an important influence in contributing to a horse’s +well-being. + +If we had summer-like weather all the year round, with its genial +warmth to encourage the activity of the skin, we should have very +little trouble with the coat, as it would then remain short and +sleek, with very little care. With the changes of season, however, +and great variations of temperature, we find marked alterations +in it. The horse’s skin, and its appendage, the coat, are very +sensitive to climatic conditions, and nature makes an effort to +change the coat to suit altered states. Nature is very successful +in this while a horse is roaming about under natural conditions, +and a horse so circumstanced can stand great extremes of temperature +without suffering; but as soon as he is put to work and exerted to a +sufficient extent to heat him up, he then requires artificial care, +in order to maintain good condition. + +As has been already stated, the coat is more easily kept in a +satisfactory state during the summer than at any other season of the +year. The heat of summer encourages sweating, and this is beneficial +rather than injurious, within certain limits, so long as the horse +“cools out” and dries up in a normal manner. This is more readily +accomplished in the summer than at any other time, owing to the +shortness of the coat, and the little danger from drafts at this +season of the year. Nothing is more injurious to a horse in this +connection than allowing his coat to remain wet. At certain times +of the year, when it is long, some horses will remain wet for hours +after having been exerted, unless they receive great attention. The +frequent occurrence of this will soon cause unthriftiness. Standing +with a wet coat in this way frequently has a most relaxing effect +upon the system, and must be guarded against. In summer time there is +very little difficulty about this, but there is one form of treatment +very much neglected in hot weather, which is of great benefit if +properly applied. The coats of horses that are frequently warmed +up in hot weather get sticky, greasy and stained, and it is almost +impossible to get them perfectly clean and glossy without giving +them a good washing at intervals. Some horsemen are afraid to adopt +this treatment, but it is not at all dangerous, and most beneficial +if properly carried out. As a rule it is only necessary on very hot +days, and if it is done on cool ones, care must be taken to “dry out” +carefully to avoid chills. When a horse comes in on a hot day, having +sweated more or less profusely, water that has been warmed in the sun +should be freely sponged over him. This should then be thoroughly +scraped off, and a woolen cooler put over him; then he should be +walked for a while, if possible, until he cools out. As soon as the +coat is dry, grooming will make him look and feel fresh and well. It +is not always necessary to use a cooler in “cooling out” when it is +very warm. + +The autumn is the most trying time of the year to keep the coat in a +satisfactory state, for several reasons. A partial moult takes place +at this time, rendering the skin irritable to some extent. Besides, +there are the extremes of cool nights and warm days. The cool nights +cause the coat to grow and increase the tendency to sweating when +the animal is exerted during the heat of the day. From the increased +length of coat it becomes much more difficult to dry a horse after +work, and he is apt to suffer unless great care is taken to protect +him from the ill-consequences of standing with a wet coat. This +difficulty becomes so marked in some horses at the end of September +and throughout October that those in charge of them begin to discuss +the advisability of clipping. + +As a general rule, clipping should be deferred as late into the +autumn as possible, or until the temperature of the day and night +are not so much at variance; then the growth of the coat lessens +considerably. A horse clipped on the 10th of November may not require +clipping again for two months or more, while one clipped on the 10th +of October may need it again in two or three weeks. Horses clipped +early in the autumn usually have very dry-looking coats, and it +seldom improves their appearance, though it does in a measure relieve +them from the ill-results of standing with wet coats, especially if +it is repeated several times during that season. + +Every reasonable effort should be made to put off clipping until +November, and the necessity for it may be avoided in nearly all +cases until then. This can be accomplished in most instances by care +in proper blanketing. A light sheet may be all that the horse can +stand in the day time without sweating, but at night he should be +kept fairly warmly blanketed to check the growth of the coat. It +is usually necessary to begin this the end of August. Discretion, +of course, must be used, so that the covering is not heavy enough +to cause sweating. Some horses have naturally fine short coats, and +with ordinary care will not need clipping, even in winter, which is +so much the better; but the majority of them need it, and are much +benefited by it. + +Under certain circumstances, as in the case