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+*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 75671 ***
+
+
+
+                               Essays
+                          On Horse Subjects
+
+
+                                 BY
+                        F. C. GRENSIDE, V. S.
+
+
+                           [Illustration]
+
+
+                              NEW YORK
+                          PRIVATELY PRINTED
+                                1907
+
+
+
+
+                         Copyright, 1907, by
+                            F. C. GRENSIDE
+
+
+
+
+                               PREFACE
+
+
+Having been requested to contribute from time to time, articles for
+papers devoted to the horse, I have an accumulation of these that I
+thought it might not be amiss to publish under the title of “Essays
+on Horse Subjects.”
+
+Many of these subjects I have never seen any literature upon, and
+these Essays are largely the result of twenty-eight years’ experience
+as a practical horseman and veterinarian. Covering as they do the
+borderland between the provinces of the veterinarian and horseman,
+they relate to subjects which have been to a large extent neglected
+by both. This fact is my excuse for publishing them.        F. C. G.
+
+
+
+
+                              CONTENTS
+
+
+                                                             PAGE
+
+     QUALITY IN HORSES                                          1
+
+     HEREDITARY UNSOUNDNESS IN HORSES                           8
+
+     HITCHING IN HORSES                                        20
+
+     HORSESHOEING AND HORSES’ HOOFS                            25
+
+     CORRECT ACTION IN HORSES                                  34
+
+     FORGING, OVER-REACHING AND CLICKING                       41
+
+     INTERFERING, STRIKING, CUTTING OR BRUSHING IN HORSES      46
+
+     THE HORSE’S MOUTH                                         54
+
+     TURNING HORSES OUT                                        64
+
+     BITTING, SHOEING AND CONDITIONING FOR ACTION              69
+
+     EXERCISE FOR HORSES                                       90
+
+     THE HORSE’S COAT IN SPRING, SUMMER, AUTUMN AND WINTER     98
+
+     THE CAUSES OF DIGESTIVE DISORDERS                        105
+
+     THE USE OF BURRS ON HORSES’ BITS                         124
+
+
+
+
+                          QUALITY IN HORSES
+
+
+There is no subject upon which there seems to be more diversity of
+opinion amongst horsemen than as to what constitutes “quality” in a
+horse.
+
+It is a term in very common use, but if you ask a number of horsemen
+what they mean by it you are sure to get a variety of answers. One
+will say it means breeding; another, conformation; another, finish;
+another, “class”; another, symmetry; another, individuality; another,
+an accentuation of all fine points; another, magnetism; another,
+refinement of lines or perhaps a combination of some or all of these
+attributes. Some say that quality is recognizable, but indefinable
+and unexplainable.
+
+The term “quality” is an abstract one, indicating a special attribute
+in an individual, just as being well bred, well conformed and
+possessing finish are attributes of some individuals. When one says
+that a horse has “quality,” one means that he has a special attribute
+which may or may not be combined with any or all of the others
+mentioned. Of course there are varying degrees of “quality,” so
+that the term can only be used in a comparative sense. In the light
+classes of horses it is very often used synonymously with breeding.
+Certainly the more warm-blooded a horse is the higher the degree
+of quality he is apt to possess, but one may take two equally well
+bred thoroughbreds and find one showing evidence of the possession
+of a higher degree of quality than the other. So that breeding and
+quality do not mean the same thing. Neither does quality signify the
+possession of symmetry, good conformation, finish or “class.” A horse
+may be defective in any or all of these respects and still possess
+a high degree of “quality.” He may be fiddle-headed, lop-eared,
+ewe-necked, sway-backed, flat-sided, slack-loined, cow-hocked and
+calf-kneed, and yet show much “quality.”
+
+Much confusion is caused by using the term “quality” synonymously
+with “class.” Horses are spoken of as high-class, medium-class and so
+on, indicating the degree of excellence which they possess for the
+purpose for which they are best suited. Two individuals can be taken
+as an example, showing equal “quality,” but one of them, on account
+of better conformation, more style and action, may be worth twice
+as much as the other. Consequently he is a higher-class individual,
+although the two are equal in “quality.” So that “quality” and
+“class” do not mean the same.
+
+If, then, “quality” does not mean breeding or conformation or
+symmetry or finish or “class,” or a combination of any or all of
+these, what does it mean? It is an easier matter to explain what
+constitutes “quality” than it is to give a concise and at the same
+time comprehensive definition of what it is. It may not inaptly
+be defined as _fineness in contradistinction to coarseness_, or
+as _fineness of texture_. How frequently one hears a prospective
+purchaser say to a dealer: “He is a very nice horse, but very light
+in bone.” The dealer almost invariably replies: “Yes, but his bone is
+of good ‘quality,’” and still further endeavors to make the statement
+more emphatic by saying that the bone is so dense, so compact, so
+ivory-like, that a cubic inch of it will weigh more than a cubic inch
+of some other horse that has indisputably more bone. It is a fact
+that the bone of some horses is much more dense or compact, and is,
+as the dealer expresses it, of better “quality” than that of some
+others.
+
+What causes this greater density in the bones of some individuals
+than in those of others? We have to look to the elements of which
+bone is composed for the determining cause. The animal tissues are
+made up of fluids and solids. The solids are composed of three
+simple elements, viz.: granules, fibres and cells that are only
+determinable by means of a microscope. This difference of quality
+is most easily determinable with regard to the element fibres.
+The fibres that form part of the tissues of an individual of high
+“quality” are more slender, more compact and tougher than those of
+one of less “quality.” One can appreciate this even with the naked
+eye, in examining the walls of horses’ hoofs. In a horse possessing
+a fairly high degree of “quality,” the fibres which run from the
+coronet down, in forming the basis of the wall, are most palpably
+finer than in those of the wall of a coarser individual. So with
+the bone; the elements that combine to form it in a horse of high
+“quality” are finer and more highly organized than in those of a
+coarser individual.
+
+What you find in regard to quality in the bones of an individual,
+you find pervading all the tissues of his organism. You do not
+find a horse with coarse bone and fine skin, or coarse skin and
+fine bone. If the bone is fine or has “quality,” the muscles,
+tendons, ligaments, skin, hoofs, hair and all the other tissues
+which enter into his composition are equally fine or are of equal
+“quality.” The “quality” of a horse’s bone may be perfect, but
+undue or disproportionate length or other defective form, or faulty
+relationship of one bone to another, may make his conformation
+very imperfect indeed, so that it is difficult to understand why
+some horsemen think there is any relationship between “quality” and
+conformation.
+
+A high degree of “quality” is apt to be associated with defects, so
+that one might almost state that a horse can have too much quality.
+Size, or more correctly, substance, is strength, other things being
+equal. A horse with a high degree of quality may be so lacking in
+substance as to impair his power for the performance of work or
+for severe tests of endurance or speed. He may be so light-limbed
+that he cannot stand the “wear and tear” of hard work and remain
+practically sound. We often find horses that are superfine with
+disproportionately small feet, and every experienced horseman knows
+that it is seldom that such horses do much work and remain sound.
+A horse, however, cannot have too much “quality,” providing it is
+combined with sufficient substance for the purpose for which he is
+required. A high degree of “quality” and sufficient substance are
+most important attributes in contributing to perfection in horseflesh.
+
+There are many every-day evidences of the ill consequences of
+deficient quality in horseflesh. You hear a horseman say that a horse
+has soft legs, and he points out an individual inclined to fill
+about the skin of the fetlocks, to show windgalls which extend up
+the sheaths of his back tendons, and whose hocks are inclined to be
+puffy throughout. If he gets a bruise or injury of any kind to the
+skin of his legs, the consequent swelling is apt to extend and is
+inclined to remain. Abrasions, cuts, cracks and scratches heal rather
+tardily. Concussion and direct injury to bone are very much inclined
+to result in bony enlargement, such as splints, that spread out and
+have not well-defined limits. Standing in the stable too much readily
+produces stocking of the legs; there is a predisposition to greasy
+legs. The feet are inclined to be flat, large and easily bruised.
+
+These tendencies show coarseness of tissue and low organization, a
+meagre blood supply and inactive nutrition. Horses with “quality”
+also develop windgalls and splints if subjected to sufficient cause,
+but their character differs from those of coarse horses in being
+clean-cut and well-defined and not having the tendency to spread out.
+A horse with “quality” may have a bog spavin, but it will show as
+a well-defined prominence and not as a round puffiness of the hock
+throughout.
+
+Draft horsemen talk “quality” just as much or more than those who
+have to do with the light breeds. The difference in the “quality”
+of individuals of the draft breeds is just as well marked as in the
+light breeds. Take for instance a Clydesdale or Shire, both of which
+breeds have a considerable quantity of long hair on the back of the
+legs, which is often referred to as “feather.” If this hair is found
+to be fine and silky, not coarse and wiry, you will find that it is
+possessed by an individual that shows “quality” throughout. His skin
+will not be coarse and beefy, his legs will be fluted, his bone will
+have a tendency to flatness, showing density of structure. The hair
+of his mane and tail will be fine, like that at the back of his legs.
+The eminences and depressions formed by the bones of his head will
+be comparatively finely chiseled. He, in fact, shows “quality” when
+compared to other members of the same breed that are equally well
+bred as far as possessing the characteristics of the breed, and as
+far as the stud book is an indication of breeding. This is a further
+example of the fallacy of the view that “quality” and breeding are
+the same thing.
+
+
+
+
+                  HEREDITARY UNSOUNDNESS IN HORSES
+
+
+The question of hereditary unsoundness in all its aspects is by no
+means an open book to the horse-breeder, but it is one well worth
+studying by him, if as thorough a knowledge as is possible of this
+subject will tend to lessen the percentage of unsound stock produced.
+Of the various causes which tend to make horse-raising disappointing
+and unprofitable, this is one of the important ones, if not the most
+important. Literally speaking, it is not so much the inheritance
+of a disease itself that we fear, but it is the tendency to the
+development of this disease. Comparatively few foals are dropped
+with unsoundnesses, that impair their value ultimately, but there
+are many that are foaled with a predisposition to the development of
+unsoundness. The study of this subject, then, practically resolves
+itself into a consideration of what constitutes the predisposing
+causes of unsoundness.
+
+They may be divided into several heads, viz: Defective formation,
+defective quality, and insufficient quantity of tissue and
+temperament. Within certain limits, the practised eye of the
+observant horseman can determine in sire or dam the existence of
+these defects that are transmissible to the offspring, and predispose
+it to the development of unsoundness.
+
+It is claimed by some authorities that some horses and mares possess
+a peculiar habit of body, an indefinable something about them which
+predisposes them and also their progeny to the development of some
+unsoundness. Such cases are rare, however, and their supposed
+existence is very frequently the result of the inability of an
+observer to appreciate the existence of detectible predisposing
+causes. If this indefinable something is the determining cause of
+predisposition in some cases, then the only positive evidence of
+its existence is the developed unsoundness. This theory presupposes
+that none of the detectible predisposing causes already mentioned
+exist in sufficient degree in such cases, so that when subjects
+of them are subjected to more than ordinarily exciting ones they
+would develop unsoundness unless the peculiar habit of body exists.
+It is also an acknowledgment of the helplessness of breeders in
+a considerable degree to prevent breeding colts with an inherent
+tendency to unsoundness. No matter how capable and careful a
+breeder is he will produce a certain percentage of unsound stock,
+due to heredity, but with care it can be reduced to a small one.
+Many breeders use a sire from convenience or from some quality he
+possesses, such as speed, action, style or disposition, knowing they
+are taking a chance of perpetuating some tendency to unsoundness
+that he possesses. Favorite mares are also bred, with a disregard
+to the well-established principle that “like begets like,” even
+when they are the victims of hereditary unsoundness or a strong
+predisposition to it. The successful breeder must divest himself
+of all sentiment and be capable of appreciating all defects which
+constitute predisposition to unsoundness. Of the predisposing causes,
+defective formation is the most fertile one. The predisposition to
+navicular disease is hereditary. Horses with narrow, deep heels are
+predisposed to it. Some observers may say: “But look at the large
+number of horses one sees with narrow, deep heels that have not
+got navicular disease.” Of course, such an argument is fallacious,
+as there may be many compensating conditions that will tend to
+neutralize the tendency to this disease in some subjects. A horse
+with the formation of foot described, even although he is subjected
+to the exciting causes of hard, fast and steady work, and irrational
+and infrequent shoeing, may be endowed by nature with a very light
+step. Nothing tends to prevent “wear and tear” of the legs and feet
+like light stepping. Here, then, is an example of an influence which
+tends to counterbalance the ill effects of a defective formation,
+but renders complicated the study of formation as a predisposing
+cause of unsoundness. One, then, has to weigh the influence of
+compensating conditions in determining the ill-consequences likely
+to result from defective formations of feet when transmitted to
+offspring. That defective formation of feet is handed down to progeny
+there is no manner of doubt. The predisposition to ringbone is
+undoubtedly hereditary, and when the pastern is of good formation
+one seldom finds it unless it is the result of some extraordinarily
+exciting cause. The two extremes of long, light oblique pasterns,
+and the short, straight coarse ones, are both predisposed, the
+former from the tension to which the ligaments are subjected, and
+consequent tendency to sprain, and the latter from the increased
+tendency to concussion. As we proceed up the front leg we find
+defective formation in the neighborhood of the knee, predisposing
+to unsoundness. Many horses that are more or less knee-sprung
+are practically sound. Others become progressively weak and are
+decidedly unsound; so that we are not much amiss in characterizing
+the condition called knee-sprung as an hereditary unsoundness. A
+commission was appointed some years ago in England to make out a list
+of hereditary unsoundnesses. The list included navicular disease,
+ringbone, spavin, sidebone, periodic ophthalmia or moonblindness,
+and roaring. It will be observed that knee-sprung was not included.
+In order not to complicate matters they made the list as short as
+possible, and only included the most serious forms of unsoundness
+or those that are very obstinate in yielding to treatment or are
+incurable. Unsoundnesses such as knee-sprung, curb or splint, though
+the tendency to them is undoubtedly hereditary, were not included.
+This was because these conditions seldom permanently interfere with
+a horse’s practical soundness. A horse is what is called “tied in”
+below the knee when the leg immediately below that joint is narrower
+from before backwards, than it is just above the fetlock. In this
+condition the tendons behind the knee are not well developed, and
+are placed too close to the shank-bone at this point. This imperfect
+tendonous development in a front leg is not usually confined to the
+tendons behind the leg, called the flexor tendons, as an imperfect
+development of these tendons is usually associated with an impaired
+development of the tendons running down the front of the leg called
+the extensor tendons. Such a condition frequently results in shaky
+knees, and if the subject experiences hard work, he is likely to
+become progressively worse. In some cases the flexor tendons appear
+to be much better developed than the extensors, and in an individual
+so formed, particularly if he is inclined to stand with his forefeet
+well back under him, there is an inordinate strain on the extensors,
+leading to relaxation and a corresponding tendency to contraction of
+the flexors. Here we have a lack of balance between the extensors
+and flexors, and the result is a knee-sprung condition. Although
+shaky-kneed or knee-sprung horses are not frequently incapacitated
+for work, the breeder should not lose sight of the fact that this
+condition is apt to considerably depreciate a horse’s value in the
+market, particularly for some purposes, and he can seldom afford to
+ignore this fact. It is not intended to advise breeders never to
+breed to a sire that stands a little over in the knees, especially
+if sufficient cause can be assigned for it, but we should recommend
+them to be very wary about using sires and dams that show a
+congenital tendency to this defect. Purchasers of horses usually look
+with considerable disfavor on a horse that is at all knee-sprung.
+Personally, the writer would rather buy a horse for his own use that
+is a little forward in the knees than one that stands back in them
+or is what is called calf-kneed. A horse with the former defect
+is almost sure to be much more elastic in his step than one with
+the latter and, consequently, will not suffer to the same extent
+from the ill-effects of concussion. A calf-kneed horse is also much
+more likely to suffer from strains. Knee-sprung, unlike the other
+unsoundnesses given in the list of hereditary troubles, is not very
+infrequently congenital. Swan-necked horses and those with thick,
+coarse throttles are considered to be of the formations most liable
+to develop the defect of the wind called “roaring.” In Great Britain
+and Ireland and on the continent of Europe, breeders are usually very
+particular about avoiding roarers for breeding purposes. The climatic
+conditions there seem favorable to its development; but in this
+country it is not nearly so much to be feared, and one should not
+hold aloof from an otherwise desirable sire on account of his being
+a roarer, though it must be admitted that the predisposition to the
+trouble may be transmitted. The predisposition to periodic ophthalmia
+or moonblindness is handed down from parent to offspring, but it
+is not nearly so common in this country as it once was, when the
+sanitary conditions were not so good; and it may be that some care
+has been exercised in breeding, so as to avoid its propagation. The
+only appreciable evidence of a predisposition to this unsoundness,
+outside of the existence of the disease, is the small or what is
+called “pig eye.” The writer knew a sire well that had “pig eyes” but
+sound ones, and they remained sound throughout his long life, but
+certainly ten per cent. of his progeny developed moonblindness.
+
+The tendency to string-halt is undoubtedly transmissible from
+parent to offspring. Horses with snappy hock action are most likely
+to develop it. Nowadays it is not feared nearly so much as it was
+formerly, for if it should develop, a very large percentage of
+cases are curable by a not very difficult and by no means dangerous
+operation, which consists in the cutting of a tendon. A change has
+taken place in the generally accepted view as to the nature of
+string-halt. It was considered a purely nervous malady until it was
+found that the cutting of a tendon would in many instances cure it.
+
+Curb, although not, as I remember it, included in the list of
+hereditary unsoundnesses, is decidedly hereditary, as well as the
+predisposition to it. It is not an infrequent occurrence to find
+foals “dropped” with curbs which frequently disappear in a large
+measure. But there is always some trace of them remaining. It is
+the rarest possible occurrence to find a broad hock, and one with
+the tendon standing well out behind, with any sign of curb. Narrow
+hocks and those with the point dipped forward towards the body of the
+joint; a leg with small circumference immediately below the hock,
+or what is commonly called tied in; those with the back tendon
+not standing out posterior to the bone at the back and outer part
+of hock--in addition to these indications of weakness and tendency
+to curb, if the joint is crooked, or what is called sickle-shaped,
+the predisposition is much increased. Curb is not so very much
+feared by some breeders, as it seldom causes permanent lameness. It
+is, however, a great eyesore; it depreciates a horse’s value very
+considerably, and it is liable to cause recurring lameness.
+
+Crooked hocks, unduly straight hocks, narrow hocks, small hocks,
+those bent inwards or outwards, are all of weak formation, and are
+consequently predisposed, amongst other unsoundnesses, to bone
+spavin. Even though a horse should happen to have a bone spavin,
+provided he has a strongly formed hock, it would be safer to take
+a chance of breeding to him than one with a sound hock but of weak
+formation. So far we have run over briefly most of the defective
+formations that predispose to serious hereditary unsoundness. We
+have divided the causes into four heads, the second one of which was
+“insufficient quantity.” The old saying, “Size is strength, others
+things being equal,” applies to a horse’s extremities. We frequently
+hear it said that such and such a horse has “plenty of timber
+under him.” By this is meant that the individual in question has
+sufficient substance in the various structures that make up his legs
+and feet to give them strength and ability to stand “wear and tear.”
+
+The practical horseman of experience learns that the horse with
+disproportionately small feet seldom stands much work without
+going sore from some unsoundness of these organs. So with the
+slender-pasterned horse. He is not only subject to strain at that
+point, but predisposed to ringbone. The horse light under the knee
+is apt to suffer from strains of the tendons and ligaments in that
+situation, as well as troublesome splints. Proportionately large
+joints give wearing ability to the legs. This is well exemplified
+in the case of hocks with plenty of tissue in them. The sire that
+transmits small hocks to his offspring has handed down to him one of
+the most prolific sources of unsoundness in these joints. Defects
+of formation of these joints are often a cause of trouble, as has
+already been pointed out, but not so much so in my experience as
+lack of size. Stating that a horse has plenty of timber under him
+does not cover all cases, as some horses have plenty of tissue in
+their front legs and are deficient in their hind ones. In addition
+to formation and quantity of tissue, “quality” is of vast importance
+in influencing the wearing ability of the legs and feet. Parents
+transmit with great faithfulness to their progeny defects in the
+quality of the horn of hoofs. Shelly, brittle hoofs are strongly
+predisposed to crack, developing sand and quarter cracks on slight
+provocation, and giving rise to that very troublesome inability
+of being unable to hold the shoes tightly. Brittle hoofs are not
+necessarily coarse in fibre. Hoofs of coarse fibre lack the density
+of structure which generally contributes to toughness. Undue size
+of foot, low heels and flat soles, with a tendency to be easily
+bruised, are apt to be associated with a lack of quality in the horn
+structure. A horse with bone of a spongy character or lacking in
+density is deficient in quality. Such an individual is predisposed to
+inflammatory diseases of bone, such as splints, sore shins, ringbone
+and spavin. The lack of quality in a horse is particularly well shown
+in the skin of his legs. The tendency to the development of cracked
+heels, stocked legs, mud fever and grease is very evident on slight
+provocation. Sires deficient in quality are apt to transmit to their
+progeny the tendency to what are called soft-legs, in which there is
+not only the inclination of the skin to swell up from little cause,
+but windgalls, puffy sheaths of tendons and boggy hocks are easily
+induced. If, then, we accept these statements with regard to quality,
+as it would appear that every practical horseman must, we must admit
+that coarseness or lack of quality is by no means an unimportant
+factor in contributing to hereditary predisposition to unsoundness.
+Temperament is the last of the four heads into which we divided the
+predisposing causes of hereditary unsoundness. Although it must be
+admitted that it has an influence, we look upon it as the least
+important of the four. The nervous horse that jumps and gets excited
+on slight provocation; the anxious horse that is always up in his
+collar and against the bit, are more taxing on the physical mechanism
+than easier-going horses. We cannot afford to quite ignore this
+question of temperament in selecting sires and dams, but if the legs
+and feet are well formed, have sufficient substance, and are made up
+of a good quality of tissue, they will generally stand any taxing
+that may result from a high-strung temperament.
+
+
+
+
+                         HITCHING IN HORSES
+
+
+Of the many defects of action that horses show, one that detracts
+very much from the gracefulness of movement in the trot and walk is
+“hitching.” It is a peculiar hopping movement which results from a
+lack of power, or from defective balance. It is said that good cooks
+are born, not made. Exactly the opposite is the case with “hitchers”;
+they are made, not born, although there is no doubt that some colts
+are foaled with a predisposition to “hitch.” Still, even then, it may
+be kept in abeyance by good handling. The causes of “hitching,” then,
+may be said to be predisposing and exciting. Of the predisposing ones
+the most prolific is the want of power and freedom of movement in
+the hindquarter. Cat-hammed horses, those with short hindquarters,
+and those that stand with their hocks too far behind them, are very
+liable to “hitch.” Bad driving is a cause that frequently contributes
+to this fault. Some drivers will make almost every young horse they
+handle get into the habit, for it becomes almost a habit in some
+individuals.
+
+Starting off at too fast a pace, urging a horse beyond his speed,
+particularly if he has a heavy trap behind him, and allowing him
+to go uncollectedly from driving with a loose rein, are causes.
+Drivers that allow horses to rattle along with their heads loose,
+particularly if they are inclined to be free, will make many
+hitchers, especially amongst young horses and those in which there is
+a predisposition to the fault.
+
+Besides the causes already discussed and really the most important
+of all, is the mouth, for a very large percentage of “hitching” is
+referable to that organ. Horses which carry their heads steadily,
+hold them straight, with no crossing of jaws or opening of the
+mouth, and which keep their tongues in position under the bit and
+have responsive, firm mouths, never “hitch” when they have proper
+driving. Any discomfort of the mouth caused by bruises, abrasions
+or excoriations, making a horse sideline or bore, is very apt, in
+the case of a very prompt horse, to cause “hitching.” On the other
+hand, horses that do not face the bit firmly on account of soreness
+of the mouth or from the bit being placed too low in the mouth or
+from lack of courage, or any cause that makes them go with unsteady
+heads, are apt to “hitch.” A driver or rider with what is called bad
+hands is also apt to make a horse “hitch.” A driver with bad hands
+either takes a heavy, unyielding grip of the reins, or else holds
+them unsteadily, either of which causes is apt to put a horse off his
+balance.
+
+The uninitiated are apt to mistake “hitching” for lameness, and it
+is very hard to persuade them to the contrary, especially if a horse
+keeps doing it persistently. It is not an unsoundness, however, for
+there is no lesion necessarily of the extremity “hitched.” Habitual
+“hitching” is a fault or defect, just the same as other defects of
+action and “forging” are faults.
+
+If a horse is a persistent “hitcher,” however, he might almost as
+well be lame, as far as the unsightliness of the gait is concerned.
+In good hands, however, there is not much fear of it becoming
+habitual, and if it has become so from any cause, it can usually be
+remedied by good handling.
+
+In standing about sale and show rings, we frequently hear onlookers
+say that such and such a horse is going lame behind, when in reality
+he is only “hitching.” At sale and show times horses are frequently
+urged and pulled together to a degree very apt to put them off their
+balance, especially when they are called upon to keep making short
+turns. Some horses, even at the walk, will persistently “hitch” in
+being ridden in a ring when sharply bitted. Horses may be seen to
+drag and hop on one hind leg in going around a ring at a walk when
+ridden with bit and bridoon, but if a change is made to a snaffle
+bit they will go squarely, thus showing how a sharp bit will cause
+unsteadiness and irregularity of the gait in some light-mouthed
+horses.
+
+In case there is any doubt as to whether irregularity of the gait is
+due to lameness or to “hitching,” it is easily settled by jogging the
+animal in question at a slow trot “in hand” without any bit in the
+mouth, or at most a plain snaffle, with the head loose and carried
+straight. It may be emphasized here that the only true test in the
+determination of the question as to whether a horse goes sound or
+not, unless the lameness is fairly pronounced, is to jog “in hand”
+as already explained. Horses are sometimes condemned as going lame
+in the show ring when it is impossible to determine with certainty
+whether they are lame or not until taken out of harness and run
+“in hand.” It is sometimes a help, in deciding whether a horse is
+slightly sore forward or not, to get on his back, when the increased
+weight on the legs will intensify the tenderness.
+
+The idea of a horse “hitching” in front is sometimes ridiculed, but
+occasionally one may be seen to do it unmistakably, and it is usually
+the result of some discomfort in connection with the mouth. As has
+been already said, anything that puts a horse off his balance is
+liable to make him “hitch.” A horse may be said to be “balanced”
+when every leg bears its proper proportion of weight and also exerts
+its share of propulsion. The position of the head is very important
+in regulating balance. If it is carried too low, too much weight is
+thrown on the fore extremities; if too high, too much strain is put
+on the hind ones. It is most important that the head shall be carried
+steadily and in proper position, for a want of firmness in its
+carriage is apt to put a horse off his balance and consequently lead
+to “hitching.”
+
+
+
+
+                   HORSESHOEING AND HORSES’ HOOFS
+
+
+As with many other subjects relating to horseflesh, there is a
+wide diversity of opinion as to the treatment of the horse’s hoof,
+particularly as to that phase of it which has to do with shoeing. In
+New York, especially, there is a deeply rooted prejudice in favor of
+allowing the hoofs to grow out to very considerable proportions. If
+you ask some of the strong advocates of this practice their reason
+for it, you get the nonexplanatory answer that they like to see a
+horse with a good foot. The question then naturally presents itself:
+Does a luxuriant growth of horn constitute a good foot, and is a long
+hoof conducive to the welfare of the foot and that portion of the
+extremity above it? There is no doubt you can take liberties with
+a horse’s foot with impunity under some circumstances, but if you
+want a horse to do everyday work, the nearer you get a hoof to its
+proper dimensions the better for the foot and the leg above it. For
+ordinary work the hoof should be kept of such dimensions that every
+part of the lower surface of it shall bear its proportionate amount
+of weight, and that there shall be no disturbance in the proper
+relations of the various parts that make up the legs and feet.
+
+Dealers keep their horses’ toes long because length of toe increases
+their action. A horse with long toes is bound to exert more muscular
+force in order to raise his feet off the ground and extend them in
+progression; consequently his action is increased. As they do not
+work their horses hard, but merely give them exercise enough to keep
+them well mannered to show to their customers, they do not as a rule
+experience the ill-results they would if they were worked fairly
+hard. The same remarks apply to heavy harness show horses, that are
+simply kept in condition to show all the style and action possible.
+
+Everyday work, however, is another matter. The dealer and showman is
+right from his standpoint, but not from the standpoint of the owner
+who is looking for everyday service.
+
+Too long a toe acts as a lever and very much increases the tension of
+the tendons and ligaments that support the fetlocks, rendering them
+liable to strain, and also increasing the tendency to windgalls.
+
+Too long a toe is also a fertile cause of corns, as it increases very
+much the pressure on the heels and consequent liability to bruise the
+quick of the foot at that place, which bruise constitutes a corn.
+
+Besides having the toes too long, the heels are allowed to grow down,
+taking all the pressure off the frog. Nature intended the frog to
+bear its proper proportion of weight, and, if it doesn’t do so, it
+shrinks, the heels contract, and the inner quarter curls in and acts
+as a wedge between the shoe and the quick, and is thereby another
+cause of corns. Too long a hoof hastens fatigue, as the increased
+exertion necessary in raising and advancing the foot in progression
+augments the expenditure of force. The tendency to “interfere” is
+also much increased.
+
+This prejudice in favor of keeping the hoofs long has been brought
+about and encouraged largely by the example and expressed opinions of
+dealers. A dealer sells a horse with long hoofs, and the purchaser
+sends him to the forge. The shoer, unless he has been otherwise
+definitely instructed, and if he understands what is best for
+the horse’s legs and feet, will reduce the hoofs to their normal
+proportions. When the owner drives or rides his new purchase again,
+he finds the action curtailed, and thinks the horse is going sore. He
+applies to the seller of the horse, who tells him that he has had his
+feet cut away so much that it has made him sore. This might be the
+case in exceptional instances, but very rarely.
+
+In addition to reduction of the hoofs in size, the shoes may be
+lightened, which further lessens the action. What are called “green
+horses” are very apt to go sore if put abruptly into work, from the
+fact that their tissues have not been by degrees hardened for work;
+in other words, they are not in condition, and it will take some
+weeks before they can be safely put into anything like hard work.
+
+After reading the foregoing, it will naturally be asked: What is
+the guide in determining the dimensions to which the hoof should
+be reduced at the time of shoeing? The practised eye of the man
+who understands the natural poise of the horse’s leg can determine
+at a glance how much to reduce the hoof so that every part of the
+leg and foot will approximately bear its due proportion of weight.
+The direction of the line of weight in the extremities varies in
+different individuals and nature can be assisted by regulating the
+direction of this line in order that no part shall be unduly taxed.
+The horse with the straight pastern and high heel is apt to suffer
+from the ill-effects of concussion, while the oblique-pasterned horse
+is more likely to suffer from strain. The ill-consequences of these
+defects of formation can be neutralized in a measure by regulating
+the length of hoof according to circumstances. For instance, the
+disadvantage of long and oblique pasterns can be overcome in a
+measure by keeping the hoof shortened up as much as possible,
+thereby reducing the tension on the supporting tissues of the
+fetlock. In the same way the elasticity of tread can be promoted in a
+straight-pasterned horse by reasonable length of toe.
+
+Nature in some instances supplies compensations for defects of
+formation. In the fore extremity, the oblique shoulder, long arm and
+forearm and smooth flexion of the joints may in a measure counteract
+the injurious consequences of calf-knees and unduly short and
+straight pasterns. Added to this there may be that lightness of step,
+with which some horses are endowed, that has its determining cause in
+the nervous system, and which so much aids the wearing ability of the
+legs and feet.
+
+Fleming, who is a justly recognized authority on horseshoeing, gives
+as a guide to determine the amount a horse’s hoof should be reduced
+at the time of shoeing, that the hoof should be shortened by the rasp
+until it is flush with what is called the “white line.” The “white
+line” is that portion of the hoof that forms the connecting medium
+between the outer margin of the sole and the inner and lower margin
+of the wall. Its outline is very clearly defined in a freshly rasped
+hoof. Fleming, doubtless, assumes that the sole and white line have
+not been reduced with the knife, but have been allowed to remain, as
+nature intended them, of their normal thickness.
+
+Just here it may be remarked that the practice of paring away the
+sole of the foot, or in other words, thinning it, is a pernicious one.
+
+The shoer appears to like to do this, as it cuts very easily and
+gives, as he thinks, a “neat” appearance to the hoof. The owner
+appears to endorse this, as he is very careful to have his groom stop
+the feet, forgetting that he has permitted the shoer to remove a much
+more efficient stopping than any artificial one in the outer surface
+of the sole. This is very easy of explanation and illustration if one
+takes an unmutilated hoof. First of all it must be noted that the
+outer hard and tough crust, called the wall, grows out indefinitely,
+unless it is worn or broken off by contact with the ground or
+reduced by the instruments of the former. This is not the case with
+the sole, for it is so constituted that after it attains a certain
+thickness, by a process of nature it exfoliates of its own accord,
+thus maintaining its normal thickness. These outer scales that keep
+coming off are nature’s stopping. Why? Because by protecting the
+inner and deeper layer from the drying effects of the air, they
+maintain moisture that is necessary in the sole. If, by paring, you
+cut through and examine a normal sole, you will find that the part
+next to the quick (the part freshly secreted by the quick) is moist,
+and as you proceed to the surface of the sole it gradually gets
+dryer, the outer part being almost entirely free from moisture and
+admirably adapted to protect the inner and moister part until it is
+gradually forced outward by fresh growth from within and becomes in
+its turn a “stopping” for the inner and freshly formed layer of sole.
+What happens if the knife is used instead of nature being allowed to
+go on with its own process of desquamation? Why, the deeper parts
+of the sole become exposed to the action of the air before they are
+prepared for it by a gradual process of drying, and abruptly dry and
+contract. This is what causes the sole to become increasedly cupped,
+and the hoof to become contracted in a great measure. The stopping
+of horses’ hoofs is not always necessary if the sole is left, as it
+should be, in an unmutilated condition, unless horses are made to
+stand a great deal upon dry floors. Much of the fuss and waste of
+time and material involved in the stopping of horses’ hoofs are based
+on error. All that is necessary to remove the sole in a normal foot
+is accomplished when the rasp is flatly applied to the lower surface
+of the wall in reducing it to its proper dimensions. The thicker the
+sole the better, provided it does not project below the wall, or
+receive too much pressure from the shoe. One can readily understand
+how much more efficient a thick sole is as a protection to the
+underlying quick, especially on rough, frozen and stony roads, than a
+comparatively thin one.