of horses having been +turned out and brought up for work, say in April, it will be +beneficial to clip them, for otherwise they look badly and will not +thrive well on account of sweating too freely when worked. + +Clipping at this season of the year retards the shedding of the +roots of the coat, and it is better to let it shed naturally in case +the conditions are such as will admit of it, without injury to the +horse’s condition and working ability. + +In a horse that is not too ambitious and has not to be exerted +violently, it is better to wait for him to shed naturally, which he +will do rapidly at this season of the year if he gets regular work, +good grooming and is well fed. Horses that are fed warmed boiled +feed for the evening meal will shed much earlier in the season than +those kept on dry feed. Some horses, however, will not stand this +without becoming too relaxed in the bowels, especially if worked +hard more than once or twice a week; others will not stand it at all +without scouring. Care in all instances must be exercised not to +feed an excessive quantity. In clipping saddle horses the mistake is +usually made of including the part covered by the saddle, and a great +deal of trouble frequently results in consequence. Newly clipped +horses, particularly if they are not thoroughly used to the pressure +and friction of the saddle, are very apt to develop an eczematous +eruption under it, and even horses regularly used for saddle work are +not immune to such injury after clipping. + +The layman is apt to assume that an attack of eczema coming on under +the conditions described is due to derangement of the blood or the +digestive organs. While derangement of the blood or the digestive +organs may predispose to an attack of this nature, some local +irritation is usually needed to determine its development. It is +obvious that a considerable amount of local irritation must result +when the skin, divested of its coat, is, for an hour or two daily, +subjected to the pressure and rubbing of the saddle. The rubbing +action is further intensified by the sweating that almost always +takes place under the saddle. Another contributing cause is the rapid +drying and cooling of the skin when the saddle is removed from a +clipped horse’s back. The rapid drying and cooling is apt to have a +deranging effect upon the circulation of the skin at this part, and +consequently conduces to inflammation of that covering. + +Eczema under the saddle is more apt to occur in cold than in warm +weather. More than fifteen per cent. of the saddle horses clipped in +midwinter develop this affection under the saddle, while not more +than one per cent. with backs unclipped show it. + +When harness horses develop it, it is on the parts subjected to most +pressure that it first shows itself, as under the collar and back +pad. The eruption has a great tendency to spread, and beginning on +the skin covered by the saddle, often extends over the whole of the +back and side. + +Occurring, as it frequently does, with a number of clipped horses +in a large stable, it is thought by stablemen and owners to be +contagious, but it is not so. It is apparent, then, that clipping the +coat under the saddle is a bad practice. Even in cases in which an +eruption does not take place, the rubbing is apt to cause temporary +baldness and troublesome abrasions, particularly if the skin has not +been toughened by long and continual pressure and rubbing of the +saddle, the result of steady saddlework. + + + + + THE CAUSES OF DIGESTIVE DISORDERS--I + + +The breeder and horse owner have not the time or opportunity to +acquire expert knowledge of the diseases of the horse, but it will +well repay them to give a little thought and study to the causes of +preventive disorders, particularly to those of the digestive organs. +The exercise of a little thought and judgment in the management +of a stable of horses will lessen to almost nil the occurrence of +digestive ailments among its inmates. There are certain affections to +which horseflesh is heir which it is impossible to prevent under some +circumstances, but those of the digestive organs can be very largely +prevented. + +We must study these causes under a number of heads. First of all +there is the condition of the individual at time of feeding, the +quantity of the food, the character of the food, and the form in +which it is given. Under the foregoing heads I have not included the +natural predisposition of some animals to digestive troubles, for +the inherent tendency to some affections cannot be classed among +the preventable causes, but, nevertheless, a little extra care may +neutralize the tendency to them. Take, for instance, a horse of a +nervous temperament, with a light middle-piece. Such an individual is +very liable to scour when first taken out, and in some horses this +cannot be prevented; but careful attention in giving non-laxative +and easily digestible food in properly regulated quantities, with +care about watering and the avoidance of violent and overtaxing work, +especially when first taken out, will often control this tendency. If +nervous, light-middled horses can once be made fat by proper dieting, +and