+
+Now, if the sole is left thick, as it should be, and in which case
+the white line would necessarily be, it is a good guide for the
+shoer, in the majority of cases, to rasp down to the white line.
+Another error frequently made, though not so common as mutilation
+of the sole, is cutting away the frog. It does not require a deep
+student of physiology of the foot to see almost at a glance the
+function of the frog. Take a normal hoof and examine the frog and you
+will observe that it is placed at the back of the hoof, where the
+major portion of the pressure comes. You further find that, unlike
+either the sole or the wall, it is endowed with elasticity equal to
+india rubber. It is very evident that it is intended not only to come
+in contact with the ground, but also to act as a buffer in lessening
+concussion. Now, what happens if you cut it away and leave the heel
+so high that it does not come in contact with the ground? Why, it
+shrinks and becomes as hard as wood, entirely unsuited to stand
+pressure without bruising the underlying quick, and no longer capable
+of performing its office of breaking concussion. Not only that, but
+with a thin, dried-up sole, the shrunken hoof draws the quarters
+with it, and you have contracted feet or at least contracted heels.
+After this mischief has been done through ignorance, then the horse
+must have that curer of all ills of the foot (according to some wise
+ones), spreaders, to overcome the contraction of the hoof.
+
+Although horses are largely kept under artificial conditions, there
+is no reason why their hoofs should become contracted if rationally
+treated, unless some disease of the foot develops, such as navicular
+disease. Under such circumstances, the contraction is the result of
+disease, not the cause of it.
+
+Another point that should be carefully watched in preparing the hoof
+for the reception of the shoe is to have it level. If either inside
+or outside of the hoof is left too long, it changes the direction
+of the line of weight and subjects some portion or portions of the
+extremity to undue strain or pressure and consequent liability to
+injury.
+
+Horses that are turned out into soft fields or put into box stalls or
+barnyards, where there is not sufficient attrition to wear the hoof
+to its normal dimensions, should have it rasped down every month to
+its proper proportions. This particularly applies to young colts,
+and neglect of it is the initial step in causing hoofs of defective
+formation.
+
+
+
+
+                      CORRECT ACTION IN HORSES
+
+
+While it is the intention of this article to endeavor to picture
+ideally good action, by which wear and tear and loss of power are
+reduced to a minimum, it is not intended to decry the possession for
+certain purposes, by a horse, of what is usually called high action.
+To render horses attractive for show and for pleasure purposes it
+is a highly desirable quality and very much increases their market
+value. The good horseman would much prefer, however, to sit behind a
+horse with moderate action, that raises his feet, advances them in a
+straight line with stride enough to insure desirable progress--yet
+not so much that the feet cannot be put down squarely--every part
+bearing its proper proportion of weight and striking the ground
+lightly, than one with excessive but markedly defective action. High
+action, like other qualities possessed in a high degree, is very
+apt to be associated with defects that detract from its perfection
+and lessen a horse’s wearing quality. The ill-consequences of these
+defects are intensified in direct ratio to the excessiveness of the
+action. The craze for high action at any cost is not so rampant as
+it used to be some years ago. Horse-show promoters became wearied
+of seeing their premiums for action carried off by acrobatic
+monstrosities, and it caused them to modify the wording of their
+prize lists and call for all-around goers with twenty-five per cent.
+for conformation. The horse that winds his legs about, “straddles,”
+“points,” “rolls,” “spreads behind,” “waddles,” or drags his hind
+legs, is no longer in favor with the good judge, no matter how
+excessive his action.
+
+The character of the action is a very important factor in determining
+the amount of wear and tear a horse will stand. To become a good
+judge of action is not such an easy matter as might be imagined.
+There are many who have a good eye for a horse, and, in fact, are,
+in a measure, good judges, who cannot intelligently criticize a
+horse’s action from different standpoints. There are many who are
+taken with flashy action, which, as a rule, enhances the market
+value of a horse possessing it, but is very apt to be associated
+with greater defects from a utilitarian standpoint than that which
+is less attractive. In estimating the quality of action correctly
+in different individuals one has to have an ideal. How seldom in
+sitting behind a horse and closely observing his way of going at the
+trot and walk, do we find action that comes up to our ideal! Perfect
+action, as far as usefulness is concerned, is frictionless and light,
+and the foot is placed on the ground squarely. There is no loss of
+time or power in progression, or, in other words, the frictionless
+mover does not labor, neither does the light-stepper experience
+the ill-effects of concussion, which is the result of bringing the
+foot to the ground in a pounding manner. What a saving of wear and
+tear and power the smooth-mover and light-stepper experiences! One
+is amazed in instances to observe how much work a weak-footed,
+poor-legged horse will stand and still remain in workable condition.
+It can be accounted for in many cases by the defects mentioned being
+compensated for by light action.
+
+It is interesting and instructive to study the numerous and varying
+conditions that conduce to defective action. Lightness of step
+appears to be a quality not always dependent upon the conformation of
+the individual. For instance, length and obliquity of the pasterns
+are usually said to cause lightness and elasticity of the tread, but
+do not always do so, for we find many heavy-going horses of this
+formation. Mechanically, this should conduce to light-stepping, and
+does in a measure, but the fact that horses with oblique pasterns
+sometimes pound, leads us to look for another explanation. The
+statement may be advanced, in explanation, that the elasticity
+resulting from oblique pasterns may be neutralized by a straight
+shoulder; but this theory will not hold, as one not infrequently
+finds straight-shouldered, short-pasterned horses which step lightly.
+Another explanation must be found. We have to seek elsewhere in
+the animal economy than in the peculiar arrangement of the bones,
+muscles, tendons and ligaments of the limbs to account for the light
+step of some horses.
+
+The endowment with this desirable quality is undoubtedly referable to
+the nervous system, just as speed is. We cannot determine the degree
+of a horse’s speed by studying his external form. We have to subject
+him to a test, and so we have in forming a conclusion as to the
+degree of lightness or heaviness of his step.
+
+With regard to labored progression, the tendency to it is usually
+determinable by an inspection of a horse’s conformation. All
+deviations from the steadily carried top in the trot, in which there
+is no rolling, jerking or waddling, and from the straight flexion
+and extension of the forelegs, in which there is no straddling,
+dishing or winding-in, and from the equally straight and easy flexion
+of the hock, can, as a rule, be determined by an examination of an
+individual’s conformation. The horse with thick or loaded shoulders
+and wide chest is apt to roll; the one that stands with his forefeet
+placed wide apart, straddles; the knock-kneed one, as well as the one
+that toes-in, generally dishes, while the horse that toes-out, winds
+in. The horse with his hocks wide apart and feet close together,
+“screws” his hocks outwards and usually “plaits.” When the hocks
+are placed behind instead of under the quarters there is likely
+to be a dragging movement of the hind legs. It is therefore true
+that faulty progression is usually determinable by conformation.
+Defective conformation of the legs shows itself with almost unvarying
+regularity in its effect upon the action. In order to have straight,
+undeviating action a horse must flex and extend his legs during
+progression in a line parallel to the long axis of the body. The
+knock-kneed, bow-legged, or even calf-kneed horse cannot do this, and
+consequently experiences the ill-results of loss of time and power in
+progression.
+
+Apart altogether from the question of the degree of the lightness
+or heaviness of the step, the manner in which the feet are placed
+on the ground has a great influence in determining wear and tear,
+and is consequently an important point to study. The horse that
+toes-in usually has the inside quarter of his forefeet defectively
+developed, which becomes more marked if he is not rationally shod.
+This defect of formation of the inner quarter consists in a slanting
+off of it from before backwards and outwards and from above downward
+and toward the centre of the foot, causing this quarter to assume
+a wedge-like form and literally to act as a wedge between the shoe
+and the sensitive part of the inner quarter, thus predisposing it
+to bruising. In addition to this, the horse that “dishes” usually
+brings his foot down with force on the inner quarter. This manner of
+planting the foot not only subjects the ligaments to undue tension,
+but is a fruitful source of troublesome corns.
+
+On the other hand, a horse that toes-out is apt to come down with
+most force on the outside of his foot. This is a much more defective
+formation than the former, for it not only causes winding-in and
+great liability to interfere, but the planting of the foot is
+usually accomplished in a manner that results in the production of
+considerable concussion, and also subjects the ligaments to great
+tension, so that the legs soon begin to show the effects of wear and
+tear. Some horses come down with most force on their toes, causing
+them to stub their toes, as it is called. Such a manner of planting
+the foot is apt to cause stumbling and increases concussion to a
+marked extent. Short-pasterned, straight-shouldered, and short-gaited
+horses often show this defect.
+
+Just the opposite manner of planting the foot or coming down with
+the heel first is not at all uncommon. This defect of action is
+not only likely to cause bruising of the heels, but subjects the
+tendons and ligaments at the lower and back portion of the forelegs
+to excessive strain. Ordinarily this imperfection is only observed
+in long-gaited horses, but some that plant their feet in a favorable
+manner when going at a slow pace, when forced to a faster one
+lengthen their stride, and show this defect, often called “pointing,”
+to a pronounced degree. Deep and oblique-shouldered horses with
+little knee action, like thoroughbreds, often go in this way, but its
+ill-effects are not so great as in those with a considerable amount
+of knee action.
+
+“Threading” or “plaiting” are terms used to designate the swinging
+of the elevated foot around the one that is placed on the ground in
+progression. This ungraceful manner of going, which occasions a loss
+of power, is most clearly shown in the walk or slow trot.
+
+
+
+
+                 FORGING, OVER-REACHING AND CLICKING
+
+This Paper Won the Prize Given by _The American Veterinary Review_
+for the Best Essay on This Subject
+
+
+That very disagreeable and annoying fault of striking the forefeet
+with the hind ones during progression, variously referred to as
+“clicking,” “over-reaching” and “forging,” is one to which some
+horses are predisposed; but it is excited by a number of conditions
+which can, as a rule, be remedied by rational treatment, even in some
+instances where there is a predisposition. Forging is the result of
+any cause that prevents a horse from getting his forefeet out of the
+way of his hind ones, in progression.
+
+Undue shortness of body is a frequent predisposing cause, but one
+must not fall into the error frequently made of assuming that a
+short-backed horse is necessarily a short-bodied one. A horse may
+have a short back but long quarters, causing him to stand over a lot
+of ground or be what is called “long underneath,” and be anything but
+short-bodied, and in fact possessing the ideal formation, as far
+as this point is concerned, and be anything but inclined to forge.
+Horses with the fore pasterns disproportionately long, when compared
+to the hind ones, especially if the forefeet are also inclined to
+unusual length, experience retardation in the flexion and extension
+of the forelegs, to a degree that renders interference from the hind
+ones liable.
+
+An important factor in good action is the straight advancing of the
+forelegs in progression. Any deviation from this, as in wind-out or
+winding-in, or a combination of these two defects, sometimes called
+“wiggling,” retards sufficiently prompt action of the forelegs to
+enable the feet to make way for the hind ones. These defects of
+action are the result of the fact that the bones that make up the
+foundation of the legs are defectively related to one another in
+forming the joints. There are very palpable illustrations of these
+defects of formation in horses with “knock-knees,” calf-knees,
+turned-in or turned-out pasterns. We notice in individuals a lack
+of harmony in formation between the fore and hind extremities. For
+instance, some horses have the pasterns of the hind extremities of
+a length disproportionate to those of the fore, and vice-versa. So
+with action: some have quick and extensive flexion of the hock, out
+of proportion to the degree of promptness of flexion and extension
+of the forelegs. Such horses are liable to forge. Those that stand
+lower at the withers than they do at the highest point of the croup
+are also liable to this fault, as are also low-headed horses,
+particularly if they are of a sluggish temperament, as they not only
+lack “snap” in their action, but the lowness forward interferes with
+the freedom of the forward action.
+
+In addition to the predisposing causes of forging there are a number
+of exciting ones, and horses that cannot be said to be predisposed
+may be found to forge under certain circumstances. Perhaps the
+exciting cause most frequently in operation is the lack of strength
+or condition. Many young horses forge for a time, or until they have
+been fed and worked sufficiently to establish nervous force and
+proper muscular development, so that they have perfect control of
+their legs.
+
+Horses that are not in good condition may go a mile or two without
+“clicking,” but as soon as they become fatigued or winded, begin to
+forge. They are particularly apt to do this if driven or ridden fast
+at first, and the more so if the weight they are drawing or carrying
+is excessive for the pace at which they are traveling.
+
+Horses that are called upon to carry a rider--not being used to
+it--may temporarily show this fault, particularly if the footing is
+soft or going heavy.
+
+Those used to the hard footing and light draft of the pavement in
+cities may never be heard to forge until driven on a country road
+where the draft is greater and the going heavier.
+
+The mouth, too, is not without an exciting influence. The horse that
+has a hard, unyielding, unresponsive mouth is much more liable to
+forge than one that, at a touch of the whip or spur, will raise his
+head, get his nose in, and respond to the pressure of the bit, so as
+to go in a balanced manner.
+
+Indifferent riders and drivers that have bad hands, and do not know
+how to keep their horses collected, will allow many to over-reach.
+
+One need never be discouraged about a young well proportioned horse,
+but should wait until the mouth is made, the animal got into good
+condition by steady judicious work, good feeding and grooming.
+
+In horses inclined to “click,” the forefeet should be kept as short
+as possible, and the shoes for them should be as light as can be
+used in order to conserve their normal condition. Very frequently
+horse owners use an increased weight of shoe on forefeet as a remedy
+for this fault, which is a palpable error, as undue weight is one
+of the exciting causes. Rounding off the toes of the front shoes
+has a tendency to enable a horse to raise his feet from the ground
+more quickly, and is an aid. It is well, however, not to resort to
+artificial measures more than necessary. It is best, in fact, to keep
+the feet in as natural a condition as the circumstances of the case
+will permit. But in order to overcome forging in some horses, either
+as a temporary or permanent expedient, the principle to pursue is to
+encourage slow or dwelling movement of the hind feet, in order to
+allow the fore ones to get out of their way.
+
+The most effectual way of doing this is to raise the toes of the hind
+feet and lower the heels. The toes can be raised either by thickening
+the shoe at the toe or putting on a toe piece. Allowing the toes of
+the hind hoofs to grow long is an aid, and gives opportunity for
+setting the shoes back, so as to do away with or lessen the noise of
+“clicking.”
+
+“Forging” is not an unsoundness, but it is a defect or fault, as bad
+action is.
+
+
+
+
+        INTERFERING, STRIKING, CUTTING OR BRUSHING IN HORSES
+
+
+Of the many faults, accidents or habits to which horseflesh is heir,
+“interfering” is one of the most troublesome. Fortunately, however,
+it is one that admits of a large measure of prevention, and the
+ill-effects of it can, to a very considerable extent, be overcome.
+In the consideration of this subject, one of the most important
+points to thoroughly study is the causes. Of the somewhat numerous
+influences which contribute to this fault, defective conformation is
+a very important one in predisposing to it. It is important from the
+fact that cases that are largely the result of defective formation
+are the most difficult to successfully cope with. A horse of perfect
+formation of limbs should raise, advance and put down his feet
+approximately in a straight line in the walk or trot. Any deviation
+inwards from the straight line renders him liable to strike if any
+exciting cause is brought into operation.
+
+Narrow horses, particularly if they are leggy, are apt to go close
+both behind and in front, and consequently to “brush.” Those that
+“toe-out” either in the hind or fore extremities, usually wind
+inwards in progression, and are consequently apt to interfere. In
+fact, there is no formation of limb that so strongly predisposes
+to this fault, in its most aggravated form, as the defect just
+mentioned. Horses as a rule that “toe-in” in the fore limbs, wind
+outwards, and consequently show no disposition to “brush.” In such
+cases the “turning-in” of the toes is due to the position in which
+the leg is fixed on to the body. It is due to the back part of the
+leg showing a tendency to turn outwards from the body. This can
+be most clearly observed at the elbow, where the point inclines
+outwards. “Toeing-in,” however, is not always the result of a
+malposition of the limb throughout, for sometimes the deformity is
+confined to that portion of it from the fetlock down, constituting
+what might be called a “club-foot.” This formation often predisposes
+to “striking” to a marked degree, as in progression the foot comes
+very close to the opposite limb. In spite of the predisposition many
+horses show to interfering, from defective formation, such horses may
+be seen working month after month without inflicting any injury to
+themselves.
+
+Horses that are in good condition, well balanced in going, and
+that have complete power of co-ordinating the movements of their
+limbs, are the ones that are likely to escape the not infrequent
+consequences of defective formation of limb. The exciting causes of
+interfering are numerous, but the one most frequently heard spoken
+of is defective shoeing, and it is no doubt sometimes a cause, but
+not nearly so frequently as is sometimes supposed. The unfortunate
+shoer is frequently maligned for what is no fault of his. It does not
+matter how some horses are shod, or whether they are shod or not,
+they will interfere under some circumstances.
+
+The best that we can do in the way of shoeing is to use a good,
+rational shoe, properly applied on a suitably prepared foot. Too
+heavy a shoe will sometimes act as a cause from the excessive weight
+taxing the muscular control of the limb unduly, so that during quick
+movements and sharp turns, “striking” is particularly apt to occur.
+Leaving the hoofs too large is sometimes a cause, from the simple
+consequence of its bringing the hoof closer to the opposite leg.