are kept in health by light, slow work, the inclination to scour +will be much lessened. The accumulation of fat in the abdomen has a +tendency to lessen the violence of the action of the bowels and thus +to counteract scouring. Horses of the temperament just referred to +are better fed on corn than oats, as corn is more fattening and less +stimulating to the nervous system, so that horses fed on it are less +inclined to be excitable. Greedy, voracious feeders are predisposed +to digestive ailments from their tendency to overtax the digestive +organs by the consumption of too large quantities of food too hastily +eaten. The means of prevention of such a cause is apparent and easy +of application. These are examples of two inherent predisposing +causes. + +A feed that an animal can take with impunity and possibly with +benefit under some circumstances, may prove an exciting cause of +that very serious trouble in horses, acute indigestion, under other +conditions. Take, for instance, a horse that is to be called on to +do an unusually long and hard day’s work. The anxious, over-zealous +and well-meaning driver will, in some instances, give an extra-sized +morning meal, with the idea of buoying the horse up for the ordeal of +the day. As soon as the horse has had time to consume it, he starts +on his journey; it may be to pull a heavy load, or for faster work. +The more violent the work, the more will the digestive process be +interfered with. As soon as the course of digestion is arrested, +fermentation begins and it may go on to such a degree that the horse +soon begins to show signs of something being amiss. He most likely +came out of the stable showing life and energy, and went at his work +with spirit, but after going a few miles, however, he begins to +sweat more than he should, to lag, to drop his head and to bloat. +As soon as he is allowed to stand he shows restlessness and becomes +demonstrative in his exhibition of pain. He has acute indigestion, +due to mistaken kindness on the part of his attendant. Instead of +having been given a full feed or rather more than usual, he should +have had less, and the first opportunity taken of giving him another +small feed. + +We have the same thing occurring under different conditions, as, for +example, when a horse has had an unusually hard day’s work and is +very tired. He is put in the stable and given his usual meal, which +he eats. After an hour or so he begins to show signs of abdominal +pain. His attendant cannot understand the reason for this, as the +horse has only had his usual feed. He does not realize that the +horse’s vital powers have become very much lowered, the result of +unusual fatigue, and that the stomach participates in this temporary +inability and becomes, for a time, unequal to exerting its full +digestive powers, and that indigestion has resulted in consequence. +Had the horse been allowed to rest for a time, given a little water +and allowed to nibble hay, he might have been fed with impunity, +although it is usually a wise plan to lessen the feed if a horse is +unusually fatigued. The condition, then, of the individual has to be +considered in determining the amount of food he should get. Horses +that are in good condition, having regular hard work and full feed, +are much less liable to be affected by unusual fatigue and full feed +than those that are irregularly worked. + +In addition to the necessity for caution in feeding when a horse is +fatigued from hard work, long abstinence also necessitates care. +A horse that has had his stomach empty for a long time, whether +fatigued or not, is usually ravenous for his food, and is apt to +consume a full allowance of concentrated food too hurriedly to +permit digestion to go on satisfactorily. The old plan of giving a +little thin warm gruel to a fatigued fasting horse is a good one, in +order to prepare him for his full meal later on. It is not always +convenient to furnish this, however, and the next best plan is to +give a couple of quarts of water and a little hay, to get the stomach +into working order before the full meal of concentrated food is +given, preceded by more water. + +The quantity of food to be allowed a horse is not only an +important matter of study from the standpoint of economy, but is +a very material one to consider in connection with the question +of preventing digestive disorders. The statement can hardly be +gainsaid that decidedly the most prolific source of ailments of the +digestive tract is overfeeding. Farmers who raise their own feed are +possibly the worst offenders in this respect, and particularly in +the overfeeding of bulky food, or what is called by some roughage. +An enormous amount of hay is thus wasted throughout the country, +and injury done to many horses. It is really not an exaggeration to +state that fully half the amount of hay fed to horses in the rural +districts of this country is wasted. Not only is this so, but a +positive injury is inflicted on the horses that consume it. It is, +of course, true that horses, for the purposes of perfect digestion, +require a certain amount of bulky food. Sufficient nutritious matter +can be supplied in concentrated form, but digestion would not go +on properly without a certain amount of bulk. Volume of feed is +essential to insure the proper activity of the digestive tract. + +There is a limit, however, to the bulk required, and if this limit +is much exceeded, there is not only a waste of food, but injury is +done. If a horse is constantly being fed too large a volume of feed, +it overworks and overtaxes the digestive organs, soon weakening these +organs and consequently rendering them more liable to indigestion, +colic, stoppage and diarrhœa. Even if no such evidence of acute +disorder shows itself, as the affections named, the unnecessarily +distended bowels encroach upon the chest capacity and interfere with +the action of the lungs; so that the horse cannot stand as much +exertion as he might otherwise. One likes to see a horse with a good +depth of rib, and well ribbed-up and not presenting a tucked-up +condition, all of which is evidence of a good feeder. But no horse, +unless it is a mare in foal, or one running at grass, should show +what is called a “pot-belly,” as that is a sign that too much bulky +food is being consumed. Too much bulky food is also a cause of that +very serious trouble, called heaves, especially if the food happens +to be of defective quality, and consequently difficult of digestion. +One often hears it said that clover hay is apt to cause heaves. The +reason is that horses are very fond of it, and if they are allowed +all they want, will eat an excessive quantity of it. If the quality +of clover hay is good, and only a proper ration of it is fed, it is +no more likely to cause heaves than any other kind of hay. + +Fully one-half the horses one sees in country districts are +pot-bellied, especially in the winter. In many farm stables you +see racks kept full of hay constantly in front of the horses, +and the less work they do the more hay they eat, most of them +eating certainly twice as much as is good for them. In cities it +is different. Hay being high-priced, the quantity fed is usually +limited, with the result that digestive troubles are very much +rarer than in country districts. It is directly the opposite with +regard to the diseases of the breathing organs. In the large, +crowded stables of the cities, with breathing space limited, the air +becomes charged with impurities, with the result that diseases of +the breathing organs are very prevalent, while in the country they +are comparatively rare. The relative prevalence of digestive and +respiratory troubles in city and country affords a good illustration +of cause and effect, but the country horse owner has the advantage, +as he has to encounter chiefly diseases that are largely preventable. +It is a difficult matter to successfully cope with the prevention of +respiratory ailments in cities. + +It has been already stated and emphasized that the feeding of too +much bulky food to horses is one of the most prolific causes of +digestive disorders. The question naturally follows: How much is +sufficient for a horse to attain the best results? As far as the +supply of nourishment is concerned, it can be supplied amply in +concentrated form, as in oats or corn; but a certain amount of bulk +is necessary. If there is not a certain amount of bulk in the food +material in the bowels, the coats of these organs have not sufficient +contents to contract on, so that these organs may be able to move +along in proper time substances that should be excreted. The bowels +become torpid, as far as excretion is concerned, and the proper +digestion and absorption of nutritive material is not carried on. +Under these circumstances, health and condition cannot be long +maintained, and there will be a waste of food fed in concentrated +form. Of course, the amount of bulky food necessary varies according +to the size of the horse, and it is approximately correct to put it +at about one pound per hundred-weight of the animal’s weight. This +may be exceeded in some cases with impunity, to the extent of a few +pounds, particularly in horses used for slow work; but it will be +found sufficient in the majority of cases. While horses are being +used for very fast work, or are in training, a less quantity will +suffice. The usual plan in large cities is to feed the allowance of +hay all at one time, in the evening, after the horse has finished his +day’s work, and it works very well. People used to seeing a horse get +all the hay he can eat, think, when they see him restricted, that he +is being starved, but they will find he thrives if adequately fed +with grain, has better wind, more endurance, particularly for fast +work, and is much less liable to digestive ills. + + + + + THE CAUSES OF DIGESTIVE DISORDERS--II + + +Experience proves that there is no better concentrated food for a +horse for good hard work than oats. This can be readily explained. +First of all, it contains the essential flesh-forming, fat and +heat-producing elements in approximately their proper ratio. It also +supplies to the nervous system, as no other grain appears to do to +the same degree, the sustenance that gives life and ambition. In +addition to this, oats have a physical property that mechanically +fits them