+Not only that, but the increased length of toe resulting from too
+large a hoof intensifies the tendency to winding either in or out in
+progression, and consequently increases the tendency to “cut.”
+
+The first step, then, in the attempt to prevent striking, is to
+reduce the wall to reasonable dimensions with the rasp. Defects
+of the form and direction of hoof may sometimes be remedied in
+a measure; as, for instance, in a horse that “toes-out,” shorten
+the outer part of the toe to a greater extent than the inner. The
+tendency of this is not only to correct the unsightliness of the
+deformity, but also to remedy its ill-consequence in progression.
+The same may be done, but just in the opposite way, in horses which
+“toe-in.” In the hind legs it is generally the inner part of the
+toe of the hoof that inflicts the injury. This can be rasped so as
+to reduce its convex form to an approach to a straight line with
+the rasp, which lessens somewhat the danger. The shoe should be of
+reasonable weight, strong enough to keep it from breaking, and set
+in as much as possible on the inside without running too much risk
+of bruising the sole. Have the inside branch of the shoe narrow and
+rounded, so that there will be as little danger of inflicting injury
+as possible. The nails may also be withheld from the inside of the
+toe, so that no injury may be done from the clinches. It is a good
+plan to also shorten the inside of the hoof more than the outside and
+compensate for this by deepening the inside branch of the shoe, so as
+to keep the foot level and have even bearing. The inside branch of
+the shoe may be made almost straight from the toe back, and the hoof
+made to correspond pretty much in form. The following out of this
+plan of shoeing will minimize the likelihood of injury being done by
+striking.
+
+The weighting of the shoe on the outside is often recommended by
+having the outer branch considerably heavier than the inner one, with
+the idea that the weight on the outside makes a horse go wider. This
+would, no doubt, be the tendency, and provided it does not increase
+the weight of the shoe too much, there is no objection to it.
+
+Another plan sometimes followed is to raise the inside of the foot
+higher than the outside, with the idea that the fetlock of the leg on
+the ground will be thrown outwards, and thus be more likely to escape
+injury from the opposite foot. This plan is irrational, from the fact
+that it causes a horse to tread unevenly, and thus tends to result in
+injury to some other part of the leg, disturbing the relations of the
+various parts that make up the weight-bearing column.
+
+In the front legs a three-quarter shoe is sometimes used, the shoe
+only coming half way round on the inside, and not covering the
+ground surface of the inner quarter. The difficulty about this plan
+is getting the shoe so applied that all the wall will bear its
+normal amount of weight. It doesn’t do to leave the inner quarter
+unsupported, for in that case there will be tilting of the leg
+inwards when the foot is put on the ground, or, in other words,
+uneven treading, with the ill-consequences already explained.
+
+Charlier shoes sometimes do very well and are much safer than a
+three-quarter shoe. This is a light, narrow-webbed shoe, that only
+comes half way round on either side of the hoof and is sunken into a
+groove cut out of the plantar surface of the wall, so that the lower
+surface of it is just flush with the quarters that are not grooved
+out. By this plan there is an even bearing all round the hoof, a
+light shoe, and one no more likely to cause injury to the opposite
+leg than the natural unshod hoof. The drawback about this shoe for
+general use on hard roads is that it has not strength enough to form
+a substantial stay to the hoof. It also lessens the action, and
+horses are apt to go sore with them on very hard roads.
+
+It is questionable if we have a much better device for shoeing
+interfering horses than the rubber pads now so generally in use in
+cities. Their use has a tendency to prevent interfering by virtue of
+their effect in preventing slipping, which is one of the exciting
+causes of this trouble. In the hind legs, where “cutting” is most
+usual, the inner and back part of the fetlock is the common seat of
+injury. Occasionally in horses with a good deal of hock action, they
+will strike the leg higher up, and in very low, close-going horses
+the inside of the coronet is scraped.
+
+In the front legs the injury may be anywhere from the fetlock to
+the knee. When it is high up it generally gets the designation of
+speedy-cut. Another cause of “striking” is fatigue. It has already
+been pointed out that when a horse has not perfect control of his
+legs he is apt to “brush,” so that horses that have not had regular
+work and good feed for a length of time, or, in other words, are not
+in good condition, are easily fatigued and consequently liable to
+interfere.
+
+The uneven footing of rough roads, slippery roads or pavements, the
+swaying of a two-wheeler, are all circumstances likely to interfere
+with a horse’s equilibrium, and consequently are not infrequently
+exciting causes of “striking.”
+
+Another very fertile exciting cause, particularly in cities, and
+one which, strange to say, is never referred to in print, is the
+influence of discomfort in connection with the mouth in causing
+“interfering.” There is nothing that puts a horse out of balance more
+completely than anything wrong with his mouth. Horses that cross
+their jaws, open their mouths, put their tongues out or over their
+bits, carry their heads sideways, fuss with their bits, slobber,
+pull, etc., or “pull out” or “crowd” in double harness, generally
+have some soreness of the mouth caused by their bits, and, if they
+are at all predisposed, are very apt to “cut.” We see examples of
+this every day in cities where dealers get horses from the country
+that have been chiefly used to snaffle bits. They at once begin to
+drive them with curb bits, and they nearly all show some discomfort
+at the change in the various ways already mentioned. It is very
+common to see a horse cut his legs badly, under such circumstances,
+that showed no evidence of ever having struck before. The treatment
+of “interfering” resolves itself largely into methods of prevention.
+The most important point is to remove the cause, where practicable,
+and if not, to endeavor to neutralize its operation as much as
+possible.
+
+If a horse is in danger of “striking” himself on account of the
+mouth not being in proper order, or from any other exciting cause
+remaining in operation, protect the part or parts that are likely to
+be injured, with a boot. If any part is injured from “cutting,” keep
+that part protected until it has entirely recovered from the effects
+of the injury.
+
+In a large majority of cases after a horse is in good condition, his
+mouth well made, and he is properly shod, there will be no need for
+boots, unless he is subjected to some exciting cause, or unless he is
+markedly predisposed from defective formation.
+
+
+
+
+                          THE HORSE’S MOUTH
+
+
+The discussion of the subject of the horse’s mouth has been prompted
+by observing the thoughtlessness and carelessness of otherwise good
+horsemen and lovers of horseflesh with regard to the horse’s mouth.
+If a horse has a sore mouth he manifests it in some way unpleasant
+to his driver or rider, but it is rarely that an examination of that
+organ is made in order to determine the nature and extent of the
+trouble. Such an examination is not difficult to make by one at all
+accustomed to the handling of horses, and can be made as follows:
+Take the horse into a place in which the light is good. To examine
+the near side of the mouth, pass the left hand into the off side of
+it, grasp the tongue gently, and pull it a little to one side--it is
+not necessary to pull it out of the mouth--in order to expose the
+branch of the lower jaw, or bar, as it is sometimes called. The thumb
+of the right hand should be placed in the roof of the mouth so as
+to separate the jaws, when the part that the mouthpiece of the bit
+presses on can be easily scrutinized. The other side can be examined
+in the same manner by using the hands in the opposite way.
+
+The soreness, however, is not always confined to the bars of the
+lower jaw, the result of the pressure of the bit, for it is not
+infrequently found that the lining membrane of the cheeks is
+excoriated by the bit forcibly pressing the cheeks against the
+anterior grinders. This form of injury is seldom found in a horse
+that readily bends his head upon his neck or “gets his nose in,”
+as it is often expressed, unless it is from the use of tight
+pulley-bridoon bearing reins, which is almost certain to cause it,
+particularly if a horse bores on it. In the majority of instances
+it is where a jointed or snaffle bit is used, when a horse “takes
+hold,” and in the case of one not inclined to “bend,” that the lining
+of the cheeks is injured. It can be readily understood, where a
+jointed bit is used on a horse that does not get his nose in, that
+when force is exerted upon the reins, it presses the cheeks directly
+against the teeth, and we can at once realize the great liability to
+injury of the soft and sensitive cheeks when pressed between two hard
+bodies, such as an iron bit and unyielding teeth, which frequently
+have sharp projecting hooks and angles at the very point at which
+pressure is brought to bear. Horses driven with tight over-checks are
+particularly subject to this form of injury to the mouth, as can be
+understood from the explanation already given. In horses that cannot
+be made to get their noses in, in riding or driving, and which show
+evidence of soreness of the mouth in the lining of the cheeks, the
+front grinders should be kept as smooth as possible. It is impossible
+for a horse to have a pleasant responsive mouth when the pressure
+comes upon the cheeks. Nature evidently intended the yielding lower
+jaw to bear the pressure of the bit, with the soft and elastic tongue
+to aid in avoiding injury to the sensitive structure which covers the
+branches of that jaw. Many horses which do not bend their heads upon
+their necks, when used with a snaffle bit can be made to get their
+noses in with a curb, which is consequently, when rationally used,
+the more humane and also the much more effectual in promoting style
+and action. Occasionally, however, one finds that a horse goes better
+in a snaffle than in any other kind of bit unless it is one with a
+smooth and slightly curved, unjointed mouthpiece.
+
+In addition to those already referred to there are many other
+ill-results from sore mouths, and among the more serious of these are
+the restless and irritable habits horses develop when being ridden
+or driven out of the stable, such as going off with a rush, rearing,
+plunging and balking. A great deal depends upon the sensitiveness
+of the individual as to the manner in which he shows his restiveness
+and irritability when with a sore mouth again facing the bit. A horse
+of a good, mild temperament may do nothing but show a hesitation in
+going into the bit and if in double harness hang back for a time,
+or he will not go up with his mate. Others will go sideways, cross
+their jaws, press on one side of the bit, or toss their heads in
+an irritable manner that makes it almost impossible to guide them.
+High-strung, nervous, determined horses may show their irritability
+in the more dangerous manner of rushing, plunging or rearing. Drivers
+of horses are sometimes very much astonished to find a previously
+well-mannered horse go off with a rush, rear or plunge, but it is
+remarkable how seldom they think of looking to the mouth to find out
+the cause for the unexpected display of ill-manners, when in the
+majority of instances it is to be found there. Even when the lips
+are tinged with blood from the injured lining membrane it is seldom
+that an examination is made to determine the extent of the injury.
+Frequently when an injury to the mouth is pointed out to an owner it
+is thought lightly of, the extreme sensitiveness of that organ not
+being realized.
+
+Pinches, abrasions and cracks about the commissures of the lips
+usually attract attention because they are easily observed, but they
+really, as a rule, do not cause nearly the amount of irritation and
+pain that an internal injury to the mouth does, and they are easily
+prevented by the use of a circular leather cheek piece on the bit.
+Some horses that show a disinclination to go into the bit for the
+first mile or two, after a time begin to pull, and the farther they
+are driven the more they pull. This is usually the result of a sore
+mouth, and veterinarians frequently have to remove small portions of
+bone which have been detached from the jaw by the extreme pressure
+of the bit. Bad “side-liners” are caused by a chipped jaw or else
+an extensive excoriation of the soft tissues on one side of the
+mouth where the bit exerts its pressure. In the healing up of such
+injuries the tissue with which nature repairs the breach seldom
+seems to attain the ability to stand the pressure of the bit to the
+same extent that one not so severely injured does. The fact that
+such permanent ill-effects are apt to follow injuries to the mouth
+from the bit should cause the exercise of due care when there is any
+evidence of soreness. Certainly high-couraged, ambitious horses are
+predisposed to injuries of the mouth, but they can be largely guarded
+against by the exercise of care, and it is very important never to
+disregard “soreness,” however slight.
+
+There is probably no animal in which a bad habit is more apt to
+become confirmed than the horse, and the restless, irritable habits
+he is liable to develop on leaving the stable are among the most
+disagreeable. Some horses do not what is called “settle down” when
+first driven out, but either prance, hop or canter for a varying
+distance. This is generally accounted for by the owner as being
+evidence that the animal in question is “feeling too well,” or, in
+other words, is suffering from an exuberance of spirits. This may be
+the cause, but in the large majority of cases it is attributable to
+uneasiness in connection with the mouth. Sometimes this discomfort
+may not be the result of absolute soreness, as a change of bit may
+cause it. It may be noticed in an otherwise well broken horse where
+a curb bit is first substituted for a snaffle, particularly if it
+is placed too low in the mouth and if, as very often happens, the
+tongue is put over it, in which case a horse is very unlikely to go
+steadily, and his mouth is almost sure to get sore in a very short
+time.
+
+The placing of the bit in a horse’s mouth is a very important matter
+in influencing his manner of going. Some horsemen say there is one
+proper position for a bit in a horse’s mouth and that it should
+always be placed in that position. My experience is that this is best
+determined by experiment with each individual, and one can tell, by
+driving or riding a horse a few minutes, as to where the bit should
+be placed in his mouth. It is usually best to place it rather high at
+first, particularly when changing to a curb bit, but if he keeps his
+tongue under it and does not respond readily to pressure, lower it as
+much as he will stand without showing restlessness. The lower the bit
+in the mouth, within certain limits, the better, provided the horse
+will keep his tongue under it and not fuss with it, and face it with
+a reasonable degree of firmness.
+
+How frequently we see horses go off their feet when going well
+within their speed at the trot. Sometimes this is the result of
+excitability, but in nine cases out of ten it is due to a feeling of
+discomfort or want of confidence in connection with the mouth. Very
+often this is caused by the arrangement of the curb in giving too
+much leverage, especially if the hands of the driver are not good.
+Some horses that go unsteadily with the reins in the bar will go much
+better in the half-check, or it may be in the plain check, but very
+often the breaking at the trot is due to an injured mouth. Horse
+owners sometimes endeavor to overcome this tendency to breaking by
+giving long drives, and fatigue will temporarily overcome it as a
+rule, but there are horses that go unsteadily when almost jaded. This
+tendency can usually be overcome in a moderately worked horse if the
+bitting is made comfortable for him and the soreness of the mouth
+relieved.
+
+Soreness of the mouth is by no means an uncommon one among the
+exciting causes of “interfering” and may frequently be observed
+even in well broken horses when a change of bit, particularly a
+change to a severe one, has produced some injury to the mouth.
+Fatigue, bad shoeing, rough or slippery roads, and the swaying of
+a heavy two-wheeler are all exciting causes of “striking,” and the
+awkwardness arising from an imperfectly made (not thoroughly bitted)
+mouth, with the incidental soreness, is an important factor.
+
+Driving green horses in double harness is a very fertile cause of
+sore mouths. There are undoubted advantages in handling green horses
+in double harness, particularly shy, nervous ones, as the break horse
+inspires confidence in the green one and he is more easily controlled
+if badly frightened; but one can make more rapid progress in making
+a mouth in single harness, or in the saddle, than in double harness,
+for the opportunity of humoring it is better, and there is only one
+temper to consider. Trainers of green horses usually change the side
+horses are driven on every day, which is a good plan, as it tends
+to make them drive straight; but it is a tacit acknowledgment that
+there is more or less soreness of the mouth.
+
+If the mouth is bruised or excoriated on the portion of the bars
+of the lower jaw where the bit presses, keep the bit out of it, if
+possible, until it heals. This need not prevent the horse being
+exercised, for if a suitable place is available, he can be lunged a
+sufficient time daily to keep him in condition and under control. The
+lunging line can be buckled in the noseband of the halter, and no
+bit need be used. If a suitable place for lunging is not available
+and it is necessary to lead the horse alongside of another that is
+ridden, it can be done without the use of a bit by using a tightly
+applied standing martingale, made with a headpiece and attached to
+a girth that is kept in its place by a crupper. The headline should
+be attached to the noseband of the headstall. In some instances
+changing to a bit that exerts its pressure so as not to interfere
+with the sore part will answer, as, for instance, the substitution of
+a snaffle for a Liverpool; but in most instances it is better to keep
+the bit out of the mouth altogether until it heals. When the mouth
+is sufficiently healed to stand the pressure of the bit again it is
+a very necessary precaution before driving for the first few times
+to take the sharp edge off the spirit of the horse by lunging him
+so that the sore part will not be so likely to be reinjured by the
+animal’s “taking hold.”
+
+It is well to emphasize what has already been stated, that the front
+grinders should be kept in condition, so that they can inflict no
+injury to the cheeks, by having them thoroughly beveled or rounded
+off with the tooth rasp. This does no harm, provided it is done in a
+rational way, and is frequently of much benefit in preventing injury
+to the lining of the cheeks.
+
+
+
+
+                         TURNING HORSES OUT
+
+
+In the large Eastern cities the practice of horse owners turning
+all or some of their horses out for a portion of the year is a very
+common one. Consequently it is an important matter for them to study
+this question from every standpoint. For instance, is it wise to turn
+a horse out if he is going sound, and is in good working condition?
+Many owners express themselves and act as if it were a benefit to a
+horse to be thrown into complete idleness at intervals for a time.
+Others do it with the object of saving expense. Mr. C. J. Hamlin,
+of Buffalo, whom everybody knows as a gentleman of long experience
+and also as one of good judgment in horse matters, is said to have
+given expression to the following aphorism, viz., that “two let-ups
+are as bad as a break-down.” This statement may be considered rather
+an exaggeration by some, but those who have had an opportunity for
+fully observing the effects of “turning out” on horseflesh will
+agree that there is a large measure of truth in it. If you throw a
+horse into complete or comparative idleness for any length of time,
+every active tissue of the body becomes relaxed and incapable of
+standing anything like severe work. The tendons and ligaments lose
+their strength, the muscular fibres their tone, the nervous system
+its power of supplying energy for any lengthened exertion. The
+relaxing effect of idleness on muscular fibre is well exemplified in
+connection with the circulation. Take, for instance, a saddle-horse
+that has been carrying 200 pounds on his back every day all winter
+and well into the spring, with impunity. The owner is going abroad
+for three months and turns his horse out. When he comes back he
+thinks that his horse has had a long rest, and should therefore carry
+him particularly well. In a short time, however, the horse begins to
+show signs of fatigue by dropping his head, going heavy in hand, and
+very likely by “forging.”