for ready digestion in a greater degree than any other +grain. This is due to the fact that the particles of the meal are +more loosely put together than in any other grain and that the hull +is coarser. On this account, when a masticated mass of oats enters +the stomach, owing to its looseness it is readily permeated by the +digestive fluid, so that digestion goes on readily and thoroughly. +Possibly the most indigestible of all grains, when fed by itself, +either ground or whole, is wheat, and this is due to its physical +character. A mass of wheat forms a tough, glue-like lump in the +stomach, so that it is comparatively impervious to the action of the +digestive fluid, and digestion goes on slowly and imperfectly, and +is apt to be arrested, causing serious indigestion. Peas and beans, +owing to their flinty nature, are also less digestible than oats. +Corn, when fed whole, is fairly easily digested, but when ground is +difficult of digestion, unless the cobs are also ground with it, +which renders it more pervious. Wheat, corn, pea and bean meal can +be rendered much more digestible by being fed thoroughly mixed with +a little chaffed hay. The chaffed hay, when consumed with the meal, +renders the meal more pervious to the action of the digestive fluid +and consequently more digestible. Where, from economy or convenience, +it is found desirable to use any of these grains for horses, it can +be done with comparative safety, if they are ground and fed with +chaffed hay. When meal is fed with chaff in this way, it is generally +quite thoroughly moistened, which is a mistake, as in this condition +it is apt to be too hastily eaten and too imperfectly mixed with +saliva to be thoroughly digested. One reason given for moistening +is that it makes the meal stick to the chaff and insures the two +being consumed together. There is something in this, but, as a rule, +if they are thoroughly mixed, there will be enough of the chaff +consumed to insure the digestibility of the meal. If moistening +is done at all, it should be done only slightly. A horse is so +constituted that the major portion of his feed should be fed to him +dry, as in this condition he will digest it more thoroughly and with +less liability to digestive troubles. + +Of course, a certain amount of laxative food is necessary in order +to mildly stimulate the bowels and keep them sufficiently active. +Some horses cannot stand laxative food without their bowels becoming +unduly relaxed. To such it is better not to give any, particularly +if they are going to work the next day. It is an interesting point +to study, and one that throws some light on the peculiarities of the +digestive tract, to explain why bran mash, boiled feed and roots +act as laxatives. They do not possess any purgative principle, as +aloes does. If a dose of aloes is given to a horse, it is dissolved +in the stomach, taken up by the blood vessels, going the round of +the circulation, and is eventually eliminated by the glands of the +bowels, increasing their secretion very much and rousing the action +of the coats of the bowels, so that a large quantity of liquid +excrement is passed. An explanation sometimes given of the laxative +action of mash and the like, is that it is due to the increased +amount of liquid supplied by the moist food; but that is not a +satisfactory explanation, as there is not enough of it to make any +difference. The most reasonable explanation appears to be that it +acts as a laxative by virtue of its indigestibility. It apparently +acts in the way that oil does. Small quantities, as a couple of +ounces, of linseed oil, given three times a day to a horse, are +digested and cause the animal to accumulate fat; but if a pint or a +pint and a half is given, it will not be digested, but passes on into +the bowels and stimulates them, causing laxative action. It will be +noticed that it is the undigested portion of the oil that causes the +purging. So it is with boiled feed and mash. It is on account of a +considerable quantity not being digested, that passes into the bowels +and stimulates their action. This is beneficial up to a certain +point, but if the bowels are overstimulated, irritation is apt to +result and the system is robbed of some nutrition. Horses that are +not worked or worked very little, can stand, and, in fact, require +more laxative food than those more exerted. Active exertion of itself +has a naturally stimulating effect upon the bowels. + +The lesson we learn from all this, is that moist food for horses +should be given with care and judgment. Given too frequently or in +too large quantities at a time, it is apt to cause indigestion and +undue relaxation of the bowels. Most horses that are doing little +work, such as those in moderate exercise, are benefited by a little +boiled oats and barley, given every evening. This is a very good +plan, particularly for sale horses. It is a good rule to follow with +hard-worked horses, that if they happen to stand in for a day, a mash +should be substituted for their evening meal of grain. With horses +that work hard and regularly six days in the week, the general custom +of giving the mash on Saturday evening is a good one; but in the case +of horses that may be left in for the day at irregular intervals, it +is usually the best plan to give simply a mash for the evening meal +instead of grain. + +Veterinarians meet with a frequently fatal disease called by them +azoturia, which in almost all cases is a preventable disease, due +to an error in feeding. It usually occurs in horses used to regular +work and good feed being kept idle for a few days and getting as much +feed as when they are working. It has been found in large stables +that with the carrying out of the rule that if a horse does not go +out during the day he shall have no grain in the evening, but only a +mash, there will be very few, if any, of these cases. + +Indiscretion in watering horses sometimes leads to derangement of the +digestive organs. The chief trouble arises from allowing too long +intervals to elapse in watering. Under normal conditions water may be +given as often as it will be taken, and it is rare that a horse will +take too much, unless he is very warm. Even when he is quite warm, a +quart or two may be given with impunity. The proper plan is to water +before feeding, as the water is then rapidly absorbed and does not +interfere with digestion. Unfortunately, it is difficult to get many +horses to drink, particularly in cool weather, before feeding, and +they have to be watered afterwards; it is, however, wise to allow +an hour to elapse before doing so. If a horse takes a full feed of +grain and a drink shortly afterwards and is then put to any violent +exertion, he is very apt to suffer from digestive derangement. If +a horse is suffering from diarrhœa, or is purging from a dose of +physic, water must be restricted and slightly chilled; otherwise, +superpurgation and death may result. + +An irrational plan of salting horses sometimes causes trouble. That +horses require salt is generally recognized, but a great many follow +the plan of giving it at intervals of a week or more, when they +become very ravenous for it and eat a great deal of it, which makes +them so thirsty that they will drink immoderately, and this will +sometimes cause digestive derangement. Horses should have access to +salt constantly; they then get the most benefit from it. + +Before leaving the subject of feeding, it should have been stated +that care should be taken in making changes of diet, which should +not be done too abruptly, particularly changes to food which, if +eaten hurriedly or in considerable quantities, is apt to cause +indigestion. Good examples of such food are roots, boiled grain and +grass. An attack of indigestion in a horse that is a good feeder may +almost certainly be caused by giving too large a feed of roots or +boiled grain or by turning him into a fresh clover field that has +a luxurious growth of herbage. If the grass is short, and he has +to work hard for his feed, he can be safely turned into a pasture +field; but where there is luxuriant growth, there should be several +days’ restricted feeding before it is safe to allow some horses, +particularly greedy feeders, liberty to eat at will. + +In all horses in which the excrement from the bowels shows evidence +of imperfect mastication, the cause should be sought for, and removed +if possible. Greedy feeders bolt their grain, not taking time for +perfect mastication. This not only results in waste, but is apt +to cause irritation also. Bolting the grain may be prevented in a +variety of ways. Numbers of feed boxes have been invented to overcome +this trouble, some of which are fairly effectual. The old-fashioned +plan of putting a number of stones amongst the grain works very well. +The addition of an equal quantity of bran to the grain is also an +assistance, but really the most effectual plan, where practicable, is +to mix two or three pounds of chaffed hay with the grain. In the case +of horses which do not bolt their grain, where there is evidence of +imperfect mastication, the grinders should be thoroughly examined. +This should be done by a qualified and reputable veterinarian. The +wandering, self-styled horse dentist should be carefully avoided, +as he is apt to injure the teeth by the over-use of the forceps and +tooth-rasp. Many horses’ lives are shortened by allowing unprincipled +and ignorant men to ill-treat the teeth. + +Horses are more liable than almost any other species, to irregular +growths of the grinders, owing to their peculiar anatomical +arrangement. The two rows of grinders in the upper jaw are further +apart than those in the lower, and consequently overlap them on +either side. The grinding surface is beveled, and in the upper jaw +slants from within outwards, forming a ridge on the outside of each +row. The arrangement in the lower jaw is just the opposite, the +ridge coming on the inside. In order that grinding of the food may +take place in a perfect manner, the teeth must come into perfect +apposition. If the grinders do not come into perfect contact in the +process of grinding, the food is not only imperfectly masticated, +but the teeth wear irregularly. Nature’s method of keeping the +teeth of normal dimensions is by the wear they experience during +grinding. If from any cause this wear