+
+The next morning the owner goes to look at him and finds he backs out
+stiffly, and is more or less swollen about the fetlocks, and his feet
+may feel a little warmer than usual. He is suffering from muscular
+soreness, the tissues about the fetlocks are congested, the coats of
+the blood-vessels in the extremities have not tone enough to return
+the blood with proper force to the heart, so there is stagnation of
+a portion of it in the dependent parts. That delicate and intricate
+network of blood-vessels in the feet, from long and comparative
+inactivity, cannot carry on their function with integrity, so we get
+congestion and consequent stiffness and shortening of the gait.
+
+“Ah, but,” someone explains, “this is only temporary. If you bandage
+his legs, give him laxative food and light walking exercise for a
+few days he will be all right again.” The chances are he will, but
+two or three days’ work have been lost, and if you then subject him
+to the same course you will very likely have a repetition of the
+condition. Yes, and it will be several weeks and more likely months
+before he is in as good condition to stand work as he was before he
+went out. During all these weeks or months that have been spent in
+reconditioning, the muscles, ligaments and tendons are more or less
+soft and consequently susceptible to strains of varying intensity
+which may necessitate lying up for treatment. It is not only strains
+we have to fear, but the comparative inactivity of the circulation
+during rest renders the legs and feet subject to congestion and
+inflammation at various susceptible points when abruptly called into
+activity in doing hard work.
+
+No doubt, by taking time and bringing a horse gradually into work he
+can be restored to good condition, but to do this there is required
+management, some expense and tantalizing delay.
+
+When owners are not prepared to bring their horses gradually back
+into condition, they will soon have stale-legged and lame horses.
+One or two seasons of “turning out” and bringing up and abruptly
+putting into work will often transform a valuable, sound horse into
+a “screw.” Although the legs and feet are the parts that suffer most
+from this treatment, a horse shows it also in his “top,” for it takes
+a long while to bring back the bloom and finish that go with good
+condition, after being turned out.
+
+Of course it is a problem for many owners difficult to solve
+satisfactorily, what to do with their horses when they go away for
+three months, particularly those horses that are practically sound
+and in good working condition. It is such an easy solution of the
+problem to turn them out at some good farm, where they will be
+sufficiently fed, and kept in safety in a loose box and have a run
+in a paddock, and only cost fifteen dollars per month apiece. The
+question is: Wouldn’t it pay better to give thirty dollars and have
+the horses kept in condition, so that they are ready to work as soon
+as their owners need them? When we come to consider the danger,
+loss of time, and wear and tear incidental to reconditioning, we
+must emphatically answer, yes. In the above remarks we have only
+considered this question from the standpoint of horses that are
+practically sound and in good condition, but it is quite another
+matter when we have to deal with horses that are run down from
+overwork and other unfavorable conditions, or with pavement-sore and
+lame horses.
+
+In horses that are run down comparative idleness is almost
+imperative, and there is nothing much better than a run in a good,
+shady, well-watered pasture in the early summer, before the flies get
+too bad. In that way they get the gentle exercise they voluntarily
+take and get the advantage of the alterative effect that good, fresh
+grass has upon the system. This, too, is good treatment for slightly
+pavement-sore horses, particularly if the pasture land is not too
+dry. Lame horses are, in almost all cases, benefited by rest, and if
+it is necessary that the rest shall be at all prolonged, the most
+economical and favorable place to treat them is in a loose box in the
+country. A horse is bound to get out of condition, anyway, if resting
+for lameness, and he is usually better in the country, getting lots
+of pure air and sufficient space for comfort. The beneficial effects
+of treatment and rest must be followed up by a very gradual process
+of reconditioning after the lameness has subsided, otherwise the
+lameness will be apt to recur.
+
+
+
+
+                          IMPROVING ACTION
+
+           BITTING, SHOEING AND CONDITIONING FOR ACTION--I
+
+
+Horses that have a tendency to show action can undoubtedly have it
+very much increased by the adoption of a proper system of training,
+but there are many without this inclination which it is hopeless
+to develop to a degree that makes it worth while spending time
+and effort on them. The influence which contributes most to the
+development of action is bitting. This requires knowledge, time and
+patience. Some horses’ mouths are much more easily made than others,
+and there are some it is almost hopeless to try to make anything like
+perfect. A good mouth is a responsive one. Pressure from both reins
+should cause the head to bend readily on the neck, while that from
+either near or off-rein should cause correspondingly prompt flexion.
+There are some horses that it is almost impossible to bend, owing to
+the defective anatomical relations of the head and neck, and unless
+they naturally have a lot of action, they are not likely, even in
+the best hands, ever to show very much. A horse with his head well
+put on his neck, that has a responsive mouth and some ambition, will,
+when urged, get his head up and nose in, and if restrained at the
+same time by moderate pressure of the bit, will step much higher than
+if he has a free head when going at the same rate of speed. Some
+horses, when going fast, show a considerable amount of action, that
+at a slow pace will exhibit very little. If such horses have their
+mouths well cultivated, so that when restrained their force will be
+exerted to step up instead of stepping on, their action, in front at
+least, will be much increased. If, however, a horse’s mouth is not
+cultivated to a proper degree of responsiveness, and he is urged into
+the bit, he will lug or bore and go ahead instead of going up.
+
+To those who are anxious, then, to develop action in their horses,
+the first step is to endeavor to cultivate a responsive mouth. As has
+been stated, this requires time and skill. Many horses’ mouths are
+frequently permanently injured by insufficient time being taken for
+this process. It is a very similar one to teaching a child to write.
+The tyro at writing cannot regulate the movements of his hand and arm
+so as to make smooth and regular lines in an easy, flowing manner.
+The nerves and muscles of his hand and arm have to be cultivated by
+degrees to be able to accomplish this. So with the horse’s mouth; the
+nerves of it have to be educated to make prompt and easy response
+to pressure, and the muscles, acting under the influence of the
+nerves, have to be strengthened and developed, so that the head
+can be bent on the neck and properly carried without discomfort to
+the individual. The head should not only be bent on the neck to a
+reasonable degree, but should also be steadily carried.
+
+The first step in the process of making a horse’s mouth is to get
+him used to the pressure of the bit without showing restlessness.
+No pressure should be brought to bear upon the tongue by means of
+the reins until the horse will stand a bit in his mouth without
+fussing. The bit should be placed sufficiently high in the mouth,
+so that there is no temptation for the horse to get his tongue over
+it. The old-fashioned plan of putting a big, thick bit, with keys
+hanging from it, placed low in the mouth, is entirely erroneous, as
+it gets the colt into the way of fussing with his tongue all the
+time, which is a habit to be avoided. In a good mouth, if the horse
+is comfortable, his tongue lies quietly in the groove formed by
+the branches of the lower jaw, and acts as a protective cushion in
+preventing injury to the delicate and sensitive covering of the bars
+and the bars themselves. If, then, through faulty management, the
+tongue is not by degrees trained to stand the pressure of the bit,
+the horse is sure to develop some irritable habit with that organ,
+such as putting it over the bit, drawing it up in the mouth, or
+“lolling” it. The result of the two former habits is that the bars of
+the jaw lose the protection of the tongue and become exposed to the
+pressure of the bit, which they cannot stand without suffering pain
+and injury. Consequently the mouth becomes very unsteady, loses its
+responsiveness, and the horse is put off his balance, so that he is
+apt to go off his feet, hitch, and go cornerwise instead of straight.
+
+Putting the tongue over the bit and retracting it in the mouth
+has the further ill-effect of making a horse show irritability in
+a variety of ways, such as crossing the jaws, carrying the head
+sideways, throwing the head up, keeping the mouth open, slobbering,
+frequent movement of the head instead of a steady carriage of it,
+which is so important in conducing to a responsive mouth. Putting the
+tongue over the bit soon becomes habitual with some horses, and it is
+quite a difficult matter to remedy effectually. Spoon bits and all
+such mechanical contrivances to prevent it are very unsatisfactory,
+as a horse is never comfortable with them, and never carries a steady
+head with any of them in his mouth. It can, however, be cured by
+gradually getting a horse used to the presence and pressure of the
+bit on his tongue. Putting the tongue over the bit becomes such a
+confirmed habit that some horses will do it as soon as the bit is
+put in the mouth and before any pressure whatever is brought to bear
+on the tongue by the bit. This aggravated form of the habit can be
+remedied by using an ordinary ring bit with a straight mouthpiece.
+This should be placed high in the mouth, so that it is impossible to
+put the tongue over it, and left in all day except when the horse is
+feeding. In two or three weeks’ time the horse will become accustomed
+to keeping his tongue in its proper position with respect to the bit
+and stop trying to get it over.
+
+This, however, is only the first step, and the next and most
+important one is to get the tongue used to pressure. To accomplish
+this, attach reins to the bit and buckle them to a roller at the
+withers. For some time they must be left very loose, so that the
+bit will exert no pressure unless the horse extends his nose beyond
+its usual position. In this way he will be brought to experience,
+by degrees, a little pressure on the tongue. For a time he should
+be lunged daily with the reins loose, so that he will get used to
+the presence and occasional pressure of the bit when in motion. Very
+gradually indeed the reins may be tightened, so that after some weeks
+the subject may gradually be brought to stand moderate pressure on
+the tongue, and by still slower degrees may the bit be lowered in the
+mouth until it reaches the lowest position the individual will stand
+and still keep his tongue in place and carry his head steadily. Very
+great vigilance must be exercised to see that the tongue never goes
+over; if it does so by any chance, immediately raise the bit, and
+lessen the pressure.
+
+When sufficient progress has been made, as evidenced by the ability
+of the tongue to stand pressure when the subject is in motion, he
+may be ridden or driven. A rider with good hands can accomplish
+much in cultivating the mouth and can humor it so that the horse
+may gradually be brought to stand pressure. It is better to use the
+horse in single harness than in double, as his mouth can be better
+humored where there is only one temper and mouth to consider. The
+necessity for getting the tongue used to standing the pressure of the
+bit cannot be too much emphasized, but of course there is a limit
+to this, and some horses that are lacking in sensitiveness will
+stand pressure on their tongues until they become black and blue,
+thoroughly dried up in some cases, projected from the mouth, and the
+mouth kept more or less open. The most important exciting cause of
+this fault is placing the bit so high in the mouth that the horse
+will not bend his head upon his neck in response to the pressure of
+the bit. All this may be overcome in many instances by lowering the
+bit an inch or two in the mouth, when pressure of the bit will cause
+responsive giving of the jaw and thus relieve the tongue of undue
+pressure.
+
+A horse should never be allowed to go with his mouth open, as it
+becomes dried, which lessens the sensitiveness and responsiveness of
+that organ and encourages pulling. If a horse shows a tendency to
+keep his mouth open, try to determine the cause, as it is sure to
+be due to some discomfort in connection with the mouth. In addition
+to removing the cause, any tendency to this fault should be checked
+by the use of a tight noseband. The mouth must be kept closed, as
+a horse never goes nicely with it open. Although faulty mouths are
+usually the result of careless, thoughtless, unskilful management, it
+must be acknowledged that there is a decided predisposition in some
+horses to what are called bad mouths. When this tendency does exist,
+however, it can usually be overcome by rational management and a
+pleasant, valuable, useful horse kept from becoming an uncomfortable
+brute, much lessened in value from the possession of a bad mouth.
+
+The horse with a small tongue and narrow, sharp bars, is apt to be
+very sensitive to pressure and easily made to develop irritability
+and unsteadiness of the mouth; but if he is taken cautiously and
+carefully with easy bits, and gradually brought to stand pressure, he
+is likely to develop a delightfully responsive mouth. Some horses,
+on the other hand, have thick, leathery tongues, which it is almost
+impossible to make responsive, owing to their lack of sensitiveness.
+This inherent lack of sensitiveness of mouth is occasionally
+associated with a corresponding lack of sensitiveness of the skin,
+so that the horse does not feel the whip. I have had experience with
+individuals of that sort that were free-goers and determined pullers,
+in which there was something evidently lacking in the nerves of
+sensation. Cases are, of course, exceptional, where there seems to be
+a general lack of sensation, but it is not so rare to find a leathery
+mouth.
+
+In addition to the hyper-sensitiveness of the mouth in some horses
+and the lack of sensitiveness in others, necessitating unusual care
+in making their mouths, some horses have anatomical defects which
+preclude the possibility of them ever having anything like perfect
+mouths. Those with necks below of a length disproportionate to the
+length of the necks above, particularly if such necks are deep at
+their points of attachment to the head, it is impossible for the head
+to be bent upon the neck so that the mouth may be responsive. A horse
+formed in this way is bound to stick his nose out, and when pressure
+is brought to bear upon the lower jaw with the bit it slips up in the
+mouth towards the grinders, and does not exert leverage upon the jaw
+at a place of vantage or so that the head can be bent upon the neck.
+As a rule, ewe-necked horses show this inability, but not all, by any
+means, for some of them are clean-cut in the throttle, and the neck
+just above the throttle is light, so that it can bend with ease.
+
+In addition to the causes already explained, temperament predisposes
+to pulling. A free, courageous, determined horse is much more apt to
+get into the way of pulling than one not over-burdened with energy.
+Of the exciting causes of pulling, insufficient work and over-feeding
+are important; but really the most fruitful one is the unskilful and
+heavy-handed driver. Some drivers will make almost any horse pull.
+Many have no sympathy with a horse, and if they do observe evidences
+of discomfort in connection with the mouth, which may be shown in
+some of the ways already explained, they do not endeavor to remove
+the cause. It is most important in bitting horses to prevent them
+from getting into bad habits of any kind. They get into bad habits
+very quickly, which it may take a long time to eradicate. The most
+rational principle to proceed on is not to allow them to learn bad
+habits. Do not place them in a position to learn bad habits.
+
+
+
+
+                          IMPROVING ACTION
+
+          BITTING, SHOEING AND CONDITIONING FOR ACTION--II
+
+
+In my last article on this subject I drew attention to the fact that
+bitting, or “making the mouth,” is by far the most important matter
+to attend to in contributing to action. You must get the head up and
+the nose in, and cultivate a responsive mouth, so that when a horse
+is urged and restrained, he will step up instead of stepping on.
+It was urged that care should be used against getting horses into
+bad habits in connection with the mouth in the process of bitting,
+such as getting the tongue over the bit, retracting the tongue,
+side-lining, going with the mouth open, tossing the head, carrying
+the head unsteadily, and so forth. If some of these habits are
+developed, they will tend to neutralize any beneficial efforts that
+have been made in the cultivation of the mouth.
+
+An easy bit should first be used, such as a straight-barred ringed
+one or a snaffle, so that the colt will face it firmly and carry
+a steady head. In the development of speed, it is also imperative
+to use an easy bit, but for the production of style and action, a
+curb bit is almost indispensable for the majority of horses. The
+inexperienced ones are apt to think that a curb bit is an instrument
+of torture. The ignorant, thoughtless and rough handler of horses
+can easily make it so, but if it is properly used it is really more
+humane for use in many mouths, than a less severe one. The curb bit
+gives very much increased leverage, and will make some horses bend
+that cannot be made to do so without it. As soon as they bend, it
+requires very little force to keep their noses in, and very little
+pressure need be exerted, so that there is no injury nor irritation
+resulting. In addition to this, the pressure is divided between the
+interior and exterior of the mouth, the curb chain exerting its share
+of the pressure just behind the lower lip.
+
+Some free, courageous horses, especially if short of work, will
+pull to a most uncomfortable extent, both to themselves and their
+drivers, if driven with a snaffle bit. The same horses, if used with
+curbs, will go without taking hold, and with the exertion on the
+part of their drivers of very slight restraining force. The perfect
+handling of a horse with a curb bit is a very fine art, by which are
+produced the perfection of carriage and the maximum of style and
+action. To realize fully what the perfect handling of a curb bit
+means in promoting style and action, one has only to observe a horse
+skilfully handled with one, especially if he has a good mouth. The
+dexterous rider or driver brings out all the responsiveness there
+is in the horse without causing him to fight, while the unskilful
+handler allows a horse to carry himself imperfectly and gets him off
+his balance, thereby lessening his gracefulness, style and action.
+The change from a snaffle to a curb bit should be made carefully and
+discreetly, as it takes a horse some time to get used to the change.
+We have good opportunities in the city of observing the ill-effects
+of the abrupt change. A dealer gets in from the country a horse that
+is possibly well broken, but has never had a curb bit in his mouth.
+He hitches the horse, puts a curb bit in his mouth, and “pulls him
+together,” as it is expressed; that is, he urges him with the whip
+and restrains him to get all the style and action he can out of him.
+He is very much encouraged to see his new purchase make such a good
+showing. The next day he puts the horse in harness, but finds that
+he does not go so well, showing irritability in connection with
+his mouth. The horse may hold his head sideways, open his mouth
+more or less, put his tongue over the bit, toss his head or carry
+it unsteadily, pull, hitch, go off his feet, or interfere. He may
+display any one or a combination of these faults, showing that he is
+uncomfortable and out of balance.
+
+Why this quick alteration in the manner of going between the first
+and second hitching? It is simply due to the fact that the delicate
+tissues of the mouth have become bruised or abraded from the rough
+handling of a bit with powerful leverage. The horse’s mouth is sore,
+and he cannot face the bit without showing irritability, which he
+manifests in the ways described. The curb bit feels different in
+his mouth, the pressure on the tongue is greater, and if the curb
+chain is tightened and reins buckled to the bit, so as to give
+much leverage, many horses will chafe under the newly experienced
+increased restraint, and will pull, thereby greatly increasing the
+injury to the mouth. If this is repeated, the mouth is spoiled and
+bad habits produced.
+
+In getting a horse accustomed to the curb bit, it is a good plan to
+let him stand with it in his mouth in the stable for a few hours a
+day. This gets him used to the shape and size of the new bit, after
+which pressure can by degrees be brought to bear on it. Some trainers
+are opposed to the use of a dumb jockey. Of course, the mouth cannot
+be perfected by the use of this device alone, but it is a very useful
+auxiliary to other measures. The dumb jockey is a rubber contrivance
+attached to a girth and crupper and with elastic reins to buckle
+to the bit. The prejudice against it is largely the result of the
+irrational manner in which it is used. In the majority of instances
+the reins are buckled too tightly at first, causing too much pressure
+on the mouth, and forcing the head and neck into an unnaturally
+constrained position. This, instead of cultivating responsiveness of
+the mouth, causes irritation of that organ, gets a horse into fussy
+habits, and makes him lie on the bit, doing more harm than good.
+One not infrequently sees a horse standing in a stall with a dumb
+jockey on him, his mouth partly open, his tongue over the bit, and
+boring down on it, and sweating profusely from the discomfort he is
+suffering. A dumb jockey used in this way is worse than useless. One
+of the objects of using a jockey is to get the nose in, and from the
+manner in which it is used by many it is evident that they seek to
+accomplish this by sheer mechanical force, forgetting that they are
+training nerves and muscles to responsiveness, which can only be done
+by degrees.
+
+As soon as a horse shows evidence of discomfort, loosen the reins and
+tighten them gradually again. If the subject draws his tongue up in
+his mouth, or puts it over the bit, raise the bit in his mouth. Some
+horses get their heads too low with a dumb jockey on. In such it is
+of much benefit to use a bearing-rein attachment to keep their heads
+in proper position. The benefit from a dumb jockey used in a stable
+is enhanced by using it when a horse is in motion. Some horses will
+bend when standing that will not do so when moving, and so have to
+be trained to it. Beneficial as a dumb jockey may be, a rider with
+good hands, that can use his legs on the horse’s sides, urging him
+by degrees into proper position with hind legs well under him, and
+head up and nose in, can accomplish more, as he can humor the horse
+at will. Next to riding, driving in single harness is best, as it
+is hardly possible to humor a horse’s mouth as well in double as in
+single harness. The tendency with most trainers is to hurry matters
+too much. Urging a horse into the bit too soon causes him to fuss
+with his mouth and is apt to make him fight the bit. The successful
+trainer needs a lot of patience and perseverance.
+
+If, in the process of bitting, the mouth by accident gets sore,
+rest it by keeping the bit out of it until it is better. This can
+be accomplished in the country or in a small town, without keeping
+a horse altogether out of work, by putting on the cavesson and dumb
+jockey and having the reins tightly buckled to the cavesson and led
+alongside of another horse in this way or lunged. It is a bad plan to
+let a horse that is in the process of bitting or breaking get too
+fresh, as he is apt to reinjure his mouth when he is put in harness
+again.
+
+Curb bits for driving are so made that different degrees of leverage
+can be exerted. It can be laid down as a rule that it is not wise to
+use anymore leverage than is essential, otherwise the mouth is apt to
+become sore and carried unsteadily.
+
+There is some diversity of opinion as to the wisdom of using bearing
+reins. Some people, particularly the inexperienced, are very much
+opposed to their use. Occasionally one finds a horse--much more
+rarely a pair--that carries himself so well--head up, nose in and
+head steady--that a bearing rein is superfluous. The majority of
+horses, however, carry themselves better, drive more comfortably,
+and are really more comfortable themselves when driven with bearing
+reins. They can, of course, be made instruments of torture, if used
+too tightly buckled up and for too long periods at a time, but most
+horses will not only carry their heads too low, but bore, pull and
+“duck” if not “borne up.” The low carriage of the head is not only
+unsightly in a carriage horse, but causes too much weight to be
+thrown on the forelegs for their welfare. The French check is very
+much better than the pulley bridoon. The bearing rein should not be
+used so tightly that a horse cannot bend his head upon his neck, if
+he is capable of doing so. The bearing reins should seldom, if ever,
+be used on the driving bit; if it is at all tight, it pulls the bit
+too high in the mouth, causing a horse to bore and usually to bruise
+the bars severely immediately in front of the grinders. A jointed bit
+should be used in the mouth in addition to the driving bit and the
+bearing rein buckled to it.
+
+So far we have been referring to bitting only as having a
+contributing influence in increasing the forward or knee action;
+but it has also a marked effect in improving the hock action. It is
+remarkable how much the hock action can be increased by cultivating a
+responsive mouth, dropping the nose into its proper position, or, in
+other words, balancing a horse.
+
+Before we leave the subject of the mouth and bitting altogether, we
+must refer to condition as an important factor in contributing to
+action. Before a horse can be made to show all the action there is
+in him, he must be toned up to the highest pitch. He must be full of
+nervous energy, and his muscles thoroughly developed. He must not
+only feel like doing it, but must also have the power. It takes time
+to bring this about. The cultivation of the mouth and the toning up
+of the system should proceed together, but never let the toning up
+get ahead of the education of the mouth. It is better not to have a
+horse feeling too well while you are cultivating his mouth, for,
+if his spirits are too exuberant, he will not learn so fast, and is
+apt to fight and increase his chances of developing bad habits. In
+cases in which action contributes to a horse’s value, he must also
+look well. Without being too gross, he should be in full flesh; it
+should be well put on, and there is nothing like a lot of slow work
+for this. From an hour to two hours’ walking exercise every day will
+make the flesh look solid and give a finish which a horse merely
+fattened up without work never shows. Slow work, if a horse gets a
+sufficiency of good feed and proper grooming, will not prevent the
+accumulation of flesh as fast work does, and it keeps the manners
+of the individual good. The development of speed in trotting-bred
+horses is a slow process with many of them. It takes several years
+in some individuals to bring it to its zenith. This is in a measure
+also true of action, if we look to perfecting it. A good deal can be
+accomplished in a couple of months with some horses, but much more
+can be attained in two years. We have examples of horses well known
+in the show rings of this country to-day that have gone on improving
+in brilliance of style and action for years. Bitting and conditioning
+are the chief contributing factors.
+
+The practical man who is conditioning and developing horses’ action,
+for sale, is limited as to time. He cannot afford to spend it and
+he has to be guided too much by circumstances, but the principle of
+development is the same, whether for the market or show ring. A great
+deal is said about shoeing in contributing to action, and it is a
+point that should be studied and carefully attended to, but it is
+decidedly secondary in importance to either bitting or conditioning.
+Some years ago a great deal of weight was used in shoeing show and
+sale horses. You would frequently see a horse weighing from 1,000 to
+1,100 pounds carrying on each forefoot from one pound and a half to
+two pounds weight, and even more. This answers for some purposes and
+before some judges, but if an owner wishes to sell or show a horse on
+his merits, it does not do. A lot of weight on a horse’s feet will
+make him show more action for a short time, particularly if shown in
+hand and if he is feeling fresh and well. If, however, he is called
+upon to exert himself for any length of time, especially if the going
+is heavy, and if he has to draw any weight, he will soon begin to
+labor, pound the ground, very likely forge, and the character of his
+action will be destroyed. With a good judge, the character of the
+action is of more importance than the amount of it, and he would not
+look a second time at a horse that labors and pounds, no matter how
+high he goes. One has to be guided by the individual, and the object
+in view in determining the amount of weight to put in a horse’s
+shoes, in order to get the best results in the way of action. From 16
+to 22 ounces is usually sufficient, but there are horses for which a
+little less or a little more may be carried with advantage for sale
+or show purposes.
+
+In addition to carrying a moderate amount of weight, the hoofs should
+be allowed to grow to a fair length. Length of toe causes a horse
+to exert increased effort in raising and extending the forelegs; so
+the tendency is to increase the action. Defects of action can in a
+measure be corrected by modifying the shoes and form of the hoof.
+For instance, some horses extend too much and do not fold or bend
+their knees sufficiently, but what is called “point,” and are apt
+to go on their heels, or come down heel first, instead of planting
+the foot squarely, heel and toe at the same time. For this defect,
+have the toes fairly short, lighten the web of the shoe at the toe,
+and increase its weight gradually towards the heel. With a horse
+that folds too much and does not extend sufficiently, put the weight
+towards the toe and lighten the heel. In a horse that “dishes” or
+“winds out,” the heavy portion of the web should be in the inside
+branch; while in a horse that “winds in,” just the opposite should be
+done.
+
+In carrying out these modifications, they must be done so as not
+to interfere with the level of the foot. If a horse does not tread
+level, ill-results, in the shape of lameness or wear and tear of the
+leg and foot, are likely to follow.
+
+
+
+
+                         EXERCISE FOR HORSES
+
+
+Everybody who owns or has to do with horses in any way, recognizes
+that exercise is necessary for them in some way or other. Judging,
+however, from the practice pursued by many persons, one cannot but
+conclude that opinions differ widely as to the amount necessary, the
+manner in which it should be given, the character of it, and the
+circumstances which should guide one in prescribing it.
+
+In giving the subject reasonable thought we must first of all
+recognize the fact that the horse is so constituted that he is
+naturally an active animal. In fact, activity is his paramount
+characteristic. If from any cause he is brought to lead the
+comparatively vegetable existence of the sheep or cow, his powers
+become more or less impaired, temporarily though it may be.
+
+Recognizing as we must the basic principle of a horse’s inherent
+activity, we can make deductions as to his reasonable treatment
+which are borne out by experience. It is not my intention to
+make theoretical statements in treating of this subject, but to
+endeavor to give some practical hints that may be of some use in the
+everyday treatment of horses. It is not convenient to draw a line of
+demarcation, in the treatment of this subject, between exercise and
+work, though one might be able to define the difference to suit one’s
+views.
+
+If one were asked to explain the effects of reasonable work on
+a horse’s system, one might truthfully state that there is no
+healthy part of his organism that is not beneficially affected by
+it. Judicious work stimulates the appetite, promotes digestion,
+encourages assimilation or the conversion of food into nutritive
+material. It not only has an important influence on these functions
+already mentioned, but in a greater degree it aids the various
+tissues of the animal to take from the blood those elements required
+to restore the loss which is going on all the time, and also to
+promote their growth and development. Further than that, it helps the
+system to get rid of material that it has no further use for, and
+which, if allowed to remain, will prove prejudicial to it.
+
+The casual observer will almost be able to determine the change which
+takes place in a horse, when not sufficiently worked, if he will
+give it a little thought. If he is at all liberally fed, he will not
+only retain his flesh, but will gain in weight. But what about his
+muscular tissue? It apparently looks as bulky as ever. So it is and
+possibly more so, but that it has become impaired in muscular power
+can easily be demonstrated by an hour’s brisk work in the case of a
+driving horse. He goes out full of life, and possibly shows to the
+best advantage for a short time, but soon begins to drop his head,
+go heavy in hand, in fact to lag, loses his action, and very likely
+forges. This demonstrates the fact that, no matter how well a horse
+may seem nourished, he cannot maintain his muscular tone and muscular
+power without adequate work.
+
+The changes that take place in the muscles of locomotion also take
+place in the muscular tissue of other parts of the individual. The
+central organ of the circulation, the heart, is a hollow muscle, and
+the blood vessels have muscular fibres in their coats. If a horse
+is insufficiently exercised, the muscular tissue of the heart and
+blood vessels becomes impaired in power, as that of the muscles
+of locomotion does. If a horse in such condition is abruptly put
+to brisk work, the circulation is apt to show weakness, and there
+is danger of congestive and inflammatory attacks. A horse out of
+condition and lacking in muscular tone will develop congestion of the
+lungs, from an amount of exertion that would have no injurious effect
+upon one in moderately good condition. If the muscular tissue of
+the heart is weak, that organ lacks the power under severe exertion
+to force the blood through the lungs, when stagnation and congestion
+follow.
+
+Horses in the condition just described, if given a long, quick
+journey on a hard road, are apt to develop founder or inflammation of
+the quick of the feet in its most intense form. The circulation being
+weak, the concussion resulting from the pounding on the hard road
+interferes with it, and congestion and inflammation are apt to result.
+
+The amount and the character of exercise to be given during
+convalescence is an important point in influencing the hastening
+of that process, as well as in determining the completeness of the
+recovery and the prevention of untoward sequels. Even during sickness
+the restricted and gentle movements possible in a box stall of fair
+size not only contribute to the patient’s comfort by admitting of
+freedom and comfortable attitudes, but the slight exercise has a
+beneficial effect upon the circulation, particularly that of the legs.
+
+After attacks of influenza, strangles, laryngitis or pneumonia,
+and as soon as the temperature has regained its normal condition,
+the question of exercise should be considered, and judgment should
+be used in determining how soon the patient can stand exercise.
+Sometimes a couple of days after the temperature has become normal
+and the appetite is regained in a measure, the patient shows strength
+enough in movement to justify one in concluding that he can stand
+a short walk. He may be only able to stand a few minutes’ or he
+may be able to stand ten minutes’ gentle leading, but usually each
+succeeding day it will be found he can stand a little more. If he
+can stand ten minutes a day, it is better, if possible, to divide it
+into two periods of five minutes each. In my opinion this applies to
+all exercise, whether that given during convalescence or conditioning
+for market, for the show ring, or for the race track. Exercise rouses
+the circulation, and in fact all the activities of the organism, with
+beneficial results.
+
+Much better results can be attained by stimulating the functional
+activity of all the organs of the body twice in the twenty-four
+hours, than once. The period of convalescence is very much shortened
+by pursuing this plan, and the horse can be put to work much sooner,
+and with less danger of relapse. Those in charge of horses will
+often keep a convalescent one in a box stall until he gets full of
+life, then hitch him up. He will be for a few minutes full of vim
+and go, but will soon begin to sweat from the too violent exertion
+he gives himself. Violent exertion abruptly given is very apt to be
+followed by a relapse after the weakening effects of illness and the
+consequent inactivity.
+
+Plenty of walking exercise during convalescence from affections of
+the breathing organs is the only course likely to ward off defective
+wind, which so frequently occurs as a sequel to these affections.
+One often hears it advised to turn a horse out for a few weeks after
+attacks such as referred to. This means a run at grass in the summer,
+and in the winter turning in to a box stall. In either case too
+much bulky food is apt to be consumed to be favorable to good wind,
+and systematic exercise is not given. Of the two courses, turning
+out to grass is the better, as the food is of a laxative character,
+and the animal takes some exercise. But the best of all is to keep
+the horse up so that the amount and character of the food can be
+regulated and a definite amount of exercise given. Walking exercise
+during convalescence from acute affections of the breathing organs
+brings these organs gently into play, rouses mildly their functional
+activity, and is the only safe way to tone them up, and prepare them
+by degrees for more violent exertion, which they can then perform
+without showing any unsoundness of wind.
+
+Swelling of the legs occurring from any cause--for instance, as
+a sequel to pink-eye--can be got rid of much more promptly by
+judicious exercise than by allowing the horse to stand; and much time
+can thus be saved. Keeping in a box stall facilitates and hastens the
+process, but half an hour’s walking exercise should be given twice a
+day. When the horse is not being walked, his legs should be properly
+bandaged with cotton batting and in the majority of instances the
+swelling will be practically gone in a few days.
+
+For sale horses and for show horses, walking exercise is a most
+important factor in enabling those in charge of them to attain their
+objects. A sale horse must be fleshy to attract most purchasers.
+Dealers all over the world recognize this fact, as well as the one
+that good, fresh-looking legs contribute in a marked degree to a
+horse’s saleableness.
+
+Walking exercise does not to any appreciable extent take the flesh
+off a horse, nor does it make the legs stale. Flesh put on under
+walking exercise is harder and gives a more finished appearance to a
+horse. This form of exercise also stimulates the circulation of the
+legs, keeps them clean and renders them hard, so that when a horse so
+treated is put to more violent work the tissues of the legs can stand
+it without showing wear and tear.
+
+In the case of show horses, plenty of walking exercise is of even
+more importance than in sale horses. Show horses must be fit to do
+themselves and their handlers credit. In many of the rings the going
+is heavy and horses that are likely to be in the ribbons should
+be in shape to stand a severe test. If they are not fit when they
+are called upon to make a final effort, they will not be equal to
+doing their best. Many a ribbon is lost through a horse becoming
+fatigued and losing his action and brilliancy in consequence. This
+is particularly the case in heavy harness horse classes. Walking
+exercise will do for a good deal more than half of it. After a show
+horse is well broken, three times a week is plenty to hitch him, and
+the day he is hitched he should also be walked once, and all other
+days twice. This plan will get him fit, allow him to keep in flesh,
+keep his mouth fresh, and his legs from getting stale, all of which
+are important points to consider in a show horse. Exercise twice
+a day contributes in a large measure to good manners. This is not
+an important point in some well broken horses of easy disposition,
+but in others that are apt to “get above themselves” if not well
+exercised, it is an important one. Nothing helps to improve a
+half-broken horse more than to go out twice a day.