does not take place throughout +all the grinding surface, irregular projections form, and are most +apt to be found on the outer ridge of the upper rows of grinders +and on the inner of the lower ones. These projections are liable to +interfere with mastication to a degree proportionate to their size, +and sometimes cut and abrade the cheeks and tongue. When the mouth is +in such a condition, it will be much benefited by proper attention. +The owner, however, should not be misled by traveling dentists into +thinking that all horses’ teeth require attention. The dentist points +out the projecting ridges on the outside of the upper rows and on the +inside of the lower ones, and makes the owner believe this to be an +abnormal condition. Some owners seem to think, or are made to think, +that the grinding surfaces should be level from side to side, instead +of beveled, as nature made them. + +In addition to the tendency to injurious projections on the grinders, +as already described, we not infrequently find on the front part +of the first upper grinders and on the back part of the last lower +ones, prominences of considerable size. These are found generally in +horses with “parrot mouths,” or what are sometimes called “overshot +mouths.” This is a deformity, as the upper jaw is placed a little +too far forward with respect to the lower one, so that a portion +of the first upper grinders and of the last lower ones do not +come in contact with opposing teeth. These are not kept of normal +dimensions by wear; consequently, projections are formed, which +seriously interfere with mastication, and otherwise injure the mouth. +Occasionally a broken or decayed tooth is found, which also gravely +interferes with the grinding of the food. If from any cause the power +of mastication is impaired, it results not only in waste, but the +imperfectly prepared food is liable to cause digestive derangement. +If a horse is found to slobber at the mouth and to have difficulty in +eating, the teeth should always be carefully examined by an expert. + + + + + THE USE OF BURRS ON HORSES’ BITS + + +Every now and then one hears of the A. S. P. C. A. making a crusade +against the use of burrs on horses’ bits, and it is one of the +practices that their agents are always on the alert to detect. They +assume that the use of a burr is such a very evident act of cruelty, +that they would have no difficulty in securing a conviction, which +would redound to their credit as assiduous and vigilant officials. + +Owners of horses appear to be afraid to take a chance of defending +such a suit. Why? Is it because they are averse to spending the time, +experiencing the incidental worry, and standing the expense, or is it +the fear of being convicted of cruelty to an animal? It seems to the +writer that the latter is the chief reason, and from which one would +naturally shrink; otherwise it appears difficult to understand why +horsemen allow men who, as a rule, have very limited or no knowledge +of horse management, to dictate to them as to what equipment they +should use in driving their horses. + +To one who knows the use of a burr, it seems incredible to think +that, with a fair trial and a proper presentation of a defense, a +conviction could be obtained against a driver of a horse for using a +burr on a properly selected subject. + +Numberless experts could be obtained as witnesses to show that the +use of a burr is no cruelty in properly selected cases, and such +experts could be obtained amongst horsemen of undoubted standing who +would shrink from anything that savored of cruelty to animals. + +Still further, it could be demonstrated, as it has been to the +writer many times, that it is positively inhumane not to use a burr +on some horses. One comes in contact with nervous, fretful pullers, +that wear themselves out, lose their appetites, and become wrecks, +that by the use of a burr often cease pulling, in a large measure, +drive comfortably, and regain condition. People are heard to speak +of burrs as if they are instruments of torture, placed on a horse’s +bit to irritate him. Some suppose that they are used to give a +horse a stylish carriage and promote action. As there is so much +misconception with regard to the object of their use, it will be well +to explain what is intended to be accomplished by them. + +A burr is made of a piece of thick leather, studded with bristles +on one side, about half an inch long. It has a hole in the centre, +so that it can be fitted on the mouth-piece of the bit, and a slit +running from the circumference to this hole, so that it can be taken +off or put on, as occasion requires. + +When it is put on it is placed on one end of the mouth-piece of +the bit, right up against the cheek-piece of it, with the bristled +surface towards the horse’s mouth. If the mouth-piece of the bit is +of proper width, the bristles do not prick the skin of the horse’s +lips, unless he voluntarily presses on them. After he has pressed on +them a few times, finding they are uncomfortable, he usually stops +doing it; then they don’t hurt him. + +This is the object of a burr, namely, to keep a horse from pressing +on one side of the bit. A horse that presses