+
+
+
+
+        THE HORSE’S COAT IN SPRING, SUMMER, AUTUMN AND WINTER
+
+
+The state of a horse’s coat indicates, in a considerable measure,
+the general condition of the individual. If the coat gets into bad
+condition in a horse that is worked, it will soon injuriously affect
+his general health, which will show itself by loss of flesh, life
+and vigor. The care of the coat then, outside of the question of
+appearance, has an important influence in contributing to a horse’s
+well-being.
+
+If we had summer-like weather all the year round, with its genial
+warmth to encourage the activity of the skin, we should have very
+little trouble with the coat, as it would then remain short and
+sleek, with very little care. With the changes of season, however,
+and great variations of temperature, we find marked alterations
+in it. The horse’s skin, and its appendage, the coat, are very
+sensitive to climatic conditions, and nature makes an effort to
+change the coat to suit altered states. Nature is very successful
+in this while a horse is roaming about under natural conditions,
+and a horse so circumstanced can stand great extremes of temperature
+without suffering; but as soon as he is put to work and exerted to a
+sufficient extent to heat him up, he then requires artificial care,
+in order to maintain good condition.
+
+As has been already stated, the coat is more easily kept in a
+satisfactory state during the summer than at any other season of the
+year. The heat of summer encourages sweating, and this is beneficial
+rather than injurious, within certain limits, so long as the horse
+“cools out” and dries up in a normal manner. This is more readily
+accomplished in the summer than at any other time, owing to the
+shortness of the coat, and the little danger from drafts at this
+season of the year. Nothing is more injurious to a horse in this
+connection than allowing his coat to remain wet. At certain times
+of the year, when it is long, some horses will remain wet for hours
+after having been exerted, unless they receive great attention. The
+frequent occurrence of this will soon cause unthriftiness. Standing
+with a wet coat in this way frequently has a most relaxing effect
+upon the system, and must be guarded against. In summer time there is
+very little difficulty about this, but there is one form of treatment
+very much neglected in hot weather, which is of great benefit if
+properly applied. The coats of horses that are frequently warmed
+up in hot weather get sticky, greasy and stained, and it is almost
+impossible to get them perfectly clean and glossy without giving
+them a good washing at intervals. Some horsemen are afraid to adopt
+this treatment, but it is not at all dangerous, and most beneficial
+if properly carried out. As a rule it is only necessary on very hot
+days, and if it is done on cool ones, care must be taken to “dry out”
+carefully to avoid chills. When a horse comes in on a hot day, having
+sweated more or less profusely, water that has been warmed in the sun
+should be freely sponged over him. This should then be thoroughly
+scraped off, and a woolen cooler put over him; then he should be
+walked for a while, if possible, until he cools out. As soon as the
+coat is dry, grooming will make him look and feel fresh and well. It
+is not always necessary to use a cooler in “cooling out” when it is
+very warm.
+
+The autumn is the most trying time of the year to keep the coat in a
+satisfactory state, for several reasons. A partial moult takes place
+at this time, rendering the skin irritable to some extent. Besides,
+there are the extremes of cool nights and warm days. The cool nights
+cause the coat to grow and increase the tendency to sweating when
+the animal is exerted during the heat of the day. From the increased
+length of coat it becomes much more difficult to dry a horse after
+work, and he is apt to suffer unless great care is taken to protect
+him from the ill-consequences of standing with a wet coat. This
+difficulty becomes so marked in some horses at the end of September
+and throughout October that those in charge of them begin to discuss
+the advisability of clipping.
+
+As a general rule, clipping should be deferred as late into the
+autumn as possible, or until the temperature of the day and night
+are not so much at variance; then the growth of the coat lessens
+considerably. A horse clipped on the 10th of November may not require
+clipping again for two months or more, while one clipped on the 10th
+of October may need it again in two or three weeks. Horses clipped
+early in the autumn usually have very dry-looking coats, and it
+seldom improves their appearance, though it does in a measure relieve
+them from the ill-results of standing with wet coats, especially if
+it is repeated several times during that season.
+
+Every reasonable effort should be made to put off clipping until
+November, and the necessity for it may be avoided in nearly all
+cases until then. This can be accomplished in most instances by care
+in proper blanketing. A light sheet may be all that the horse can
+stand in the day time without sweating, but at night he should be
+kept fairly warmly blanketed to check the growth of the coat. It
+is usually necessary to begin this the end of August. Discretion,
+of course, must be used, so that the covering is not heavy enough
+to cause sweating. Some horses have naturally fine short coats, and
+with ordinary care will not need clipping, even in winter, which is
+so much the better; but the majority of them need it, and are much
+benefited by it.
+
+Under certain circumstances, as in the case of horses having been
+turned out and brought up for work, say in April, it will be
+beneficial to clip them, for otherwise they look badly and will not
+thrive well on account of sweating too freely when worked.
+
+Clipping at this season of the year retards the shedding of the
+roots of the coat, and it is better to let it shed naturally in case
+the conditions are such as will admit of it, without injury to the
+horse’s condition and working ability.
+
+In a horse that is not too ambitious and has not to be exerted
+violently, it is better to wait for him to shed naturally, which he
+will do rapidly at this season of the year if he gets regular work,
+good grooming and is well fed. Horses that are fed warmed boiled
+feed for the evening meal will shed much earlier in the season than
+those kept on dry feed. Some horses, however, will not stand this
+without becoming too relaxed in the bowels, especially if worked
+hard more than once or twice a week; others will not stand it at all
+without scouring. Care in all instances must be exercised not to
+feed an excessive quantity. In clipping saddle horses the mistake is
+usually made of including the part covered by the saddle, and a great
+deal of trouble frequently results in consequence. Newly clipped
+horses, particularly if they are not thoroughly used to the pressure
+and friction of the saddle, are very apt to develop an eczematous
+eruption under it, and even horses regularly used for saddle work are
+not immune to such injury after clipping.
+
+The layman is apt to assume that an attack of eczema coming on under
+the conditions described is due to derangement of the blood or the
+digestive organs. While derangement of the blood or the digestive
+organs may predispose to an attack of this nature, some local
+irritation is usually needed to determine its development. It is
+obvious that a considerable amount of local irritation must result
+when the skin, divested of its coat, is, for an hour or two daily,
+subjected to the pressure and rubbing of the saddle. The rubbing
+action is further intensified by the sweating that almost always
+takes place under the saddle. Another contributing cause is the rapid
+drying and cooling of the skin when the saddle is removed from a
+clipped horse’s back. The rapid drying and cooling is apt to have a
+deranging effect upon the circulation of the skin at this part, and
+consequently conduces to inflammation of that covering.
+
+Eczema under the saddle is more apt to occur in cold than in warm
+weather. More than fifteen per cent. of the saddle horses clipped in
+midwinter develop this affection under the saddle, while not more
+than one per cent. with backs unclipped show it.
+
+When harness horses develop it, it is on the parts subjected to most
+pressure that it first shows itself, as under the collar and back
+pad. The eruption has a great tendency to spread, and beginning on
+the skin covered by the saddle, often extends over the whole of the
+back and side.
+
+Occurring, as it frequently does, with a number of clipped horses
+in a large stable, it is thought by stablemen and owners to be
+contagious, but it is not so. It is apparent, then, that clipping the
+coat under the saddle is a bad practice. Even in cases in which an
+eruption does not take place, the rubbing is apt to cause temporary
+baldness and troublesome abrasions, particularly if the skin has not
+been toughened by long and continual pressure and rubbing of the
+saddle, the result of steady saddlework.
+
+
+
+
+                THE CAUSES OF DIGESTIVE DISORDERS--I
+
+
+The breeder and horse owner have not the time or opportunity to
+acquire expert knowledge of the diseases of the horse, but it will
+well repay them to give a little thought and study to the causes of
+preventive disorders, particularly to those of the digestive organs.
+The exercise of a little thought and judgment in the management
+of a stable of horses will lessen to almost nil the occurrence of
+digestive ailments among its inmates. There are certain affections to
+which horseflesh is heir which it is impossible to prevent under some
+circumstances, but those of the digestive organs can be very largely
+prevented.
+
+We must study these causes under a number of heads. First of all
+there is the condition of the individual at time of feeding, the
+quantity of the food, the character of the food, and the form in
+which it is given. Under the foregoing heads I have not included the
+natural predisposition of some animals to digestive troubles, for
+the inherent tendency to some affections cannot be classed among
+the preventable causes, but, nevertheless, a little extra care may
+neutralize the tendency to them. Take, for instance, a horse of a
+nervous temperament, with a light middle-piece. Such an individual is
+very liable to scour when first taken out, and in some horses this
+cannot be prevented; but careful attention in giving non-laxative
+and easily digestible food in properly regulated quantities, with
+care about watering and the avoidance of violent and overtaxing work,
+especially when first taken out, will often control this tendency. If
+nervous, light-middled horses can once be made fat by proper dieting,
+and are kept in health by light, slow work, the inclination to scour
+will be much lessened. The accumulation of fat in the abdomen has a
+tendency to lessen the violence of the action of the bowels and thus
+to counteract scouring. Horses of the temperament just referred to
+are better fed on corn than oats, as corn is more fattening and less
+stimulating to the nervous system, so that horses fed on it are less
+inclined to be excitable. Greedy, voracious feeders are predisposed
+to digestive ailments from their tendency to overtax the digestive
+organs by the consumption of too large quantities of food too hastily
+eaten. The means of prevention of such a cause is apparent and easy
+of application. These are examples of two inherent predisposing
+causes.
+
+A feed that an animal can take with impunity and possibly with
+benefit under some circumstances, may prove an exciting cause of
+that very serious trouble in horses, acute indigestion, under other
+conditions. Take, for instance, a horse that is to be called on to
+do an unusually long and hard day’s work. The anxious, over-zealous
+and well-meaning driver will, in some instances, give an extra-sized
+morning meal, with the idea of buoying the horse up for the ordeal of
+the day. As soon as the horse has had time to consume it, he starts
+on his journey; it may be to pull a heavy load, or for faster work.
+The more violent the work, the more will the digestive process be
+interfered with. As soon as the course of digestion is arrested,
+fermentation begins and it may go on to such a degree that the horse
+soon begins to show signs of something being amiss. He most likely
+came out of the stable showing life and energy, and went at his work
+with spirit, but after going a few miles, however, he begins to
+sweat more than he should, to lag, to drop his head and to bloat.
+As soon as he is allowed to stand he shows restlessness and becomes
+demonstrative in his exhibition of pain. He has acute indigestion,
+due to mistaken kindness on the part of his attendant. Instead of
+having been given a full feed or rather more than usual, he should
+have had less, and the first opportunity taken of giving him another
+small feed.
+
+We have the same thing occurring under different conditions, as, for
+example, when a horse has had an unusually hard day’s work and is
+very tired. He is put in the stable and given his usual meal, which
+he eats. After an hour or so he begins to show signs of abdominal
+pain. His attendant cannot understand the reason for this, as the
+horse has only had his usual feed. He does not realize that the
+horse’s vital powers have become very much lowered, the result of
+unusual fatigue, and that the stomach participates in this temporary
+inability and becomes, for a time, unequal to exerting its full
+digestive powers, and that indigestion has resulted in consequence.
+Had the horse been allowed to rest for a time, given a little water
+and allowed to nibble hay, he might have been fed with impunity,
+although it is usually a wise plan to lessen the feed if a horse is
+unusually fatigued. The condition, then, of the individual has to be
+considered in determining the amount of food he should get. Horses
+that are in good condition, having regular hard work and full feed,
+are much less liable to be affected by unusual fatigue and full feed
+than those that are irregularly worked.
+
+In addition to the necessity for caution in feeding when a horse is
+fatigued from hard work, long abstinence also necessitates care.
+A horse that has had his stomach empty for a long time, whether
+fatigued or not, is usually ravenous for his food, and is apt to
+consume a full allowance of concentrated food too hurriedly to
+permit digestion to go on satisfactorily. The old plan of giving a
+little thin warm gruel to a fatigued fasting horse is a good one, in
+order to prepare him for his full meal later on. It is not always
+convenient to furnish this, however, and the next best plan is to
+give a couple of quarts of water and a little hay, to get the stomach
+into working order before the full meal of concentrated food is
+given, preceded by more water.
+
+The quantity of food to be allowed a horse is not only an
+important matter of study from the standpoint of economy, but is
+a very material one to consider in connection with the question
+of preventing digestive disorders. The statement can hardly be
+gainsaid that decidedly the most prolific source of ailments of the
+digestive tract is overfeeding. Farmers who raise their own feed are
+possibly the worst offenders in this respect, and particularly in
+the overfeeding of bulky food, or what is called by some roughage.
+An enormous amount of hay is thus wasted throughout the country,
+and injury done to many horses. It is really not an exaggeration to
+state that fully half the amount of hay fed to horses in the rural
+districts of this country is wasted. Not only is this so, but a
+positive injury is inflicted on the horses that consume it. It is,
+of course, true that horses, for the purposes of perfect digestion,
+require a certain amount of bulky food. Sufficient nutritious matter
+can be supplied in concentrated form, but digestion would not go
+on properly without a certain amount of bulk. Volume of feed is
+essential to insure the proper activity of the digestive tract.
+
+There is a limit, however, to the bulk required, and if this limit
+is much exceeded, there is not only a waste of food, but injury is
+done. If a horse is constantly being fed too large a volume of feed,
+it overworks and overtaxes the digestive organs, soon weakening these
+organs and consequently rendering them more liable to indigestion,
+colic, stoppage and diarrhœa. Even if no such evidence of acute
+disorder shows itself, as the affections named, the unnecessarily
+distended bowels encroach upon the chest capacity and interfere with
+the action of the lungs; so that the horse cannot stand as much
+exertion as he might otherwise. One likes to see a horse with a good
+depth of rib, and well ribbed-up and not presenting a tucked-up
+condition, all of which is evidence of a good feeder. But no horse,
+unless it is a mare in foal, or one running at grass, should show
+what is called a “pot-belly,” as that is a sign that too much bulky
+food is being consumed. Too much bulky food is also a cause of that
+very serious trouble, called heaves, especially if the food happens
+to be of defective quality, and consequently difficult of digestion.
+One often hears it said that clover hay is apt to cause heaves. The
+reason is that horses are very fond of it, and if they are allowed
+all they want, will eat an excessive quantity of it. If the quality
+of clover hay is good, and only a proper ration of it is fed, it is
+no more likely to cause heaves than any other kind of hay.
+
+Fully one-half the horses one sees in country districts are
+pot-bellied, especially in the winter. In many farm stables you
+see racks kept full of hay constantly in front of the horses,
+and the less work they do the more hay they eat, most of them
+eating certainly twice as much as is good for them. In cities it
+is different. Hay being high-priced, the quantity fed is usually
+limited, with the result that digestive troubles are very much
+rarer than in country districts. It is directly the opposite with
+regard to the diseases of the breathing organs. In the large,
+crowded stables of the cities, with breathing space limited, the air
+becomes charged with impurities, with the result that diseases of
+the breathing organs are very prevalent, while in the country they
+are comparatively rare. The relative prevalence of digestive and
+respiratory troubles in city and country affords a good illustration
+of cause and effect, but the country horse owner has the advantage,
+as he has to encounter chiefly diseases that are largely preventable.
+It is a difficult matter to successfully cope with the prevention of
+respiratory ailments in cities.
+
+It has been already stated and emphasized that the feeding of too
+much bulky food to horses is one of the most prolific causes of
+digestive disorders. The question naturally follows: How much is
+sufficient for a horse to attain the best results? As far as the
+supply of nourishment is concerned, it can be supplied amply in
+concentrated form, as in oats or corn; but a certain amount of bulk
+is necessary. If there is not a certain amount of bulk in the food
+material in the bowels, the coats of these organs have not sufficient
+contents to contract on, so that these organs may be able to move
+along in proper time substances that should be excreted. The bowels
+become torpid, as far as excretion is concerned, and the proper
+digestion and absorption of nutritive material is not carried on.
+Under these circumstances, health and condition cannot be long
+maintained, and there will be a waste of food fed in concentrated
+form. Of course, the amount of bulky food necessary varies according
+to the size of the horse, and it is approximately correct to put it
+at about one pound per hundred-weight of the animal’s weight. This
+may be exceeded in some cases with impunity, to the extent of a few
+pounds, particularly in horses used for slow work; but it will be
+found sufficient in the majority of cases. While horses are being
+used for very fast work, or are in training, a less quantity will
+suffice. The usual plan in large cities is to feed the allowance of
+hay all at one time, in the evening, after the horse has finished his
+day’s work, and it works very well. People used to seeing a horse get
+all the hay he can eat, think, when they see him restricted, that he
+is being starved, but they will find he thrives if adequately fed
+with grain, has better wind, more endurance, particularly for fast
+work, and is much less liable to digestive ills.
+
+
+
+
+                THE CAUSES OF DIGESTIVE DISORDERS--II
+
+
+Experience proves that there is no better concentrated food for a
+horse for good hard work than oats. This can be readily explained.