forcibly on one side of +the bit, which habit is usually called side-lining, is very difficult +to guide, as he takes an unyielding grip of the bit, usually holds +his head to one side, and pulls to an extent most uncomfortable to +his driver, and most wearing to himself. Anxious, ambitious, free, +high-strung horses are apt to get into this habit, unless their +mouths are properly educated to the bit, and their general handling +and management good. + +Not the least important amongst the exciting causes is insufficient +and irregular work, causing a horse to get what is often called +“above himself.” Under such circumstances, if he is a free horse, +he will go up firmly against the bit, and may bruise or injure +his mouth in some way, producing soreness and irritability of the +gums where the bit presses. This causes him to pull more, and some +horses brace themselves against the cheek-piece of the bit, which +enables them to pull to an extent most trying to the driver, and +most wearing to themselves. The farther they go the more they pull +and the more excited, fretful and heated they become. The constant +repetition of this causes them to get “run down” in condition, and +the unnecessarily violent exertion they make in performing their work +is very hard on their legs and feet. + +If by the simple expedient of using a burr on a puller’s bit, this +habit of pulling can be lessened, and practically overcome in some +cases, is it not justifiable to take the risk of subjecting a +horse’s lips to a few pricks with bristles in order to attain such +desirable results? A fretful puller suffers infinitely more, by the +over-exertion to which he subjects himself, and by working himself up +into an excited and heated state, than by the use of burrs. + +As for the driver, it becomes absolutely painful to him to drive a +side-lining puller, and it is not without danger, especially where +there is crowded traffic, as in cities, on account of the difficulty +of guiding and controlling a horse with such a disagreeable fault. To +a driver who has had his arms pulled out, the use of a burr does not +seem by any means too drastic a remedy. + +It may be asked: Is there not some other means of a less heroic +nature, that may be resorted to, to overcome this disagreeable +habit? There is no doubt that thoughtless, careless, ignorant and +unintelligent handling and management of horses, especially of young +ones, makes many pullers. Sensitive, nervous, courageous horses are +predisposed to this fault, and there are some in which it is almost +impossible to prevent the development of it. + +Some horses, whose mouths have become irritable from pulling, will be +very much benefited by “turning out” for two or three months. Keeping +the bit out of the mouth for a length of time allows that organ to +heal and freshen up, until it may regain something like its normal +condition; but much care must be exercised when they are again put +to work, otherwise they will soon relapse into their former habit of +pulling. No matter how much care is exercised with some horses, that +may almost be called natural pullers, they will develop the fault, +and any measures adopted to overcome it are fruitless, and all that +can be done is to seek measures of control, such as proper bitting +and the use of burrs. Many pullers are quite valuable horses, and +their owners are loth to lose their service, or even to part with +them for a good price, on account of the good qualities they possess. + +The use of burrs, like everything else in the management and control +of horses, should be done with discretion. Bits and bearing reins can +be made instruments of torture, just as much and more than burrs, if +not intelligently used. The apparently simple matter of placing the +bit in the proper position in a horse’s mouth is one subject to great +abuse, and is the cause of much suffering. It is no exaggeration to +state that fully one-third of the horses one sees on the streets +in New York City have not got their bits in the proper position in +their mouths. How frequently one sees horses with their mouths partly +open, tongues dry and projecting more or less from their mouths, due +entirely to bits being placed too high in them. Much of the pulling +is due to this error in bitting, as is also the unsightly fault of +tongue-lolling. + +No practical person advocates not using bits, although on account of +the ignorance and lack of intelligence and skill in the manner in +which they are used, they are the cause of more suffering than all +other causes combined. + +There are some pullers that burrs do not benefit much, and they are +sometimes used on horses unnecessarily. They are occasionally used +on horses that do not pull, but have acquired the habit of pulling +out in double harness. A much more rational and effectual way of +overcoming this fault is to drive the horse on the other side. + + + + +Transcriber’s Note: + +Words and phrases in italics are surrounded by underscores, _like +this_. Misplaced hyphens were removed; one final stop missing at the +end of a sentence was added. “It it” change to “It is.” + + + +*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 75671 *** |