+First of all, it contains the essential flesh-forming, fat and
+heat-producing elements in approximately their proper ratio. It also
+supplies to the nervous system, as no other grain appears to do to
+the same degree, the sustenance that gives life and ambition. In
+addition to this, oats have a physical property that mechanically
+fits them for ready digestion in a greater degree than any other
+grain. This is due to the fact that the particles of the meal are
+more loosely put together than in any other grain and that the hull
+is coarser. On this account, when a masticated mass of oats enters
+the stomach, owing to its looseness it is readily permeated by the
+digestive fluid, so that digestion goes on readily and thoroughly.
+Possibly the most indigestible of all grains, when fed by itself,
+either ground or whole, is wheat, and this is due to its physical
+character. A mass of wheat forms a tough, glue-like lump in the
+stomach, so that it is comparatively impervious to the action of the
+digestive fluid, and digestion goes on slowly and imperfectly, and
+is apt to be arrested, causing serious indigestion. Peas and beans,
+owing to their flinty nature, are also less digestible than oats.
+Corn, when fed whole, is fairly easily digested, but when ground is
+difficult of digestion, unless the cobs are also ground with it,
+which renders it more pervious. Wheat, corn, pea and bean meal can
+be rendered much more digestible by being fed thoroughly mixed with
+a little chaffed hay. The chaffed hay, when consumed with the meal,
+renders the meal more pervious to the action of the digestive fluid
+and consequently more digestible. Where, from economy or convenience,
+it is found desirable to use any of these grains for horses, it can
+be done with comparative safety, if they are ground and fed with
+chaffed hay. When meal is fed with chaff in this way, it is generally
+quite thoroughly moistened, which is a mistake, as in this condition
+it is apt to be too hastily eaten and too imperfectly mixed with
+saliva to be thoroughly digested. One reason given for moistening
+is that it makes the meal stick to the chaff and insures the two
+being consumed together. There is something in this, but, as a rule,
+if they are thoroughly mixed, there will be enough of the chaff
+consumed to insure the digestibility of the meal. If moistening
+is done at all, it should be done only slightly. A horse is so
+constituted that the major portion of his feed should be fed to him
+dry, as in this condition he will digest it more thoroughly and with
+less liability to digestive troubles.
+
+Of course, a certain amount of laxative food is necessary in order
+to mildly stimulate the bowels and keep them sufficiently active.
+Some horses cannot stand laxative food without their bowels becoming
+unduly relaxed. To such it is better not to give any, particularly
+if they are going to work the next day. It is an interesting point
+to study, and one that throws some light on the peculiarities of the
+digestive tract, to explain why bran mash, boiled feed and roots
+act as laxatives. They do not possess any purgative principle, as
+aloes does. If a dose of aloes is given to a horse, it is dissolved
+in the stomach, taken up by the blood vessels, going the round of
+the circulation, and is eventually eliminated by the glands of the
+bowels, increasing their secretion very much and rousing the action
+of the coats of the bowels, so that a large quantity of liquid
+excrement is passed. An explanation sometimes given of the laxative
+action of mash and the like, is that it is due to the increased
+amount of liquid supplied by the moist food; but that is not a
+satisfactory explanation, as there is not enough of it to make any
+difference. The most reasonable explanation appears to be that it
+acts as a laxative by virtue of its indigestibility. It apparently
+acts in the way that oil does. Small quantities, as a couple of
+ounces, of linseed oil, given three times a day to a horse, are
+digested and cause the animal to accumulate fat; but if a pint or a
+pint and a half is given, it will not be digested, but passes on into
+the bowels and stimulates them, causing laxative action. It will be
+noticed that it is the undigested portion of the oil that causes the
+purging. So it is with boiled feed and mash. It is on account of a
+considerable quantity not being digested, that passes into the bowels
+and stimulates their action. This is beneficial up to a certain
+point, but if the bowels are overstimulated, irritation is apt to
+result and the system is robbed of some nutrition. Horses that are
+not worked or worked very little, can stand, and, in fact, require
+more laxative food than those more exerted. Active exertion of itself
+has a naturally stimulating effect upon the bowels.
+
+The lesson we learn from all this, is that moist food for horses
+should be given with care and judgment. Given too frequently or in
+too large quantities at a time, it is apt to cause indigestion and
+undue relaxation of the bowels. Most horses that are doing little
+work, such as those in moderate exercise, are benefited by a little
+boiled oats and barley, given every evening. This is a very good
+plan, particularly for sale horses. It is a good rule to follow with
+hard-worked horses, that if they happen to stand in for a day, a mash
+should be substituted for their evening meal of grain. With horses
+that work hard and regularly six days in the week, the general custom
+of giving the mash on Saturday evening is a good one; but in the case
+of horses that may be left in for the day at irregular intervals, it
+is usually the best plan to give simply a mash for the evening meal
+instead of grain.
+
+Veterinarians meet with a frequently fatal disease called by them
+azoturia, which in almost all cases is a preventable disease, due
+to an error in feeding. It usually occurs in horses used to regular
+work and good feed being kept idle for a few days and getting as much
+feed as when they are working. It has been found in large stables
+that with the carrying out of the rule that if a horse does not go
+out during the day he shall have no grain in the evening, but only a
+mash, there will be very few, if any, of these cases.
+
+Indiscretion in watering horses sometimes leads to derangement of the
+digestive organs. The chief trouble arises from allowing too long
+intervals to elapse in watering. Under normal conditions water may be
+given as often as it will be taken, and it is rare that a horse will
+take too much, unless he is very warm. Even when he is quite warm, a
+quart or two may be given with impunity. The proper plan is to water
+before feeding, as the water is then rapidly absorbed and does not
+interfere with digestion. Unfortunately, it is difficult to get many
+horses to drink, particularly in cool weather, before feeding, and
+they have to be watered afterwards; it is, however, wise to allow
+an hour to elapse before doing so. If a horse takes a full feed of
+grain and a drink shortly afterwards and is then put to any violent
+exertion, he is very apt to suffer from digestive derangement. If
+a horse is suffering from diarrhœa, or is purging from a dose of
+physic, water must be restricted and slightly chilled; otherwise,
+superpurgation and death may result.
+
+An irrational plan of salting horses sometimes causes trouble. That
+horses require salt is generally recognized, but a great many follow
+the plan of giving it at intervals of a week or more, when they
+become very ravenous for it and eat a great deal of it, which makes
+them so thirsty that they will drink immoderately, and this will
+sometimes cause digestive derangement. Horses should have access to
+salt constantly; they then get the most benefit from it.
+
+Before leaving the subject of feeding, it should have been stated
+that care should be taken in making changes of diet, which should
+not be done too abruptly, particularly changes to food which, if
+eaten hurriedly or in considerable quantities, is apt to cause
+indigestion. Good examples of such food are roots, boiled grain and
+grass. An attack of indigestion in a horse that is a good feeder may
+almost certainly be caused by giving too large a feed of roots or
+boiled grain or by turning him into a fresh clover field that has
+a luxurious growth of herbage. If the grass is short, and he has
+to work hard for his feed, he can be safely turned into a pasture
+field; but where there is luxuriant growth, there should be several
+days’ restricted feeding before it is safe to allow some horses,
+particularly greedy feeders, liberty to eat at will.
+
+In all horses in which the excrement from the bowels shows evidence
+of imperfect mastication, the cause should be sought for, and removed
+if possible. Greedy feeders bolt their grain, not taking time for
+perfect mastication. This not only results in waste, but is apt
+to cause irritation also. Bolting the grain may be prevented in a
+variety of ways. Numbers of feed boxes have been invented to overcome
+this trouble, some of which are fairly effectual. The old-fashioned
+plan of putting a number of stones amongst the grain works very well.
+The addition of an equal quantity of bran to the grain is also an
+assistance, but really the most effectual plan, where practicable, is
+to mix two or three pounds of chaffed hay with the grain. In the case
+of horses which do not bolt their grain, where there is evidence of
+imperfect mastication, the grinders should be thoroughly examined.
+This should be done by a qualified and reputable veterinarian. The
+wandering, self-styled horse dentist should be carefully avoided,
+as he is apt to injure the teeth by the over-use of the forceps and
+tooth-rasp. Many horses’ lives are shortened by allowing unprincipled
+and ignorant men to ill-treat the teeth.
+
+Horses are more liable than almost any other species, to irregular
+growths of the grinders, owing to their peculiar anatomical
+arrangement. The two rows of grinders in the upper jaw are further
+apart than those in the lower, and consequently overlap them on
+either side. The grinding surface is beveled, and in the upper jaw
+slants from within outwards, forming a ridge on the outside of each
+row. The arrangement in the lower jaw is just the opposite, the
+ridge coming on the inside. In order that grinding of the food may
+take place in a perfect manner, the teeth must come into perfect
+apposition. If the grinders do not come into perfect contact in the
+process of grinding, the food is not only imperfectly masticated,
+but the teeth wear irregularly. Nature’s method of keeping the
+teeth of normal dimensions is by the wear they experience during
+grinding. If from any cause this wear does not take place throughout
+all the grinding surface, irregular projections form, and are most
+apt to be found on the outer ridge of the upper rows of grinders
+and on the inner of the lower ones. These projections are liable to
+interfere with mastication to a degree proportionate to their size,
+and sometimes cut and abrade the cheeks and tongue. When the mouth is
+in such a condition, it will be much benefited by proper attention.
+The owner, however, should not be misled by traveling dentists into
+thinking that all horses’ teeth require attention. The dentist points
+out the projecting ridges on the outside of the upper rows and on the
+inside of the lower ones, and makes the owner believe this to be an
+abnormal condition. Some owners seem to think, or are made to think,
+that the grinding surfaces should be level from side to side, instead
+of beveled, as nature made them.
+
+In addition to the tendency to injurious projections on the grinders,
+as already described, we not infrequently find on the front part
+of the first upper grinders and on the back part of the last lower
+ones, prominences of considerable size. These are found generally in
+horses with “parrot mouths,” or what are sometimes called “overshot
+mouths.” This is a deformity, as the upper jaw is placed a little
+too far forward with respect to the lower one, so that a portion
+of the first upper grinders and of the last lower ones do not
+come in contact with opposing teeth. These are not kept of normal
+dimensions by wear; consequently, projections are formed, which
+seriously interfere with mastication, and otherwise injure the mouth.
+Occasionally a broken or decayed tooth is found, which also gravely
+interferes with the grinding of the food. If from any cause the power
+of mastication is impaired, it results not only in waste, but the
+imperfectly prepared food is liable to cause digestive derangement.
+If a horse is found to slobber at the mouth and to have difficulty in
+eating, the teeth should always be carefully examined by an expert.
+
+
+
+
+                  THE USE OF BURRS ON HORSES’ BITS
+
+
+Every now and then one hears of the A. S. P. C. A. making a crusade
+against the use of burrs on horses’ bits, and it is one of the
+practices that their agents are always on the alert to detect. They
+assume that the use of a burr is such a very evident act of cruelty,
+that they would have no difficulty in securing a conviction, which
+would redound to their credit as assiduous and vigilant officials.
+
+Owners of horses appear to be afraid to take a chance of defending
+such a suit. Why? Is it because they are averse to spending the time,
+experiencing the incidental worry, and standing the expense, or is it
+the fear of being convicted of cruelty to an animal? It seems to the
+writer that the latter is the chief reason, and from which one would
+naturally shrink; otherwise it appears difficult to understand why
+horsemen allow men who, as a rule, have very limited or no knowledge
+of horse management, to dictate to them as to what equipment they
+should use in driving their horses.
+
+To one who knows the use of a burr, it seems incredible to think
+that, with a fair trial and a proper presentation of a defense, a
+conviction could be obtained against a driver of a horse for using a
+burr on a properly selected subject.
+
+Numberless experts could be obtained as witnesses to show that the
+use of a burr is no cruelty in properly selected cases, and such
+experts could be obtained amongst horsemen of undoubted standing who
+would shrink from anything that savored of cruelty to animals.
+
+Still further, it could be demonstrated, as it has been to the
+writer many times, that it is positively inhumane not to use a burr
+on some horses. One comes in contact with nervous, fretful pullers,
+that wear themselves out, lose their appetites, and become wrecks,
+that by the use of a burr often cease pulling, in a large measure,
+drive comfortably, and regain condition. People are heard to speak
+of burrs as if they are instruments of torture, placed on a horse’s
+bit to irritate him. Some suppose that they are used to give a
+horse a stylish carriage and promote action. As there is so much
+misconception with regard to the object of their use, it will be well
+to explain what is intended to be accomplished by them.
+
+A burr is made of a piece of thick leather, studded with bristles
+on one side, about half an inch long. It has a hole in the centre,
+so that it can be fitted on the mouth-piece of the bit, and a slit
+running from the circumference to this hole, so that it can be taken
+off or put on, as occasion requires.
+
+When it is put on it is placed on one end of the mouth-piece of
+the bit, right up against the cheek-piece of it, with the bristled
+surface towards the horse’s mouth. If the mouth-piece of the bit is
+of proper width, the bristles do not prick the skin of the horse’s
+lips, unless he voluntarily presses on them. After he has pressed on
+them a few times, finding they are uncomfortable, he usually stops
+doing it; then they don’t hurt him.
+
+This is the object of a burr, namely, to keep a horse from pressing
+on one side of the bit. A horse that presses forcibly on one side of
+the bit, which habit is usually called side-lining, is very difficult
+to guide, as he takes an unyielding grip of the bit, usually holds
+his head to one side, and pulls to an extent most uncomfortable to
+his driver, and most wearing to himself. Anxious, ambitious, free,
+high-strung horses are apt to get into this habit, unless their
+mouths are properly educated to the bit, and their general handling
+and management good.
+
+Not the least important amongst the exciting causes is insufficient
+and irregular work, causing a horse to get what is often called
+“above himself.” Under such circumstances, if he is a free horse,
+he will go up firmly against the bit, and may bruise or injure
+his mouth in some way, producing soreness and irritability of the
+gums where the bit presses. This causes him to pull more, and some
+horses brace themselves against the cheek-piece of the bit, which
+enables them to pull to an extent most trying to the driver, and
+most wearing to themselves. The farther they go the more they pull
+and the more excited, fretful and heated they become. The constant
+repetition of this causes them to get “run down” in condition, and
+the unnecessarily violent exertion they make in performing their work
+is very hard on their legs and feet.
+
+If by the simple expedient of using a burr on a puller’s bit, this
+habit of pulling can be lessened, and practically overcome in some
+cases, is it not justifiable to take the risk of subjecting a
+horse’s lips to a few pricks with bristles in order to attain such
+desirable results? A fretful puller suffers infinitely more, by the
+over-exertion to which he subjects himself, and by working himself up
+into an excited and heated state, than by the use of burrs.
+
+As for the driver, it becomes absolutely painful to him to drive a
+side-lining puller, and it is not without danger, especially where
+there is crowded traffic, as in cities, on account of the difficulty
+of guiding and controlling a horse with such a disagreeable fault. To
+a driver who has had his arms pulled out, the use of a burr does not
+seem by any means too drastic a remedy.
+
+It may be asked: Is there not some other means of a less heroic
+nature, that may be resorted to, to overcome this disagreeable
+habit? There is no doubt that thoughtless, careless, ignorant and
+unintelligent handling and management of horses, especially of young
+ones, makes many pullers. Sensitive, nervous, courageous horses are
+predisposed to this fault, and there are some in which it is almost
+impossible to prevent the development of it.
+
+Some horses, whose mouths have become irritable from pulling, will be
+very much benefited by “turning out” for two or three months. Keeping
+the bit out of the mouth for a length of time allows that organ to
+heal and freshen up, until it may regain something like its normal
+condition; but much care must be exercised when they are again put
+to work, otherwise they will soon relapse into their former habit of
+pulling. No matter how much care is exercised with some horses, that
+may almost be called natural pullers, they will develop the fault,
+and any measures adopted to overcome it are fruitless, and all that
+can be done is to seek measures of control, such as proper bitting
+and the use of burrs. Many pullers are quite valuable horses, and
+their owners are loth to lose their service, or even to part with
+them for a good price, on account of the good qualities they possess.
+
+The use of burrs, like everything else in the management and control
+of horses, should be done with discretion. Bits and bearing reins can
+be made instruments of torture, just as much and more than burrs, if
+not intelligently used. The apparently simple matter of placing the
+bit in the proper position in a horse’s mouth is one subject to great
+abuse, and is the cause of much suffering. It is no exaggeration to
+state that fully one-third of the horses one sees on the streets
+in New York City have not got their bits in the proper position in
+their mouths. How frequently one sees horses with their mouths partly
+open, tongues dry and projecting more or less from their mouths, due
+entirely to bits being placed too high in them. Much of the pulling
+is due to this error in bitting, as is also the unsightly fault of
+tongue-lolling.
+
+No practical person advocates not using bits, although on account of
+the ignorance and lack of intelligence and skill in the manner in
+which they are used, they are the cause of more suffering than all
+other causes combined.
+
+There are some pullers that burrs do not benefit much, and they are
+sometimes used on horses unnecessarily. They are occasionally used
+on horses that do not pull, but have acquired the habit of pulling
+out in double harness. A much more rational and effectual way of
+overcoming this fault is to drive the horse on the other side.
+
+
+
+
+Transcriber’s Note:
+
+Words and phrases in italics are surrounded by underscores, _like
+this_. Misplaced hyphens were removed; one final stop missing at the
+end of a sentence was added. “It it” change to “It is.”
+
+
+
+*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 75671 ***